1 i IP 1^1 m*/j i si IHI W Mm HARDWICKE'S SCI ENCE-GOSSIP: 1883. H ARDWICKE'S ^tu^-ta plicatilis, 84 Spiromonas Cohnii, 84 Sporocarpon asteroides, 102 Sporocarpon cellulosum, 151 Sporocarpon compactum, 101 Sporocarpon- elegans, 100, 101 Sporocarpon pachy derma, 101 Sporocarpon traquaria, 156 Stem of Water Lily {.Yymp/iaa alba), Section of, 232 Succinia putris, Leeds, 4 Teleutospore of Phragmidium vit- laceum, n Thallus of Marchantia, 148 Thailus with Antheridia, 149 Thysanophyllum orientate, 275 Tradescantia, Circulation of Protoplasm in, 28 Tradescantia, Raphides in Stem of, 28 Tree-Toad [Hyla versicolor) 204 Tubers of Orchis mascula, 54 Typical Perlites, 133 Vanessa Urticce, 108 Water Lily (Xymp/uea alba) section of stem, 232 Wood frog [Rana sylvatica), 205 Zaphrentis, 274 Zaphrentis Bowerbankii, 274 Zygosporites brevipes, 157 Zygosporites longipes, 157 Zygosporites oblouga, 157 AN INQUIRY INTO THE ALLEGED HABIT OF HIBER- NATION AMONG NORTH AMERICAN SWALLOWS. By CHARLES C. ABBOTT, M.D. N the year 1750, Peter Kalm, the Swedish natural- ist, while travel- ling in America, made the follow- ing entry in his journal, during a brief sojourn in Southern New Jersey : " I ob- served the barn swallows for the first time on the 10th of April (new style) ; the next day in the morn- ing, I saw great numbers of them sitting on posts and planks, and they were as wet as if they had been just come out of the sea." On a subsequent page, he remarks : "The people differed here in their opinions about the abode of swallows in winter ; most of the Swedes thought that they lay at the bottom of the" sea ; some, with the English and the French in Canada, thought that they migrate to the southward in autumn, and return in spring. I have likewise been credibly informed in Albany, that they have been found sleeping in deep holes and clefts of rocks, during winter." Further- more, it is well to add that John Reinhold Forster, the accomplished translator of Kalm's travels, adds, in a foot-note, a series of well-attested instances of swallows having been found hibernating in the mud at the bottoms of lakes : among these instances he mentions Dr. Wallerius, a celebrated Swedish chemist, who affirmed that he had " seen more than once, No. 217.— January 1883. swallows assembling on a reed, till they were all immersed and went to the bottom ; this being pre- ceded by a dirge of a quarter of an hour's length." Commenting upon the above and like instances, Mr. Forster is led to conclude that in countries as cold as Sweden " swallows immerse in the sea, in lakes and rivers, and remain in a torpid state, under ice, during winter ; " and that some English swallows, and some in Germany, " retire into clefts and holes in rocks," while in Spain, Italy, and France, that they are strictly migratory birds. That our American swallows are strictly migratory birds, I have no doubt ; and it would never have occurred to me to consider otherwise than as a mere fancy the subject of hibernation of our swallows, had not an excellent American ornithologist stated re- cently the opinion that this alleged submarine hiber- nation of swallows was physically and physiologically feasible. This is a too hasty assertion, and has no warranty from known laws of life. Such an assertion having been made, however, and a semi-assent to the alleged habit of hibernation thus given by an authority in ornithological science ; it behoves the naturalist to determine, if opportunity permits, how great an amount of truth there is in the statements so frequently and forcibly made, of the persons claiming to have witnessed actions on the part of swallows, indicative of hibernation commenced ; and of the discovery of swallows in conditions indicative of hibernation in progress. Believing this supposed habit to be really a mis- conception of movements on the parts of swallows, and to be likened, in a measure, to the rolling habit of the mythical hoop snake, I have taken every available opportunity, since 187S, to observe the movements of the several species of swallows that frequent my neighbourhood , with the hopes of deter- mining what habits obtained among them, that might HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. possibly have given rise to the world-wide impression on the part of many people, that swallows not only hibernate, but even deliberately bury themselves in mud at the bottoms of lakes and rivers. The species of swallow that I have had opportunity of carefully studying for the past three years, are the bank swallow {Cotylc ripariq), the cliff swallow [Petrochelidon lunifrons), the barn swallow {HiritnJo horrcoritm), and lastly the swallow-like swift {Chczhtra felagica), universally known as the chimney swallow. I do not propose to give you an extended account of the habits of these four species of well-known birds ; but relate such occurrences as I have witnessed, as seemed to bear upon the question. These birds I will treat of in the order named. Probably the most abundant of all our swallows is that known "as the, bank swallow, a name derived from the habit of building nests in the steep faces of earth banks, when of such composition or structure that these birds can burrow into them with safety to a depth of several feet. I say "with safety," for if the earth be [too yielding, and the sides liable to crumble, then the bank will be abandoned. In every instance that has come under my notice the chosen banks or escarpments occupied by a colony of bank swallows had a southern exposure, and directly fronting it, and never so far distant as to be out of sight, there was either a pond, a creek with some current, or the river itself. Now this association of water and the colonies of bank swallows is important. Least susceptible to changes of weather, and dependent upon food more than temperature, the bank swallow is the earliest of the family to appear in spring, and the latest to disappear late in autumn. The alleged hibernation is a habit that concerns us only at such times of year — in early spring— when they leave their muddy couches after prolonged slumber ; — in autumn when they seek these submarine retreats. Like all, or nearly all, migratory birds, the bank swallows return in early spring to their haunts of the preceding summer. When I have first noted their return, often as early as the loth of March, they were either flying to and fro over the water in front of the site of their nests of last year, or flying in and out of the old burrows of the preceding summer ; inspecting their condition, but not prepar- ing for the coming duties of incubation. Thus eaily in the spring, their flight is not as continued as it is a month later, as though they had not recovered from the fatigue of their migratorial journey, which I believe to be the case ; and they rest in small com- panies, not upon trees, but, I may say, exclusively either at the openings of the subterranean nests, or upon sticks, dead trees, and vegetation projecting from the water. Now let me add another very im- portant fact ; that the amount of food to be found by these swallows, thus early in the season, is limited ; and largely confined to a few hardy species of insects that are then astir, if the sun is shining, therefore their vigorous flight power of midsummer is visibly affected. Add to this, the depressing influences of cold rain-storms, which they do not endeavour to avoid, and we have causes sufficient to explain the well-attested fact, that these swallows are at this time of year often to be seen, as Kalm described those he saw in 1750, "as wet as if they had been just come out of the sea." Let me now give you the details of an incident of this kind. On the 17th of March, 1878, the weather for a week previously having been fairly pleasant for the time of year, and a few swallows seen ; it rained very hard until about noon, when it cleared suddenly, the wind shifting to the north-west. I started out for a short ramble in search of Indian relics, and passing by the bluff that for years has been frequented by bank swallows, I was attracted by the incessant but feeble twitterings of numbers of these birds, but none were to be seen. I looked for them for some time, and finally found a hundred or more sitting upon the top rail of a section of half submerged fence in the marshy meadow facing the cliff. Approaching as near as I could, I found them unable, or, at least, indisposed to fly ; and finally, getting to them, found them thoroughly soaked, and readily taken by the hand. Those that endeavoured to escape, fell into the water, and were lost in the dead bulrushes that projected above its surface. I presume that many were drowned. My explanation of the occurrence is this, they were insect hunting when the storm commenced, and taking refuge by perch- ing upon the fence, were awaiting the slow process of the drying of their feathers, by exposure to the wind and then fitful sunshine. This accomplished, they would have been themselves again. On the other hand, had I not seen these swallows previously, there was every reason to lead one to suppose that they had suddenly appeared from some near-at-hand hiding-place, where they had been quietly at rest, during the winter just closed ; and had any one following in my footsteps found the poor struggling birds that I had caused to fall into the water, then natural, indeed, to suppose that from the water itself had emerged these chilled and helpless birds at the first breath of spring ! Now, on the 19th of March, 1SS0, there was a cold storm, with both snow and rain. Two days previously I had seen two bank swallows. Think- ing that others might be about, and desirous of see- ing them during a rain, I went to the cliff, near my house, and saw nothing of these birds. Lingering about the place for some time, I finally saw three emerge from holes in the cliff, and after fluttering about a short time (the rain had then stopped) they alighted on a stake projecting from the water, and remained fully ten minutes. The rain commencing again to fall, one flew away, and I think to the cliff, the others flew to the same fence, where I had seen HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. scores of them the year previously, and sat near together facing the wind ; just as pigeons will arrange themselves on the peak of the roof of a barn during a rain-storm in summer. In this case, these two swallows certainly became thoroughly wetted, and had they been found later, when the storm was over, would certainly have presented the appearance of being " as wet as if they had been just come out of the sea." How easy it is to be misled by appearances, in this matter of studying bird-life ! Had I not known that swallows had been flying for days before I found these wet, bedraggled, storm-beaten birds, I could fairly have claimed, that my own experience fully confirmed the opinions of others, that swallows not only migrate, but remain in mud-encased beds at the bottoms of our ponds, creeks and rivers ; but until swallows are first heard singing their farewell dirge, as Dr. Wallerius describes, then seen to sink into the mud, and are then promptly resurrected, before a cloud of witnesses, it will be safe to assert that what others have seen is susceptible of other expla- nation than voluntary submergence in the mud of our water-courses. Furthermore, it can be safely asserted, I think, that bank swallows return year after year to their haunts of previous summers. A New York, or Connecticut, or Massachusetts colony of these birds, will not reach its haunt of last summer as early, as will the New Jersey colonies reach theirs. Although the recent observations of Mr. Scott at Princeton, New Jersey, conclusively show that migration at any night, when it is moonlight, customarily takes place, it does not necessarily show that migration at night is the common habit of all birds that migrate. Indeed, it is impossible to believe that however brilliant the moonlight may be, any bird could distinguish, at the elevation of a mile or more, the limited area of its former summer haunts, the particular thicket in which it nested the foregoing summer ; or, in the case of swallows, the little bluff, wherein a colony had had their sub- terranean summer homes. The most that can be claimed, is their recognition of the particular river valley wherein they have been accustomed to spend the summer. Granting this, if they migrated at night, then it is early in the morning after their arrival that we should expect to see them, resting, in scattered numbers, after their journey ; and when thus wearied from a protracted flight, and damped with the dews that have bathed surrounding Nature, they might well present the appearance of having arisen from the waters beneath, rather than fallen from the clouds above. (To be contmued.) Buttercup. — On December 2nd, I found a butter- cup {Ranunculus repens) in flower, and it was covered with ice. It was growing on an exposed bank be- ween two streams. — F. II, Parrott, Aylesbury. MOLLUSCAN JAWS ; THEIR VARIATION IN HELIX NEMORALIS, H. IIORTENSIS, AND VAR. HYBRIDA. ANY ONE watching a snail as it crawls along, cropping the alga; off the glass of a fresh-water aquarium, will notice that the shorn track is distinctly narrower than the foot of the animal. The lateral portions of this organ describe graceful contours, whilst this track has a jagged margin, and median interruptions of uncropped algae. It is evident that the motion of the foot has not caused that silvery streak on the inner part of the glass, for, running our eye along the muscular foot, from the posterior pointed portion which joins the path, the so-called tail of the snail, we shall see, however accomplished, whether by the elongation of the anterior portion, or drawing of hinder part forwards, by the alternate progressive movements of the sides, or any other movement common to special groups, that the use of the foot is for locomotion, and that it presents no cutting organ whatever. Anteriorly however, we find the foot of our gastro- pod, if it be a Limncea, becoming very broad and ending abruptly, and that there is differentiated dorsally a head possessing tentacles, eyes, &c, and having a mouth more or less ventral. Here, were we merely looking for the cause of that track, our quest would end ; for the combined move- ments of the head and the external organs of the mouth, whilst in search of and procuring food in these fields confervoid, pushed forwards by the foot, give rise to the complicated tortuous Molluscan tracks so common in some aquaria. A more careful examination of this mouth movement through the glass will reveal, in some genera more than others, a dark brown or chocolate-coloured crescentic boundary, the jaw, which is during life being brought constantly into opposition with the more ventral portion, which presents a muscular strap, on which are developed hundreds of carbonate of lime denticles, the radula. To the action of these organs, assisted by certain muscles, is due the seizure of the food, its comminu- tion and its passage to the oesophagus. The whole form the buccal mass. In this hasty examination we have localised and functionised an organ, whose action has at all times excited the admiration of observers of Molluscan habits. By its aid those of the snails and slugs of our canals, ponds, and country lanes can be found. The colour of the jaw varies from a light yellow to a deep chocolate. The cuticle of the common cock- roach presents the general colour sought to be described. Generally speaking, the jaw may be said to consist of a crescentic base, with or without accessory pieces, on which are developed transverse ridges or ribs of the same material. Neither the curvature of the base, nor the number or position of the ridges is con- B 2 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. stant. Their use is to assist the odontophore in triturating the food. The whole jaw assumes, however, a characteristic form peculiar to its own genera. In a common black slug {Arion aier) of this neighbour- hood, I found a semi-oval jaw, with numerous ribs of varying breadths, smooth on the concave and crenu- lated on the outer aspect, and barely projecting beyond the edge of the base (fig. i). Whilst in a jaw of Succinea pittris, from the towing-path of the canal in the centre of Leeds, we have a central tooth and a quadrate plate behind (fig. 2). Very little seems to have been done in determining the composition of Molluscan jaws, and books on zoology, microscopy, anatomy and conchology, seem content to share in the stereotyped and often ric, sulphuric, and acetic acids, potassic hydrate, Schultze's syrup, &c, I found that they were chitinous and not corneous or horny. Keratine, the basis of horn, hairs, feathers, &c, has a different chemical composition to chitin, and behaves unlike it under the same tests. The methods pursued in determining chitin and keratine are too familiar to be more than alluded to here. Cartilage, as is well known, is only found amongst invertebrates in Cephalopoda. The nucleated appearance of car- tilage and the laminar structure of chitin under the microscope are so dissimilar, that the cartilaginous nature of jaws must have been a guess and never tested. That they are not calcareous needs no con- tradiction, although salts of lime are deposited on Fig. 1.— Jaw of Arion aler, Leeds. Fig. 2. — Succiiica ptttris, Leeds. Figs. 3-5. — Helve netnoralis, Whitby. synonymous terms, composition corneus, horny, cartilaginous, calcareous. Through the microscope they have every appear- ance of being chitin (C15, H26, N2, 022) a substance particularly familiar to the worker with this instrument. Chitin might aptly be called inver- tebrate bone, for it enters into the composition of the endo- and exo-skeleton, locomotory (aerial, terrestrial, and aquatic), digestive, generative, and respiratory organs, &c, of various members of that great division. The Molluscan jaw and the serrated teeth of leeches (Hirudo), are but modifications of the same substance to suit divergent habits. On testing chemically the jaws of Helix ncmoralis and hortensis and portions of the gladius of Loligo vulgaris with hydrochlo- them occasionally. In my cabinet I have a jaw of Helix arbustorum on which are three star-like clusters of crystals, which polarise beautifully. Chitin, being a derivative product, does not involve the consequent destruction of its constructive cells ; whilst the opposite obtains in keratinous substances, their original cells having been transformed into horny matter. In vol. iii. pt. 8 of the "Journal of Conchology," the editor in an article on Helix arbus- torum takes us a step further. He states that the jaw "is composed of indurated or hardened mucus and is of a horn colour ; the minute sculpture is formed of longitudinal wavy lines which follow the exterior outline." These lines of sculpture are the lines of deposition of the chitin ; the alternate hard and soft portions arising during chemical metamorphosis of the cells into that substance. The laminae are here, as in Nature everywhere, the indications of formation and of transformation or change. The epiphragm maybe formed of " hardened or indurated mucus," but certainly not the jaw. The presence too of chitin in Mollusca is conceded by all embryolo- gists. It is the first hard substance met with. The shell gland, when first formed, is a chitinous plug in the posterior and dorsal portion in all normal, and in most abnormal forms ; whilst a depression on the dorsal surface of the foot of some Molluscs gives rise to a chitinous plate, the operculum. The whole of these chitinous substances are formed of epiblastic cells, and from similar cells are developed the buccal cavity and oesophagus. The anterior portion of the buccal mass is the jaw, its posterior attachment the oesophagus. tion has convinced me that, though a generic idea might be easily set up, yet as a specific classification it would be useless. The variations seem endless. In this article I merely treat of one group of land molluscs, Helix nemoralis, H. hortensis, and some of their varieties. As their specific relationship has never been satisfactorily settled, I trust the following notes on the shells and jaws will be a definite step towards that end. The group comprised under the above names are, as most naturalists know, those beautifully coloured shells found commonly throughout this country along hedgerows, especially nettle - yielding ones — plain yellow, red, or brown, or encircled with one to six bands. Those with dark coloured mouths are the H. nemoralis ; with white lip and rib, H. hortensis ; and those with a pink lip or rib, H. hortensis, var. hybrida. Amongst the H. nemoralis, characterised as Figs. 6 and 7. — H. nemoralis, Leeds (i grown). Fig. 9. — H. hortensis, Malton. Fig. 10. — H. liortensis, Driffield. Fig. 12. — Divisions of 1-100 of an inch. Fig. 8. — H. hortensis, var. hybridei, Malton. H . hortensis, near Leeds. It will (I trust) be clear, that the primitive epidermis or epiblast gives rise in Mollusca to the chitinous parts, and that these are in no case differentiations of mucus. I think we might safely say : — That no true horn is found in Mollusca ; That cartilage is not found in any of the inverte- brates, except in Cephalopoda, as a support for certain nervous organs in the head, &c. ; That chitin forms the shell glands and opercular plates of true Mollusca, the shell valves of articulate Brachiopods, the jaws, &c, of Gastropods, the gill supports and ligaments of Lamellibranchiates (Ano- donta), the gladius and acetabula of the squid (Loligo) and other Cephalopoda. It struck me, as far back as 1879, that if the cross- bars of the jaws of snails could be mapped, as the chemist does his spectra bands, one might, by working at a group, make some headway, but micro-examina- we have learned by the dark mouth, are sometimes found specimens which agree in every particular with typical nemoralis, except that they possess a white mouth and rib. Every conchologist must have specimens of this kind in his cabinet. For it I propose the name of//, nemoralis, var. albo-labris ; no mention of this, by no means rare variety, being made in " British Conchology." This variety occurs in the Leeds district. The varieties hortensis and hybrida of H. nemoralis, as given by Dr. Jeffreys in his " British Conchology," are to my mind a distinct species and its variety. No conchologist yet confused the two. The care with which he handles hortensis, and the admiration that its smaller, delicate, and more graceful form excites, is, to the practical specialist, an intuitive distinction. Perhaps, when the subject becomes better worked, we shall look upon the colour of the lip and rib of var. HA RD WI CKE 'S S CIENCE- G OS SIP. hybrida as homotypical of the lip colour of nemoralis, for its robust shells are provided with white and all shades of red, chocolate, and dark brown lips and ribs. The jaws, too, of II. nemoralis are larger, stronger, and deeper coloured than hortensis. Dr. Jeffreys remarks, too, that no two of these forms live together. I may add that hybrida is usually sought for and found amongst hortensis; the two-score specimens I possess of this variety were all found thus. I was, along with many others, a believer that nemoralis, hortensis and hybrida were not found together in any locality, but quite recently, and within a few miles of Leeds, I have, in the company of friends, taken the three forms associated. From the stems of a large cow parsnip (Heracleum) I took two //(•; three liortensis, and one hybrida ; whilst, amongst forty or fifty hortensis, two miles away, I procured one nemoralis and one hybrida. The hortensis from this, to me, new locality are very interesting. There are four or five sets which show the gradations of hortensis to hybrida very clearly, we have 1st, white ; 2nd, bright yellow ; 3rd, paler yellow, large whorl tinged with reddish-purple ; 4th, reddish salmon-colour; 5th, hybrida. Var. or set 3 shows what Mr. Norman denies, a coloured deposit on the columella. Some four or five years ago, I had the honour of describing a new variety to this country of H. hortensis ; this var. umbilicata, Crthr., had an umbilicus. I collected it at Tadcaster. An examina- tion of the large collections which are made of these ever-varying shells clearly shows that II. nemoralis and //. hortensis are distinct species, and hybrida to be a variety of the latter form, and I and many conchologists adopting this classification go with Miiller, Dr. Grey and Mr. Norman and against Forbes and Hanley and Dr. Jeffreys. Briefly, and generally, we might classify them thus :— Helix nemoralis, L. — Shell subglobose, usually opaque and solid, imperforate"; periostracum white, yellow, brown, chocolate, red, &c, either plain or encircled with one to five or six bands of varying widths and colours. Outer lip and rib deep pink, red, chocolate and black. On the inner lip the bands are usually hidden by a coloured deposit. Var. albo-labris, Crthr. — Form and colour as in type. Lip and rib white. Helix hortensis, Mull. — Shell one-third smaller and a little more globular than nemoralis, similarly coloured and banded, imperforate, thin, often translucent. Rib and outer lip white. Inner lip usually shows bands. Var. hybrida, Poiret.— Shell as in type in size and markings, somewhat solider. Outer lip and rib unged or coloured pink. Var. umbilicata, Crthr. — Shell like hortensis, trans- lucent, banded, possessing an umbilicus. Fuller descriptions will be found in books on British conchology of most of the above, also of the vars. major and minor of Helix nemoralis. The above classification is newer, more definite, and perhaps more accurate, as it is founded on later obser- vations. On bringing home the specimens gathered, it is better to clean them at once. The animals are extracted after treatment with hot water. The shells should be assorted as to colours, species and varieties, and mounted in pairs on small millboard tablets 22 by ij-in. by |-in. thick, covered on one side with tinted paper for coloured, and steel blue, or black paper for white shells. On the label affixed to one end should be written genus, species, locality and collector. For the method of dissecting odontophores, jaws, &c, of Mollusca, which should be done under water, in a white shallow dish, refer to books on the micro- scope, &c. I would strongly advise the simple method of dissecting the animal thus, with forceps and needles, to the common one resorted to by so many conchologists, of boiling the animal if small, or parts if large, in sodic or potassic hydrates, on purpose to procure the jaws or lingual ribbons. The attachments are often appended, and the object has a more natural appearance under the microscope. The jaws of small II. virgata can be seen with the naked eye in the dissecting trough, and the smallest species may be crushed and washed in the sunken cell of a micro-slip using a 2-inch objective for detection. As the jaws are found, place the different kinds in watch glasses, or small colour saucers, until so dry that they can be transferred to small pill-boxes, without any risk of their sticking to the bottom or sides, and so carrying foreign matter. Here they are dust free, and can be stored any length of time. On its lid should be written such information as is required for the micro-slide label. This method of preparation is not applicable to odontophores. In a day or two the_jaws will be thoroughly dry. After soaking in turpentine, they may be mounted on micro-slips in any soluble form of Canada balsam, and without a cell ; a wire clip will hold in position for a few days, until there is a little set in the medium. As evaporation takes place, fill up with fresh balsam ; wdien dry ring twice with a thick solution of dammar in benzole and varnish. Any number of jaws of Mollusca agreeing in characters or shell colour may be mounted on one slip, three or more are very easily treated, and with a little care in balancing the clip directly over the specimen or specimens, it will be found practical to mount one or two jaws without a cell. Canada balsam is much better for this work than glycerine or similar fluids ; it is more easily manipulated, requires no extra care in fastening up, and is handy for polariscopic work. Such a slide may be numbered, named, examined and mapped as below : — Slide Locality. Kind. Map. Species. No. of Ribs. No. 1 2 3 4 5 1 6 7 5 Tadcaster- Reddish. . >!MK A"rttfc . • ncmoralis i 23 Whitby . Yellow . hortensis . •• •• 1 •• •• •• • • 29 Driffield . Plain reddish -fr *tf> -H- *h hybrida . •• 4 The arc — . represents the base, and the cross lines the transverse bars of the jaws. By this method any number of jaws can be diagrammatically presented, and by thickening, thinning, or lengthening the strokes, the variations we find on the real specimens may be represented. It follows, that if in such a tabulation it had been found that II. ncmoralis, hor- tensis or hybrida had always a certain proportion of cross-bars, or that these ribs were differently placed, a classification might have been built up on these characters ; but although I long ago learned that the ncmoralis had larger jaws, and was generally better ribbed, yet the number of bars varies so much that specimens with two bars occur, and rarely we find five bars in hortensis and hybrida. The examination of one hundred and forty-two jaws gives the following results : — Specimens Species. Number of Ribs. examined. 0 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 67 Helix ncmoralis .. 5 7 23 22 7 3 Si Helix horte?isis . •• •• '9 22 9 1 •• •• 24 Var. hybrida •• X s 4 13 1 •• A glance at this table shows that II. kortensishas the lowest average of bars 2'8, hybrida 3'3, and nemwralis 4*4. A reference to my remarks on the shells, shows that this order is borne out in them too, hortensis thin, hybrida stronger, and ncmoralis a solid and more compact shell than either. In a district near Leeds, out of twenty-eight speci- mens (see table below), I find the proportion slightly increased, ncmoralis averaging five bars per jaw, and hortensis barely three. Of hybrida I only took two specimens. Specimens Species. Number of Rib examined. oi|2,34j5|6 7 6 Helix ncmoralis Helix hortensis . 2 ! 3 •• 22 •• .. 6 11 An opinion which I have formed after much reflec- tion on this jaw variation from tables and observa" tions may be presented in a few words. The ribs being auxiliaries of the odontophore, and abounding especially in terrestrial forms, vary in different situations to suit food plants. In a set made up of speci- mens collected by myself at Driffield, and from its neigh- bourhood by kind donors, I find the ncmoralis have generally two to four, and rarely five cross-bars, and the hortensis the same. These specimens were not near roads, but under walls and along wood sides. Specimens of ncmoralis which I gathered on the sea cliffs at Whitby, very exposed situation, herbage rank, hard and dry, had all, with one exception, a four-ribbed specimen, five or six bars to each jaw. The ncmoralis gathered on a road-side in Leeds, Carboniferous formation, are very strong and ha\ e dense jaws. Twenty-three full-grown specimens yield on examination ten with 4, ten with 5, two with 6, and one with 7 bars. I have two other examples of jaws with 7 ribs, from two different localities and limestone formation, but each were from hard herbage and dusty road-sides. Four quarter-grown specimens from a road-side in Leeds give one 4, one 5, and two 6 ribbed-jaws, and three half-grown ones, two 4, and one 6 barred jaw. In four 5 banded ncmoralis taken in a damp situa- tion near Tadcaster, near to which I have procured hortensis, hybrida and H. arbitstornm, I find two with 2, one with 3, and one with 4 ribs, which are particularly acute and narrow ; two hundred yards away on the dry dusty road-side, the ncmoralis yield a high average of jaw-ribs, one having 7 ribs. A slide from the river-side, and this locality compare thus : — ■ No. of Speci- mens. Appear- ance. Species. Locality. No. of Ribs. 2 | 3 4 5 6 r4 4 ( Yellow, | IsbandedJ H. nemoralis River-side /Roadside, } I TadcasterJ 2 1 1 1 2 • • I The specimens taken where the herbage is strong and hard, yield jaws which are deeper in colour. The largest specimens from each of the slides last men- tioned give for the river-side a jaw Too in. long (across), and T§5 in. broad in the centre, the road-side one being too x Ti>o m< The most distortious of jaws are in hor- tensis and hybrida, from road-sides, probably due to softer jaws and harder foods. In the article on H. arbustorum mentioned above, the writer says, when speaking of jaws, "In old specimens there are sometimes six ribs." Here is inferred that age adds the ribs ; if this were so my idea, 8 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. of variation to suit nature of food would not be tenable. For this reason I examined adult specimens of H. arbustorum which I had gathered from the base of a waterfall (Hydraw Scar), where the herbage is moist and tender ; the specimens did not develope a single well-formed rib, being mere chitinous crenula- tions. Some very young specimens taken on an exposed situation last year by myself in Derbyshire (High Tor, Matlock), yield 2, 3, and 4 bars. Two half-grown specimens from Tadcaster yield 3 ribs each. An examination of twenty full grown speci- mens from different localities gives plain bases (no ribs), and 1 up to 8 ribs. It is evident that the asser- tion has not been practically taken up. An examination of some young specimens is ap- pended : — State of Species. Locality. No. of Ribs. growth. 2J3 4 5 6 t i i i i f own » y y y y y nemoralis . hortensis „ arbustorum yy Roadside, Leeds . ,, near Leeds yy '» yy High Tor, Matlock . River-side, Tadcaster 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 From this table it is evident that the ribs on the jaws have no relationship whatever with the age of the Molluscs, and specimens which I have collected on Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and in Fifeshire, clearly support both in very young and adult forms this view. There is much matter that could be presented to the naturalist from these examinations. We see that an exposed situation on a Carboniferous formation gives the greatest percentage of ribs ; an exposed area on a limestone formation a moderate ; whilst a protected or humid situation on the same formation gives a minimum number of ribs. With two deductions, new (I trust) to science, I conclude : — First. That the slight difference that exists between the jaws of Helix nemoralis and H hortensis is due to relational connection, and their specific divergence not being of long date. Second. That the rib-variation of the jaws of these types is due to the nature of their food, its modifying influence involving formation (geological), locality, situation (protected or not), and kind ; but having no connection whatever with age. Beeston Hill, Leeds. Henry Crowther. Brazilian Birds. — In reply to G. A. K.'s query, there is a work extant on the birds of Brazil published just thirty years ago. The figures are life-size, or nearly so, and beautifully coloured, although not so highly finished as the figures in Gould's works. It is in the French language, and was, I think, published in Rio dejjaneiro; title, " Ornithologie Bresilienne, par le Dr. J. T. Descourtilz." SUBMERGED FORESTS ON THE SUFFOLK COAST. THE "Geological Magazine " for December con- tains the following communication from Dr. J. E. Taylor, on submerged forests which he has investi- gated in the Orwell and at the mouth of the Deben. Dr. Taylor writes : — In 1874-5, whilst the river Orwell was being deepened, and a new channel cut, a bed of peat was discovered. This was carefully]examined and worked by myself and Mr. Thomas Miller, C.E., the Ipswich Dock Engineer, and the published results appear in the report of the British Association (Bristol) meeting 1875. This peat bed was as much as nine feet thick, full of the trunks of trees, and from it we obtained several grinders of the Mammoth. It was traced down towards Harwich for a distance of six miles, and, at the time, I pointed out that this ancient forest could only have grown when the land stood relatively so much higher than the present sea-level that the bed of the German Ocean must have been marshy land, probably characterised by similar extensive shallow lakes to those which are so abundant in the flat eastern parts of Norfolk, where they are known as " Broads." Fishermen off the Norfolk and Suffolk coasts fre- quently bring up lumps of peat in their trawl nets, and that the bed of the German Ocean off these parts must be occupied by extensive deposits of this kind is shown by the unfailing supplies. Bones and teeth of elephant, ox, deer, &c, are strewn over the area, and are often dredged up. Those who are acquainted with the magnificent collec- tion of these remains made by Mr. Owles, of Great Yarmouth, nearly all of which were dredged up by Yarmouth fishermen, will be prepared to sub- stantiate the statement that the floor of the German Ocean is occupied by extensive post-glacial deposits, with their characteristic organic remains. A post-glacial forest-bed occurs at Holm Scarf, off the Norfolk coast, and may plainly be seen at low water. It is a bed of peat, in which trunks of trees are imbedded. It was in one of these trunks that Mr. Edwards found a flint implement sticking. Within the last few days I have come upon the remains of another submerged forest or peat-bed at Bawdsey, near Felixstowe. It is only visible and accessible at low-water spring-tides, and even then it is seen sloping down into the sea. The cliffs at Bawdsey are formed of London clay, capped by Red Crag, and they do not waste so rapidly as many other parts of this coast. The London clay forms the bed of the sea, except near the northern side of the estuary of the Deben. There we find the peat- bed, resting directly on the London clay. It is about four or five feet thick at its thickest part, but it has evidently been much denuded, and is now merely a relic of what it once was. Remains of trees are .not plentiful in it, and the peat contains an abundance of fresh-water and marsh plants, but I found no fresh- water shells. The only animal remains I obtained are the upper part of the skully and horn-cores of Bos longifrons, but I was told that bones had fre- quently been washed out of it. Among the plants a species of Cyperus was abundant, and Sphagnum was also plentiful. Indeed the nature of the peat-bed indicates its formation under just such marshy con- ditions as geologists have assumed the bed of the German Ocean to have been in before the submer- gence took place which brought the sea-water over it, and so converted England into an island. The discovery of this remnant of a once extensive peat-bed, uncovered only in part even at extreme low water spring-tides, is therefore interesting as con- firming the geological speculations concerning the old marshy plain over which the German Ocean now extends. A LIST OF LAND AND FRESHWATER SHELLS OCCURRING NEAR LONDON. AS there have been so many queries in Science- Gossip lately, about localities for land and freshwater shells, I thought it might interest your readers to know that I have observed the following near London. Aquatic. — Spkarium cor mum, Chislehurst, &c. ; 5". lacustre, Chislehurst and Enfield ; Pisidium amnicum, Enfield (Middlesex) ; P. fontinale, St. Mary Cray ; P. pusillum, in a ditch at Bickley ; P. nitidum, in a pond on Chislehurst Common ; Unio tumidus, Enfield, very abundant ; U. pictorum, Enfield ; Anodonta cygnea, Beckenham, Kent (the form I have found is exceedingly large and swollen, and is probably the var. incrassata) ; A. anatina, plentiful at Enfield ; Neritina fluviatilis, Enfield ; Paludina vivipara, Enfield ; Bithynia tentaculata, St. Mary Cray ; Valvata piscinalis, St. Mary Cray ; Valvata cristate, occasionally at St. Mary Cray ; Planorbisnitidus, Chislehurst Common ; P. naiitilens, Chislehurst Common ; P. albus, St. Mary Cray and Enfield ; P. spirorbis, Chislehurst Common ; P. ■vortex, St. Mary Cray ; P. carinatus, Enfield, scarce ; P. complanatus, St. Mary Cray ; P. comeus, Enfield ; P. contortus, Chislehurst and Enfield ; Physa hypno- rum, ditch at Bickley ; P.fontinalis, St. Mary Cray; Limnica peregra, St. Mary Cray, &c. ; L.peregra, var. vvata, Bromley ; L. peregra, var. labiosa, Bromley ; /.. auruularia, Enfield ; L. stagnalis, Enfieid and Chislehurst ; L. stagna/is, var. fragilis, Enfield ; L. palnstris, St. Mary Cray and Enfield ; L. truncatula, in ditch at Bickley ; Ancylus lacustris, Chislehurst. Terrestrial.— Arion atcr, Chislehurst, &c. ; Limax agrcstis, Chislehurst, &c. ; L. maximus, Chislehurst, &c. ; Succinca putris, St. Mary Cray ; S. ehgans, St. Mary Cray ; Vitrina pellucida, Chisle- hurst, &c. ; Zonites ccllarius, Chislehurst, &c. ; Z. nitiduhis, Chislehurst, &c. ; Z. crystallinus, Chisle- hurst, &c. ; Z.fulvus, Chislehurst, scarce; Z. nit id its, Enfield ; Helix pomatia, Caterham, Surrey ; IP. aspersa, Chislehurst, &c. ; H. nemoralis, Chislehurst, &c. ; H. nemoralis, var. horlensis, Chislehurst, &c. ; H. Cantiana, Chislehurst, &c. ; H. rufescens, Chisle- hurst, &c. ; IP. hispida, Chislehurst, &c. ; H. virgata, Caterham and St. Mary Cray ; //. capcrata, Chisle- hurst and Caterham ; capcrata, var. ornata, Chisle- hurst and Caterham ; H. ericetornm, Caterham and St. Mary Cray; H. roticndata, Chislehurst, &c. ; H. rotundata, var. alba, Chislehurst, two specimens ; H. pulchclla, var. costata, Chislehurst and St. Mary Cray ; H. lapicida, Caterham ; Bulimus obscurus, Chislehurst, &c. ; B. obscurus, var. alba, Chislehurst ; Pupa umbilicata, Chislehurst and St. Mary Cray ; Clausilia rugosa, Chislehurst and St. Mary Cray ; C. lamiuata, Caterham ; Cochlicopa lubrica, Chisle- hurst, &c. ; Carychium minimum, St. Mary Cray ; Cyclostoma elegaus, Caterham and St. Mary Cray. It may be worth while to say that I have col- lected all the above during last year (1882), and that all those mentioned as occurring at Enfield were obtained in the course of two days. Glen Druid, Chislehurst. S. C. C. ON THE DISCRIMINATION OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF WOOD BY A MICROSCOPI- CAL EXAMINATION OF SECTIONS OF BRANCHES. IN the course of seeking for microscopical fungi in the woods, I often picked up sticks which I was at a loss to assign to their true origin. This in- duced me to make sections of the branches of com- monly occurring trees, with a view to make myself familiar with the structure of the wood. I was somewhat surprised at the differences exhi- bited in the sections, and, pursuing the subject, I have endeavoured to classify the differences of struc- ture, in the hope that this may prove useful to others similarly situated to myself. It is not put forth that the classification here alluded to, with the verbal descriptions attached, will answer the purpose completely, but I think that it will assist a person greatly in the determi- nation of a species of wood. Take, for instance, beech and birch, lime and poplar. The differences are striking when the internal structure is examined, not so when merely the external aspect is observed. For the perfect determination of a species of wood, authentic sections or accurate drawings of such sections are needed for comparison. The character of the pith mass of the medullary rays, of the ducts in the woody tissue, and of the bark, are important elements in the determination of the plant, and will serve as a good guide to the enquirer, and facilitate reference to authentic sections. C. J. Muller. IO HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. ON BRITISH FRESHWATER MITES. By C. F. George. No. IV. THE species of Arrenurus described so far, have all of them the peculiar development of the last joint but two of the hind leg ; and I believe and extraordinary-looking mite ; has a very wide and rather short tail, of a bright yellow ; the ccecal mark- ings are dark brown, the central part white, and the posterior part of the body, where it joins the tail, is of a beautiful blue ; the impressed line does not extend so far forward on the body as usual, and the last joint but two of the hind legs is without the peculiar process described in A. globator, A. buccinator, Fig. r-$.— Arrenurus sinuator, Fig. 16. — Arrenurus albator, cf. Fig. 14. — Hind leg of Arrenurus sinuator, £ , Fig. 15. — Second leg of Arrenurus sinuator. Fig. 17. — Tail of Arremirus albator, £. Fig. 18. — Arre?mrus crassicaudatus. Fig. 19. — Arrenurus ferforatus, $. there are several more species described by Koch, which possess this peculiar process, such as Arre- nurus iulnilator ; these species, however, have not yet fallen into my net, and I shall now mention some in which this process is absent. Arrenurus sinuator (Midler). — This very pretty A. mandator and A. viridis (see figure of hind leg) ; the claws are double, and each claw is also divided. This claw is not peculiar to Arrenurus, but will be found in other water mites. Arremcrus albator (Miiller). — This mite is in many respects like the preceding one, but it is lighter in colour, and is provided with a very different . tail ; indeed, the tail is the part by which we distinguish one male Arrenurus from another, and it is very wonderful that it should differ so greatly in every species of the same family. I shall not attempt to describe this difference, as I think the figures will do this in a better, quicker, and more pleasant manner, and I trust many of my readers will be induced to search for, and examine the creatures for themselves. Arrenurus crassicaiuiatus (Kramer). — This mite much resembles in size and colour the mite just described, but differs in having the central part of ON THE BRITISH BRAMBLE PHRAGMIDIA. P HRAGMIDIUM BULB OS UM is a fungus well known to the British microscopists, and as a microscopic object it owes not a little of its popularity to Science-Gossip, in the pages of which many years ago Dr. Cooke gave a figure of its spores, which, doubtless, many readers still remember. Like many other fungi, the phragmidia suffer from a plethora of synonyms ; there are only eight European species, yet they have had some thirty or more names given to them by various authors ! Two well-marked Fig. 20. — Arrenurus perforatus, $ (under side) Fig. 21. — Teleutospore of Phragmidium i violacemn germinating. the tail shaped like the head of a spear, and scarcely projecting beyond the general contour of the tail. I think I am right in considering it to be the mite described by Kramer under the name of " crassi- caudatus." Arremincs perforatus (mihi). — This beautiful mite was described and figured by me in Science-Gossip for December, 1881 (p. 269). The tail, as will be seen by the figures, is very different from those of any of the other tailed mites ; the hind legs, like those of the three preceding species, do not possess the spur, which is so marked a character in some of the male mites of this family. The Norwich Natural Science Club has lately changed its name to that of the " Norwich Natural- ists' Field Club." The meetings are held in the Parochial Hall, South Higham, every Friday evening at So'clock, at which papers are read by the members on natural history subjects. The officers for the present year are : chairman, H. J. Thouless, Esq. ; treasurer, A. Notley : secretary. G. H. Perris. species occur in this county upon living bramble leaves. These species are generally confounded under the one name, namely P. bulbosum. My attention was recently drawn to them by] my friend Mr. Soppitt, who kindly sent me specimens of both kinds from York- shire. The accompanying figures are drawn to scale of 450 diameters by the camera from Mr. Soppitt's specimens, and serve to show the difference between two typical teleutospores, one of each species. The first, P. rubi, Pers., is rather the more slender of the two, it has a larger number of septa, and the papilla surmounting the body of the spore is the longer and more pointed. The sori are smaller, more compact, and generally do not spring from discoloured spots. The other species, P. -diolaceum, Schultz, is probably the more common. It has normally triseptate teleu- tospores, with smaller and more blunt papilla?, and the upper surface of the leaf from which they spring is marked with purplish-violet spots. It may be worth while to remark that these phragmidia have not only uredospores, but also recidiospores. The former are well known, but the latter have been hitherto, in this 12 HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. county, overlooked almost entirely by fungologists. The cecidium stage of these fungi does not consist of cluster cups in the ordinary acceptation of the term, for the aecidiospores are not surrounded by peridia, but they are secidiospores none the less, being produced in chains, and not borne singly on the ends of separate mycelial branches as the uredospores are. Last April I found the aecidiospores growing in company {i.e., on the same leaves) with the previous year's teleutospores on a large bush of Rubits fritticosits near King's Lynn, which by reason of the very mild winter still retained the bulk of its foliage. These recidiospores are ripe, they in their turn germinate and protrude germ-tubes (fig. 23) which enter the stomata of the bramble leaves and give rise to the uredospores. I was fortunate enough to watch these germinations last April, and would suggest that some of the readers of Science-Gossip might be interested in doing the same next spring. The most striking feature is to observe the orange endochrome pass into the hyaline promycelium from a dark almost black teleutospore. It is obvious that the Decidio- spores are only produced once in the life history of the fungus, so that they are necessarily less frequently Fig. 22. — Phragmidium rubi, Pers. Fil;. 23. — Phragmidium violaceum, Schultz. Fig. 24. — /Ecidiospores of Phragmidium v'wlacatm germinating. secidiospores are produced as follows : The last year's teleutospores germinate by throwing out from each segment of the spore a promycelial tube, into which the contents of the spore are passed as orange granules ; in a few hours the promycelium has given off one or more short branches, at the extremities of which the spores are formed. Into these spores all the orange granules collect. These spores soon fall off, and under favourable circumstances, in a few hours germinate by throwing out delicate germ- tubes. If this takes place upon a bramble leaf the germ-tubes bore through the epidermis, enter the leaf, and in due time produce the aecidiospores. When the met with than the uredospores, which are to be found all through the summer months. For the benefit of those interested, descriptions of these two phragmidia, with their synonyms* are appended. Phragmidium rubi, Pers. (Puccinia mucronata, j3. rubi, Pers. Uredo bulbosa,\ Strauss. Phragmidium iiicrassaiitm, var. 2 Link ; P. microsomal, Sacc.) I. ^Ecidiospores in heaps," often confluent, elon- gated and following the venation of the leaf, orange- yellow, roundish polygonal, 18 to 22 mk. * Rabenhorst's " Kryptogamen Flora," edit. 1881, pp. 230, 231. II. Uredospores in small roundish, scattered or subconfluent sori, pale yellow, roundish elliptical or ovate, delicately echinulate, 17 to 32 mk. long, by 12 to 20 mk. wide. III. Teleutospores in small round, often confluent, black sori, borne on long stalks which are thickened below, 3 to 8- mostly 5 to 6-celled, warty, with a more or less elongate conical paler papilla or point, attaining a length of no mk. On Ritbus frnticosus, L., ccesius, L., and saxatilis, L. Phragmidium violaceum, Schultz. (Puccina viola- cea, Schultz. Phragmidium asperum, Wallr. Uredo vepris, Rob.) I. /Ecidiospores in roundish or elongated, scattered or irregular masses. Spores in short chains, round or elliptical, echinulate, orange-yellow 19 to 30 by 1 7 to 24 mk. II. Uredospores in rather large, roundish, cushion- shaped, discrete, rarely confluent sori. Spores yellow, round, seldom elliptical or ovate, with a thick, coarsely echinulate epispore 17 to 32 by 17 to 24 mk. III. Teleutospores with 3 to 5, mostly 4 cells, warty, having a paler subglobose or conical papilla, borne on very long dilated stalks, 105 mk. long by 35 mk. thick. On Rubits fruticosus, L. Charles B. Plowright. NOTES ON NEW BOOKS. CHAPTERS ON EVOLUTION, by Dr. Andrew Wilson (London : Chatto & Windus). Dr. Wilson's pen has turned out much good and useful work, but never better than this volume con- tains. It may be regarded as a very full and com- plete "Manual" of the new philosophy of biology. The author marshals his facts in the plainest and most telling manner, his explanations of them none can misunderstand, and occasionally his descriptive style rises to something like eloquence. He is not quite free from what Herbert Spencer calls the " Anti-theological Bias," but there is only just enough of it to flavour the book, although we notice several reviewers who are affected by the opposite, or " Theological bias," have taken unnecessary alarm. This volume is crowded with biological facts, which alone would have rendered it a valuable work, apart from its discussion of the philosophy the facts are intended to illustrate. We cordially recommend its perusal to all naturalists, or people fond of natural history literature, for here they will find many old truths mounted in new settings. Winners in Life's Race, or the Great Backboned Family, by Arabella B. Buckley (London : Edward Stanford). Like all of Miss Buckley's books on natural history, the present work is charmingly and attractively written. It is a work for general readers rather than students, and an admirable book to put into the hands of young people. The author has gleaned in every department of natural science, geology, embryology, anatomy, physiology, morphology, &c, and her facts include the latest discoveries. These she has made use of to trace the influence of the law of natural selection in its operation upon vertebrate animals, from their first appearance on the earth to the present time. She concludes as follows: — "It is most interesting to trace the gradual evolution of numberless different forms, and see how each has become fitted for the life it has to live. It gives us courage to struggle on under difficulties, when we see how patiently the lower animals meet the dangers and anxieties of their lives, and conquer or die in the struggle for existence. But, far beyond all these, is the great moral lesson taught at every step in the history of the development of the animal world, that, amidst toil and suffering, struggle and death, the supreme law of life is the law of Self Devotion and Love." Siberia in Asia, by Henry Seebohm (London : John Murray). Those who read Mr. Seebohm's book- on " Siberia in Europe," published about two years ago, will make all haste to procure this volume before us. Like its predecessor, it is beautifully got up, the woodcuts are gems of the art, the letter-press is clear and pleasant to the eyes. The author carries the reader with him to the very end, interesting him in all his own successes or mishaps, his hopes and fears ; for, in addition to an animated style of writing, Mr. Seebohm is in earnest, and has no time to waste, and we unconsciously feel it. Moreover, he is not a- mere sportsman. His description of the birds he- observes or takes, and his comparisons with represen- tative species, as well as his generalised remarks on their distribution, migration, &c, are most philoso- phical, and may be regarded as valuable contributions to the advanced thoughts of the day on all these subjects. Zoological Notes, by Arthur Nicols, F.G.S. (London : L. Upcott Gill). Some time ago we had the pleasure of favourably noticing a little work on geology by Mr. Nicol, and we are reminded of the fact by the handsome volume before us, devoted to general natural history. It is a pleasant repertory of anec- dotes and facts bearing on the lives and habits of animals, but chiefly on snakes, birds, and marsupials. The author is well read in the latest literature, bear- ing on all these subjects, and his readers will find themselves treated to the best and most philosophical views held on all that he discourses. The full page illustrations are excellent, especially that showing the platypus in its native haunts. Science in Short Chapters, by W. Mattieu Williams (London : Chatto & Windus). There are few writers on the subjects which Mr. Mattieu Williams selects, whose fertility and originality are equal to his own. We read all he has to say with pleasure, and very rarely without profit. The book before us is a reprint of many good things that would have been 14 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. hidden away in the columns of newspapers, or the pages of extinct magazines. The subjects discussed are astronomical, geological, chemical, physical, and technological. All the papers are short and lively. The reader is plunged into the subject at once, and immediately sees with the author how the case stands. Altogether there are forty-four short chapters. The longest and perhaps the best of them is that which gives us a clear digest of the author's work on " The Fuel of the Sun." The Sun, its Planets, and their Satellites, by the Rev. Edmund Ledger, M.A. (London : Edward Stanford). Thanks to several popular and able writers, such as Messrs. Proctor, Williams, and others, astronomy has once more become attractive to general readers, and the present work will main- tain the position thus gained. It is in reality the publication of the course of lectures upon the Solar System read in Gresham College, London. We have often thought it a pity the Gresham lectures had to be got up for so slender an audience, and we are therefore glad to find Mr. Ledger seeking a larger circle of students. We hardly need say these lectures are exceedingly full. The latest information afforded by astronomical observation all over the world is packed away in handy and available compass, and the author skilfully arranges his matter so that it comes in where it is most telling. Two lectures are devoted to the sun, and two to the moon, the planets having a chapter devoted generally to each of them, and one to the minor planets. There are nearly one hundred illustrations, besides coloured plates, photo- graphs and charts, and altogether these lectures make up a very handsome volume which will be found a very useful manual to all students of astronomy. Ancient Battle-fields of Lancashire, by Charles Hardwick (Manchester : Abel Heywood & Son). Mr. Hardwick is well known as an ardent and enthusiastic archaeologist, and the subject discussed in this little volume is one he has pre-eminently made his own, so that all he has to say will be listened to attentively by antiquaries all over England. But Mr. Hardwick is no mere local chronicler — he is well read in all the literature of comparative mythology and an- thropology, and he has a keen eye for detecting traditions and local myths which have been separated from the great stream. In consequence, we have a most attractive and delightfully fresh book, in which the author's crisp and natural style is not the least of its claims to public attention. Diseases of Memory, by M. Ribot (London : Kegan Paul & Co.). This is one of the latest published volumes of the invaluable "International Scientific Series." The author discusses a subject he has made his own by years of study, and we have in the present volume a psychological monograph upon the diseases of memory. The chief subjects discussed are memory considered as a biological fact, general amnesia, \ partial amnesia, exaltations of memory, &c. The student will find in this volume (as in all others of the series) a very helpful book. Water and its Teaching, by C. Lloyd Morgan (London : Edward Stanford). Here is a nicely got up and most suggestive little handbook, in which all that relates to water and its work, chemical, physical, geological, and geographical, is tersely arranged under properly classified heads. We have already found it very handy as a reference to the subjects it professes to deal with, and we are pleased to find so useful a little book contributed to English Science from South Africa, where the author resides. Footprints, by Sarah Tytler (London : T. Fisher Unwin). Those who are acquainted with this author's style will readily understand that a book by her on Nature, as seen from the human side, must be peculiarly attractive. Such is the present ; natural history objects form the texts from which charming sermons are preached, and about which pleasant anecdotes cluster. It will make a very welcome gift-book to young people. A Picture Book of Country Life, by James Western (London : T. Fisher Unwin). Indirectly this work proves how rapidly, natural science is progressing, for it is a book competing as a seasonal volume with ordinary Christmas books. It is beautifully got up, with large type of print, and abundance of wood-cuts, and from the way in which a young lady of the adult age of eight years has been absorbed in it (and we made her its critic) we safely prophesy the book will be generally successful. Boys will be particularly pleased with the fishing, boating, tricycling, and rambling parts of it, and the author will succeed in interesting them in natural history objects before they are aware of it. THE DANISH FOREST. By John Wager. No. I. — The Prehistoric Forest. THE Danes, like most other good people, have an affection for their country ; and the affection is well deserved, even though we Englanders may dispute with them the right to consider their country the most beautiful in the world. Nevertheless, after having, as in duty bound, claimed precedence for our own, we will readily admit that we scarcely know where else to find such a concentration of sweet and gentle scenes — so rich and varied a commingling and interchange of wood and water, snug thatched cottages, and quaint tree-embosomed homesteads — as may be seen to nestle among the Danish Isles. Denmark is entirely wanting in the grandeur which characterises the scenery of the other two chief divi- sions of Scandinavia, that of Norway especially ; but it has a compensating beauty of a character which, with peculiarities of its own, often forcibly suggests the quieter portions of our purely English landscape, where its streams are untainted, and its woods are brightly green ; thus agreeably associating a trace of home feeling with our enjoyment of another land. It has no grim mountains weighted with desolation of fractured rock and everlasting snow ; but its gentle hills and sunny slopes are loaded with richer grain. Its fjords are open to the day, mirroring the broad heavens, instead of hiding in the darkness of deep and sinuous ravines ; its streams are never impatient of life, rushing madly down to the sea; but they saunter quietly through the green meadows, brimful of contentment with all around them, and with them- selves; and if it has no vast stretches of gloomy pine forest, interspersed with wide mosses and dismal swamps, it has its solemn groves of oak, and its genial woods of beech — often overhanging the beet- ling sea-cliffs, or sloping gently to the edge of the rolling or rippling waves. Very pleasant to the writer are the recollections of their grateful shade, and of the lovely scenes to which they largely con- tribute in summer time when the sheltered bays, and friths, and narrow sounds, and more open seas of this fragmentary land are blue as the clear and often cloudless skies. The beechwoods of Denmark form indeed one of the most distinguishing features of its landscape ; Denmark is peculiarly the home of the beech ; nowhere else perhaps in the world does it grow, within the same limits, so abundantly and with such luxuriance. No wonder the kind-hearted and genial Danes love this noble and graceful tree, and have adopted it as the symbol of their nationality ; agreeing doubtless with our Gilbert White, who knowing the beech as it grew upon its favourite chalk soil, pronounced it "the most lovely of all forest trees, whether we consider its smooth rind or bark, its glossy foliage, or graceful pendulous boughs." No wonder that Danish painters delight in the beech wood, depicting with sympathetic care and Nature's truth, the brilliance of golden light upon its extended leafage, and the depth of contrasting shade its denser masses cast upon the ground. How charmingly too, as may be seen in the National Gallery at Copen- hagen, their pencils luxuriate among the anemones which in early spring disport in fairy troops around the great purply trunks — fluttering their gay attire in the breeze upon a sunny bank that slopes down to still waters, where they see themselves reflected along with the beech- trees' pendent twigs and quiver- ing leaves. This predominance of the beech is however an occur- rence of comparatively recent times, the result, mainly, of natural causes which have also effected other changes in the Danish forest. These causes and their effects have been studiously investigated by the late Dr. Vaupell, a Danish author, whose exposition of the subject, especially as regards the suppression of the oak by the beech, I will shortly endeavour to present in a summarised form. Meantime let us glance at the forest as it existed during prehistoric ages, though probably after man had migrated into the land. Professor Stenstrup is, I believe, the chief original authority on this subject, but the informa- tion which follows is derived from Erslev's "Dansl'ISI6, Tor other plants. Send lists. — J. E. Sunderland, Bank House, Hatherlow, near Stockport. Offered, L. C, 7th ed., 40, 60, 79, 167, 180, 196, 202, 273b, 374> 4°4» 49°. SS6, 557. 584. 594. 611, 626, 715, 723, 810, 878, !337, I351. J375. ^S. I422» I47°» 1636, and many others. Wanted, .32, 65, 309, 580, 720, 721, 762, 819, 828, 845, 979, 990, 1035, 1042, 1103, 1212, 1245, 1266, 1267, 1417, 1621, 1622, 1659, and many others. — Send lists to A. W. Preston, 20 Queen's Road, Norwich. Offered, L. C, 7th ed., 14c, 25, 26, 60b, 70, 79, 89, 99, 146, 159. 288 purple, 375, 693, 1340, and many other rare plants, in exchange for good specimens of British ferns. — A. E. Lomax, 56 Vauxhall Road, Liverpool. Wanted, foreign frogs, toads, and other amphibia in spirit or skin, also skeletons of same, in exchange for rare natural history objects. — G. E. Mason, 6 Park Lane, Piccadilly, London, England. The following books are offered in exchange for books on natural history: "Ancient Stone Crosses of England," by Rimmer; "The Modern Playmate," by Rev. 'J. G. Wood; "The Three Commanders," and "The Three Admirals," both by Kingston. All are in excellent condition. — F. H. Parrott, Walton House, Aylesbury, Bucks. Wanted, Science-Gossip, unbound, for 1877 and all pre- vious years, 1869, 1871, and 1872. Will give British and foreign shells. Correspondence invited. — C. T. Musson, Burton Road, Carlton, near Nottingham. Duplicates : Planorbis lacustris, Helix carthusiana, Helix caperata (var. ornata and major), Helix ericctorum (var. minor), Pupa secale, and Clausilia Rolphii, in exchange for other British land and freshwater shells. — C. H. Morris, School Hill, Ldves, Sussex. 24 HARDIVICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Wanted, unmounted stained and injected histological and pathological sections, also unstained botanical sections of roots, stems, and leaves. Good slides in exchange. — F. R. Martin, Clevedon. I shall be glad to [exchange "dried plants (European) for others or lepidoptera, &c. Continental preferred. — G. H. Bryan, Thornlea, Trnmpington Road, Cambridge. Peucedanum officinale offered for Ligusticitm Scoticum or Peucedanum Ostentliium. Other Kentish plants on hand for exchange. — Alfred Wheeler, Ashentree Lane, Dover. Pui'^s of S. populi, Coryli, Myrica, F. nrcula, Vinula, Dictaea, Ziczac. Wanted, living sea anemones or British birds' eggs. — R. McAldowie, 82 Bonaccord Street, Aberdeen. Wanted, Science-Gossip, Nos. 13-99, IQ6 & 107, also vols. for 1874-1877. Unbound preferred. Good exchange or cash. — R. C. P., Robin's Nest, Blackburn. Wanted, a good 3-inch microscope objective- One hundred well-mounted slides given in exchange. — W. A. Hyslop, 22 Palmerston Place, Edinburgh. Wanted, named living specimens of British anemones, Crustacea, or mollusca. — J. Darker-tSutterell, 2 St. John Street, Beverley. Eggs of red-winged starling, whinchat, dipper, sedge warbler, grey wagtail, reed bunting, golden-winged woodpecker, spotted sandpiper, redshank, oystercatcher, dunlin, common tern, moorhen, little grebe, black-headed gull, and lesser black- backed gull, for other eggs or Roman first, second, or third brasses. Desiderata numerous (including wheatear). — E. F. Bell, Botcherby, Carlisle. For tentacles of the barnacle send a stamped directed en- velope to W. H. Gomm, The Green, Somerton, Somerset. " Insects at Home," by Rev. J. G. Wood ; wanted, a copy in good condition, in exchange for eighteen rare and b:autiful micro slides. J. G. Patterson, 2 Dalrymple Crescent, Edin- burgh. Wanted, books on the honey bee, bee-keeping, &c. Other books in exchange, or purchase. W. T. Cooper, 16 Earl's Court Road, Kensington. Offered, Limncea pcregra, var. Burnetti, from Loch Skene, for Limncea involuta, or for tropical land shells. — F. M. Hele, Fairlight, Elmgrove Road, Cotham, Bristol. Seventeen flint implements for exchange'; take fossils from the chalk. — Edmund Tye, Stony Stratford, Bucks. A quantity of oolite and lias fossils for exchange. — Edmund Tye, Stony Stratford, Bucks. For parasites of grey phalarope and common skua, send stamped envelope to J. Sinel, Bagot, Jersey. Will exchange vol. xiii., 1877, of Science-Gossip for British birds' eggs, side-blown. — W. E. Collinge, 68 Springfield Place, Leeds. Wanted, good lumps of chalk from Gravesend, Brighton, Kent, or washed forams from such ; exchange, first class micro slides in every department. — J. Tempere, Storrington, Sussex. Wanted, large and good micro slides cabinet, to hold at least 500 ; liberal exchange in first-class slides. — J. Tempere, Storrington, Sussex. Wanted, "Midland Naturalist" for 1880, unbound ; also, unbound, Science-Gossip for 1865, 66, and 67, and Nos. 39 and 40 for 1868; state lowest cash price. — J. R. Murdoch, 24 Blenheim Place, Leeds. Gomphonema geminatum, remarkably pure gathering of this interesting diatom ; sample tube sent in exchange for three microscope slides, or 1 oz. bottle for twelve first-class mounted objects. — J. L. M., 106 Princes Street, Edinburgh. Polished mahogany store box (corked top and bottom), hook and eye, 24 X 18 X 4J, to exchange for facsimiles of seals and medals in any substance. — Tunley, Albert Road, Southsea. Duplicates : Lithoxylea, Carpini, Dispar (bred), Valligera, Graminis, Gamma (bred), Meticulosa (bred), Semele, &c. Desiderata: Antiopa (Continental), Agestis, .lEsculi, Irrorella, Complanula, Unguicula, Spinula, Serena, Punctulata, Luteata, Incanaria, Aversaria, Galeata, Gracilis, Libatrix, &c. — J. Smith, Kilwinning, Ayrshire. Wanted, unmounted, histological, pathological, and botani- cal sections, either stained or not ; also parts of insects, forami- nifera, diatoms, spicules of gorgoniae, sections of horns and hoofs, &c. ; also well-mounted slides of the rarer chemicals, such as platino-cyanide of magnesium, chloride of palladium, thalliums alts, &c. First-class slides in exchange. — Frederick Martin, Clevedon. Will exchange " Insect Architecture " and "The Architec- ture of Birds," both well bound, for Rye's " Beetles." Also, duplicates: Salacis, Sambucatae, Repandata, Pusaria, Amataria, Elutata, Spinula, Batis, Perla, Viminalis, Chrysitis. Deside- rata: Aglaia, Selene, Artemis, Athalia, Tages, Tristata, Circel- lata, Porata, Trilinearia, Omicronaria, Villica, Mendia. — J. Bates, Orchard Terrace, Wellingborough. Fok exchange, British land and freshwater shells, about 20 species, for others or fossils. — Send lists to A. H. Shepherd, 4 Cathcart Street, Kentish Town, N.W. For exchange, over 160 foreign stamp=, all different. What offers in marine or land and freshwater shells, named beetles, dragon flies, Ichneumons, Diptera, &c. ? Accepted offers answered only. — P. T. Deakin, 46 Princess Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. Wanted, a few sea anemones and madrepores for an aqua- rium.— J. R. Murdoch, 24 Blenheim Place, Leeds. Wanted, lantern slides. Exchange, micro slides, material, intensity coil, &c. — F. S. Lyddon, 2 Oakland Villas, Redland, Bristol. Exotic Lepidoptera — Duplicates : Orn. minos, Papilio arc- turns, fine; Capaneus, fine; Merope, Nereis sescstris ; Doli- caon, fair ; Minctra gambrisius, fine ; Eurycus cressida, fair; Amauris Damocles, Heb. glaucippe, Diadema. bolina, Danais alcippvs ; Urania rhipheus, fine ; Morpho cypris, fine ; Ama- thonte, fair ; also many others. Desiderata (exotic lepidoptera only), very numerous ; please send lists. Wanted particularly, to lend, or keep, exotic butterflies in papers (need not be quite perfect) of the genus Papilio, for the purpose of figuring from nature in water-colours, with a view to a monograph of the genus ; 150 species already figured ; list of those figured sent on application. — J. C. Hudson, Railway Terrace, Cross Lane, near Manchester. Will any reader kindly help me in forming a collection of igneous and metamorphic rocks, named or labelled ? Any fossils would be thankfully received. I fear I cannot offer equivalent exchange ; would fresh boianical specimens be of use? — Heary Dobbie, Cringleford, Norwich. Wanted, Cassell's " European Butterflies and Moths," any parts between 16 and 41 ; will exchange insects, flower seeds, &c. — Robert Laddiman, Hellesdon Road, Norwich. Fossils, a series of splendid specimens of Upper Silurian, including many Trilobites, Encrinites, &c, given in exchange for a good cabinet. State dimensions to F., 106 Finch Road, Handsworth, Birmingham. Wanted, lichens, mounted or unmounted ; also a first-class section-cutter; liberal exchange in slides or material. — Arthur J. Doherty, 25 Boston Street, Moss Side, Manchester. Good mounted slides of selected diatoms, Arachnoidiscus Ehrenbergii, Heliopelta Melii, Triccratumfavits, Pleurosigma attcnuatum, P. qttadratitm, Strigosum angulatum, &c, for good gatherings of P.formosum, good sponge spicula, or offers. — W. White, 7 Warden Place, Nottingham. Twenty-five North American skins, including sparrowhawk, pigeonhawk, rail, red-headed woodpecker, pine, grosbeak, &c, to exchange for side-blown eggs, either British or foreign. — George A. Widdas, Wbodsley View, Leeds. British Mosses. — Wanted, south of England species in return for Alpine and sub-Alpine. — J. Cash, Osborne Road, Levenshulme, Manchester. New edition of Davis's "Practical Microscopy," not soiled, for well-mounted slides of micro fungi ; also good mesozoic fossils for well-mounted geological slides. — George Ward, 10 Friar Lane, Leicester. Wanted, a one-eighth or one-tenth inch objective ; also, specimens of edible frog, crayfish, freshwater mussel, hydra, amoeba, and chara. — T. W. Lockwood, Lobley Street, Heck- mondwike, Yorkshire. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. " Siberia in Asia." By Henry Seebohm. London : John Murray. '' Zoological Notes." By Arthur Nicols. London : L. Upcott Gill. " The Sun, its Planets and their Satellites." London : Edward Stanford. "Water and its Teaching." By C. L. Morgen. London: Edward Stanford. "A Picture-book of Country Life." By James Weston. London : T. Fisher Unwin. "Footprints." By Sarah Tytler. London : T. Fisher Unwin. "Studies in Microscopical Science." Edited by A. C. Cole. Nos. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32. " Land and Water." \ "The Naturalists' Monthly." "Midland Naturalist." " Northern Microscopist." " American Naturalist." " Cosmos : les Mondes." "La Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes." " Le Monde de la Science." &c. &c. &c. Communications received up to i;th ult. from : — J. F. R.— C. P.-Dr. C. C. A.-F. R.— A. O.-J. E. S.— W. W. W.-C. J. M.— G. E. M.— C. T. M.— W. B.— F. H. P. — F. R. M.— G. J. W.— C. S— M. B.— F. H.— W. E. C— A. B.— S. C. C— A. W.- J. S— A. T.— G. F. W.-F. H. P.— J. T.-E. T.— J. R. M. — A. W. P.— C. H. M.— J. M.— W. H. T.— F. M. H.— W. T. C— R. McA.— W. T- G— J. R. P.— W. H. G.— E. T. R.-E. H. R.-J. S.-H. W. L.- J. E. T.-C. H. B— W. A. H.— R. C. P.— A. E. L.— A. H. W. -C. F. G.— H. C. B.-J. D. B.— E. H. B.-G. H. K.— F. M. —J. B.-A. J. — K. O. N.— A. H. S.— C. H. G.— J. A. S.— P. T. D.— W. T. S.— R. C— J. H.-C. L. W.— H. D— E. S. E. J. B.-F. S. L.— R. H.— E. P. D.—R. L.-G. B.— T.G. F. — M. L.— A. J. D.— W. W.-J. C. T.— J. C— G. A. W.— G. E. B.— G. W.— A. H. B.-W. F., jun.— J. B.— T.W. L.— G. H. K— &c. HARDWJCKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 25 AN INQUIRY INTO THE ALLEGED HABIT OF HIBER- NATION AMONG NORTH AMERICAN SWALLOWS. By CHARLES C. ABBOTT, M.D. [Continued from page 3.] tf-E ML. ONTINUING our consideration of these bank -swal- lows, let us now pass to the time of their annual dis- appearance, late in autumn, or at the onset of winter. Two conditions cause the change of locale, or, at least, the disap- pearance f r o m their summer haunts ; a much lower temperature, and absence of insects, their only food. Now, the onset of , severe frosts may be early in October, or delayed until November, but this alone does not decide the move- ments of the swallows ; for often they have wholly disappeared before October) and . then a year may pass, "with flitting swallows skimming o'er the lea, undaunted by the chill November fogs. The sup- posed regularity of their comings and goings is not applicable to their New Jersey haunts, howsoever it may be in more northern localities.' "What therefore I have seen of their movements in autumn, that has possible bearing upon alleged hiber- nation, is this : First, the effect of age. Now, it is as evident as that birds'grow old, that, in due course of time, these migratory swallows will reach that condition of decrepitude when they can make their migratory journey from south to north, or 'vice versa, for the last time.' In such case, there must necessarily be a large number that are left behind,' when the main body depart each year, unless it can No. 218.— February 1SS3. be shown that these age-worn birds die in the course of the summer at the north, or during their winter sojourn in the south. Both statements are true. The result of a summer's study of a colony of bank swallows, revealed the fact that a number of old unpaired swallows flitted feebly about the bluff, but never appeared to wander far from it. They were seen, often sitting at the openings of the nests in the cliff, and were taken for young birds. They were not fed by old birds, having young to look after, and fared scantily on such insects as they caught by their own exertions. Early in August I found many lying dead, both in the burrowings and at the foot of the cliff. Examination proved that all were old birds. In autumn, about October 1, the main body of the colony largely frequent the weedy marshes, and seem to be for ever on the wing, insect-catching, as they move in an endless labyrinth of curves over the quiet waters. I have seen thousands of them thus engaged, and far from their nesting haunts. ' Occasionally they would alight upon tall reeds and objects projecting above the water, and twitter without ceasing. Theri as by a signal, these thousands would rise together from their resting places, and rising to an unusual elevation fly away, to' return no more that season. These birds were associated colonies on the southern migration; but were' the sunny cliffs that so lately were' teeming' with : happy swallow-life now wholly deserted? Was there no trace of 'the many families that had here' spent a joyous, gleesome summer V Yes! There were' still a few. The lame, the weak, the blind, and the unburied dead of that avian city still remained ; and what a mournful spectacle they offered ! painfully so in themselves,' and the more' impressive when the thoughtless, glittering throng of a few days past was vividly recalled. Cheered for the time by the mellow sunlight that beamed upon them, the aged, half-helpless swallows, whose wing still responded to the will of their owners, languidly chased the few remaining insects flitting c 26 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. over the weedy waters. Others venturing less far, caught, with what skill they could command, the chilled and drooping flies that sought refuge from the cold winds, in these safe, snug harbours in the cliff. Indeed, this shelter-seeking flight of insect-life, that now teems about these deserted nests of the departed swallows, proves a veritable godsend to those poor birds that, from whatsoever cause, are fated to remain — a blessing, if it be one to prolong a joyless existence during a few brief weeks in autumn. But the importance of this sad phase of swallow-life as bearing upon our subject remains to be stated. Not- withstanding their weakness, the desire or instinct to migrate still remains, and when more pressed than usual by sudden accession of cold, or scarcity of food, numbers of such as remain will collect, as of yore, on the rushes and reeds about the water, and often essay to commence their protracted flight towards their winter haunts. Many straggling swal- lows doubtless wander miles before finally succumb- ing to the weakness of age, but never wandering far from water ; migrating in their accustomed course, which is always coastwise, down a river valley, when they finally stop to rest. When their course is finished they are found in the track of the hardy multitude that have passed successfully onward ; and, yielding to the severity of the increasing cold, they find watery graves beneath the nodding plumes of the russet grasses over which, in days gone by, they had flitted without fatigue, thoughtless of the morrow. Such swallows I have seen, year after year, and to them do I refer those that were said, by Dr. Wal- lerius, to have assembled on a reed "till they were all immersed, and went to the bottom ; this being preceded by a dirge of a quarter of an hour's length." Explicable, therefore, as I consider the movements of swallows to be, in so far as these might give the impression of hibernation beneath the water, it is not by the same observations that I have here re- corded, that the asserted finding of torpid swallows, during the winter encased in mud, can be explained. The mere finding of swallows in the mud, is, of itself, nothing strange, although the chances of their escaping the attacks of the turtles and carnivorous fishes, is very small ; but to find them alive, in such positions, is a different matter, and at once recalls the probability of the assertion that I have ques- tioned, that it is physically and physiologically feasible for swallows to lie dormant under water. If so, some great constitutional change must take place, for swallows, throughout the summer, are readily drowned, if held for even a minute under water ; and if their plumage is well soaked by re- peated immersions, they are helpless, until thoroughly dry again. The structure of their feathers, further- more, is wholly unlike that of aquatic birds, and therefore cannot resist the pervading action of the water, as do the oily, close-set feathers of the ducks and divers. Again, if torpid swallows are encased in mud, beneath a considerable depth of water, by what means can the reviving influence of returning spring influence them ? Whether warm or cold, mid-winter or genial April days, the mud at the bottoms of our ponds is of nearly uniform temperature, and certainly does not vary so much, as to start, by added warmth, the life-pulses of swallows that for five or six long months have ceased to beat ; and why should these unfortunates remain thus beneath chilled and often ice-locked waters, when in the mellow sunshine above it, other and wiser swallows of their kind flit and twitter as of yore, having happily chosen migration rather than submergence ? But the testimony on this point is too explicit to warrant one's belief that these witnesses could have been in error. To show how readily people can be mistaken, let me state a case : — A. B. has testified on oath as follows : " Early in April, 1836, as I was passing on foot down the Bordentown road, near the drawbridge, I heard a loud hissing in the bushes at my left, and turning my head, saw a large, checkered, black and white snake. It held its head well up, and darted its tongue at me. I was a good deal frightened and turned and ran, as I had heard of hoop-snakes, and found I was chased by this snake and that it was one. Luckily, I was running down hill, and covered the ground pretty lively. Near the bridge, I jumped behind a cedar tree, and the snake passed me. It had its tail in its mouth, and rolled along like a child's hoop, only a great deal faster. It turned off at the creek, and rolled into Crosswick's Creek, and then uncoiled, and swam like any other snake." Now in this statement, made in good faith by a conscientious man,; there is a curious admixture of truth and misconception. Mr. A. B. admits that he has heard of hoop-snakes, and as they are reputed to be more deadly than veritable rattle-snakes or copper-heads, it is very natural for such a person to see, not simply think he sees, a snake take its tail in its mouth and roll, hoop-like, down the sandy road. This impression is always the more vivid, when the snake happens to take the [same direction in which the poor frightened person may happen to flee. Now, if people are taught to expect to encounter any given form of dangerous animal, in any neighbourhood, when any creature having the similitude of this mythical foe to humanity is seen, it is promptly endowed, by the frightened unfortunate, with all these direful attributes, and his distorted vision converts into horrible monstrosities, and detects impossible capers on the part of, a harmless and inoffensive creature. Now, I have taken the trouble to question a certain class of people concerning this hoop-snake, and I find it is firmly believed in by hundreds, who affirm that they, their parents, or some one of their friends had seen them, been chased by them, or had indirectly HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS IP. 27 captured them, by suddenly darting behind a tree, when the snake would uncoil, and striking its tail into the tree, would be held by it, and when in this position would be killed by the person pursued. Now, all of these statements are just as explicit as the finding of dormant swallows in the mud ; yet one and all are absolutely false. If, therefore, the impression is made on the minds of the young people of any community that swallows hibernate in the mud, it will be difficult to rid them of the idea that any swallow that may be found in, or even near water, is not indicative of their early teaching's truth, that swallows do really pass the winter in such a manner. Is this more unreasonable than that the belief in hoop-snakes should be so common, even among other- wise well-informed people ? If we cannot explain this impression that swallows hibernate in mud, and beneath water too, in some such manner as I have endeavoured to make plain, there is left but one other alternative, to exclaim, in despair, "Lord! Lord ! How this world is given to lying." Let us turn now to a less abundant, but no less interesting species, the cliff swallow. This bird, instead of burrowing into a bank, builds an elaborate nest of mud under the eaves of barns, along rocky ledges, and, in New Jersey more frequently than else- where, on the beams supporting the floors of bridges. Proximity to the water is desirable, evidently, but is not an essential condition of the locality chosen for their nests. As in the case of the bank swallow, these swallows live in large communities, and present much the same general features of swallow-life. The peculiarity of their nest, in being made of mud, of course necessitates frequent visits to water, whence they derive this material for their nests. Now, unlike the bank swallow, the cliff swallow is a late arrival, and no sooner here, tired as he must be, than he commences the work of nest building de novo, or of repairs to the old homestead. In either case one thing is absolutely necessary ; he must dabble in the mud. Day in and day out, for a week or more, his whole time seems spent in mixing mortar by the water's edge, and transporting it in little bits to the nest. He is wet and bedraggled much of the time ; and if a cold north-easterly rain sets in, as is so often the case the first week in May, then these swallows are in a sorry plight indeed, and suspend- ing building operations, huddle about in thickset numbers, twittering mournfully, on the principle that misery loves company. Such storms even some- times prove fatal to many of them ; and they are more frequently found dead near their nests, than are individuals of any other species. Find them then during a storm, or even notice them, for the first time, when they are sitting on the ground at the water's edge, dripping wet at times, and the impres- sion you will have will be that of Kalm, that they look " as if they had been just come out of, the sea." This impression too is increased from the fact that there are no heralds of the northward moving mass of swallows of this kind. One and all, they come together. Yesterday, not one was to be seen ; to-day, the entire community are settled in their old haunts, and ready for house-keeping. Their migrations are continued through the night, and either by starlight or moonlight, as the case may be, they are guided to their several haunts of the preceding summer. I am very positive that they arrive during the night, and I lay unusual emphasis on this fact ; because J:he ap- pearance of such a flight of swallows the morning following their arrival would be one to give an im- pression of aquatic hibernation, if such an idea had ever been expressed in your hearing. Not the entire colony will immediately seek the nests of the past summer ; there will be many young birds who have as yet not built nests, birds yet to choose their mates. Now such birds will sit in long rows on telegraph wires, on fences ; and if it be near, be very sure that they will congregate about the water. Seen, thus congregated about a pond early in the morning, perhaps after a heavy dew, and you can readily see that they will be "as wet as if they had been just come out of the sea ! " [To be continued.) NOTES FOR SCIENCE CLASSES. Part V. OUR next example is to study the form and structure of laticiferous vessels which may be detected in all the papaveraceous plants, as well as in Euphorbiaceoe, and in many Composite. The specimen from which the illustration is taken is the greater celandine [Chettdonium ma/us), a very com- mon species found just outside villages and around the hedges of old-fashioned gardens. Not unfre- quently sections of the petiole and stem are made on purpose to find the laticiferous vessels, but it often ends in failure, from the mere fact that the latex runs out of the vessel speedily when ruptured, so it becomes difficult to trace successfully. By far the better plan is to tear off the young sepals, laying them on the slide, with a drop of water, then placing on the cover slip, examine it as quickly as possible for the vessels along the outer margin ; ' they are readily recognised by the yellow juice. (Fig. 29. No. 1, margin of sep, ; 2, laticiferous vessel ; 3, -cellular tissue.)1 Laticiferous vessels are simple or branched tubes, frequently :tlni ted into a more or less close network, as may be se,en in the lettuce leaf. The coloured fluid is known as latex, which is valuable in many cases, -as yielding gums and resins (opium, india- rubber, Sec.) They occur in a comparatively small number of plants, usually in the cortex, between the xylerii and bast cells, sometimes in the outer bar c 2 28 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. and pith, they accompany the fibro-vascular bundles into the leaves. Laticiferous vessels are distinguished from vessels containing raphides only by the absence of these crystals. (See fig. 25, raphides from stem of Trades- eantia. No. I, the crystals, or raphides.) These vessels are detected in the outer bark, also in the leaves of many Monocotyledons. A beautiful speci- men may be obtained from the decaying petiole of the rhubarb, mounted as an opaque polariscopic object. The crystals of oxalate of lime are really magnificent, when exhibited by an artificial light. Whilst we have the Trade scantia Virginiea, a plant termed rotation, as in Chara or Valisneria ; less often, as in the filaments of Tradescantia, it passes in threads and bands transversely through the cell-sap, and is then termed circulation. The currents are apparently irregular, sometimes suddenly arrested, then commencing again with greater rapidity. The old term spongiole, as applied to the growing point of the rootlet, is now expunged from our modern text-books ; still the student should learn to distinguish the root-cap, especially its form and com- position. The essential peculiarity in the roots of all Dicotyledons, is the root-cap. (See fig. 26, root-cap of Pontederia. I is the root-cap ; 2, growing-point, fig. 25. — Raphides in stem of .r Tradescantia. Fig. 36. — Root-cap of Pontederia. Fig. 27. — Pollen-tube of the Evening Primrose. Fig. 28.— Circulation of Protoplasm in Tradescantia. found commonly in cottage gardens, under examina- tion, it would be well to bring before the student the circulation of protoplasm observed in the hairs on the .filament (fig, 28).' ■ It is only requisite to cut off the hairs from.a.flower just expanding with the razor,' and place it with a drop of water on the slide j^the deep-pink cell ; walls' are sufficient .to. bring .out clearly the cell contents, without any staining-fluid. 1 is the cell-wall; 2, the. vacuole:; , and. 3, the proto- plasm in active motion, .moving around the vacuole. The protoplasm .which .'is .enclosed in 'a cell .wall has no power of escaping -from its envelope. The course of the current is usually along the Wall, and., in simple spiral or reticulate lines, and is then and 3, young root, composed of cellular tissue.) Beneath this root-cap, as it is termed, the production of new cells continues, whilst the cap itself acts as a protecting shield to the root. As many village students will be unable to procure the pontederia, the duckweed (Lem/ia. minor). will equally well ex- plain its nature and structure. , About the best, specimen with which .we are acquainted for exhibiting the pollen-tube, is the. evening primrose (Oenothera biennis). , Secure a flower early. in the morning, when it has just begun to droop ; for the petals are only open one evening ; and having cut away the stamens^and petals, make a transverse section down the style ; this requires a HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 29 little patience and practice to do it successfully. Lay the style along the first finger of the left hand, holding the ovary firmly by the thumb, then gently push the razor blade from you, towards the tip of the finger. I seldom fail in this way to secure satis- factory specimens for my class use. (See fig. 27. 1 is the pollen-grain ; 2, pollen tube ; 3, stigmatic surface, and 4, conducting tissue of the style.), When the pollen falls upon the stigma, it is excited by the viscid fluid exuded by the stigmatic surface, Fig. 29. — Laticiferous it then puts out one or more pollen tubes (2) which are unicellular and usually simple. These penetrate through the conducting tissue (4) of the style, and reach the interior of the cavity of the ovary in a few hours. Of the numerous pollen tubes which as a rule reach the ovary, one only penetrates through the micropyle, and reaches the embryo-sac ; at the apex of the embryo-sac, the pollen tube comes into contact with the embryonic vesicles, and fertilises them. "Vide Suspensor, in Part III. J. F. R. THE DANISH FOREST. By John Wager. II. — The Forest in Former Times. CHANGES in the forests of Denmark did not cease with the completed formation of the peat-mosses, but continued, and still continue to take place, both as regards constituency and extent, and through the agency of nature, as well as that of man. " Den danske Stat," by Ersler, contains a map showing the distribution of forest over Holstein, Slesvig, Jutland and the Danish Isles at the present day ; from which it may be perceived that the Danish islands are in general well-wooded, and that forest extends with varied density along the whole extent of the eastern coast of the peninsula from the south of Holstein, through Slesvig, and the greater part of Jutland ; becoming sparser, however, towards the watershed, and almost entirely disappearing on the western side of it, quite to the sea — isolated plots of wood being visible only in a few places here and there. The trees, too, are as strikingly different in point of size as the woods in extent ; on the west coast having a stunted growth of from two to four feet in height, and only in a few places attaining to twenty feet ; while on the east coast and the islands there are trees one hundred or one hundred and twenty feet high, with proportionate amplitude of bole. The west side too is flat, as well as treeless .- a plain of heath, or pasture and cornland intersected with dike fences, from the top of which at dreary intervals a crippled old thorn crouches prone before the pitiless western wind ; varied only along the coast by the peaked and ridged sand-hills, which stretch, like miniature Alps, in long parallel with the sea. But the wooded eastern shores present a constant variety of gentle hills and dales and rising grounds, very pleasant and picturesque in their own- quiet way, forming tree-crested banks and promon- tories, and grassy slopes, upon the ever-recurring bays, inlets and fjords, which indent the irregular coast. Such agreeable combination of water with wooded hills may be seen in the Veile-fjord; and yet more picturesque is the wooded scenery of Greisdal, between Veile and Greis Mill. The valley which is deeper and narrower than usual in Denmarl ,. winds among hills composed of gravel and rounded boulders, but nevertheless bold in contour and charmingly overgrown with beechwoods, which descend into the valley and cluster about a stream with, at least intermittingly, a brisk and lively course. Cottages with timber-framed walls and thatched roofs nestle by its side, and here and there the valley opens into green spaces of meadow and corn. But the western side, now so thoroughly denuded that some of its inhabitants have lived and died without seeing a lofty and well-grown tree, had formerly its great extensions of forest also, which have disappeared partly through the destructive operations of war, and partly through improvident cutting down. The great forests of Fuur and Sailing on the Liimfjord were destroyed during the wars of 1657-60 ; those of Thisted and Ringkjobing shared a similar fate ; and in 1559, when the Danes finally subdued the Ditmar- shens, they cut down a large forest which then extended over the present Ditmarsh Heath. A similar contrast is exhibited to the voyager as he sails alternately along the eastern and the western coasts of Sweden ; on the eastern side his eye ranges with delight over innumerable islands and islets beautifully studded with pine-trees ; on the western side it is everywhere chilled by thronging masses of bleak and barren rock ; and the Swedes, who tell you that these also once rose in beauty out of the sea, 3° HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. attribute their present nakedness to the war-fires of the Danes. The traveller will remember that the Grecian islands, which in classic times were richly wooded, have suffered a corresponding denudation. Turning now to the pages of Vaupell, we are made acquainted with changes which other causes have induced. Simultaneously with improvements in agriculture, which began about a century ago, the uncultivated forest has developed itself with a luxuriance before unknown ; and along with this richer growth, many phenomena in the life and mutual relation of the trees have conspicuously presented themselves to view. Young beechwoods are suppressing the ancient progeny of oaks ; alder- mosses, which for centuries enjoyed exuberance of health, have been seized with such mortality, that Lolland, once proud of its alder-mosses, as the best of cattle-pastures, can now scarcely supply alder for a pair of wooden shoes, while ash, on the contrary, extends itself and usurps the decayed stumps. Aspen, formerly common in openings of the woods, becomes rarer every day. But most remarkable is the density, scarcely conceivable for Denmark's soil and climate, which the more fertile forests have attained. In the former century, it was greatly complained that some of the woods had been quite uphewn ; that others had become miserably thin and open, grass widely extending, and trees disappearing ; while now the case is reversed, young beeches are supplanting the grass. Formerly a proprietor only felled a tree when needed for himself or his dependants, and when trees were removed it frequently happened that none grew in their place ; now the beechwoods usually grow so rank that they must be thinned, and timber also is felled for sale. This change is attributable to the allotment of lands, and the abolition of the common-rights of forest-pasturage in 1805. The aim of his work being in part to show how trees multiply and mature them- selves when freed from cattle, before treating of the present state of the Danish forest, Dr. Vaupell glances at its treatment in former times, that it may be seen how pasturage came to exert so great an influence on the rankness of its growths, and on the extension and form of the trees. In earlier times mast, not timber, was the most valued product of the forest ; acorns and beech-nuts supplied nourishing food for large herds of swine, such as may yet be seen in the great oak forests of Servia ; and when Gilpin wrote, they might be seen on a lesser scale, in our own New Forest, munching acorns with approving grunts, and on the sounding of the swineherd's primitive horn, rushing home, with many a squeal, to supper and bed. For centuries the flesh of swine was in most parts of Europe the most common and esteemed of animal food ; doubt- less Gurth and Wamba in old Sherwood enjoyed many a rasher of bacon of their own feeding ; and though Friar Tuck preferred to fatten on venison pasty, a brother monk of Denmark, quoted by Vaupell, thus expresses, in the language he held sacred, his devout affection for pork : "Sine carne suilla non est vita; si est, non est ita." " There is no life sans flesh of swine, Or if there is, it is not mine." Jonge, another Dane, remarks that of all "meat- wares, nothing is dearer to the Zealand peasant than bacon ; he could without tiring eat the rank fat to every meal." Heaven itself, without bacon, would have been no heaven to the old Scandinavians ; every day in the grand hall of Valhalla, countless heroes who had died in battle, after enjoying the invigorating exercise of morning's fight, with boundless slaughter and reslaying of the slain, sat down, no worse for the fray, to a hugh feast of this delectable dish, which came, smoking and savoury upon the board. During the Middle Ages the Danish peasants pastured their swine not only in the woods pertaining to their respective communities, but also in the great unappropriated boundary forests ; holding that these were commonalities, and that they had the right, not only of pasturage there, but also of cutting firewood and timber. Canute the Great was one of the first kings who began to dispute these claims ; and much strife between prince and peasant ensued. But by the end of the Middle Ages, through the growing power of the nobles, the peasant had sunk from the position of owner of the land he cultivated to that of mere tenant. No peasant, but only the nobles and the Crown, might own forest ; yet the peasants retained the .right of sending their cattle into the so-called common-forests ; a practice which continued till near the beginning of the present century, with great increase of usage since the peasants had ceased to be proprietors, and consequently with increased detri- ment to the forest growths. As in the Middle Ages, so, during the period of privileged country seats (16th, 17th, iSth centuries), mast continued to be the forest's most important _ product ; and not only neighbouring peasants, but many far distant towns and villages sent swine to the great forests. For instance, every autumn, when " Lash'd by furious squalls, Bright from their cups the rattling treasure falls," Lubeck and Hamburg sent droves of swine to the forests of Holstein, and even of Slesvig, there to grunt and grow fat. The payment per head raised a considerable revenue, in consideration of which the Crown had been induced to appropriate the great forests and deprive the peasants of the right of free pasturage within them they had formerly enjoyed. What swinish multitudes munched and crunched, and grubbed, and grunted under the oaks and beeches of these great old forests, may be learnt from Rantzan, who tells that in 1590, which appears to have been a good year for mast, 63,000 swine fed in six of the HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 3i Danish forests, from 4000 to 19,000 in each ; while in a moderately fruitful season the forests of Gottorp, in Slesvig, could supply provender for 30,000 of these unclean creatures, whose gluttonous appetites were thus rendered greatly subservient to the carnal desires of mankind. Swine do not, however, like other cattle in general, injure the forest, cropping the sprouting trees only when mast is scarce ; moreover, they plough and sow, as well as reap, burying acorns and beechnuts, and also destroying nests of mice, which are amongst the worst of the forest plagues. Exception was there- fore made in their favour, when the mast was ripe, by several forest-ordinances which forbid the pasturing of cattle in the forest ; as by that of 1S05. The cutting down of beech, oak, and hazel, as trees which bore mast, was also forbidden. Of all domestic cattle, goats are the most in- jurious to the forest, having as strong a predilection for branches and young trees as fcr grass. Large flocks of them were formerly kept ; and despite the passing of several ordinances in the fifteenth century and afterwards, their complete exclusion from the forest was not effected till the middle of the sixteenth. Deer, however, thereupon increased all the more, so that the booty secured at a royal hunt, August 1593, amounted to 1600 harts, besides a great number of calves, roes, hares, and foxes. It has always been customary for the Danish peasants to pasture their horses, as well as cows and sheep, in the forest ; and horses, by tearing off the branches, and top shoots of trees, damage the forest far more than cows. During the Middle Ages studs ran wild in several districts ; and subsequently the peasants, from old wont, took a pride in owning more horses than they had any real use for ; and pasturage costing nothing, the number of their horses greatly exceeded that of the royal studs. The custom continued down to the allotment of the commons ; in the severe winter of 1S02-3, flocks of small, hardy animals, belonging to the peasants of North Zealand ranged the forests there, scraping the withered giass from under the ice and snow, and eating the tops of young trees. Winter fodder being exhausted, the peasants turned their cattle into the forest in early spring before the grass had grown ; consequently they cropped the budding twigs and top-shoots of trees and shrubs, thereby greatly affecting the rankness, and the form and sanity of its growths. In many places underwood disappeared from amidst the oaks, and both oak and beech and other trees assumed abnormal forms in consequence of the treatment they received. The oak, however, is so tenacious of life that it can bear ill- usage with much more impunity than the beech ; if its top-shoot is bit off for twenty years in succession the young tree will persistently strike forth another, and larger, every spring. But the beech, though very patient under bovine or equine oppression, is more peculiarly affected by it ; transforming itself when repeatedly cropped into a low tree or bush, with short, out-spreading branches and twigs, which bear numerous leaves ; thus bearing, in some cases, a resemblance to a clipped yew, but forming, if libe- rated from dental interference, a low-stemmed many- branched tree. The oak more rarely assumes this form, and then, in general, only upon the old stub after a tree has been felled. Though cattle gnaw both oak and beech, and perhaps prefer oak leaves to beech, yet they injure the beech most. Open positions and wide grassy spaces are not particularly hurtful to oak, but beech- woods can neither thrive well on greensward nor in an open position. Besides, the cattle protect the oak by consuming the springing beech-plants, which in time, when luxuriant, have usually power to injure most oaks. A muster which took place in one of the forests of about a thousand acres in July 1722, shows how numerously they were grazed ; the number of the various domestic cattle it was found to contain amounting to 131 horses, 109 neat, 140 swine and 93 young pigs. Cattle that are sent from open pastures into wet forests are apt to be seized with a sickness caused by eating the grass, which often ends in death ; but it does not affect those which are brought up there. The Danish kings in general have been great lovers of sport, and consequently stocked the forests with numerous game ; Christian IV., on a journey from Copenhagen to Horsholm, killed twelve harts with his own hand. Many of the nobles and gentry over- stocked their forests in the same way. Royal studs and the timber axe also conjoined with the wasteful grazing on the common rights of the peasants to impoverish the forests ; which moreover in earlier times had been greatly diminished in area, and were in danger of becoming mere pasture-lands or arable fields. But the mischief had begun to be seen and felt too ; scarcity of timber and firewood became subject of complaint, and a fear lest the land should lose its forests altogether was expressed. In answer to a Government circular issued to the country magistrates in 1760, the mischief was attributed chiefly to the reckless manner in which the peasants exercised their communal rights ; over-stocking with all manner of cattle, and at unseasonable times, cutting promiscuous wood for fences and withy bands to bind the cattle, at any season, with no regard for future growth, and thus yearly destroying thousands of sapling oaks, ash and other trees. It was not, however, until 1805 that Government prohibited common grazing in the forests ; stating in a short preamble to the enactment that experience had shown the greatly deteriorating effect upon the forests of fellowship, and also that another cause of deteriora- tion consisted in the improvident felling of timber, especially since the sale of the timber had become a chief speculation in the purchase of landed property. It was therefore ordained that all fellowship in HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. forests must cease, and the allotment be affected by the 31st of December, 1810 ; that all forests must be protected, and therefore fenced ; and no cattle, except swine, be allowed to graze therein, nor any mowing under the trees take place. That, as the cutting down of forest ought not to be the chief speculation in the purchase of landed property, no one who by purchase becomes ownerof a forest, may during the first ten years fell for sale in the same, unless the Revenue Chamber, after inspection, has decided that the felling will not be injurious. Having seen the wretched condition of the Danish forest consequent on the prolonged mistreatment which the enactment of 1805 brought to an end, it has now to be shown how the trees, freed from oppression of the cattle, enjoyed without hindrance the bounty of nature and flourished with a vigour before unknown. OBSERVATIONS ON CLEAVAGE. IN text-books on geology, cleavage is usually represented as running in a number of straight and parallel lines in masses of rock extending through large districts. The beds are drawn folded in different directions, but the cleavage-planes are uniform in dip, and therefore cut the beds at all angles. When viewed in a large scale the parallelism of cleavage is remarkable, and, in small sections, is rightly represented as a number of parallel straight lines, but when we come to examine these planes closely local variations are by no means infrequent. Taking into consideration the diversity of the physical and chemical composition of rock masses, it would be indeed surprising if the cleavage-planes passed through such masses in straight and undeviating parallel lines. Such a condition is theoretically possible in a perfectly homogeneous rock, and hence the more homogeneous the nature of a rock mass the fewer deviations there will be in the direction of the cleavage-planes running through it. Rocks exhibit- ing cleavage being composed of beds of very different hardness, the planes will be bent when passing from a hard bed to a soft bed or vice versA. But the refracted planes preserve their parallelism, Now if we find one set of cleavage-planes passing through hard and soft beds, forming acute angles with another set passing through the same beds a little distance off, we may conclude there has been a local variation in the direction of the force which has produced. the cleavage. Let us assume, for the sake of simplicity, that the force has been mechanical pressure only. The result of this pressure, long continued, has in many cases been (1) the folding of the beds into anticlinal and synclinal curves, and (2) the production of cleavage-planes perpendicular to the pressure forces. We will now consider only the refraction of cleavage- planes produced by the very varying degrees of hard- ness of rocks, leaving evidences of local variation in the pressure-forces for another paper. We have an instructive example of refraction figured in Science-Gossip for November 1S81 (figs. 144, 145, p. 245) ; here is another, taken from the same district, Geol. Surv. Gt. Brit. 57 N.E. In the S.E. corner of the sheet some yellow dots represent Lower Llandovery rocks, consisting of " sandstones and slates," or b*. Our example occurs in a beautiful valley, on one side of which is situated the farm marked Paut-y-Pedwen on the one-inch map. In the quarter-sheet the beds are shown dipping E. Those represented in fig. 30 dip 720 E., and consist of alternate hard and soft bands. The cleavage-planes of the two sets of beds actually dip at opposite points of the compass. The bed 1 is nine inches thick, and consists of hard silicious clay-slate. The cleavage- planes in it dip 68° W., or form an angle of 400 with the beds, and are of irregular character. The bed 2 is similar to 1, but somewhat thicker ; the cleavage- planes running through it are parallel to I. The layers or lamince, the result of the cleavage, are roughly T| inch thick. The beds a and /3 are very thin, consisting of a soft shaly rock ; the cleavage is moreover uniform, dipping 81 E. or forming an angle of9° with the beds. The lamince are T'a inch thick and less. Two, measured side by side, were only ^ inch ; this gives a thickness of only '03125 inch for each. The laminse are more- over very straight, although, as might be ex- pected, the planes occasionally run into each other. The clay slate of which they are composed is dark- coloured and very fine-grained. On the whole, these laminae present a marked contrast to the coarse, irregular, thick and light greyish ones of 1 and 2. Through a strong lens the beds 1 appear to consist of little irregular grains of quartz scattered through darker-coloured clay-slate. I was able to detect here and there minute specks of true pyrites, little brown patches of oxide of iron (probably the result of the decomposition of the pyrites), and thin plates of talc. In the beds 1 and 2 the latter are often quite large, and can be seen with the naked eye, they are colourless or greenish. The beds a and j3 appear to be of much the same composition, but the grain being very fine, a higher power must be used for their examination. There seems to be less quartz in these beds. There is no evidence to show us whether the cleavage-planes were propagated from E. to W., or from W. to E., nor is this important. We may assume, the strike of the beds and the anticlinal axes being directed about N.N.E. (true), that enormous pressure has been applied on the rock masses in a W.N.W. and E.S.E. direction, and therefore that the cleavage was produced simultaneously from N.N.E. and S.S.W. The important fact remains that the planes in passing from hard to soft, or from soft to hard beds were bent or refracted as much as3in. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. It should also be noted that in the hard beds the cleavage-planes cross the beds at large angles ; the line of least resistance of such beds would be 90° with the plane of the beds, whereas, in the soft beds, the cleavage forms acute angles with them. The line of least resistance of such beds is parallel to the original layers of the strata (compare also Science-Gossip, J-SSi, fig. 144). From these facts we may deduce silica (S.G. = 2"6) in 1 ? Although the densities are practically the same, there is a notable difference in the general hardness of the beds, which at once explains the refraction of the cleavage-planes. Referred to Mohs' scale H=4*5 (i.e. between fluor and apatite) in 1, and II = 2"5 (i.e. between rock- salt and calcite) in a. It must be borne in mind that the refraction of Fig- 3-- '=• 31- the following general law :— When cleavage-planes pass from a hard to a less hard rock the planes are bent away from the normal, or plane perpendicular, to the surface of the beds, but when they pass from a comparatively soft to a hard rock the planes are bent towards the normal. The phenomenon is in fact analogous to the physical law which rules the refraction of a ray of light, but we are not here dealing (as in the case with light) of media of vary- ing densities, for I carefully ascertained the specific gravities or densities of the beds 1 and a ; the former, or hard bed, was 2715, and the latter 2763. Hence the soft rock is actually rather more dense than the hard one. Is this owing to the greater proportion of r 1 >, \ 1 i J-— 1 _— J if 77//// \ 1 \ \ \ J 1 - 1. 1 ! 1 z? Fig. 3:. ' cleavage-planes is greatly complicated by the non- homogeneity of rocks, and by the frequent pressure of joints and vacant spaces in them. In the same neighbourhood some beds dipping 71 E., and striking N. 35 E. (magnetic) showed cleavage-planes in soft beds 83 E., and in thick hard beds 64 W., or a refraction of 330. The lines in the HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. latter are more irregular even than in I and 2 (see fig. 31), an evidence of still greater hardness, due probably to an increased percentage of silica. In the very quartzose beds of this district — the rocks as seen through a lens being largely composed of grains of quartz — the cleavage is still apparent, although very irregular, and passing through the beds perpen- dicularly, or at very high angles. Among other beds in this district, formed of much the same material as those described, but differently aggregated, we may particularise three : — (a.) Dark and very hard beds, exceedingly fine- grained ; the cleavage-planes are wider apart than in 1 and 2, one inch often intervening between two planes. S. G. 2'659. (b.) Hard beds the same as a, but coarse in texture. Brown patches numerous, and plainly visible to the naked eye. S.G. 2-688. (c.) Still coarser beds of a brownish- white tint. The grains of quartz are distinctly seen without a lens, and are opaque white, and non-crystallised. This rock is in reality a gritstone. The term "sand- stone" is not applicable to any beds described in this paper. Clay-slates gradually appear to merge into gritstones. A chemical and microscopic examination would no doubt reveal other interesting differences and peculiarities in the rocks of this district, but enough evidence has been adduced to prove that they have been metamorphosed, and in different degrees. The cleavage has clearly been formed after the metamor- phic action. S. G. 2"6c;5. The refraction of the cleavage-planes propagated through these beds appears to have depended, as has already been pointed out, not on the density of these rocks, but on their relative hardness. No doubt the hard and soft beds differ chemically as well as physically from each other ; the latter are less metamorphosed, and are therefore more argillaceous, or, in other words, less silicious than the harder beds. But the state of aggregation of the particles seems to have had less effect on the cleavage than one might have supposed ; e.g., the beds o and a are both very fine-grained and dark, but the cleavage- planes in the former are very oblique and packed exceedingly close together, whereas in the latter they form large angles with the beds, and are wide apart. As a matter of fact the beds a are much the harder, and are no doubt the more silicious of the two. I conceive it to be possible to calculate the relative hardness of two beds from the refraction of the cleavage-planes alone, but extended observations would be necessary in order to obtain a correct formula for the purpose. Further north, and quite outside the yellow dots marked on the one-inch map, or in the Bala (?) rocks, beds of very hard clay -slate often show no cleavage at all, while the soft beds exhibit it well. Fig. 32 is a typical instance. Indistinct lines of lamination are traceable in (/and e, whereas in/ these lines are entirely obliterated by the oblique cleavage-planes. But often, especially when the beds crop out, and have therefore been exposed to weathering action, the hard beds are broken up by almost vertical joints (fig. 33), which doubtless mark the direction of the cleavage-planes in these beds. It would be an interesting experiment to submit alternate layers of some hard and soft substance to great and mechanical pressure, not only to prove the refraction of the cleavage-planes, but also to show their regularity and distinctness in the soft layers, their many infections, and their vagueness in the hard ones. Professor Smith referred, some years ago, to the persistency of the westerly dip of the cleavage in Cardiganshire,* but we have seen that, in one portion of the district at least, this is true only with regard to the hard beds ; in the soft beds the cleavage dips E. at a higher angle than the beds. E. Halse, A.R.S.M. Since writing the above, I have ascertained the density and hardness of the beds a, and b, c, J, &c. (Science-Gossip, Nov. 1881, fig. 144), the result of which proves conclusively to my mind that the refraction of cleavage-planes is due not to the relative density, but to the relative hardness of rocks. The S.G. of a = 2*734, of b &c. = 2782, difference = 0*048, or exactly the same as the difference between the densities of the beds 1 and a. But the refraction in the former case is only 230, while in the latter it is as much as 310. Now the beds b, c, d, &c, are harder than the beds a, $ ; in the former H = 3, in the latter H = 2'5, while the hardness of the beds 1 and u are about the same. It would appear from these figures that the refraction is directly proportional to the difference between the hardness of the beds, Gi- ft ** , r ■ -o~=-T7-> where R = amount of refraction of one set of beds, and r of another set, and H the differ- ence in the hardness of one set, and h' of the other set. Substituting x for h\ we obtain the formula r' X H x — — — — , which, after ascertaining H and R in one set of beds, will enable us to obtain the difference in the hardness of any set of beds exhibiting refraction by merely measuring the amount of that refraction* But this law must not be considered as established until repeated observations in different districts have amply verified it. Since I last visited the slate-quarry a fresh section has been displayed ; a clinometer now showed the planes a dipping about 8o°, and the beds /', c, &c, about 550, which gives a refraction of 250. This shows that the beds vary in relative and absolute hardness at different points ; the irregular lines of the beds a and it are also evidences of variation in hard- ness. To ascertain then the mean refraction of the * '■ Memoirs of the Geological Survey," Vol. II., 1848. IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 35 cleavage-planes of any area, it would be necessary to make a repeated number of observations. I may mention that the beds, a, 1/, in grain are very like the bed a (fig. 30), but darker, and with brown patches visible to the naked eye. The cleavage-planes are nearly as wide apart as in a. The beds b, c, &c, appear very like the beds a, &, in composition and grain, but are less dark than the latter, and the cleavage-planes are wider apart. E. Halse. PRESERVING LEPIDOFTEROUS LARVAE BY INFLATION. By W. Finch, Tun. ALTHOUGH the method for preserving larvae for the cabinet may be well known to many -entomologists, there may be some of our readers to whom the method, simple as it is, may be unknown. Specimens are sometimes seen preserved in bottles of spirits ; but these seldom form very beautiful objects. These also cannot be arranged side by side with the imagos in the cabinet. Therefore, to be able to preserve the larvae, so that they may be placed in the -cabinet, with their imagos, will doubtless be a source of pleasure to many a tyro-lepidopterist. And as the season is advancing when lepidopterous larvae may be obtained in abundance, I offer these few remarks as to the apparatus required and the method of using it. Take a wide-mouthed bottle, of say two or three pints' capacity (a jam-bottle does admirably), into the neck of which fix an indiarubber bung, tightly ; bore two holes through this, one on each side, and about J inch from the edge. Now take a glass tube, to fit one of these holes, and on one end of it fix a piece of zinc (we will say the tube is J inch in diameter, then the zinc will be about ij inch long, by § inch wide), through the end of which you have drilled a hole g inch in diameter, this hole must come under the hole of the glass tube. After drilling, rub the zinc smooth, on both sides; then fix to the glass tube, by means of sealing-wax, making the joint perfectly air-tight. Then affix to the .zinc, at the opposite end to the hole, a strip of oiled silk (on the under-side, of course), so that one end forms a flap, loosely covering the hole. On sucking at the other end of the glass tube, it will be found that this flap of oiled silk forms an excellent valve, through which no air can pass whatever. Now thrust the other end of the glass tube through the indiarubber^bung from] the under-side (removing it from the bottle for this purpose, and refixing it). On to the projecting end of this tube (the valve, of course, is inside the bottle) affix an indiarubber tube (of any length), having at its other extremity a hollow ball . these tubes with ball affixed may be bought at the chemist's for about one shilling and sixpence. Now we have a capital air-pump, by means of which the bottle may be filled to bursting-point, on stopping up the other hole in the bung. The indiarubber ball, I should have mentioned, should have a small hole bored in it, so that it can fill itself from the outer air, as it cannot possibly draw any air out of the bottle, because of the valve. By placing the thumb on this hole, and squeezing the ball, a current of air is forced down the tube and through the valve (which closes again immediately) into the bottle. Now into the other hole in the bung thrust a glass tube similar to the one mentioned before ; but this need only enter the bottle about two inches, whilst the other should nearly reach the bottom. On the outer end of this latter tube fix a short length of indiarubber tubing, into the other end of which fix the tube with which to inflate the larva;. This should be of glass, drawn out to a point at one end, by means of melting it over the gas. You should have several of these tubes, of various thicknesses, according to the size of the larvae to be preserved. Now, the inflating apparatus completed, what shall we do to dry the skin of the larvae, while inflated ? Take a tin canister, clasp a band of iron wire on it, and fasten this to a wooden stand of any kind, taking care that the canister does not touch the wood at all, as it would burn it. Leave the lid of the canister on, so that if the solder (where the tin is joined) should melt with the heat, it will not come to pieces. Cut a piece out of the tin lid a little larger than a florin, and then you have a capital oven. Get a small glass lamp from the chemist's (cost is.), some wick'and spirits (methylated), and set to work in the following manner :— Take your larva which you wish to preserve, put him into a small vessel, with enough spirits to cover him. Next trim your lamp and light it, place it under the oven, to get it ready heated (you will soon find out the exact heat necessary) ; your larva will by this time be dead ; take him out of the spirits and lay him on a sheet of blotting-paper, turn him about a little, so as to get rid of all superfluous moisture, then take a pen-stock, or anything round, and of similar thick- ness ; and commence to roll out the viscera, or his inside ; commence near the anus, to get a good start, this prevents bursting. When you have rolled all the contents of the body out from the head, the whole length of the body, then insert the pointed end of the blowpipe into the anal orifice. I should previously have told you to clasp a bit of watch-spring round this end of your tube, bending it so that it nips tightly on to the pointed end, so as to hold the larva on, as the pressure of air would otherwise blow it off. Fix the watch-spring over the last pair of legs, and then commence to pump air into the bottle, by means of the ball, and soon the larva will become extended in a natural manner. Do not force too much air into the bottle, or the larva will be extended to the full extent of its skin, and look an unsightly ■6 HA RD U 7 C KE \S SCTENCE-GOS SI P. object. Just keep the skin full of air, and place it in the oven, holding it there until dry ; do not let it touch the sides, or you will scorch it. Green larvae lose their colour during the process, but this is remedied by inserting a grass stem into the body, down which pour a small quantity of dry colour ; shake this about inside the body, until coloured all over of the required tint. Complicated as this apparatus may seem, it may ON BRITISH "FRESHWATER MITES. By C. F. George. No. V. AND now let us briefly turn our attention to the females of this family, which, as I have before stated, are very unlike the males ; they are consider- ably larger and more numerous, and therefore are Fig. 34,—Arretturus ellipticus (upper side), 9 J objective. Fig. 37. — Arrenurus buccina- tor (upper side), 2 in. object. Fig. 38. — Arrenurus, sp. (from above). Fig- 35 — Arrenurus ellipticus (under side), 9 I object. Fig. 36. — A rreniims buccinator finder side), 2 in. object. Fig. 39. — Arrenurus, sp. all be made in less time than it has taken to write this ; while the advantage over air-pressure from the bungs is incalculable. Larvae preserved as above may be mounted on twigs, or dried leaves of the food-plant, and placed in the cabinet side by side with the imago forms. If this paper proves of any service to the readers (ento- mological) of this Journal, I shall think myself amply repaid for my trouble in explaining it. more easily and frequently found. In the case of globator, I have been able by inspection to satisfy myself as to the true female. In other cases where I give the name of the female, it will be understood that I am justified in doing so, only from its resem- blance in some respects to the male, or to some of the drawings of other authors. The females have palpi, exactly like those of the males, their skin is chitinous, and they have their circular or oval impressed line HARLWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. very distinctly marked, and complete. Perhaps the typical form of the body is oval or elliptical, and the first I shall figure is what I take to be Arrenurus ellipticits, q (M uller). This rather large and very pretty mite has a good deal of brown in the central part and blue at the sides ; it doubtless varies a good deal in colour, with the contents of its cceca ; on the under-side the thigh plates are yellow. The peculiar door-shaped sexual plates are well seen, these are very nearly alike in all the females of the hard- skinned specimens of Arrenurus, and have no circular marks or sucking discs upon them. On each side of these sexual plates is to be seen a chitinous plate which, together with the thigh plates, is much more 'finely punctured than the other chitinous parts of the brown, the eyes are of a beautiful red colour ; I do not know whether it has ever been named. Fig. 39 is of the same colour, but the body is very much shortened, and the cceca are of a beautiful dull vermilion ; the under-side (fig. 40) may be compared with fig. 36, when the great difference in shape position and size of the chitinous plates outside the genital aperture will be evident. I have met with another azure blue Arrenurus which was almost globular (fig. 41), and here these plates will be seen different in shape from any of the other sketches. Fig. 42, which I believe to be the female of Arren- urus tricuspidator, is of a dark brick-red colour, with black ciecal markings and coarse granular appearance, and in shape differing much from the other figures. Fig. 40. — Arrenurus, sp. (from belowV Fig. 41. — Arrenurus, sp. (under surface). Fig. 42. — Arrenurus tricusJ>uiator, $, 5 object. body. The shape of these plates varies considerably, and will probably be of much use in the discrimination of species when this family shall have been more thoroughly worked out. The next mite (fig. 36 and fig- 37) is still more elliptical or ovoid, and perhaps a little larger than the one just described. It is drawn under a two inch objective, and therefore looks less than the other. From the large amount and deepness of the blue colour, I think it may be the female of A. buccinator, although it has not the yellow legs described by Koch. The next example (fig. 38) is a mite of a most beautiful sky-blue colour, its outlines are seen to be rather angular, it has an opaque whitish Y-shaped mark in the centre, and the other cceca are light In addition to these, I have met with several females (whose names I could not make out) differing some- what in shape, size, and colour from those described, but, as I have not mounted or kept accurate descriptions of them, they will have to be taken again before beins: recorded. Wasps. — Upon several occasions I have seen a wasp catch a butterfly, nip off its wings, and then fly away with its body. Also upon several occasions I have seen one hunting in places where spiders are to be found ; but I cannot say that I ever saw one of these individuals caught by a wasp. — Thomas A'ingsford, Canterbury. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. .NATURAL HISTORY NOTES FROM SIMLA. THIS is perhaps one of the best known and most often described of Indian stations. There is something home-like in the neatly kept lawns, and in the trim garden hedges which add a charm to the natural attractions of the place. Nature here has been lavish in her bounty, and botanist, entomologist, and two or three other ologists might find much to interest and much to repay research and labour in their various pursuits. Take, for instance, the entomologist. Ere these heavy rains began, the air was alive with lovely Lepidoptera flashing their prismatic colours in the unclouded glory of the summer sun. The season had been one of unusually prolonged heat, and Papilios, which usually frequent the low valleys and Rhuds, came into the gardens, and might be found near every newly-watered plant. As to beetles, any one interested in them could make a most valuable collection up here. There are some very curious ones. Besides the common kind, whose busy wings whirr an unceasing concert during the rainy season, there is one kind which I had never heard until the beginning of this summer. Its approach was made known by a most musical sound, as if some one had struck a stringed instrument. The noise was not particularly loud, but so intense and clear that it could be heard at a great distance. We have often tried to follow the creature, but in vain. It was a musical ignis fatuus, and whenever we got to where the noise was last heard, off it went far out of reach, so we never saw it. I think it always chose fir-trees as its favourite haunts, and as our house and garden are set as it were in a frame of dark deodar pines, it had plenty of choice among them. After a few days it seemed to vanish, and I have never heard it since. There are the rose beetles, which are a very large and destructive class. What ravages they work and how pretty they are, glinting in the sunshine like burnished copper. Then the ornithologist (we have rather a distinguished one up here, by the bye) has a wide range before him — the mighty lammergau sweeping in its majestic flight across the mountain's barren side and swooping down into the valley, where in luxuriant pastures it finds a plenteous supply of dainty food among the herds and flocks. They are, indeed, magnificent birds, but they are worse enemies to the farmyard and poultry house than even the dreaded jackal. Of smaller birds there are the pert little mina ; sparrows, thrushes, robins, cuckoos, have all their representatives ; while as to crows, they are the most impertinent of birds. The martins build their mud-walled nests in the verandah eaves, the fly- catcher darts from his favourite perch, and the wagtail waddles across the lawn ; and you might fancy yourself in England, till a gaily decked hoopoo struts proudly into view. Deeper in the woods one finds nut-hatches, jays, doves that coo with a very familiar tone, kingfishers, and well-known little tits. Talking of things that fly, though they are not birds, I may mention the flying squirrel. It is very plentiful in some localities, but it is such a recluse that it is seldom noticed. But take a seat just after sunset underneath the deodar, and watch in the gather- ing twilight for a dark shadow. There it is, from the roof of the house it has dropped to a tree some forty yards off, and there it sits quite unconscious of your presence, or, at all events, quite unconcerned, nibbling at the bark or cracking a nut ; you may go close up to it and shoot it, and the only difficulty will be to get far enough, so as to be able to see it and yet not blow it to pieces. Unless shot dead, they cling to the tree, and never drop, however badly wounded ; this is lucky, as they are spirited little animals, and if caught and trapped alive, bite and fight for dear life with curious pertinacity. They are very destructive in the garden, no fruit comes amiss to them, and they are said to nibble the tops of fir-trees and eat the young shoots. Among themselves they are very quarrelsome, and it is diffi- cult to find an unmaimed one. An ear, or a leg, or an eye, will probably be missing. They have taken up their abode in our roof, and hardly a night passes without a terrible fight, when they squeal and scamper about in a most disturbing fashion. Their skins in winter time are exceedingly pretty, and make very charming rugs or mats, but the beasts look so happy darting about or nestling to the sides of the fir-trees, that, destructive as they are, one would feel sorry to shoot them. The creatures which are most curious to watch are the monkeys, and of course sheets upon sheets might be written about these caricatures of humanity. The likeness is the most striking, because, among their native forests they may be seen side by side with human beings so low in the scale of civilisation that many of the habits of the man and of the monkey are nearly similar. In the winter they grow very bold, and are fierce and troublesome. They will snatch the bread out of a man's hand as he sits munching his chupatee, while in the fowl-yard they will devour all the grain which is thrown to the fowls. It appears that the fiercest of the tribes which frequent our woods always belong to one family, and there is always a representative descendant who pesters the servants at meal-times. To shoot a monkey is sacrilege to a native's mind, and few people after they have once killed one would willingly shoot one, for to see a monkey die, is, it is said, one of the most painful sights that can be imagined. As to wild beasts, in the sense of beasts of prey, we have but few kinds, and these I shall leave to describe another time, as the mail is just going out, and there is not time for more to-day. Ben. HA RD WICKE'S S CIENCE- G OS SIR 39 ON THE DISCRIMINATION OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF WOOD BY MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION. ' THE following is the classification of cross-sections of wood by Mr. C. J. Miiller, alluded to in the note on this subject in the last number of Science-Gossip : — Pith Mass Circular, or nearly so. A. — Edge of Woody Tissue next Pith Crenate, Name and Character of Medullary Rays. sEsculus hippocastanum. — -Thin, crowded. Berberis vulgaris, 2 years old. — Wide apart, thick, flexuose. Sambucus nigra, 3 years old. — Of unequal thickness, several thin between two thicker ones, flexuose. Tamarix gallica. — Broad, far apart, widening outward. Pyrus aucuparia, 2 years old . — Regular, strongly defined. Rosa canina. — 5 to 10 thin ones, lying between thick ones. Cytisus laburnum, 4 years old. — Mostly very thick, with a few intermediate thin ones. Crataegus oxyacantha, 4 years old. — Thin, somewhat evenly disposed. Hedcra helix. — Broad rays widening outwards, alternat- ing with intermediate thin ones. Proportion of Pith Area Character of Ducts or Air-vessels. to that of Wood, minus Bark. Abundant, forming bands, I to 2 many compound. Large in the lines of annual i to 3 growth, small elsewhere. The larger ducts form distinct i to ift rings, others scattered. Sparse, scattered, large. i to 17 Crowded and abundant, some- 1 to 8 what radiated. Various in size, the larger 1 to iT7B being in the lines of annual growth. Large, forming conspicuous 1 to 41 rings in the lines of annual growth, intermediate ones smaller. Scattered, openings angular. 1 to 52 Scattered and sparse, small. 1 to 7 Other Particulars. B. — Edge of Woody Tissue next Pith, Syringa vulgaris, 3 years old. — Thin, flexuose. Cornus sanguineus, 3 years old. — Strongly defined, with in- termediate thin ones, wavy. Ficus carica.- — Wide apart, un- equally distant. Corylus avellana, 2 years old. — Thin, crowded. Ulmus campestris, 4 years old. — Strongly defined, wide apart. Ulmus campestris, var. subcrosa, 2 years old. — As above. Morus nigra. — Thick, placed at unequal distances apart. Ligustrum vulgare, 5 years old. — Straight and regular, near- ly equidistant and well-de- fined. Cotoneaster vulgaris, 3 years old. — Thin, nearly equidis- tant. Large and crowded in the lines of annual growth, in- termediate ones small and scattered. Disposed in circular bands, abundant, of medium size. Wide apart, large, mostly compound. Mostly compound, arranged in lines radiating from the pith, with intermediate blank spaces. Large, arranged chiefly in parcels in the lines of annual growth. Large, sparse, scattered. Large, many compound. In rings in the lines of annual growth, intermediate ones few and scattered. Extremely small, form a ring at edije of each annual zone. Liber in a single ring. Woody tissue, mottled, epi- phlceum corky. Black spots in endophlceum, bark thick. Liber in distinct parcels. Liber abundant in 2 rings of parcels, bark rather thick. Curved bundles of liber lying between the extremities of each pair of the broad medul- lary rays. Liber in little parcels, wide apart. Liber in irregular parcels. Liber in small parcels, cells of epiphlceum large. even or nearly so. 1 to 13 J Liber abundant, forming com- plete rings, loose tissue out- side bark. 1 to 19 Bark rather thick. Liber very sparse. I to 5 Certain rings in the woody tissue, containing granules which give them a clouded aspect. I to 71 ' Liber in a ring, and also de- tached parcels. Bark full of crystals. 1 to 191 Liber abundant in dense rings and parcels, endophlceum full of crystals. 1 to 250 Great development of corky tissue in 6 or more parcels. ) 3^ Liber in detached parcels, and in a ring. 1 to 24 I Liber scanty. I to 170 Bark thick. Liber in parcels. 4o HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Pith Mass Triangular. Name and Character of Medullary Rays. Betula alba, 4 years old. — Thin, nearly equidistant, radiating in bundles from rounded angles of pith. Alnus glutinosus, 4 years old. — Thin, radiating in curvilinear bundles from rounded angles of pith. Fagus sylvatica, 8 years old. — 5 or 6 broad rays proceeding Irom each side of the trian- gular pith, and widening outwards. / raccinium myrtillus. — Crowd- ed, a few here and there, thickened. Character of Ducts or Air-vessels. Equally distributed, many compound. As above, but smaller. Large, abundant, equally dis- tributed in zones. Very small, dant. Proportion of Pith Area to that of Wood minus Bark. I to III i to 127 scattered, abun- 1 1 to 15 Other Particulars. Liber in a complete ring, pith with incurved sides. I to 81 Woody tissue, rather coarser than that of Bclula alba. Liber abundant in dense par- cels. One angle of pith truncated so as to give it a quadrangular aspect. Liber none, or incon- spicuous. Platanus orientalis, 2 years old. — Thick and wide apart, wi 1 h. occasional intermediate thin ones. Ilex aquifolium, 2 years old. — Some thick, and wide apart, with intermediate thinner ones. Acer campestre, 3 years old. — For the most part rather thick, and well defined. 6 well-marked clusters. Pr units communis, 5 years old. — Straight and nearly equi- distant, of unequal thickness and somewhat flexuose. Rhus typhina, 2 years old. — Regular, well defined, dis- tant. Acer pseudo-platan us, 3 years old. — Unequally distant, strongly marked, rather thick. Fra vinits excelsior, 3 years old. — Thin, evenly arranged, distant. Tilia Europcca, 3 years old. — Thin, evenly disposed. Pith Mass Ovoid. Large, crowded, openings angular. Very small and sparse, many compound. In rings or bands, moderate in size, many compound. Form conspicuous rings in the lines of annual growth, others scattered. Large, heaped near lines of annual growth, others few and scattered. Of medium size, not very abundant, mostly com- jjound. Large, forming conspicuous rings in the lines of annual growth. Numerous, varying in size, compound. 1 to 6T> tnat *s> three-quarters of an inch — a very considerable difference. Thus three magnified divisions of the micrometer appear to go to an inch, instead of one division going to three-quarters of an inch. I have hitherto thought that when each division of the micrometer (iooths), drawn by the camera lucida, measured one inch on the paper, the figure was magnified 100 diameters (X 100) ; but if this were so, each division, when viewed by a combination magnifying seventy-six diameters, that is, J of ICO diameters, would naturally appear f of an inch, instead of, as it does, appearing l. I shall be greatly obliged if any of your readers who under- stand the subject will explain my difficulty. — E. A. C. H. Canada Goose. — A few of these birds are shot along the south coast most sharp winters ; it must not be supposed, however, that these come from Canada. The bird is easily domesticated and agrees well with common geese, and may be found in many private grounds in England. It has long been naturalised in many parts of France, as both Buffon and Bewick speak of it as being common there. It is most likely that the bird referred to came from France, as during the prevalence of S.E. winds many wild fowl common to the French coast are to be met with in our own southern estuaries. — F. Cliurton. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 43 ZOOLOGY. The Littel Auk (Mergulus melanoleucos). — A specimen of this bird was picked up at Isleham, on November 2Sth, 1882, driven inland by the severe weather experienced at that time on the coast. — Albert Waters, B.A., Cambridge. Portuguese Men-of-War off the Suffolk Coasts. — It is not a foreign fleet of war vessels here implied, but certain members of the Siphonophora known by the above popular name, and distinguished by zoologists as Pliysalia utriculus. They were driven by the recent storms as far out of their ordinary oceanic coasts as Aldeburgh, where several specimens were secured by Dr. Hele, who kindly forwarded me a couple.— J. E. Taylor. Extracting Minute Snails. — The best plan which G. E. Bishop can adopt is to boil the shells in solution of potassic hydrate [" caustic potash "] ; this dissolves out the snail, and leaves the shell beautifully clean. They must be well washed after- wards in warm water. — R. A. R. Bennett, Oxford. The Butterflies of Europe. — Part XI. of this work contains some of the mosc artistically coloured sketches of butterflies of any yet published. The species and varieties figured and described are those of the genera Melitcea and Vanessa. The Mungoose. — A very interesting pamphlet on the mungoose now being employed on the sugar estates in the West Indies, has just been published by Mr. D. Morris, director of the Public Gardens and Plantations, Jamaica. The experience gained may be of some use in those parts of Australia where the common rabbit is a pest. The mungoose has now be- come^ thoroughly naturalised in Jamaica and Barba- does. It has been estimated that the loss in the sugar estates of Jamaica from the depredations of rats amounted to ,£100,000 per annum. Some of the best estates had actually been thrown out of cultivation by them, but since the introduction of the mungoose from the East Indies these estates have gradually been taken up again. Mr. Morris puts the annual saving from these animals at 90 per cent, of the rat-catching expenses, and at 75 to 80 per cent, of rat-eaten sugar canes. This would represent a total saving to the island of Jamaica alone of nearly £"45,000 per annum. Vitality of Insects in Gases. — Some interest- ing experiments have just been published in the " American Naturalist," to show the difference in tena- city of life enjoyed by some insects over others when exposed to certain noxious gases. The vessels used were large glass bottles fitted with inlet and outlet tubes for the gases. The following results were obtained : Oxygen. — The exhilarating effects of this gas seemed to pass off after a short time, flies living in it from 9 to 29 hours, the common yellow butterfly for 12 hours, a moth (Noctua) for one and a half days. Colorado beetles, although exposed for 3 days, seemed quite uninjured. Hydrogen. — House-flies became quiescent in 20 minutes, although one was able to fly after 24 hours' confinement. Upon Colorado beetles this gas seems to have as little effect as oxygen. A noctua died in 20 minutes, and a black wasp in 10 minutes. Carbonic acid anhydride. — Flies died in 10 to 15 minutes. Colorado beetles recovered after 3 hours' exposure. Bed-bugs also recovered after 2 hours' exposure. Carbonic oxide. — Ants died in half a minute to a minute. Colorado beetles revived after remaining in it for 45 minutes. Prussic-acid and nitrous acid fumes acted fatally in every case. Colorado beetles were the only insects which resisted chlorine after one hour's exposure. Nitrous Oxide. — Colorado beetles lived 2 hours, moths (Noctua) an hour and a half, young grasshoppers were but little affected. Variable mixtures of hydrogen, marsh gas, carbonic oxide and hydrocarbons. — Colorado beetles revived after an hour's exposure. Croton bugs (Eetobia Germanica) after half an hour, young of grasshopper after an hour. A cicada died in 10 minutes. The writer concludes by showing that a new way of preserv- ing insects is possible by having air-tight cases filled with some gas noxious to certain of the smaller insects. " The Practical Naturalist." (Manchester : John Heywood.) This is a new and well-placed competitor in current scientific literature, edited by Messrs. H. S. Ward and H. J. Riley, published at one penny. It promises well in every respect. Provincial Societies. — One of the most grati- fying signs of the times we live in is the multiplication of societies in our provincial cities and towns devoted to the study of natural science. The papers read are often of a high-class character, and the " Reports " and "Transactions" of such societies are therefore increasing in their scientific value. The "Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopi- cal Society" contained the following papers : — " On a Nest-Building Fish," by Sylvanus Wilkins ; " On Underground Fungi," by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley; "On the Desmidieae of North Wales," by A. W. Wells ; " Freshwater Aquaria," by R. M. Lloyd ; " Notes on Papyrus," by W. R. Hughes ; " How to Work the Archaean Rocks," by Dr. C. Callaway ; and " On Commencing the Study of Fungi," by Dr. M. C. Cooke. The "Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society" (vol. ii. part 2) contains papers on "Local Meteorological Observations," by the Rev. C. W. Hervey and Mr. John Hopkinson ; " Notes on Insects observed in Hertfordshire during 1881," by Miss E. A. Ormerod ; "Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire " during the same year, by John E. Littleboy ; " On Clilorodosmos hisfiida, a new Flagellate Animalcule," by F. W. Phillips, &c. The " Proceedings of the Belfast Naturalists' Field-Club," 1SS0-81, contains, besides archaeological papers and 44 IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. very interesting accounts of excursions, the follow- ing :—" On the Boulder-Clay of the North-East of Ireland," by S. A.Stewart ;" On a Collection of Birds Shot in Belfast Lough," by Thomas Danagh ; " On Carnivorous Plants," by W. PI. Phillips ; and "Glacial Notes among the English Lakes," by Mr. F. W. Lock wood. The "Proceedings of the Norwich Science-Gossip Club" contains the President's Address, in which we find able abstracts of the papers read during the year. BOTANY. "The Botanical Exchange Club." — The Report of this club for 1S81 has appeared, edited by F. A. Lees, F.L.S., giving lists of new varieties, and new habitats of British plants, with notes and com- ments by various well-known botanists. Proliferous Sundew. — In a recent stroll across Putney Heath I obtained a few specimens of Droscra rotundifotia. On looking these over at home, I found among the sphagnum in which they were growing a single leaf which had become detached at some time. It was somewhat attenuated and the filaments shrivelled, but from the under surface two roots were given off. Near the growing-point these became clear and semi-transparent, whilst the growing-point itself was of the same crimson as the tentacles. From the upper surface three of the tentacles had become developed into buds which had now given rise to as many tiny sundews, each with four or five leaves with minute greenish tentacles. Is it common for Drosera to reproduce itself in this way ? I have had large numbers of them during the last five or six years, but have never noticed a similar case. — E. Step, Putney. "The Gardener's Chronicle " gives an interest- ing account of the effects of the stinging tree (Laportea gigas). The pain produced by the sting of a single hair on the right hand gave rise to remarkable symp- toms ; the pain being confined to the right side of the body, succeeded by a numbness and slight paralysis. Besides the pain, a sensation of losing the senses, or rather of becoming insane, was experienced. The severe symptoms lasted two hours ; the spot pricked remaining constantly painful for nearly a month after being stung. Early Flowers. — I picked to-day several specimens of Alereurialis perennis with male ilowers fully expanded. I have never known it so early. It grew on a sheltered bank. We have in our garden winter aconite, hepaticas (double and single), anemones, Alpine auricula, primrose?, violets, polyanthus and pansies in bloom. — M. E. Pope, Paddock Wood, Kent. GEOLOGY. MR. WIIITAKER'S READINGS OF RED CHALK.* My remarks I will limit to Hunstanton Chalk, Knowing nothing of Lincoln and little of York, Perfection I pine for — but still I must talk — Unanimity in drawing a different conclusion, From like premises adds to our native confusion, Yet this is the way that geologists mull, Giving birth to my Norfolk (not Irish) "bull." If we tot up the notions from which one may choose, We find there are fifteen quite possible views ; But eight I dismiss without an apology, By the aid of known fossils — or Palaeontology. Thus seven remain, of which two, none have thought, Though over the five they have squabbled and fought, And to the discussion bad reasoning brought. One takes up his views — oh, is it not droll ! Because "correlation's" the greed of his soul. While another whose thoughts are unsound and unripe, Founds all his conclusions on what he calls "type." But this let him smoke and put in his pipe — "Ever-varying Nature, in monotonous way, Never lays down a bed universal of clay," So why should at Folkestone lie " typical " gault ? Mr. Wiltshire, methinks that your reason's at fault. Why should Nature be "squared" to a type in this way, Explain it, O Wiltshire, explain it, I say. Now let us from fossils discuss the rocks' age, And try to decipher this obscure page Of Nature, and list to the words of a sage ! Your minds with the details I wish not to plague, For really the state of my own is but vague. But of seven conclusions we're left with but two, Which from fifteen at first is reducing "a few," But then one of them must be certainly true. It is Lower Chalk, or it is that and Gault, But between these opinions at present I halt, And so would all others if worth but their salt ! This is my belief to close all the talk, And none can gainsay it — Red Chalk is — Red Chalk. A. Conifer. The Geologists' Association.— No 6 of Vol. VII. of the " Proceedings " of this society contains papers on " The Progress and Prosperity of English Submarine Tunnels," by C. E. De Ranee, F.G.S. ; " Description of a Section across the River Severn," * " The Red Chalk of ISforfolk." Part of Presidential Address to the Norwich Geological Society. Geo. Mag., Jan. 1833. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 45 by Evans D. Jones ; "On the Geographical Distri- bution of Corals," by Stuart O. Ridley, F.L.S. ; together with interesting accounts of various geo- logical Excursions. Fossn. Worms. — Dr. G. J. Hinde has kindly forwarded us his paper (communicated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences) "On Annelid Remains from the Silurian Strata of the Isle of Gotland." The descriptions are based chiefly on the jaws of errant worms found in the soft shales of Frojel and Wisby. Most of them belonged to worms nearly related to the existing Eunicea, nine species of which are here described under the generic name of Eunicites. Another genus, called Ononites, includes eight species ; the genus Arabellites has ten species, and Lumbriconereites four species. The jaws of all these species are beautifully figured. We have a great deal of real solid palseontological work here packed away in a very small space. This paper cannot fail to enhance Dr. Hinde's growing reputa- tion. Fossil "Walking-Stick" Insects. — Until the present only no species of insects were known from the Carboniferous rocks of the whole world. In France none were known until 1877, when M. Brongniart received some wings of Blattida? from St. Etienne ; and in the same year was sent him from Commentry a Phasmian, described under the name of Protophasma Dumasii. Since that date, at least 430 impressions have been obtained from the coal- measures of Commentry ; these include 300 Blattidse and 130 insects of various orders. From M. Fayol M. Brongniart has just received a remarkable Orthopteron of gigantic size, found in fine blackish shales at Com- mentry. All parts of the body, except the upper part of the thorax and abdonien, are preserved. It approaches the Phasmid?e or "walking-stick" insects most closely ; and to that group M. Brongniart refers it as forming a new genus, under the name of Titano- phasma Fayoli. ■ The genus Titanophasma comes nearest to" Protophasma among fossil forms ; among recent types it resembles Phibalosoma in size and the general form of thej body, and in the presence of numerous spines and . warts upon its legs. The occurrence of insects in which mimicry is so highly developed as in this group, so far back as the Carboniferous period, suggests that they must have had enemies, at present unknown to us, against which they were protected by their resemblance to inanimate objects. "The Missing' Link."— Whether this remark- able specimen of humanity now exhibited at the Westminster Aquarium is a " missing link " or not, nobody will deny it is of the greatest interest. It is a child seven years of age, capable 'of speech, whose body is covered with short, dense, soft hair ; with feet prehensile, hands capable of being bent quite back on the wrist, pouched cheeks, used to store food as in the monkeys, jaws slightly prognathic. It will not do nowadays to settle such an anomaly by calling it a lusus natures, for most naturalists are agreed that "sports" and "monstrosities" are often only "re- versions to ancestral conditions." The father of the child was covered with hair in a similar manner. The family was discovered in the Lao country, by Mr. Carl Bock, the well-known traveller and anthropo- logist. Miss Bird, in her charming book on Japan, describes the short, hairy aboriginal race of that country, known as Ainos ; and more recently Mr. A. H. Keene has described the Aino ethnology more fully and scientifically. In the extreme east of Asia we have these dwarf hairy Ainos fast becoming extinct ; and now a Siamese hairy family turns up with decidedly simian characteristics. In Burmah hairy people have been occasionally known. It will be remembered that, many years ago, Mr. Everett was sent to Borneo to explore the caves for possible early remains of man, as it has always been imagined that it is to the tropical and subtropical parts of the extreme East we should look for "missing links" between humanity and the lower animals. NOTES AND QUERIES. A poisonous Lizard, and new Snakes. — Perhaps those of your correspondents who do not already know about it, would like to hear that a new and poisonous lizard has been discovered in America, named the Heloderm. It can kill a guinea pig in three minutes ; its food at the Zoological Gardens consists of eggs and mice ; it is thought that its natural food is reptiles ; it has therefore been offered a grass-snake and a slowworm ; but it has taken no notice of them. It is a short thick-set, dull-looking creature ; its colour is dull yellow with dark 'mottlings ; its length I omitted to ascertain. - Some new snakes have been discovered about Jeddah ; there are several at the Zoological Gardens. Noting from one now before me, its description is as follows. Its length is about 5 feet ; it is very slender, and has an extremely thin and tapering tail. Its ground colour is a pinkish brown, the former hue predominating ; the fore part of its body is darker than the latter, and indistinctly spotted, while the tail end is clear and light, thus giving the creature a very strange appearance. Its head is noticeable, the eyes seeming to project above the top of the head, frog fashion. It feeds on frogs and mice, the latter for preference, and likes to lie in water. I shall be happy to send portions of the cast skin to a few microscopists, if they desire it. Can any correspondent tell me anything of the food or habits of the bombadier or fire-bellied toad [Bonibihdibr igneus) of which I have lately caught a specimen in Belgium ? — H. C. Brooke. White Flowered Plants. — I have the following plants with white flowers -.—Ajuga reptans (buglef, York. Lychnis Flos-cuculi (ragged robin), Pen Maen Mawr, North Wales. Polygonum hydropiper , (water pepper), York. Prunella vulgaris (self- • heal), Pen Maen Mawr, North Wales. Centaurea Scabiosa (great knapweed), Seaton. — Alfred Mailer,1 York. 46 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Mildness of Season.— A specimen of the small white {Pieris Rapee) was captured in a garden near Nottingham on January 6. — IT. Allen. The Cricket. — With much interest I have read the paper on the production of sound by crickets, written in the last number of Science-Gossip by H. T. Bacon. But is that gentleman quite right in stating that the French name of this insect is " cri- cri " ? During the many years I lived in France I never heard it called anything but lc grillon ; under which name it is apostrophised by Beranger, in the well-known song, beginning : "Au coin de l'atre oil je tisonne, En revant a je ne sais quoi, Petit Grillon, chante avec moi Qui, deja vieux, toujours chansonne. Petit Grillon, n'ayons ici, N'ayons du monde aucun souci." La Fontaine and Florian have also made le grillon the subject of several of their fables. — IV. T. Greene. Mud Inhabitants.— It appears to me, that the green mud mentioned by R. M. W. in last Science- Gossip as a species of the unicellular chlorophyllous alga, Palmella, is possibly the form uriformis, and the " creature " described and inquired about, a Rotifer vulgaris. They are very common, and usually found in such habitats as "spouts of a building." Dr. Lankester's "Half-hours with the Microscope " figures and speaks of both Palmella and Rotifer. — H. W. Lett, M.A. Mud Inhabitants. — The little creature, en- quired after by R. M. W. in the December number of Science-Gossip, is the larva of a gnat, which I have often watched under a " half inch." It forms a mud house; and to see it building the same is amusing. It seems to hold by the tail when so occupied. I have taken a quantity of them with the mud and water out of the spout, put all in a basin, covered with muslin; after a while the sides will be ornamented with their mud retreats ; then gnats will be the result. In the same spout I have found Rotifer vulgaris, also " rolling balls," which may be Langenclla eitehlora, for they have the " red eye " as figured in Pritchard's *' Infusoria," 1852, plate 1, figs. 27, 28. — F. S. Sea Birds near Cambridge. — I have more than once seen gulls flying over the low-lying meadows even close to the town [of Cambridge]. I was greatly surprised, I remember, when I first saw them some winters ago, and could scarcely believe they were, what they proved to be, viz. sea-birds. This winter several guillemots, shearwaters, and common gulls have been captured in the county, especially in Bur- well and Toleham fens and near Newmarket. — Albert II. Waters, B.A., Cambridge. Large Viper. — What can have possessed Mr R. T. Green to so stoutly dispute my statement of the fact that I had killed an unusually large specimen of the female viper ? Permit me to assure him that it is he that has made a mistake, not I, for the reptile killed by me was a veritable viper (Peliits verus), and not a common snake (Tropidonotus natrix), nor was it a small crowned smooth snake [Coronella Icevis, which latter, judging from descriptions I have read, and coloured figures I have seen, much more nearly resembles the common viper than does the former, and probably few experienced naturalists would mis- take either one for the other. The colour, markings, general appearance, and attitude when attacked, serve, at once, to distinguish the viper from its harmless congeners. Your correspondent seems to be ignorant of the fact that the common English viper, like other members of the family Viperidne ; is ovo-viviparous — that is to say, brings forth its young alive from eggs hatched internally. The concurrent testimony of the ablest naturalists is too well estab- lished to be shaken by a single ex parte statement — a statement which, if not contradicted, might possibly mislead some few young naturalists into believing that vipers were viviparous, instead of ovo-viviparous. But for this, I should consider it quite unnecessary to trouble you to insert this reply. I may add that usually young vipers are born with fragments of their egg cases adherent to them.- — Edward H. Robertson. The Dormouse. — In answer to your correspondent " Meta," I am pleased to answer questions about the dormouse, of which I have had plenty of experience. It should be kept in a nice roomy cage, with a divided off sleeping-place, which should be filled with soft hay. It should have daily a slice of apple, or a little bread and milk, and three or four nuts, which must be taken from their shells for it. A little hemp is good now and then as a change, in cold weather. It should be kept in a warm room, or it will sleep all the winter ; even then it will occasionally sleep for a day or two, and when found so, should not be suddenly awakened, or this will in course of time damage its constitution. It should certainly not have one of those atrocious ' ' wheel cages " which generally result in severed tails, and, where two are kept, frequently in dislocated necks. Many years ago, I kept two squirrels in a wheel cage ; one got its back injured, another got its tail cut off. I have often seen mice tailless through being kept in these tread- mills. I do not approve of teaching dormice tricks, white and common mice are the best for that. The dormouse is naturally delicate and sleepy, and prefers trotting up and down its owner's arm, to running along a tight rope with a flag in its mouth. To give it exercise, fix some forked twigs in its cage, and then you will afford it a beneficial means of amuse- ment. I think, also, that owing to its sleepy nature, it would be rather hard to teach it tricks. If " Meta " desires any more information, I shall be happy to give it, on receipt of a letter addressed — H. C. Brooke, Grammar School, Staplehurst. The Dormouse. — "Meta" should feed her pet with nuts, beech mast, bread and milk, and a little corn ; but it will require little, if any, food in winter, unless the weather be very mild, or the temperature of the room in which it is kept be warm enough to rouse it into activity. No mice in a natural state hibernate, and spend the cold weather in a state of torpidity, but warmth rouses them easily. I had one dear little dormouse, so gentle and tame, it was a great favourite, and it had gone to sleep in its warm nest of cotton-wool and hay, in a tiny wooden box up in my bed-room, when one night I ordered a fire to be lighted, and next morming found my pet dead in the bath. The poor little thing had been roused by the warmth of the room, came out of its box, and climbed up the bath in search probably of water ; for I have noticed that they are very thirsty when first they awaken in spring. I never attempted to teach mine any tricks, but I found them very easy to tame and gentle when handled. I much prefer dormice to squirrels ; some of the latter bite severely, as I know to my cost. — Helen E. Watncy. Observations on two Spiders. — On entering my office this morning, I observed two spiders in close companionship upon one of the window panes, and on drawing near too rashly, surmised that one of them was in the act of draining the vital fluids from HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 47 the other. Upon touching them however, they slowly separated, and I then saw that they had been attached by an organ, which I did not at the moment recognize as one of the palpi, but which I was after- wards satisfied was really the case. Although dis- turbed by my touch, the spiders only drew back a short distance from each other, apparently being oblivious of my presence, so closely was their atten- tion concentrated upon each other. The male spider remained perfectly stationary, with its long and almost transparent legs advanced, and moving with a tremu- lous but regular motion, as though lightly tapping upon the glass. This movement was apparently quite intelligible to the female spider, which slightly responded, and then slowly advanced to the male, which, however, made no movement forward, but awaited until the female was in close companionship, when it touched her abdomen with one of its clubbed palpi, which it pressed gently but firmly against the region of the ovipositor, withdrawing it again immediately, this was repeated about three times, when I perceived a minute drop of transparent fluid upon the place which had been touched, but whether this proceeded from the palpus of the male, or the body of the female, I could not perceive, but imagine it exuded from the female. The male now pressed its palpina more firmly against the female, and apparently found some orifice or organ of attachment, for it was retained in that position for perhaps a couple of minutes. After repeating these processes the male remained stationary for perhaps a couple of minutes, slowly rubbing its clubbed palpi together, after which it slowly withdrew. Only one of the palpi was employed, so far as I could perceive, but the light coming strongly through the glass enabled me very clearly to note the action of the spiders, although I had no lens to assist my eyes, and was enabled to more clearly follow their movements in consequence of the transparency of their limbs ; for they were not the heavy dark house spiders, but, I believe, a species commonly found inhabiting a large, light web under the shelter of grassy banks. I need scarcely add that the spiders were un- doubtedly occupied in the processes of coition, but how far my observations coincide with what is known of their action during this process, I cannot say, as I have never read anything on the subject. — E. Lamplough , Hull. Sea Anemones. — Sea anemones always eject their food in the way described by R. Mc Aldwie, and he should either keep marine scavengers in the vase, or have a pair of the proper long wooden pincers, for removing any ejected scraps of beef or fish on which they have been fed. When living near the sea, I had some large tanks well stocked with different kinds of sea flowers, and I found it very necessary to keep the water pure, otherwise my stock sickened and died off. — Helen E. Watney. Autumn Dog's Mercury {Mercurialis perennis). — This plant has been found as an autumn flower for the past three seasons. The stations are some- times different from those of the primroses, and are warm, sunny ditch banks, on a light soil, in which circumstances they obtain a maximum of both heat and moisture. They also occur with primroses in woods, as described in the following paragraph. In December 1881 several plants in full fruit were gathered in South Beds. It would be well if observers of earliest dates would bear these facts in mind. Such plants as wild hyacinth, pilewort, hazel, and hawthorn, are of much more value for phenological observations. — J. S., Luton. Autumn Primroses. — This is now (1882) the third season in succession in which primroses have been plentiful during the autumn in several woods in South Beds. In fact, one begins to expect them regularly, and to wonder for how many seasons they may have blossomed unobserved. The stations in which they occur, are those portions of woodland in which the undergrowth has been recently cut down, and consequently the rootstocks are more exposed to the stimulating action of the sunlight, than those that grow in the more shaded parts. They are generally to be found in such situations during the whole of the winter, in more or less abundance, according to the weather, and the writer has gathered them in each month from September to the following June. — J. S., Luton. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than heretofore, we cannot possibly insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries which do not bear the writers' names that we are forced to adhere to our rule of not noticing them. To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges "offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of "exchanges" which cannot be tolerated. E. C. J. — Your application' came much too late for us to accede to your request. E. A. C. H. — Get Dr. Cooke's "Ponds and Ditches," price ■zs. 6d., published by the Christian Knowledge Society. It will introduce you to some of our common infusoria. " Microscopic Fungi," by the same author, coloured plates, price 6s. London : D. Bogue. " British Sea-Weeds," by W. H. Grattame, pub- lished at the " Bazaar" Office, price 2s. 6d. C. R. L. — The galls on oak leaves sent, go by the name of " artichoke galls," from their resemblance to the artichoke. They are formed by a neuropterous insect, called Aphilothrix gemmce. A. Thompson. — The minute objects from stomach of cod-fish are fragments of the tests of small sea-urchins. Miss S. Glasgott. — Will you kindly send us your full address ? Your note does not contain it. James Smith (Aberdeen). — Professor Owen is still alive and working, and we hope he may continue so for years to come. The President of the Royal Society is Dr. Spottiswoode; the President of the British Association is Dr. Siemens. W. G. W. — We think you will find Huxley and Martin's " Elementary Biology" quite sufficient. You might get the re- agents from Hunter and Sands, 20 Cranbourne Street, who would no doubt also procure you the skeleton of a frog. You would find McAlpine's " Biological Atlas" of great use. A. Bealy. — " Land and Water " is published weekly, price 6d., at 176 Fleet Street, London. " The Midland Naturalist " is published at 3 St. Martin's Place, at 6d. monthly. " The Naturalists' Monthly " is published by John Heywood, Man- chester, at a penny a month. E. W. Andrews. — Your letter miscarried, and we have only- just received it. We shall be happy to forward a letter from you to Dr. De Crespigny. H. C. Brooke. — Accept our best thanks for the specimens of cast skins of snakes you have sent us. W. M. Stevenson. — The " London Catalogue" is a list of acknowledged and recognised British species and well-marked varieties of plants It is published at 6d. by D. Bogue, 3 St. Martin's Place, Trafalgar Square. You cannot do better than procure (after using Messer's " Analysis ") Hooker's " Student's Flora of the British Islands," published by Macmillan at ior. 6d. H. G. Brieklev. — It is difficult to identify a species of such difficult plants as the freshwater alga; from so small a portion as you sent us, but we have little doubt it is Batrachospermnm alpestre. J. Smith. — Your question is rather obscure, but we presume you allude to the swollen condition of grain. This may be pro- duced by the microscopical fungus popularly known as the " bladder brand," from its swelling the grain. It is a stage in the development of Tilletia caries. W. Officer. — Will you kindly send us another specimen, as your others were lost in transit ': 48 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Meta.— Alas! The chrysalis reached us in as flattened a State as the arm of a strong post-office clerk could reduce it to by stamping. EXCHANGES. Will those applicants for polyzoa, which were advertised to be given away in the December number of Science-Gossip who have not already arranged for the expense of sending, kindly forward three or four stamps for postage ! The immense number of applications renders this request a necessity. Sections of the meteorite of Braunfels, containing fluid- cavities with vacuoles in perpetual motion ; well mounted. Will take in exchange scientific books.— H. Hensoldt, 7 Machell Road, Nunhead, Lundon, S.E. Wanted, three good specimens of Cladonta sylvatica. or of Sticta sylvatica for three of Sticta intricata, var. Thouarsii.— James McAndrew, New Galloway, N.B. ' Microscope, slides and apparatus cost 8/. Vv hat offers in books ?— F. Long, 20 Lome Street, Burnley, Lancashire. Fossil diatoms from Frauzensbad in Bohemia, and Celle in Hanover (any quantity), in exchange for whatever good micro- material, mounted or unmounted. — T. C. Rinnbock, 14 Sim- mering, near Vienna, Austria. Wanted, a correspondent in Ireland to exchange aquatic (phanerogamic) plants ; rarity is not so much wanted as good and carefully-dried specimens. European and British aquatic phanerogams, junci, or carices offered. — A. B., High Street, Croydon, Surrey. Wings of Urania ripha>us (most brilliant lepidopteron I known), Ornithoptera rhadaiuanthus, Procridae (green foresters, metallic scales), for the microscope ; the following shells : Helix ericetorum, Chiton marginatus, Helix Cantiana, Trochus tumidus, Bulimus acutus, Trockus cinerarins, Venus fasciat us, Xatica Alderi, Venus ovata, Zonites ccllarins, Cyclostoma elegdns, Vcncrufis iris, Tapes virgincus. Several species of Madagascar coleoptera, wood-section (Japanese). Desiderata, mounted microscopic objects, speci- mens of the Chrysididae, Rye's "British Beetles" or Messer's " British Wild Flowers by Natural Analysis."— Joseph Anderson, jun., Chichester, Sussex. Will send list of micro slides to choose from for unmounted material.— S. R. Hallam, 22 High Street, Burton-on-Trent. A packet of twelve unmounted animal hairs, including lion tiger, leopard, hyaena; black, white and grizzly bears, and' others for well-mounted slide.— A. Draper, 275 Abbey Dale Road, Sheffield. . «•' Scarce unmounted animal hairs for other objects ot interest. —A. Draper, 275 Abbey Dale Road, Sheffield. • . Wanted Carpenter's ''Microscope and its Revelations, 6th edition ; will give in exchange Cassell's "History of the War between" France and Germany," 2 vols, cloth gilt, illustrated, and Cassell's ".Household Guide," vol. 1.— J. Bur- ton, 78 Theobalds Road, London. L. C. 7tfr ed., offered 107, 858, 859, gob, 936, 1422, and others. Wanted rare British potamogetons, orchids, or other plants.— Alfred Waller, 17 Low Ousegate, York. _ Wanted unmounted, histological, human, and animal, also pathological sections stained .or- not, also parts of insects, cleaned foraminifera, diatoms, spicules, botanical sections of stems, and wood sections, stained or not, also well-mounted slides'of the rarer chemicals, as platino-cyanide of magnesium, chloride of palladium and thallium salts. First-class slides &c, in exchange.— Frederick Martin, Clevedon. Large phonograph cost seven guineas, for sale or exchange, what offers?— H. W. Wager, Bank Buildings, Regent Street, Stonehouse, Glos. _ .... , Some very interesting microscopic life, ottered in exchange for British land and freshwater shells, or a tube will be sent on receipt of six stamps to defray cost of postage, tubes, &c.— H. W. Wager, Bank Buildings, Regent Street, Stonehouse, Glos. . Exotic Lepidoptera.— Many species in duplicate, to ex- change for others, exotic only. Wanted particularly species of the genus Papilio for figuring, with a view to a monograph of the genus.— J. C.Hudson, Railway Ter., Cross Lane, Man- chester. . . , 1 will send a packet containing 36micro-fungi, or 24 spicules of sponges, Gorgonias, &c, some rare and all accurately named, in exchange for 3 really well mounted micro slides on glass slips. Sections and parasites preferred, no diatoms.— J. Tempere, Storrington; Sussex. . Wanted, Huxley's " Crayfish," Gosse s Manual of Marine Zoology," Bell's "Crustacea," and Itnyn's " Cyclas and Pisidium."— J. Darker Butterell, 2 St. John Street, Beverley. Wanted, tintoil for electric purposes, carbon clamps, binding screws and any cheap electricity apparatus. State lowest price and particulars to — K., 7, St. Paul's Close, Walsall. , „ . . . ... Having a large number of stamps, of all descriptions, both in albums or singly, or in sina 1 quantities, I will exchange them 'or microscopic slides, fossils, electric apparatus, or anything small, in scientific way. Write enclosing particulars to— K., 7 St: Paul's Close, Walsall. Eggs of king-bird, bluebird, American robin, chipping sparrow, dicker, Indian swift, weaver-bird, scissorbill, and many others, also some English and foreign nests to exchange for other-. — Geo. A. Widdas, Woodsley View, Leeds. A collection of foreign shells from South Africa, West Indies, &c, in exchange for British specimens on natural history, or popular works on the same. — S. B. Axford, 15 Commercial Road, Bournemouth. For exchange, about two hundred species of British lepid- optera. Desiderata: British or foreign lepidoptera; or offers. — A. H. Shepherd, 4 Cathcart Street, Kentish Towd, London. Lindsay's "British Lichens," Landsborough's "British Zoophytes," Lewis's "Sea Side Studies," &c, offered in ex- change for Bell's " Stalk-eyed Crustacea," or " Quadrupeds," Bates' " Sessile-eyed Crustacea," Johnston's "Zoophytes," and other Natural History works. — C. A. Grimes, Dover. A second-hand book called " Rural Bird Life," by Charles Dixon, which I should like to exchange for some fossils. — F. B. Mason, St. Gregory's, Stratford -on- A von. Wanted, trilobites and other Silurian fossils, encrinites with heads. Fossils, corals, and small recent corals, foreign. Cape, limpets, large ones, flint implements. Crystals from lead, iron and copper min^s, also any kinds of fossil Crustacea. Exchange, Haldon fossils, upper greensand ; limestone, fossils, Devon ; polished slabs of Devon corals and sponges ; minerals, Devon and Cornwall ; live marine animals, etc., and sections of the DevoniaiVcorals for the micro'. — A. J. R. Sclater, Mineralogist, Bank Street, Teignmouth, Devon. Wanted to know where I could get th« specimens of animal, and plant life mentioned in Huxley and Martin's " Elementary Biology." Also skeleton of frog, and the more uncommon re- agents referred to. — W. G. Woollcombe, The College, Brighton. Some typical rocks, fossils, and minerals offered in exchange for land and freshwater shells, recent or fossil, foreign or British. — B. B. Woodward, 51 Aynhoe Road, West Kensington Park, W. Wanted to exchange Foraminifera (mounted or unmounted: and Polycistinae mounted for other Foraminiferal material, diatoms or other objects. — Harvey, 2 Short Street, Cambridge. " English Mechanic," vols. 29 to 35, first six bound half- calf, cost £1. 12J., also "World of Wonders," Cassell's, coster, bound, also, number of common birds' eggs, such as rooks', wrens', &c. Will exchange for works by Darwin, Huxley, Proctor, Tyndall, Wilson, &c, for minerals, fossils, eggs, or insects. The minerals and fossils may be common as I have got none. — James Smith, 27^, George Street, Aberdeen. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. " Report of Department of Agriculture," 1880. Washington : Government Printing Office. " Propagation of Food Fishes, &c. Commissioners' Report," 1882. Washington : Government Printing Office. " Colin Clout's Calendar." By Grant Allen. London : Chatto 6c Windus. "Man before Metals." By . London: C. Kegan Paul, &Co. " Studies in Microscopical Science." Edited by A. C. Cole. " Journal of Conchology." " Land and Water." . — " Northern Microscopist." "Midland Naturalist." / '' " Practical Naturalist." -f "The Field Naturalist." : " The Young Naturalist." . • " Natural History Notes." _ , . • " County Notes." " American Naturalist." " Canadian Naturalist." " American Monthly Microscopical Journal." " Boston Journal of Chemistry." " Good Health." . "The Botanical Gazette." " The Southern Science Record." . . - ■ ' " La Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes. ' " Le Monde de la Science." | . . " Ciel et Terre." " Cosmos : les Mondes." " Bulletin de la Socie'te Beige de Microscopic" &.C. &c. &c Communications received' up to iith ult. from : — R H.-F. L.-J. McA- H. H.-J. C. R.-E: C. J.— J. G.- A. H. W.— M. E. P.— H. R. A— A. B.— J. A., jun.— J. C— c F g.-J. B.— H. W. W.— W. B. G.-F. M.— J. S.— H. C. B. -A. D.- C. M.- E.W. A.-A. W.— W. B.— E. S.— J. S.-C. A. — R A R B.— H. E. W;— A. E. G.-W. O.— W. M. S.— A W.-S. R. H.-S. R. B.-T. M. R.-W. F.— B. B. W.— I T — F K— T. S.-C. L. C.-C. K.— T. K.— F. B. M.— N. A. J_r' \. G.— J. S.— A. H. S.— W. B. G.— F. A. A. S.— E. A.C. H. — A'.'j. R. S.— E. C.'j:— W..F.-J. D. B.-A. H. B.— G. r>. c— W; H. J.— R. U. W.— S. B. A.— G. A. W.— P. E. — W. G. W.— S. S.— J. S— A. B.— &c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 49 AN INQUIRY INTO THE ALLEGED HABIT OF HIBER- NATION AMONG NORTH AMERICAN SWALLOWS. By CHARLES C. ABBOTT, M.D. [Continued from page 27.] N the reference made by Kalm to swallows, he spe- cifies the barn- swallow as being that which he saw on the 10th of April (new style), I750, in a wet, spiritless condi- tion, sitting on posts and planks. Now, in this case, we have a species of swallow that differs greatly in its habits from the preceding. While sociable, and willing that a neighbour should dwell near by, they are by no means gregarious ; and it is often observed that but a single nest will be in a building, however large it may be. Unlike the bank or cliff swallows, they are quite contented to seek their food, flitting over fields, and about the buildings wherein are placed their nests. They are not to be associated with water or its vicinity, any more than with the driest stretches of dusty fields. How then, are we to explain the soaked appear- ance of those seen by Kalm, sitting on posts and planks ? I think the preceding sentence explains it. He saw these birds first on the 10th of April, and on the next, far greater numbers of them, sitting on posts and planks. They had but reached their destination — probably had ju3t completed a pro- tracted flight of hundreds of miles ; and also, bear in mind, they travel at night, and probably only at night ; they were seen in the morning, as he ex- pressly states. Thoroughly fagged, at the end of a No. 219.— March 1883. long journey, and early in the morning, when all else was dripping with the moisture of a rain-like dew, would it not be strange indeed, if these new- comers, like all animate and inanimate nature about them, were not "as wet, as if they had been just come out of the sea " ? But the barn swallow asks no lengthy holiday on his arrival. He quickly recuperates, and the duties of the hour are squarely met. If, during the summer, his wanderings are less about water than land ; it is to the water that he goes first, when ready to con- struct his nest, or repair the structure of last summer. By the water's edge, he carefully mixes the adhering mud that forms the exterior of his house. Here, we have a repetition of what I mentioned with reference to the cliff swallows. Just at the time when the supposed mud-encased swallow should leave his submarine abode, and all bedraggled, wet and worn, should be seen spreading himself in the sun, and drying out, in readiness for a summer's campaign — then do we really find the beautiful barn swallows busy at the water's edge, and often well wet through ; but, instead \ of having lately emerged from the water, they have literally dropped from the clouds. But if, for many and good reasons, we set aside, as a misconception of the facts, the impression still retained by many, that swallows hibernate in the mud, at the bottoms of lakes and rivers — what have we to say of the more reasonable proposition that they hibernate, as do many animals in underground retreats, in clefts of the rocks and even in hollow trees ? Now, the one simple way to decide this matter, is to find them hibernating, as they are said to do. So far as my own experience extends, I have never found a swallow hibernating in any position, nor do I ever expect to ; and, furthermore, I believe nine- tenths of all the accounts that are published of the discovery of the hibernating swallows, could be So HARJDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. readily explained as something very different, if all the facts of the case could be ascertained. But when we come to study very closely the habits of a familiar bird, that to all but ornithologists is a veritable swallow, our common swift or "chimney-swallow," then I am fairly staggered, and find myself saying beneath my breath, " After all ! " In conclusion, then, it behoves me to consider this common chimney swallow very carefully and can- didly, and determine how far certain occurrences that I have witnessed, are indicative of hibernation. In a large unused chimney of an old house built in 1708, standing near my home, thousands of chimney swallows annually congregate, arriving in April — or appearing then — and departing, well ! I am not certain when. Now this chimney has an internal surface of about 425 square feet, and allowing one square foot to each nest, will accommodate so many pairs of swallows. But I find that not more than one-third of the avail- able space is utilised. At this rate, there would be one hundred and forty pairs of swallows occupying the chimney at one time. Now this may seem like a fish story, but it is an inconsiderable fraction of the truth. I have carefully timed by my watch an un- broken line of entering and out-going swallows, and seen them in these processions steadily enter and re- appear for five and a half minutes, without a break, each bird followed by another so closely, that inter- vening spaces were scarcely discernible. The down- Avard and upward series were of course different birds to a certain extent, and it is a fair estimate to say that fully one thousand swallows were making a nesting and roosting place of this one chimney at the one time. Not the least curious feature of these large colonies is the evident fact that but a small proportion of these birds are nesting at this time ; and we are lost in amazement, when considering that the fragile eggs and tender fledglings should escape destruction, sur- rounded as they are by such a crowd of jostling, climbing, crawling, tireless swallows. Nor is it at all easy to reach any definite conclusion concerning the object of these non-nesting birds, in thus continu- ously through the day entering their roosting-place — the chimney. Now these particulars are mentioned in this con- nection, to show that many hundreds of these birds often roost in the one place, and must be very closely packed together when all are at home. For a portion of every twenty-four hours they are well able to with- stand the depressing influences of a crowded condition, with certainly a minimum of fresh air to breathe. The same conditions would prove fatal to most other birds, if indeed not to all others. This feature of the summer-life of these birds please bear in mind. Any time after the middle of September there is likely to be a change. A severe north-east storm coming, they are gone ! A week may pass, and not a swallow is to be seen. You may listen at the chimney holes, and not a swallow is to be heard. The sky is as birdless as in bleak December. But again the weather becomes warm ; our magnificent October days are come. The mellowest sunshine of all the year gilds the broad meadows and adds a glory to the scarlet maples ; and, again, scores of chimney swallows as before are flitting all day long in the cloudless skies. Whence come these birds? They are not so many, indeed, as were here before the biting north-east winds bade all our summer birds depart ; but far too many to consider them as mere stragglers. Indeed they are too strong of wing to be thus looked upon. We felt, or might have felt certain, that the swallows had gone ; but with the returning cheery days, these birds are again with us. Either they were closely stowed away during the storm, or they are more northern birds which, leaving their summer haunts beyond the track of the storm that visited us, had only reached us as they were moving southward after the storm had passed. This, I think, very likely is the truth of the matter ; but many circumstances strongly point to the former supposition — that of temporary shelter during the storm. Here is an instance. On the 4th of October of the past year, the weather with us was warm, the thermometer ranging from 650 to 850 Fahr. Throughout the morning there was a brisk shower, or series of them ; but by 2 p.m. it had cleared, with a gentle wind from the north. It gradually grew colder, and by sunrise on the 5 th, the temperature had fallen to 400 Fahr., and the wind had increased in violence. All this day thousands of chimney swallows, and a few of other species, were seen flying southward ; keeping as near to the ground as possi- ble— just avoiding the tree tops, and in open spaces, often just clearing the ground. They were in dense flocks, and appeared to be driven helplessly before the cutting blasts of the north wind then prevailing. The weather moderated the next day, and on the 7th of the month, there were very many swallows flying about just^as usual ; they did not finally disappear before the 20th of October. Such flocks of swallows, as I have mentioned, are certainly indicative of a voluntary or forced migra- tion, to a certain extent. What becomes of such storm-driven colonies (and they are an annual occur- rence) I cannot say ; but they are certainly indicative of the habit of migration obtaining among these birds, to a certain extent. On the other hand, what of the many swallows that remained for fully two weeks after the storm I have mentioned ? As bearing upon this point, the following is worthy of note. In December, 1879, I had occasion to have a wood-stove removed from a fireplace, and one for burning coal put in its place. The removed stove had not had a fire in it for nearly a year. On detaching the pipe, there were found seven swallows in one of the elbows, occupying the space between the angle and the IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 5* damper. They were all perfectly well and compara- tively vigorous. On being placed upon the floor of the room, they soon recovered their full senses, and after a feeble flight about the room, passed quickly through an open window and were seen no more. The great bulk of the chimney swallows apparently departed by the 25th of October of that year. I certainly saw none later ; yet fifty-five days after that date, seven are found, in fine health and strength, snugly stowed away in a stove pipe. It is fair to suppose that they had lived for this length of time without food. If so, have we any right to limit the length of time that they may thus remain in a semi-torpid or hibernating condition ? To maintain that such a question is reasonable, is not an attempt to carry water upon both shoulders ; for swallows' hibernation in sheltered places, surrounded by the atmosphere, is vastly different from lying in mud at the bottom of a lake or the ocean. In a second somewhat similar instance that has come to my knowledge, a number of these birds were found in a hollow sycamore which was cut down in the month of February. These birds were dead when I saw them, and I was assured by the wood-cutter that they were stiff and cold when he took them from the tree. They were not frozen, however, and the appearance, on dissection, was such as to lead to the belief that they had died but very recently ; certainly before the tree was cut down, but not long previously. There was no decomposi- tion ; some trace of fatty tissue, and the blood liquid ; the bowels and stomach empty, but moist, soft, and flexible. In this case, happening during a remarkably mild winter, that of 1879-80, it is possible that swallows might survive in such quarters, when a season of ordinary severity would destroy them. It is claimed that we do not know where the winter haunts of these birds are ; if so, may it not be that, like the almost as abundant bats, these birds congregate in caves or hollow trees ? But if we grant this much, these hibernating places are not to be looked for in New England or the Middle States, but so far south as to be beyond the reach of the severest frosts of our winters. Certainly, did they hibernate with us, in the same manner as the bats, their hiding-places would have been brought to light oftener than even such instances as I have related, have been noticed. As a thousand or more may be found in one chimney during summer, it is fair to presume that, in hibernating, equal numbers would then also be congregated. No such swallow bonanza is yet upon record. On the other hand, if chimney swallows are thus disposed of during winter, it becomes easy to account for stragglers that, for some unknown reasons, have not joined the innumer- able ranks of their fellows in their southern flight ; but which, in lieu of this, have essayed to brave the winter by seeking such shelter, in protected places, as they may find. That such stragglers can survive an ordinary winter has not been shown — cannot be, until they are taken in full vigour from their hiding- places, at the close of the season. To find living swallows in a cave, tree, or chimney in February or March, would be a decisive matter ; to find such birds before New Year's Day, does not show that they would be able to remain in health the season through, and reappear in full vigour in March or April. So far, at least, as my own observations extend, the chimney swallow is practically a migratory bird, so far as New Jersey is concerned. In what manner the winter is spent beyond our boundaries, I cannot say ; but offer such trivial instances as I have related, as possibly confirmatory of the belief on the part of many, that, like bats, they strictly hibernate. It remains as yet, however, an open question ; but to discover that such was really true of them, would have little bearing upon such a strange belief as that true swallows hibernate in mud. What is still needed is a system of the most care- ful observations, made without a trace of preconceived opinions. What child but thinks that our flying squirrels really fly, instead of sail through the air ! Too often ignorant ourselves, we give illusive answers to our children, and many errors are thus perpetuated by the world at large, which a little patient observa- tion might readily have checked. On the other hand, when we affect to become observers, how often do we rashly jump at conclusions, based upon deceptive appearances ! Certainly, in my own brief experience, I can only testify to the apparent reality of a bird, less common than swallows, but superabundant in New Jersey, hibernating in mud. I refer to the little rail, or sora {Porzana Carolinensis). Early in August, with all the regularity of the passing seasons, these birds suddenly appear in vast numbers, in the meadows skirting the Delaware river. Now ornith- ologists know well enough, that the rail is strictly migratory ; and I have yet 'to see the first gunner, or other person familiar with our meadows, who ever saw a rail-bird earlier than in July, and seldom then. Nevertheless they are here weeks prior to that month, but so closely do they keep themselves to the muddy, weed-grown marshes, that their detection is well-nigh impracticable. Of course, there must be taken into consideration the fact that, prior to the middle of August, they are not sought for ; but then, and until after frost, thousands are killed by the gunners. Now, the gunners, the farmers, and those whose business or inclination takes them to these marshes, know the rail-birds as a suddenly acquired feature of these marshes, and if they see them, see them running lightly over the mud that skirts the ditches in our marshy meadows. They are as much a feature of such localities as frogs ; and, like those, they are extremely sensitive to frost. It is not strange, perhaps, that the impression of hibernation should have been entertained with reference to this bird j but it must be borne in mind, that mere sudden D 2 52 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. disappearance should not suggest hibernation in the mind of any thoughtful person. Birds that migrate by day, rather than in the night, disappear as suddenly as do the rail-birds, but being seen on their migratorial journeys, of course, are not invested with any peculiar habits. It seems never to have occurred to those who insist upon the hibernation of the rail-bird in the mud, that a still greater mystery is the impulse that should affect all these birds at the one moment ; for their sudden and simultaneous disappearance is always insisted upon. The truth is, however, that they do not disappear all together. After the first hard frost, be it early or late, the great majority of them promptly disappear ; but a fraction of their former numbers remain. Now, what, I believe to be a rational explanation of the apparent hibernation is this : The number of rail-birds in a given tract of marsh is suddenly greatly diminished (this occurs on the day following the first hard frost) ; those that remain are often weak of wing ; and many are found dead, probably having been wounded by the gunners. One and all are found only in the marshes, and coupled with these facts is the one more important than all, that the rails are not seen migrating. They invariably depart at night. Herein lies the solution of the common impression ; one far more prevalent than that concerning our swallows, whose movements we can watch. The while we are familiar with the rail-birds, they are associated with frogs and the aquatic life of our marshes. Frost comes and they are gone. We do not see either frogs or rail-birds disappear ; but we know where the frogs are, and remembering the amphibian habits of the bird, we con- tinue to associate them and relegate to the mud with the croaking frogs, these timid, weak-winged birds. But, in very truth, they have gathered themselves up in their long husbanded strength, and in the stillness of the frosty night, have winged their way southward, without a sign. As I pointed out in the case of the swallows, as a matter of course, many are unable to undertake the journey. It is safe to -say, that thousands that are crippled by the sportsmen remain in the marshes all the winter, but they finally succumb to the rigour of the season. Such old and crippled birds have been made a study by lovers of the wonderful in all ages, and the mis-read history of non-representative specimens has been strangely accepted by very many as the authentic life-histories of these birds for centuries. "Three-Toed Sloth."— In "The Museum of Animated Nature " it is mentioned, also by Charles Waterton in his "South American Wanderings." Waterton had one in his house for some weeks, he also saw this animal in its natural habitat. — Clara Kingsford, Canterbury. I THE COMMON ORCHIS {ORCHIS MASCULA). By Edward Malan, M.A. F Mary Howitt's theory about flowers were really the true one, then how would it ever be possible to account for the existence of such a plant as the common orchis? I don't think it would be possible. For the common orchis does not possess that beautiful brilliant colouring, nor that graceful symmetrical shape, nor that delicate rare perfume which ministers so much to our esthetic fancies, and which forms, as Professor Kerner says, the chief source of those dim romantic ideas with which most people regard flowers. It is, very probably, for this reason that the allusions to the common orchis in poetry are so few. Shakespeare increases our pity for Ophelia's death by mentioning her fantastic childish garlands. " Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples." And Miss Ingelow calls up the regret " that keenlier in sweet April wakes," by introducing the flower into her musical stanzas, in these words, — " Lost, lost and gone. The Pelham woods Were full of doves that cooed at ease : The orchis filled her purple hoods For dainty bees." Tennyson just catches the sullen characteristics of the plant in his " Dirge : " — " Round thee wave self-pleached deep Bramble-roses faint and pale, And long purples of the dale. Let them rave '." While Whittier refreshes us, like an afternoon breeze, when he speaks of western winds telling to orchard trees — " Tales of fair meadows green with constant streams, And mountains rising blue and cool behind, Where in moist dells the purple orchis gleams." These few notices, which are for the most part of sombre hue, appear to exhaust the poetical interest in the common orchis. It must be owned that they are hardly enough to explain the plant's existence. But as soon as the intelligent observer applies the modern theory, and perceives that flowers do really wear a robe of more than royal comeliness, and that every exquisite detail and amazing wonderful contri- vance, every streak, blotch, channel, and hair, every inflation or depression of surface^every posture of the various organs, and every abundant or scarce supply of nectar and perfume has been designed by the wise author of Nature to answer some definite purpose in the best possible way : and, while obtain- ing a benefit from insect visitors, to offer in return a wage for service done — then, behold ! in a moment his heart leaps up in ecstasy, Mary Howitt's lines become invested with a deeper and truer meaning, the distant economy of flowers appears like a wished face in HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 53 a crowd, and a far grander vision of creation unfolds before his view. At once, to quote Horace Smith's hymn, living preachers speak with voiceless lips, every cup becomes a pulpit, every leaf a book, and this new gospel is sounded in our listening ears — that no created organism can be selfish or self- sufficing, but that every unit is connected with its neighbour in some mysterious marvellous manner ; and that unless a double deed of good is done, when any good is done, a deed of beauty as well as a deed of duty, the doer does not fulfil his appointed end in Nature. I have selected the common orchis as a good example of this, and I hope to succeed in showing how curiously and unexpectedly it illustrates this creed, and proves itself to be not only useful to one class of insects, but also highly attractive to another. For whether the plant is a favourite with poets or not, it is in itself a most absorbing study, and will always be remembered for having occupied such keen intellects as Sprengel, Brown, Miiller and others, and for having furnished that higher estimate of creative power which we owe to our illustrious countryman, the late Charles Darwin. An enumeration of the various peculiarities of the common orchis will now be undertaken, ascending from the root upward ; and I must warn the reader that no little credence is required to rightly apprehend the series of surprises in store, for nothing about the common orchis is common. It is not common in the sense that bluebells, primroses, and buttercups are common : it hasn't got a common root : it hasn't got a common flower : it isn't fertilised in the common ordinary way : and the extreme care be- stowed on each part of it is anything but common. The root of the common orchis is a didymous or twin root (radix didyma), and consists, as Sir Joseph Hooker says (" Science Primer," p. 40), of two distinct fleshy tubercles, one large and the other small. These grow together at the base of the stem, and from the column, or place of attachment, numerous slender fibres spread out horizontally. When an orchis is in flower (April and May), the stem and leaves proceed from the crown of the larger tubercle, while the smaller one is attached at the neck. Later on in the year, when the orchis is seed-bearing (end of July), the larger tubercle has become brown and husky and withered, the fibres have disappeared, and then the whole plant dies. Meantime the smaller tubercle has grown plump and vigorous, and detaches itself into a separate plant with a plumule or growing- point of its own, which eventually becomes the orchis of the following year. The orchis is thus propagated by its tuber. The appearance of the plumule announces that the orchis belongs to the great order of Monocotyledons, which, of course, are distinguished for possessing (a) one seed-leaf only, (£) straight-veined leaves, (7) endogenous wood in long fibres, and (S) floral whorls in 3's and 6's. The snowdrop, crocus, daffodil, hyacinth, and tulip also belong to the same order, and flower early in the year, when the soil is hard and stubborn, so that the mechanical advantage of a single dagger-shaped growing-point is obvious. In general, bulbs which bear flowers die after fulfilling that debt, but sometimes, as just described, the plant is continued by the formation of a new bulb, which does not altogether perform the part of a true root. The tuber of the orchis is a case in point, for it contains a store of food, not for the leaves and stem, but for the new tuber. It is, therefore, composed of starch, loosely consolidated in minute granules like tapioca, and not in flakes like the bluebell. For the production of this starch, besides the usual amount of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon obtained from the atmosphere, much potash is required, which, with nitrogen and sulphur, forms albuminoid, the chief food of the life-giving principle in plants. The commonest albuminoid is gluten (" Science Primer," p. 26). The whole nature of the orchis is viscid, and its tuber, when soaked in water, emits a transparent gum. The tuber itself survives for eighteen months, a period which may roughly be divided into three stages : (1) from the first appearance to the separate existence ; (2) from the appearance of the rootlets to the development of the new tuber and the perfecting of the leaves ; (3) from the appearance of the leaves to seed-bearing and decay. It would be an interest- ing discovery to ascertain the age of a tuber and the amount of increase annually : does a tuber, two inches in length, say, represent the reserve of twelve or more years? For it is evident that the common orchis grows extremely slowly. From the tuber is made Salep (Sahhleb, in Arabic), a nutritious preparation which forms a considerable part of the diet of the inhabitants of Turkey, Syria, and Palestine, and comes to us in hard oval cakes of a yellowish colour, not quite transparent. It tastes like arrowroot and is very wholesome, and contains a greater quantity of nutriment in the same bulk than any other vegetable substance known, one ounce mixed with soup being sufficient food for a strong man for a day. If this old-fashioned statement is true (" Library of Enter- taining Knowledge," vol. ii. p. 158), then the care taken by nature in preserving so valuable a product is at once explained ; but Dr. Lindley instances the orchis as being a case of beauty apart from utility, and he denies that Salep is prepared from its tubers. It is worthy of remark that the orchideae do not flourish in rich or highly-manured lands, the soil of grass-meadows suiting them better. Gloucestershire supplies many tubers, but those from the Levant are finer. I would now call attention to the shapeof the tuber, which seems specially designed to assist the peculiar growth of the plant. Like a royal progress through a disaffected region, the common orchis seems to have strayed into a dangerous quarter, where all 54 HA R D WI CKE ' S S CIENCE - G 0 SSIP. sorts of precautionary measures are necessary to en- sure safety. First of all, the tuber is heart-shaped like a fishing-float, not inversely heart-shaped like the bulb of a bluebell, and the rootlets proceed from the plumule and not from the solid base. It has taken some time and much experimental observation to discover the reason for this arrange- ment, and indeed I am by no means sure that I have rightly apprehended the truth, even now ; but I am tempted to put down the reason as it appears to me, plant would be unarmed in the great struggle for existence, for it cannot abide deep-planting. To meet this peculiar requirement, how admirably is the shape of the tuber adapted ! Before it is detached, it is oval : after its detachment it -is heart-shaped : which accords with the law of solid bodies moving through liquids, whereby the larger and heavier part is made to go first. To ascertain this, I planted thirty-six tubers of Orchis mascula in a shallow box, on August 1st, 1SS1, and a single tuber in a deep large Fig. 43. — A, Tubers of Orchis mascula (April) ; B, roots ; c, neck. for there is no help to be gained from the books. The new tuber, being formed at the side of the old tuber, is evidently not intended to occupy the same space, but, on the contrary, it is purposely pushed more deeply down into the soil where the springs of life are not exhausted. Thus the plant makes a little journey annually, the tubers in April being about two inches below the surface, whereas in August they are six inches deep. So far from this being a fortuitous circumstance, it is one of those precautionary measures already mentioned, without which the pot. The plants all flowered last spring, but with this great difference : those in the box appeared above ground in September, they kept their spotted leaves through the winter, and were in flower by March 20th ; whereas that one in the pot did not appear above ground till February loth, and was not out in flower till April 30th ; after which it died, while the others survived. The case of the bluebell, which has to meet different engagements, is exactly the opposite : the bulb is inversely heart-shaped, the roots proceed from the solid base, and the plant starts HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 55 from a depth of seven or eight inches below the surface. One is here naturally led to ask why, sup- posing the above to be true, hasn't nature contrived that the new tuber should be settled in its proper place at once — wouldn't that have been easier ? Undoubtedly it would, but the general law, by which the descending axis of plants is made to seek depth and darkness, couldn't be broken ; and so the above plan is adopted. What a proof of Divine care ! The rootlets are formed during the second stage of the tuber's existence, and are made up of an outer skin with loose interme- diary cells between the skin and the central fibre. They have the appear- ance of whipcord, but they are brittle and sen- sitive. The cells are like tapioca ; their function is to absorb mineral moisture from the soil, to supply the plumule and the leaves. I think this must be the reason of their position,' for if the tuber supplied the leaves with nutriment, then clearly the rootlets would have to start from the base ; and, as a proof of this, I found in April a fine plant in flower, perfectly healthy and vigo- rous, but with the old tuber entirely de- voured by slugs, and the new one meagre and aborted. As it is, the rootlets spread upward, downward, and horizontally, either drawing the tuber to the surface and help- ing it to shoulder its way higher, or else preventing it from descending any lower. The last thing to notice about the tuber is its extraordinary scent, which resembles the scent of carbolic acid, nitrate of silver, or the reptile house at the Zoo. It is in- creased by darkness and moisture. It produces a chill shuddering sensation, if inhaled for any length of time, accom- panied by a feeling of headache and nausea. Now, I am anxious to know if this peculiar unsavoury reptilian odour is in any way a protection to the orchis, and I should feel greatly obliged to anyone who would en- lighten me. Consider the life history of the plant. It grows in meadows and hedges at a time of the year when the weather is severe, and forage for small animals very scarce. The gardening journals for the spring of iSSl contained many notices of the ravages made by mice among bulbous plants; but, although I have found many tubers destroyed by slugs, I have not as yet observed the marks of teeth on them. Why don't mice gnaw the tubers of the common orchis ? I will venture an explanation. Anything bitter is rejected by men and animals as disturbing the bile : the case of buttercups and toads will readily occur. Cats and dogs turn from shrew-mice in disgust, but hedgehogs and snakes devour them. Can this odour be intended to warn shrew-mice fof their natural enemies ? If so, what a truly remarkable plant the orchis is ! for there seems to be nothing but protective precaution about it. The case of the bluebell does not interfere, it will be noticed, with this explana- tion, because the orchis is only required in sparing abundance, as will be shown hereafter, and affords no pollen ; whereas the bluebell is deeply planted and supplies vast quantities of pollen. The cold clammy Fig. 44. — a, Root of Orchis mascula ; b, transverse section of root ; c, longitudinal section of root. reptilian character of the orchis certainly deserves greater attention on the part of botanists. The stem and leaves. The skin of the common orchis is a scape, or a simple erect herbaceous hollow cylinder, rising directly from the root and elevating the flower,'but not the leaves. It dies as soon as the seed is set, and when dry has a pungent snuffy odour. Its cellular tissue is arranged in isolated bundles. There is nothing extraordinary about the 'stem, except the fact that breaking it prevents the new tuber from flowering the following year. The Rev. B. S. Maiden was kind enough to point this out, for I was puzzled to know why some plants, with many 56 HARD WICKE ' S S CIENCE- G 0 SSI P. leaves, bore no spike. The check to the system, no doubt, prevents the juices from being elaborated and ripened, and so the finishing-touch, as it were, is never put, and the spike suffers. The leaves are exceedingly interesting, and will amply repay all the trouble of microscopic investiga- tion. They are radical, simple, linear, smooth, with entire margin, common vernation, and purple spots. A spotted leaf is called coloratum, because it is not entirely green ; they are often blistered {bullatum) also. They lie most frequently in the form of a five- fingered star, they absorb a large amount of sun- action, and are most conspicuous. A leaf consists of (a) an epidermis, or stout white spotted upper skin, arranged in hexagonal cells, like the skin of a crocodile, ( /3) a layer of chlorophyll, and (7) an under- skin perforated with numerous stomata which are admirably situated to perform their functions. Free from the dust and the sun's rays, they are useful to catch the evaporation of the soil, to give off superfluous moisture, and to assimilate material from the air for food. The stomata must play an important part in the formation of the spike, which does not appear till the leaves are fully developed. The skin of the upper surface is more difficult to explain, but the beautiful appearance of the spots, either when seen, handsome and sullen in the woods, or blood -red and hexagonal under the microscope, arrests the attention and forces from us the questions, why should the leaves be spotted ? Do the spots protect the plant in any way by repelling foes, or are they merely ornamental ? Certainly their resemblance to the common snake is very striking, and as, according to some botanists, the orchid family survives by an organised system of deception, these purple spots may possibly be intended to deceive mice or other enemies. They are arranged without any order, sometimes many and large, sometimes few and small ; and, as far as I have been able to observe, the leaves of those plants which grow in hedges have the most spots. Is this only capricious chance ? or does Sprengel's conviction, that the wise Author of Nature hasn't created a single hair in vain, point to some set purpose ? During the past two years I have repeatedly tried to ascertain this, but those gentlemen with whom I have communicated on the subject, have not considered the above suggestion sufficiently esta- blished by facts to be worthy of much notice. They argue that if the spots are intended to deceive mice, what is the fate of those varieties of the common orchis which have no spots, and how can mice be deceived in the dark ? But if any organism, through misfortune or fault, abandons a protection provided by nature, then :it must be content with reduced safety ; for the spotted leaves generally seem less mangled than the plain. At any rate, it seems almost incredible that such conspicuous marking should be there for mere beauty apart from utility ; and the quaint Scotch superstition, though interesting from the piety with which it is conceived, does not offer a substantial explanation. It is strange that spots in the animal world should be connected with venom and rapacity. Can the spots secrete acrid j uices which emit an odour by night, and form a protection from slugs by day ? Mr. Britten, of the British Museum, and Mr. Stansfield, of Sale, do not think they form any protection, and I have frequently noticed leaves much spotted yet much gnawed ; though how much more they would have been gnawed, had the spots not been there, it is impossible to say. This theory of mine is occasioned by absence of information and the con- clusion that the leaves elaborate the spike ; for the spike suffers when the leaves are damaged, and when once fairly out in February, the leaves do not grow much larger. The plain-leaf variety I regard as a straggler on the line of march, who, for some reason, has not kept up with the main body, and whose kit and accoutrements are consequently not in perfect order. This may be the result of disturbance, soil, manure, lime, &c, for the specimens experimented with last year had every one of them paler flowers and fewer spots than the year before ; and Mr. Wallace has shown that spots, eyes, and lines vary and appear on the most highly modified parts. This, again, connects the flower and the leaf. A spot, when examined by the microscope, presents a beautiful series of hexagonal cells, like a honeycomb, depressed towards the centre, with a red hue, and light fawn- coloured ridges intervening. The colouring matter (erythrophyll) coagulates very soon, though, if dried at once, it retains its tint. Finally, can the age of the orchis be determined by the number of the leaves? Seedlings with one and two leaves are continually found in April, but these have no spike. I have not found a spike with less than three leaves ; so that, supposing a leaf is added successively year by year, the plant that has ten leaves must represent the accumulated reserve of twelve or more years. These are points which it would be deeply interesting to discover. The inflorescence. Hitherto we have been con- sidering the personal organs of the common orchis, or those relating to the individual vitality of the plant ; now we come to the relative organs, or those concerned with the reproduction of the species. These in all flowers are the most conspicuous, orna- mental, and interesting parts, and they compose what is generally understood by a flower. Our poetical ideas are centred in the flower, and most people regard the flower only, but an inquiry into the reasons of the different shapes and structures of flowers, so far from being dry and prosaic, is found to be, since Charles Darwin and others have brought their intellects to bear on the subject, an entirely new delight, which affords sure answers to otherwise un- solved riddles. For we have now arrived at the actual flower that will always be memorable in the annals HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 57 of botany, and the case is something like this. Thou- sands before Galileo had observed the stately swing of the great brass chandelier in the cathedral at Pisa, and thousands before Newton had noticed the fall of an apple on a chill October day ; thousands before James Watt had watched a boiling kettle, and thou- sands had seen bees flitting about the flowers of the orchis and loosestrife ; but it took the perseverance and genius of Darwin, to unravel the mysterious mechanism of this curious plant. It is strange now to read the remarks made about the fertilisation of the common orchis prior to the year 1862 : some said that it is fertilised by absorption, while others, carrying their ideas to the excess of caution, declared that it was one of those unexplained secrets of nature into which it was not proper to pry. The term inflorescence is applied to the general arrangement of flowers on a stem, which is managed in such a variety of clever ways that plain evidence of more than human resource and invention is given in bold characters. Take, for instance, a spike of the common orchis and a flower of the common buttercup ; the inflorescence of the one is the exact opposite of the inflorescence of the other. The buttercup is of primitive type, centrifugal, and with leaves developed : the orchis is highly modified, centripetal, and with leaves plain. In the buttercup (" Science Primer," p. 54), the flower that terminates the axis of the plant opens first, then the one next to it, and so on, until the flower farthest from the first has opened. Such inflorescence is called centrifugal, because the order of flowering is from the central axis outward, and the axis itself does not elongate. In the orchis, the flower farthest from the top opens first, then the next, and so on, till the one at the ex- tremity of the spike is reached ; and all this time the axis is elongating. The teazel is different again, for it opens its flowers first half-way up the head, and then works upwards and downwards. Here the very natural question may be asked : Why should two common flowers, which come out about the same time, have exactly opposite arrangements ? The answer happily is simple enough : the two flowers have two very different offices to perform. The buttercup supplies a vast amount of pollen, and the orchis supplies what ? That's the question ! That has been the object of these observations, to answer the question : What does the orchis produce necessary to secure the visits of bees ? With your permission, I will proceed very leisurely at this point of the inquiry, like a gossamer-spider feeling tremblingly along its line. A full-grown orchis-spike shows many sessile, irregular, labiate, ringent flowers, duly arranged one above the other. The process of opening, which is here only just begun, takes about a fortnight, so that allowing a fortnight for the ripening of the pollen, the entire period occupied in unfolding a spike is about a month. Durins: this time the flowers remain open, bidding for insect-services night and day, for an orchis-flower, unlike the marigolds and sun-eyed daisies, that close their winking flowers in rain, is incapable of closing again after having once opened ; but as soon as the ovary has been impregnated, the flower, having performed its office, fades away, and if the spike is a large one, the lower flowers are dead before the upper ones are expanded. Next, look at the delicate poise of the flower ; it is fastened like a spring. This provision is necessitated by the state of the case, for as the flowers cannot close when once open, it is manifest that the wet and heavy dews would soon spoil the pollen if the corolla faced up- ward, and it harmonises also with the centripetal inflorescence ; for it would be inconceivable that a flower should be made in such a way that a bee visiting it would be subjected to the inconvenience of flying backwards, as would occur if the inflorescence were centrifugal. Our examination, then, has not extended far before we see how eminently an orchis is adapted for the visitation of insects ; and, even if we were not familiar with all the deeply interesting facts about the order, I think the above could not escape notice. (To be continued.) THE PRE-CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. By W. W. Watts, B.A., F.G.S. THE study of the Pre-Cambrian rocks of England was for many years neglected and even ignored, from the time when Murchison declared that it was not possible for such rocks to occur there. He worked out to some extent the great gneissose rocks of the north-west Highlands, and not finding some of their characteristic details repeated in the Malverns he concluded that the gneisses of that place were merely altered Cambrian rocks, and thought that he was confirmed in this conclusion by the fact that the strike of these gneisses agreed with that of the flank- ing Cambrian deposits. The value of this we shall estimate later. In spite of this assertion from the lips of the director-general of the Geological Survey, many men believed that we had in England and Wales representatives of these very ancient rocks, and amongst them I may mention Mr. W. S. Symonds, who, writing in 1872, in "Records of the Rocks," states his belief that the crystalline rocks of Anglesey and Caernarvon, the schists of Holyhead, the rocks of Bardsey, and of the Lleyn or Caernarvon peninsula will all eventually be classed as Pre-Cambrian ; he continues and includes in this statement the Twt Hill rock of Caernavon, the syenitic axis of St. David's, and the Malvern gneiss. How far his ideas were correct this paper will endeavour to show, and we 58 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. shall see that in few or no points did he miss the mark. From several points of view these rocks are of great interest, for they admit us to a whole volume of the earth's history, which, when carefully read and thoroughly understood, will enable us (in part, at least) to bridge the gulf between the knowledge we have from stratigraphical geology on the one hand, and from celestial physics and chemistry on the other. But this volume is written in an obsolete language, and the ink was blotted and smeared before it had thoroughly set in ; and, in addition to this, the volume has been cut and torn into fragments, of which many have been entirely lost and many have become almost useless. So the translation is difficult from a triple cause, for we have to piece the rocks together and to supply what is lost or missing, to see through the changes, defacing, and obliteration which the original charac- ters have undergone, and to reason out the methods by which the rocks were formed ; for we cannot suppose that the agencies at work at these distant periods were precisely like those we can observe to day. In spite of these difficulties, the Pre- Cambrian rocks are being gradually re- duced to order, just as the chaos of "Tran- sition and Greywacke " grew up, under the skilled workmanship of Sedgwick and Mur- chison, into the beautiful and connected Cambrian and Silurian systems. In America, Dr. Sterry Hunt has identi- fied six distinct systems below the Potsdam sandstone ; they are, in ascending order : — I, Laurentian ; 2, Norian ; 3, Huronian; 4, Montalbian ; 5, Taconic ; 6, Keweenian. Of the first four of these an excellent account was published in Science-Gossip some time back. Each of these systems contains a great thickness of rocks, but they cannot be definitely correlated with their equivalents on this side of the Atlantic. Neglecting the American, Scotch, and Irish Pre- Cambrians, I propose to give a resume of the characters of these rocks in the district where they occur in England and Wales ; there are seven such districts, and, in the order in which they were originally described they are, 1, Malvern (1S64. Holl, Q. J. G. S. xxi.) ; 2, St. David's (1876. Hicks, Q. J. G. S. xxxiii. &c.) ; 3, Caernarvonshire and N. Wales (1877, Hicks, Bonney, Hughes, Q. J. G. S. xxxiv. xxxv. &c); 4, Anglesea (1877. Hicks, Hughes, Callaway, Roberts, Q. J. G. S. xxxiv. xxxvi. &c; Geol. Mag. 1880, 1SS1); 5, Shropshire (1879. Callaway, Q. J. G. S. xxxv. &c.) ; 6, Charnwood Forest (1876. Bonney and Hill, Q. J. G. S. xxxiii. &c.) ; 7, '.Cornwall. 1. Malvern. Holl, in 1864, wrote his splendid paper on these hills, and boldly claimed a Pre- Cambrian age for the gneisses there. -The rocks are mostly felspathic and hornblendic gneisses, some- times massive, but more frequently well foliated. Mica occurs plentifully in some parts, for instance near the Wych, and epidote is a rather common mineral. The fine hornblende rock of North Hill is well known for its handsome appearance and remark- ably tough character. There are good granitoid rocks here and there, some closely resembling those of the Wrekin. The general strike of these rocks is along the chain, i.e. north and south, but there are many local variations. The dip varies greatly, and is frequently as much as 85°. The sketch (rig. 45) gives an idea of the character of the bedding of the rock, which agrees with its foliation. Intrusive granites and diorites occur all along the ridge, and some care is requisite to distinguish be- tween the igneous and metamorphic rocks. On the east side of Herefordshire Beacon there is a curious halleflinta-like rock, which Dr. Callaway classes as Pebidian. Although the strike of the Pre-Cambrian Fig. 45 rock — Knoll south of Worcester Beacon. 1, Compact Hornblendic ; 2, coarse gneiss, with lenticular patches of fine gneiss in it. rocks agrees with that of the surrounding Cambrians, the dip is often in an entirely opposite direction, and in Raggedstone Hill, Holl has given a section of the unconformity splendidly displayed (fig. 46). As the Hollybush sandstones are probably the equivalents of part of the Lingula flags, there cannot be any doubt as to the Pre-Cambrian age of the gneisses, which are now acknowledged to belong to the Dime- tian system. 2. St. David's. About the same time as Holl was working at the Malverns, Dr. Hicks announced the presence of Pre-Cambrian rocks underlying the Cam- brian at St. David's. He did not however begin to work on these at once, but felt his way down to them, by working out the Cambrian thoroughly. He esta- blished the succession in descending order through Arenig, Llandeilo, Tremadoc, Lingula, and Menevian beds, down to the Harlech group in which he dis- covered a fauna of Trilobites, Brachiopods, and Annelids, exceedingly rich for beds so low in the series. Below these rocks were ashy shales, and HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 59 agglomerates, which had been previously called altered Cambrian beds, and were supposed to have been metamorphosed by the central " Syenitic " ridge. Finally, Hicks established here three systems, to which he gave the names of Dimetian, Arvonian, and Pebidian. The Dimetian System consists of a series of truly metamorphosed rocks of a curious character. True foliated gneisses are rare, but the rocks are massive in character ; they consist of compact granitoid rocks (granitoidite), with much quartz, and some felspar, little mica and some chlorite. A micro- scopic examination of these has proved them to be elastic or fragmentary in their origin. Besides these, there are quartziferous breccias, quartz schists, quart- zite, one band of crystalline limestone, and some green rocks which appear to have been inter-bedded lavas of a basaltic character. The Arvonian System of Dr. Hicks appears to be everywhere separated by faults from the Dimetian, and presents some curious varieties of rocks. Among Fig. 46.— Quarry south of Rag^edstone Hill (Holl). a, Holly-bush sandstone ; B, gneissose rock. these what the Swedish geologists call HliUeflintas are conspicuous. These are altered silicious rocks, which appear to have been formed from the denuda- tion of highly silicious lavas and ashes. In addition to these, however, quartz-porphyries or felsites, true volcanic rocks or acidic lavas occur in some quan- tity, often showing spherulitic structure. The Pebidian System is found in unconformable contact with the Dimetian, and faulted against the Arvonian rocks. It consists chiefly of volcanic rocks, agglomerates, conglomerates (by stratification and rounding of fragments), ashy beds, hornstones, and what, for want of a better name, are called imperfect ashy schists of green, grey, and purple colours. One contemporaneous felstone lava appears on the coast west of Porth Liskey, where the beds are well ex- posed. The basement conglomerate of the Cambrian System rests unconformably on these rocks, and contains pebbles of Pebidian rock, thus most indis- putably proving the order of succession and age of these rocks. (To be continued.) RECREATIONS IN FOSSIL BOTANY. (L YGINODENDRON OLDHAMIUM.) By James Spencer. No. VIII. THIS very singular but most beautiful fossil plant was originally described by the late Mr. Binney, F.R.S., from specimens obtained from the neighbourhood of Oldham, under the name of Dadoxylon OldJiamium. At that time this plant was generally thought to have belonged to the conifers;, and to have been the representative of that family of plants in the forests of the coal-measures. Some time after Mr. Binney's paper appeared, another paper on this same plant by Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., was published in the Transactions of the Royal Society. In that memoir the author clearly demonstrated, that Mr. Binney's plant was not a dadoxylon, according to Brongniart's description of that genus. He also showed that its structure was so very peculiar and distinctive as to warrant him in placing it in a new genus; and as one of its distinguishing features consisted in the reticulated character of the vessels of the woody cylinder, he gave to the new genus the name of Dictyoxylon, still how- ever retaining Mr. Binney's specific name ; hence, throughout the greater portion of the memoir, our plant re- joiced under the new name of Dicty- oxylon Oldhamium. Towards the end of the memoir, the author again changed the name of the plant for the following reason : upon ex- amining a fine series of sandstone fossils in the Liverpool Museum, Professor Williamson thought that some of them were the casts of similar plants to his new genus Dictyoxylon. He subsequently learnt that similar sandstone fossils had been de- scribed by a Scotch gentleman of the name of Gourlie, under the name of Lyginodendron Lands- burghii. Upon reading Mr. Gourlie's description, he became confirmed in his conjecture, viz. that Lyginodendron and Dictyoxylon were only different forms of the same genus. Therefore following the rule laid down as one of the canons of science, namely, that the oldest name should claim precedence, he generously gave up his own name of Dictyoxylon in favour of the older name of Lyginodendron. But, as there was no proof that the Scotch plant was specifically identical with the English one, he still retained Mr. Binney's specific name for the Oldham plant, so that the correct name for this plant is now Lyginodendron Oldhamium. The Oldham district has long been noted for its 6o HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. rich stores of fossil plants, which have been brought to light chiefly through the labours of Messrs. Butterworth, Nield, Earnshaw, and the late Mr. Whittaker. Professor Williamson has frequently alluded to the invaluable aid that he has received from them, and of their untiring devotion to the Cause of science. By a curious coincidence, my first acquaintance with the fossil plant now under description, dates from the first time that I met Mr. Butterworth. I was geologising at Southowram Bank Top Coal Tit, near Halifax, one Saturday afternoon, when the unusual sound of a fresh hammer attracted my attention. It proved to belong to Mr. Butterworth ; mutual explanation took place, and among the Fig. 47. — Section of Lyginodendron Oldhamium (ma?. 12 diam in Author's cabinet), a, central cellular pith; b, medullary cy cylinder ; d, cortical bundles ; e, medullary rays ;/, inner bark "spoils" which we won on that occasion was a good specimen of Lyginodendron Oldhamium. Since then many a pleasant ramble have I enjoyed with my Oldham friends, both in Yorkshire and Lancashire, in search of fossil plants. Lyginodendron Oldhamium proves to be one of the most common fossil plants found in our Halifax district. My cabinet contains a large series of sections of this plant which I have prepared from specimens found in them. The one from which our illustration has been taken has all its various tissues in a beautiful state of preservation, and from which we are enabled to learn a great deal about the structure of the plant. On comparing a transverse section of Lyginoden- dron with a similar one of Dadoxylon, we see at once that there is a very great difference in the structures- of the two plants. We find that instead of the simple, but very compact arrangement of the tissues seen in the latter plant, there is a very complicated state of arrangement of them in the former plant. In Lyginodendron the tissues are not only more varied in form, but the component cells and vessels are also more variable in size and generally larger than they are in Dadoxylon. A transverse section of Lyginodendron Oldhamium (fig. 47) shows the usual tripartite division of the stem into pith, woody cylinder, and bark. The pith is formed of two distinct zones, after the manner of the pith of Lepidodendron Harcourtii, viz. a central cellular medulla (a) formed of a very regular hexagonal parenchyma, the cells of which are larger than those composing the pith in Dadoxylon. This central cellular pith is surrounded by an in- terrupted zone of vascular tissue, the cells and vessels of which arebarred(^). This zone is known as the " vascular medullary cylinder." In very young plants the central cellular pith is com- pletely enclosed by the medullary cylinder, but as the plant increased in size, the latter began to break up> and soon resolved itself into four detached bundles, and the inter- vening spaces became occupied by the extension of the central cellular pith. The woody cylinder (e) is formed of vessels which are arranged in ra- diating rows or laminas which are separated from one another by true medullary rays. In fig. 47 (/>) and in young specimens generally, many of these lamina; consist of a single row of vessels, but other lamina; in the same section have from two to six rows of vessels, while in older plants there are sometimes as many as twelve or more rows of vessels in each lamina and without intervening medullary rays. Generally speak- ing, the vessels increase in size in passing from the inner edge of the woody cylinder towards the peri- phery, up to a certain limit, when they split up into two ; those vessels which occur in single rows are generally the largest, and they gradually decrease in, size as the rows in each lamina increase in number. In longitudinal sections the vessels are seen to be long tubes, and, as already stated, their walls are reticulated, and not pitted as the vessels are in Dadoxylon, or barred as in the Lepidodendroid plants. The medullary rays (e) which bind the laminae together, form nearly one-half of the ligneous cylinder, and they are composed of elongated cells of mural parenchyma, similar to those which occur in ., from specimen linder ; c, woody ; g, fibrous layer. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 61 Stigmaria and other Lepidodendroid plants, and also in modem Dicotyledonous plants. These rays vary in size, from one or two to six or more rows of cells. and outer bark. The innermost portion of the inner bark is composed of cellular tissue of a very delicate character, which is known as the pseudo-cambium. Fig. 48. — Tangential section of fibrous layer in Lyginodendron (mag. 8 diameters). Fig. 49.— Ironstone cast of Lyginodendron (nat. size). The bark : this part of the plant is a most peculiar and highly characteristic structure. It may be divided into three portions ; namely, inner, middle, layer. This layer, however, is rarely preserved in the fossil state, although it occurs in several of my specimens. The remainder of the inner bark (/) is composed of larger cells, with thicker walls. The outer bark is also formed of similar cellular tissue to the last named, but is very rarely seen ; indeed the whole of the true epidermal layer has not yet been found attached to the plant, that I am aware of. The middle layer (g) is the most characteristic feature about the bark, and, on account of its almost indestructible character, it is nearly always more or less preserved. It is com- posed of a series of fibrous bands, formed of dark- brown tissue, and so dense in structure as to appear like black lines. These bands are of pretty uniform length, but very irregular in outline, so that they appear not unlike Roman numerals, which give to transverse sections of this plant a striking resemblance to a clock face. These dark bands are composed of true fibrous vessels, which appear round in transverse sections, but are seen to be long and fusiform in longitudinal ones. Tangential sections (fig. 48) show that these bands ascend the stem in an undulating manner, and interlace with one another, thus en- closing large lenticular spaces and giving to these sections an appearance not unlike that presented by cortical sections of Lepidodendron. But there is really no affinity between the two sets of tissues, for while the latter tissue is cellular, the former is true woody fibre. I have in my cabinet some large cortical sections of Lepidodendron obovatum in which the leaves have lost their raised central portion and 62 IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. nothing remains, save the narrow outlines of the edges, which cause these sections to look very like tangential sections of Lyginodendron. But upon comparing them under the microscope, the difference between them is seen at once. The large rhomboidal spaces between the fibrous bands are filled with cellular tissue, which varies considerably in form even in the same plant. In the transverse section from which our illustration is taken, this tissue takes the form of long oblong cells, which in some cases stretch across the spaces between the fibrous bands, in others they are trailed about in a very curious manner, which is very pro- bably due to shrinkage during or before fossilisa- tion. They gradually decrease in size, as they ap- proach the regular tissues of the inner bark. There is yet another interesting feature in connection with the bark. Placed amid the cellular tissues of the inner bark are four pairs of vascular bundles (d), formed of similar tissues as those composing the vascular me- dullary cylinder. These bundles form an interesting, and at the same time a most characteristic feature, in all transverse sections of Lyginodendron Oldhamium. In longitudinal sections they are not so conspicuous, on account of their component vessels being reticu- lated in the same way as those forming the con- tiguous ligneous zone, so that they appear to be merely its outer edge. The presence of these bundles explains a curious feature which is observable in most transverse sections of this plant, and which was for a long time a puzzle to me, and that is, the undulating outline presented by the ligneous cylinder. At the first glance it might appear, as it did to me, that these undulations were due to pressure, but such is not the case, as they occur in specimens which do not appear to have been at all compressed, and which have their tissues well preserved. These cor- tical bundles are placed in the hollows where the undulations curve inwards, while those of the medulla are placed where they curve outwards. It appears very probable, as was suggested by Professor William- son, that the two sets of bundles acted as stays or buttresses to strengthen the somewhat lax tissues of the plant. The great majority of specimens of this genus shew no signs of either branches or foliage, for the cortical bundles do not appear to have any connection with either leaves or branches. There are other bundles of tissue in the bark which may have had some connection with either leaves or branches. Some of my specimens show branches or fronds being given off from the bark. There are other petiolar bun- dles which originate either in the ligneous zone or medullary cylinder, but which, in many cases, appear to have terminated at[the outer surface of the bark, and most probably were connected with leaves or cones or other deciduous appendages. These facts render it pro- bable that the stem may have had a crown of fern-like fronds ; there are also other facts which point to the affinity of Lyginodendron with the tree-ferns. But on the other hand, in its double pith and woody cylinders, it is more allied to the Lycopodiaceae, as represented by the Lepidodendroid plants. It is one of the many coal plants, of which it may be said that we have yet to learn a great deal more about them before this can be placed in its proper position in the vegetable kingdom, and also one in which we may perhaps learn something about the great question of the evolution of the fossil plants of the coal- measures. The chief object which I have in view in writing these papers is,' that by the aid of our studies among the fossil plants found in our coal-ball nodules more light may be thrown on the history of our ordinary fossil plants, and especially on those forms the history of which is very obscure, so as to still further increase the growing interest taken in them. My cabinet contains a series of peculiar impressions of fossil plants with which I have long been familiar, but which I was unable to make anything of as to the kind of plant to which they had belonged. But after reading the above memoir on Lygino- dendron Oldhamhim, and becoming practically ac- quainted with the structure of the peculiar cortical fibrous layer as seen in tangential and transverse sections, a flood of light was thrown on these hitherto unknown fossil impressions. In the sandstone rocks of the millstone grit series, as well as in those of the coal-measures, we frequently find fragments of sandstone casts which are character- ised by the possession of a series of raised ridges and corresponding depressions, which ascend the stem in a somewhat spiral manner, nearly after the manner of the leaf-scars of the Lepidodendroid plants. These ridges and furrows vary considerably in length, accord- ing to the size of the plant, and very probably these variations also sometimes indicate different species. In some specimens the ridges are fully four inches in length, while in others they are not more than half an inch in length. They also vary considerably in height and form : some of them are smooth and rounded ; others stand up half an inch above the surface of the plant, ending in a sharp edge ; others again are rounded and striated. The most beautiful specimens are, however, found in the ironstones of the coal measures, as is usually the case w ith most of the ordinary fossil plants. Fig. 49 is taken from one of these ironstone fossils. Fossil collectors generally regard them as the impressions of Lepidodendroid plants, to which they bear a close resemblance. But this is one of those cases which not unfrequently occur among fossil plants, in which the ordinary impressions and casts convey but a faint idea of the real form of the original plant when growing in its native soil. These singular fossils are the impressions of the fibrous layer (fig. 47, g) in the bark of Lyginodendron, and, of HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 63 course, do not represent the external appearance of the plant when growing, as the real epidermal layer was outside of the fibrous zone. The many varieties of these sandstone casts indicate that there were probably many species of Lyginoden- drons. They are found in the sandstone rocks in the mill- stone grit series, and at various horizons in the coal strata. They have also a great horizontal range, occurring, as has been shown, in the Scotch coalfield whence the late Mr. Gourlie obtained his specimens, and also in Lancashire and Yorkshire, and very probably in other coalfields. The great range oi these plants and the abundance and large size of their remains, prove that they attained to arborescent di- mensions and flourished in great numbers, and that they formed a very important part of the flora of the Carboniferous age. The question maybe asked, What are these plants : but, like many other questions, it is far more easily asked than answered. I have already pointed out that Lyginodendron Ohihanmttn possesses affinities with both the Lycopodiaceas and the ferns of the same geological age, and that it was originally described as a Dadoxylon or fossil pine. But the fact is, the stem of Lyginodendron is so very anomalous in its structure, that we shall have to learn a great deal more about the plant before we can place it in its proper botanical position. We are not sufficiently acquainted with its mode of branching, or whether the branches partook of the nature and form of fern-like fronds as has been suggested, or otherwise, and nothing whatever is known about its roots; while in regard to the most important point as to the character of its reproductive organs, we have yet to learn whether it bore seeds or spores. It is, therefore, very obvious that, until we know more about these parts, especially about the character of its fructification, such an anomalous structure as is presented to us in the stem of Lygino- dendron must yield us an uncertain guide to its proper classification. This plant has been supposed by some fossil botanists to have been the parent of some of the gymnospermous seeds which occur so plentifully in the coal measures, and the great difference which exists between its structure and that of the true fossil pine. Dadoxylon has been accounted for in the very great difference in the habitats of the two plants. It has also been suggested that the seeds may have been brought from a distance by water and deposited among the debris of other plants. In the case of the seeds found in sandstone rocks and in limestone shales such was undoubtedly often the case, but my experience of the manner in which these seeds occur in the coal strata, and especially those which are found in our coal balls, leads me to think that it is highly improb- able that they have been brought from any great distance. On the contrary, there is an abundance of evidence to prove that the parent-trees must have flourished on the spot where the seeds are now found. In our coal balls, numerous species of Trigono- carpons and other gymnospermous seeds have been found associated with [the remains of the ordinary coal plants, such as stems, leaves, fruits, and abun- dance of spores. The occurrence of spores along with the larger fragments is almost certain proof that such vegetable debris must have been deposited on land and became entombed on the spot ; for if water had carried them away from the place where they had been originally deposited, the spores being so light could not have been deposited along with the heavier seeds and other fragments. Nor do I believe that the parents of the seeds could have been at all rare, or more easily destroyed than many of the other coal plants ; hence I am forced to the conclusion that we must look to some of the fossil plants with which we are already familiar for the parentage of these seeds. Whether Lygino- dendron may prove to be one of these we must leave for future discoveries to tell us, but from its near affinity to Dadoxylon it is not improbable that such may have been the case. POND LIFE IN MIDWINTER. IN several numbers of Science-Gossip last year, we were reminded of the fallacy of the opinion that ponds are destitute of life during the winter months ; and I should like to add my testimony to that borne by the Rev. W. C. Hey, M.A., and others, on this subject. More than once, after reading of some rare or common inhabitant of our ponds, I have had my desire to search for it dashed to the ground by being informed that it was not to be found during the winter months ! Last December, when I told a naturalist that I had found plenty of the very common cyclops and daphnia in some pump water, he told me they had no business there at that time of year ! But in the month of January last, I deter- mined to put aside and ignore all that had pre- viously obtained credence with respect to pond life in winter, and search for myself, in order to see if things were as they had been represented. With the memory fresh on my mind of what I caught in two excursions, I can truly say I am thankful I did so. I made my first excursion on Jan. 8, to a pond about two miles from Southampton, and I was soon con- vinced that this particular pond at any rate was not devoid of life, even though I visited it on one of the coldest days we had during the winter, and with a keen north-east wind blowing all the time. On this first visit, the only "fishing" apparatus I had with me was a bottlejwifh a narrow neck, attached to some odd pieces of string I happened to have in my pocket. Notwithstanding all disadvantages, before I left the pond I had managed to secure a good number of the H HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. ordinary "waterman "beetle ; any amount of Cyclops quadriconiis, female, male, and larvae ; Daphnia pulcx of course ; the larva of Ephemera marginata, and also of the phryganidre. While alluding to the caddis-worm, I should like to correct the erroneous notion which Mr. Ollard, of Enfield, gave expression to in the May number of Science-Gossip. He asked if any one could tell how it was that the bits of weeds, grass, &c, out of which caddis-worms make their cases kept their natural state so long as the insects required their use. But it is not true that the materials used do retain their " natural state " so long as the caddis-worm inhabits them. Many of the addis I have taken this year have been enclosed in cases which have lost all their greenness. On Jan. 1 1, I made another excursion to the pond mentioned above, and with much more satisfactory results. While I obtained duplicates of all the things above named, I also was fortunate enough to take others of much greater worth. Upon examination of the various bottles in which I had placed my spoil, I found the following : Noteus quadriconiis (of which a very good drawing is given on page 541 of the sixth edition of Carpenter's " Microscope ") ; Eosphora aurita, Trachelitis anas, and an abundance of Volvox globalor. I was much pleased with the last "find," as even so great an authority as M. C. Cooke asks, "what becomes of the Volvox globator during winter ?" I have not yet finished my examination of my bottles, and it is possible that the " half hath not been told " of what they really contain. But surely enough has been said to overturn the notion that our ponds in midwinter are wholly destitute of life. Rev. H. Carrington Lake. Southampton. COLLIERS' FOLKLORE.* A CURIOUS bit of folklore exists amongst the Lanarkshire and other colliers, to wit, that " the smell of the blooms of peas and beans makes the fire," — referring to explosions. It i3 astonishing how wide-spread the notion is. Were such ex- plosions most frequent during the hot months, when these "blossoms scent the gale," there might be reason for supposing the miner's dread of these months to result from a wish to connect cause with effect. Statistics however show that the hot months are the least liable to explosions ; and, although at that time, if ventilation be bad, foul gases and " damps" do arise from diminished barometrical pressure, it is in the [cold season with a high or rising barometer that explosions most frequently occur. Mr. Robert Hunt, of the Mining Record Office, to * Communicated by Mr. J. Young, a former collier, and ■now weigher at Quarter Iron Works, Hamilton, N.B. whom I wrote on the subject, writes as follows : " The 'peas blossom damp' and the 'trefoyle damp' is not unknown. " As Plott in his ' Natural History of Staffordshire ' (1686) says : ' 1 never heard that this was mortal to the workmen, the scent thereof freeing them from the dangers of a surprise.' He says that in the Peak country of Derbyshire, they appear to think that the odour of the flowers is a cause of the ' damp.' " But here they are wiser than to think it proceeds either from peas or trefoil ; it being rather appre- hended to arise from the workmen's breath and sweat, mixt with the streams of the golden marcasite (Arabic fire giving stone iron pyrites) or brass lumps, than anything else. "It is not generally supposed in any district that any ' damp ' can arise from peas, beans, or trefoil, but that damps do arise in the collieries having the smell of these blossoms." Mr. Hunt adds : " I give you on the other side a table of 234 explosions of fire damp which occurred from year 17 10 to 1878. You will see that the months of June and July are the most exempt from explosions. January, 21 explosions, February, 15 ,, March, 26 , , April, 22 ,, May, 19 June, 13 ,, July, 13 explosions. August, 19 ,, September, 18 ,, October, 20 ,, November, 25 ,, December, 33 „ I have just noticed that the author of the " Colliery Warnings" says that in 1882 there were 23 explo- sions with a rising barometer, and only six with a low, and that but 10 out of 30 were accompanied by southerly winds — supporting the belief that the most dangerous time is when the barometer is high or rising, although fire damp appears in greater quantities when there is a decrease of atmospheric pressure. A. G. Cameron. H.M. Geological Survey, Lincoln. Eels in Vinegar. — The other day, a friend called my attention to a small phial of vinegar, which, on being closely examined, was seen to be swarming with living creatures of minute size. When examined by the aid of a microscope, they had the appearance of eels, the microscope making them appear about an inch long, and about as thick as a pin. They appeared to be enjoying themselves im- mensely, wriggling about at a great rate. They were quite transparent, except in parts, where there was a dark matter in their interior which I took to be food. As a great many microscopists read this paper, I thought some of them would kindly explain what these were, and how they came. — W. Finch, jun. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 65 MATERNAL INSTINCT. WITHOUT desiring to rake up any of the evidence which has been tendered in favour of and adverse to the probability of the viper swallow- ing her young in presence of threatened danger — beyond noting the fact that, while there is no physi- cal obstruction to their being received into the mouth, gullet or stomach, there are certainly no special and exceptional facilities in the structure of those parts to admit of it in the adder, as has been alleged — may not this question be asked : — Supposing it to be proved that such a proceeding does take place, will not that be the only instance in nature of a mother betraying any protective instinct for a brood which do not in any way depend upon her for sub- sistence ? Snakes, whether hatched from extruded eggs or produced alive, are ushered into the world in a perfect condition, and are capable of getting their own living from the moment of birth. If we except slight pigmentary changes in the skin, and the addi- tional development of certain appendages, such as the rattle, the organs and the function in the infant snakeling differ in nowise from those of its parent, beyond mere capacity. Even venomous species enter upon life with a supply of ammunition all ready, and need no training or experience to put it to its proper use. The little nose-horned vipers which were born at the Zoological Gardens last winter killed mice before they had seen the light twelve hours ; and I have known rattlesnakes within three hours of their birth knock over young rats as though they had been shot. Little boas and pythons, too, begin to feed in a similarly short space of time, doubling up their quarry as artistically as the adult of thirty feet ; and newly-hatched grass and other serpents of the ovo- viviparous persuasion have been observed to take tadpoles almost immediately, without involving any maternal interference. In no other part of the world, as far as I have been able to discover, does such a theory obtain with regard to any snake — nor, indeed, with regard to any reptile, except that the Indians on the banks of the Orinoco declare that the female jacare or alligator keeps her young under shelter of ledges and caves in the rocks and disgorges her half-digested food for their benefit ; which, considering that this creature leaves her eggs in the sand to be hatched by the heat of the sun, certainly displays a degree of wisdom on her part equal to that of the oft-quoted wise child which knows its own father ! The common viper is so diffi- cult to keep alive in confinement, that no opportunity has hitherto occurred of settling this vexed question in menageries ; four were born in the Reptilium at the Zoo ten years ago, but did not survive long enough to afford any criterion, and died unswallowed. Russell's vipers, moccassins, and seven-banded snakes have bred there on several occasions ; two batches of hybrids between the Jamaica yellow-snake and a female pale-headed tree-boa were produced ; a large family of common boas made their appearance in the summer of 1877 ; and water vipers, nose-horned vipers, common rattlesnakes, yellow boas and ringed snakes have all been born there. But in the case of none of these has the slightest indication of maternal instinct been shown by the mother, nor have I been able to perceive a trace of anything of the sort in the horrid rattlesnake and others of my own which have given birth to young. The fact that parturient serpents are unusually savage, need scarcely, I think, be taken into account in dealing with this considera- tion. It was stated some years ago that a brood of young smooth snakes, born in captivity, were wont to rush to the mother and take refuge underneath her body when they were disturbed ; but whether there was anything else in the cage for them to take refuge under did not appear. Viviparous lizards occasion- ally swallow their young, but do so from pure alimen- tary motives, without any intention of restoring them to society, and one can conceive of cannibal elapidse, like the hamadryad and chequered snake, acting in a similar manner ; lizards, however, betray no concern for the welfare of their offspring, and it seems strange that if so defenceless a creature as a new-born slow- worm is left to fight its own battles, such elaborate provision should be made for the safety of little veneniferous beings so much better qualified to take care of themselves. In those curious and undoubtedly anomalous in- stances of incubation which have been observed among ovo-viviparous ophidians, an exemplification of something approaching this instinct has been manifested in the violent resentment shown by the serpent when the eggs were disturbed, and the per- tinacity with which she has adhered to her task. A grass-snake in this condition bit my hand as I was taking her temperature ; and to those who are ac- quainted with the character of this reptile, no better proof could be afforded of the intense revolution which its nature must have undergone. A remarkable variation of maternal intuition came under my notice in Nicaragua. Some alligator's eggs had been substituted for the legitimate contents of a hen's nest, and the deluded fowl continued to sit on them until they were hatched. (Alligator's eggs have a hard shell, and are very little bigger than a hen's — much smaller than one would expect.) No words can describe the surprise and astonishment depicted by that hen, as she surveyed the strange chickens. For several hours she pondered over them, never clucking, and making no effort to scratch food for them ; then, finding no solution of the puzzle, she gave it up and beat them to pieces. Arthur Stradling, C.M.Z.S. 29, Woodford Road, Watford. 66 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. NOTE ON CLADOSPORIUM DEPRESSUM. M Y friend Mr. Soppitt, of Saltaire, sent me last month a few leaves of Angelica sylvestris, on which were growing perithecia of Splnzrella ostruthii, Fr. These perithecia are remarkable, as being ag- gregated on small angular greyish spots which are dis- tinctly limited by the venules of the leaf. It appears that the mycelium which has begun to grow within the parenchyma of any intervenular area is unable to penetrate the vascular bundles of the venules, and is consequently confined to the area within which it originated. The perithecia of this species are almost constantly barren in this country, and it becomes a Fig. 50. — One of the serrations of the leaf of Angelica sylvestris, with three intervenular patches of Spluzrella Ostruthii. Fig. 51. — Tuft of fiocci and spores of Cladosporium depressum. question how the fungus is propagated. I was pleased to see one answer to this query in the small tufts of dematoid mould which grew on and round the bases of many of the perithecia. This I found to be Clado- sporium depression, B. and Br. It is well known that the perithecia of many sphneriaceous fungi are adorned in this way, as is so beautifully represented in the plates of Tulasne's " Selecta Fungorum Carpologia ;" and in point of fact most of the fungi contained in the suborder Dematici, like those in the Sphreronemei and others, will be found to be mere modes of repro- duction of species included in other orders. For instance, the common Cladosporium hcrbarum is known to be only the conidial stage of Sphccreia her- lartim, and in the same way it must be admitted that Cladosporium depressum" is the conidial phase of Spharella ostruthii, and the means whereby the fungus propagates itself during the summer, although it must have some other mode of continuing its existence through the winter months. W. B. Grove, B.A. MICROSCOPY. Manchester Microscopical Society. — The annual soiree of this flourishing society was held in the Athenaeum, Manchester, on Saturday evening, February 24th, and was attended by a large company of ladies and gentlemen. There was a capital show of microscopes and microscopic objects, living and dead. During the evening a lecture was delivered by Dr. J. E. Taylor, editor of Science-Gossip, on " Flowers and Fruits, and their Relation to Insects and Birds." Anatomical Objects. — We have received from Mr. R. G. Mason a series of cheap and very effective sections, illustrating the normal anatomy of the mammalian lung, with full instructions for mounting, &c. These cannot fail to be instructive to a young beginner. Meteorites. — Some time ago, I bought one of the slides showing moving bubbles, named by H. M. (page 276), and compared! it carefully with several genuine slides of meteorites, which in no respect does it resemble. I should think it is built up chiefly of waterworn quartz grains (with here and there a grain of orthoclase and (?) Microline) cemented together by an iron-oxide of some kind whose precise constituents can be determined by analysis only; probably it is limonite. M. Hensoldt is a stranger to me, but from all I learn, he would be the last man intentionally to .mislead his fellow-workers, and he could settle the doubt by obtaining an analysis from a recognised authority. Meanwhile will H. M. submit his slides to a competent judge of meteorites and let your readers know the result ? — T., Yorkshire College. Magnifying Measurements. — E. A. C. H. has made some mistake, either in the power of his objective and ocular, or in making his measurements. A 1 -in. objective (assuming, as is usually done by English opticians, that the distance necessary for perfect vision is 10 inches) magnifies 10 diameters. Ross's, Beck's, and Powell and Lealand's B. ocular, magnifies 7J diameters, giving an amplification of 75 diameters ; that is, supposing that the length of the body is 10 inches, but if, as is often the case with continental instruments, it is only 8 inches, or even less, the amplification would of course be only 60. But as E. A. C. H. says his objective and ocular only magnifies 33^ diameters, the length of the body of his HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 67 microscope must either not much exceed 4 inches, or his objective has a power of only 4 diameters. If this is not the case, he has made some error in using his camera lucida, and instead of projecting the image on the paper at a distance of 10 inches from the edge of the camera, he has placed it at only 5 inches (or less) ; this would of course diminish it one-half. When desirous of ascertaining the magnifying power of an objective and ocular, I place a six-inch scale divided into jjths, the same distance from the eye as the screw of the objective, and if one eye is directed to the scale, and the other to the magnified image of the divisions of the micrometer, the latter are seen upon the former, and the amplification is easily determined. As no microscopic illustration can be of scientific value, unless its true amplification is given, the correct magnifying power ef the objective and ocular employed should be ascertained and stated. — F. Kit ton. Meteorites. — Referring to H. M.'s remarks on this subject (Science-Gossip, December 1882) — a paper was read before the Quekett Microscopical Club, in November last, calling attention to the fact that the so-called Braunsfels Meteorite is not a meteorite at all, but a quartzite. The opinion of authorities was quoted, and specimens of ^quartzite, &c, were exhibited, showing the similarity existing between them and the so-called Braunfels Meteorite. The above specimens of quartzite, &c, containing fluid cavities, with bubbles which have spontaneous motion (as often enclosed in quartz) were also exhibited side by side, for comparison, at the last Conversazione of the Royal Microscopical Society. — F.R.M.S. Studies in Microscopical Science.— We draw especial attention to No. 38 of this admirable series — a section of rock, "red syenite" from Ord Hill, Sutherland, The slide accompanying the " study " is a most important object, clearly showing all the constituent parts, down to the air bubbles in the quartz. The plate of the "study" describing the syenite is coloured, and is one of the finest which have yet appeared. The letterpress description is written by Professor Heddle, M.D., and is very clear and full of matter interesting to the student. Birds of Brazil.— The following books relate to the ornithology of Brazil: Burmeister: " Systematische UebersichtderThiereBrasiliens " (Leipzig, 1855-56). Vols. 2, 3 relate to birds. Pelzen : " Zur Ornitholo- gie Brasiliens " (Wien, 1871). Spix : "Avium Species novae quas in itinereper Brasiliam anno 1817 collegit et descripsit " (Monachi, 1824-5). Swainson, " Birds of Brazil and Mexico " (London, 1841). Probably this list may serve the purpose of G. A. K., who at p. 277 Vol. XVIII. asks for titles of works on Brazilian Birds. — A Manchester Pythagorean. ZOOLOGY. Biological Works. — Mr. D. F. Howorth has published an admirable paper (read before the Ashton-under-Lyne Biological Society) on "The Natural Sciences as illustrated in the Ashton-under- Lyne Free Library." Local Ornithology. — We beg to call attention to an admirably drawn up " List of the Birds of the Banbury District," by F. C. Apton, B.C., the Rev. B. D'O. Aplin, B.A., and O. V. Aplin. This List is published under the auspices of the Banbury Natural History Society, by John Potts, Banbury. Stafford Scientific Institute and Field Club. — This society has made its influence felt in Stafford by introducing popular science lectures. The following gentlemen have addressed good audiences on various subjects : Dr. J. E. Taylor, editor of Science-Gossip, Mr. Richard A. Proctor, editor of "Knowledge," and Professor W. Barrett, of Dublin. Spiders. — The process described by Mr. E. Lamplough (Science-Gossip, pp. 46, 47, February, 1883) is well known as that by means of which the female spider is impregnated, and has frequently been described by various authors, beginning with Martin Lester in 1678. The exact .method of this process is probably different with most spiders. What has not been so frequently well observed as yet is the method by which the spermatic fluid is transferred by the male spider from its secreting organs to the palpal organs. An exceedingly valuable paper on this (from careful experiment and observations) was read a few days ago before the Linnean Society by Mr. F. M. Campbell, of Hoddesdon. I may add, for the benefit of those who may wish to study our indigenous spiders, that this subject is included, among others connected with spiders, in a work by the present writer, " Spiders of Dorset," published in 1879-81, by the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club, pp. 1-625, withintroduction, pp. i.-xlii., plates i.-vi. — O. P. Cambridge, Bloxworth, Dorset. Helix obvoluta. — I am glad to corroborate a note which appeared in an old number of your valu- able paper, as to Crabbe Wood, near here, being a locality for that rare shell Helix obvoluta. I have found it there for the last three years in company with Clausilia rolphii, both alive, and also the empty shells under hazels, where the snail always hibernates accord- ing to my experience. Winchester is at least fifteen miles from Buriton, the woods near which place are the only locality I have been able to find in works on conchology. Surely, therefore, its existence here is a strong argument for its being indigenous, inasmuch as (if my memory serves me rightly) Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys reasons the same point from its occurrence 68 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. in two woods near Buriton only six miles apart. I should be glad to hear from any of your correspon- dents, whether they have discovered localities other than those to be found in the principal woods. En passant, I may be allowed to mention that at Tenby — a very favourite watering-place of mine — I last year found Helix pisana as plentiful as ever, simply swarming on the grassy slopes by the town. This note may interest your readers. I must apologise for so much intrusion on your space. — B. Tomlin, Winchester College. Black Stork.— Your correspondent H. W. Lett will, I am sure, be glad to hear that the black stork recorded by him, although the first Irish specimen, is by no means the fifth British killed individual ; there are thirteen recorded instances of the occurrence of the black stork in England, in addition to which three were seen for some days in the county of Norfolk in the year 1823, all of which escaped the usual fate of rare visitors to our inhospitable shores. Mr. Lett's bird will therefore be the seventeenth British black stork.— T. S. The Yorkshire List of Lepidoptera. — For some years past Mr. Geo. T. Porritt, F.L.S., of Huddersfield, whose fitness for the task is well known, has been engaged upon a List of the Lepid- optera known to occur in Yorkshire, for the "Transactions of the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union." He has been aided by the leading naturalists of the county, and has also paid attention to the literature of the subject, and has now finished the task. The result of his labours, which many besides Yorkshire naturalists will be pleased to see, has been the preparation of a catalogue which need not fear comparison with that of any other county in these kingdoms, including 1344 out of the 2031 on the British list, or a proportion of about two-thirds. The list will occupy about 130 pages of the Transactions. BOTANY. New British Species of Mucorini. — During the past four months, I have succeeded in finding the following six species of the Mucorini, concerning which I can discover no previous record of their occurrence in Britain : Pilobolus cedipus, Montagne. Stem short and thickish ; swelling turbinate ; colum- ella very obtuse, piercing the sporangium nearly to the summit. Spores spherical, granular, unequal in the same sporange, 10-5-1-48 /u, with a distinct epispore, germinating easily in water. On cow or pig's dung. Pilobolus Kleinii, Van Tieghem. Stem slender and elongated ; swelling ovoid ; superior hemisphere of the sporangium not reticulated ; columella conical, spores oval-oblong, variable, orange, averaging 15 /t X 8 fj., not germinating in pure water. On horse and cow dung. These two species have hitherto been confounded by observers with P. crystallinusr Tode. Pilaira Cesalii, Van Tieghem. This species, which is the Pilobolus anomalus of Cesati, has the sporange nearly the same in structure as Pilobolus, but differs in not projecting its sporange explosively as the latter does. It is a much taller plant, reaching above one inch in height, while the two Piloboli mentioned above do not exceed one-tenth of an inch. Columella hemispherical, the lower half forming an apophysis below the sporange ; stem cylindrical, not septate at the base. Among Mucor on horse dung. I have also found Chatocladium Brefeldii, parasitic on Thamnidium elegans ; Piptocephalis Freseniana, De B. & \V., parasitic on Mucor ; and a species allied to Morticrella tuberosa, Van Tieghem, which may possibly prove to be distinct. — W. B. Grove, B.A. Curious structure of an Orange. — While pulling an orange in half, a small cavity was disclosed at the stalk end, which contained another small orange covered with pulp and attached towards the stalk end by the same substance. I do not know whether such deformities in oranges are common, and should be glad to hear if any of your correspondents have observed any. — F. H. Parrott, Aylesbury. Autumn Primroses. — Observations similar to those of your correspondent, Mr. J. S. (Luton) reveal- ing the open character of the last three winters in their influence on the South Bedfordshire woods, should interest solar physicists, who will recall that in 1876 Professor Balfour Stewart asserted that the winter temperature range at Kew was greatest at the time of sun-spots. But what should likewise interest North countrymen, I have at the present moment lying before me a slim and slender primrose, picked on the estate of the Marquis of Bute, at Mountstuart, in the island of Bute, on the 9th of September last. It has scarcely half the dimensions of an English March blossom, and retains much of the sepulchral beauty of its native pine shade. Although it be rumoured Mountstuart is a paradise of mildness, there was an impression on my mind that the stray late-blooming primroses met with in the Western Highlands had been retarded by the excessive spring rainfall. Perhaps some one knows ? — A. H. Swinton% Guildford. Early Flowers.— While making for home this afternoon, I found some of the common avens, or herb Bennett (Geum urbamem) out in all its glory. Is it not very early for it to be so I—Alex. Ogilby. Early Flowers. — During the week January 8-15 I found several plants of the lesser celandine or pile- wort {R.ficarid) in blossom. They grew on a lawn, under a leafless but spreading Spanish chestnut tree,, whose branches ran along the ground for 15 to 20 feet. Locality — border of Sussex and Surrey ; HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 69 ■weather cold and foggy. Only a few of the blos- soms were perfect, the sepals and petals being often wanting. On January 21st, I observed that the •filberts (in the weald of Kent) showed many female blossoms, the male flowers being only partially expanded. — M. E. Pope, Edgbaston. Fungus in Oranges. — Would some reader kindly inform me the name of a fungus which grows in an orange ? I found one growing on a pippin ; it "had grown up to the rind, which was slightly black- ened. I have cut it out, and dried it. I never met -with one like it before ; curiously enough the fruit was not injured in the least, it grew up like a black tulip, not mixing with the fruit. — S. A. B. Etymology of Sphagnum. — Could any of your readers enlighten me with regard to the word Sphag- num ? I believe there is no classical authority for it ; and it cannot be imported from the Greek, as the word acpayvov does not exist. Pliny uses the word rrcpayvos. So it appears to me it would be more correct to speak of a sphagnus and the sphagni. — B. Piffard. GEOLOGY. Lower Palaeozoic Rocks, Cornwall. — Serpen- tines have been divided into Ophite (methylosis igne- ous rocks) ; Ophiolyte (methylosis calcareous rocks), while the latter may be Ophicalcite or Ophidolo- mite, in which respectively part of the calcite, or part of the dolomite, is unchanged. Most of the ophites ihat I am acquainted with are intrusive masses, but as some eruptive rocks are in bedded masses, some ophites after them are also in bedded masses. Tuffs more usually are changed into steatite and allied rocks, but some in part are changed into ophite ; ■such often have a look as if they were intruded into the bed of steatite, but more correctly they are part of the bed. Lately I met in the co. Wexford a peculiar bedded ophite — in part ophite and in part smaragdilyte. Ophiolytes are nearly invariably in bedded masses ; yet, in the eastern portion of the Mweelrea mountains, north of Killary Bay, co. Mayo, there are curious intrusions or protrusions of calcar- eous rock, generally more orlessdolomitic and in part ophiolyte or steatite. All the Cornish rocks, as far as I examined them, were ophitic, usually methy- losis Gabbro or diallage rock, and occurred as intrusions. However, on the coast line between St. Michael's Mount and the Lizard there are tuffs changed in part into steatite and in part into ophite, and these to me appeared to be in bedded masses. Elsewhere I have suggested that the Lower Palaeozoic rocks of the Lizard probably are either Cambro-Silurian (Lower Silurian) or Cambrian, as they and their associated eruptive rocks are very similar to the rocks of these formations in Ireland. There is, however, no direct evidence to prove their age, further than that they belong to one of the Lower Palreozoic formations, but to which of these it is hard to say, and my suggestion is just as probably correct as not. The Cornish ophites are metalliferous, as are also the Irish Cambro-Silurian ophites. — G. H. K., Lurgy brack, Letterkenny, co. Donegal. Fossil Oolitic Madreporaria.— A paper on this subject has been read before the Geological Society by Robert F. Tomes. The author called at- tention to the fact that there has been sometimes in the study of corals a confusion made between growth by fissiparity and by gemmation. If the former process result from the gradual conjunction of two opposite septa, so as to form a new divisional wall in the calyx, there is no risk of any such confusion ; but if the separation has been by the formation of a constric- tion in the central part of an elongated calyx, this may be, and has been, confused with growth by gemmation. A large number of the forms here described were col- lected near Fairford, Gloucestershire. They occur in a white marly clay, occurring between the Forest Marble and the Cornbrash. A detailed section was given, and the particulars of some other coralliferous beds. These are not all upon the same horizon, though there is a considerable relation between their coral faunas. The author gave a description of twenty genera and thirty-four species. Of these the follow- ing genera are new to the British Oolites : Bathy- ccenia, a new group of the family Astrteidae (Eusmi- linae), containing two species ; Favia, Astroccenia, Enallohelia, and Tricycloseris are for the first time recorded as occurring in the British Oolites ; and Confusastrsea and Oroseris, recorded by the author from the Inferior Oolite, are now added to the coral- fauna of the Great Oolite. In the discussion which followed, the chairman expressed his sense of the value of the paper. He observed that most of these corals were compound, and some of them especially peculiar to reefs ; although compound Madreporaria were found living as deep as 750 fathoms. They, therefore, did not seem to very much elucidate the question of the depth of the Mesozoic sea. Simple or solitary corals certainly did not throw more light upon the question, because they occurred from shallow water to very great depths, even to 3000 fathoms. Mr. Brown's collection, mentioned by the author, come not from two horizons, but all from one, at a spot about two miles W. of Cirencester, in a zone about 6-18 inches thick, near the top of the Great Oolite. Professor P. M. Duncan confirmed the statement of Professor Prestwich, about the horizons from which Mr. Brown's collection was made. These corals, described by Mr. Tomes, were from lenticular coral-beds, not from reefs. They could hardly be very deep-sea formations, from the oolite contained in them, which seemed at the present time to be a 7o HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. shore-formation. It was a mistake to suppose that live reef-building corals ever occurred below about 25 fathoms. It was to be regretted that a good writer such as the author did not come more frequently among his fellow-workers, for he would then have learnt that many of the statements made by him about calycular gemmation and fissiparity were already in print, and had been so from the days of Milne-Edwards. Fissiparity and gemmation were quite distinct things. Some corals keep the figure of 8 described by the author, some depart from it during subsequent growth. Unfortunately M. de Fromentel, referred to by the author, was not a student of recent corals. The cosmilian forms had been found exhi- biting fissiparity ; these had been actually renamed by Mr. Tomes, though the speaker had already assigned them to an existing genus. He felt doubts as to the validity of some of the genera proposed by Mr. Tomes. The coral could not be named Con- fusastrsea without a section ; it presented some char- acters allied to Favia. He called attention to the so- called Cyathophone, which had lost their septa and all their internal characters. Sections, he would observe, were absolutely necessary for the study of fossil corals. " Proceedings of The Geologists' Associa- tion."— No. 7 (vol. vii.) of the above, besides very interesting accounts [of excursions, contains papers "On a New Section in the Thames Valley," by J. L. Lobley, F.G.S., and " Notes on the Geology of Cumberland North of the Lake District," by T. V. Holmes, F.G.S. Discovery of Remains of the Large Elk at Monmouth. — A short time ago the discovery was made at a part of the river Severn, known as Hayward's Bay, near Aure, and the find is now in the possession of Mr. Charles Philps, of Aure. It consists of a fine buck's head and antlers, the former being partially petrified, while the latter are of gigantic dimensions. There are seven spurs on each antler, one spur on the left being no less than 152 inches in length. The length of the antlers, from the crown of the head to the tip, is 3 feet 7§ inches, while the bases of the antlers measure 7f inches, the width from tip to tip being 3 feet ij inches. The specimen, which is in remarkably good preservation, seems to point to the fact of the large elk, numerous remains of which were found in King Arthur's Cave, Doward, having been an inhabitant of Dean Forest. — L. Francis, "Love-mouse." — A day or two ago my daughter was presented with a dormouse by a cottager, who called it a " love-mouse." Have you or any of your numerous readers heard this name before, and what can be the origin of it ? — IV. Hambrough, NOTES AND QUERIES. Spontaneous Generation. — Mr. Hamson asks me to give my reasons for the statement that " There is no such phenomenon as spontaneous generation," and then proceeds to ask several questions. How do I know there is no such phenomenon as spontaneous generation ? Do I argue that because snails are not produced spontaneously, there is no such process at all ; or do I hold that, because spontaneous genera- tion has not yet been detected, no such process is possible, or, if possible, that it never will be discovered ? I think that my words were sufficiently clear, and that 99 per cent, of those who read my little article would understand me to refer to our present knowledge, not to the possibilities of future dis- coveries in this branch of science. I still contend that, so far as our knowledge goes at present, we are justified in saying there is no such phenomenon. Some of the greatest investigators have carefully and laboriously experimented in relation to this subject, and so far the results have been purely negative in character. All our knowledge of the life-histories of animals and plants points to the fact that they are the offspring of individuals of the same type, and, proceeding on the sound scientific principle of explaining the unknown by the known, we are more than justified in saying that all animals and plants are produced in the same way. Until it ^ is shown that ceitain species are produced spontaneously, I am justified in declaring there is no such phenomenon as spontaneous generation. With the future possibilities of development I had nothing to do. It is quite possible, perhaps probable, that in the future we may be able to raise our meat supplies spontaneously and thus do away with the necessity for imports from America ; but at present we are correct in stating there is no such phenomenon, and in so saying we cast no slur upon the possibilities of the future. Mr. Hamson also objects to the statement that no living cell can be produced, save by the division of an already existing cell, which is really saying in different words there is no such thing as spontaneous generation. He refers to Sachs to show that the division of a cell need not of necessity occur in the production of a new one ; but the cases he cites are not those of the production of new cells. In his first example it is only the cell-sac which is renewed, not the cell, which consists — according to Huxley — of sac and protoplasmic contents. The living portion remains unchanged, and we no more have a new cell than we have a new lobster when that crustacean casts its old covering and secretes a new one. Case number two is not an instance of the production of a new cell, but of the effacement of an old one ; just as Trembley in forcing one hydra into another did not produce a new individual, but effaced an old one by incorporating it with another. In conclusion, I must thank Mr. Hamson for the compliment contained in his first sentence and for the kindly tone of his strictures. — The Author of ii Pond-Snails." French Books on Natural History. — Will some reader of Science-Gossip kindly send a short list of the more important French works on Natural History t — JV. J. V. Vandcnbcrgh. Can Pigs Swim ? — There is a very general notion about that a pig cannot swim ; and that if piggy attempts the feat he "cuts his throat," and so comes to grief. Is this a well-established fact, or merely a popular delusion ? — IV. II. J. HARD WICKKS S CIENCE- G OS SIP. IT- Eagles and their Young. — Is there any foun- dation of scientific fact for the belief that eagles bear their young from their eyries upon their wings, in order to teach them to fly ? — J. H. Ingleby, North- allerton. Water Snails. — With respect to the statement of the author of the paper on " Pond Snails" that appeared in these pages last year ; in the first place I am greatly indebted for the extremely courteous reply, but I must deprecate the rapidity with which deductions are arrived at therein. I never meant to convey the impression that what I termed the "old belief," concerning the formation of the shell in mollusca, was altogether an "exploded statement." Audi alteram partem was the ground I took up, and a desire to give both views without bias inspired the intentionally cautious wording of the passage quoted from my paper, now two years old. Supposing, however, that I may have seen fit since that date to make up what I am pleased to call my mind on the subject, I fail to see the implied stigma attaching thereunto ; for I hold that conservatism in science is quite out of place. With regard to the second point in question, I can only express my admiration of an author who can pin his faith on the somewhat dogmatic assertion of an eminent but by no means undisputed authority. Professor Ray-Lankester's statement that "the foot is essentially a greatly developed lower lip," occurs towards the commence- ment of his paper and before he begins to treat of the development of Limncca stagnalis at all ; nor does he again allude to the subject throughout his article, and he even passes over without comment Kifer- stein's observation, which he quotes from a paper by that author in Braun's "Thierreich" (Bd. iii. p. 1230) and which reads as follows : — "Beneath the mouth the body now flattens itself out and forms a process . . . the foot." Yet on this solitary statement of Professor Ray-Lankester's our unknown author founds his observation that "it may be interesting to note, that what is known as the 'foot' of the snail is shown by this embryonic development be really an under lip." What I am anxious to obtain therefore is some proof of this statement, and up to the present I have searched unsuccessfully for it. Carpenter, Gegenbaur, and Balfour do not, so far as I can see, make mention of it in their Manuals ; whilst Professor Huxley in his " Manual of the Anatomy of Inverte- brated Animals " quotes Professor Lankester's paper frequently, but ignores hie theory respecting the homology of the " foot,'1 and when describing the development of Limnrea, distinctly states (p. 500) that "The foot commences as a papilla immediately behind the mouth," and again, referring to the class Gasteropoda, he says, "The mesosoma is generally prolonged into a muscular foot ; " — no reference any- where to this under lip theory, nor can I find any conchological friend to support it ; but some, I believe, maintain that the foot in both Gasteropoda and Conchifera is a muscular extension of the mantle. Under these circumstances, when there is such want of agreement between professors, is it fair to us less well-informed students of Nature to put before us as facts, statements the correctness of which is not established ? It is, I venture to think, a matter for regret that a large number of writers for the general public still seem to consider any admission of want of knowledge a crime, and hence are tempted to give forth to the world, as established truths, statements based on observations which subsequent research proves to have been erroneous. The next generation of writers flourish forth assertions of perhaps an exactly opposite and equally erroneous nature, and Science is dubbed by the unitiated as fickle, and scouted by many accordingly — and all through the zeal of well- meaning votaries. The day has surely come when dogmatism may be safely relegated to theologians, for with Science it should have no part. In making these remarks, be it understood I am not actuated in the smallest degree by any feeling of ill-will towards my unknown correspondent, who probably is better acquainted with the subject than I can ever hope to be; but I am merely protesting against what I conceive has hitherto been far too largely a fashion with popular writers. — B. B. Woodward. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than heretofore, we cannot possibly insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries which do not bear the writers' names that we are forced to adhere to our rule of not noticing them. To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of "exchanges" which cannot be tolerated. R. H. Wellington. — What kind of "curiosities" is it you require to be named? We shall be glad to help you, either by referring to the proper books, or to name specimens you cannot easily find described. J. Smith (Kilwinning). — The spider you sent us is called Tegenaria atrica. X. Y. Z. (Campden). — Bramble No. 1, Rubus villicaulis. No. 2, Rubus r!ta}iinifolius (?). No. 3, a form of the true Viola canina, L. J. S. (Bolton). — No. 1, Funaria hygrometrica. No. 2, Tortula muralis, L. Nos. 3 and 4, also Funaria, intermixed with Bryum. J. E. A. — Thanks for your notes on " spiders," which shall appear at an early date. We shall be pleased to insert any further observations on the same subject. G. R. — The subject of Reason in Animals was thoroughly discussed from both sides in Science-Gossip for 1879, ana we could not afford space to reopen the discussion. Thanks for your able contribution. E. F. L. — Several articles have appeared in our columns on " Collecting and Preparing Botanical Specimens," and on " How to make a Herbarium." The former is republished in " Notes on Collecting and Preserving Natural History Objects." J. F. George.-1— Thanks for the specimen of earth. L. Francis. — The " markings " on the stone sent are the impressions of the bark of a fossil tree, called lepidodendron. G. E. East. — The " Proceedings of the Geological Associa- tion " are sold by E. Stanford, Charing Cross, at is. 6d. each part. "The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society" is sold at the Society's apartments, Burlington House, price 5*. The "Journal of Conchology" is published by Taylor Brothers, St. Ann Street, Leeds, price is. "Young Botanist." — Get Alcock's " Botanical Names for English Readers," published by LovelljReeve & Co. E. Maun. — The sketch you sent us is undoubtedly that of the bee orchis. E. J. E. Creese. — We cannot tell the definite species of parasitic fungus by your rough sketch. It is evidently in fruit. W. K. Mann. — You will find an index to the vol. for 1882 in the December number. H. L. (Maidstone). — No 1 is Lamium incisutn, Willd. ; No. 2, pepperwort [LeJ>idiumca}nJ>estre;Br.) ; Nos. 3 and 4, the same species, though it is very variable, Equisetuiti arvcnse, L.; No. 5, hairy willow [Salix lanaia, L.). EXCHANGES. Wanted, specimens of Lepidoptera, English or foreign, (must be suitable) for microscopic objects, named. Will give in ex- change, mounted objects or material ready for mounting.— M. R. I., 51 Great Prescott Street, London, E. For packet of zoophytes and marine algae send stamped envelope to — J. Wooler, 11 Farm Road, Brighton. 72 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. The undermentioned unbound books, in good order, for cabi- net for microscopic objects, to hold not less than 500 : — Science- Gossip, from 'Jan. 1865 to Dec. 1878, Sept. 1S76 missing; " Intellectual Observer " and "Student and Int. Ob ," Aug. 1864 to Jan. 1871, five or six coloured plates missing ; " Popular Science Review," Jan. 1870 to April 1878; "Leisure Hour," Jan. 1880 to Dec. 1882. Or what offers?— E. H. Robertson, Swalcliffe, Banbury, Oxon. Wanted, Rye's " British Beetles," in good condition ; will give in exchange, J. G.Wood's "Common Objects of the Mi- croscope," and Harper's " Glimpses of Ocean Life," coloured plates, new ; or any suitable exchange. Also, J. G. Wood's " British Beetles," coloured plates ; will give Coleman's British Butterflies," coloured plates. Wanted, Wood's "Insects at Home" and " Insects Abroad ;" suitable exchange. — John McKay, 30 Hope Street, Glasgow, N.B. Science-Gossip for 1878. Desiderata: British birds' eggs (side-blown, one hole), and Lepidoptera, numerous. — F. J. Rasell, 30 Argyle Street, St. James' End, Northampton. Wanted, " Popular History of British Lichens," by W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D. — Arthur J. Doherty, 25 Barton Street, Moss Side, Manchester. Wanted, "Notes on Collecting and Preserving Natural History Objects," by J. E. Taylor; will exchange Lankester's "Half Hours with the Microscope." Also wanted, "The Postal Microscopical Journal " for last year. — L. Francis, 20 Frogmore Street, Abergavenny. Fossils. — A series of splendid specimens of Upper Silurian, including many Trilobites, Encrinites, &c, given in exchange for a good cabinet. State dimensions to F., 106 Finch Road, Handsworth, Birmingham. Wanted, specimens of -the Pre -Cambrian rocks of Lake dis- trict, and other localities, suitable for comparison with Cham- wood Forest. Exchange. H. E. Quilter, 49 Earl Howe Street, Leicester. Duplicates : Atalanta, Antiopa, Rhamni, Aegon, Ocellatus, Opiformis, Sambucata, Repandata, Pusaria, Elulata, Litho- xylea, Psi, Viminalis, Meticulosa, Chrysites, Libatrix, Margin- ata, Salicis. Desiderata : Paphia, Agliai, Adippe, Selene, Artemis, Athalia, Z. Minos, Trifolii, Meliloti, Lonocerae, Tristata, Curtula, Reclusa, Trepida, Falcula, Humuli, Villica. — J. Bates, 10, Orchard Terrace, Wellingborough. Wanted Davis's " Practical Microscopy," Cooke's "Ponds and Ditches," and Microscopic Fungi," or_ other Natural History books. Good value in choice micro slides. List sent on application. — E. Hurry, Chard, Somerset. Good trolling or bottom-fishing rod, hardly used, to exchange for micro apparatus or books. — E. Hurry, Chard, Somerset. What offers for microphotographs, all French subjects, from the art galleries, mounted on polished glass slips ? List free. R. Blakeborough, 50 Church Street, Guisborough. Wanted correspondents in all parts of the world to ex- change living specimens of reptiles and amphibia. — E. Ehn- hart, 14 Gumpendorferstrasse, Vienna, Austria. Wanted a good double or triple nosepiece, also a first-class condenser. Exchange well-mounted slides ; sample slides sent if required. — George Ward, Wallwood Nursery, Leytonstone, E. Liberal exchange in first-class objects, for polyzoa, Angui- naria spatula. Communicate before sending to E. Wheeler, 48 Tollington Road, Holloway, London, N. Wanted side-blown eggs English or foreign, in exchange for griffin vulture, white stork, golden-eye duck, kite, caper- cailzie, buzzard, great bustard, and many others ; also some foreign duplicate nests and eggs to exchange. Model of the great ant's egg wanted in exchange for eggs.— G. Widdas, Woodsley View, Leeds. For unmounted hairs of orang-outan, chimpanzee, platypus, echidna, &c, send a stamped directed envelope to — George E. Mason, 6 Park Lane, Piccadilly, London. Books on Botany and Natural History in exchange for others on mosses, beetles and shells.— W. Macmillan, Castle Cary, Somerset. One dozen well-mounted slides of starches, all different, and true to name, in exchange, together or separately, for other slides of interest.— D. Burford, Bowbridge, Stroud, Glos. Helix sericea, Val. cristata, Sue. putris, Cyclos. elegans, Pupa secale, Plan, earinatus, and about forty other species in exchange for British or foreign shells. Lists sent. Unac- cepted offers not answered. — F. Wotton, Adamsdown, Cardiff. Wanted a copy of Hobkirk's " British Mosses."— A. E. Lomax, 56 Vauxhall Road, Liverpool. Transverse section of hedgehog spine, mounted opaque, in exchange for another slide.— John Moore, 12 Parchester Street, near Clifford Street, Birmingham. Marine Alg>e, wanted Odonthalia, Rhodomela, Bostrychia, Bonnemaisonia, Sphsrococcus, Nemalion, &c, for Dclcsseria Hypoglossum, Baccaria Whiggii, Polysiphona byssoides, Arthroclada viliosa, Sporochnos pedunculalus, Lomcntaria ovalis. — J. Wooller, n Farm Road, Brighton. Carefully named Silurian and other fossils to exchange for others, especially chalk, greensand, oolitic and crag, also Devonian, carboniferous, &c. specimens ; also an excellent ten guinea galvanic battery by Halse, to exchange for a food geological cabinet or well-mounted microscopic objects. — '. T. Gwom, Belmont, Wellington, Salop. Wanted to exchange a number of second-hand books, several on chemistry. What offers? — J. H. M., 17 Walham Grove, Fulham, S.W. Offered with an American unionida and British land and freshwater shells for a good Mitra regitui or Murex clavus. — F. M. Hele, Elmgrove Road, Fairlight, Cotham, Bristol. Wood's " Naturalists' Handbook," new, cardboard cells for opaque objects, and good slides. Want in exchange Natural Science books, good micro material and accessories. — J. C. Blackshaw, 57 Cross Street South, Wolverhampton. A 4-DRAW telescope with 5 lenses, cost 17J. 6d. ; will exchange for fossils. — F. B. Mason, St. Gregory's, Stratford. Diatomaceous earth rich in coxmodiscus, &c, from Calvert County, U.S.A., for a little Bermuda earth or polycistime. — F. J. George, Chorley, Lancaster. Wanted foreign polyzoas. I shall be glad to correspond with any one who will be able to send me foreign polyzoas. I will give in exchange first-class slides or material. Spicules and micro-fungi sent in exchange for unprepared material only. See Science-Gossip for February. — J. Tempere, Storrington, Sussex. Eggs of osprey, killdeer, spotted sandpiper, black-billed cuckoo, Colin, &c, in full sets, with data to exchange for other eggs. Offers requested. — W. Wells, Bladen Stone, Staffordshire- Wanted, coins, medals, tokens, |foreign stamps and post- cards. I offer in exchange good fossils from almost all forma- tions, or seaweeds and other natural objects. — F. Stanley,. 6 Clifton Gardens, Margate. Wanted the three guinea edition of Sowerby's "British. Botany," with coloured plates (last edition). — Edwin E. Turner,. Post Office, Coggeshall, Essex. One thousand foreign stamps for exchange, either in large or small numbers, for micro slides only, diatoms or insects pre- ferred ; accepted offers answered only. Particulars to F. E. H., 1 Harcourt Road, Wallington, Surrey. Wanted, extremely rare foreign postage stamps and English silver coins, in exchange for butterflies, moths, beetles, birds' eggs and skins, and foreign shells.— W. K. Mann, Wellington, Terrace, Clifton, Bristol. A mahogany cabinet, 20 in. Xi6in.Xi6in. with 8 drawers, each iiin. deep, fitted with trays to hold over 1000 microscopic slides, or without trays suitable for egg or cabinet. Wanted, good, microscopic slides, scientific books, or useful article. — R. L. Hawkins, Ivystead, Hastings. Wanted, Helix nemoralis, hortensis and hybrida from, different localities, also any information about their distribution, or pamphlets about them. I will try to make a return. — Hugh Richardson, Ackworth School, near Pontefract. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. " Snakes." By C. G. Hopley. London : Griffith & Farran. " Flora of Hampshire." By F. Townsend. London: Lovell Reeve & Co. " Studies in Microscopical Science," edited by A. G. Cole. " Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society," Feb., 1883. "Transactions of Yorkshire Naturalists' Union," Part. 4. f Land and Water." " Northern Microscopist." "Midland Naturalist." " Practical Naturalist." "The Field Naturalist." " The Young Naturalist." " Natural History Notes." " American Naturalist." " Canadian Naturalist." " American Monthly Microscopical Journal." " Boston Journal of Chemistry." " Good Health." "The Botanical Gazette." " La Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes." " Le Monde de la Science." "CieletTerre." " Cosmos : les Mondes." *' Bulletin de la Socie'te Beige de Microscopie." &c. &c. &c Communications received up to ioth ult. from : — T. T.— F. W. P.— J. B.— F. J. R.-J. S.— A. J. D.-W. G.— A. G. C— F. H. P.— C. F. G.— B. P.— A. H. B.-L. F.— E. J. E. C.-G. A. B. D.-A. W. O.— A. S.— J. T.-H. L.— M. E. P.— W. D.-J. C. B.— T. T. G.— J. W.— J. M.-A. E. L. — F M H — F. W W.— J. H. M.— D. B.— W. M.— G. H. R. — G. E. M.-G. W.-H. M. D.-E. W.-G. W.— C. E.— F. E H.- G. E. E.— E. E. T.-L. F.— F. S.— R. B.— F. B. M. -J. H.-A. O.-S. A. B.— F. J. G.-W. W. B.-E. I.- EH. W— E. H.— W. D. R— P. M. C. K— A. J. H.— W K. M.— G. S. B.— D. B. G.— S. S.— G. S. S.-H. R.— R H.-E. F. L.— H. E. Q.-F. T.-W. F.— 0. P. C— E. H. — T. E. A.-W. E. W.— R. G. M.— J. W.— W. J. R.— J. B.— G. R., jun.-S. A.-Dr. P. Q. K.-W. H.-J. S.-J. M. Sh.— E H. R.-E. H.— B. T.— M. R. I.— H. E. W.-G. F. H.— G. B.-R. H. W.-F. R. M. S.— H. L., &c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 73 MIND AMONG THE LOWER ANIMALS. By Dr. P. QUIN KEEGAN. t£^P{\ N reference to some notes that have recently appeared in Science-Gos- sip relative to reason and in- stinct, perhaps it may be proper to endeavour to sketch and eluci- date as clearly as possible the actual constitution or condition of some of the higher types of mind among the lower animals. That many of these creatures possess exceedingly powerful and efficient senses, such as sight, hearing and smell, and, in a less degree, taste and general touch or sensibility, there can be no doubt. And there are strong grounds to conclude, that their more highly-endowed senses not only enable them to detect sensible qualities and effects of sight, sound, and smell, of which we are wholly ignorant, but also furnish them with a richer stock of what have been styled acquired perceptions. But these vigorous faculties convey a knowledge of objects in the concrete only. When, for instance, a dog smells or sees a piece of meat or other food, he does not recognise it as a piece of meat, &c. He does not know it by that or by any other name, he could not describe it as such : his mind does not expand to or embrace the general notion of " meat." He simply views it as this parti- cular piece of edible matter, having a certain shape, colour, and smell, which his organism recognises as proceeding from something fitted for diet ; and most probably every new piece of meat that is presented to his nostrils has to undergo the same process of sniffing, &c, before it is swallowed. There is no necessary No. 220.— April 18S3. connection, through memory or relation, between different particles of food offered to him at different times. Moreover, the lower animals are endowed with the faculties of memory, reproduction and imagination (i.e. the imaging power of memory) ; but these powers are exercised only upon concrete objects of thought. The power of association of ideas is extremely vigorously developed among such creatures as the dog and cat ; but the associated ideas generally come up according to the law of contiguity, seldom or pro- bably never according to the law of correlation. A dog in his dreams, for instance, recognises by his barking and growling some memorial of a strictly concrete object previously known and experienced. Man, on the other hand, can remember or reproduce general notions or concepts, as well as concrete notions, i.e. we can consider and reflect upon the general notion of flower, bird, &c, as well as consider or reflect upon any particular flower or bird. Brutes have little or no self-consciousness, and their conscious life is, for the foregoing reasons, concerned chiefly with the concrete. The conscious life of man, on the other hand, is more frequently exercised upon general notions. This is a very important and fundamental difference ; and it results therefrom, that the lower animals understand proper names only, and not common names. A dog can easily be taught to know the name of his master or his own name ; but you might thunder the word fish a thousand times into a cat's ear and she would certainly hear what you said, but she would not understand what you meant. "Dogs," says Bowen, "can even be taught to know the names of particular places and buildings, so that they can understand and obey when they are told to go to the barn, the river, or the house. But it is always the particular barn, or other object, with which they have been taught to associate this sound or significant gesture as its proper name. Carry the animal to a distant place, near which may be a set of correspond- ing objects, and then tell him to go to the barn or the river, and he will not understand the command as applying to the new set of objects, but will imme- 74 HARD WICKE ' S S CIENCE- G 0 SSI P. diately set off for the old building or place, with whose proper name alone he is familiar." As the German metaphysician has it, "a dog knows his master, but does not recognise him through his peculiar marks or attributes, and thereby does not properly discriminate him from other persons." That brutes possess the faculty of voluntary reminiscence is very doubtful. Hence the power of reflection is denied to them, and hence also any elevated form of conscious sagacity is with them impossible. From birds upwards, there appears a subtle power, which may be termed the symbolic faculty. It constitutes a most important and indispensable factor in the operations of the mind of the lower animals. It implies a knowledge, not merely of the concrete object itself as observed by the senses, but also that this object is representative or suggestive of something else. The master putting on his hat and grasping his cane, &c, suggests to the dog the idea of some particular delightful walk pre- viously experienced, and he manifests by barking and frisking, the anticipation of enjoying such pleasure over again. This power operates through the asso- ciation of ideas, and is strictly confined to the concrete, and does not embrace the wondrous symbolic power of human language and gesture, which is absolutely unique. There is no doubt that brutes can compare one in- dividual object or event with another, and thereby ascertain some relation between them, as that of simi- larity or difference, or quantity, &c. But this sort of acquisition, although it enlarges knowledge, has been regarded as a fact of observation merely, not of reasoning, properly speaking. The latter does |not strictly enlarge our knowledge, it merely developes or unfolds or explicates it. Thus, for example, we acquire the knowledge that the elk is ruminant by reflecting upon the previously known proposition that all horned animals are ruminant. The lower animals cannot by an act of reasoning draw forth and prove their knowledge, or make it available for use in further inquiry. But they are sufficiently versed in that sort of knowledge which is concrete and par- ticular, and not summed up into general truths. Some speculators maintain that " the animal intelligence can elaborate that class of abstract ideas that may be developed by simple feelings such as hunger." This kind of abstract notion is, however, strictly personal, so to speak ; it does not embrace objects external to the animal itself. It is perhaps less frequently formed, even by man, than most other abstractions, it is of little service in advancing science or knowledge, and it is so constantly referable to particular instances, that it is almost hopeless to endeavour to demonstrate the reality of an abstraction at all. It is unquestion- able, however, that there exists among brutes a faculty of special association, but it operates exclu- sively amongst concrete or particular notions, and it is probably due mainly to the special strength, com- prehensiveness, and keenness of the faculties of obser- vation of these animals. Hence they can learn to play dominoes, but not to play draughts, and many of them can recognise the time upon a watch, &c, yet cannot perform the simplest feat in mental arith- metic. Any problem that requires for its solution that several reminiscences must be conjured up at will is utterly beyond the scope and resources of the lower animal mind. Such, it may be assumed, is the actual constitution of the higher forms of intellect among the lower animals. Now, in what manner does this intellect- power operate in the guidance of action ? This is a question of exceeding interest, of extreme subtlety, and of no small difficulty. Let us, however, endeavour to carry the torch of explanation into the thick shades of doubt wherewith the theme is en- compassed. The actual cause of any bodily action not merely spontaneous is, as we all know, some form of feeling or emotion ; but in the actual per- formance or carrying out of this action, a faculty that has been termed "reason" officiates as a guide or pilot. The steam-power impels the ship, but the man at the helm directs its course. Now, rejecting for the time all consideration of instinct, which is invariably unconscious and mechanical, it may be admitted that animals possess " a power of gathering up the past experience into rules of conduct that guide them in their solitary or gregarious life." This power clearly results from the association of concrete ideas according to the law of contiguity. It is possible, however, that much of this experience is organic, i.e., the organism has the power of register- ing the results of previous impressions. Thus, in the working out of a design, birds ' ' often learn to use special means when special ends have to be provided for." In these instances, it may occur that the innate power of the instinctive faculty may be able to spontaneously expand itself so as to meet existing circumstances ; and it may be fairly doubted if such intelligential modifications of the instinctive tendency are due to conscious reason on the part of the animal. The unconscious instinct of nest-building exhibited by birds must necessarily be adapted, or must spon- taneously adapt itself, to existing circumstances. The same unconscious faculty that induces a sand- marten to tunnel into a sand-bank, can also induce a jackdaw to build an extra support to a nest that had several times slid down a sloping window sill. It is barely necessary to observe, that the principal and more obvious actions of an animal, such as eating, sleeping, frisking, or wandering listlessly about, require for their guidance little or no power of intellect, as such. This latter faculty is more clearly exhibited in its function of pilot in these special actions, such as those of the dog, which so frequently challenge our admiration, and which are so com- monly and ignorantly ascribed to instinct. These specially wondrous and remarkable actions are guided either by special association of concrete HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 75 notions artificially produced by the training of man, or they result from imitation, which may be regarded as a sort of spontaneous training. Those domestic and other animals, such as the dog, horse, and elephant, that constantly associate with man, neces- sarily possess manifold advantages as regards this latter species of pilotage. Mankind in their actions and conduct may be guided by general notions ; but there is no proof whatever that the lower animals can be influenced likewise. A man, for instance, may go to consult an unknown doctor, being guided to him by the general notion of a "good doctor ; " but no dog or monkey was ever seen to go to an unknown baker's shop with the general notion of a " baker's shop " to pilot his steps. A man entering a strange town sees rolls in a certain window, and immediately conclud- ing, by reasoning or perhaps by association, that there lies a baker's shop, he goes in and makes a purchase. But no dog or other animal is capable of such conduct : no dog ever proceeded to a strange baker's shop with a penny in his mouth in order to purchase rolls, unless he had been specially trained to perform the feat in regard to a certain baker's shop in particular, or unless his "bump of imita- tion " was particularly well developed. No doubt a dog, wandering in a part of the country where he has never been before, may on seeing a well forthwith drink if he be thirsty ; but he does not recognize the spot as a well, or the water as water. He lowers his mouth and his senses tell him that there is water before him — and that's all. Every fresh perception of any particle of water is as it were a new perception to the animal, although the memory of former similar perceptions may or may not be added thereto. If the dog had to ask for the water otherwise than by simple "begging," or by making the usual canine signs, i.e., if he was compelled to explain by language or by common names what it was that he required, his powers would utterly fail him here, and he would assuredly forfeit his drink. The mind of the lower animals cannot possibly grasp the abstract or the general-motion ; it cannot by an act of will and by creative imagination call up and reflect upon different plans or methods of performing a certain contemplated action ; and it cannot judge beforehand that certain means are fitted to accomplish certain ends, or are the most efficient enginery for the execution of those ends. Where an action depends in any degree upon mediate reasoning, or upon ingenuity (which is a sort of original practical reasoning), brutes are paralysed ; they cannot budge if a general notion of any kind stands in the way. In all those instances where animals have been observed to use as means towards an end materials not forming part of their own organisation, the action is due to (i) a blind instinctive impulse innate, as it were, in the nervous structure of the creature ; or (2) the power of associa- tion of ideas in its various forms of imitation. Man can and frequently does deliberately and systematically act from principle, i.e., from a general notion of honesty, propriety, prudence, truth, right- eousness, &c, applied to each particular instance that turns up ; but brutes, having no general ideas or principles, and little or no command over their passions, are necessarily the creatures of impulse. This impulse is guided by the association of ideas, and being principally if not wholly an organic spring of action, is fresh or becomes wearied according to the particular organic condition of the animal ; and thus perhaps may be explained the apparent regularity, sanity, and timely cessation of the actions thereof. Having expatiated upon the positive functions and resources of the mind of the lower animals, let us now exhibit a catalogue of powers, feats, &c, which it does not display and cannot accomplish, and which the human mind does reveal and is able to execute. The lower animals do not possess the faculties of (1) self-consciousness, (2) constructive or creative imagi- nation, (3) voluntary reminiscence or attention, (4) the intellectual use of language as a symbol of abstract thought, (5) certain mere elevation kinds of emotion, (6) freedom of the will. In consequence of their mental penury in the powers and functions now specified, the lower animals are unable and unfitted to accomplish the following important processes of thought, &c, viz., reflection, abstraction and gener- alization, and the use of language strictly so termed, induction and deduction, the construction of artistic conceptions, &c, virtue and religion. Moreover, the most important at least of the higher forms of the whole tribe of what are styled intuitions or primary truths are never formed by, and are utterly unknown to, these creatures. They possess no artistic sense, they have no refinements of human civilisation, they can cherish no ideals of the beautiful, picturesque, or sublime. They cannot exhibit religion or virtue or feel the weight of responsibility, i.e., they have no sense of good as good and of binding obligation, nor have they a sense of evil as evil, and as deserving of disapproval. In fine, brutes cannot by voluntary contemplation or otherwisej modify in any way the relative force of different motives or appetencies. They cannot elaborate ideas of God, of infinity, of the beautiful, the lovely or unlovely, space, moral good, &c. Can Pigs Swim ? — The idea mentioned by W. H. J., at p. 70, is one of those absurd popular errors that have a knack of reappearing time after time, though constantly refuted. I have seen a pig swim, and I have known many instances at Warren- point where "piggy" took a header rather than be shipped for England. And so far from cutting his throat " the gentleman that used to pay the rent " performed the feat with an ease and speed that an Irish water spaniel might envy. — H. IV. Lett, M.A. £ 2 76 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. THE COMMON ORCHIS {ORCHIS MASCULA). Its Inflorescence. By Edward Malan, M.A. {Continued from page 57.) NOW look at the next illustration of a single flower (fig. 52). It is a miracle of design : compli- cated certainly, but soon explained. The outer floral envelope is composed of three pieces, the same colour as the petals, and constitutes the calyx (A, A, A,) which arrangement is called ternary. The inner floral envelope, also of three pieces, is the corolla, the lower one being the labellum (B, B, B). This labellum is produced into the nectary (C), which passes on one side of the twisted ovary (D). From the base of the ovary a bract (E), forming a careful protection for the bud, arises. Inside this bract the bud reposes before it opens, with the nectary laid flat against the stalk, so that when the flower first appears it is topsy-turvy. The whole spike is en- and how is the flower of the common orchis fertilised ? for self-fertilisation is out of the question. In 1840 the secret was not known, but it was supposed by Dr. Lindley and others, that the pollen-grains passed down into the ovules by means of the tissues, and it was not until 1862, that the late Charles Darwin, after years of laborious study, arrived at the truth. His description of the performance, which he says will not be endured by the general reader, leads to absorbing admiration of plant and man. He says (" Fertilization of Orchids," 2nd ed. p. 11) suppos- ing a bee alights on the labellum, which forms a con- venient landing-place, and thrusts its head into the little yawning throat of the flower, so as to reach the honey (propolis ?) in the papillae at the base of the nectary : it is scarcely possible, owing to the shape of the flower and its nicely-adjusted balance, not to touch the rostellum. Directly the rostellum is touched, a viscid drop exudes which sets hard and fast like cement, and when the bee withdraws its head, apolli- nium is firmly attached. Then another flower is I visited, and behold ! instead of the pollinium remain- Fig 52. — a a a, sepals, same colour as petals ; b b b, petals, light pink, with rostellum and anthers at g and h ; c, labellum, with nectary at n ; d, ovary, with nectary at n, labellum at c, and rictus at R ; e, bract ; f, fauces, with anthers showing. closed in a spathc, which keeps it safe from frost and rain. The apparatus for perfecting a vast supply of seed is the next thing to notice. In the gape of the flower [rictus), and immediately between the helmet and labellum, the conformation of the flower presents the appearance of a throat. Protruding into the throat from above, a fleshy process is seen, called the rostellum (G), strangely resembling the human uvula. This contains the pollinia, two in number, or large waxy club-shaped masses of pollen, not yellow and powdery as in the buttercup and other common flowers, but free and bottle-green, connected by means of tiny elastic threads, and supported by a long fila- ment, with a minute viscid disc at the end. These are the anthers, fitting into the anther-cells, from which as the anther-cells are merely folded longitu- dinally, they can easily be removed (A). The sta- mens and style are consolidated into one column, and the stigma is below and behind the rostellum. An enlarged illustration will make this most intricate plan clearer. Now how is all this costly apparatus employed, ing erect, in thirty seconds the viscid disc has dried, causing thereby the pollinium to sweep through an arc of nearly 900 in the direction of the apex of the pro- boscis, so that it exactly touches the stigma. For a fuller account, the reader is recommended Darwin's book. In hopes of witnessing this exceedingly curious operation, I placed, on April 23rd, 1881, some blue- bells, cowslips, and orchises out on the lawn, where crowds of bees were busy in beds of Egyptian cress, and pencil and paper were provided to check off arrivals. The result is too long to give here, but hardly had I settled down, when visitors began to arrive, and during an hour and a half, no less than twenty- eight bees, bumble and hive, approached the plants. Sir John Lubbock would be gratified to know that the bluebells only were visited. I inves- tigated the pollen of the bluebell, cress, and cowslip, under the microscope, and found that of the cress and bluebell nearly homogeneous, and I was struck by the wisdom of giving bees long-focussed eyesight, which gains a variety of colouring for flowers, and HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 77 the simple contrivance of making them confine their foraging operations on each journey to similar plants, which of course assists fertilisation. It is as simple as hunting for a book in a well-arranged library. On May 5th, 1881, the actual process was witnessed, for the first time, with extreme satisfaction ; and also again in April last year. It is quite impossible to discuss the probable end of the orchis in creation without glancing at the question of fertilisation. At first it seems very simple, if necessary, but as one proceeds, and the question breaks away, it becomes not only necessary but highly complicated. Few flowers are able to pistil, so that the vivifying fluid may pass to the ovules. The inanimate agency of the wind is em- ployed for those trees which flower before insects are about, but the most effective plan is to utilise the services of insects and especially bees, and so largely is this done, that one is lost in amazement at the wonderful facility in developing an idea, because by this means there is such a clear gain in good, expansion and variety, and high design. And when it is ascertained that this is in necessary subordination to the facts of creation, then a whole panorama of Divine resource, power, wisdom, and forethought sweeps before us. It is then that Mary Howitt's Fig. 53. — Pollinium, showing pollen-mass (/), filament (/), viscid disc'(rf), and pollen-grains detached (,f). Magnified with i in. power. fertilise themselves, and without fertilisation no seed is set ; this is a law which cannot be broken, and it is curious to watch the shifts and penalties flowers are put to, in order to prevent self-fertilisation ; for although the stamens may be close to the pistil, as in the buttercup, there is generally some hindrance which renders it impossible. The banns are pro- hibited as rigidly as in the Prayer Book, and thus the brilliant hues, streaks and channels, as everybody now knows, are accounted for. The small globules of pollen must shed their subtle influence on the ztmw Fig. 54-— Papillae, from inner surface of nectary. Magnified with i in. power. lines reveal their true meaning. In connection with fertilisation, the colour of flowers comes in. It seems that flowers were created before bees, but that bees have highly modified flowers. If Mr. Grant Allen's theory about yellow preceding white, white red, and red blue in floral colouring, can be trusted, then the colour of the common orchis shows the class of insects for which it is intended. But why isn't it blue ? Wait a minute. Perhaps, instead of being a useless flower, it may be found to serve a double purpose. To attract bees, flowers supply various condiments, of which pollen for bee-bread is the most abundant, and this is found chiefly in spring flowers, but the orchis supplies none. Next in importance is honey, which summer flowers produce ; but the orchis supplies none, or at any rate so little, that Sprengel called the order Scheitisaft-B 'lumen, sham honey flowers. Lastly propolis is required, a sticky resinous fluid for fixing the combs and caulking the seams of hives ; and this I believe the orchis provides. Now, at last, the object of the plant is discovered, and notice how this fits in with the whole economy of the plant. Bumble-bees, for whose especial benefit the orchis seems to exist, want less propolis than hive-bees, as they are not so abundant, and therefore the plant that supplies them need not be too common. Clover cannot thrive with- out bumble-bees, nor bumble-bees without cats. Can the common orchis thrive without spots ? The various methods to check abundance and yet ensure supply have been noticed, and now the intricate machinery 78 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. of fertilisation is better explained, for the plant is al- together too large for hive-bees. If this is so, clearly it is only fair to make bumble-bees fertilise the flower, and therefore it ought to be blue ; but as if nature consi- dered the supplying of bumble-bees alone not sufficient, the flower is red with spots on the labellum to feed flies. Anyone who has cultivated the orchis must have noticed the flies at work using their stopper-like proboscides, yet doing no good. Spiders soon find out how attractive the orchis is to flies. For it is a wonderful thing that the labellum, fauces, and nectary are all covered with minute papillae, and the nectary on the lower surface only, which is splendidly adapted to flies. The flattened and wider end of the nectary enables the bee to sweep his proboscis to and fro, and thus the papillae can be mown down, a motion well suited to rupture the rostellum. The white variety must be, according to Grant Allen, not so highly developed as the red, a fact which is borne out by the retrogradation noticed above. The flowers have a peculiar foxy odour in the red, whereas the white ones are scentless. The seed, which is produced in countless abun- dance, but does not germinate in one season, and only under most favourable conditions, is contained in capsules opening in three valves. The capsules are the same as the ovary, the inner surface of which (placenta.) has three separate ovule-masses attached at the sides, parietal. Every single seed is enclosed in a fine muslin case of fantastic shape, sometimes re- sembling a lady's scent-bottle, a horse-pistol, a stock- ing, a soda-water bottle, &c. Out of 50,000 seeds, perhaps one succeeds in bringing a plant to perfection. The matter for consideration suggested by this paper is various, and I am not aware that it has appeared before. Whether correct or not, I shall be most interested in learning. At any rate, an attempt has been made to locate the common orchis' sphere of usefulness in nature. FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES. YOUR correspondent T. advises H. M. to submit his meteoric sections to a " competent judge" of meteorites, in order to settle the question of their genuineness. Will he be good enough to furnish me with the names of a few of these competent judges ? I am not aware of the existence of a single individual who may in any sense be termed an authority on meteorites. The study of meteorites is not only in its infancy, but it cannot even as yet be called an organised science, for it presents no clear and defined rules on which we could base an inquiry, and I may safely add that there is little probability that the immediate future will augment our information. The sum total of our knowledge of meteorites amounts at best to a mere record of the discovery and analysis (the latter not always exhaustive) of a very limited number of fragments or blocks of material, which have been either witnessed in the act of falling upon the surface of our planet, or which, by comparison with such authenticated specimens, are presumed to be of extra- terrestrial origin. But the investigation of afl the meteorites and supposed meteorites in our museums and private collections has not yet enabled the leading scientists to lay down a single hard and fast rule for testing a specimen, or to furnish a satisfactory answer to the question : " What are the essential and characteristic features of a meteorite ? " It was at one time sup- posed that the presence of metallic iron constituted a convincing proof of the meteoric origin of a speci- men, but that belief has received its deathblow since Professor Nordenskjold has discovered huge iron masses in Greenland, whose origin has been clearly demonstrated to be terrestrial, masses in which the metallic iron is even alloyed with those two other metals, nickel and cobalt, which form so characteristic a feature in the iron of meteorites, giving rise to the so-called Widtmanstetten-figures, which appear on treating a polished surface with acids. Metallic iron has also been discovered in microscopical quantities in various basalts and other basic lavas, and Professor Judd, in his interesting work on volcanoes, states that masses, bearing the most striking resemblance to meteorites, and being composed of substances identical with those which constitute the latter, are sometimes ejected from volcanic vents in the shape of so-called volcanic bombs. These discoveries have practically extinguished the validity of the old convenient method of testing meteorites, and the foremost in- quirers have become very careful and guarded in their language. The fallacy of all previous reasoning is obvious. If we consider the countless myriads of meteorites which are known to traverse space (the swarms of shooting-stars and even comets have been identified with streams of minute planetary bodies, moving in regular orbits through the solar system), these countless myriads which most probably present a vaster diversity of mineral combination in the aggregate than exists on this globe'; and if, on the other hand, we consider the isolated few which have happened to fall on the earth— it appears an absurdity if, from the accidental composition of the latter, we were to determine what is possible and what is not possible in a meteorite. So much for the value of the assertion that the meteorite of Braunfels cannot be a meteorite, because it differs in appearance from most known meteorites. I repeat that the investigation, especially the microscopic investigation, of meteorites is quite in its infancy yet, and I doubt whether (with the exception of Dr. Sorby, perhaps) there is a single individual in this country capable of pronouncing an opinion on this complicated subject. Sections of the meteorite of Braunfels have been submitted to Dr. Sorby months ago, and the "paper" referred to by your other correspondent, HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 79 F.R.M.S., was virtually based on one or two quotations from the opinions of that gentleman. Dr. Sorby has simply stated that, as far as he had yet been able to examine one of the sections of this material, he felt inclined to doubt its meteoric character ; and as his sole reason for this, he somewhat vaguely remarks, that it did not " look" like any of the meteorites he had examined, and added, that not a single one of the many supposed meteorites which had from time to time been sent to him had turned out to be a real meteorite. I must confess I cannot quite agree with Dr. Sorby, high authority though he is. Apart from the circumstances con- nected with the discovery of the meteoric mass (I must continue to call it so, for in my own mind I am quite convinced of its meteoric origin), which have been accurately described in the beginning of my paper, there are many other evidences which un- mistakably tend to establish its meteoric character. In the meteorite you have a complete network of metallic iron, at least iron in a very low degree of oxidation, and I am not aware of any other mineral substance capable of receiving and retaining such an absolute metallic lustre or polish. The most im- portant evidence is afforded by the crust surrounding the hand-specimens of this meteorite, this crust having a general test-feature in meteorites. It would vastly swell this paper were I to mention every circumstance tending to prove that the me- teorite of Braunfels is really a meteorite, and I must therefore content myself by referring your readers to the additional information which I have recently furnished in a letter to the Secretary of the Quekett Club, and which will probably appear in one of the earliest journals of the latter. The specimens of " Quartzite " referred to by F.R.M.S. as having been exhibited along with the "so-called" meteorite, bore not the slightest re- semblance to the Braunfels material, and, except for the presence of fluid-cavities (which constitute no argument whatever) it is difficult to understand the kind of analogy they were intended to furnish. It seems to be an universal custom to decry anything novel, which may threaten to upset old- fashioned notions and certain fixed ideas, and in this instance the "authorities" have it much their own way, because the knowledge of the subject is limited to very few only. About two years ago, when Dr. Hahn made known his discovery of organic remains in certain meteorites found in Hungary, he was fiercely attacked by the "critics," especially of this country, and the very possibility of such a discovery was derided. Now, after more elaborate investigations, the truth of Dr. Hahn's assertions is clearly demonstrated, and the meteoric origin of his specimens is all but generally acknowledged. I quote this, not as proving anything in my case, but to show how common it is even for authorities to be in error. Heinrich Hensoldt. A CHAPTER ON SPIDERS. AS notes on spiders are not often contributed to your journal, a few may be acceptable to some readers. Some fragments of leisure have been devoted during the last two years to Arachnology, and at various times I have had from twenty to sixty spiders in captivity during summer months, and from six to a dozen during the winter. The pugnacious disposition of most spiders is a great obstacle to the observation of their habits when together, as opposite sexes fight without scruple, and, if placed together, one or the other, in a short time, falls a victim to the natural ferocity of the order. The females (being in most species the larger and stronger) usually kill the males, and more often than not devour them. I have frequently endeavoured to keep them in pairs when nearly adult, but without success, except in the case of those few species which habitually associate. On one occasion, however, I captured a pair of adults [Linyphia montana), just at the time when they were dwelling harmoniously together, the reproductory organs in both being mature. (When spiders are full-grown, and after the last moult, of which there are several, the sexual organs are uncovered and the external characteristics are clearly seen with a moderate magnifying power.) On reaching home my captives were transferred from the pill-boxes in which they were caught to one of the cells of a specially arranged cage, in which they speedily constructed a light horizontal web, somewhat differing from that spun when at liberty, and resumed domestic life in apparent disregard of altered circumstances. On the third day of their captivity I found the spiders attached to the under side of the web in coition, the male below the female, reaching round and over her abdomen, inserting each palpus alternately and at regular intervals into the epigynum. I should perhaps mention here that the reproduc- tive fluid did not flow from the body of the male into the palpal organ through any internal tubes, but wasr I believe, taken into the palpus from the mouth. I cannot be positive that the fluid was received Trom the mouth, the position of the spiders preventing my observing this closely, but I am certain that it was received into each palpus before each insertion from some other part of the body. I think some species discharge the fertilising fluid on a little web, spun for the purpose, and dip the palpus into it. At the moment of insertion the soft portion of the terminal joint of the palpus became distended, having the appearance of a minute bladder, and was used in some way as an injector, causing the flow of the re- productive cells, through the discharge tube of the male, into the spermathecae of the female, from which the cells would pass through connecting tubes into the oviduct. Unfortunately I was unable to pursue my investi- So HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. gations, and note the period elapsing between coition and the deposit of eggs, for although the female lived for nearly a month no eggs were laid, as is often the case when spiders are in captivity. The savage propensities in this instance ultimately asserted them- selves in a provoking manner, and the female, after killing and eating her partner, leaving only his legs and a morsel of the harder skin of the cephalothorax, was found hanging dead in the web. When disturbed and caused to separate, the spiders did not manifest the same alarm as under ordinary circumstances, and returned to their original position after the lapse of a minute or two, the movements of both seeming to be guided by touch rather than by sight. From experi- ments I have made, I am inclined to think that the sense of touch is far more acute in spiders than that of sight, notwithstanding the number, and, in some species, the size of the eyes. I have taken a common house fly and gradually approached it to a spider, while it was struggling vigorously, not letting it touch the web, but the spider would take no notice ; yet, immediately the fly was cast into the web, it was seized. I have cast a fly into a far corner of a web, and the spider, instead of making straight for the fly, would advance hesitatingly, feeling with the claws of the front legs, sometimes taking a step in the wrong direction, and occasionally reaching the spot too late, the fly having broken away by struggling. I think your correspondent, E. Lamplough, must have mistaken the distended portion of the palpal organ for the minute drop of transparent fluid, as I fell into this error myself, before using a lens in ex- amining the action of the spiders. J. E. Arnett. Stourbridge. ON BRITISH FRESH-WATER MITES. By C. F. George. No. VI. I MUST now very briefly mention the soft-skinned division of Arrenurus. I have only met with a few examples of these mites as yet ; those that I have found, though females, have been very small ; they possess the same kind of mandibles as the mites in the other division, but the skin is membranous, and marked with lines, somewhat like those on our own fingers ; the body is globular, and has no impressed line on the back ; their colours are very marked ; they have rather long hairs sparingly scattered on the body, and these project behind, so as to resemble those seen on the hard-skinned specimens, each hair seems to spring from, or close to, the openings of a gland : their legs, mandibles, and thigh-plates are of course chitinous, and they also have a chitinous plate on each side, external to the vulva. I have recognised but two species as yet ; the first, I take to be Arrenurus frondator (Koch) ; the Y-shaped mark is white, and the other coeca appear to be in rough, roundish masses of green colour : the other somewhat resembles Arrenurus rutilator (Koch). The mandibles and legs are of a beautiful blue ; the body of the mite of a deep yellow, the Y-shaped mark is white, and the other coeca are yellowish- Fig- SS- — Arrenurus frondator (?) Q, upper side (5 objective). Fig. 56. — Arrenurus frondator (?) 5 , under side. Fig- 57- — Arrenurus rutilator (?), Q, upper side, (| objective). Fig 58.— Arrenurus rutilator (?) 9, under side. brown. The eyes of both these mites are of the colour of carmine. On dropping alcohol on one 01 the living mites, it ejected white threads, apparently of albumen, from the orifices of the glands near the hairs. I have observed the same things take place when other water mites were immersed in strong alcohol. Herb Beverages. — Will some reader of Science- Gossip say what plants are best for making herb beverages, and the best way to use them ? — Inquirer. HARD WICKE 'S SC IENCE- G O SSI P. 81 THE PRE-CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. By W. W. Watts, B.A., F.G.S., &c. {Continued from page 59.] THE succession of events in this area, while these rocks were being deposited, appears to have been as follows : — ' 1. Depression of pre-Dimetian land. 2. Deposit of some sediment with some Dimetian < volcanic action. 3. Consolidation, metamorphism, and elevation. '4. Land areas, with volcanoes, pouring Arvonian { out lava and ashes. lian < ( 5. Metamorphism and Elevation. like granite that they were long-considered to be such. Arvonian. — The granitoid rocks are flanked to the north-east of Caernarvon by a thick series of felsites, evidently lavas. A similar mass of felsitic lava occurs on the Llanberis lake, showing flow lines or fluxion structure, and containing one band of inter- bedded slate. Halleflintas, breccias, and felsites occur in masses in the Lleyn peninsula, one impor- tant band flanking the Dimetian axis of Rhos Hirwain. The Pebidian rocks cover the Arvonians with a certain amount of unconformability, and consist of grits, conglomerates, breccias, agglomerates, and slates. Many of them have a very beautiful ap- pearance. These rocks seem to be thick where the Arvonian lavas are thin, and vice versa — giving some support to Professor Bonney's classification, which N.w. Clegyn Valley. S.E. Fig. 59.— Section across St. David's Promontory (Hicks). I, Dimetian ; 2, Pebidian ; 3, Cambrian ; /, fault. Trefgarn Rocks. N ^^^^ Fig. 60. — Section across Trefgarn, Pembrokeshire (Hicks). 1, Arvonian ; a, Halleflintas, 5, Breccias ; a, Pebidian ; 3, Cambrian ; f, fault. Fig. 61.— Section from Porth Nobla to Aberffraw (Callaway). 1, Halleflinta ; 5, Dankschist. ■.-, 3, Quartz-schist ; 3, Limestone ; 4, Grey gneiss, (6. Depression of land. 7. Deposition of materials during a gradual submergence. Pebidian f „ _ ? , -,u Submarine volcanoes with pretty rapid depression. Re-elevation and consolidation. 3. North Wales. — Dr. Hicks extended his conquests to North Wales, but here several other observers have followed and modified some of his results. I may mention Professor Bonney, Mr. Houghton, Pro- fessor Hughes, and Mr. Tawney. The same three systems appear to be represented, but it seems pos- sible that the Arvonian and Pebidian ^re very closely connected here. Dimetian. — These rocks occur atTwt Hill, Caernar- von, the Lleyn peninsula, and a few other localities, and are chiefly compact felspathic-granitoidite, so considers the lavas and ashes as only the upper and lower parts of the great Pebidian series. Both Dimetian and Pebidian rocks underlie the Cambrian beds unconformably. The microscopic aspect of the granitoidite assigns to it a clastic origin, while the felsites are lavas, and the ashes and breccias are for the most part volcanic, and in some instances strikingly like those at St. David's. Dr. Hicks has discovered what he considers to be Pebidian rocks in the Harlech Mountains, here again underlying the Harlech or Low Cambrian beds. 4. Anglesey. — Among the principal workers in this field, I may mention Dr. Hicks, Professor Hughes, Dr. Callaway, Dr. Roberts ; but the geology of the county is so excessively complicated, and compara- tively so little has yet been done, that it is impossible to reconcile the conflicting views. Professor Hughes 82 HARD IVIC RE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. has been carefully eliminating the Silurian and Cambrian beds from confusion with the lower rocks, while Dr. Callaway has been engaged in classifying the pre-Cambrians, which he divides into two series, the gneissic and the slaty. He recognises five sub- divisions of the gneissic series : 1. Halleflinta rocks (somewhat rarely seen). 2. Quartz-schist and quartzite, of which five examples are seen at Holyhead, and the South Stack lighthouse. 3. Grey gneiss, a beautiful porphyritic rock with grey or pink felspar crystals, often of great size. 4. Dark schist. Hornblende and micaceous gneiss associated with chloritic and epidote schists. 5. Granitoidite, of a compact granitic type, rarely showing foliation, but otherwise like the Twt Hill rock. The slaty series seems to consist of slaty, ashy, brecciated rocks, sometimes like hornstones, with felspathic and quartzose grits, and some quartzites. The age of these rocks is determined by the fact that the Cambrian beds are made up of fragments from the slaty, granitoid, and gneissic rocks ; and besides this there is a striking resemblance between them, and the Dimetian and Pebidian series of St. David's, Caernarvon; and Shropshire. The gneisses and schists are, however, possibly older than these, but may be matched in the Malverns. (To be continued?) SKETCHES OF EMINENT NATURALISTS. By Henry Lamb. No. I. — JOHN RAY. " I persuade myself that the bountiful and gracious Author of man's being and faculties, and all things else, delights in the beauty of His creation, and is well pleased with the industry of man in adorning the earth . . . with shady woods and groves, and walks set with rows of elegant trees, with pastures clothed with flocks, and valleys covered over with corn." — Ray, Wisdom of God in Creation. JOHN RAY, the "founder of true principles of classification in the animal and vegetable king- doms," was born at Black Notley, a pleasant undu- lating village, near Braintree, in Essex, on the 29th of November, 1627. His father, Roger Ray, was a blacksmith in the village. Ray received a good classical education at the grammar-school at Braintree, and on the 28th of June, 1644, was sent to Cambridge. He was then in his sixteenth year. In 1649 he was made a Fellow of Trinity College ; afterwards, in 1651, Greek lecturer, then mathematical lecturer. He was also junior dean, college steward, &c. At Cambridge, Ray met with Francis Willughby, who became one of his private pupils there. Ray was always fond of natural history, but, being com- pelled through ill-health to take out-door exercise, he collected and studied the different plants which he met with in his walks round Cambridge, and from that time his life was devoted to its scientific pursuits. In 1667 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and contributed to their Transactions many valuable papers. His first publication was a " Catalogue of the plants growing in the neighbourhood of Cambridge." In this work he described 626 species. While residing at Cambridge he travelled over Great Britain in pursuit of botanical and zoological informa- tion, and was generally accompanied by Willughby. After leaving the University, these two naturalists travelled on the Continent. They sailed from Calais in April 1663 ; went through the Low Countries and Germany into Italy, returning by Switzerland and France to England in the spring of 1666. In this tour Ray attended to botany, and Willughby chiefly to zoology. They discovered many new species of birds and fishes in Germany and Italy during these travels. An account of the tour was published by Ray in 1673. In 16S2 he published his " Methodus Plantarum Nova." Ray first proposed the division of plants into dicotyledons and monocotyledons. Although he fell into many errors in his system of classification, many of his divisions were adopted by Jussieu, Brown, De Candolle, and others, in forming the natural system. His " Catalogus Plantarum Angliae " first appeared in 1670. This formed the basis of all subsequent works on the flora of this country. Ray's largest botanical work was a general " Historia Plantarum,"' published in 1686. In this work he collected and arranged 18,625 species, which included all the plants which had then been described by botanists. He also wrote several works on quadrupeds, birds and insects. Of his works on zoology, Cuvier says : "They may be considered as the foundation of modern zoology." Linnaeus, Buffon, and others borrowed largely from the works of Ray. In 1679 Ray settled in his native place, where he died on the 17th of January, 1704, at the age of 77, and was buried in the parish churchyard, where there is an obelisk erected to his memory. He married in 1673, and left three daughters. Ray distinguished himself, not only by his great scientific knowledge, but also by his "love of virtue " and his gentleness of manner— qualities which shone brighter and brighter to the latest period of his life. Great Grey Shrike (Lanius Excubitor) near Croydon. — A female bird of this species was caught by a bird-catcher at the bottom of Croham- hurst last November, and was sold to Mr. Thorp, our local naturalist. It was in very good condition and plumage. — F. L. B. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 83 MICRO-FUNGI BATHONIENSES.* No. I. IT occurred to me, after writing my papers on " Botanical Rambles round Bath,"t that it would be well to pursue a like plan with the Micro-Fungi of the district. I, therefore, during parts of the year 1SS1, added to my list of the fungi I had already found here, and went carefully over old ground, in order to be certain of localities. In these papers I purpose to give the result of my researches hitherto, with the understanding that, at present, they are to 'be considered in no way complete or exhaustive. The same locality, so rich with many flowers, will be also found to furnish not a few micro-fungi. I mean the lane leading from the top of Bathwick-Hill to Hampton Down.J Here, just at the entrance to the path leading through a small coppice, I found on a fir-tree Peridermium pini, May 1879. So abun- dant was this fungus, that it was apparent to any one there was something wrong with the leaves of the tree. This was a good find, as P. pini is only occasion- ally met with in England, though it is common in Scotland. This fungus is a worthy addition to the cabinet ; it has many points of interest. Besides the interesting structure of the peridium, which is easy of examination in this particular fungus, P. pini also has the largest spermatia yet examined. Dr. Cooke informs us that they have a length equal to ^ inch, but their width is rarely more than jjjJ^jj while in some the length does not exceed the width of those just named. § I offered this fungus in Science-Gossip for July, 1879, and as but very few availed themselves of the opportunity to possess a specimen, I have still some to give away to any one who sends a stamped and directed envelope to 4, Darlington Place, Bath. In the same lane may be found sEcidium ranun- tulacearum on the leaves of R.ficaria and R. repens. On May 20th, 1879, 1 found sE. Viola on the banks of the road leading to Claverton, but it was by no means plentiful, and I have not found it largely dis- tributed in this locality. VE. Tussilaginis on Tussilago farfara, sides of Brass Knocker Hill, and for the most part wherever the leaves of the plant are found. JE. Taraxaci on leaves of Lcontodon Taraxacum, banks of Canal, Limpley-Stoke ; by no means plentiful. I have once or twice found JE. quadrifidum on • [We are sorry that pressure of matter has obliged us to liold over these -valuable papers for a long period, but their apoearance at this time of the year will prove very seasonable. —Ed. S.-G.] + Science-Gossip, 1880, pp. 229-274. % Science-Gossip, 1880, p. 229. $ Cooke's " Rust, Smut," &c, p. 25, 3rd edition. Anemone coronaria, in the gardens of Turleigh Villa, but I have not met with it elsewhere. Passing on to Puccinia, I have only noted P. Saxi- fragarum on Adoxa moschatellina, and P. Umbellife- rarum on Bunium Jlexuosum. Both are plentiful in the lane leading to Hampton Down. Lecythea Rosa I find every year on a sweet-briar hedge in Turleigh Villa Gardens, in great plenty.* Trichobasis Geranii on Geranium molle, banks of Avon and Kennet Canal, Limpley-Stoke. These, then, are just a few forms which may be found during the early months of the year. In my next paper I shall furnish a list of other specimens, to be found later on in the year. I hope that others will follow my example, and endeavour to gain a knowledge of the micro-fungi of their district. The work will be found one of pleasure, and may be of much use, for it has been most truly remarked by one of our greatest naturalists, "that that district produces the greatest variety which is the most examined. "f Charles F. W. T. Williams. Path. (To be continued.) NOTES ON THE SCHIZOMYCETES. [Continued from Vol. XVIII. page 276.] NO. V. XI. SPlROCHiETA, Ehrenberg. Cells united in long slender threads, which present a considerable number of close spiral turns. The threads are very actively motile ; in fact they swim forwards or back- wards, rotating round their longitudinal axis, and can moreover bend themselves in the most varied manner. Not forming a zooglcea, but often felted in dense tufts. Distinguished from Spirillum by the long, closely wound, flexile threads. 52. S. plicatilis, Ehbg. Spirillum plicattlc, Dujardin. Spirulina plicatilis, Cohn. Threads very short and slender, with numerous close spirals; articulated; blunt at the ends, 110- 225 n long (according to Rabenhorst), diameter of the single joints (and thickness of the threads) 2\ /*, according to Ehrenberg. In bog- water, among algae. This species is said by Koch to be distinguished from the others especially by the doubly undulated contour of its fila- ments. But still filaments with a simple spiral are very abundant. * SCIENCE-GOSSIP, 1880, p. 230. t White's " Selborne," Letter xi 84 HARDWICRE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 53. 6". Obermeieri, Cohn. Morphologically almost the same as S. plicatilis, perhaps only distinguished by the fact that the threads are pointed at both ends. In the blood of persons suffering from febris rccurrens, and probably the cause of the disease. The threads of i". Obermeieri 'are either extended in a straight line, and wound in regular spirals, or else they bend themselves, moving with extreme rapidity in the most varied fashion, so that the spirals appear of unequal size, especially at the most strongly bent places. This species is found in the blood of those suffering from intermittent fever, and in fact only during the recurring fever periods, or for a short time thereafter. In the intervals of freedom from fever they disappear.* 54. S. Cohnii, Winter. Very similar to both the foregoing species, but always shorter, and for the most part more slender, articulations are not visible, but at times the threads break up into joints. In sea-water. The longest specimens showed sixteen turns ; not been discovered. fiagella have XII. Spiromonas, Perty. Threads "flattened like a leaf, twisted round an imaginary longitudinal axis." Multiplication by transverse division. 56. S. volnbilis, Perty. "Colourless, translucent, smooth, without any obvious differentiation, motion pretty swift, combined with a quick revolution round ' the axis about which the leaf-like body is twisted. Body often twisted very little, never forming more than a circumference. Length 753-155"'= 15-18 /j." In stagnant bog-water and putrefying infusions.* \AA/NiAA/>A/l/Vl'^AyyvuVUw Fig. 62. — a and b, Spirochata plicaiilit ; c and d, S. Obermeieri {a and c after photographs by Koch ; b, after Cohn ; d, after Weigert). In d the blood corpuscles are represented ; the bent threads show the form assumed shortly before the cessation of the fever. Fig. 63. — Spiromonas Cohnii (after Warm- ing). °%^ f* Fig. 64. — a, Spirillum rugula; b, S. undula; c, S. volutans (a and c, after Cohn ; b, after Koch's photographs). than S. Obermeieri, and besides, like that, pointed at both ends. In the slime of the teeth ; discovered by Cohn ; figured by Koch, (Beitr. zur Biol., vol. ii. pt, 3, pL xiv., fig. 8). 55. S. gigantea, Warming. Threads cylindrical, blunt at both ends, about 3 n thick, with numerous spiral turns, the height of which is 25 fj., the diameter 7-9 \x. Flexile. The • It is a question whether this be not the same as the pre- ceding species, merely transplanted into a different habitat. — Tr. 57- S. Cohnii, Warming. Cells flattened, but sometimes faintly angular, acutely pointed at both ends, each with one flagellum, with 1 \ (seldom more) turns. Spiral elongated, 6-9 times as high as its diameter, 9-20 /j. in height, I *2-3-5 p. in diameter. Breadth of the cells 1*2-4 A*- Colourless, often with one or two longitudinal stria- tions. In stinking, very much decomposed water. XIII. Spirillum, Ehrenberg. ( Vibrio, Cohn ; Ophidomonas, Ehbg.) Cells cylindrical or slightly compressed, simply arcuate or spirally twisted, rigid, with a flagellum at each end (? whether in all species). Multiplication by transverse division, the daughter-cells for the most part soon separating. At times also a zooglcea is formed ; spore-formation similar to that of Bacillus. 1 unite with the genus Spirillum, the Vibrio of Cohn, and the Ophidomonas of Ehrenberg. The genus Vibrio in fact cannot be sharply defined, since fiagella have also been found in it. Cohn himself has already united Ophidomonas with Spirillum. Warming also combines all three genera. Although the name Vibrio has priority, still I have preferred the designation. • This is often considered as an Iniusorian. See Saville Kent' s " Manual," p. 244.— Tr. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 85 Spirillum, because gross misuse has been made of the former, especially by non-botanists, so that it is better to let it lapse altogether. 58. S. Rugida (Miiller). Vibrio Rugula, Miiller. Melanella flexuosa, Bory. Cells 6-16 \l long, about £-2§ ^ thick, either only simply arcuate, or with one shallow spiral, bearing a flagellum at each end, actively rotating round its longitudinal axis ; the cells are often felted in dense swarms. Height of the spiral generally 6-10 ft, Also frequently forming swarms, spirals 8-12 n, diameter 1 '2-3 ju. In various infusions. Height of the The dimensions recorded by Rabenhorst (13-28 /j. long) pre- sumably refer to threads composed of several cells. According to Warming, the height of the spirals is said to be sometimes as much as 22 /j.. 60. S. tentce, Ehbg. Cells very slender, 4-15 m long, about 2\ /x thick (according to Ehrenberg), with at least ih, usually, however, 2, 3, 4 or 5 spirals. Height and diameter of the spirals about I j-4 /u, or the diameter amounts Fig. 66.— Spirillum Jenense (after Ehr.) X 600. Fig. 65. — a, Spirillum serpens ; i, the same, felted in a " swarm ' c, S. tenue ; d, S. undula; e, S. volitions (after Cohn), X.650. Fig. 67. — Spirillum sanguineum (after Koch), X 600. Fig. 68.— Spirillum undula (after Dallinger). diameter '5-2 /a. Spores always at the end of the cell, globose. In bog-water, and various infusions j also in the slime of the teeth, &c. According to Warming, individuals occur the spiral of which reaches a height of 13-20 /x and a diameter of 2*5-5 f- 59. S. serpens (Miiller). Vibrio serpens, Miiller. Cells half as broad as in the foregoing species, II- 28 n long (according to Rabenhorst), "8-1 ' 1 fi thick, with several, usually three or four spirals ; often united in long chains ; with a flagellum at each end. to half the height. Moving very swiftly, but also often almost motionless and felted in dense swarms or masses, or united in a zooglcea. In various infusions. According to Warming only 1 ft thick, and the spirals times 8-10 /x high, with the diameter \-& of the height. Th appears to be some confusion between i". tenue and S. Undi Is at times 8-10 /x High, witn tne aiameter j~*% 01 tne neight. There appears to be some confusion between i". tenue and S. Undula. 61. S. Undula (Miiller), Ehbg. Vibrio Undula, Miiller. V. prolifer, Ehbg. (Infus. p. 81, pi. v., fig. 8.) Cells 8-12 m long, n-l-4/i thick (according to 86 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Rabenhorst) ; spirals wider than in the foregoing, 4-5 /x high ; each cell for the most part embracing only Jon, seldom I J to 2 or 3 spirals ; a fkgellum at each end. Very actively motile, at times also forming a zooglcea. In bog-water and various infusions. Ehrenberg gives for .9. tenue a thickness of xunn °f a 'me> f°r •S". Undula only -^Sn °f a 'me i at tne same tlme ne says 'n tne •description : " Sp. fibris valde torulosis brevibus, validioribus." According to Warming -S". Undula is more variable than was formerly admitted. The spir.ds are often elongated, so that the cell appears almost straight; accordingly the height of the spirals varies from 3 to io'5 fi, the diameter amounts to J or j£ of the height, the thickness of the cells "6-X*3 n. Var. lit or ale, Warming. As much as 3 /x thick, spirals elongated, each 5_I° jx high, diameter | or J of the height. On the shores of the Baltic Sea. 62. S. volutans, Ehbg. Vibrio Spirillum , M idler. Melanella Spirillum, Bory. Cells slightly attenuated towards the ends, gently rounded, 25-30 /x long, about I5-2 xi thick ; each cell with 2^-33 (seldom more) spirals, the spiral 9-13 ju high, 65 /x in diameter; a flagellum at each end. In various infusions, as well as in bog-water among algae. According to Warming the spirals are often elongated, so that the cell appears almost straight ; the diameter then amounts to only 1 "5-4 n. Var. robustum, Warming. Thickness 2-4/5 Mi height of the spirals 10-20 11, diameter 1-3 jx. Usually with I J turns. Sometimes with two flagella at one end. In sea-water. 63. S. sanguineum (Ehbg.), Colin. Ophidomonas sanguined, Ehbg.* Cells cylindrical, only seldom attenuated at the ends, 3 ll or more thick, of various lengths, with usually 2, seldom h or 2\ spirals. Height of the spirals 9-12 tt, diameter about § of the height ; a flagellum at each end. Cell-contents coloured by numerous reddish bodies, with many sulphur granules. In putrefying brackish water [and pond water ?] According to Warming the longest specimens reach 65 /x ; the height of the spirals 15-37 Mt while the diameter amounts to J or 3, or in small specimens j— ^ of the height. 64. S. violaceum, Warming. Cells either crescent-shaped (and so without a complete turn) or with I or I; spirals, broadly rounded at the ends, with a flagellum at each. Cell- contents violet, with few sulphur granules. Height of the spirals 8-10 it, diameter 1— 1 *5 it, thickness of the cells 3-4 fx. In brackish water. * According to Saville Kent, the Ophidomonas sanguinea of Ehrenberg is a true monad, and not identical with Cohn's Spirillum sanguineum. See " Manual." — Tr. 65. S. Rosenbergii, Warming. Cells with 1 or \\ turns, 4-12 it long, 1*5-2 '6 /x thick, colourless, but with extremely numerous strongly refringent sulphur granules. Spirals 6-7J 11 high, of very varied diameter, which amounts at the most to half of the height. Moving actively and in the most varied fashion, but, as it seems, without flagella. In brackish water. 66. S. attenuatum, Warming. Cells strongly attenuated at the ends, usually with 3 spirals. The middle spiral is large and close (height about 11 it, diameter 6 11), the end spirals are elongated (10 it high, 2 it in diameter). Thickness of the cells 2 or 1 *2 it. In sea-water. 67. S. Jencnsc (Ehbg.)* Ophidomonas jfenensis, Ehbg. Cells obtuse at both ends, with flagella, olive- brown, 40 [x long, about 3], fx thick, with \-z\ spirals. Whether this is really a distinct species is hard to say, so long as it is not found again in the original locality. Possibly it is identical with S. volutans. W. B. Grove, B.A. {To be continued.) THE DANISH FOREST. By John Wager. III. — The Distribution of the Wild- Growing Trees. IN Denmark, as in other countries, most of the different species of wild-growing trees have their different localities, in which the one species affecting the soil, or acted upon by other circum- stances, prevails more than another ; while some species may even be almost or altogether absent from certain tracts. Dr. Vaupell devotes a long chapter to this subject, which is here compressed into more limited space. Beech is at home on a calcareous soil, and grows best on argillaceous sandy marl, the prevailing soil of nearly all the fertile parts of Denmark. Yet it grows also on heavy clay, and is the predominant tree on all wooded boulder-sand. The growth of the beech on such soil is peculiar to Denmark, and is dependent on the preparation which other trees, previously growing upon it, have made ; planters well knowing that on first planting such sand-hills they must not begin with the beech — spruce being usually chosen, though Scotch fir would be better. Beech-woods avoid swampy grounds and peat-mosses, • Saville Kent classes this as a true monad. See " Manual." I -Tk. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 87 but otherwise beech can grow in Denmark on any soils where the natural conditions for tree-growth are present. In Jutland it forms woods as far north as the soil will permit any woods to grow, close below the Scaw, in latitudes where in other countries it begins to be sporadic merely. Vet the beech is not so absolutely dominant in Jutland towards the west and the east ; though the ruling tree in many of the woods to the west of the proper forest-belt, especially in those of considerable, size, in many of the smaller woods, composed of oak, birch and aspen, it is less frequent, or quite absent. Such woods where beech is scarce or absent, are not only small, but outlying, and by elevation or otherwise exposed to the repres- sion of the west winds, or other ills ; but in those of larger extent, which do not suffer from west winds, wet soil, or ill-usage, the beech is either the ruling tree, or on the way to become so at no distant date. It is steadily extending itself in the westerly woods ; but the isolated position of certain woods renders its access to them difficult. For this reason it is absent from the natural woods of Bornholm, not having yet, in its course from west to east, advanced so far. The Oak is found interspersed in beech-woods, and forms also pure oak-woods in Jutland on boulder-sand, and upon the islands on fertile clay. In the natural oak-woods of the islands the trees stand wide apart, usually lifting their broad heads above dense underwood, chiefly of hazel and whitethorn ; thus affording a glimpse of the form of Denmark's best old oak-forests, of which our forefathers left us few remains. The oaks, too, which are here scattered through the beech-wcods, at the rate of less than one to about five oaks to the acre, among beeches of one hundred and forty years old, are the offspring of those ancient woods of oak ; on the east coast of the peninsula oaks are also scattered among the beeches, but in general both these and oak-woods are rarer than upon the islands. The free use of oak timber formerly has caused the disappearance of many an oak-wood, for oak does not renew itself so readily as beech, the young plants being more easily repressed by other kinds of trees which invade the grounds. Consequently the oaks have left the fertile east coast for interior sites, where the soil, being in general boulder-sand, and the isolated position, check the advance of the beech. Some have therefore concluded that in Jutland the oak has its habitat on the boulder-sand, and the beech on the boulder-clay ; but such preference of the oak is opposed to its habit on Zealand and the smaller islands, where the oak-woods usually rest on fertile soil. In Bornholm, where the oak has not come under the domination of the beech, it is plentiful, and both pedunculata and sessiliflora are found there, but the latter most frequently. Of Birch there are several kinds in Denmark, regarded by Linnaeus and others, not as different species, but as varieties of the white birch. The most common is the forest-birch (Bctula verrucosa), distinguished by its fissured bark and other marks from the northern white birch (B. gliitinosa). To the last, the dun-birch (B. pubcscens) is allied, though in general it is a mere bush on the mosses ; B. Cur- pathica is also allied to the white birch, and can attain to a tree, but is rare. The birch forest, even more than the oak, has suffered diminution during the lapse of time. Stems found in peat-mosses witness to its great extension in former ages ; but now, whether associated in woods or standing singly, the birch has been excluded from the best forest tracts by the nobler tree-species, and only retains its hold on localities which, either from isolation or sterility, are favourable to the beech. As a wild forest-tree, it has almost or entirely disappeared from several of the islands ; and even in Vendsyssel, the most northerly part of Jutland, birkenshaws have given place to beech-woods, though it maintains itself on swampy grounds. It is found also in parts of the interior of Jutland, but it nowhere on the peninsula forms an important constituent of the woods. The birch of the peat-mosses is marked by striking peculiarities ; its stems, often more than two feet in diameter, are swathed in beautiful, smooth, white bark ; while the bark of the birches now growing in North Zealand (where beautiful groups exist) fissures as soon as the tree attains a diameter of little more than half a foot. The leaves, catkins and winged fruit also of the fossil and the forest-birch differ; the former agreeing most nearly with the genuine northern white-birch, common to the Scandinavian peninsula, the northern part of the Russian forest, and the hills of Middle Europe ; while, on the other hand, the forest birch (B. verrucosa) predominates on the plains of Germany. It is only from the mosses of North Zealand that material for a thorough comparison has been obtained by Dr. Vaupell ; he notes also the tendency of the birch to run into varieties. Alder. — The red alder (Abuts glutinosa) occupies swampy parts of the forest, especially in beech- woods where the small or large marshy depressions which frequently occur are usually filled with alder-woods, or alder-mosses. Though red alder affects moisture,, yet individual trees are found on hard soil, where they often attain a greater age and finer form than on swampy ground. In recent times, as before intimated, such mortality has befallen the alders that in many wooded tracts they have quite given place to other species of trees, especially on the small islands and a great part of Funen and Zealand ; they still flourish on the east coast of Jutland and Slesvig. The white alder (A Inns iiicana) is admitted into the Floras as a Danish tree, and certainly no foreign tree has taken faster or more flourishing hold of the soil, from which indeed it is difficult to rid it ; for when cut down close to the roots, these strike out so many shoots that more space is covered than sufficed for the parent tree. It is common in the state forests of 83 IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. North Zealand, but does not grow wild in more northerly districts ; it is wanted in Jutland, and also in the south-western provinces of Sweden, first appearing again on the borders of Norway. Awhile since it was a good deal planted, but has fallen into disrepute as inferior to red alder and ash, and it is now chiefly used for planting on sandhills and heaths. Ash, next to beech, has been most favoured by the effects of modern husbandry and forest-culture. Into the fertile woods of South Zealand, and the smaller islands especially, it penetrates and forms considerable growths ; also in the greatest part of Lolland's forest-tracts ; and in those woods of Falster which have a similar soil, as well as on Moen it has a wide extension. But it is not so common in those of Funen, and the soil of North Zealand is unfavourable to its growth. It is rarer, too, in the forest districts of Slesvig and South Jutland up to the Veile-fjord ; its most important extension on the peninsula beginning north of Aarhus and continuing through the fertile woods along the coast of the sub-peninsula of Grenaa. North of Rander's fjord it appears in several moist woods. On Bornholm it has a wide extension. The Elm (Ulmus montana) is widely diffused over Bornholm, but in the rest of Denmark appears only sporadic in the woods. It cannot bear moisture as well as the ash, but on firm ground affects the same kind of soil ; though as fruitful as the ash, where they grow together the ashes far exceed the elms, except in some of the woods of Funen, where the rule is reversed. On Samso the elm was formerly the chief constituent of the woods. Hornbeam, of all Danish trees, most resembles the beech, and being similarly capable of enduring shade, can thrive in company with it better than any other tree ; moreover, it can endure a moister soil. It is found sporadic in the beech-woods all over Denmark, except in the north of Jutland. In some of the southern woods, and there only, it is sufficiently self- sowing to predominate and oppress the beech, especially in Lolland, where the ground is moister than usual in Danish woods ; in the Alminding forest on Bornholm, where it has not been subjected to the rivalry of the beech, it is also abundant. Of Maple, three species are found in Denmark ; the sycamore, the common maple (Acer campestre), and the Norway maple (A. platanoides). Sycamore, which the Germans say is not hardy enough to develop fully in North Germany, grows luxuriantly upon Als, and the parts of Slesvig adjacent to that island, but apparently does not advance into Jutland. It is frequent also in southern parts of Funen and Zealand, and over the islands to the south of these ; yet it may have been originally planted. The common maple, either as a tree or a bush, is at home in the coast woods of the islands, from Als in the east to Moen in the west, but rapidly declines towards the north. In North Zealand, however, there are trees with boles which girth forty-three inches ; some of those on Als are fifty-four feet high. In Jutland it is very rare, and restricted to the south of the Rander's fjord. The Norway maple is moderately common on Moen where it is associated with oak, ash, elm, and hornbeam. It is also found in some of the Zealand woods, and between Kolding and Ribe in the south of Jutland. The Lime (Tilia parvifolia).— Although, 'this tree advances into Norway, it has in Denmark its peculiar home in the south and south-easterly parts, extending into Scania, Sweden. It is found on Bornholm and Moen ; and is common in the woods of Lolland, where also it decks with low growths numerous grave mounds in a part of the island. Remains of its leaves and fruit are plentiful in the Lolland peat-mosses. Among other islands it is not uncommon in the south of Zealand, where at least one tree girths forty-eight inches in diameter of bole. In North Zealand it is rare, but less so in Jutland and Slesvig. It seems to have a partiality for the small islands, on some of which it forms groves. Its timbers being of poor quality, planters discourage its growth ; it suffers, too, from encroachment of the beech, and most frequently does not ripen its seed. The Aspen, in the same degree as the birch, is a light-requiring tree, and cannot bear over-shadowing ; like the birch, too, it was common in the forests of former times, if not to the same extent. Meantime, it has kept its ground better in the beech-woods ; not from greater power of self-sowing, but because, like the lime, its roots possess great tenacity of life, and more than those of any other tree can send out buds. It is, however, more frequent in the small woods which have not come under the domin- ation of the beech, as in the peasants' woods on Bornholm ; in Hald, an oak-wood near Viborg, in Jutland, also fine examples of it are found. On the heaths, too, it is common among the oak-scrub, and sometimes solely covers the ground ; but on such meagre soil its leaves are but one-third the size of those in Hald wood. Where ling has been cleared away, the vacant spaces often become overgrown with shoots of aspen, from old roots previously hid, but strongly retentive of life. In some of the forests with good soil it flourishes numerously, both dis- persed and in groups ; but the planters strive to rid it, its timbers being of little worth. (To be continued.) Sporting Blackbirds. — These are now in the grounds of The Brook villa, three miles from Liver- pool. These blackbirds, one with a white feather on each side of its tail, one with a white wing, and one with a perfectly white breast. They were first seen last summer. — W. B. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 89 MICROSCOPY. "The Journal of the Postal Microscopical Society." — Part five of the second volume of this journal is to hand, edited by Mr. Alfred Allen. It contains papers on "The Exhibition of Magnified Objects," by Dr. C. P. Coombs ; " The Microscope in Medicine," by J. B. Jeaffres ; "A Method of making and mounting Transparent Rock-sections for the Microscope," by John Smith ; " The Maggot of the Blow-fly," by A. Hammond, F.L.S. (illustrated by some exquisitely drawn plates) ; " Half-an-hour at the Microscope " with Mr. Tuffen West, F.L.S. (beautifully illustrated) ; selections from the Postal Microscopical Society's Note-book, &c. This is the best part yet issued, and we are pleased to note the progressive character of the journal under its able editorship. "Journal of the Royal Microscopical So- ciety."—The February part of this ably-edited journal contains papers as follows: "Observations on the Oribatidae," by A. D. Michael; " On the use of Incandescent Electric Lamps, as accessories to the Microscope," by C. H. Steam; and " On a Minute Form of Parasitical Protophyte," by Mr. G. F. Dowdeswell. The latter describes a form of bacillus he had found in the lung of a mouse infected with septicaemia, and states it as his belief that the number in which these organisms may exist in the blood of an infected animal is incalculable, and may even be greater than in the case of Davaine's septicaemia in the rabbit, where the author had found that in some cases one drop of infected blood contained upwards of three-thousand millions of them ! The journal contains, besides the papers, the usual ency- clopaedic epitome of recent contributions to micro- scopical science. "TheMicrographicalDictionary." — We have received parts 18, 19, 20, 21 of the 4th edition of this important work, bringing it to a conclusion. Micro- scopic workers are fully aware of the high value it possesses, and what a vast repertory of information it contains relating to microscopical research. But younger students may not be cognizant of its import- ance to them as a hand-book, and to them we com- mend it in the strongest and most commendatory terms. The present edition is edited by Dr. J. W. Griffith, the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.R.S., and Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S. It is illustrated by fifty- three plates, and more than eight hundred woodcuts. The publisher is John Van Voorst, 1, Paternoster Row. Highbury Microscopical and Scientific Society. — The members of this society last month presented to their honorary secretary one of Crouch's Premier Binocular microscopes, with rotating stage, removeable substage, four objectives, Wenham's achromatic condenser, and numerous other acces- sories of the latest design. The instrument bears the following inscription : " Presented to Bernard H. Woodward, by the members of the Highbury Microscopical and Scientific Society, as a token of their appreciation of his services as honorary secre- tary, January, 1883." ZOOLOGY. Helix obvoluta. — Mr. Tomlin asks (p. 67) for localities where this shell has been taken. The following short list includes, I believe, all the places which have been recorded, but I shall be glad to be corrected if it is incomplete. Proceeding from west to east, — Winchester, Buriton, Stoner Hill, Up Park, Singleton, Graffham and Duncton. The range is thus a narrow strip of country about thirty-five miles long and about six wide, following the line of the downs. Mr. Tomlin would do good service by tracking it westward towards Salisbury. — C. Ashford. The Dugong. — A fine specimen of the Dugong, or sea-cow {Halichore Indicus), from the Indian Ocean, measuring seven feet from the snout to the tip of the crescent-like tail, has just been received, together with the skeleton at the Museum, Owens College ; a few words upon which may not be out of place. It belongs to the Sirenian group of Mammalia ; only one other species in this suborder is now known to be living, the manatee ; they are very closely allied to the cetacea. The bones of the skeleton are remarkable for their heavy, close, ivory- like texture, thus adapted for its peculiar life in the ocean-bed, where it feeds upon sea-weeds. The hind limbs being absent, the pelvis is rudimentary, and it possesses no sacrum, whilst the fore-limbs are con- verted into a pair of flippers, or swimming paddles. The mammae are situated on the chest. This species has two sets of teeth ; the molar teeth are — - when 5-5 young, but reduced to — in the adult ; the incisors, said to be present in the young, are wanting in the mature animal. Many of the figures in our popular books are incorrect, especially about the head ; the snout is prominent and fleshy, whilst the lower por- tion of the upper jaw is bristly. This, conjoined with the pectoral teats, aided by the flippers, has caused them, when observed at a distance with the upper part of the body out of the water, to be mis- taken for the human form. In this way not a few stories of mermaids have arisen, and it is not at all improbable, says Scoresby, that the walrus has afforded foundation for others, equally wonderful. I have seen a sea-cow, in such a position that it required little imagination to mistake it for the human being, in fact, the surgeon of the ship actually reported it as a man swimming with his head out of 9° HAEJDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. the water. The Portuguese give the manatee a name signifying woman-fish, and the Dutch sailors call the Dugong, Baardmannetje, or little bearded man. One singular species belonging to this group, the rhytina, is now extinct, having been hunted down within a very recent period. It was first seen about 1750, in Behring's Island, near the coast of Kamtchatka ; it was here where Behring was wrecked, and he de- scribed it as abounding with the rhytina. The last was seen in 1768 ; it was estimated at twenty-five feet in length, and twenty feet in its greatest circum- ference. The skin was hairless, but very thick and fibrous. Steller, who described the species, states he was struck with the enormous size of the stomach, being six feet in length, and five feet in breadth, distended with masticated sea-weed. The sea-cow has not far to remove in search of food, hence the difference in specific gravity (betwixt this species and the whales) in the bones. The latter pursue a living prey, but it requires an effort on the part of the dugong to reach the surface of the water. — y. F. R. " The Weather of 1882." — Mr. Edward Manley, F.M.S., honorary secretary of the National Rose Society, has issued a valuable memoir on the above subject, more particularly as observed in the neigh- bourhood of London. The comparison of the weather of that anomalous year is made in all respects with that |of an average year. Much care and pains have been taken in the matter, and there can be no question the work will be a valuable addition to meteorological literature. "The Butterflies of Europe," byH. C. Lang, M.D., F.L.S. (London : Lovell Reeve and Co.). Part xii. of this beautiful work is out, containing descriptive and illustrative sketches of the various European species of Argynnis and Melitsea. Hemel Hempstead Natural History Society. — The annual report of this flourishing society for the year 1882 has just appeared. It includes a total of eighty-eight members, and is distinguished by the number of field meetings held during the summer and autumn. Public lectures were delivered during the winter months by Dr. J. E. Taylor, the editor of Science-Gossip, on "Volcanoes" and " Coal ;" by J. Saunders, Esq., on "Flowers," and by J. Littleboy, Esq., on " Migrations of Birds." These lectures are thrown open to the public, and have been largely attended. Frogs in Ireland. — The island of Rathlin, which lies three miles off the north coast of to. Antrim, was carefully explored last year by Mr. S. A. Stewart, M.B.S.E., of Belfast, with a view to correcting the lists of its fauna and flora. The examination made was thorough, and resulted in eliciting the interesting fact that the common frog is unknown in the island, though abounding on the mainland. There are several small lakes and other spots in Rathlin suitable for batrachian propagation, but for some reason Rana temporaria has not yet emigrated. On referring to Bell's "History of British Reptiles," p. 86, and "Edin- burgh Philosophical Journal," vol. xviii. p. 372, it will be found that frogs, though everywhere disseminated through Ireland, were formerly unknown there, and were introduced about two hundred years ago by a Dr. Guithers, one of the Fellows of Trinity College, Dublin, who is said to have procured frog's spawn from England and placed it in a ditch in the University Park, whence the species spread over the entire country. Evidence exists of frogs having been extremely rare, and of one being exhibited as a show in the north of Ireland in the middle of the last century.— .tf. IV. Lett, MA. Trout in New Zealand. — It may interest some of your readers to hear that trout are multiplying rapidly in our New Zealand rivers. A fine fish, turning the scale at 10 lbs., was caught in a tributary to the Wanganui river very recently. As it is not more than seven years since ova were first deposited in the river, it speaks well for the adaptability of our streams for nurseries and breeding grounds of this prince of freshwater fishes. Government very wisely protects both trout and salmon by a licence. — Charles Hardy, Wellington. " Another Book of Scraps relating to Natural History." — By this title Mr. Charles Murray Adamson has published a series of thirty-six lithograph illustrations from pen and pencil sketches of wild birds. They are exceedingly vigorous and natural, although merely outline sketches, and pro- claim the artist to be a true naturalist, possessed with acute observing power. The sketches relate chiefly to aquatic bird life. BOTANY. Podophyllum. — In re-arranging my collection of vegetable dissections a few days ago, I observed that Podophyllum Emodi is one seed leaved, and fearing that somehow it might have got a wrong label, I had a large root dug up. It was entirely underground, but the flower stalks were formed, about two inches in length, and just peeping into the light. On dissection, the stalks, rhizomes and roots everywhere are seen to indicate one seed leaf. Throughout them are abundance of starch, and signs of the presence of a resin or gum-resin. Podophyllum at present is con- sidered to be two seed leaved, and is placed about the beginning of the natural arrangement, but there has been great uncertainty as to a reasonable position for it. Some botanists, as Lindley and Balfour, place it among the Ranunculaceae ; some, as Asa Gray, among the Berberidese ; and others, as Loudon, in HARDWICKE'S SCONCE-GOSSIP. 9i an order by itself, rodophyllaceae, with the remark that on the one hand it is nearly related to Nymphaeacere, and on the other to Berberidea;. On recognising the fact that the plant is monocotyledonous there will be little difficulty in giving it a satisfactory place, which should be near the Smilacete, or perhaps among the Trilliaceae along with Paris and Medeola. P. Emodi, the Asiatic species, thrives very well in this part of Scotland, and produces great crops of its large bright- red fruit, yielding a plentiful supply of seeds which vegetate freely. I am not aware whether the podo- phyllin, now so considerably employed in medicine, is extracted from this or from the Canadian species, P. peltatum. If from Emodi, the vigorous growth of the plant appears to indicate that it might be pro- fitably cultivated in this country. P. peltatum is not so robust here, and dies out in six or eight years. It would be very interesting if some of the readers of Science-Gossip could tell whether the podophyllin of commerce is obtained from P. Emodi or from P. peltatum. Perhaps a third species exists. In an enumeration of plants (undescribed) I notice, I, P. peltatum, N. America ; 2, P. diphyllum, Virginia. — -John Sang, Kirkaldy. Proliferous Sundew. — Mr. Step will find several notes on budding leaves in Drosera. I recall, now, an illustrated paper by M. Naudin, in the " Annales des Science Naturelles " for 1840, xiv. p. 14, and a note on a Proliferous Sundew in Science-Gossip for 1S73, p. 259, by Mr. Laver. A somewhat similar specimen is stated to have been exhibited by Mr. Cross, at a meeting of the Chester Society of Natural Science, in 1876 (" Nature," xv. p. 18). I have noticed the same thing once or twice in New York State. — IV. J., Madison, Wis., U.S.A. David Douglas. — The numerous friends and cor- respondents of David Douglas will hear with regret of his decease, which took place at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, on the 13th of February last. Douglas was a hammerman by trade, but, in con- sequence of his successful devotion to botany, some friends used their influence to gain him admission as an attendant to the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art. It was noticeable how quickly he assimilated the biological information thus newly brought before him, and whilst not abandoning the study of plants, made rapid progress in comparative osteology and in the British fauna. Of late he had devoted the greater part of his leisure time to the study of beetles. As an evidence of the thoroughness which marked his work, he had begun Latin to enable him to interpret the diag- noses. That he was a man of ability, gifted with a quick eye, and a sound judgment ; and that he was a man of character, sincere and free from bitterness, none who knew him well could fail to perceive, and had he lived, notwithstanding the great drawback of want of early education, there can be no doubt that he would have made his mark in the department of study to which he was devoting himself. As an attendant, he was punctual and diligent, and gave to students and visitors freely of the information which he had acquired. His published work is almost wholly contained in the pages of Science-Gossip. His most interesting communication was on the discovery of the male flowers of Anacharis in Britain. In addition, he contributed various notices of the occurrences of rare plants in fresh localities, or upon new plant varieties, chiefly from the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. He was an active member of the Science Gossip Botanical Exchange Club, the pub- lished reports of which bear testimony to his discrimination and zeal. — T. S., Edinburgh. [It is with much regret that we hear the news of the death of this singularly modest and accomplished botanist. His life is an illustration of what the humblest individual can accomplish in the wide domains of Science. — Ed. S.-G.] "Botany Notes." — With this title Mr. A. Johnston has written a capital little hand-book for students preparing for professional examinations in medicine and science. The present part deals with systematic morphology, and arranges, in a very compact and succinct manner, the multitudinous details of this important department of botany. Epping Forest. — The Highbury Microscopical and Scientific Society passed the following resolution at their meeting held on the 8th of March : That this society desires to enter its most earnest protest against the proposed railway to High Beech, believing it to be entirely opposed to the true interests of the great bulk of the people, inasmuch as it will tend to deprive the forest of that exclusively sylvan character which it is most desirable to perpetuate. [We should be glad if every scientific society in and about London would loudly protest against the spoliation of this natural history recreation ground. — Ed. S.-G.] GEOLOGY. New Form of Recent Crinoid. — Among fossil invertebrates few can have played so important a part in primary and secondary times as the fixed crinoids, stalked radiate animals of the class Echinodermata. They are very scantily represented now. When Guettard, in 1755, found a live pentacrinus it was quite a scientific event, and this species was the only known modern representative of the group. Within recent years, however, the number of living species has been raised to fourteen. Among the animal forms brought up with the dredge during the recent cruise of the " Travailleur," off the coast of Morocco, is a new fixed crinoid, making the fifteenth. It has been named De?nocri?nts Parfaiti, after M. Parfait, 92 HA RD WI CKF 'S S CIENCE- G 0 SSI P. commander of the " Travailleur." M. Perrier has described it to the Paris Academy. It is distin- guished from other forms chiefly by the composition of its calyx, which is formed of five long (so-called) "basals," making a sort of funnel. These are separated by a circular depression from five rudi- mentary, alternating "radials," on which are five free radials bearing as many arms. In no other fixed crinoid is the width of the calyx so small relatively to the stalk. This new form of crinoid is thought to be of considerable morphological significance. The Liverpool Geological Society.— Part 4, vol. iv. of the Proceedings of this well-known society have been published, containing papers by Mr. D. Mackintosh, F.G.S., on "Traces of an Inter- glacial land-surface at Crewe ; " " Marine beds and peat beds at Hightown," by Mr. J. M. Reade, F.G.S. ; *' Mammalian remains from ditto," by Mr. F. J. Moore ; " The Subsidence of Land in the Salt Districts of Cheshire," by Thomas Ward ; " The Carboniferous Limestone and Sandstone of Flintshire," by G. H. Morton, F.G.S., and " The Base of the New Red Sandstone around Liverpool," by the same author. The Metamorphic Rocks of Ross and Inverness-shire. — The following communication was read at a recent meeting of the Geological Society by Henry Hicks, M.D., F.G.S. The author described numerous sections which have been examined by him in'three separate visits made to the north-west Highlands. In some previous papers, sections in the neighbourhood of Loch Maree had been chiefly referred to. Those now described are to the south and south- east of that area, and occur in the neighbourhoods of Achmashellach, Strathcarron, Loch Carron, Loch Trishm, Attadale, Stronoe Ferry, Loch Alsh, and in the more central areas about Loch Shiel and Loch Eil to the Caledonian Canal. In these examinations the author paid special attention to the stratigraphical evidence, to see whether there were any indications which could in any way be relied upon to prove the theory propounded by Sir R. Murchison that in these areas fossiliferous Lower Silurian rocks dip under thousands of feet of the highly crystalline schists which form the mountains in the more central areas. On careful examination he found that in consequence of frequent dislocations in the strata, the newer rocks were frequently made to appear to dip under the highly crystalline series to the east, though in reality the appearance in each case was easily seen to be due to accidental causes. Evidences of dislocation along this line were most marked ; and the same rocks, in consequence, were seldom found brought together. He recognized in these eastern areas at least two great groups of crystalline schists metamorphosed throughout in all the districts examined, even when regularly bedded and not disturbed or contorted ; and they have representatives in the western areas, among the Hebridean series, which cannot in any way be differentiated from them. These he called locally by the names, in descending order, of Ben- Fyn and Loch-Shiel series. The former consist, in their upper part, of silvery mica-schists and gneisses, with white felspar and quartz ; in their lower part, of hornblendic rocks, with bands of pink felspar and quartz, and of chloritic and epidotic rocks and schists. The Loch-Shiel series consists chiefly of massive granitoid gneisses and hornblendic and black mica-schists. Thirty-three microscopical sec- tions of the crystalline schists and the overlying rocks are described by Professor Bonney, and he recognises amongst them three well-marked types. In No. I he includes the Torridon sandstone, the quartzites and the supposed overlying flaggy beds on the east side of Glen Laggan. These are partially metamor- phosed, only distinct fragments are always easily recognizable in them in abundance. In No. 2, the Ben-Fyn type, the rocks are crystalline throughout, being typical gneisses and mica-schists. In No. 3, the Loch-Shiel series, he recognizes highly typical granitic gneisses of the Lower Hebridean type. Dr. Hicks failed to find in these areas at any point the actual passage from group 1 to group 2 ; neither did the same rocks belonging to group 1 meet usually the same rocks belonging to group 2. The evidence everywhere showed clearly that the contacts between these two groups were either produced by faults or by overlapping. Group 3, placed by Murchison as the highest beds in a synclinal trough, supported by the fossiliferous rocks, the author regarded as composed of the oldest rocks in a broken anticlinal. They are the most highly crystalline rocks in these areas ; and the beds of group 2 are thrown off on either side in broken folds. These, again, support the rocks belonging to group I. The author there- fore feels perfectly satisfied that the crystalline schists belonging to groups 2 and 3, which compose the mountainsin the central areas, do not repose conform- ably upon the Lower Silurian rocks of the north-west areas with fossils, and that these highly crystalline rocks cannot therefore be the metamorphosed equivalents of the comparatively unaltered, yet highly disturbed and crumpled, richly fossiliferous Silurian strata of the southern Highlands, but are, like other truly cry- stalline schists examined by him in the British Isles, evidently of pre-Cambrian age. In an Appendix by Professor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., Sec.G.S., on the Lithological Characters of a series of Scotch Rocks collected by Dr. Hicks, the author stated that he observed in the above series, as he had done in other Scotch rocks lately examined by him, three rather well-marked types : — one, where, though there is a certain amount of metamorphism among the finer constituents forming the matrix, all the larger grains of quartz, felspar, and perhaps mica, are of clastic origin ; a second, while preserving a bedded structure and never likely to be mistaken for an igneous rock, being indubitably of clastic origin, retains no certain HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 93 trace of original fragments ; while the third, the typical " old gneiss " of the Hebridean region, seldom exhibits well-marked foliation. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the first and second of these ; but this the author believed to be generally- due to the extraordinary amount of pressure which some of these Scotch rocks have undergone, which makes it very hard to determine precisely what structures are original. Even the coarse gneiss is sometimes locally crushed into a schistose rock of comparatively modern aspect. The least altered of the above series the author considered to be the true "newer-gneiss" series of the Highlands, but both of the others to be much older than the Torridon Sandstone. NOTES AND QUERIES. The prospect of a sharp Winter. — As regards abundance of holly berries, and hips and haws being a sign, I do not believe in it, as I have often found it quite the reverse ; and last winter it certainly was so with us, the weather being remarkably mild, and holly berries and hips and haws were very abundant here, and, what is very unusual, many of the holly berries remained on during the following summer up till about the middle of September, so that during the summer of 1882, I had in my garden holly-trees with some of the sprigs having not only the red berry of the previous winter, but also the summer blossom, and later on sprigs with the ripe and the green berries on them. — Thomas Kingsford, Canterbury. A recent Earthquake Shock. — "Fortunately," says Professor Duncan, F.R.S., "in the United Kingdom only very slight shocks of earthquake are felt on very rare occasions, and usually these are restricted to certain parts of the mountainous districts of Scotland, the north-west of England, and Wales. But it has happened that a very decided shake has been felt, reaching from Kent into the Midland counties, doing, however, little or no damage. Slight as may be the shake of one, if one is felt, it is never forgotten, for the body is slightly lifted up, or moved forwards, and returned to its original position, and the mind is surprised with the energy existing within the earth, which performed the unusual operation." So to say, this "unusual operation" once more made its appearance on the 16th of January, 1883. The shock was very distinctly felt at Abergavenny. The vibration was accompanied by a momentary sound, resembling the distant roar of artillery or thunder, and continued for a few seconds. The shock seemed to affect the coal mining districts in a far greater extent than other parts. At Blaenavon, a coal- mining district, about six miles from this town, the vibration was so great that the inhabitants left their houses, thinking that it was an explosion in the works. — Lester Francis, Abergavenny. Climbing Powers of the Dormouse. — Last summer, whilst walking in a plantation near Leeds, I disturbed a dormouse. It was under some leaves which I turned up with a stick. It ran off, and I followed it, as well as I could. I ran it some way and at last lost sight of it, at the foot of an oak-tree. I once thought it had ascended the tree, but I was not aware that these animals could do so, so I con- cluded he had doubled round the tree and hidden. Two or three days after I was with a friend in the same wood, nesting. He noticed a nest in a fork of the same oak and went up to it. It proved to be a blackbird's nest, with three eggs in. The nest showed unmistakable signs of mice having been there ; the hay being bitten off and arranged over the top, so as to form a nest, two holes eaten through the side, and other trees. My companion disturbed the covering and brought the eggs down. They were hard " set." The nest was visited again, but seemed quite deserted. I have no doubt but that the mouse I saw had its nest in this tree, for I can swear to the tree being the same in both cases. The mice had intruded on the nest when the old bird had begun to sit, and she had left it in disgust. Any information on the subject of the climbing power in mice would oblige — " Petrarch" A Giant Potato. — While in the country last summer, I saw a potato (champion) which had attained the height of thirteen feet. Can our readers tell me whether this often occurs ? — R. H. Wellington. Local Names. — The stoat is in this neighbour- hood called the " Clubstei." Is this a mere local name ? And why has this name been given to the stoat ? — J. H. Ingleby, JVorlhallerlon. The Tides. — In treatises on tides it is generally stated that the tide on the side of the earth opposite to that on which the moon is exerting its influence, is caused by " the earth being drawn away from the water," and thus causing an appearance of the water rising. Will some of your correspondents explain what is meant by this phrase ? Its literal meaning is simply impossible. — W. Dredging in Menai Straits. — Would any of the readers of Science-Gossip who have had any dredging experience in the Menai Straits, kindly let me know the result ? Is it a good dredging ground, and where would be the best place to stay at? Would Penmaenmawr do ? I have tried Llandudno Bay, but was much disappointed. Also are there any books published on the natural history of North Wales, particularly the marine zoology ? — IV. J. R. Birds sent to New Zealand.— I have some- where read of small birds, such as finches, linnets, &c, being sent over to New Zealand for the purpose of destroying the insects which infest the crops there. Can you oblige by telling me if this be true, and if so, what birds are sent ? I have a particular reason for desiring to know if yellow-hammers have been sent to New Zealand. — Hon. Curator, Cardiff Museum. Puss Moth, Sec— I should be much obliged if some reader of this paper could inform me of the reason of the last pellet of excrement of the larva of vinula (puss moth), invariably being partially red ; also I am anxious to find out where I can get "tea paper" for re-papering entomological cabinets and at what price. — T. A. Dymes, The College, Eastbourne. Fossil Oysters, &c, at Peckham.— It may interest some of your readers to hear that on digging for a well in this neighbourhood (Peckham Rye, Surrey), recently, the excavators, at a depth of twelve feet below the surface, came upon a mass of broken cockle-shells imbedded in stiff yellowish clay ; lower down there was a quantity of other shells, resembling the common periwinkle, and, lower still, oysters whole, in some of which, on being opened, the oyster was found converted into flint. — W. T. Greene, M.D., F.Z.S., &>c. 5 94 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Natural History Notes. — Autumn Primroses. — On November 2, 1882, while driving between Cushendun and Cushendall, I observed a Prim- rose in flower ; it was growing on a bank (facing west), by the roadside. Seasonable Notes. — Starling singing October 8, 1882, Cushendun. Thrush singing in Leeson Park, Dublin, December 3, 1882. 1883 ; Cushendun, frog-spawn, February I. Snowdrops and hepaticas, January 16. Ribes bursting into leaf, January 25. January 31, fuchsias, and hawthorn showing signs of vegetation. February 8. gooseberries sprouting. February 10, hazel catkins bursting into il., and primroses and dandelion in fl. February 12, crocus in fl. 23rd, celandine and coltsfoot in fl., Daffodils in fl., February 22. Ribes in fl., February 21. House-fly and blue-bottle seen, February 26. Specimens of tortoise and white-butterflies seen (in houses where they seemingly hybernate), in January and February. Swifts seen, September 2, r882, at Cushendun. Cuckoo seen near the Rock, co. Tyrone, September 9, 1882. — S. A. Brenan. Pond Life in Winter. — I wish to add my testimony to that of the Rev. H. Carrington Lake that there is abundance of (microscopic) life in ponds during the winter months. For several winters 1 have examined pond-water in this locality, and have found almost as much life there as in summer. I have always found cyclops, daphnise, vorticellse, Rotifer vulgaris, Pterodina patina, Cothurnea imberbis and many others. Last January I found some tardigrada, and last week some stentors. I have never been fortunate enough to find Volvox globator in this locality, though I am always looking for some. — Louisa M. Bell. The Late Transit of Venus. — I noticed the cauliflower stalk of Venus — just inside sun's disc. Proctor says this is the puzzle of astronomers. Possible solution of this. First, no telescopic lens has a true mathematical curve, as the metal changes with every variation of temperature, and there are also the errors of manufacture. This is one defect. Secondly, Dr. Litton Forbes, lecturing at the United Service Institution, July 2, 1882 (see U.S.J.G. vol. 26, No. 118, page 821), describes there what he calls astigmatism, that is, the mesial and longitudinal curves of the human eye, are in an abnormal condi- tion. If you hold out your hand before one bright light, bringing the thumb and fore-finger as close together as possible without touching and look between them, then the black drop of Dr. Forbes (see U.S.J., page 827), will be seen plainly as a dark bridge between the fingers. This is the cauliflower stalk of Venus.— A. II. Birkett. Orchis mascula (p. 53).— I don't understand Mr. Malan's statement that the orchis bears no pollen. I have often looked at it. Like some others, it adheres together in a heap. Is it not so ? — Edward Henry Scott. Spontaneous Generation (p. 70). — Will some advocate of this, it seems to me, absurd idea, tell me how there can be spontaneous generation when there is nothing to act spontaneously ? — Edward Henry Scott. Land-shells near Winchester. — The following are some of the rarer sorts of gasteropoda found within two or three miles of Winchester, during the last season: A. lacustris ; B. perversa ; C. rolphii ; B. leachii ; B. obseurus (white var.) ; C. elegans ; Helices aculcata, lapicida, obvoluta, sericea, Cantiana ; P. fontinalis ; P. carinata, contorta, nitida ; V. pygmcca ; Z. crystalliuus, fulvus, radialulus ; P. vivipara. Altogether Winchester can boast of sixty- five species out of the total number of British mollusca, or rather more than half, and probably there may be several others, e.jj. of the Vertigos and Pupoe, still to be observed. The watery nature of the ground affords locality for numbers of freshwater shells, and the chalk attracts special land -shells, so that there is a double field for observation.— i?. Tomlin. Sea Birds near Cambridge. — Mr. A. H. Waters mentions in your February number the fact that many sea birds are observed round Cambridge in the winter. During the summer months, usually, I think, before rain or stormy weather, sea-birds may be heard passing continually for a considerable time over the town by night. And at Abingdon, ten miles over the Gogmagog Hills, I have observed gulls wheeling over the valleys in August. May this not be an instance of instinctive habit ami inherited memory in birds from the time when north of the Cam was the Isle of Ely, and the wide fens (then undrained) clothed either bank of the river ? It is stated in Charles Kingsley's " Prose Idylls " that the tide was evident within ten miles of Cambridge in bygone days. If this is not the correct explanation, I fail to see what can induce sea-birds to travel so far inland during the summer as well as the winter months. — A. S. E., Cambridge. Pigs Swimming. — I believe that there is about as much truth in the saying that a pig cannot swim, as there is in another old saw, i.e., "That a pig sees the wind." I have seen pigs swim across a pond when they have been taken to be well washed. Pigs, although they like to " wallow in the mire," enjoy a bath and a scrub, and fatten better when well washed. Some wash their pigs in buttermilk, I allude to gentlemen who keep fancy pigs, and the poor people in water ; if near the seashore, they always try to give the pig a salt-water bath before they put it up to fatten. The pig's forelegs are curiously formed and placed, so it is just possible that the creature could not swim a long distance so well as a dog can. It does not strike out well, and I have heard the saying W. H. I. quotes as to a pig's cutting its own throat in swimming very often in South Wales, but not a scratch did I even see on the throat of any piggy that was thrown into the " Bryn Mor pond for a swim." — Helen E. Watney. Vinegar Eels.— Surely these little things are like "paste eels" and "wheat eels." Is not the right name " nematoid worms," or entozoa ? Some people I know, term them Vibrios ; but I lately read that this term was a misnomer, and I in another work saw that Vibrios were now considered to be micro- scopic plants, "Algae of the tribe of Oscillatoriceae." One thing is certain, good vinegar, that is vinegar free from mucilage, and possessed of the proper addition of sulphuric acid, is free from the vinegar worm or eel. Paste eels are most unnatural monsters, they eat their mothers up alive, and then run about inside her skin until the latter bursts, allowing them. to escape from their ' ' prison house." I believe the vinegar worm does the same, but no doubt some of the scientific readers of Science-Gossip will be able to give Mr. Smith a clear explanation. — Helen E. Watney. Vinegar Eels. — The small eel-like animals men- tioned by W. Finch, jun., as occurring in vinegar, belong to the species Anguillula acetica, or the "vinegar-eel." They always swarm in enormous numbers in bad, stale vinegar. The dark internal HARD WICKE'S S CIENCE- G OSS IE. 95 matter probably is their digestive system. Closely allied to them are the well-known "paste-eels," A. glutinis and A. Jluviatilis, found in rain-water amongst conf ervce and desmidiaceas, in wet moss, &c. Another species is met with in the ears of wheat affected with a blight, termed the "cockle." They all belong to the order Nematoidea (from the Greek, "a thread)," which order also includes the dreaded Trichina spiralis, of the class annelida.— J. Beecham- Mayor. Eels in Vinegar. — The eels which W. Finch, jun., saw in the vinegar he examined under the micro- scope in all probability were the common Anguillula ■acetica, which, however, appear only in vinegar of an inferior quality. Should he be able to obtain a copy of the " Popular Science Review," No. vi. p. 213, he will there find a very interesting article on the vinegar eel, by Jabez Hogg, F.L.S., as well as a valuable tinted plate, showing the various stages in the life of one of these curious creatures ; the drawing is by Mr. C. Whilley.— kev. W. A. Pippet, Rokeley, West Cowes. Double Oranges. — On two occasions I have come across a double orange, similar to that described by Mr. Parrott. The one I saw had the small orange growing at the stalk end of the larger one, and was also surrounded by the white pulp. It was about an inch in diameter, and was easily separated in five or six "liths." It contained no seeds. — S. M. Well- tvood, Glasgoiu. Rooks. — The wonderful sagacity of rooks has often been commented upon, and I am now witness- ing a remarkable example. Close to my residence on the banks of the Teme is a small rookery ; five or six pairs have of late years built their nests on a fine elm, growing on my side of the stream. On the other side a larger number have built in several poplars. The unusual floods have undermined the opposite banks, and one tree has fallen into the river. This seems to have alarmed the old occupants, and, although on my side, the birds have built as usual, on the other, they assemble in great numbers, have destroyed nearly all their old nests, but do not make fresh ones, and the daily commotion is quite remarkable ; they evidently fear that the destruction of their homesteads is imminent. Four days later, the river has gone down nearly two feet, and three pairs of rooks are building their nests. — G. C. Gold Fish in Spirit.— On Saturday, the 3rd of March, I placed in a bottle of spirits of wine a gold fish, which had died in my aquarium. I understood that, by placing any dead animal, fish, &c. (fresh), in spirits, it would be kept from decomposing, and also would retain its natural colour, in short, would remain just as it was when introduced into the bottle. Yet this fish, which I put into spirits, has, strange to say, lost all its colour and is now of a dirty white, and, to all appearance, is decomposing, being covered all over with a white film, just as it would if left to decompose in water. I should be pleased if any readers of this paper would kindly explain this. — IV. Finch, jun. Norwich Naturalists' Field Club.— The members of the above club held their annual exhibition of specimens in the committee room, Chapel-in-the-Field, on January 26th. The exhibits were very numerous, and consisted of animals, birds, fish, reptiles, plants, and insects. Three microscopes were kindly lent and exhibited. The exhibition was well attended and was a great success. Early Flowering of Lamium Galeobdolon (Cranby). — Yellow Archangel. On the iSth of February, 1883, I gathered a specimen of the above, one flower of which was quite open, and many buds on the point of opening. I gathered the Adoxa Moschatellina (L.) for the first time this season on the same day. — D. Noell Stephens, F.L.S. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than heretofore, we cannot possibly insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries which do not bear the writers' names that we are forced to adhere to our rule of not noticing them. To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of "exchanges" which cannot be tolerated. G. A. K. begs to thank "A Manchester Pythagorean," for the list of books on the above subject he has so kindly given. A. J. A. — Your specimen is the commencing growth of the well-known "cellar-fungus " [Tasmidium cellare). S. C. Cockerell. — The objects you sent us from a ditch are the valves of Cypris clliptica, a species of Entomostraca. A. Ogilvie. — The leaves of Arum maculatum are frequently spotted with lightish spots, from partial absence of chlorophyll. F. H. Streatfield (Pau). — The peculiarity of your ane- mone is that the leaves were affected by petalody — that is, had been practically converted into petals. A. Laban. — The so-called "louse" on swine is a species cf Ixodes, nearly resembling the dog-tick [Ixodes ricinus). C. H. Waddell.— Get the Rev. W. A. Leighton's "Lichen- flora of Great Britain," &c. You may obtain a second-hand copy of W. Wesley, bookseller, 28 Essex S treet, Strand. Papers on Collecting and Preserving Lichens appeared in Science- Gdssip for 1872. Dr. J. Needham. — We have searched in vain for a descrip- tion of your fish parasite, but can find nothing at all resembling your rough sketches. It is very likely a new form. Have you mounted the specimen? If so, please send us the slide. A. Draper. — Your freshwater shell is the young of Dreissina poly>7>iorpha, a bivalve now naturalised in England. It is believed to have been imported by timber ships from the Baltic. EXCHANGES. A large quantity of microscopic slides for exchange. Wanted books, la»tern apparatus, &c— F. S.Lyddon, 2 Oakland Villas, Redland, Bristol. 200 species of British shells, also Science-Gossip for 1880, 1881, and 16 numbers of 1879 and 18S2 offered for other British shells, minerals, fossils, or microzoa. Lists exchanged. — E. D. Wilson, 18 Low Pavement, Nottingham. Wanted, British and foreign land and freshwater, also British marine shells. Will give in exchange fossils from the chalk, or other shells.— Sydney C. Cockerell, Glen Druid, Chislehurst. Various books offered in exchange for ancient seal impres- sions.— W. H. Tunley, 8 Albert Road, Southsea. Wanted, any violets, except V. palustris. Fresh specimens preferred, in exchange for rare or critical British plants. — E. Straker, Kenley, Surrey. Partly silver mounted muzzle loader gun, 3!- vols. " Intellec- tual Observer," Nos. 48-68 inclusive, a few lias fossils. Wanted, microscope, fossil cabinet, fossils, or books. — J. Floyd, Strat- ford-on-Avon. Wanted, a few good pieces of brain coral and others in ex- change for grand new " Natural History," 36 col. plates, and new bamboo fishing-rod, or cash, if cheap. — J. Ellison, Steeton, Leeds. British shells for British or foreign land and freshwater shells, or European butterflies or nocturni. — T. D. A. Cockerell, Bertha House, Ethelbert Road, Margate. Wanted, Machaon, Sinapis, Rhamni, Hyale, Paphia, Aglaia, Adippe, Polychlorus, Io Cardui, Galathea, Davus, Rubi, Quercus or Adonis, in exchange for rare foreign stamps, send for sheet on approval.— F. A. Skuse, 143 Stepney Green, London. E. 96 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Scorpio Cervasii, Gonyleptes, Scolopendra, and various large insects from Chili ^in spirit) offered fur good microscopic or lantern slides. Send li=t to H. E. Freeman, i Templeton Road, Finsbury Park, N. Single and double stained botanical preparations. Selected and arranged Diatomacese, &c, for good unmounted material. Large Echinus and Cidarus spines wanted. — \V. White, 7 Warden Place, Nottingham. "Davis' on Mounting," &c, for two or three mounted slides, hydra budding or parasites wanted. — Henry Beech, Lincoln Road, Peterborough. A good field-glass German silver mounts, length when out, 28 in. dia. of O.G. 16 lines for micro apparatus. Books or material polariscope wanted. — Henry Beech, Lincoln Road, Peterborough. Wanted, good foreign or English coleoptera or parts of ditto suitable for microscopic objects, sponge spicules, Poly- cistinse or vegetable hairs in exchange for well-mounted objects. Quantities prepared. — M. J., 51 Great Prescot Street, London, E. Wanted, well-set specimens of Pieris Brassies;, P. Rapce, P. Napi, Lasiomviaia Egeria, L. Megcera, Hipparchia, Tithonus, Ccenonympha Pamphilus, Polyommatus Argiolus, P. Alexis, P. sEgon and Pamfihila sylvanus. In exchange for stamps, other insects, &c. — G. H. S., 143 Stepney Green, London, E. Wanted, a few full-grown living Helix fusca. Land shells offered in exchange. — C. Ashford, Christchurch. Wanted, to exchange Soo well-assorted foreign stamps for cases for butterflies, &c. What other offers?— A. P. S., 143 Stepney Green, London, E. WTELL-mounted slide of scale of Dee Salmon, splendid polar object, for other good slide ; desideratum Polycystina. — John R. Marten, Cottage Hospital, Red Hill. Will exchange a well-mounted specimen of Polyxenus Lagura for six well-set specimens of any of the following butterflies, Pieris Brassiere, Euchloe Cardamines (female), Lasiommata Egeria, L. Mcgeera, Hipparchia Hyperanthus or Tkecla Quercus. — ¥. A. Skuse, 143 Stepney Green, London, E. Wanted, model of great auk's egg in exchange for other birds' eggs, both English and foreign. Would like to exchange lists of duplicates with any collectors, especially of foreign eggs. — George A. Widdas, Woodsley View, Leeds. Wanted, side-blown eggs of peregrine, hobby, stonechat, goldcrest, woodlark, goldfinch, twite, woodpeckers, sandpipers, herons, ducks, and many others ; rare eggs offered in exchange. Please send lists to — W. Wells Bladen, Stone, Staffordshire. Very fine specimens of the great wartz and smooth newts in exchange for other live stock. — Edmund Tye, High Street, Stony Stratford. Wanted, fossil ferns and leaves from coal measures ; will give flint scrapers from Suffolk in exchange. — A. G. Wright, Newmarket, Suffolk. Penning's " Field Geology," 2nd edit., revised and enlarged, new. Wanted, Miller's " Footprints of the Creator," latest edit., or Figuier's " World before the Deluge," must be in good condition. — A. G. Wright, Newmarket, Suffolk. Eggs wanted, in sets of kittywakes, puffin, golden plover, red-breasted merganser, dunlin, white wagtail, &c.,in exchange for cettis warbler, ostrich, osprey, belted kingfisher, &c. Send lists to — T. C. Burrows, Hope House, Hanover Square, Leeds. Emu's egg, fine specimen, from Sydney, for good specimen of ostrich or rare British egg ; also a few rare British eggs for others equally good. — R. Standen, Goosnargh, Preston, Lanes. Wanted, Cox's " Manual of the British Coleoptera-" (second- hand).— E. P. Dyball, 54 London Street, Norwich. Duplicates : Edusa, Sibylla, Paphia, Aglaia, Adippe, Euphrosyne. — Desiderata : Blandina, Cassiope,|Davus,'Athalia, Artemis, Betuls, Pruni, Argiolus, Acts, Arion, Adonis, Arta- xerxes, Action, Comma. — A. E. Gibbs. Tracings and carefully-executed copies of rare drawings and plates of natural history objects in exchange for mosses or other micro objects. Correspondence invited by — H. R., 47 Maryland Road, Walworth, London, S.E. Bohn's translations of Homer and Herodotus, also Gill's " Myths and Songs .of the South Pacific Ocean," offered in exchange for Rev. L. Jenyns' " Observations in Natural His- tory," or any of Gosse's works. — H. R., 47 Marsland Road, Walworth, London, S.E. A collection of British moths for exchange ; micro slides or offers. For particulars apply — "The Beeches," Circus Road, St. John's Wood, London, N.W. Wanted, herbarium or microscopic specimens of British mosses and lichens, in exchange for foreign animal and bird skins, insects, &c— George E. Mason, 6 Park Lane, Piccadilly, London. Have some Helix ha'inostoma, and Science-Gossip for 1880 and 1881, unbound, to exchange for foreign shells.— Rev. H. W. Lett, Lurgan, Ireland. Duplicates of Arg. galathea and micro slides, for insects or plants not in collection. — G. H. Bryan, Thornlea, Trumpington Road, Cambridge. British birds' eggs to exchange for others, or geological pecimens.— James P. Page, Kingsbury Street, Marlborough, Wilts. Exotic Lepidoptera. — Duplicates: Orn, minos, $ and 9: Papilio Hector; Diphilus ; Polydorus (fair) ; Demoleus ; Aga- memnon, Nereus ; Eurimedes, var. Mylotes, Bates : Helenus r Hel. glaucippe : Datiais Erippus ; Alcippus ; Montrouzieri (fair); Minetra Ga>nbrisius ; A?nanris Damocles; Dia. An- thedon (fine) ; Dinarchae, Hew. (fine) ; Eurycus Cressida (fair) ; Harma Tlieobene, if and Q. ; Canis, c? and 9 ; Urani.i rhipheus (fine) ; M orpho Siilkowskyi ; Cypris (fine) ; also many others. — Desiderata (Exotic Lepidoptera only): Orn. Arru- aniis, $; Pap. Ascaniits, $; yEbalus ; Mezentius ; Chori- damus ; Dionippus ; Leucaspis ; Buddha; Palinurus ; Peri- anthus ; Blumer (Bois) ; Crino ; Dadalus ; Montrouzieii : IUorpho Godartia ; Aurora ; Rhetenor ; Anaxibia ; Menelaus ; Telemachus ; Adonis ; Nestira : Didius ; Metellus ; Peleides ; also many others. Correspondents please write in English : numerous letters, &c. (some registered), remain unanswered through being in foreign languages. — J. C. Hudson, Railway Terrace, Cross Lane, Manchester. Wanted, micro-books, appliances and slides in exchange for histological-pathological diatoms and other slides of general interest. — F. L. Carter, 20 Trafalgar Street, Newcastle-on- Tyne. Wanted, correspondents abroad to exchange micro-material. — F. L. Carter, 20 Trafalgar Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Geological cabinet wanted. Offered, books or cash. Send measurement. — E. W., 21 West Bar Street, Banbury. I will give Science-Gossip for 1880, i83r, 1882 (cost 12s) for Staunton's "Manual" (2 vols.) or Cox's "Manual of British Beetles," or any good book on lepidoptera or coleoptera. —William P. Ellis, Park Side Farm, Enfield Chase, Middle- sex, N. Other British land or freshwater shells offered for specimens of Helix pisana, Mull. — Jessie Hela Fairlight, Elmgrove Road, Cathern, Bristol. Wanted, a good specimen of a bronze celt from the Fens or elsewhere. Also Palaeolithic, Neolithic or bronze remains of other sorts. Good fossils will be given in exchange. — Ernest L. Jones, 84 Norwich Street, Cambridge. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. " Diseases of Memory." By Th. Ribot. London : Kegan Paul & Co. " The Life and Work of Charles Darwin." By Professor Miall. Leeds: R.Jackson. " The Study of Meteorology." By Robert H. Scott. London : Kegan Paul & Co. " Ants and their Ways," By the Rev. W. F. White. London: The Religious Tract Society. " Micro-Photography." By A. C. Malley, B. A. London : H. K. Lewis. " Studies in Microscopical Science," edited by A. C. Cole. "Annual Report, Dulwich College Science Society." " Report of South London Entomological Society." "Journal of Conchology." " Land and Water." " Northern Microscopist." "Midland Naturalist." " Practical Naturalist." "The Field Naturalist." "The Young Naturalist." " Natural History Notes." "The Naturalists' Monthly." " American Naturalist." "Canadian Naturalist." " American Monthly Microscopical Journal." " Boston Journal of Chemistry." " Good Health." " The Botanical Gazette." "La Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes." " Le Monde de la Science." "Ciel et Terre." " Cosmos : les Mondes." " Revue de Botanique." " Bulletin de la Socie'te Beige de Microscopie." &c. &c. &c. Communications received up to 12TH ult. prom : — C F. W. T. W.— Dr. P. Q. K.— W. B. G.— J. E. A.— F. L. B. — D. M. S.— M. J.— G. H. S. R.— G. D.— H. B.— J. D. A. C. — F. S. L.— A. S. E.— A. B.— H. E. W.— W. M.— F. A. S. R. — G. A. K.— C. A.— A. P. S.— E. H. S.— E. T. S.— T. J. W.— J. R. M.— J. E.-J. F. R.— H. E. F.— T. S.— J. A. F.— A. H. B.— W. T.— E. S.— W. H. T.— A. O.— J. L.— L. M. B. — T. T.— S. A. B.-Dr. W. T. G.— S. C. C— T. A. D.— E. W. — W. W.-A. J. A.— A. de S. G.— F. A. S.— H. H.— H. H. D. -J. B. M— G. E. M.— H. J. R.— G. A. W.— W. L. B.— W. B.— A. G. W.-C. H. W.— A. R. G.— A. P.— H. W. L.— E. P. D.— C. H.— W. F.— R. S.— G. H. B.— J. D.— S. M. W. —A. J. B.— J. C. H.— L. H. S.— W. A. P.— E. S.— W. W. B. —A. L.— C. J— G. B.— E. C— F. L. C— E. A. W.— W. P. E. — E. L. J.— D. B.— J. H.— H. F.— A. W. 0.— H. M.— J. P. P., &c HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 97 A DAY'S MOUNTAIN RAMBLING IN NORTH WALES. By WILLOUGHBY GARDNER. ^I&BsSsS^HE 5th of Sep- tember dawned drearily enough, with a strong east wind blow- ing ; but as I had just arrived at Conway in North Wales for a short holiday, I was not to be deterred by this fact from setting out on a long- projected expedi- tion. Forming a tri- angular space upon the map between Conway, Bangor, and Bettws-y-coed, lies a wild and barren tract of moun- tains, the highest of which, Carnedds Llewellyn and Dafydd, are only a few feet lower than Snowdon itself. From its recesses flow Afons Dolgarrog, Porthlwyd, Dhu, Llugwy, and various smaller streams into the Conway river, which forms its eastern boundary ; on its south-west side it is abruptly bor- dered by the pass of Nant Francon, running from Capel Curig to Bangor, and to the north-west lies the sea. The principal lakes of the district are Llyns Dulyn, Melynllyn, Eigiau, Cwlyd Crafnant, and Geirionydd. This large and almost pathless expanse of country is, with slight exceptions, quite in its primeval state, and completely without cultivation, beyond perhaps a mile inward on an average from the high roads which surround its three sides. The southern corner is crossed by a mountain track running from Trefriw to Capel Curig, and the only other roadway cutting through it is one from Aber to Tal-y-cafn Ferry or Llanbedr, through the lonely pass of Bvvlch-y- ddeuvaen. This road has been in use from "time No. 221. — May 1883. immemorial," and in days gone by was doubtless one of the principal thoroughfares in this part of the country, starting as it did in Roman times from Deva (Chester), traversing Flintshire and Denbighshire, via Varium, and'over the Conway to Conovium (a Roman station still traceable near Tal-y-cafn), it crossed the mountains through the pass of Bwlch-y- ddeuvaen to Aber, and then followed the coast to Segontium (Carnarvon). Earlier than the Roman era it was doubtless a British trackway, and at either end, at Aber and Tal-y-cafn, may still be seen an artificial mound, possibly a tumulus, covering the remains of warriors slain in some great battle for the possession of this, one of the chief highways into Snowdonia. At a later period these mounds were used as the sites of fortified posts for the defence of this important pass, and at Aber, so late as the time of Llewellyn the Great, a castle stood upon the spot. Besides these defensive mounds, the road is overshadowed at Aber by the strongly-fortified bluff of Moel-y-Gaer, and at the other end, above Llanbedr, the Celto- British intrenchments, perched on the top of Pen-y- gaer, frown over the plain below. It was this ancient road that I purposed following, if not its whole length from Aber] to Tal-y-cafn, at any rate for some distance, branching off afterwards into the high lands to the right ; eventually, however, I abandoned the old roadway for the more enticing fields of exploration in the mountains towards Carnedd Llewellyn. The day was not a very desirable one, owing to the cold east wind above mentioned, but still it had the advantage of being dry, which for mountain explora- tion is everything. I armed myself with satchel, containing provisions for the day, insect net, pill and other boxes for natural history specimens, sheets of blotting-paper for ferns, and (being a bit of a dabbler in the fine arts) paints and sketching block ; over my shoulders I also slung my mackintosh, rolled up tight in a strap. In my pocket I carried a small telescope, ordnance map and compass, the two latter highly necessary ; and hoping to find some wonderful stream or lake in which to ply the avocation of the F 93 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. angler, I tied my fly-rod up tight in its canvas case to use en route as a staff, and put my fly-book in my satchel ; last, but not least, I put on a very strong pair of boots for the rough stones, streams, and boggy land I should have to cross. Thus equipped, I set off by the first train from Conway to Aber, arriving there about half-past eight. On g-ettine: out of the train the clouds looked low and gloomy up the pass I intended travelling ; but still being by nature of a sanguine temperament when out for a holiday, I hoped for the best. Leaving the station, I could not help being struck by the then comparatively insignificant and innocent-looking nature of the little stream which crossed under the railway line, and could hardly imagine that it could ever do so much damage as it did some few summers ago, when, suddenly swelled to a roaring torrent by heavy rains, it completely washed away the line, thereby causing no small inconvenience to the traffic. Half a mile up the road I reached Aber ; turning to the left by the church, and then again to the right, I entered rather a narrow lane leading up to the glen. Once upon this road, one feels upon historic ground, for it is the one mentioned above, leading through the pass of Bwlch-y-ddeuvaen, which has been used from earliest times, and has been tra- versed successively by Ancient Britons and conquering Romans, Saxons, and Normans. The first object of interest is "YMud," a small conical hill behind some cottages at the side of the road. This artificial mound, to all appearances, ori- ginally a tumulus, possibly covering dead warriors who have fallen defending the glen against the invader in very early times, had in the ninth century a fort upon it, and subsequently a castle and palace of the later Princes of Wales. This castle was the scene of a tragical tale, much dwelt upon by Welsh historians — the murder, by Llewellyn of Iorwerth, of a powerful Norman baron, William de Breos, for intriguing with his wife Joan, a daughter of King John of England. Here also Prince Llewellyn is said to have received the summons of the English king to surrender the Principality. Close by is an old house of Henry VIII.'s time, " Pen-y-bryn." Leaving the village the glen soon becomes narrower, and at one place in particular the high cliffs on the right of the road approach very close to the edge of the stream, which tumbles along among all sorts of romantic boulders on the left ; one can well imagine what a difficult pass it must have been to force, when sturdy Welshmen held the heights above on both sides. On top of the rock on the other side of the river the ancient fort of Maes-y-gaer can still be traced, and looks well-nigh impregnable from below. Rounding a corner one soon comes to a bridge, Pont Newydd, about a mile from Aber, where the road crosses the stream and runs on in an easterly direction towards the Bwlch-y-ddeuvaen ; notwithstanding the temptation to continue along it and investigate the remains of ancient habitation, burial-places, and other relics of antiquity to be met with on the route, I determined to follow the course of the stream and visit the famous Aber cascade, as I had never seen it ; so leaving the road behind, I set off along a footpath through hazel coppices towards] the north. These coppices looked as if they would prove fine hunting grounds for Lepidoptera ; but being only a little after 9 A.M., and the wind in the east, I could not find anything worthy of note. In a short time the cascade came in sight, and a wonderful specimen of its kind it is too, looking in the distance just like a silver thread running down the face of the dark precipitous rock. Further to the right is another waterfall of similar appearance, but inferior in volume ; the path gradually ascends all the way, eventually crossing a ridge, from which a fine view of the cascade can be obtained, and also, if you look behind you, a still finer view presents itself, for down the glen you' see the blue waters of the Straits and a bit of Anglesea in i:he distance, between the high hills on either side. Almost the only bit of sunshine I was to be favoured with during the day here burst forth and lit up the distant prospect with a kind of electric-looking light, which was very striking and beautiful. After cross- ing this ridge, the path descends, and you get amongst large boulders, and finally down to the stream itself, which runs from a small pool at the foot of the fall, where the water dashes headlong down an almost precipitous rock a height of 70 feet. Here, it being three miles from Aber, I rested myself on a boulder stone, amidst most romantic and delightful surround- ings, listening to the roar of the water coming down the rock above. Had it not been for the remains of those seemingly indispensable accompaniments of the British tourist and sightseer, viz. empty bottles and sandwich papers, one might have fancied oneself in some fairy country far from the haunts of men ; but these relics strewn about, and the well-worn stones and paths at the foot of the cascade, compelled the idea that at a later hour of the day the scene would not prove nearly so lonely and romantic ; as it was, on leaving, I met a solitary tourist wending his way to the fall, the only human being I was to see for the next six hours. Looking at my ordnance map, I determined that my next destination should be a mountain tarn some three miles east as the crow flies, but much farther as a human being is obliged to walk, called Llyn an Afon, nestled at the foot of the steep precipices of Y Foel Fras. To gain this end I first thought of scaling the rock beside the cascade, and making my way up the valley above ; but I came to the conclusion that it would be rather impracticable, so decided to retrace my steps for a short distance towards Aber, and then cross the hill to the east, where it was not so steep. I was also desirous of visiting the valley on the other side for the purpose of inspecting an ancient stone, then called the Arrow Stone (Carreg-y- HA RD WICKE'S S CIENCE- G OS SIP. 99 Saethau), covered with scores and scratches, which tradition says were made by the Welsh Chieftains sharpening their arrows and swords upon it, while swearing allegiance to their king. A little way down the path I espied a wire railing of very recent date running some way up the hillside, so thinking it would prove a fine help in the ascent, I commenced my climb alongside it. The railing was composed of upright iron posts with horizontal wires running through them ; and, curious to note, the hollow beneath the top wire of nearly every post was tenanted either by a long-legged spider or an earwig. What the former subsisted upon I cannot imagine, for the situation seemed far too airy for many insects to be about, and in fact I did not see a fly of any kind, although I entertained hopes till the last post of finding some rare Lepidopteron or Coleopteron ensconced in the hollow instead of a spider ! Finally reaching the top of the ridge, a fine bird's-eye view of the surroundings presented itself to sight. Down the valley to the north the stream wandered through the coppices into the glen to the sea ; towards the west hills upon hills appeared, the one behind the other, many with earns on their summits ; to the south the ridge I stood upon rose higher and shut off any more distant prospect ; while to the east, after noticing the road I had formerly left winding on towards the Bwlch-y-ddeuvaen, the most promi- nent object was a mountain on the other side of the valley, composed of three peaks, the nearest of which had a most singular appearance, looking just as if Jove, seated up in the clouds, had recently poured down a quantity of loose earth and stones in the form of a conical heap ! The valley below, stretching up towards the south-east, looked bare and wild enough for anything ; a small stream ran along at its bottom, and at the other side a mountain track was traceable leading to a sheep pen about a mile further up. One could well imagine what a fine meeting-place this was for the sturdy British Chief- tains of early days who assembled here to swear fealty to their sovereign lord, and death to their country's enemy, while sharpening their weapons upon the far-famed Arrow Stone ; but much as I should have liked to have still further realised the scene by inspecting this relic of bygone days itself, and standing on the exact spot where these inter- esting ceremonies were enacted, I was unable to find the stone, for boulders of all sorts and sizes were to be met with all over the place, and after some little search I had to give up the idea of finding the right one as hopeless. I then turned my steps towards the Llyn ; keeping pretty high up above the stream on its southern side, I pressed on over the greensward with which the hillside was covered, having occasional brooks to cross, but meeting with no serious impediment. The scenery here was very wild and lonely, and, indeed, well bears out the de- scription I have read of its being one of the wildest valleys in Wales. There was not a living thing to be seen, but an occasional mountain-linnet, which I put up in my progress ; the severe desolation of the scene was no doubt enhanced by the presence of the east wind, which would keep any birds or animals there might otherwise be hid away in their various retreats. The valley turned off continually to the right, and I rounded point after point, and crossed ridge upon ridge without catching a glimpse of the wished-for Llyn. Nothing was to be seen but bare mountains on both sides, and the little stream running along at the foot of the valley, without anything in the way of vegetation larger than a bed of rushes every now and then by the side of its course. It is a grand feeling to stand alone in a valley surrounded on all sides by these staid and solemn mountains, where all is hushed and still, especially to one just fresh from the noise and stir of a great city, where all is change continually. Here one sees around one rugged crags and grassy slopes which have slumbered on from age to age unaltered. Men come and go, build great cities, become mighty nations, which rise to great honour and decay away again till they are almost lost to sight, while these remain the same ; truly and well have they been called the " everlast- ing hills." And yet they are nofalways so, through the successive cycles of time they do change ; these hill-tops are slowly, but surely, being crumbled away by the successive frosts and storms which they ex- perience. These valleys are being deepened quite imperceptibly to us, but none the less certainly, by the little trickling streams which run along their bottoms ; and countless other agencies are wearing away and building up, so that in future ages our valley will look very different to what it does now. Again, if we look far back into the reons of the past, we must think of the period when these hills were buried deep in seemingly eternal snow and ice, or again when the same portion of the earth's surface was covered with a tropical growth, or was succes- sively under either the deep or shallow waters of a torrid or a frigid sea. All these changes our moun- tains have experienced, passing slowly and imper- ceptibly from one condition to another, in what we can only try to realise as the " eternity of the past ; " although to our present perceptions, and compared to our human and finite achievements, the hills, above all things, seem indeed everlasting in their changeless endurance. (To be continued.) P. Machaon. — Are there two broods of P. Machaon in the year ? I heard this question asked the other day, but it did not get a satisfactory answer, so I now ask it again, and hope some of the learned readers of this paper will answer it fully. If there are two broods, at what time of the year are the eggs of each hatched ? — Enquirer. F 2 ICO HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. RECREATIONS IN FOSSIL BOTANY. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FOSSIL PLANTS. By James Spencer. No. IX. HAVING given a brief account of a few of the common fossil plants found in our Halifax coal strata, and which are also common in the Oldham beds and elsewhere, before proceeding further with these sketches, I wish to draw the reader's attention to another class of objects which are in a great as the common fringed macrospores. In its mature state, the sporocarpon wall is composed of a regular series of hour-glass shaped cells, which are imbedded in a plastic substance ; it is furnished with numerous long hollow spines. These spines are merely pro- longations of the hour-glass shaped cells, and each has an opening or mouth into the interior of the sporocarpon. The sporocarpon has a central nucleus, which is composed of a thin structureless membrane, containing a protoplasmic substance, which has been developed in many of the specimens into round cells or spores ; the young state of the sporocarpon (fig. 70). Three stages in the development of this organism Fig. 69. — Sporocarpon elegans. measure confined to this neighbourhood, many of them not having been recorded in any other locality. Besides the common Lepidodendroid fruits and spores, some of which I have already alluded to, there are many other spores and conceptacles found in our coal strata. Some of these are exceedingly beautiful objects under the microscope, and also of considerable interest to the fossil botanist. The objects I now wish to draw attention to have been described, by Professor W. C. Williamson, under the generic name of Sporocarpon. Sporocarpon elegans. — This is a seed-like object, of about ^j in. in diameter, or of about the same size have been observed, all of which are connected together by intermediate links. In the transverse section of the youngest known state of this sporo- carpon, the wall is composed of a single layer of wedge-shaped brick-like cells arranged on their smaller ends. Many of these cells have their ends perfectly square, and in every'respect, save in size, might have served as a model for some of the fire- bricks used in lining chimneys and furnaces. The inner ends of the cells, that is, those forming the inner surface of the spore wall, are all square, and such was probably the case with all the outer ends in the first instance, when the sporocarpon was formed. The first departure from this uniform type of cell HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 101 consisted in a few of the exterior ends becoming raised up into a triangular shape. Sporocarpon compaction. — Other specimens show a gradual development of the outer ends of the cells, until at length all the ends have become angular, and then they gradually change into a convex form. A tangential section of the sporocarpon in this now known to have been one of the earlier forms of Sporocarpon elegans. The next stage in the development of the organism was begun by the formation of mammillae, or minute points in the centre of the convex ends of the cells. These gradually enlarged, and were prolonged into hollow spines. While this was going on, the lower Fig. 70. — Sporocarpon elegans (young state). Fig. 71. — Sporocarpon compactum [S. elegans). Fig. 72. — Oidospora anomala. Fig. 73. — Sporocarpon pachyderma. form is a magnificent object under the microscope, and somewhat resembles the flower of the common daisy, but of course it has no relationship with that "Wee modest crimson-tipped flow'r. " This is the form which was originally described under the name of Sporocarpon compactum, but which is part of the cells, or those forming the sporocarpon wall, were being transformed into the peculiar hour- glass cells above mentioned, which were united together by a plastic substance that became converted at the inner surface of the wall into cellular tissue. While this development of the spines was in progress, the protoplasmic substance forming the io: HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. nucleus of the sporocarpon was being gradually transformed into round spore-like cells. This is the form first described under the name of Sporocarpon elegans. When the organism reached maturity, probably all the cells forming the sporocarpon wall were converted into spines, which soon after appear to have become very brittle, and to have broken off easily, or become detached ; in consequence of this, specimens with fully matured protoplasmic cells seldom have many spines attached. Such specimens, however, show most clearly the structure of the sporocarpon wall and the peculiar character of the " bottle-neck," or hour-glass cells, and their connection with the spines. We have not the least idea as to the parent-plants to which these beautiful organisms belonged. Whether they may prove to have been one of the numerous Sporocarpon clcgans, yet it is as perfectly formed as any of the larger organisms. It has a round body, to which are attached a number of thin membraneous appendages, which very much resemble the petals of some of the more delicate flowers. In the transverse sections of my specimens there are twelve of these petal-like expansions surrounding the body of the organism. They are perfectly free, being only attached to the body by their bases, while their edges are frequently seen to overlap one another. The wall of the spore is thin, and apparently divided into seven segments (as seen in transverse sections), which is quite a different feature to what obtains in any known stage of Sporo- carpon clcgans. As stated above, the spore wall, in the earliest known state of the latter organism, is a massive structure formed of brick-like cells, firmly Fig. 74. — S poroscarpon asteroides. forms of spores, and originally enclosed in the sporangia belonging to the cone of some unknown form of Lepidodendroid plant, or they are true seeds, is at present unknown. But judging from what we know of certain similar organisms, the former is more likely to have been the case. Oidospora anomala. — This is a very minute, but very pretty organism, and bears some resemblance to Sporocarpoti compactum, and on that account it has been suggested that it may have been the very young state of that organism. But for several reasons I cannot accept this conclusion, one of them being on account of its great rarity. The main objection to that suggestion is the great difference in structure between the two objects. Notwithstanding the fact that Oidospora anomala is one of the smallest organisms we met with, being even smaller than many of the protoplasmic cells seen in the interior of united to one another; it seems to me, therefore, highly improbable that structures so radically different as these could belong to one organism. It is, however, much more easy to say what they are not like, than to form an opinion to what class these organisms really do belong. Sporocarpon asteroides. — This is another peculiar seed-like object, and about the same in size as 6". elegans, but much more variable in its leading out- lines. It has a central nucleus, which is enveloped in two membraneous coatings. The sporocarpon wall is a comparatively thin structureless layer. This is surrounded by a fleshy mass of cellular tissue, that ends out a number of triangular arms. In the true transverse section there are six of these arms (fig. 74), which gives the organism that star-like appearance from which it derives its specific name of aste- roides. It is a very rare sporocarpon, and has HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. IO' been named and described from specimens from my cabinet. Sporocarpon paeliyderma. — This sporocarpon, at the first glance, appears to be one of the plainest and most uninteresting in the whole lot ; but further examination shows that it possesses certain features which render its study of peculiar interest. It is about the same in size as S. elegans, and has a central nucleus enveloped in one or two membran- eous coats. The sporocarpon wall is thin and struc- tureless ; but this is surrounded by what looks like, under low powers, a mass of structureless tissue of a deep brown colour. From the fact that these organ- isms generally occur in closely aggregated groups, and owing to the apparent structureless character of their investing tissue, it is difficult to make out the exact form which they assume. But when they occur singly, as in some of my sections, they are seen to be of a roundish form, but not exactly spherical. When this investing layer is examined under a high power, say JorJ in., the interesting discovery is made that it consists of an intricate mass of branching tubes, which very much resemble admass of fungoid mycelium. That they are not of fungoid origin is pretty certain, and from the fact of their generally occurring in clusters, I am inclined to think that they are a young stage of one of the other sporocarpons {Sporocarpon Traquaria), which I shall describe in my next paper. Halifax. NOTES ON NEW BOOKS. OF all the obligations under which the student of science has been placed, he feels few more gratefully than the continued issue of the volumes of the "International Scientific Series." No fewer than forty-six have now been presented to the public, each written by the best man who could be thought of, independent of nationality, for true science is cosmopolitan. But we venture to say none of this valuable series will be regarded with greater respect than the last issued : " Elementary Meteorology," by Robert H. Scott, F.R.S., the head of the Meteoro- logical Office, and under whose direction the weather forecasts familiar to all newspaper readers make their daily appearance. This book is devoted to the science of the weather. Everything relating to that fickle subject — instruments for measuring and calcu- lating, methods of observation and inference, &c. — are dwelt upon in simple but attractive detail. The instruments are very properly described first ; for, as the author well says, "the entire superstructure of reasoning in meteorology rests on the foundation of accurate observation " by their means. In Part II. of the book we have an account of the geographical distribution of the different [phenomena, which will serve as a general introduction to the science of physical geography as taught in other text-books. We heartily recommend Mr. Scott's book to all students of natural phenomena, but especially to those who have taken up physiography and geology. Man before Metals, by Prof. N. Joly (London : Kegan Paul, Trench & Co.), is another of the Inter- national Series. In many respects it is a remarkable book, among others because it claims a very high antiquity for the human race, and yet the author declares himself a devout and orthodox Catholic, showing that religious faith and belief in scientific hypotheses are not necessarily contradictory. As a book to read and enjoy, that before us excels many others of the series. It is written in a very animated style, and deals with the picturesque incidents con- nected with the appearance of primeval man upon the globe. It is profusely illustrated, and, as the author's reading has been very extensive, the student will find this book a complete summary of all that has been discovered and said respecting the antiquity of man, in every part of the world. Flora of Hampshire, including the Isle of Wight, by Frederick Townsend, M.A., F.L.S., &c. (London : L. Reeve & Co.) This is a valuable addition to English botanical literature. The subject is dealt with on the broadest lines. Thus we find the position, soils, waste and forest lands, elevation, drainage, rainfall, geology, &c. of the district first treated upon. Hampshire is one of the most interest- ing geological areas in Great Britain, and the botany of a country is in close dependence on the geology. The mere fact that the New Forest lies in Hampshire prepares us for a rich botanical treat. The Isle of Wight is only a geological fragment of Hampshire, quite [as varied in its natural productions, Mr. Townsend divides Hampshire and the Isle of Wight into twelve botanical districts, and he gives a coloured map showing their extension. Every species of flowering plant, and also the well-marked varieties of each species, is given, together with its locality, references to authorities and publications. The Cryptogamia are dealt with in an equally careful and methodical manner. The " Notes on the Districts" contain some thoughtful remarks ; and a valuable chapter is that on the comparison of the flora with that of the neighbouring counties, and of Hampshire mainland with the Isle of Wight. Mr. Townsend has done his work carefully, lovingly, excellently. Snakes : Curiosities and Wonders of Serpent Life, by Catherine C. Hopley. (London : Griffith and Farran.) A very handsome and a very interest- ing book. It is written in the genuine spirit of a true naturalist, which sees "nothing common or unclean." Snakes have long been the favourite objects of dislike and horror. In Miss Hopley they have found an apologist and even a champion. The habits, structures, relationships, &c. of snakes are dwelt upon with a charming naturalness. This is a book to read and to enjoy. Colin Clout's Calendar, by Grant Allen. (London : io4 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Chatto and "Windus.) We have no fault to find with this book except its title, which conveys no idea of the rich treat all lovers of natural history will find in it. It is made up of 39 chapters or essays, originally contributed to newspapers, but which we are glad to see reproduced in their present form. Perhaps no living scientific writer possesses the scientific imagi- nation so fervently as Mr. Grant Allen. Everything he discusses receives some original side-lights. No- body has so largely availed himself of the fruitful suggestions of the doctrine of evolution as he : and no other writer has shown how important that doctrine is to explain matters otherwise unexplainable. Ants and their Ways, by the Rev. W. F. White. (London : The Religious Tract Society.) This work is also a reprint of papers which have appeared else- where, and is largely a very cleverly condensed ac- count of the recent discoveries of Lubbock, McCook, and others. It is very well written, and altogether a great improvement on the kind of books issued as gift-books by this society. The Amateur's Aviary of Foreign Birds, by W. T. Greene, M.D. (London : L. Upcott Gill.) We have frequently been asked to recommend a book like this before us, and we shall for the future recommend Dr. Greene's. As all our readers are aware who have read the author's communications in the columns of Science-Gossip, Dr. Greene is an ardent ornitholo- gist, and well skilled in the habits of caged foreign birds particularly. All the different kinds of beautiful foreign birds are here figured and described; their food, ailments, &c. are particularised ; their breeding habits, habitations, &c. all detailed, so that no aviarist can get wrong. The illustrations are of a very excellent kind. We regret this useful little book was not provided with an index. Micro-Photography, by A. C. Malley, B.A., M.B., &c. (London : H. K. Lewis.) We have here a very useful and much wanted little manual. The author has written it in order to encourage the practice of micro-photography. It deals with the properties of lenses, &c, microscopic illumination, mounting, section cutting, staining, and also gives a description of the wet collodion and gelatino-bromide processes. Not the least valuable portion is that devoted to the best methods for preparing microscopic objects for micro-photographing. There is a plate of actual micro-photographs facing the title-page to show what can be done, the objects selected being a section of the lung containing Bacillus anthracis X 420 diam., Surirella gemma and 6". Spencerii X 1000 diam., central portion of Aulacodiscus Kittonii x 1500 diam., and scales of P. Argus butterfly X 320 diam. Physics in Pictures, with explanatory text, prepared by Theodore Eckardt, translated by A. H. Keane. (London : Ed. Stanford.) This is a reproduction of certain German books intended for ocular instruction in schools and families. The coloured pictures are both attractive and effective, and the scientific prin- ciples they are intended to convey at once to the brain by means of the eye are very patent. They are admirably fitted for the purpose they are in- tended for. The Life and work of Charles £>anvin, by Prof. Louis Miall. (Leeds : Richard Jackson.) Prof. Miall has republished his lecture, delivered to the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society last February, under the above title. It is an admirable summary of the life of a truly great man, written in strong sympathy for the noble spirit which has so recently passed away from our midst. THE DANISH FOREST. By John Wager. IV. — The Distribution of the Wild- growing Trees. {Continued from page 88.] C^COTCH Fir. — Pine-trees, the chief constituents w_J of the forests of neighbouring lands, have now in Denmark only a nurtured life. The Scotch fir, once a native tree, widely extended over many districts, has disappeared as a wild growth, and the conditions of the soil have become so unfavourable to it that its extension in the forests by natural sowing is impeded by many difficulties. On peat-mosses, however, Scotch firs which have descended from plantations may sometimes be found. The Yew (Taxus baccata) does not pertain to the Danish flora, yet, being indigenous in all neighbouring lands — Norway, Sweden, Germany, and England — we are led to the conclusion that it must once have grown in Denmark also ; especially as it has dis- appeared from many parts of Germany where it formerly grew. "Juniper (yu?iiperus communis) has great extension over hilly forest tracts, where the ground is sandy, and is therefore most common in Jutland. It is common also in the wooded districts of Bomholm, and on the chalk cliffs of Moen ; while in many districts, even where the soil appears favourable to its growth, it is either altogether absent, or very rare. Brambles, wild Poses, and the /Polly, are not very arboreal species, but deserve mention, because by their abundance they contribute greatly to the char- acter of some of the woods. The bramble group may be met with in all Danish woods, but it appears, in numerous varieties, with the greatest profusion on the south-eastern coast of Jutland. There it covers all openings in the woods, penetrates among scrub and underwood, fills hedges and ditches with its bow-formed thorny sprays, and by preventing young trees from springing up on spaces cleared by the axe or the wind, renders it HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. i°5 difficult for the beech-forest of the peninsula to renew itself. The wooded hills around the fjords by Kiel, Flensborg, Kolding, and Veile, are especially its home ; from hence it diminishes in every direction — westwards, northwards, and eastwards among the islands, although plentiful at intervals in some of the woods, and chiefly on the island of Funen. Moen also is rich in varieties of the group. The rose tribe follows, on the whole, the course of the brambles, being especially rich in numbers and varieties where they are most abundant, and towards the end of June profusely adorning the hedge-rows along the skirts of the woods. The rose is not, how- ever, so characteristic of the east coast of the peninsula as the bramble ; occurring in certain other districts, for instance around Elsinore, abundantly as there. The holly, on the contrary, forms a decided mark of distinction between the woods of the peninsula and those of Zealand, being quite absent from the latter, and so exuberant in nearly all those on the east coast of the former as to render forest-culture difficult. Although not easily reared in gardens, in woods where it finds itself at home it has great power of extension ; partly by means of roots which creep underground and send off branches, and because of all Danish trees it alone can defy the shade of the beech. While the bramble is so troublesome to cultivators when the open scrub changes to beech- forest, such change can only impel the holly to assume, on all sides, a horizontal instead of a vertical growth, its leaves still retaining their rich, glossy, dark green tint. It is especially abundant and lux- uriant in the woods to the south-east of Kolding, and between the Kolding and the Veile fjords, keep- ing closely adjacent to the sea ; a holly in the neigh- bourhood of Veile measures twenty feet in height, and its stem is nine inches in diameter at more than four feet from the ground. It is found also in the central parts of Jutland, and as far northwards as the borders of the Lumfjord. Eastwards its frequency rapidly diminishes ; in the woods on the west coast of Funen, south of Middelfart, it is as plentiful as on the opposite Slesvig coast, but rare in the rest of the islands. It existed, however, less than a century since, in places from whence it has since disappeared. Few plants elucidate the mildness of winter climate better than the holly, for it is the winter cold that determines its northern limit. In Norway it advances up to Sondmoer (lat. 62°), while in Germany its northern boundary line passes through Gottingen, Strassburg, Munich, Vienna, and through the south of Hungary to the Crimea. Its absence from Zealand and the small islands is not, however, to be attributed to the coldness of their winter climate, but to their position ; the holly, coming from the west, not having yet, in Denmark, advanced so far to the east. As the holly and the rank growth of the bramble are peculiar to the west of Denmark, so there are no fewer than five species of trees peculiar to the east, namely to Bornholm. They are the white beam, the intermediate white beam, the griping- fruited service-tree, the cotoneaster, and the alpine red currant. The wild cherry {Primus avium), and the wild pear (Pyrus communis), are found in several parts of Den- mark ; but the latter at least, notwithstanding its thorns, and a difference in the form of its leaves and fruit, is most likely the garden pear run wild. Unlike the known indigenous trees, it has no native Danish name. The stem of a wild cherry on Als, has a diameter of fourteen inches. The mistletoe is rare in Denmark, both as regards locality and number of plants. It has been observed on the apple, the common maple, and the lime ; Lolland and South Zealand are parts where it is least rare. The trees hitherto mentioned, present in their extension one or other peculiarity which may furnish material for consideration. There are other species which in their local occurrence may certainly present peculiarities, but these are so slightly significant, that it is not far from the truth to say that the species are extended over the whole land. They include various willows, the sea-buckthorn (not in forests), the wild snow-ball, alder, honeysuckle, cornel, ivy, gooseberry, currant, black-currant, purging buckthorn, spindle- tree, sloe, bird-cherry, apple, hawthorn and rowan. NATURAL HISTORY JOTTINGS. oviposition and description of the ivy Aphis. OCTOBER 9th, 18S2.— Having just completed a perusal of the section bearing upon the Ants in Sir John Lubbock's new work entitled "Ants, Bees and Wasps," and met with his account and descriptions of the ova of the aphis, I remembered that in the autumn of 1SS0 (September 30th) I had observed comparatively large and oblong ova on the leaves of some ivy-plants close to and even amongst the aphides in feeding them, and which I at the time thought would be the ova of some one of the hoverer-flies or Syrphi, deposited there so that the young might be in the midst of their food as soon as hatched, and that these ova passed through brown colour from pale yellow into shining jet-black, and, somewhat to my surprise, did not hatch while I continued my observations. Consequently, this fore- noon I revisited the aphis -infested ivy-plants, in the full expectation of again meeting with these ova and finding them to be, not the ova of a Syrphus, but of the ivy aphis ; and, surely enough, there they were, in greater numbers than on the former occasion, and under the same conditions and colours ; and io6 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. rambling over and amongst the stout and shining apterous oviparous females were several lean, lanky individuals, also apterous, which I at once, from prior observations on the aphis of a sallow, detected to be males. There were only one winged aphis, and a few pupa;, observed ; and the majority were immature apterous individuals : during the last week in August winged aphides, as well as pupae and apterous viviparous females, were numerous. Cutting off a twig that had upon it many oviparous females and a few males, as well as plenty ova and some larvae, I brought it home and put it under observation. Also, I took a clean young shoot of ivy and put it into a bottle with water, placing thereon a few of the stoutest oviparous females, and isolating them ; also, put one into a small box. On the following day on examining the isolated shoot, I found that half-a-dozen ova had been deposited on the upper surface of its leaves ; and in the box was found one ovum. Later, more ova were de- posited by isolated individuals. Moreover, more than once while I have had the aphides under direct observation, a female has deposited an ovum, the process being slow and giving plenty of time for minute observation : had I not already been aware that these were oviparous females, I should certainly, on a casual glance with the naked eye, have thought that a young aphis was being ushered into existence, and not an ovum ;' in size and general outline the two, during delivery, are not so much unlike each other. That the smaller lean apterous aphides accom- panying these oviparous females are males, there has been evidence clear enough, since most of them paired some time after being brought within doors, the first two on the second day ; hence it seems evident they were in waiting on the full sexual evolution of the females. Of one couple that I isolated in copuld, the female afterwards deposited ova. The ova are deposited in greatest numbers on the upper surface of the leaves ; and in less numbers on the under surface and in the axils of the leaves, as well as amongst the adventitious roots, or rootlets, of the young shoots. They are, when first deposited, of a pale yellow colour, smooth, shining, semi-opaque, with contents apparently homogeneous, and are covered with a very sticky substance which securely attaches them to the object upon which they are laid. In form they are oblong, and are i-45th of an inch in length by about one-half that in breadth. They become shining jet-black in four or five days after deposition, having passed through deep yellow and brown. Description of the ivy aphis. — Apterous vivi- parous female : length, 2~32nds inch ; stout, and moderately nimble ; colour of the entire body is a red-brown, the dull purple hue being caused by a general coating of bluish-white meal or very fine short down ; limbs, pale colour, nearly white, with black knees and feet ; the antenncc and rostrum are of the same ground colour as the limbs, and have their extremities also black ; the cornua and the caudal appendage are black. Pupa : of same length, as nimble, but less globose and lighter in colour than vivip. fern., more especially in the largely developed thoracic region, which is pale greenish-yellow ; wing- cases dusky, nearly black ; the limbs, antennae, rostrum, cornua and caudal appendage coloured as in female ; is also meal or down-covered, giving the purple bloom : all the wingless brood have this purple bloom : very young ones possessing it, though at birth they are without it — are naked, and are then of a reddish or orange-brown colour, the limbs, antenna;, rostrum, and cornua being delicately colourless and purely transparent. Imago (winged form): darker, nearly black ; the head, thorax, antenna;, cornua and caudal appendage are black, the abdomen dark brown, nearly black ; the limbs and rostrum as in vivip. fern, and pupa, only darker ; is without the meal or down ; length, 2~32nds inch. Apterous oviparous female : in size, form and colour. is similar to the vivip. fern. ; excepting that when full of ova and about to lay it is more rotund or swollen, and has the dorsum shining, which is probably clue to disten- sion by the comparatively large ova, and the posterior portion of the abdomen beyond the cornua prolonged taperingly considerably ; after the deposition of an ovum, the posterior projecting rings of the abdomen are retracted. Apterous male : in colour, is like the imago ; in build, is lean and lanky, linear and much shorter than the other four forms, being only 3~64ths inch long, while the limbs and antenna; are longer and stronger ; the antenna; are fully as long as the body. In all, the cornua are well developed, slightly tapering and cylindrical, and a little curving. Are the winged individuals of this species of aphis viviparous females, evolved for the dissemination of the species ? From observations on an aphis that here attacks a tall hawkweed (I/ieracium), it appeared very probable that the cycle of aphid existence began on it as early as June 17th in winged viviparous females, which, then alone, were on the following day accompanied by many small apterous larva;. Sir J. Lubbock is of opinion that those aphides that are attended on and milked by the ants are not only protected by them, but that they are probably benefited by having their emissions of honey-dew removed by the ants. However this may be, I have observed that when unmolested by the ants the aphis of the ivy forcibly ejects to some distance the drop of liquor immediately on its welling up, as does the aphis of the sycamore ; and it is perhaps reasonable enough to suppose that by their continued caresses the ants provoke prematurely these anal emissions of the coveted liquor, or honey-dew, which they at once secure. What is the function of the well-developed cornua in this and many other species of aphis ? Certainly HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 107 not that of secreting the pellucid liquor which the ants so covet, and which in the aphis of the sycamore falls upon the upper surface of the leaves beneath those under which the insects lurk ; this is anal. Can they be the extension and termination of the respi- ratory system ? In all the species that I have observed in which the cornua were developed less or more, I never yet saw moisture exude from or stand on the summit of these organs ; and for days together I have had the ivy aphides under observation when they were being numerously attended on, caressed, and freely milked by both a red and black species of ant, this being, I imagine, a crucial period. Charles Robson. Elswick, Newcastk-upon- Tyne. A STUDY OF THE VARIATION OF VANESSA URTIC^E AND OF SOME OTHER BUTTERFLIES. By A. H. Swinton. TO the evolutionist, thinks Mr. Mosley, varieties may prove of the utmost interest as pointing to races gone before, or as offering indications of the approach of a new species. "Are there not," he says, "some occasions when we can call to our memory instances where the type has given place to the variety, and the variety in turn has become the type ?" Who knows not, for instance, the little brown Argus agrestis, that out over the pasture-lands mingles its warm nutty-brown, dashed with orange spots, among the clear sapphire sparkle of the droves of blue butterflies that start up before the footsteps ? Twice in the year it greets us : once when the spring rains are heavy, and the thick boughs resound to the song of the robin ; and again at autumn, when the grass is scorched and dry, and the clearer sky is tracked by floating thistle-down. Go north to Edinburgh and traverse the Saxon-speaking lowland as far as Aberdeen, and you [will there see appear once a year another blacker butterfly with a clear white fleck, like a piece o' the gowan, on its wing, and no more of those bright orange cairngorms than you may see displayed on the hinder wing of the female of the commonest blue : and yet this less canny thing is nothing more than a local alpine variety of the same rural butterfly, whose name has the advantage of being a celebrated typographical error. In my school-days wiseacres had it a species ; and well I remember an excursion to Arthur's Seat, and mad-cap hunt all over the Queen's Drive, and down among the moist meadows gleaming with dragon-flies, in search of the then far-famed Arta- xerxes, which of course never turned up ; no, not when I had dared the last " no trespass " board, and found myself arrived opposite a garden gate, where, horror of horrors, a lassie was taking the evening air. But insects not alone do and have varied on cer- tain spots recluse, they change likewise in time, and either circumstance is greatly dependent on the exis- ting climate. Many whites, blues and Vanessae, array themselves at periods of the year in alternate spring and summer dress, the most noteworthy of these being the butterfly denominated by the French La carte geographiqitc, which, as Boisduval first re- marked in the year 1828, flaunts at spring in the most vivid of fawn colours, and then for the rest of the summer appears draped in black, branded on the wing with a different check ; becoming thereby as changed in aspect, as though the fritillary in the woods had produced a White Admiral butterfly as its progeny. Should, however, a drier or a more humid season arrive, then another pattern-variety may be looked for, intermediate in character : such a season was 1865, unusually open and dry on the Continent, when many butterflies and moths produced an extra brood. That the epithet geographiqitc has in more ways than one been happily conferred on Vanessa kvana, and that such changes of costume may be often geographical quite as much as tweeds, mantles, cinctures, hats or turbans are, may be gathered from the fact, that white-bordered Camberwell beauties, which have become a race in Sweden, farther south appear similarly, but as a passing spring variety of the buffones ; and even the redoubted Artaxerxes afore mentioned, or at least an intermediate form, has been produced abnormally at Brighton during July 1856. Other instances of seasonal varieties appearing from time to time in Central Europe, and establishing themselves as local races on its northern and southern confines, might be noticed ; but there still remains a most interesting field of labour in this direction, that cannot but recommend itself to the attention of the entomological tourist, resident abroad, and the biological worker. And if time and place mean change, and insects are thus disseminating themselves in new races, who would not desire to investigate farther the harmonies that loom on the gloom ; and in the vacillating play of colour and pattern to cast each horoscope, and so trace the long butterfly pedigree coming down to us from that remote period, when the savage forest stretch of India and America had not receded from European acres where they lay blended ; or the flora and fauna, so to speak, undergone their last selection and become as we now see them ; rural with heather and dog-roses, oak woods, corn-fields and willowed brooks ? As the mathematician, then, draws his base line, and measures the angles it makes with those remote periods whose position and relations he is desirous to ascertain, so let us employ the recognised systematic and geographical arrangements of butter- flies, and by their means co-ordinate some of those ancestral features that greet us, as we turn backwards on the Lethean stream of time towards this ancient luxuriousness of wildered nature wantoning in its prime. ioS IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Identical in part with the present home of civilisa- tion and culture, the European Asiatic region of insect life lies embosomed as a great natural park, situated, shall I say ? between the sixtieth and fortieth degrees of north latitude. Fenced in on the side of the south by the cicatrised scar of an old volcanic rent in the earth's crust, you may trace its bounds by a yoke of snowy peaks stretching away from the Pyrenees to the soaring Himalaya ; on the east and west it bathes its boundary in the sea waves, and away to the north it is enclosed by a line extending from the sunken chain of the Aleutian Islands, through the watershed of the Russian rivers, to meet the grassy undulations of the Cheviots. Not how- ever as an arbitrary limit gaining import, as marking a line of fiery commotion and cloudy pillar during the Fig. 75- Tertiary and at older periods of the world's history, would this virtual boundary present so great a claim for consideration, as in its roughly indicating a climatic centre that here harmonises with the physio- graphical, from whose area the stream of life appears to have flowed, and by gradual transition passed into other and external forms ;. just as we may witness the insect fauna of England blending into that of the Grampians and dark Loch Rannoch. From among the tinsel of a gaudily decorated box, purporting to come from the slopes of the eastern Himalaya, I the other day had the curiosity to pick out some of those butterflies and moths that most reminded me of our English sorts. Here they are. Swallow-tails, not differing from those of the Cam- bridgeshire fen-land save that some of them dwindle to small dimensions. Brimstone butterflies, decep- tively like the familiar harbinger of primroses and' violets, but for their size and brightness, conjoined with a scorched-brown-papery look beneath. Clouded yellows that might have fed up in the nearest clover field, save that their orange is fiery and Eastern, and that their wing-spots beneath present white flecks. Queen of Spain fritillaries, queens if they be, im- posingly large and rather grimy looking. Hawk moths, ermine moths, and red underwings in long array, alien where they are alien, in here a line and there a tone maybe. The pride of the case we now arrive at in a better fly of very dubious appearance. Who knows not the difference between a Painted' Lady and Red Admiral ? " Widiculous," as the late Mr. Sothern used to say. Yet here is a butterfly, dis- tributed from China to Teneriffe, that exactly matches the colours and unites the shape of each,, and yet it is neither. In order that any one may note this circumstance and make comparison for him- self, I furnish a figure of the under side — a crucial test. When the butterfly (fig. 75) was first shown by Fig. 76. Weaver to the Rev. Mr. Bree, he reputed it an* instance of a hybrid race. But doubtless at that time the distribution and variation of species was little studied ; so that if we now cast a retrospect on the history of the Painted Lady, widely disseminated and yet spreading in periodical migration, and so highly variable, that in Brazil and Australia it seems to have established, as Mr. Hewitson more than hinted,, distinct races, the moral we arrive at is, that the butterfly or its direct ancestor is quite as likely to have been farther modified into the various local forms of the Red Admiral class that exist, as to have crossed with one of them ; the only apparent alter- native being, that Pyra?neis callirhoe, the Red Admiral of the Sikkim valleys, is the ancestor of our Red Admiral (Pyrantels Atalanta) and of the Painted Lady [Pyrantels cardui). One of these premises must to a certainty be true if a + b is a and b, or if two parts make a whole in Callirhoe. My friend Mr. F. W. Kirby informs me that certain groups of butterflies are reputed recent, and doubtless when a thorough study of this branch of the Vanessides can HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 109 be made, its generation will prove recent indeed among butterfly races. Had the box been sent from any other place verging on the boundary zone of the European Asiatic, or, in technical language, the Palcearctic region ; from one of my well-wishers, say, resident in Siberia, North America, China, Persia, Syria, Algeria, or the Canaries, the result would have been the same ; even the remote island of the Mikado, as Mr. A. G. Butler most kindly brought to my notice the other day, con- taining strange giant races of our well-known night- fliers of the lantern and sugar-pot. In this case the water expanses of the Kamtchatkan and Mediter- ranean seas do not materially affect the distribution ; but had the box been from parts more remote, the species would have been less allied in character to those that fly around us in the woods and meadows, the most distinct and specialised region with little doubt proving to be the forests of the Brazils. Since we conclude from entomological observation, as from the record of the rocks, that an incessant extirpation and variation of species has combined with the agency of man in rendering the surface of Europe what we see it, it becomes not a little curious should we find in the butterfly fauna a tendency, under certain conditions of climate or otherwise, to fluctuate in the direction of these bordering forms. Let us take, for example, our small tortoiseshell. This butterfly, as I have already noticed, towards the north and east of the European area as on elevations in this country, scarfs itself in black and dispenses with its two wing- flecks. It likewise from time to time evolves another variety, an example of which I have just netted on the Surrey hills, that shows a yellow line running exteriorly to the black band. But only once unite these characters in an individual, and there is no evidence that such permutation is not in harmony with experience ; and you will have presented to the mind a butterfly that a mere touch of the tar-brush would render undistinguishable from the somewhat scarce tortoiseshell of Canada, Vanessa Milberti, God. In order that comparison may be made by any variety breeder, who, having obtained his black- banded tortoiseshells, has yet greater aspirations, I give a figure of this insect from a specimen kindly sent me for the purpose by Dr. Haydon from the far off Hudson's Bay (fig. 76). As another example in passing, I might mention the American gooseberry moth, buff with black bands, and the caterpillars of our own gooseberry destroyer {Abraxas grossidariata) which, similarly pied, produces buff and black-banded moths occasionally. Besides fluctuating in the direction of outlying races, butterfly forms approach and recede on the European area ; a familiar instance occurring to me in a large tortoiseshell only lately bred from a brood of the smaller kind by Mr. William White, of the Epping Forest Field Club. Was it a large tortoise- shell or not ? doubtless many have already inquired, and were they also large tortoiseshells obtained pre- viously by Mr. Tawell from a brood of the same butterfly ? Well, in the first instance I believe the matter is not unprecedented ; and if we accept Frofessor Huxley's definition, and consider every butterfly form as virtually having a constant part of its organisation A in common with others, and a variable difference n, then there can exist no doubt, as I picture to myself, but that the butterfly has really relapsed into the type of the larger strong- winged sort, and reverted probably to an older form. For I think the matter will bear of being fairly resolved in this way. As Mr. White justly remarks, our large brown tortoiseshell is very much more constant in its wing-design than the smaller species is. The female is also pre-eminently single-brooded, laying her eggs during the sunny hours of spring, when alone elm-leaves are sappy and palatable to caterpillars ; whereas her lowly congeners, floating about the succulent nettle patches, can there reproduce in many a ruddy generation throughout the warm summer months. As far as I can determine from my album of water-colour sketches, that variety of small tortoiseshell caterpillar that has the yellow lace, approaches closely in appearance the usual form of caterpillar belonging to the larger butterfly ; and as all such finery tarnishes and turns black here in the hedges about the first of August, I consider these yellow-banded caterpillars as typically a summer form ; and Urticae and Polychloros, united in most cabinets by intermediate sports, to be the extremes of variation. Some will doubtless conclude from this, that when glacial summers were, the short season only permitted of the existence of a one-brooded butterfly ; and that as brighter years dawned, more broods were pro- duced and variation ensued by seasonal varieties becoming permanent. Others again may think, the variation came about when the species first took to feed on the more succulent plant ; and that this is, of course, merely a matter of adaptation, any may prove for themselves by mixing fresh elm-shoots with the nettle-leaves, and in this way inducing the caterpillars of the small tortoiseshell to relinquish their proper food for that of their congener. But as extremes will by no means negative means, and as some other existing butterflies as regards colour, shade, and pattern seem to lie between Urticae and Poly- chloros, it would seem here a common ancestry is indicated, butterfly distinctions being invariably fine spun even, to the initiated. Indeed I conceive if any one will make a study of a perfect series of the group as now known, he will come to observe how it parts into a subdivision of butterflies, that like our native Comma, have a scollop in the fore wing. If he then single out two very similar butterflies with this ragged appearance, /. album and V. album, inhabiting Europe and Northern America respec- tively, he will come to observe how we may on the no HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. one hand trace the gradation of colour and pattern to Polychloros and the butterfly aptly termed Cali- fornica, and on the other hand, pass by gradual transition to the north Indian counterpart of Urticce, Cashmirensis, to Urticce itself, a little more modi- fied in colour ; and lastly to Ichnusa and Milberti, which appear as two diverging branches from Urticce. The matter, drawn up in a diagram, will at least serve to show how closely variation, where it may be grasped, corresponds with geographical distribution, while it likewise suggests to the thoughtful a line of past modification and descent. For further informa- tion I must refer the reader to Mr. White's paper in the "Transactions of the Epping Forest and County of Essex Naturalists' Field Club for June 1881," with remarks by Messrs. Meldola and Butler. BOTANISING AMONG THE SAND-HILLS, ISLE OF WIGHT. By C. Parkinson, F.G.S., &c. ST. HELENS' Spit, an extent of sand lying at the mouth of Brading Harbour, Isle of Wight, is one of the best botanising localities that we have in England. It has been estimated by Dr. Bromfield and other botanists that over 200 species of wild flowers grow on these forty acres, and it is certain many of our rarer plants may be gathered there either in June, lor the greater number, or August for a few which flower late. Many of the trifoliums may be gathered here. T. arvense (hare's-foot trefoil) is abundant, growing among the loose sand in great quantities. T. suffocatum also buries itself in the sandy road, near a small wooden house at the water's edge ; it is a plant which^is explained ac- curately by its name, the stalkless heads appearing suffocated or choked in growth. T. subtcrrancum (subterraneous trefoil) is common among the grass, with about three small white flowers to each head, the whole plant creeping close to the ground, and therefore easily overlooked. T. striatum (knotted trefoil) is also among the sandy grass ; the plant is downy, with pink, sessile heads, occurring sparingly here and there. T. scabrum is also hairy and pro- cumbent, with sessile and nearly round heads of pale pink flowers, in company with the last, only a commoner species. T. glo??ieratum (round-headed trefoil) differs from scabrum in being smooth, having smaller leaves ; the round, deep-red heads are stalkless, and the leaves often marked with white. These, with two or three commoner forms, make St. Helens' Spit well worth a few hours' search, even if nothing else grew in the same place. In June any botanist will be able to gather specimens of all the above named. T. suffocatum is the most difficult to meet with, and I would earnestly beg collectors to gather sparingly, so that the species may not be exterminated with us. On the sand-hills facing^thesea, CEnothera biennis, the evening primrose, grows in some profusion. Hooker and many of the authorities state that the CEnothera is not truly indigenous with us, that it was introduced from N. America. In any case, I can absolutely state that on St. Helens' Spit, facing the sea and a considerable distance from any cottage or garden, the evening primrose is flourishing as truly wild now as any plant can be. Here we find the CEnothera growing year after year in a seemingly wild state, but, on the other hand, botanical writers tell us it must have escaped from gardens or been otherwise introduced. How long must this evening primrose remain before we may call it truly wild ? Convolvulus soldanclla (sea bindweed), a hand- some rose-coloured flower, with fleshy angular leaves, is also abundant at St. Helens, perfectly at home in the loose sand. Erythnva pulchella, if it be a distinct species of centaury, I found sparingly ; the corolla is smaller than in centaurium, in some cases 4-cleft instead of 5, and invariably deeper rose-colour. In long grass, almost before you reach the sandy spit, Lathyrus nissolia (crimson vetchling) lies hidden. It has grass-like leaves, single crimson flowers, and is the only vetchling minus tendrils. Eryngium maritimum (sea holly) is everywhere among the sand, having the prickly glaucous foliage and bluish flowers. Sedum Anglicum (white English stonecrop) and S. acre (wall pepper), with white and yellow starry flowers respectively, abound, the contrast being very striking. Erodium maritimum, with simple leaves and very small flowers, may occasionally be gathered, cicutarium, the common stork's-bill, being common. Glaux maritima (sea milkwort) is another of the characteristic flowers, an upright little plant with dark green, alternate leaves and flesh-coloured axil- lary flowers. Solarium nigrum, garden nightshade, is a common weed, growing even in the cart-ruts on the sandy roadway across the Spit. Euphorbia paralias (sea spurge) is thoroughly established at St. Helens ; the leaves are glaucous, somewhat imbricated, the umbel 5-cleft, greenish with yellow glands. On muddy patches of ground, Salicornia herbacca (glasswort) and S. radicans grow ; curious succulent green plants with little beauty to recommend them. Arenaria marina (sea sandwort), with fleshy leaves and purple star-shaped flowers, is abundant near the water's edge. Silene maritima is sure to be found among the shingle, almost creeping along the ground, with fleshy leaves that at once dis- tinguish it from other species of campion or catchlly. Armeria maritima (sea thrift) is plentiful in every corner of our hunting-ground. Though Staticc limonium must be sought for higher up in the dry bed of Brading Harbour, it is curious that this sea lavender should not extend to St. Helens' Spit. Honckcneya peploides (sea chickweed) grows on the sea-shore, very nearly down to tide mark ; it has very large, greenish-yellow capsules which attract attention HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. ii i sooner than the white flower. Cochkaria Anglica (English scurvy grass) will be found along the em- bankment of Brading Harbour, and C. Danica is stated to grow at St. Helens, though I have not yet succeeded in finding a specimen. Draba vcrna (whitlow grass) is abundant early in the year. Most of these species may be found in June, as stated above, but the Spit is well worth a visit in August or Septem- ber, to see several acres of ground literally covered with the delicate little Scilla autumnalis (autumn squill). The flower varies in colour from purplish- blue to nearly white ; it blossoms before the leaves appear, thus differing from the bright blue spring squill. This rare little flower may be gathered by the hundred at St. Helens without any fear of extermination, so plentifully does it reappear every autumn. MICROSCOPY. Fluid Cavities in Meteorites. — Last autumn we obtained a section from Edmund Wheeler. The bubbles in many of the cavities move distinctly. We have watched them under a "6th," but prefer the " 1 2th." Last Friday evening we found in a tiny cavity an unusually active bubble ; suddenly my husband exclaimed, " I have stopped it." True enough, there it was as quiet as possible at the top. The lamp alone had been touched ; the lamp was moved, when off shot the bubble across the cavity and back ; again the light was moved, and the bubble became as active as when first seen. We have Heinrich Hensoldt's very interesting paper upon "Fluid Cavities in Meteorites," and think our section is from that which fell near Braunfels. My husband is an old microscopist, and would much value a fragment as offered by Heinrich Hensoldt. The instrument and "powers " used were by the late Andrew Ross ; the stand, his largest size. We have not detected any effect by light upon the other bubbles since examined. — F. S. Mr. Bolton's " Portfolio of Drawings." — We have received a copy of No. 9 of this series. It is, as many of our readers are aware, a description of the living organisms (animal and vegetable) illustra- tive of fresh-water and marine life, which Mr. Bolton weekly sends out to his numerous clientele. The illustrations are vigorous, and many of them quite artistic, whilst the descriptions accompanying them are pithy, but clear. When it is remembered that one of these drawings and descriptions accompanies each bottle of living organisms sent out for micro- scopical examination, the reader will begin to think there is a royal road to knowledge, after all ! The present number gives descriptive illustrations of Uvella virescens, Pyxicola affi?iis, Stichotricha remex, Trochosphere of Alcyonidium, sEcistes umbella, Floscularia regalis, Melicerta tyro, Leptodora (young stages), Cephalosiphon, Annurea, Ammothea, Idya, &c. &c. " Studies in Microscopical Science." Edited by A. C. Cole, F.R.M.S. — Some excellent things have been recently sent out in connection with these now well-known "Studies." Among the best pre- parations we may mention No. 39, " Tongue of the Dog ; " No. 40, " Leaf of Fiats elastica " (transverse section) ; No. 42, a prepared section of the "White Syenite of Lairg ; " and No. 48, another of the " Por- phyritic Basalt" from Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh. These geological slides are of the greatest interest and beauty. Another containing a transverse section of the stem of Ribes nigrum (No. 44), stained with carmine, and that (No. 46) giving us a similar section of the "Leaf of the Scotch Fir," are exquisite specimens of mounting. The illustrations keep up their high [artistic merit, and the "studies" or descriptive accounts of the objects are models of condensation, brevity, and withal of clearness. Harecourt Literary and Scientific Society. — This flourishing society held its first annual Mi- croscopical Soiree on the 30th of March, in the Harecourt Hall, St. Paul's Road, N. It is pleasing to find all the chief metropolitan districts developing these scientific nuclei, around which it becomes easy for people of scientific tastes to collect and make each other's acquaintance. Journal of the Royal Microscopical So- ciety.— The last part of the journal contains a paper by Dr. Hudson, on " Five new Floscules ; with a brief note on Professor Leidy's genera of Acytus and Dictyophora." The illustrations accompanying it are very beautifully executed. The address of the Presi- dent (Professor Duncan) is also given in full, dealing with practical optics relating to the microscope. Mr. H. J. Waddington has a paper on " The Action of Tannin on the cilia of Infusoria," &c. There is, besides, the usual copious and excellently-condensed summary of current researches relating to botany and zoology, in so far as microscopy is connected with them. Land and Freshwater Mollusca near London. — Correspondents on this subject, if not already acquainted with it, would come upon some interesting records in Daniel Cooper's "Flora Metro- politana" (Appendix), 1S36, where a very full list of shells and the localities in which they were found near London is given. Many of the places there named are now either built over or threatened, and local collectors would do well to work over the latter spots, that something may be saved before the flood of houses sweeps over these "happy hunting grounds" for the conchologist. — B. B. Woodward. 112 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. ZOOLOGY. Cleaning Birds. — The new American publication " Science" says that, when obliged to wash birds, collectors will find it an advantage to use salt and water instead of plain water. The salt prevents the solution of the blood-globules, and consequent diffu- sion of the red haemoglobin. "Extracting minute Snails" (S.-G., No. 218, P- 43)- — Permit me to say that the plan here recom- mended is not the proper one to adopt, inasmuch as, in boiling out the creature, you destroy the epidermis of the shell also ; and as in many instances the character of the species depends upon keeping this intact, it is of the first importance to preserve it ; e.g. Helix aatkata, Planorbis albus, P. nautileus. Again, it should be the object of the collector to preserve the shells in their natural condition, with all their distinctive peculiarities about them. Very minute shells (Vertigo, Pupa, &c.) cannot be emptied of their animal contents successfully. The best plan, supposing the collector is determined to try, is to put the living molluscs into tepid water, and allow them to protrude their foot to the fullest extent ; then add suddenly boiling water, when with considerable care and labour part may be extracted— the muscular more opaque mass, foot, &c. My own experience teaches me that in the case of shells too small to be cleared of the animal by the ordinary method of scalding and picking out, there is no necessity to attempt the operation, as the creature will dry up sufficiently to leave the shell transparent enough to satisfy the student. I have Clausilia rugosa, var. albida, C. laminata and albida, Planorbis lineatus, and others, all semi-transparent forms, from which the creatures have not been extracted, quite clean enough to please the most fastidious collector. My advice is, carefully clean your shells of all extraneous dirt you can, by washing, before mounting them in your cabinet, leaving those too minute to clear of the mollusc to thoroughly dry (in a pill-box) ; but if you are desirous of retaining the natural beauty and character of the shell, do not use caustic potash. I am quite sure you will be satisfied with the appearance of the shells. If you are not convinced as to the correctness of my remarks, come and see my cabinets, and I think the shells will do what I have failed in — G. Sherriff Tye, Handsworth. Admission of Land-shells to the British List.— Mr. Sherriff Tye will, I trust, excuse me if I presume to express opinions opposed to the spirit of the remarks which he contributed to the December number of Science-Gossip (p. 278), on the desira- bility of admitting certain species of land-shells into the British list. I fully agree with him as to the definition of the term "indigenous," viz. not having been introduced by human agency ; but when he states that, "in the absence of any information to the contrary, we have to consider Helix villosa, H. per- sonata, Clausilia parvula, and C. solida as coming under that head, albeit there are at present very slight grounds for supposing them so," I must differ from him entirely. He says further, " Two specimens of //. villosa, I believe, have been taken near Cardiff, one dead shell of H. personata at Newcastle in Ireland, one specimen of C. solida near Bristol, and several shells of C. parvula at Kniver, Worcester- shire." Now it seems to me that the grounds on which Mr. Sherriff Tye wishes us to admit these species as indigenous are so extremely slight that they point to a conclusion directly opposite to that which he has arrived at. I have not before me the original records of the discovery of these specimens, but I would point out that the three first were all met with in the immediate proximity of seaports ; and as, taken altogether, only four specimens (one of them dead) have been found, I think the only rational conclusion which it is possible to come to is that they have been introduced — most likely with ballast. At Cardiff, where two specimens of //. villosa have been found, there is, if I have not been wrongly informed, an accumulation of ballast so immense that the owner of the adjoining land (the Marquis of Bute, I believe) has benefited largely by extending his house-property over it ; and my friend Mr. Thomas Rogers, of Man- chester, has found on the ballast-heaps there quite an extensive, non-indigenous flora, containing so many representatives of plants from far-distant parts of the world that I should be altogether afraid to state the number of species from memory. The Newcastle in Ireland where a single dead specimen of //. per- sonata was found is, I presume, the seaport of that name in Dundrum Bay. It is especially unlikely that a species which has never been found in England should have occurred in Ireland ; and I can only conclude that this solitary specimen, like that of C. solida which was found near Bristol, was intro- duced by shipping. It is true that conchologists are not a numerous body ; but they are, I think, sufficiently abundant to have detected, before this time, other specimens of the foregoing species if they were indigenous to Britain, especially as attention has been called to them. The foregoing remarks, how- ever, do not apply with equal force to C. parvula ; and the fact of several specimens having been found so far inland as Worcestershire, suggests the question whether some collectors may not have mistaken this common continental species for Clausilia rugosa. An examination of a large series of specimens is desirable. It seems to me Mr. Sherriff Tye has arrived at a most illogical conclusion as to the distri- bution of these species. He says : " Reeve tells us the theory of migration points in a north-westerly direction ; if therefore these species be really indi- genous (their recorded habitats being continental), we should expect them to be found in south-east HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. "3 England." It seems to me that if "the theory of migration points in a north-westerly direction," we should be most likely to find the species in question in the north-westerly parts of our country rather than in the south-easterly, unless we suppose that the migration has altogether ceased since the separation of England from the rest of the continent of Europe, which, as I take it, took place at a period sufficiently remote to have allowed the molluscs to have spread themselves, by now, in any direction over the country ; so that I can see no reason for supposing that the species in question are more likely to be found inhabiting the south-east than any other part of England. At all events, none of the occurrences which Mr. Sherriff Tye gives have been in the south- east.— Robt. Miller Christy, Saffron Walden. American Economic Entomology. — There are few of the numerous scientific publications issued by the United States Government which deserve more careful study than the Report of the Entomologist, Dr. Charles V. Riley. The volume for the past year is just out, containing chapters on American silk culture, the use of pyrethrum as an insecticide, the army worm, scale insects, insects affecting the rice plant, insects affecting corn or maize, the cotton worm, miscellaneous insects, methods of destroying insects, new insects, &c. The illustrations are numerous, and many of them are coloured plates, in a telling and even high style of art. We congratu- late Dr. Riley on bringing out so admirable a report. Hertfordshire Natural History Society. — The last number of the " Transactions " of the above society contains the following papers : "Hertfordshire Deer Parks," by J. E. Harting, F.L.S. ; " Notes on a Microscopical Aquarium," by Isaac Robinson ; "The Protozoa of Hertfordshire," by F. W. Phillips, F.L.S. ; "The Upper Portion of the River Rib and its affluent the Quin," by Messrs. R. P. Grey, F.G.S., andR. B. Crofc, F.L.S.; "The River Rib from Standen to its junction with the Lea," by A. G. Puller, F.L.S. ; "Notes on the River Ash," by Hellier Gosselin ; &c. &c. The Cumberland Association. — As most of our readers are aware, the scientific societies in all the large Cumberland towns are affiliated to the above association, and the papers read at one society are interchanged with the other, with the happiest results. The " Transactions," therefore, form a decent volume. That for 18S1-S2 is just out, edited by Mr. J. G. Goodchild. Among the papers here published are the following : — The address of the President (Robert Ferguson, M.P.), on "The Future of the English Language ;" "The Land and Fresh- water Shells of Cumberland," by Miss Donald ; "The Glacial Deposits of West Cumberland," by J. D. Kendall; "The Fungi of the district round Carlisle," by Dr. Carlyle ; "The Minerals of Cum- berland and Westmoreland," by J. G. Goodchild ; "List of Works on the Geology of Cumberland and Westmoreland," by W. Whitaker ; "Local Ento- mology," by George Dawson; "Flora of Ullswater District," by William Hodgson; "Our Northern Mosses," by F. Harrison; "Flowering Plants of West Cumberland," by J. Glaister and Dr. Leitch ; &c. &c. The Study of the Ixodes. — Can none of your readers be prevailed on to take up the study of the Ixodes (ticks), of which there are several British species ? I feel sure their life history, if fully worked out, would prove both interesting and instructive, and might throw some light on a mysterious and deadly disease amongst cattle and sheep, which prevails ex- tensively in Scotland, and in some districts hi England. It is a curious fact that Ixodes are almost invariably if not always found infesting sheep where this disease prevails, and it becomes an important question whether their presence is merely a coincidence from the rough coarse natural grasses forming a congenial habitat, or whether they are not the carriers or in- oculators of vegetable or other poison. I should be very glad to give further information to any one dis- posed to take up the study. — W. E. L. BOTANY. Suffolk Local Names. — "Boar-thistle," Car- diats lanceolatus ; " Bull-fist," puff-ball, Lycoperdon or Bovista ; "Bunks," wild chicory, C. intybus ; " Canker-rose " and "head-ache," red field-poppy; "Clow," clove-pink; "Cow-mumble," Herackum sphondylium ; "Cuckoo-flower," Orchis mciscala ; " Dick- a - dilver," "periwinkle," Vinca minor; "Ebble," the aspen -tree, P. tremula ; "Five- fingers," ox-lips, P. elatior, L.; " Fliggers," common flag, varieties of Iris ; " Haw," ear of oats ; "Hulver," holly; " Old man's love," "Lad's love,'' southern-wood, A. abrotanum ; " Peagle," Rcuwncu- lies arvensis ; " Pickerel- weed," Potainogeton natans (young pike are called "pickerels") — this is also "Tench-weed;" " Scallion," the edible onion; " Suckling," the white cultivated clover ; " Quicks " or " twitch," Triticii7n repens. The red field-poppy is also called " Copper-rose : " is this at all connected with the French couperose, and is " Ebble " for the aspen connected with " wobble " ? — P. S. Taylor. Dulvytch College Science Society. — The fifth annual report of this society confirms our former opinion that this society is a model which all our public schools would do well to copy. The list of papers read covers a wide ground, chiefly of natural science. Important among them is one on the Botany of Dulwich, by the hon. sec, Mr. S. W. Carruthers. There are also abstracts of papers on ii4 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. the Geographical Distribution of Plants ; the Natural History of Bournemouth ; the Frog, a study on evolution, &c. ; all indicating much mental activity and appreciation of the great thoughts which are moving the scientific world. Peridermium Pini. — I regret that so many of those who have written to me for specimens of this fungus should have been disappointed in not receiv- ing a specimen. The demand has this time proved greatly in excess of the supply. Should I be for- tunate enough to procure fresh specimens this season, those to whom I have not sent specimens shall receive some, and those whose specimens were poor shall receive others. — Charles F. IF. T. Williams, Bath. The Home of the Potato. — Professor J. G. Lemmon believes he has discovered that the original home of the potato is Arizona. He discovered it in bloom last summer in the Huachuca mountains : by the 1st of September the plants had formed tubers as large as hens' eggs. GEOLOGY. Fossil Sponges from the Inferior Oolite. — A paper on this subject by Prof. W. J. Sollas, M.A., F.G.S., was recently read before the Geological Society. ' Some fossil Sponges have been described from the Inferior Oolite of the Continent, but hitherto none have appeared in the lists of fossils from this for mation in British localities. The collection of Sponges described by Prof. Sollas was made by the Rev. G. F. Whidborne. The author described n species (6 of which he identified with those already described from continental localities), belonging to 9 genera, and concluded his paper with some general remarks. These Sponges are calcareous, but are considered by the author to have been originally siliceous, replacement of the one mineral by the other having taken place as already noticed by him. The beds in which these Sponges are found bear all the ap- pearance of being comparatively shallow - water deposits. The supposed Pre-Cambrian Rocks of St. David's. — The following important paper by Archi- bald Geikie, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., was lately read before the Geological Society. The author began by briefly narrating the circumstances under which he had been led to study the geology of St. David's. He had visited the district twice, first in company with Mr. B. N. Peach, with whose co-operation nearly all the field-work was done, and again in conjunction with Mr. W. Topley. The paper was divided into two parts, the first being mainly controversial, and the second descriptive. Only the first part was read. According to Dr. Hicks, there are at St. David's three distinct Pre-Cambrian formations : — the "Dimetian," consisting of crystalline, gneissic, and granitoid rocks ; the " Arvonian," formed offelsites, quartz-porphyries, halleflintas, and other highly silicated rocks ; and the " Pebidian," composed of tuffs, volcanic breccias, and basic lavas. He regards the "Arvonian" as later than and unconformable to the " Dimetian," and the Pebidian as younger than and unconformable to both ; and he asserts that the basement conglomerate of the Cambrian system lies quite unconformably on all these rocks, and is in great part 'made up out of their waste. Taking up each of these groups iu the order of sequence assigned to them, the author maintained that the " Dimetian group " is an eruptive granite, which has disrupted and altered the Cambrian strata, even above the horizon of the supposed basal con- glomerate. He described a series of natural sections where this relation is exposed, particularly one on the coast at Ogof-Llesugn, where the conglomerate has been torn off and involved in the granite, and has been intensely indurated, so as to become a kind of pebbly quartzite. No other rock occurs within the granite mass except dykes of diabase, which rise through all the rocks of the district, but are especially abundant in the granite. The veins of finer granite, so general in granite areas, are conspicuous here. In short, whether studied in hand-specimens or on the ground, the rock is so unmistakably an eruptive masf, that the author could not understand how this view, which was that expressed on the Geological Survey maps, should ever have been called in question. The manner in which it has risen across the bedding of successive horizons in the Cambrian series proves that, instead of being a Pre-Cambrian gneiss, it must be much younger than all the Cambrian rocks of the district. The " Arvonian group " consists of quartz- iferous porphyries, or elvans, associated with the granite, and of the metamorphosed strata in their vicinity. Reference was made to natural sections where the actual intrusion of the elvans across the bedding of the rocks could be seen. The " Pebidian group " comprises a series of volcanic tuffs and breccias, with interstratified and intrusive lavas. The author maintained that this group forms an integral part of the Cambrian system as developed at St. David's. It has been broken through by the granite and porphyries, and is therefore of older date. Instead of being covered unconformably by the Cambrian conglomerate, as asserted by Dr. Hicks, the volcanic group is covered quite conformably by that rock ; and seams of tuff are interstratified with the conglomerate and occur on various horizons above it. The conglomerate, instead of being mainly com- posed of fragments of the rocks beneath it, consists almost entirely of quartz and quartzite, only 4 per cent, of fragments having been found to have been derived from some of the projecting lava-islands underneath it. From the evidence now brought for- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. IJ5 ward, the author contended that as the names "Dimetian," "Arvonian," and " Pebidian " had been founded on error of observation, they ought to be dropped out of geological literature. Has " Helix aspersa" been found Fossil in Britain ? — It certainly is an extraordinary fact that this well-known and common shell is conspicuous by its absence from all the lists of Pleistocene mollusca that I am acquainted with, though II. nemoralis (vel hortensis) and other large-sized Helices are common enough. The only alleged instance of its occurrence in the fossil state in England is that given by Ralph Tate in his " Plain and easy Account of the Land and Fresh-water Mollusks of Great Britain " (p. 146), where it is mentioned as being found " in the upper- most tertiaries at Newbury." Now, so far as I can make out, this refers to a specimen from the marly and peaty alluvial deposits of the Kennet Valley ; but whether this example is still in existence or not, I have been unable to ascertain. This, however, I know, that pits have been sunk from time to time in these beds to obtain peat ; that these excavations become filled with water in which aquatic plants of all sorts grow, fresh peat is formed, and in about twenty years the holes are completely filled up again. It must, I think, have been in the chance re-excava- tion of one of these that the H. aspersa was found, and not in the original Pleistocene deposit. Perhaps, however, some one of the readers of Science-Gossip would kindly help me in ascertaining the truth or fallacy of this supposition. As matters at present stand, I am nursing a kind of pet theory that H. aspersa was a Roman introduction (it has been found associated with Roman remains), like H. pomatia and for the same reason, but being a hardier mollusk has taken kindly — rather too kindly — to our climate and vegetation, and so has spread and multiplied more rapidly than its more conservative relative, the //. pomatia. — B. B. Woodward. The Geology of Palestine.— The last number of the "Proceedings of the Geologists' Association " contains a lengthy illustrated paper on the above subject by the President, W. H. Hudleston, M.A., F.G.S. We have read it with the greatest pleasure, and strongly recommend its perusal to all our geo- logical readers. It is an admirable summary of all that has been written on the geology and physical geography of this interesting country, and sets forth the chief geological features in the clearest manner. The Interior of Greenland. — Professor Nordenskiold, the distinguished traveller and geo- grapher, intends this summer to attempt crossing the interior of Greenland from the west to the east coasts. Many years ago Professor Nordenskiold got as far as thirty miles into the interior, and that is the furthest any one has yet gone. The Professor thinks the interior is not entirely covered with ice. NOTES AND QUERIES. Mind in the Lower Animals. — There are some things in the article on this subject in page 73 with which I cannot at all agree. For instance, talking about a dog eating, Dr. K. says, "There is no neces- sary connection, through memory, between different particles of food offered to him at different times." However this may be with a dog, it is not so with my cat. She knows and remembers well the difference between meat and any other food. She knows very well the difference between breakfast and dinner, and will, when she knows meat ought to be on the table, refuse what she will at other times take, because she knows that there is meat. Again, does a dog do more than a child when he remembers one pleasure and longs for a repetition, and expresses his joy in the prospect of it ? An animal can show its hunger as well as a child, and in its way can ask for something to eat or drink. And did not the dog reason when he saw the woman in the water, as related a day or two ago, when he went and fetched his master to help him save the woman ? And are there not many instances of dogs knowing a butcher's shop, and going and taking meat ? And what must our dog have done but reason, when he as usual was quite friendly with a person who lived just on the other side of the road, and used to fetch her water from our pump, but one day as soon as she went to open the kitchen door laid hold of her clothes, knowing the servants were out ? Was there no reason in a cat I knew who jumped up to the handle of the kitchen door, and supported herself there with one foot while with the other she opened the latch and so used to let herself in? Has really a cat or dog no self-consciousness ? As I understand the term, they have a good deal of it. Have they no reflection, no memory? In short, animals are not human beings, and should not be compared with them, but I believe they have a certain degree — some more, some less — of reason ; but they have no moral sense, no religious sense, no idea of a Supreme Being, other than that man is their god, whom they look up to and serve and fear. — Edxvd. Thos. Scott. Mind among the Lower Animals. — Being a warm friend of what are called the lower animals, and a believer in reasoning powers as possessed by them, I cannot let some of the sentiments expressed by Dr. P. Quin Keegan, in his paper under the above heading, be passed without comment. To take the first thing that catches my eye : the remarks about the dog and meat. I will not quote them here for want of room. I assert, contrary to the Doctor, that a dog does know meat as meat, by name, in our language, in contradistinction to other food. To instance my own little dog. If I say to her, "Do you want some meat ? " she expresses her pleasure in many ways, — by jumping about, by her eyes, and by various little sounds, which are as much words and as expressive of ideas, to another dog, as our own language is to a fellow-countryman. And I, though I cannot pretend to translate a dog's talk word for word, can tell to a great degree what feelings are uppermost in its mind by the different sounds it utters. But "to return to our muttons." If I ask my dog if she wants meat, and then give her biscuit, although she may have been contentedly eating biscuit a moment before, she is not satisfied with it when the idea of something nicer is brought into her mind. Again, if the mere word "walk" or " street " is mentioned in her presence, she instantly becomes an attentive listener, and plainly associates n6 HA RD IV I C KE 'S S CIE NCE- G 0 SSI P. the idea of going for a walk with the word " walk." And a dog can not only understand proper names, as is said farther on, but even adjectives. When my dog's dinner, of freshly cooked meat, is brought in ; if I say to her, "It is too hot," she waits till it gets cooler. And even a tame thrush of mine, who is fond of warm boiled potato, is restrained from a too impatient assault on it by the words " Too hot." The learned Doctor says, " You might thunder the word 'fish ' a, thousand times into a cat's ear, but she would not understand." Now a cat of my acquaint- ance is instantly on the alert at the word " fish ; " and if mice or rats are the subjects of conversation, she becomes extremely excited, as does my dog at the word " cats." Again, as to the remarks quoted from Bowen, as to dogs not knowing a pond as a pond, if they are not used to it ; a large retriever which has frequently accompanied me in country walks will, on being told to go for a swim or go to a river, though in a new part of the country, run about looking for the means to take the said swim. Now as to the dog and well of water (p. 75): "If the dog had to explain by language that he wanted water, his powers would fail him." Why? He cannot speak our language, nor can we speak his. If we mention water, he will (I speak of ordinary pet dogs) show by his signs that that is what he wants. Are we *nuch better ? Should we not be in very much the same position if we wanted an "untutored savage" to give us water ? And if he mentioned water in his tongue, should we know that he spoke of water ? It may be argued, that the dog is not possessed of much intelligence because he fails to perfectly under- stand our language. To this I reply, "Might not the dog dub us unintelligent because we fail to perfectly understand his ? " And that dogs have a language of their own, who will deny ? or how is that, to bring up a well-known instance, a small dog who was maltreated by a big one, returned and arranged a plan by which a big dog of a friendly disposition accompanied the little dog to the residence of the savage dog, and punished him severely ? For want of space I must leave the other points un- touched ; but, if it were permissible, I could fill the whole magazine with instances and arguments. I sincerely hope that the Editor will give me space for this paper, long as it is. — H. C. Brooke. Plant on Lundy Island. — A letter appeared in the Standard of April 4th, on Lundy Island. It is there stated that a plant grows there in abundance early in the summer, with bright pink blossoms, said by the inhabitants to be the woad used by the ancient Britons. This description does not suit what we now call woad, or /satis tinctoria. What is the plant spoken of? Will any one direct me to an account of Lundy Island, giving ample information about the natural history of the place, especially botany?—//. E. Wilkinson. "Cocoa" or " Coco."— Is not the spelling of the word " cocoa " incorrect, and does not the error probably arise from confounding the coco palm with a totally different vegetable called the cacao ? — Ada P. Shell Collectors, take Notice. — Just after the heavy snowstorm which visited us during March, and whilst the snow lay on the ground, I walked along the sea-banks at Redcar, where H. nemoralis abounds ; but although dead shells were in plenty in sheltered hollows, no living animals came to hand. Strangely enough, however, I found three large stones whose heads peeped through the snow surrounded by broken shells of nemoralis and virgata, principally the first named. The shells lay on the snow, and had evidently been in many instances only opened that day. As I have not before observed this, I mention it as exhibit- ing, on the part of the birds, whose slaughter-blocks the stones evidently were, a considerable amount of dexterity and acuteness in discovering the hybernating mollusks. There were in all, I should say, some seventy or eighty shells round the three stones ; and curiously enough the five-banded variety, which is most prevalent on these banks, was almost absent ; the rarer varieties, with one, two, and four bands, being the chief victims among the nemoralis. — B. Hudson, jMiddlesbrd '. Query as to a Fungus. — Could you kindly inform me of the name of a fungus I found in January 1883? Several very small white fungi, scarcely larger than a mustard seed, on some small twigs on sandbanks near some firs. I put them under a microscope and saw they were white cups, like Peziza communis, only their edge was feathery. The cup did not spring directly from the twig, but was raised on a stalk. I found them near Salisbury, Wilts. — C. L. Fort. Vespa Norvegica. — On the 23rd of January, 1883, a nest of Vespa Norvegica was found in the " super " of a straw hive which was inhabited by bees. The wasps were found in the adjoining hive in a torpid state, but unfortunately they were crushed by the gardener. I have this nest now with me. This took place at "The Grange," Hoddesdon, Herts. — N. P. Wilkinson, St. PauFs Priory, St. Lconards-on-Sea. The Guillemot. — Your correspondent "P." (in the number for January last) is perhaps right in his objection that my notes on one of these birds might "lead anyone unacquainted with its habits to imagine it was unable to fly." I might have expressed myself with greater care. Guillemots certainly can fly "with great swiftness," notwithstanding their com- paratively short wings. They can rise also from the surface of the water (they do so generally, I think, against the wind) because it gives under the strokes of their wings, but they cannot, I think, rise from a hard level surface. To get under wing from off a hard surface, I think, they have to drop from a con- siderable height ; relying on this, I allowed the one spoken of perfect liberty. I have done the same with cormorants and gannets, but a gannet once did rise (against a stiff breeze) from a field where I was feeding it. It flew around me and settled again. In general, no doubt, the ledge of rock on which one of these birds settled is reached by flight, not by climbing. I have never seen one in its wild state attempt to climb; but from observation of the one in question, it would seem not to be a difficulty to them. My bird was not wounded when I got it ; it was "unhurt," as your correspondent says it "must have been." — P. HI. C. A'ermode. Pond Life in Midwinter. — It is Easter Sunday, and I have just read Mr. Lake's remarks on the above. I have seen Melicerta ringens that were captured in a December month. Mr. Lake wishes to correct an " erroneous " notion that I have given expression to, and that seemingly on the ground that he has captured caddis worms "in cases which have lost all their greenness ; " but query had they any greenness when first built ? This is omitted. I found, as hundreds I suppose have found before me, that caddis worms build their houses according to their surroundings. In a piece of the old New River in White Webbs, where the vegetation was plentiful, the cases were green ; where the surroundings were dark, the cases HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 117 were dark (decayed leaves, twigs, &c.) ; where shells, shells were used ; and where sand, sand was made up into a little boat with a tube down the middle. I have kept caddis worms, but in no case did their cases turn from their greenness. Will Mr. Lake keep some caddis worms this season with green surround- ings ? and if he finds their cases lose their greenness, I shall be most happy to acknowledge that my expres- sions are "erroneous," which maybe they are. I find Volvox globator mostly in its active state in April, as I understand rain and sunshine are essential to it in this condition ; but I believe it can be found in a quiescent state during any part of the year, and brought into an active state by the above means. I also understand that it is a great mistake to consider Volvox dead because it is not rolling through the water with extended cilia. I think Mr. Lake will be able to find during the winter months, as much as during the summer — certain larvae &c. of course ex- cepted, but by no means so plentiful. — John Alex. Ollard, F.R.M.S., Enfield. Sea Birds near Cambridge. — It is probable that the gulls seen in summer by Mr. Waters were the black-headed gull, which breeds inland, and especially in dry seasons wanders long distances in search of food. The guillemots, shearwaters, and common (?) gulls were doubtless storm-driven. It would be very interesting if Mr. Waters could ascertain the species of the "shearwaters" which he records. There are four British species of Pufnnus ; either, I fancy, would be new to Cambridgeshire. — Thomas Southwell, Norwich. Local Name of the Stoat. — In Norfolk the stoat is known amongst the country people as the "lobster" or lobstert, which is said to be derived from old Norse lopi, a lump or swelling, and stertr (Danish stjcert), a tail. Probably Mr. Ingleby's " clubstei " is a corruption of the same. Bell gives the derivation of the word stoat from the Belgic stout, bold. — T. Southwell, Norwich. Can Pigs swim ?— In reply to W. H. F., I beg to give the following interesting fact. A gentleman residing at Caversham bought two pigs at Reading market, which were conveyed to his house in a sack, and turned into his yard, which lies on the banks of the river Thames. The next morning the pigs were missing ; a hue and cry was immediately raised, and towards the afternoon a person gave information that two pigs had been seen swimming across the river at nearly its broadest part. They were afterwards observed trotting along the Pangbourne Road ; the result was their safe return to the place from which they were originally conveyed to Reading, a distance of nine miles, and by cross roads. The farmer from whom they had been purchased brought them back to the owner, but they took the very first opportunity to escape, recrossed the water like two dogs (thus removing the stigma on their race which proverbially disqualifies them for swimming without cutting their own throats), and never stopped until they found themselves at their first home. — IV. H. G., Somerton. Podophyllum. — The podophyllum, as ordered to be used for preparing the resin for medicinal use, is P. peltatum. No other is recognised for medicinal properties in the Pharmacopoeia. — T. J. Wiekes. Climbing of Mice.— I don't quite see what is the intent of " Petrarch's " question, whether he is merely inquiring about mice having their nests in trees, which I should fancy is very uncommon, or whether he doubts their power of climbing ; but as to this I should not have thought he could have any hesitation. At any rate I saw a mouse running up the straight wall of my house, to get in at the bed-room window, into which one had got shortly before. — Edwd. Thos. Scott. Climbing Powers of the Dormouse. — In answer to " Petrarch," I may say that there is no doubt the dormouse invaded the blackbird's nest. They and the long-tailed field-mice frequently alter a bird's nest for their own use. Dormice can leap and climb to an extent astonishing to anyone who has only seen them in small cages. One which I keep in a tolerably large cage jumps frequently from the floor to a perch nine inches higher, and thence runs along the wire top of the cage. Dormice, being closely allied to the squirrel, make their nests in bushes, and climb and jump about with great agility. Common house mice can run up a brick wall, as I have often seen them ; and harvest mice climb with great ease along wheat-stalks. Long-tailed field-mice are also very good climbers ; but the campagnol or meadow vole does not seem to be much of a climber, being more heavy and clumsy than the true mouse. In climbing, harvest mice aid themselves by twisting their tail-tips round any convenient stem. — H. C. Brooke. Fish in Spirit. — I used frequently to have fish and reptiles and fat-bodied larvae go bad, as W. Finch describes. I believe that they ought, except when very small, to be opened and disembowelled. — H. C. Brooke. The Egyptian Gerbille. — Can anyone tell me anything of the habits and haunts of this animal ? Having one alive, I wish to gain information about it, but I find it meets with but the barest notice in many zoological books. — H. C. Brooke. Pied and Albino Birds, &c. — As I am gathering together as much information as possible on the above subject, I shall be greatly obliged to persons who may be able to send me any facts on any of the following points. I especially desire lists of birds abnormally pied (No. 3 below), with date and full details of occurrence. (1) Animals always white (lists of species, habitat, &c, required). Example : Polar bear, &c. | (2) Animals always white in winter. (Has the degree of cold any effect on the amount of whiteness ? [How is the change from summer to winter colour, and vice versd, accomplished? &c.) Ex. : Ptarmigan, &c. (3) Animals abnormally white (full particulars of locality, date, &c, desired). Ex. : Sparrow with white head, &c. — Edw. J. Gibbins, The Graig, Areath, Glamorgan. White Varieties of Flowers. — As some interest is being taken now in the variation in the colour of flowers, I send you some memoranda of those which I remember to have seen in this part of Surrey. Pedicularis sylvatica and Polygala vulgaris are very frequently white, the last-named passing through various shades like the sweet violet. In 1869 I found a white variety of Erythrcea centaurium ; Echinni vulgaris, 1870. In 1881 I found Campanula rotundi- folia, nearly white, in open sandy ground. In March 1882 I found a white variety of Lamium purpurcum, and, later in the season, of Geranium Robertianum. The late Mr. J. C. Loudon found that the flowers of this plant always became white under cultivation, in his garden at Bayswater. Antirrhinum orontium occurred white in 1S65, and I remember finding a white Cenlaurea nigra many years ago. I have frequently seen pink flowers on this plant : Achillea millefolium sometimes occurs with us of a deep pink. n8 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. I also found Glechoma hederacea with lilac variegated flowers in 1869, and I once saw Call una vulgaris white, and I think also Scabiosa succisa. In con- clusion, it seems that blue and pink flowers are much more liable to white varieties than red or yellow species are. — //. IV. Kidd, Use of the Telescope. — In these days when scientific trophies mostly consist in mummies and dried bones, it is not a little refreshing to discover that there remains for field purposes an instrument whose qualities for research have been for the most part overlooked. During these first {ew hours of real spring, I have drawn infinite delight from lounging on the grass, and watching the doings of my neigh- bour's starlings through a telescope at a distance of a thousand yards or so. The starling {Sturnus vul- garis) has naturally great urbanity ; his whole time at present being spent in whetting his beak and pluming his glossy waistcoat. This delightful occu- pation proceeds until sun-down, when there is a reunion of starlings on the chimney-tops, and then they go it with such a rattling, squeaking, and whistling, as it were nigger minstrels or a party of fiends. The old crow is not nearly so consummate an actor ; and probably when tall trees come to be cut down there will be an end of crows, rooks, and ravens hereabouts, unless they resort like the jack- daws to the church steeples. The starling contrari- wise is emphatically a friend of man. — A. H., Swinton. Drying Plants. — I collected some plants and dried them as one would for a herbarium, last year. Now the colour of the flowers of some has remained — the buttercup, furze, saxifrage ; while ragged robin has partially retained its colour, and restharrow and lousewort have lost their colour. Could any one of your readers tell me what method I should adopt so that I could preserve the plants, the colour of the flowers being retained ? — T. J. Wickcs. Linyphia MONTANA ? — In my remarks on Spiders in the April issue of Science-Gossip, Linyphia montana should read Linyphia, ? montana. I omit- ted the note of interrogation. The notes were made when I commenced collecting, and the accidental destruction of the specimen and other causes prevent my verifying memory, and I feel uncertain as to the species. — J. E. A. Orchis mascula (p. 52). — Your correspondent E. H. Scott cannot have read Mr. Malan's paper on the common orchis, in which (I have just read it again most carefully) there is no such statement as " that the orchis bears no pollen." Mr. Malan has twice mentioned orchis pollen on p. 57: first he speaks of " the ripening of the pollen," and next of dews that "would spoil the pollen." In Hooker's " Student's Flora " will be found the following de- scription of orchis pollen masses,' of which each inflo- rescence produces but two only, " of many grains united by an elastic web." — LP. W. Lett, M.A. Arrival of Swallows. — Dr. Abbott's interest- ing inquiry about North American swallows induces me to record my observation, that sand martins, barn swallows, house martins, and swifts have during the last eight years been observed in this neighbourhood exactly on the day after that on which, according to notices in the Field, each appeared on the south coast of England three hundred miles distant. Has any one else observed the same? I live on the south shore of Lough Neagh, where the Tipulre are in millions all spring and summer, about the trees that verge on the water. I may just say that already the pioneers of 1SS3 are with us ; several sand martins have been flitting about since 31st of March. Is not this early? I have not yet read of their first arrival this year in England.— .#". W. Lett, M.A. Spontaneous Generation.— Should Mr. E. H. Scott not yet have made the acquaintance of the "Journal of the Postal Microscopical Society," I would advise him to procure part 5, which was noticed in Science-Gossip for last April, and to study the article on The Conduct of Scientific Inquiry, by E. J. E. Creese, F.R.M.S. In it he will find the arguments for and against the idea of spontaneous generation stated lucidly and forcibly. I have met nothing that so well gives the whole question as thorough a sifting as could be done in a short essay as this clever and thoughtful paper. — //. IV. Lett, M.A. Will some reader kindly refer me to any papers on the botany of Snowdon and the Snovvdon district that would be useful on the spot ? — J. B. The Pre-Cambrian Rocks of England. — On reading the article on the Pre-Cambrian Rocks of England and Wales by Mr. W. W. Watts, which appears in the February number of Science-Gossip, I was struck with the remarkable character of the section shown in fig. 46. The angle (something like 130 degrees) through which the gneissose rocks (B) must have passed before the deposition upon them of the Holly-bush sandstone (A), is so great, that a suspicion is raised that some error must have been made, either in the representation of the section or in the interpretation of it. If there be no error, then the gneissose rocks must have been turned almost completely upside down ; and although this is perhaps not impossible, yet it would be a movement of such magnitude that one may well pause and consider before accepting it as proved. Perhaps Mr. Watts may think it worth his while to refer to this matter, and he may thereby remove a difficulty from the minds of others besides myself. — Henry Fleck. " The Star of Bethlehem." — The American papers are discussing the expected reappearance of this star, which will be seen in the constellation Cassiopeia about August 18S7. It is said to be the same star that appeared at the birth of Christ, and only appears once in 312 years ; the last occasion being in the year 1572, when it was described by Tycho Brahe. I am not aware that he described it as having any connection with the one said to have been seen at the birth of Christ, but merely as a new star. On the night of the nth of November, 1572, his attention was drawn to a brilliant and unknown star in the constellation Cassiopeia, which filled him with so much astonishment that he could scarcely believe his own eyes. To convince himself there was no illusion he put the question to other persons, if they saw the star that had so sudden)* appeared. The star received the name of the Pilgri . but it has also been called the Star of Bethlehem is said to have outshone all the stars in the sky, including Jupiter, which was then at its brightest, li iued to shine during the rest of the month with a ;tre so great as to be visible to some persons in th me. It was at first of a bright white, afterwari Mish-yellow, and lastly of a leaden white like Its lustre began to diminish, and it grew fau . fainter until it became invisible in March 1574. s not to be supposed that the astrologers wo w so extra- ordinary a phenomenon to pass uni ; and there- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 119 fore, according to these seers, it will appear in August 18S7, accompanied by solar and lunar eclipses, to- gether with the baleful influence that follows the position that Mars and Saturn will occupy — will cause a universal war, and portentous floods and fearful shipwrecks. North America will be involved in civil strife, and a reign of terror will prevail in the Atlantic States unless a Napoleon arises to quell it. There will be a war of classes — the rich will^ array themselves against the poor, and vice versd every- where. I am not aware there are any records to show that this star appeared in 312 or 627 or 942 or 1257, or any traditions to that effect ; otherwise astronomers might account for its periodic flashes into brightness on the theory illustrated in the case of the star Mira, or that of T. coronae, to which attention was called in 1866. Well, four years will soon pass over ; and should it make its appearance at the end of that time, there will be some reason for believing that it is the star that suddenly flashed into such wonderful bril- liancy at the birth of Christ. — Dipton Burn. Disease of Larv.e. — Last season I reared about a dozen larvae of the puss moth {D. vinula) from the egg. All went well until they were full fed and about to pupate, when they were attacked with a very curious disease : they became mottled with brown all over the body, refused food, and after violent purging died. Out of a dozen larvae only one survived. I should very much like to know what this disease was, and if these larvae are subject to it. It has never occurred before, with larvae I have bred. Also, is there any remedy for it ? Per- haps I should mention that they were reared in a cage in which larvae of the gold tail (Z. aurijlna) had been bred, and it is well known that the hairs of these larvae are very irritating to the human skin. The question here is, was this the cause of disease in the [puss larvae? It is just possible. I shall be very glad of any information on the subject. — IV. Finch, jnn., Nottingham. Puss Larvae, &c. — Although' I have reared many of these interesting larvae, I have never noticed as yet the peculiarity mentioned by T. A. Dymes, that the last pellet ,'of excrement of these larvae is partially red. I confess I have not made much note of the excrement of any larvae I have reared (some hundreds), as I did not consider it a very interesting matter. But I shall be pleased to hear the experi- ences of other naturalists, as regards this subject. As to paper for lining drawers of cabinets, it may be obtained from any stationer ; it is sold by weight at fivepence or sixpence per pound, there being on an average about thirty sheets to the pound. — IV. Finch, jun., Nottingliam. Climbing Power in Mice. — In woodland ram- bles the common dormouse may be watched in its full activity, nimbly leaping through the intertangled brushwood, and climbing the hazel-bushes in search of its favourite food, the hazel-nut. It is very evident that the climbing power of these sprightly creatures is not absent, and it is very interesting to watch them — for they are generally in twos and threes — in their quick gliding movements along the hedgerows ; now leaping with sportive activity over protruding roots, now sitting erect, and then, with a bound characteristic of its allies, it ascends the smooth stem of a hazel-bush. The hybernating habits of the dormouse are too well known to allow of any comment here ; but perhaps it may not be out of place to remark that their frequency in die old nests of hedge-sparrows may add a point to pr-ve the climbing powers of these animals. It is univer- sally admitted that the common mouse (A/us tnus- culus) is an expert climber, and has been known to obtain its food from the most unlikely places. A case which is worth recording came under my notice some years ago in one of the Northumbrian coal mines, which are infested with these pests. On occasions when the work has been suspended for a few days they turn out quite ravenous. This behoves the workmen to be careful how and where they lay the little bag containing the viands for the day, in order that it may escape mousie. One of the workmen had fixed his "bait" in a rent in the roof, where to all appearances it was quite safe. The passage was about seven feet wide and six feet high, with coal walls cut almost vertical. When the workman came to his food, he found it riddled and crumbled by the mice, which dropped to the floor and decamped. There was no timber about the place by which they could ascend, so it entailed the animals' scaling the coal walls. But what is more perplexing is the fact of their getting along the smooth roof to where the miner's food was concealed ! Leaping was impossible. — P. Dodds. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than heretofore, we cannot possibly insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries which do not bear the writers' names that we are forced to adhere to our rule of not noticing them. To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken oi our gratuitous insertion of "exchanges" which cannot be tolerated. H. C. Brook. — We have no doubt your sketch is that of the Apollo butterfly. A. Beales (Maidstone). — Your shells were quite smashed when they reached us. Delicate objects should never be enclosed in an envelope, but in a box, with a directed label attached. Send us some more, and we shall be glad to help you. E. L. L. — Several excellent papers on collecting and pre- serving botanical objects, and on how to make herbaria, have already appeared in our pages. Firefly. — The autograph and book you mention do not possess any special pecuniary value. F. H. A. — The red objects clustered on the back of the oyster-shell you sent us are Ascidians, commonly called " currant squirters" {Cynthia grossularia). T. J. Wells. — The 7s. 6d. microscope will be of little service to you. You had much better get a cheaper pocket-lens with several glasses. Cooke's " Manual of Botanical Terms " is pub- lished^ W. H. Allen & Co. Davis's little book "On Mount- ing " is cheap, and published by the same firm. H. R. Alexander. — You will be able to get the self-acting air-cans mentioned in Taylor's " Aquarium " of J. A. R. Sclater, Naturalist, Teignmouth, who is the inventor. Please address your queries to him as to price, capacity, &c. You will find " Half-hours at the Sea-side," and Gosse's "Year at the Shore," would help you. Gosse's "Marine Zoology" is very cheap, and covers all you require. R. Henslow. — You will find all the commoner objects occurring during a walk figured and described in Taylor's " Half-hours in the Green Lanes." E. E. Turner. — Berkeley's " Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany" was published by Bailliere in 1857. Mr. Collins advertises a secondhand copy in his last catalogue at 15^. E. Fewings. — You will find the theory of Geotrupism fully discussed in Darwin's " Movements of Plants." Knight's paper on the subject was published in the " Philosophical Transactions " for 1806, pp. 99-108. See also Sachs' " Botany'" for discussion of Geotrupism, page 758. You will find a good account of Knight's experiments on this subject in Prantl's "Text-book of Botany," (London: W. Swan Sonnenschein and Allen). R. Brayshaw. — We know nothing about Loisette's System of Memory, but our contemporary "Knowledge" appears to think highly of it, and recommends it. 120 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. A. W. Ogilvie. — "Asbestos" is the name given to the fibrous varieties both of hornblende and pyroxene, chiefly of the former. Pumice-stone has nothing to do with it, being a light felspathic cellular substance, ejected from volcanoes. F. W. Crick. —Your glass tube was quite smashed when it reached us, but we were able to secure as much of the specimen as caused us to believe it is one of the leech family, most probably Clcpslne hyalina. Try and send us a live specimen. EXCHANGES. Eggs of sooty tern, spotted sandpiper, black-bill cuckoo, golden-wing woodpecker, Carolina crake, red-eyed flycatcher, &c, to exchange ; also sets of laughing gull with full data, and many American eggs. Foreign or the rarer English eggs wanted in exchange.— W. R. Wharton, Germantown, Phila., Pa., America. " British Bee Journal," August 1881 to December 1SS2, inclusive, and "Life of Rev. Philip Pugh." binding worn, for exchange. What offers in old Science-Gossips, micro slides, or British shells. — G. F. Wheeldon, 15 Hanover Street, Bir- mingham. Wanted, rare varieties of Helix nemoralis, hortensis, hybrida, aspersa, virgata, &c. Also several correspondents for coming season. — B. Hudson, Stevenson, Jaques, & Co., Middlesbro'. Sections of Trlchomattes radicans (Killarney fern), Hymeno- pliyllum demissum, and other ferns, double-stained, for other well-mounted slides ; parasites preferred. — A. Norris. "The Alkali Trade" (Kinzett) ; will exchange for "The Principles of Geology " (Lyell), in good condition, or books of the International Scientific Series. — Edward Blythe, Green Lane, Wavertree, Liverpool. Offers invited for Deschanel's " Natural Philosophy," trans- lated by Professor Everett, 4 parts, 1877 ; Gray's (Asa) " Les- sons in Botany," New York, 1879; Messer's "British Wild Flowers by Natural Analysis ;" all in excellent condition. Botanical works preferred. — F. Tunbre'.l, 51 Queen's Road, Upton Park, E. Wanted, living specimens of Unto tumidus, Neritinaflwvia* tills, Hydrobia similts, Planorbls carlnatus, Ancyltts fluvia- tills, and A. lacustrls. Exchange shells or slides. — G. T. Lightwood, Lytham. Dried plants, neatly mounted, for exotic ferns. — C. H. Goodman, Lesness Heath, Kent. Ceylon shells, Cypraeidae, Conidae,_ Volutidae, &c.,_ in exchange for other shells, British or foreign, not in collection ; or fossils. — J. H. K., Wesleyan Schools, Didsbury. " English Mechanic," vols, xxx.-xxxvi., unbound, for "Midland Naturalist."— W. R. Wells, Greenbrook Terrace, Taunton. Wanted, living specimens of the edible frog [Rana esculeiita) in exchange for other natural history objects. — Edward J. Gibbins, The Graig, Neath, Glamorgan. Wanted, living specimens of marine algae (especially Iridea edulls) and sea-anemones, cucumbers, &c. (especially Sagartla vldnata, mlnlata, &c), in exchange for freshwater beetles (Gyrlnus natator, Notonecta glauca, Dytlcus marglnalls), &c. State wants, and if possible they will be supplied. — R. A. R. Bennett, Walton Manor Lodge, Oxford._ Clifton corals in the rough, offered in exchange for tropical recent shells, land or marine. — F. M. Hele, Fairlight, Elmgrove Road, Cotham, Bristol. Wanted, mounted micro-photographs ; will give in exchange mounted histology specimens. — B. H., Guy's Hospital, S.E. Exotic Lepidoptera, numerous duplicates to exchange for others, exotic only. — J. C. Hudson, Railway Terrace, Cross Lane, Manchester. Wanted, in fruit, Campylostellum taxlcola, Evcalypta commutata, Glyphomltrlujn Davlesll, Dlssodon splachnoides, Amblyodon dcalbatus, and Miliums cusptdatum, rlparium, and splnosum ; exchange in greenhouse fern roots. — Miss Ridley, Hollington, Newbury. Larv/E of scarlet tiger moth, in exchange for larvae or pupae of other species. — Sidney Smith, 3 Strand Terrace, Lower Walmer, Kent. Flint implements from Spiennes, Belgium, offered for good Palaeolithic or Neolithic implements from other localities. — Thomas D. Russell, 4S Essex Street, Strand, W.C. Several dozen interesting micro slides — vegetable, animal, polarising, &c. ; also some micro material for other slides of interest. Send package of slides or list to — J. E. Read, 112 Pottergate Street, Norwich. Phonograph, on stand, 16 in. X 9 in., in good working order ; cost ^5 ; will exchange for micro books or apparatus. — A. Pitman, Hazelwood, Bath. Wanted, L. C, 7th ed., 6, 13, 69, 72, 73, 104, 172, i8r, 222, 360, 366, 388, 413. 4M. 4'5. 422, 427. 428a, 436, 438c— Thomas A. Dymes, 8 Hardwick Road, Eastbourne. Send three well-mounted micro slides for a bottle of brown cement, a larger one for six slides. — S. H. Robinson, 20 Bran- ston Road, Burton-on-Trent. Wanted, in good condition and cheap, Tate's " British Molluscs." — State price to William Coates, 5 Chipchase Street, Linthorpe, near Middlesbro'. Offered, a first-class lantern microscope, with rack and pinion, by Wrench, three powers, new, in exchange for one of Browning's rain band spectroscopes, in perfect condition, with pamphlet. — T. Bewlay, Vine Street, York. Wanted, 2-in. objective ; good exchange in books offered. — I. Shelton, Stafford Street, New Brompton, Kent. Seventy-four British birds' eggs, 29 species, seeds of Auri- carla imbricata, and lanthlna communis shells, to exchange for marine algae, foreign shells, or micro slides.— Rev. H. W. Lett, Lurgan. Perfect specimens of Papilla penthesllaus, P. telesilaus, P. Americus, P. antlphus, E. Duponchcllll (fair), Lycorea atcrgatls, Ithomla heraldlca, P. cotytto, M. Imltata, H. cos- sotis, also many others.— H. H. Druce, 43 Circus Road, St. John's Wood, London, N.W. Duplicates: 'Sinapis, *Rhamni, *Hyale, C. album, Cardui, *Antiopa, Semele, 'Comma, *Euphorbia;, *Statices, Jacobaeje, Carpini, Auriflua ; also, *H. brlseis, *A. dla,_*P. damon, *L. dorylls, *Z. carnlollca (all marked * are continental speci- mens). Desiderata: healthy pupae of Ocellatus, Tiliae, Populi, Quercus, Quercifolia, Vinula, or other sphinges or bombyces. — J. Giinther, Queen's Road, Oldham. Glands from the capsules of Rottlera. tlnctorla, from India ;. also nitrico-oxide of mercury, pretty opaque objects, in exchange for other well-mounted slides.— John R. Marten, Cottage Hos- pital, Redhill, Surrey. This season's specimens of No. 100; wanted, 3, 9, n, 16, 38, 50, 54, 68, 93, 97, 136, 172, 181, 183, 338.— J. H. Bloom, West- bury House, Worthing. Wanted, foraminiferous sand from March, Cambridgeshire ; will return the same quantity of sand from Smyrna, containing minute shells, corals, spicules, &c. — G. Garrett, 17 Burlington Road, Ipswich. For packet of Zoophytical corallines, send stamped and directed envelope. Also an exchange of named specimens ; send list. — F. S., Rhianva, Rhyl. Collection of 80 minerals and fossils in glass-topped cabinet, 17 X 13 inches, offers in instruments ; also, six dozen well- mounted micro slides in pine cabinet (horizontal drawers), offers in instruments. — N. C. Haring, 334 Upper Brook Street, Manchester. Andromeda, the three Droseras, pllujarla, and many other rare flowering plants, characeae, algae, diatoms, desmids, micro- fungi, plants for freshwater aquaria, and well-mounted slides, in exchange for books on natural history, cabinets, slide boxes, or apparatus. — Thomas Birks, jun., Old Goole Mill, Goole. Micro slides: wanted, named diatomaceae, desmidaceae, av.d foraminiferae, for dried plants and mosses or moss dissections. — J. Harbord Lewis, 145 Windsor Street, Liverpool. Cole. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. "Evolution explained and compared with the Bible." By W.W.Smyth. London: Elliot Stock. " Agenda du Chimiste, 1S83." Paris: Hachette & Co. " Studies in Microscopical Science," edited by A. C. G " Journal of Conchology." " Land and Water." "Midland Naturalist." " Practical Naturalist." "The Field Naturalist." "The Young Naturalist." " Natural History Notes." " Science." " American Naturalist." " Canadian Naturalist." " American Monthly Microscopical Journal." " Boston Journal of Chemistry." " Good Health." " The Botanical Gazette." " Revue de Botanique." "La Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes." " Le Monde de la Science." "Ciel et Terre." " Cosmos : les Mondes." &.c. &c. &c. Communications received up to ioth ult. from : — W. E. L.— L. B.— A. H. B.— W. D.— J. L.— F. K.— R. M. C. —A. D.-P. M. C. K.— S. S.-F. W. C.-W. Z. B.-A. H. S. —J. S. W.— J. C. H.— W. B. G.— Miss R.-F. T.— J. L.— H. C. B.—W. H. N.— W. B.— J. S.— M. C. W.— J. H. K.- R. A. R. B.-I. J. W.-G. S. T.-J. B.-R. W. W.-J. G.- W. H. G.- C. H. G.— F. J.— R. N.— F. L. S.-E. J. G.-B. H. — H. E.— W. R.— J. H. B.-J. R. M.-F. M. H.— E. M.— E. T. S.— G. R.— H. W. R.— W. B. G.— A. B.— L. S.-G. A. — H. H. D.— C. F. W. S. W.— S. D. R.— T. A. D.— L. H. R. _p d.— J. S.— W. F.— D. W.— G. H. R.— W. C— A. P.— J. E. R.— J. E. A.— Rev. H. W. L.— J. H. L.— J. S. C — N C. H.-S. B.-A. W. G.-J. G.— A. G. P.— C. L. F — C T B.— I. J. W.-E. B.— G. F. N.— N. R. N.— A. N.— P E K— P. P. A.— B. H.— W. E. L.— L. B.-A. H. B — W. D.— J. S— F. K.— R. M. C.-A. D.— P. M. C. K.— J. A. 0.— T. S., &c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 121 A PLEA FOR OUR CHARAS. By JAMES SAUNDERS. £f HAT this curious group of aquatic plants has received but little attention from British bota- nists, is generally admitted, but that period of indif- ference is appa- rently passing away. For several years past a few enthusiastic but comparatively iso- lated workers have investigated vari- ous parts of the country, with gra- tifying success. Much, however, remains to be done. For many counties and vice-counties there are either no records or but unreliable ones ; and it is with the earnest desire that, by directing attention to these facts in the pages of Science-Gossip, some of its numerous botanical readers will be stimulated to/work up those of their own localities, if not hitherto attempted. By such means the British census of these plants which is now in progress by the Messrs. Groves, will more speedily be sufficiently complete to warrant its publication. As, however, many of the readers of Science- Gossip may not have observed any growing Charas, as was confessedly the case with the writer till late in the autumn of 1881, although he had searched unsuccessfully for two years, a few hints as to their habits may be acceptable. Now, the only wonder is, how they could have been overlooked so long. Where, then, should they be sought ? In ponds, pools, and ditches chiefly, and also in running water, but in this they occur more rarely. There are however certain ponds in which it would be useless to seek them, as, for example, those that are frequented by No. 222. — June 1883. domestic ducks, as these useful creatures devour the aquatic vegetation. It is equally useless to search for them in shaded pools, or on the shady side of them ; for, so far as the limited experience of the writer has gone, they appear to grow only in such situations as are fully exposed to direct sunlight. In confirmation of this, it may be mentioned that a flexible species ( Toly- pella intricata) now growing in a glass jar, in a window facing south, invariably has its growing branches raised near to the surface of the water during sunny days, and they sink near to the bottom during dull days. This is suggestive that the action of direct sunlight is a great stimulus to their growth, and is probably essential to their existence. As to the time for Chara hunting, it might be said, Look for them all through the year, both in season and out of season, although it will be easily under- stood that in the summer months they are in best condition, and their curious fruits are ripe. It was very late in the autumn of 1881 that the writer first observed any of them growing. The true flowering plants were all gone ; the chill autumn winds rustled mournfully through the dry rushes and sedges along the margin of a rivulet ; regrets that the work for another^season was over reigned paramount, when the eye was arrested by a dark green patch, of an unfamiliar appearance. In some respects it resembled an aquatic Crow-foot ; in others, it was dissimilar. A hooked stick was quickly brought into requisition : some of the plant was drawn up, and speedily recognised as being one of the long-sought Characere. It afterwards proved to be Nitella opaca, one of our most frequent species. Since that time, one has been enabled to detect them in many localities in South Beds, especially in quiet pools, remote from the haunts of men. In some instances they grow so vigorously as to exclude most other forms of vegetation, but this is not of frequent occurrence. As an encouragement to those who might be stimulated to take up the subject, it may be mentioned that two of our rarest British forms* * They are Nitella mucronata and Tolypella intricata. For the former see '* Journal of Botany " for Jan. 1S83. G 12 2 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. have been proved to grow in this county, one of which had been found only once before in Great Britain. And further, there are now, within the writer's view, sundry recent local gatherings in glass jars, which contain types of the only three genera that have been found on the mainland of Great Britain, all of which were gathered within three miles of Luton. The fourth genus of British Characece has been found only in the Isle of Wight. This is suffi- cient to suggest that there is much room for original work, in this section of botanical research. Some readers may also ask for hints as to the modus operandi. The apparatus is simple enough : a stout stick with an iron hook at the end is usually sufficient. Sometimes one may cut a long hazel rod, and fasten a few short lengths of dog-rose stem on the end : the stout, recurved prickles of which will inva- riably bring up specimens of any plants with which they may come in contact. When secured and taken home, it is necessary with the more delicate forms to float them on the mounting paper under water : with a little practice this may be done in a few minutes, so that the paper and specimen may be withdrawn from the water without injury to the former. Most of the moisture should be then absorbed with drying paper, before putting in press. The stouter forms may be dried in the usual way. Although somewhat difficult of manipulation, yet it is the published opinion of the Messrs. Groves, that "no plants better repay a little care." (Journal of Botany, 18S0.) The correct naming of specimens will necessarily be difficult at first. For this purpose the next best thing to the assistance of an expert will be the study of " A Review of British Characese," by Messrs. H. and J. Groves, price about two shillings, in which every known British species is faithfully portrayed. In cases of real difficulty there is no doubt assistance would be willingly rendered, if courteously requested, by some of the gentlemen whose names are on the 'list of " assisting naturalists " in Science-Gossip for recent years. To recognise them in the field will require but little practice. Most of them have a peculiar fetid odour, and are encrusted with lime. Others are more flexible, and usually less disagreeable to the sense of smell. The former have the branches in whorls ; the latter mostly in twos, and the branchlets forked. Some of the encrusted ones show through the water as patches of a greyish-green hue, from the abun- dance of lime they contain. These and many other interesting points will speedily manifest themselves to the patient observer, who will, at least in the search, find healthy recreation, if not all the scien- tific success which a sanguine temperament may desire. Luton. Practical Science. — Can any reader kindly tell me the name of the latest and most reliable work bearing'on the above ? — Boston. ON THE STRUCTURE OF SOME DIATOMS OCCURRING IN THE CEMENTSTEIN FROM FUR IN JUTLAND. By MM. Prinz and Van Ermengem. DR. Van Ermengem read a valuable paper on the above-named subject at the January meeting of the Societe Beige de Microscopic A resume of the same is given in No. IV. of the Bulletin des Seances, 1882- 1883. The paper will appear in its entirety in the Annals of the Society. In the hope that the subject of the resume may be of interest to the diatom student, I have translated it, together with the remarks of several well-known Belgian diatomists. — F. K. The diffraction phenomena produced by structural conditions of the valves of certain diatoms possessing very fine markings, such as the Pleurosigmas, pre- vent a very exact knowledge of their nature being obtained. The existence of hemispherical elevations which according to many diatomists produce the designs is denied by others. Professor Abbe himself believes that they are not due to hemispherical elevations. It is very probable that all diatoms are not structurally alike ; and O. Midler, A. Schmidt, and Flogel admit of four or five different types. MM. Prinz and Van Ermengem have employed in their researches species that are less delicate in structure, such as Coseinodiscus oculus iridis (Eh.) and Trinacria regina (Heib.), both of which are very abundant in the diatomaceous rock of Fiir (Jutland). In studying their valves in media possessing various indices of refraction, they have obtained a succession of optical reactions indicating that the valves are perforated with minute openings. The results of their observations are entirely in accordance with other methods of research, notably with those obtained by the study of thin sections of frustules made in various directions. The cal- careous rock containing these forms admits of very thin slices being cut and polished ; and these sections, both transverse and oblique, allow of the diatoms being studied either in the matrix or in various media after the destruction of the calcite. It is easy to avoid all violent manipulation that would be likely to alter their structure. Mounted in a highly refracted medium (1 ■ 68), 'such as saturated solution of biniodide of mercury in iodide of potassium (Stephenson), they give images of remarkable distinctness. We are able to observe in slightly oblique sections that the valves of Coseinodiscus are composed of two layers: the superior layer presents the hexagonal alveolae ; the inferior layer is formed of a membrane, very thin and perforated by minute circular openings. The open- ings are surrounded by a thick annular margin. This layer when detached by the abrasion of the rock from HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 123 the underlying calcite leaves an impression easily recognisable, which does not correspond with the convexities or concavities of the inferior surface. The thinned transverse sections, when the thickness is less than half that of an alveole, also clearly prove the existence of openings in the inferior layer ; the mem- brane that closes the bottom of the alveolae is mani- festly broken (interrompuc) at its centre, and this lacuna is included on each side between the turgid parts (est comprise de cheque cote cntre des parties renflees), where the section is more or less crescent- like. The sections of Trinacria also demonstrate the ex- istence of pores traversing the entire thickness of the siliceous envelope. The aspect which presents the junction of the double connection of Coscinodiscus in a longitudinal section (coup normal) indicates that their growth takes place at the free margins (Wallich), and not by intussusception or the addition of a third internal connective (Cox). The naissant valves are formed of a single layer of silex and perforated ; they develop centrifugally (O. Miiller). In some preparations the valves of Trinacria are covered with a membrane, opaque and black in colour, and which shows similar perforations. This is probably the last layer of the cellular envelope, feebly silicified or entirely organic, reduced to a state of carbon by the slow combustion of its cellulose. The existence of this layer is admitted by many authors (Dippel) ; and chemical analysis also proves that this black matter is carbon. In the interior of the frustules is seen the spheroids, sometimes completely filled. In a normal section of Coscinodiscus it has been ascertained that the perforated tips of the dots on the inferior siliceous layer of the valve penetrate and force their way into the hexagonal cavities of the alveolar layer. Among the mineralised diatoms found in the London Clay, and in which the silica has been re- placed molecule for molecule by iron pyrites, these perforations are also present (Kitton). Certain Cos- cinodisci approaching very nearly to those found in the rock from Fur, frequently show by cleavage the inferior layer and its perforations on the place in which it had been imbedded. The sections of this clay which the authors of this memoir have prepared demonstrate this very clearly. A discussion, in which many of the members took part, followed the reading of the paper. M. Delogne said that the principal conclusions of the writers of this memoir were not opposed to some ideas he had formed of the structure of certain species. He, however, did not wholly believe that, in consequence of the existence of the perforations in the siliceous carapace, the plasma came in direct contact with the water in which the diatom lived. An internal membrane which closes the pores may probably exist. The presence of these perforations was not opposed to the vegetable nature of the diatom cell, and he did not think that they should be allied to the Polycystina, as some had done. M. Barre informed the meeting that in some re- searches on the Guano diatoms he had noticed certain facts which absolutely confirmed the presence of the perforations, as stated by MM. PrinzandVan Ermen- gem in the test of Coscinodiscus. In reply to M. Delogne, M. Van Ermengem said that there could be no doubt that the Diatomacere belonged to the vegetable kingdom. He must nevertheless observe that Borscow and Pfitzer had not been able to obtain the reaction characteristic of cellulose n the membrane of the envelope, and that their morphological type was far apart from that of CEdogonium, Desmidise, and Schizochlamys, to which some had compared them ; but it was even more difficult to find analogies between them and the Polycystina, animals to which they most nearly approached. Owing to these considerations, they had been ranged by Hackel in his kingdom Protista, where they formed a separate class. F. Kitton, Hon. F.R.M.S., Cor. 7ii e j jib. d. I. Soc. Beige d. Mic. NOTES ON THE SCHIZOMYCETES. {Continued from page S6.] Appendix. ~\ T 7ITH the Schizomycetes we may range several V V other genera which are partly united with them by others without remark, but which present so great peculiarities, that it will be better provisionally to separate them. XIV. SphtEROTILUS, Kiitzing. Cells roundish- angular or oblong, rounded at the corners, united in great numbers in a colourless gelatinous sheath to form long threads, which are densely tufted and en- tangled in floating flakes. Multiplication by means of vegetative cells, which isolate themselves and then form new threads by continued subdivision. Repro- duction by spores, which are produced endogenously within the vegetative cells. 68. S. nutans, Kiitz. Flakes in the vegetative stage yellow-brown in the older parts, colourless in the younger, many times branched, very slimy. During spore formation, partly milk-white, partly red-coloured. Cells 4-9 /j. long, 3 (x thick. In stagnant and flowing water. The flakes consist of an enormous mass of long, variously- combined threads, which are formed of rows of cells, surrounded by a slimy, evanescent sheath. These threads often assume a shrubby branched form, and are attached to water-plants, or float in a thin layer on the water. In the formation of spores, the protoplasm of the cells breaks up into numerous, minute, strongly refringent portions, which become round spores, red at maturity, afterwards of a brown colour. These are set free by the dissolu- tion of the mother cell. They germinate very quickly, and grow into threads which are either isolated, or united with the parent threads or with other threads as well. These daughter threads G 2 124 HARDWICRE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. proceeding from the germinating spore, are at first undivided ; not till after a time do they break up into the typical rows of cells. Sometimes the growth of the spores into threads takes place while they are still within the mother cell. Spkeerotilus ochraceus;de Brebiss. inlitt., Kiitzing, "Species Algarum," p. 147, does not belong to this genus. XV. Crenothrix, Cohn. Threads cylindrical, somewhat clavately thickened upwards, articulated, provided with a sheath. Multiplication by means of the joints, which escape from the sheath and grow into threads. Reproduction by spores, which are formed in the sheath by further subdivision of the joint-cells. The spores either grow directly into threads, or form by continued subdivision gelatinous colonies of roundish cells, which afterwards produce threads. 69. C. Kiihniana (Rabenh.), Zopf. Leptothrix Kiihniana, Rabenh. Hyphcothrix Kiihniana, Rabenh. Crenothrix polyspora, Cohn. ? Palmellina flocculosa, Radlkofer. Threads in whitish or brownish tufts, 1J-5 fi thick, increasing to 6-9 /j. towards the end ; joints of very varied lengths. Spores 1-6 fj. in diameter. In wells and drainpipes, etc. trated in the " Flora." I have therefore collected figures of a great many species, from various sources, in addition to one or two drawn from nature, which will, I hope, render the identification of the forms more easy. It must be observed, however, that the " Kryptogamen-Flora " is that of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, and hence may possibly contain some species which do not occur in our country. But to mutilate it, as is the practice in too many cases, by omitting those of which it is supposed no record has hitherto been made in Britain, would be to deprive it of half its usefulness. No one can say yet that any one of the sixty-nine species included in the foregoing list does not occur in these islands ; in 0 [Fig. 77. — Spharotilus nafans (after Kiitzing). A fungus which is often very troublesome, because it defiles the water and stops up the narrower pipes. — The cylindrical threads, somewhat clavate above, are visibly articulated ; the joints afterwards separate from one another, but are then sur- rounded by a sheath, which, originally colourless, becomes of a yellow or yellowish-brown colour by impregnation with iron. The sheath, at first closed, is burst at last by the continually dividing joints, which then escape. Each joint can develop a new thread. In other cases, however, the thread remains enclosed in the sheath ; its joints are divided by closely con- tiguous transverse partitions into flat discs, which then break up by vertical partitions into smaller roundish cells : the latter may be designated the spores of the fungus. They often develop, even while still within the sheath, into new threads, which grow through the gelatinous swollen sheath ; or else they leave the sheath, and undergo further development outside it. They either grow into threads,or form by repeated bipartition larger or smaller colonies of roundish cells, held together by their membranes, which assume a gelatinous consistence. These colonies are designated the Palmella form (probably the Palmellina flocculosa of Radlkofer) ; each of their cells can again form a thread. C3 This completes the number of the Schizomycetes, according to Dr. Winter's account of them, in the last edition of Rabenhorst's "Kryptogamen-Flora." In concluding the translation of this portion of that work, I wish to make a few remarks, first concerning the translation, secondly concerning the Schizomycetes themselves. When I commenced my task, as will be seen from the few prefatory words on page 148 in the last volume, it was my intention to add nothing to the translation ; but, as I proceeded, it became obvious that its value would be much increased if figures were given of more species than the few illus- Fig. 78. — Crenothrix Kiihniana (after Zopf.). — a, vegetative threads ; 6, Palmella-form ; c, spore-forming threads. fact, considering the close similarity in climate and other circumstances between this country and Central Europe, as well as the nature of the fungi, we may conjecture that nearly every one will ultimately be found here. To facilitate this result is my object ; and if the British observers of this group will communi- cate to me lists of those species which they have found, addressed to the Mason College, Birmingham, they shall be gratefully acknowledged and used to prepare, for the readers of Science-Gossip, as com- plete a catalogue as can be formed of the Schizomy- cetous flora of the British Islands. In the second place, a lew ; words must be said concerning the principle on which the foregoing list is compiled. Students of Algre will see that many HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. "5 species formerly included in that class are included here, while a few have even been claimed from the animal kingdom. As regards the boundary between the Schizomycetes and the Algre, the discriminating test is merely the want of chlorophyll. The order of Alga? most nearly allied to these fungi is the Phycochromacepe, which live in pure water or in damp localities ; like other Algce, they do not require the presence of organic matter in the moisture in which they flourish ; they produce no striking decomposition therein ; and they soon perish in a putrefying fluid. The Schizomycetes, on the contrary, live solely on the decay of organic matter ; they produce very marked decompositions in the fluid which they inhabit ; they revel in putrefying substances, and cannot exist in pure water. In regard to the distinction of the Schizomycetes from the Infusoria to which they make the nearest approach, the Monadina, it cannot be said that there is yet known any absolute test. Some of the mouth- less monads so closely resemble Bacteria that the possibility is that before long they will be classed in *>, QncS^ 4f? \ / 4 A" LA y § a V J Fig. 79. — Bacillus tiiberculosus, from human sputum. a X 1200 ; b X 1500. the same group. It is just here that part of the shadowy boundary between the animal and vegetable king- doms runs, and that boundary may never be more definitely fixed. There is still another question which deserves mention, and that is, are the forms described above true species ? A great deal of useless talk has been wasted upon this subject : many persons argue from a preconceived idea as to the limits of species ; others from some fanciful notion as to the number of species which ought to exist ; others again reason that forms frequently found in company with one another, or agreeing in some one point, such as colour, must be phases of the same species. Upon the first two "arguments" nothing need be said; concerning the last it may be observed that, however useful co-occurrence or similarity may be in suggest- ing the possibility of genetic connection, it yet falls far short of the probability which science requires. To prove that one form of life is merely a phase in the development of another, one thing, and one thing only, is sufficient ; the one must be traced into the other. Professor Ray Lankester has classed a great many bacterial and monadic forms together as one species, Bacterium rubescens (for references see Cohnia roseo-persicina, vol. xviii. p. 200), merely because he found them all together in the same habitat, and they present certain points of similarity, especially in colour. But this is unsafe, nay un- philosophical. If it can be shown that one cell of Cohnia, sown in a suitable fluid, produces all these various forms without the intervention of any other germ, then and not till then can his contention be admitted. The warning of previous cases of the same character is too plain to be neglected. Professor de Bary described (Beitrage zur Morph. und Phys. der Pilze, 2nd series, pp. 1 3-24) various mucorine forms as phases in the life-history of Mucor Mucedo ; and succeeding botanists, deferring to so high an authority, repeated the error. But Professor de Bary's experiments were made in the ordinary way, and every one who has examined the Mucorini knows the vast abundance of their spores and the impossi- bility of excluding them from an ordinary culture. Mons. van Tieghem, however, sowed one single spore of each form, such as Thamnidium or Chaeto- cladium, in a drop of water or other liquid : in every case where the absence of any extraneous spore was satisfactorily ascertained, the sown spore reproduced its parent form and no other, and this process was continued for many generations.* Professor de Bary himself now admits that his previous con- clusions were unfounded (Beitrage, 4th series, p. 1). In the same way, as soon as experiments were de- vised by which the progeny of one bacterial cell could be ascertained, it was found that there was no longer that intermixture of various forms which had previously confused and misled observers. Micro- coccus produced nothing but Micrococcus, Bacterium nothing but Bacterium. ( Vide Koch's experiments.) To my mind it certainly seems most rational to assume that every form which has not been shown to be capable of being produced by another form is a distinct species, until the contrary is proved. Certain writers, however, are captivated by the opposite view, and seem to regard themselves as adopting a higher scientific position when they advocate the union of distinct forms, upon no better ground than that when one is sown others will appear. But this is to ignore the minuteness and omnipresence of the reproductive germs of all these lowly forms of life. The very diversity of the species which are found at different times in the ordinary culture of any one throws suspicion on the hypothesis of their genetic connection. We arrive then at the conclusion that, for the present and until the contrary is proved, all the species enumerated * "Recherches sur les Mucorinees,"par Ph. van Tieghem et G. Lemonnier, pp. 18, 48, etc. Brefeld in " Botanische Unter- suchungen fiber Schimmelpilze" arrives at the same result. 126 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. above must be considered true and independent. This view is in best accordance with the facts and with a true philosophy. W. B. Grove, B.A. Note. — Although Bacillus tuberculosus, the newly discovered germ of consumption, is not included in the foregoing list of the Schizomycetes, I have added a figure drawn with the camera, showing the rods when filled with spores, as occurring in human sputum, from a specimen kindly lent me by Mr. F. H. Collins, F.L.S. There is also a Bacillus lepra:. A DAY'S MOUNTAIN RAMBLING IN NORTH WALES. By WlLLOUGHBY GARDNER. [Continued from page 99.] BUT to return to my journey; eventually there was some little break in what seemed to me then in that dreary east wind the stupendous monotony of the place ; for I began to get upon rougher ground, pieces of rock protruded here and there through the greensward, in many places to an extent sufficient to form what might be called small cliffs and preci- pices. As soon as this change in the nature of the ground became apparent, the vegetation began to be more diversified, and many plants came under my notice sufficiently interesting-looking to warrant their claim to attention, as no doubt rare and interest- ing species ; but being no general botanist, I am unable to mention any by name, though I saw several I had not observed before. In some of the hollows beneath these rocks, however, I met with something more in my line, viz. a great profusion of ferns. Among literally beds in some places of the common species, such as L. dilatata and A. Filix- fa-mina, I think — though I am not sure that it was not something else after all — I was pleased to meet with the Beech Fern (Polypodium Phegoptcris) in fair quantity, and the Mountain Buckler Fern {Lastrca Orcopteris), easily recognisable by its peculiar frag- rance when handled, in great abundance. The Hard Fern {BlecJmum Spicant) also grew here and there among the rocks ; and under a large overhanging stone I found a single root of a very interesting variety of Lastrca, which I have not yet been able to identify. Here, too, the character of the rocks became quite different, nearly the whole of the route from Aber had lain over those of the Lower Silurian age ; but I now entered a large patch of igneous formation, which appears to extend over some three square miles behind the Aber cascade, and includes Llyn and Afon, which it surrounds on all sides ; the patch contains igneous rocks of various kinds, the hills on the western side of the Llyn being composed of greenstone. But I anticipate, not having yet reached the Llyn, though after rounding still a few more corners, and surmounting yet another ridge or two, there it lay before me, a dark blue-black sheet of water, lying in a hollow, surrounded on all sides by high mountains, and with a small stream running into it from the south, where the steep precipices of Y Foel Fras, with their tops hid in cloud and mist, formed an im- posing background. A few steps more brought me to the margin, and a more lone and desolate piece of water I certainly never saw ; the solitude, more especially perhaps on this particular day, black and drear as it was, seemed almost awe-inspiring. The rushing of the stream running out of the lake was just audible where I stood, and with the exception of the lapping of the little waves of the lake on the stones at my feet, the only other sound was the harsh croak of two great black birds which were wheeling about in the air round a rock high up on the right. At first my enthusiasm led me to imagine that they might be ravens, birds I have never had the pleasure of seeing in their wild state ; but they were most probably only a pair of carrion crows, though at the height it was difficult to distinguish size, and their note was certainly hoarse and loud enough for any- thing, and seemed more so in the silence which reigned around. Having now since starting traversed a distance of some seven miles of rather rough, and in many places steep country, I thought it well to improve the occasion by making a meal of some of the provisions I had brought with me, and accord- ingly did so, quenching my thirst between whiles with the crystal water of the lake. While I was thus engaged, the mist I had noticed on my arrival hang- ing over the cliffs of Y Foel Fras, descended on all sides to within about 40 feet of the level of the lake, making all chance of further progress impossible for the time being ; I therefore just had to make myself comfortable, sitting still on a large stone for an hour. I employed the time in studying my ordnance map to determine the next point to be aimed at, and also in taking a sketch of the lake, as well as it was possible to do so in the mist which overhung the scene. I had intended having a cast or two on the lake with my fly, had the day been more favourable ; but the east wind made fishing quite out of the question. At length the clouds lifted again, and after mature con- sideration, I made up my mind to set off to find the top of "Drum," a mountain 2527 feet high, almost direct east from the lake, and then again to call a halt before deciding whether to continue east down the valley towards the Conway vale, or to strike off south again in search of Llyn Dulyn, a wonderful little lake high up in the mountains, within a couple of miles from the top of Carnedd Llewellyn — the state of the weather to determine which it was to be. Leaving the lake, I crossed the little stream I had HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. l27 seen in the valley below me on my way up, which here has its source, and for the first part of its pro- gress now runs underground. So far as I could make out, its original course from the lake had become choked up with large stones and boulders, and its progress having thus been stopped, the water had gradually wormed its way into the soft ground under- neath them, resulting in its at present running in a subterraneous passage. After a very steep ascent from the lake, I reached a fairly flat piece of ground, gently rising towards the top of "Drum," and here I entered the first tract of heather, mixed with whin and other plants, I had so far met with during the day. I wished the weather had been more favourable, for the ground looked very promising for insect hunting, and at a height of over 2000 feet there was no knowing what interesting things one might have come across. As it was, I had not gone far, carefully scrutinising the herbage within "ken" on either side, before I espied a Geometer, settled with closed wings on a tuft of heather, which on inspection proved to be a remarkably richly- marked and dark-banded specimen of Cidaria popn- lata. I was particularly pleased with the marking of my capture, which was just what I had expected, or rather hoped to meet with, in any species I should be lucky enough to take at such an altitude ; for these Alpine forms differ from their lowland represen- tatives, seeming, as I imagine, several generations (or scores or hundreds of generations) behind them in development, and therefore exhibiting more traces of the original type ; as in this instance, the dark- banded variety I had just picked up pointed much more distinctly to the earliest form of a Lepidopterous insect, generally considered as one with several dark bands traversing the wings from costal margin back- wards, than its ordinary type taken in lowland regions, which is certainly evolved many generations further. In confirmation of this, it is an interesting fact to note that this specimen was taken quite fresh out on September 5th, whereas the usual time of appear- ance of the species in the lowlands is July, so that I much doubt whether reproduction in this case could be effected in the twelve months ; and supposing a year was missed every now and then, it would, in the course of ages, add up to a considerable sum, and its lowland compeer would meanwhile leave it far behind in gradual evolution. As a proof that the reproduc- tion of a species frequently takes two years in high altitudes, where it only takes one elsewhere, I may mention that a little further on I picked up several larva; of B. Rubi, the Fox Moth, which were almost full grown, and so must have come from ova de- posited the previous year, and they would certainly never arrive at their perfect state this autumn, now so far advanced. After the capture of this, to me, most interesting specimen, I set to work to search for more, and was rewarded by finding two others marked in a similar manner, and in equally fine condition. These were the only insects I met with ; but, doubtless, the fact of the fog coming on rather thick again, prevented my making any further " finds." The gathering mists now began to become rather more than pleasant, and made it very difficult to be quite sure of the direction in which one was going. I at once brought out my compass, and steered up the hill, as I thought straight for the summit of " Drum," 2527 feet, which, according to the ordnance map, was marked with a heap of stones ; but I was quite unable to find it, though I got upon what seemed to be the highest ground about. However, after wandering up and down for some little time, I gave it up, and also abandoned Llyn Dulyn as well, and I pressed on by compass (for there was no seeing anything) towards the east, which course I knew must take me over the top of the watershed which divides the sea from the Conway valley. Before long I began, as I expected, to descend ; I had not gone far, however, when the clouds commenced to lift, so I halted, for the chance of their still clearing sufficiently for me to visit Llyn Dulyn. After a short time the aspect of affairs improved so much, that I made up my mind to try my luck, and accordingly set off direct south along the ridge I was then on, to traverse a distance of about three miles, as far as I could make out by the map, to the Llyn. The ground here was very boggy. It seems strange that so much water should lie at the very top of a mountain like this, where one would think all the moisture should drain off its sloping sides ; however, it certainly does not, and for about a mile I found progress exceedingly precarious, for the ground was very " shaky " indeed, and all around were deep peaty holes, full of exceedingly black-looking water. Many of them were far deeper than I could reach, or their bottoms were covered with a kind of impalpable peaty mud, in which one could poke a stick down, down, down, as if the whole of the mountain was soft pulp inside, and the turf one walked upon only a thin " pie crust " on the top. Every now and then I passed hollow places, where the said pie crust seemed to have fallen in ; but holes of this nature, though large and deep, were generally dry, and even stony at the bottom, showing that the bog did not extend very far down after all. About this time the mists to the south-west suddenly divided for a few moments, and a ray of sunlight burst upon the distant scene, revealing such a chaos of rolling clouds and mountain peaks as to baffle description ; but it was only for a moment, and before I had time really to take in the view, and try to identify on my map any of the hills I saw, they closed again, and all was gloom and darkness as before. On reaching firmer ground I crossed another ridge, bringing me to the edge of a fine valley. Consulting my map again, I found that far up at its southern end 128 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Llyns Dulyn and Melynllyn lay embosomed among the steep rocks there visible. In order to make as straight a course as possible, I descended the valley, crossed successively several brooks and tracts of " squashy " ground, till I came to a fair-sized stream, which I conjectured came from the wished-for Llyn. The weather was now much improved, and distant prospects were much more discernible. From the point I had now reached I saw a great dark hollow in the side of the mountain to my right, one of the spurs of Carnedd Llewellyn, which I felt sure must contain the lake. I pressed on up the stream, expect- ing ere long to see the gleam of the water ; but no, up, up I went, and not till within ten yards or so of the edge did I see the lake, — then it suddenly burst into view, a large dark sheet of water, shut in, on all sides but this one, by high precipitous rocks, in some places coming almost sheer down a height of about 500 feet into the water. I was indeed glad that I had persevered and managed to reach the spot, for cer- tainly it is well worth a visit. Dulyn (black water) is without doubt an appropriate name, for I never saw such a very dark and altogether weird-looking lake before. Its surroundings, high rocks, reaching as they did on this occasion into the clouds, are most impressive, the whole effect being one of stupendous wildness and gloom. The place was not inaptly described by Charles Kingsley, in a familiar letter to a friend, as the " original mouth of the pit itself." Close by the Llyn I found a temporary wooden shed, and several workmen laying piping in the ground ; on questioning them, I found that they were engaged completing the arrangements by which, I should imagine, the purest water conceivable is now carried a distance of sixteen miles to Llandudno, the fashionable watering-place on the sea-coast. There were eight or ten men living in this shed, and they told me they had been working there during the summer for four years. In the winter the place is quite unget- atable, and even in the spring the climate is severe. Last spring they were there rather early, and had once or twice to dig a way out of the house through the snow in the morning ! I gleaned several interesting facts from these men about the Llyn. They said it was cram-full of fish ; but, like all lake trout in these parts, they were difficult to catch, and in fact could only be hooked after a good flood, when it was impossible for any one to get up to the place from the valley below, and unless you were living on the spot, you had no chance. The men had a long line rigged up, which stretched right across the lake, and had drop-flies suspended at intervals of a few yards. The wind bobbed these up and down in an enticing manner, and on favourable days a large quantity of fine fish were captured. They also had a raft for fishing from ; and the foreman told me that he had measured the depth of the lake in one place as 216 feet. From the shape of the basin in which the Llyn lies, and from the fact of its great depth, it would almost appear to be an old crater; and most of the rocks around are of igneous origin. I reached Llyn Dulyn at 3 p.m., and was quite ready for another rest, so I put on my mackintosh to keep myself warm, as the air was chill, and sat down by the margin of the water to finish the provisions I had brought with me, and afterwards employed my time by taking a sketch of this remarkable lake. This occupied me till a quarter to five o'clock, when, not wishing to be overtaken by darkness in such an out- of-the-way spot, I reluctantly had to "make tracks " towards home, much as I wished that it had been earlier, to have enabled me to see Melynllyn, a lake about half a mile higher up, or even to gain the summit of Carnedd Llewellyn, only about two miles further — though two very stiff ones, and across a bad bog into the bargain. The wind had now changed a little, and seeing a fish or two rise in the small stream, whose course I had to follow for a distance of some seven miles to the Conway valley, I determined to have a cast or two with my fly. I soon landed three small trout ; but the twilight coming on warned me that I must put up my rod and press on in real earnest, if I wanted to get home that night. As I followed the stream, vegetation became more abundant the lower I descended, and presently I entered a tract of luxuriant heather mixed with other plants. Here many moths were on the wing ; but I had not much time to devote to their capture, which was rather difficult, as the ground was very rough, with large boulders strewn all over the place. The only thing I netted worth mention was Charcas Graminis, the Antler Moth, here in great profusion. It is particu- larly worthy of notice, as it seems to have completely overrun the country this year, becoming in some places, as at Clitheroe in Lancashire, almost a plague, and doing much damage. As far as my observation goes, it is usually rather a scarce insect, only met with in certain localities ; but this year I have seen it at every place I have visited. Its sudden appearance over the whole country in such profusion is another of those mysterious workings of Nature which finite man at present is utterly unable to fathom. Continuing my course along the stream, I at length, at a distance of about three and a half miles from Llyn Dulyn, came upon the confines of habitation, a small mountain farm, surrounded by a few acres of cultivated ground, from which the meanest apology for a crop of hay was just being collected. As usual, the faithful guardian of each of these primitive Welsh homesteads, a great shaggy sheep-dog, rushed out with much noise and show of fierceness, which sometimes, however, develops into further than a mere show, and is liable to become a serious nuisance, or even impediment in one's progress. The next thing I met with in the way of impediment was a herd of long-horned black Welsh cattle. These animals are often disposed to act strongly on the HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 129 offensive, and are unpleasant customers to cope with ; in the present instance, shouts in the Welsh language from a man and some boys working at some distance off, caused me to hurry rather -quickly out of a field in which a number were grazing, as soon as the said shouters, changing their tongue for my own, warned me that a very savage bull was among them. Darkness now finally setting in, I was glad to find myself at last on a mountain road, which I learned from my map came from Llyn Eigiau above, and led to the village of Tal-y-bont below. After a very steep descent upon it down zig-zags for about two miles, I came upon the high road within the village above named, a place sacred to artists. Inquiring for the -village inn, I speedily made myself comfortable within side, and called for a plentiful supply of tea, «ggs, and bacon, it being then half-past seven o'clock, a few sandwiches having been my only food for the last twelve hours. After partaking of a very good meal, I set off along the road for Tal-y-cafn Ferry, a distance of three miles, where I purposed •crossing the river Conway, and catching the last train for Llandudno Junction. It was a lovely moonlight night, without a breath of wind stirring, and I soon got over the ground to the Ferry, passing en route Caerhun, nestled in the trees to the right. In the park belonging to this house the various Roman remains that have been identified with the military •station of Conovium have been found, including a villa, baths, sundry pottery, vases, &c, and a very fine circular shield. Arriving at the Ferry, which is the old Roman one, whence starts the road running across the mountains to Aber, which I have described above, I summoned old Mr. Roberts from the little inn, a most picturesque and ancient building, the front of which is covered with ivy, looking centuries ■eld. He speedily rowed me over " old Conway's foaming flood," which looked grand by moonlight, and I was just in time for the last train from Tal-y- -cafh to Llandudno Junction. From the latter place I walked over the suspension-bridge, and beneath the shadow of the grand old castle, into Conway, reaching home about ten o'clock, after having much •enjoyed my ramble, in which, in the space of fourteen hours, I had seen so much of interest, while walking about twenty-four miles, mostly over rough moun- tainous country, from the level of the sea up to an altitude of 2500 feet. I naturally slept well that night, feeling my rest well-earned, and looking back with much pleasure to a day's exploration, of what I consider to be one of the most interesting tracts of ■country in North Wales. Podophyllum.— In answer to Mr. Sang's query .as to the source of the podophyllin of medicinal use, I beg to say that it is obtained from the dried rhizome ■of Podophyllum peltatum. — A. IV. Griffin, Bath. NOTES ON NEW BOOKS. jDHYSICAL History of the British Isles, by 1 Edward Hull, M.A., LL.D., &c. (London: Edward Stanford.) This is an invaluable volume to students of British geology. It sets forth in a plain but attractive style, how the geological frame-work of the British Islands has been put together, and how our country has gradually assumed all its well-known scenic and physical features. This method of dealing with physical geology is graphically enforced by twenty-seven coloured maps, which show the areas submerged during each geological period, the distri- bution of the exposed strata, and their probably con- cealed extension underground. The design is quite original, and admirably carried out. Professor Hull does not accept Geikie's doctrine that the continental areas and deep sea basins have more or less relatively held their present sites from the beginning of geologi- cal time. On the contrary, he contends that the area of the present North Atlantic Ocean must have been occupied by a continent certainly up to the close of the Silurian period, and that the sediments forming the older formations were derived from its atmosphe- rical wear and tear. The North Atlantic was not commenced as an ocean until towards the end of the Silurian period, and Professor Hull gives abundant reason for believing that it was largely in the condi- tion of a land surface up to the Oolitic period. All our geological readers are acquainted with Professor Hull's arguments respecting the thickening of the Carboniferous, Triassic, and other strata^ in certain directions. He argues that the thickening of strata must necessarily be in the direction whence the sedi- ments were obtained, and he shows that this points to a North Atlantic land surface. The volume is handsomely got up, and its matter cannot fail to add to Professor Hull's well-earned reputation. Sketches of Bird Life, by James Edmond Harting. (London : W. H. Allen & Co.) This attractive volume is written by a well-known and enthusiastic ornithologist, and every page is redolent of open-air life and observation. The commoner and character- istic birds of Great Britain are treated to separate chapters, and Mr. Harting gossips about them delightfully, and relates numberless personal anec- dotes and experiences, tells us the newest proved facts about them (as for instance the proof of the woodcock carrying its helpless young with its feet or clutches in its thighs). The author is intimately acquainted with the rich literature of British orni- thology, and he lays his abundant stores of knowledge under liberal contribution, in order to render his topic interesting and instructive. This volume ought to be largely read, as we have no doubt it will be. There is not a dull page in it, and, moreover, it is enriched with exquisite vignettes by Wolf, E. Whymper, Kenlemans, and Thorburn. Walks in the Regions of Science and Faith, by 130 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Harvey Goodwin, D.D., Lord Bishop of Carlisle. (London : John Murray.) The Bishop of Carlisle has always been an ardent supporter of scientific investigation, and as loyally accepted its logical results, even when public opinion has been against them. In the present volume, for instance, he only demurs to the illegitimate applications of the doctrine of evolution ; he otherwise accepts it as a grand statement and formulation of the works of the Creator. All the essays forming this volume have appeared in a serial form, and some of them occupied much attention at the time, such as " The Philosophy of Crayfishes," which appeared in the "Nineteenth Century." Dr. Goodwin's grand summary is that " the results of scientific investigation and observa- tion of nature, and the pushing of hypotheses to their legitimate conclusions by all means which the reason- ing powers of man supply, will find their complement, not their contradiction, in the knowledge conveyed by the mission of Him," &c. The volume closes with the funeral sermon on Darwin which the bishop preached in Westminster Abbey, on the Sunday after his death. The ten essays make up a most readable and thoughtful volume, which all reverent naturalists will peruse with pleasure and profit. Evolution Explained and Compared with the Bible, by W. W. Smyth. (London : Elliot Stock.) Evolu- tion is now rapidly passing through the " Harmony " stage. All scientific and philosophical truths ulti- mately pass through this stage after being bitterly opposed, and, before being so generally accepted that the wonder is people did not accept them at first as a matter of fact. We do not discourage "harmonies" like this of Mr. Smyth (although we do not encourage them), if they are only fairly and intelligently written as this is. It will do much to overcome the foolish and ignorant prejudice against evolution which many tender consciences still maintain. Bee-keeping, by Alfred Rusbridge. (London : E. W. Allen.) The author is a well-known apiarian, and this cheap little book is well timed. It is devoted to plain and practical bee-keeping, and, most impor- tant of all, seeing that a good deal of the bee-keeping of our time is merely a "fad " — how to make it pay ! We cordially recommend Mr. Rusbridge's book. Agenda die Chimiste, 1883. (Paris : Hachette & Co.) This little work is in French. It is a collection of useful extracts, abstracts, tables, formulas, for the use of engineers, chemists, medical men and apothe- caries, agriculturists, photographers, distillers, &c. There is an enormous amount of work condensed into a small space, which renders it a very useful pocket- companion and hand-book to all who have to do with the details of practical, working chemistry. Query as to Fungus.— The small white fungus curtly described by C. L. Fort last month would be Peziza virginea, Batsch. — W. West, Bradford. NOTES ON RANUNCULUS FICARIA. THE very excellent and thoughtful paper by Mr. Malan, on the peculiarities of the common orchis, have induced me to call attention to another plant, which, though belonging to a different order, possesses much in common with the orchis. I refer to the common celandine {Ranunculus ficaria). The particular point to which I want to draw attention, is the method of annual production. On this, botanical guides are either silent or misleading. Thus, Hooker's "Student's Flora" says "the root- fibres stout, cylindric ;" but on taking up a celan- dine, I should not recognise the root from that de- scription. On examination, I should find the root- fibres as fine as hair, neither stout nor cylindric, but I should also find these roots springing from the apex of a bottle-shaped tuber. Now this tuber is not a root in the common acceptation of the term, any more than a potato tuber and a hyacinth are roots ; the celandine tuber, in fact, grows very much like a potato. All the nourishment that the growing plant gets from the earth is by means of the fibrous roots ; the tubers supply it with no food. It will be well to trace the plant from its babyhood, in order better to understand this. For about eight months in the year it exists in a passive state, in the shape of a tuber without roots, or signs of growth ; the colour is a dirty drab, and it often lies on the top of the soil, looking like a small pebble ; thus it remains until the month of January, or earlier, according to the temperature ; then its active life commences, the first signs are a protuber- ance at the apex of a tiny growth. This gradually de- velopes until the plant appears above ground. When deeply buried, it pushes upwards a long white suc- culent stem, and then, as the plant requires food, the real roots are put forth from the apex of the tuber. This now begins to diminish and shrivel up, as the plant is elaborated above ground, and the deterioration continues, until there is nothing left but an empty skin ; and this brings me to a matter I wish to point out, that I have no doubt the undeveloped tuber contains within itself the whole material of the future plant, the office of the real roots being to supply the plant with its food, when made or developed from the tuber. Meantime something else is going on; the plant is forming itself for another year. This it does in the shape of new tubers. These are formed directly from the base of the plant where it is attached to the soil, and here is a distinction from the orchid ; as they are not formed by the side of the old tuber, except by accident. At first these appear as mere thickened rootlets, but quite distinct, for they have no fibres, and probably represent Hooker's description of the plant, when he says, " roots stout, cylindrical." When in this state, they are thickly covered with stout hairs. Now, HARBWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. I31 whether these hairs assist in producing the tubers I am not prepared to say, but I have little doubt they act as absorbents of nutriment from the soil. I hope to determine this by microscopic examination. As the plant grows older, the thickened string which attaches the new tuber to the parent gets more and more slender, and at length dies away, and the tuber is then in the state of the first diagram, and the office of the plant, in providing for its continuance, being complete, it also dies. Although the plant has numberless blossoms, it seldom seeds. I cannot say why, as the organs appear remarkably well adapted for that purpose, and bees visit the flowers, blossom- ing as it does so early in the year. It may be, that frosts destroy the pollen, but to make up for want of seed, the plant reproduces itself, by forming, in addition to the underground tubers, numberless little ones in the axils of the leaves, which may be seen on the top of the ground by hundreds when the plant has disappeared. I must here again express my surprise that Hooker should denominate these tubers as roots ; roots are not usually thrown off as inde- pendent plants from the axils of leaves. Botanically speaking, these tubers are underground stems ; in fact in growth the interior part of the upper stem is con- tinued to the end of the tuber, by five nerves. At the same time, I do not think it at all a happy way of expressing it ; really it is a bud, exactly as a rose forms a bud at the base of the leaf ; only in the case of the celandine, the plant being herbaceous, it is thrown off. In a very old book, I have just found this extract : "These stems (underground) were mistaken by old botanists for roots, and this error is still frequently committed." Hooker seems to perpetuate the error. Withering is rather better, but still he says, " root of oblong tubers, accompanied by fibres ;" he also says "the^ bases of the leaves contain one or two knobs similar to those of the root." How can they then be roots ? J. R. Neve. Campden, Gloucestershire. Dredging in the Menai Straits. — I did not see Science-Gossip in time to reply earlier, but I wish to say in reply to W. J. R.'s question that I think he would find Beaumaris a very suitable place to make his head-quarters at, and that I am sure Mr. Ambrose, who resides in Church Street and is the proprietor of a library, will give him every assistance in his power with respect to works on the Natural History of North Wales, as well as valuable local information on the subject. Mr. Ambrose, who is a very clever man, has written several notices of the place ; and as I resided in the neighbourhood for three years, I know that W. J. R. will find it a fine field for his researches in marine zoology. — Helen E. Watney. THE PRE-CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. By W. W. Watts, B.A., F.G.S., {Continued from fage 82.] 5 s HROPSHIRE.—l-a. 1S77 Mr. Allport was working in some rocks which had been mapped as intrusive greenstones in Shropshire, when he discovered that they were bedded acidic lavas stratified with beds of volcanic breccia and ashes. Dr. Callaway was working in the area at the same time, and independently came to the same conclusion. He worked from the Cambrians down to the earlier rocks, just as Hicks had done in S. Wales. Two well- marked groups of rocks are to be found in this district, at Lilleshall, Wrekin, Wrockwardine and Church Stretton, and similar rocks have even lately been found west of the Longwynds and in Radnorshire. In the Wrekin the two groups are fairly well developed, and so the hill may be described in some detail. It is a N.E. and S.W. range, with four prin- cipal elevations, — the Ercal, Lawrence Hill, Wrekin proper, and Primrose Hill. The oldest rocks are found at the north and south ends ; newer rocks being let down by faults in the middle. The range is faulted on to the Trias on the west side, while on the east successive members of the Cambrian are faulted on to it and on to one another, the lowest being the Hollybush sandstone, like that of Malvern. At the north end, in the Ercal Hill, there is a fine granitoidite, with a great boss of felstone, of the same character as that of the centre of the chain, intruded into it. At the south end, in Primrose Hill, faulted in to the Pebidian series, there is a series of gneisses, b'alleflintas, granitoids, and schists, remarkably like the Malvern rocks. These belong to the Dimetian system. Lawrence Hill and the Wrekin proper, in the middle of the chain, are composed of bedded felsite lavas, agglomerates, and ash- beds, sometimes with immense fragments of Pebidian age. The whole is flanked by a quartzite which appears to be faulted on to the other rocks, and is certainly posterior in age, for it contains undoubted fragments of the Wrekin felsites. Figs. So and 81 indicate the relative positions of these rocks. Many other exposures of these rocks occur in the vicinity, and the history of those at Wrockwardine has been so well worked out by Mr. Allport that an account of his chief results may not be out of place. The rocks are purple felsites, and contain many curious structures. They have porphyritic crystals of felspar ; they often show lines of viscous flow or fluxion structure, such as is seen in modern slags and lavas : then they contain curious little spheroidal cracks (like the spheroidal structure of basalt on a small scale), called perlites ; and in some 132 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. parts one sees little rounded concretions formed of radiating crystals, and called spherulites. Now the combination of all these characters leads in a remarkable manner to the unravelling of the rock's history. When we come to examine thin sections of these felsites under the microscope, the origin and relative importance of these several structures can be made out. The porphyritic crystals of felspar are set in a matrix of crypto-crystalline material ; that is, a matrix which gives on the whole the reactions of a crystalline body, but in which the distinct crystals are not well defined. The flow-lines are resolved into irregular lines of microliths, tiny embryo crystals, whose long axes maintain a general direction along the lines of flow. The cracks of the perlites are beautifully shown, consolidation appears to have been the same. These structures therefore tell us that the old Pebidian felsites were once glassy pitchstones or trachytes, and that they cooled and acquired the same structures as modern glassy lavas, but that the lapse of time has devitrified the matrix, or induced the crypto- crystalline structure and altered the general appearance of the rocks. Figs. 82, 83, 84, 85, and 86 are sections- of tertiary pitchstones from Meissen and Kremnitz, and of Pebidian felsites, or devitrified pitchstones from Wrockwardine, to show how nearly the por- phyritic, microlithic, perlitic, and spherulitic struc- tures correspond in rocks of such widely different ages. The age of these Wrekin rocks is well shown, first, by their unconformable junction with the Hollybush sandstone ; and second, by the occurrence of pebbles N W. Fig. 8?. — Section across the Wrekin Chain (Callaway). 1, Bedded Pre-Cambrian tuff, dip N. 2, Quartzite. 3, Hollybush Sandstone. 4, Sheveton Shales (Tremadoc). Fault. Fig. 81. — Section along Wrekin Chain (Callaway). Fault, and indicate that they are caused by the strain of the rock in contracting during solidification. The ra- dial structure of the spherulites is well seen. Now the streams of microliths are seen to avoid the porphyritic crystals and flow round them (fig. 85), but to run in a straight course through the sphe- rulites (figs. 85 and 86) and through the perlites, indicating clearly enough the order of events during the consolidation of the rock ; viz. that the porphy- ritic crystals must have been formed first, then that the microlithic fluxion structure was caused by the rock flowing in a viscous state, and lastly the rock during contraction and cooling formed perlites and spherulites. These felsites in general appearance are not at all like any modern volcanic rocks, but these microscopic structures are found exactly re- produced in tertiary volcanic rocks, such as pitchstones and trachytes, and only in them ; while in every case which has been examined the order of events during of the Wrekin felstone in the Cambrian conglomerate of Haughmond Hill. The intrusion of felsite of the Pebidian character into the granitoidite of the Ercal Hill furnishes additional proof of the relative ages of the granitoid series and the volcanic series. The gneiss and- granitoid series is correlated with the Dimetian or Mal- vernian system, the volcanic series with the Pebidian. 6. Charmvood Forest. — While the discovery and elaboration of the pre-Cambrians of Wales was rapidly progressing, Professor Bonney and Mr. Hill of Cambridge were patiently and laboriously working out the details of the anomalous rocks of Charmvood. They have at last made out the succession in this complicated district, and by the lithological and microscopical characters of the rocks they have correlated them with the Pebidian of other areas. The principal rocks are slaty and gritty beds, thick masses of agglomerate of a rhyolitic (felsitic) type, HARD WICKES S CIENCE- G OS SIR J33 and some aqueous deposits. The great difficulty in this district lies in the fact that the rocks are isolated and are not near any Cambrian rocks, but are in contact with Triassic or Carboniferous rocks on all sides. 7. Corntcall. — The new Eddystone lighthouse is built on a gneiss of a type which can only be matched among pre-Cambrian rocks. There seem to be in South Cornwall curious hornblende schists and other rocks which may hereafter be referred to this period. These two or three great systems of pre-Cambrian was intensely heated, and when the seething of the primordial ocean might have given rise to the crumpling and contortion visible in these rocks. ' The strictly uniformitarian school believed these rocks were laid down as ordinary sediments, and were subsequently metamorphosed by heat, water, and pressure, — agencies now in action. Some geologists are, however, now going back to- the old ideas, and Dr. S terry Hunt has gone so far as to state that "all gneisses, hornblende and micaceous schists, &c, are of Neptunean origin, and Fig. 82 —Typical perlites in Meissen pitchstone. Showing passage of microliths through perlites. Fig. 83.— Pebidian felsite (Wrockwardine), showing perlites (Allport), X 10. Fig. S4. — Perlites of Meissen, showing their dependence on joints (Allport), X 6. .3 ff/^—c Fig. 85.— Kremnitz perlite, with crystals (c), and spherulites (s). The microliths pass through the latter, but not the former (Allport), X 20. Fi g. 86. — Pre-Cambrian felsite (Wrockwardine), with bands of spherulites, sometimes round crystals, and traversed by microlithic streams (Allport), X 2. rocks contain a great thickness of strata, and so must represent a long lapse of time; yet, when we ask for the life history of the period, they are all silent, with the doubtful exception of the Wrekin quartzite, possibly pre-Cambrian in age, which has yielded to Dr. Callaway an obscure trace of a worm burrow. A word on the various opinions which have been expressed as to the origin of these old rocks may not be out of place. The earliest school of geological thought referred all the crystalline schists to the time when the earth are not primarily due to metamorphosis of ordinary sediments." "The chemical and mechanical con- ditions under which these rocks were deposited and crystallised . . . have not been reproduced to any great extent since Palaeozoic times." We have yet however so very much to learn about the mere succession, position, and character of these rocks, that it is, perhaps, mere waste of time to speculate as to their mode of formation, or to draw conclusions from them as to the state of the earth in. those very ancient times. J34 HA RD WI CKE 'S S CIENCE- G OS SI P. THE GREAT INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION. ALL lovers of the angle, and those who are interested in any of the numerous ways in which pisciculture affects us, should visit the above Exhibition, which doubtless will remain open during the summer months. English people are interested in everything relating to the sea. This is proved by the fact that on Whit-Monday no fewer than 44,000 people passed through the Exhibition. The number of objects brought together from every civilised country in the world is truly marvellous, and although the greater part of them very naturally relate to the economic side of Ichthyology, &c, there still remain large numbers to interest the pure naturalist. The official catalogue extends to nearly 600 pages and is admirably drawn up. It contains short, practical essays by well-known writers on matters relating to fish and fishing. As might be expected, the United States and Canada are very strongly represented in the exhibits ; next to them come Norway, Sweden, and Holland. The objects gathered together in these courts alone would make a magnificent exhibition. Fish-hatching is shown by several contrivances ; oyster breeding, lobster breeding, &c, are also illus- trated on an extensive scale. There is a superb col- lection of stuffed fish sent by various angling societies and celebrated anglers, representing, as might be ex- pected, the largest specimens of each kind of fresh- water fish. Perhaps there is a trifle too much pike about ! Some of the coloured casts of fishes are exceedingly well done. The models sent by Mr. Searle of diseased salmon are of great interest ; Mr. Rae, of Coventry, shows the microscopic parasites which affect fish ; Mr. T. Bolton, of Birmingham, has a stand where various living microscopic and other organisms are exhibited ; Mr. Edward Lovett exhibits exquisitely mounted slides, illustrating the embryology of Crustacea ; Mr. Brotherston, of Kelso, shows mounted specimens of freshwater plants ; Mr. Bryce Wright has a splendid series of corals, sponges, mol- lusca, &c; Dr. Dohrn sends specimens of Entozoaand Epizoa affecting fishes ; and Dr. Spencer Cobbold has a collection of no fewer than 80 species of fish para- sites. Other objects of high interest to the naturalist are Professor Sars' illustrations showing the embryolo- gical development of the codfish ; Professor Traquair's exquisite illustrations in pencil of British fossil fishes ; Mr. Cholmondely Pennell's pictures of fishes ; and Professor Mackintosh's series of original coloured drawings of annelids. We would also draw attention to Mr. J. Eede's collection of insects injurious to fish and those on which fish prey ; and especially to Mr. J. T. Car- rington's preserved specimens of Crustacea. There is a large series of British aquatic birds, and of birds whose natural history in any way brings them into relationship with fishes. As the natural history department of the exhibition is of a competitive character, there is necessarily a great deal of repeti- tion in the objects. This, however, need not be a drawback, and we would direct attention to such incidents as the markings and mottlings on the common pike. These usually range from bars to spots, and may be related to the character and depth of the water they inhabit, &c. The natural history student who is weary of the crowds of objects which meet his eyes in the courts and galleries may either amuse himself by observing the living objects in the large and extensive aquarium, or, still better, by strolling into the pleasant grounds and watching the live flamingoes, pelicans, and other aquatic birds in the artificial waters. THE CONTROVERSY ON THE ARCHEAN ROCKS. PROFESSOR GEIKIE'S challenge as to the genuineness of the so-called Pre-Cambrian or Archean rocks, contained in his paper read before the Geological Society (an abstract of which was published in the last number of Science-Gossip), has caused quite a keen controversy. The second part of the paper was read on April nth, when a sharp discussion followed. In the second part of his paper, Professor Geikie gave the results of the survey which he had made of the district with Messrs. Peach and Topley, and of his study of a series of more than 100 thin slices of the rocks collected at St. David's. He found that he could corroborate generally the descriptions of previous writers on the microscopic structure of the rocks, and that investigation with the microscope amply confirmed the deductions he had drawn from observations in the field. I. Order of Succession of the Rocks. — The following rock-groups in the Lower Cambrian series are recog- nisable at St. David's, and are given in descending order : — 4. Purple and greenish grits, sandstones, and shales. 3. Green and red shales and sandstones, with true tuffs {Lingulella primccva). 2. Quartz conglomerate. 1. Volcanic group (tuffs, schists, lavas). The volcanic group forms the oldest part of the Cambrian series at this locality. The bottom is not reached ; but about 1800 feet are visible. It consists mainly of purplish-red, green, grey, and pale tuffs, with occasional breccias and bands of olivine-diabase. Analyses of some of these rocks had been made by M. Renard, of Brussels. The tuffs are partly basic, derived from the disruption of diabase lavas (48 per cent, of silica), partly acid, from the destruction of fine felsites (72-80 per cent, of silica). The micro- scopic structure of the tuffs was described, and slides and drawings were exhibited. The lavas are varieties HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. i35 of olivine-diabase. Their augite is remarkably abundant and fresh, and they contain scattered larger, well-formed, as well as imperfect crystals of olivine, generally in the form of hsematitic pseudomorphs. No instance was observed of a siliceous lava having been erupted at the surface. The felsitic fragments in the tuffs must have been derived from the explosion of lavas that do not seem to have flowed out above ground. It was pointed out that this fact is exactly paralleled in the case of the volcanic group of the Lower Old Red Sandstone in the Pentland Hills. In relation to the quartz-conglomerate, allusion was made to the constant recurrence of such conglomerates in the series of geological formations, and to the fact that they do not necessarily mark unconformability or the natural base of groups of sedimentary rocks. 2. Geological Structure of the District. — It was shown that the rocks have been folded into an isocline or inverted anticline, so that in one-half of the plica- tion the dip of the strata is reversed. The groups above mentioned are found in their proper order on both sides of the axis which runs through the volcanic group. The granite has risen irregularly through the eastern limb of the isocline. Small faults may occur here and there along the edge of the granite, but they do not in any way affect the general structure. 3. The Foliation of the District. — There has been extensively developed at St. David's a fine foliation of particular kinds of rock, more especially of certain fine tuffs and shales, which have passed into the con- dition of fine silky unctuous hydro-mica-schists or sericite-schists. A series of microscopic slices was described which showed that the original clastic structure of the beds remains quite distinct, though an abundant development of fine flakes of a hydrous mica has taken place. This structure more particu- larly characterises the fine parts of the volcanic group, but it occurs also on various horizons in the groups above the conglomerate, thus linking the whole as one great continuous series of deposits. The author connected it with the plication of the district, and pointed out the great interest attaching to these fine schistose bands, as revealing some of the incipient stages of the same process that had changed wide regions of sedimentary strata into crystalline schists. 4. The Granite, Quartz-Porphyries ; and accom- panying Metamorphism. — The petrographical cha- racters of these eruptive rocks were described, and their perfect analogy to the familiar granites and elvans of other districts was pointed out. Specimens were shown, illustrating the gradation from a true granite into spherulitic quartz-porphyry. The quartz-porphyries of St. David's (described by Mr. Davies, Dr. Hicks, and others) exhibit spherulitic structure in an exceptionally perfect manner. Between the felso-spherulites the base is thoroughly micro-crystalline, and not felsitic. The rocks belong to a group intermediate between granites and felsites. They occur in bosses, elvans, or dykes round the granite, cutting through all horizons of the volcanic group, and approaching, if they do not actually intersect, the quartz-conglomerate. The metamorphism associated with the granites and porphyries is best seen near the latter. It consists chiefly in the intense induration of certain bands of rock which have been converted into flinty aggregates (adinole). The alteration takes place usually along the bedding, which is nearly vertical ; but veins of the same siliceous material ramify across the stratification of the shales. Examined microscopi- cally, the adinole is found to have acquired a micro-crystalline structure, nests of quartz and orthoclase and porphyritic crystals and plagioclase having been developed, together with fine veins and filaments of crystalline quartz. These veins are here and there crowded with approximately parallel partitions of liquid inclusions, showing freely moving bubbles. An analysis of a portion of the adinole, made for the author by M. Renard, shows the percentage of silica to be 78'62 with 5"8oofsoda, indicating possibly the formation of albite. The author deferred generalising on the question of the metamorphism he described, but pointed out that a further study of the St. David's rocks could hardly fail to throw important light on the theory of metamorphism. 5. The Diabase Dykes and Sheets. — These are the latest rocks at St. David's, as they traverse all the others. Both their macroscopic and microscopic characters were described, and allusion was made to the perfect fluxion-structure found in many of the dykes. The paper closed with a summary of the geological history of St. David's. The earliest records are those of the Volcanic group, which show the existence of volcanic vents in that region in an early part of the Lower Cambrian period. The volcanic accumula- tions were covered conformably by the Conglomerate and succeeding Cambrian groups ; but the same kind of tuffs continued to be ejected after the deposition of the Conglomerate. At a later time this thick conformable succession of beds was plicated, and underwent a partial metamorphism, whereby some of the fine tuffs and shales were converted into sericite- schists. Subsequently a mass of granite rose through one side of the fold, accompanied by elvans of spherulitic quartz-porphyry, whereby a second, different, and feebler kind of metamorphism was induced. The last episode was that of the diabase dykes, which, crowded together in the granite, suggest that the granite boss stands on an old line of weakness and of escape for eruptive material from the interior. In the Discussion which followed, Dr. Hicks stated that since the last meeting he had revisited the district with Professor Hughes and ten excellent trained observers from Cambridge. This examina- tion confirmed, to the fullest extent, the views 136 IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. expressed by Professor Hughes and himself at the last meeting, and it proved also that the supposed facts, relied upon by the author to support his views, were clearly mistakes made by Professor Geikie from an imperfect acquaintance with the district and the rocks. By the admission of the author, the appearances are abnormal in the St. David's area. With respect to the intrusive character of the so- called granite, he asked what had become of the materials displaced by the intrusion. He regarded the so-called tuffs alternating with the Cambrian conglomerates as derivative rocks, full of quartz- grains, &c. The junction of the sedimentary rocks with the granitoid rock was a faulted and not an intrusive junction. The fault was marked by slicken-sides, but not by any contact metamorphism. He demurred to the author's views as to the double series of foliations. He showed that while a dyke of greenstone 50 yards wide had produced enormous alteration in the surrounding rocks, the great granitoid mass had produced no alteration. At Ogof-llesugn, a place specially [referred to by the author, it was possible to get between the Dimetian and the quite unaltered Cambrian conglomerate. Another mass of conglomerate was jammed in through the action of a fault. The amount of faulting and crushing in this area was enormous, a fact which did not seem to have been recognised at all by Professor Geikie. The supposed porphyries in the Pebidian were really, for the most part, indurated ash. The author now admitted that unconformity existed between the Pebidian and the Cambrians. Examined with more care than appeared to have been given to it by the author, the conglomerate was found to consist in very large part of the Pebidian rocks, and of derivative materials from the still older Arvonian and Dimetian series. This fact was remarkably confirmed in Ramsey Island. He maintained the existence of a great unconformity between the Pebidian and the Cambrian con- glomerates, the materials of the former having been metamorphosed before the deposition of the latter. He pointed out the existence of great masses of agglomerate in the midst of the supposed intrusive masses. Mr. Peach, from the sections of Dr. Hicks, argued that the Cambrian conglomerate rests always on the same member of the underlying beds, and there could be no unconformity. He regarded the so-called Pebidian pebbles as segregations, and not pebbles. Mr. Hudleston said that no one could suppose the Pebidians to be of sufficient importance to constitute a system by themselves ; and the great question was whether they should be grouped with the Cambrian or the Archean. He had difficulty in recognising the supposed unconformity between the Cambrian and the Pebidian, and he thought that the volcanic series was the natural base of the Cambrian system. Mr. Topley stated that the faults invoked by Dr. Hicks would account for the non-passage of a dyke from the granite into the Cambrians. Dr. Hicks had not distinguished between local and regional metamorphism. The species from the conglomerate exhibited by Dr. Hicks were certainly exceptional ; but the great mass of the conglomerates are of quart- zose character. Local and small unconformities between the Cambrian conglomerates and the main volcanic group (Pebidian) had been admitted both at this and at the last meeting ; but he differed from Dr. Hicks as to the great significance to be attached to them. Dr. Callaway objected to Professor Geikie's views as to bleaching and induration being proofs of local metamorphism ; he regarded them on the contrary as evidence of faulted junction, the result of pressure and the infiltration of water. He remarked that the key found by Dr. Hicks at St David's had supplied us with an explanation of most of the similar Archean series in England and Wales, which was a great confirmation of the truth of the theory. Mr. Rutley said that some of the felsites of the district resembled certain spherulitic rhyolites. He thought that they represented a transition between granitic rocks and ordinary rhyohtic lavas. Most of the Welsh lavas of the same kin i with which he was acquainted were of Lower Silurian age. Mr. T. Davies did not agree with Professor Geikie in regarding the so-called Dimetian as a granite. It contained no mica, nor had it contained any ; for he could not regard the green mineral as the result of the alteration of mica in situ, but rather as derived from the interbedded basic rocks. Among 500 specimens of granite from about 400 localities he could find nothing resembling the St. David's rock, and he could not regard the latter as a granite at all. A rock in the very heart of this supposed intrusive mass was found to be a breccia with fragments, some of them water-worn, of the stratified rock of the district. Professor Renard said that he had had a collection of specimens and of microscopic slides from the rocks of St. David's submitted to him by the author, and had examined them in concert with Professor Zirkel, of Leipzig, and Professor Wichmann, of Utrecht. The conclusions arrived at regarding them were as follows : — 1. The so-called "Dimetian" rock of St. David's is unquestionably a true granite. 2. The quartz-porphyries are just such rocks as might be ex- pected to occur as apophyses of the granite, and the specimens from Bryn-y-Garn, Rock House, and St. David's left no doubt on our minds that such is really their origin. They cannot be confounded with rhyolitic lavas. 3. The conglomerate from the granite-contact shows secondary quartz between its pebbles. 4. The bands of fine tuff found intercalated with, and on various horizons above, the conglome- rate, consist of true tuff, and cannot have been derived from the mere superficial waste of older HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 137 volcanic rocks. 5. Fine foliation is well developed among the strata above the conglomerate as well as in the volcanic group below. Professor Bonney thought that on the whole the conglomerate made a good base for the Cambrian ; and he felt certain that whatever the so-called Dimetian might be, it was older than the Cambrian conglomerate. Professor Geikie said that Dr. Hicks's views as to the remanie character of the tuffs alternating with the conglomerate were contradicted by the careful study of Drs. Zirkel and YVichmann, and M. Renard. Dr. Hicks had been recently to St. David's, but he was quite unable to produce a pebble of Dimetian from the Conglomerate. He controverted Dr. Hicks's views as to the section at Ogof-llesugn. He stated that the diabase dykes cut through both the granite and the Cambrian conglomerate of the district, though they are most abundant in the former. In reply to Professor Bonney, he stated that microcline was regarded by continental workers as characteristic of granite rather than of gneiss. He asserted that none of the conclusions of his paper had been shaken by the discussion. MICROSCOPY. Germination of Fungus Spores under the Microscope. — In reply to Mr. G. H. Wasse, inquir- ing for information on this subject, I think that the use of a damp chamber deserves at least a trial. It would no doubt serve to keep the pabulum moist and would maintain the damp atmosphere, which seems to forward the growth of all Cryptogams. The damp chamber devised by the Rev. Mr. Dallinger, and used by him and Dr. Drysdale in their well-known researches on the development of Monads, is the most effective and the simplest of its kind. The following description is taken partly from Mr. Dallinger's article in the March number (1874) of the " Monthly Microscopical Journal " and partly from Mr. Saville Kent's version in his "Manual of the Infusoria" {vol. i. p. 116). Its foundation consists of a plain glass stage, ^ of an inch thick, so fitted as to slide on in place of the ordinary sliding stage of a Powell and Lealand or Ross stand. It is thus susceptible of the mechanical motion common to those stages. The thickness is too great to work through with achromatic condenser and high powers, and therefore a circular aperture is cut through in the centre and a good piece of thin glass fixed over it with Canada balsam. At the end of an arm projecting from the left-hand anterior corner of the stage there is a socket into which a glass vessel, if -2 inches deep, drops. A piece of good new bibulous paper is laid on the stage, coinciding with it in form, but slightly smaller and with a tongue-like projection that lies along the arm, and dips into the glass reservoir at the end. A circular aperture of greater diameter than the cover- glass intended to be used, must be made in the centre of the paper, and then the glass vessel filled with water and the paper moistened. The fluid to be examined is then placed on the centre of the thin glass and covered, if necessary. The bounding walls of the chamber are represented by a piece of glass tubing l£in. in diameter and fin. in length, over one end of which a piece of thin caoutchouc is firmly stretched and a small hole made in its centre. The bottom edge of the tube must be carefully ground. This is placed on the stage with the caoutchouc upwards, and the hole in it over the centre of the cover-glass. The objective is now racked down through the small hole and adjusted to focus. The caoutchouc should be thin enough to afford no impe- diment to the action of the fine adjustment, when it will be seen that it clasps the object-glass firmly round its central perforation, and the pressure from the under edge of the chamber on the blotting-paper so that little or no air is admitted, while if the under edge of the chamber be carefully ground it will suffer the stage, paper and all, to move under it when the milled heads for working the mechanical stage are in action. As I have neither mechanical stage, achromatic condenser, nor very high powers, I have an ordinary glass slide 3 X 2 Hn. such as would be used for mounting large sections on, and I have cemented to one corner a strip of glass which pro- jects beyond the stage of the microscope, and is then bent down at right angles so as to dip into a small jar of water. A centrally perforated piece of blotting paper with a strip from one corner hanging over into the water is placed on the slide, and upon that a deep glass cell iyjjin. in diameter, which can be procured with both edges ready ground, a piece of thin caoutchouc is easily tied over one end. Working with medium powers I have been able to keep some specimens of pond-life under observation, unfortu- nately not continuous, for some length of time. — E. J. Bles. Embryological Specimens for the Micro- scope.— The new and fertile field of research opened up by the development of the science of Embryology has attracted numerous enthusiastic workers. All such will be glad to hear that Messrs. Sinel&Co., of Jersey, have commenced to issue slides illustrating the embryology of marine life. Their situation gives them splendid command of the most fertile marine gathering grounds in the British Islands. We have carefully examined the slides sent out, and are happy to be the means of strongly recommending them to our readers. The specimens are carefully named, and mounted in a new preservative which admirably retains the beauty of form and structure of the most delicate of organisms. We understand that the happy thought of introducing these specimen in this state 138 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. is due to Mr. Edward Lovett, of Croydon, whose exhaustive papers on the Natural History of Jersey appeared in Science-Gossip for 1S82. Studies in Microscopical Science, edited by A. C. Cole.— The first volume of this successful series is now completed. Nos. 49 and 51 treated on the large and small intestines of the dog. Nos. 50 and 52 on the Serpentine of the Lizard Rock, and the Serpentine of Portsoy (by Professor Heddle). Mr. Cole offers a very tempting and attractive prospectus for his second volume, which will commence shortly. Ottawa Microscopical Society. — Last October a society was formed in this distant Canadian city, called as above, for the purpose of encouraging the use of the microscope, as a means of recreation to some, and to others as an indispensable accessory in working out the northern fauna and flora. During the winter, monthly meetings were held at which papers were read and many temporary and permanent preparations exhibited, and thus a good basis was laid for the work which is about to commence for the spring and summer. The hon. secretary, Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, writes to say that if any of our readers would like to obtain microscopic material from this part of the earth, for which they would give good exchange, the Society would be very glad to hear from them. The address of the secretary is — J. B. Tyrrell, F.G.S., Geo I, Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Canada. ZOOLOGY. Golden Plover,&c— On Good Friday, on Nazing common, I saw a large number of pewits, and with them many golden plovers, as I believe. Is it usual for green and golden plovers to fly in company? — Frederic Johnson. Harleston Literary Society. — A very success- ful course of six lectures on " Flowers, &c," delivered by Dr. J. E. Taylor, F.L.S. &c, Editor of Science- Gossip, before the above society, has just been con- cluded. Vandalism. — A dealer in 'natural history objects here informs me that a " gentleman," a private (not a professional) collector of birds' eggs in the Mid- land counties, lately offered him for sale the follow- ing : — 400 eggs of hedge accentor, 200 eggs of yellow hammer, 400 eggs of chaffinch, 250 eggs of white- throat, no eggs of greenfinch, 270 eggs of willow wren, 20 eggs of common wren, 30 eggs of robin, 80 eggs of sedge warbler, 70 eggs of linnet, 50 eggs of sand-martin, and others; total, 1880. Comment on this is not necessary : suffice to say that the dealer was too indignant to make an offer. — Adolph Leipner, Hon. Sec. of the Bristol Naturalists' Society. The Fresh-water Medus/e. — Mr. W. Sowerby writes to " Nature " to say that these interesting little creatures have once more made their appearance in the Victoria regia tank at Regent's Park. Ottawa Field Naturalists' Club. — We have received a copy of the Transactions of this flourishing Society for 188 1-2, which contains, besides the President's Inaugural Address, the Reports of the Geological, Botanical, Entomological, Ornithological, and Oological branches of the Society, and papers on the Geology of the Ottawa Paleozoic Basin, by Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn, F.R.S. ; Filterings from the Water-supply of the City of Ottawa, by the Rev. Dr. Kemp ; On some Canadian Ectoparasitic Sarcoptidse, by J. B. Tyrrell, B.A. ; On Ottawa Unionidse, by Mr. F. R. Latchford ; Pine-life, by Dr. B. Small ; on the Utica Slate, by Mr. H. M. Ami. The Address of the President, Mr. Jas. Fletcher, gives a capital review of the year's proceedings and doings, and amongst other things refers to his recent visit to England in the following terms, which will give our readers an idea of how our colonial brethren regard our English green lanes : " They are a characteristic feature, and I believe not to be found of the same description in any other country. Few things are more beautiful ; their steep banks of refreshing green, surmounted by well-trimmed hedges, and clothed from top to bottom with feathery grasses and lovely flowers, breathing forth delicious odours, have an effect little less than enchanting on visitors from other climes. Their beauty is ever-varying ; plant after plant throughout the whole summer, succeeding in its turn, claims the reward of its effort by forcing up its head into the sunlight to bear its corolla or crown of glory ; the gay butterfly with bejewelled wings adds its charm to the scene ; and the hum of the bee as it hurries by is no unimportant factor of the whole. Truly this scene of beauty should be sufficient to demand from all — the most unobservant — some small share of attention." During the past year, prizes have been given of the following books for the best collections : Dr. Asa Gray's "Manual of Botany," "Flowers, their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes, and Colours," by Dr. J. E. Taylor, and the " American Naturalist" for 18S2. The President for 1883-4 is Dr. H. B. Small, and the Hon. Secretary, Mr. W. H. Harrington. The Metallic Plumage of Birds. — Dr. Jadow, in a paper on plumage of birds, states that feathers having metallic tints owe them to certain prisms found in the cells. Isle of Man Natural History Society. — At the last meeting of this very active society the Rev. S. N. Harrison was elected president, and Mr. P. M. C. Kermode, hon. secretary. The Society, in view of the meeting of the British Association at Southport in September next, has determined to get up a dredging HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 139 excursion round the shores of the island, and has made arrangements and voted a sum of money for the purpose. We hope the Southport Local Com- mittee will join in the matter, for there is no better dredging ground (and we speak from delightful experience) in the British Islands. Mimicry of Humming Birds by Moths. — Dr. Krause thinks that the striking resemblance in size, form and movements of the South American moth {Macroglossa tilan) to humming-birds is a case of pro- tective mimicry, and that the moths benefit by the resemblance to the birds, which have few winged enemies. He thinks that the closeness of the resem- blance also protects the moths from the humming birds, which always give chase when they recognise them. The Acadian Naturalist. — We have received the first copy of the above scientific serial, published in the interest of the Acadian Science Club. It opens with a capital article by Dr. Dawson, F.R.S., on " The Present Rights and Duties of Science." BOTANY. "Old-fashioned Flowers." — A very handy, compact, and interesting little handbook has been issued by Mr. L. Gill, price 6rf., on the above subject. All of the plants described are hardy perennials, and of the kind now known as old-fashioned garden flowers. We are glad to see the outburst of feeling which has rehabilitated the flowers our grandmothers loved and cultivated, and has once more given them a place in English gardens. Second Flowering of Cornel. — I have observed for many years the Cornus sanguinea almost invari- ably has, or makes an attempt at having, an autumnal flowering. This takes place in September or October, and, more rarely, as early as August, which was the case in 1868. Of course no berries are produced from these autumnal flowers. Now, although C. sanguinea ranges as far north as Denmark and Norway, it is also a native of southern climates, as Spain, Italy, and Turkey, and it would be interesting to learn whether in any of its southern haunts it really perfects two crops of berries in the year ; and if so, does it not still continue the attempt with us, although it has migrated farther north? The same facts hold good with the strawberry-tree, Arbutus Unedo. A specimen near my window invariably commences a second flowering about October, and continues in blossom up to about Christmas, so that flowers and ripe berries are prettily mingled together, the former forming a winter repast for the honey-bee and sundry Diptera. Nevertheless I think we dare not conclude that the sole reason for the second blowing is to furnish food for insects. — H. W. Kidd. Leontodon Taraxacum. — On the 5th of May, the air being still a little searching but the sun warm, I bethought me to take a stroll over the downs. It was not long before I came upon the home of the greater and lesser dandelions. The lesser sort were gaily starring the short turf, the big ones were arranged along the hedge-row ; so that there could be no mis- take as to habitat. The diagnosis was briefly this : Var. major, leaflets runcinate, glabrous, toothed, veined. Var. minor, leaflets sagittate, glabrous, smooth, distinctly brown. at the edge, and exhibiting a tendency to change into prickles ; outer ray of flower-head deep purple beneath ; averages one- third the dimensions of var. major. Perhaps to complete the illustrious task of redescribing the genus Leontodon I should add : var. palustris, outer scales of the involucre erect, appressed ; leaves sinuato- dentate, nearly glabrous. Thus does our common dandelion produce its races, under the shady hedge, on the dry down, and wet bog. — A. H. Szainton. The Flowering of the Duckweeds. — The flowers of duckweeds appear to be seldom observed and are repeatedly said to be rare. Some time ago I was surprised to hear a field botanist of some re- pute say that the flower of Lemna trisulca was un- known in Britain ; and the author of " Ponds and Ditches," writing of the four species, says, "the flowers are small and rare." On referring to my notes, I find that since 1878 the flowers of Lemna trisulca and L. minor have been seen in this locality each following year. Lemna trisulca in flower was first found by Dr. H. Franklin Parsons and myself in a pond at "Sandholes," Swinefleet Common, on the 2nd of June, 1878, and has since been regularly observed in that and in other habitats. Lemna minor has been noted in flower as follows : Goole, 1878-82 ; Telby, 1880 (W. N. Cheesman) ; Snaith, 18S2; and Lemna gibba, in a ditch at Goole Fields in 1882. Their extreme smallness may be a reason why the flowers of the duckweeds are not more often seen, but perhaps some of your readers will say if they have been commonly observed by them ? — Thomas Birks, jun., Goole. Paris quadrifolia. — It would perhaps prove interesting to botanists to learn that Paris quadrifolia may be found in a wood about half a mile beyond Pinner station, and about a hundred yards from the line. I found yesterday about a dozen specimens in flower, and there will be at least a dozen more out by next Sunday. — M. Gunning. Signs of Spring. — The first migrants have arrived here. I saw the first chiffchaff on the 2nd of April, and since then I have heard three each day in the same glen. I remarked butterflies on the 4th of March, and a missel-thrush building on the 7th. — G. A. K., West Cornwall. 140 HARDWICK&S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. GEOLOGY. Gelatinous Silica. — Dr. H. Leffmann states in the "American Naturalist," he has found that at the bottom of bottles containing certain siliceous geyser waters from the Yellowstone National Park, there is deposited a quantity of gelatinous matter looking like the white of egg, which, on analysis, proved to be nearly pure silica. It was entirely structureless, and by heat dried to a white opaque mass. After having been enclosed for several weeks in a closed vessel with strong sulphuric acid, it shrank to about one-tenth its volume. Another Factor in the Evolution of Spe- cies.— The new American weekly journal, " Science " (whose great' success is well deserved), has a short paper by Professor Verrill, in which he calls attention to the lack of maternal care as one of the probable causes of the extinction of many of the large and powerful reptiles of the Mesozoic periods. The more intelligent forms, by the development of parental instinct for the active protection of their young against their enemies, would survive longest, and therefore would transmit this instinct, with other cerebral developments, to their descendants. Professor Verrill thinks this mode of natural selection must always have been an active one. The Fossil Men of Nevada.* The wondrous story that I now relate Of what was found in great Nevada's State Will dash all human aspirations high, But make the saddest of collectors spry. Within the precincts of the prison wall Of Carson city, the State Capitol, Alternate layers of sandstone and of clay, When dug, disclosed impressions — so they say — Of human footsteps of gigantic size Which made no less impression on the wise. Great beetle-crushers, twenty inches long, In thirteen prints a separate track prolong ; Though these big men, 'twould seem, had little go- Scarce forty inches 'twixt the toe and toe. A mincing gait was this for giant race — Three feet and odd the step, six feet the pace. So men before us made their lives sublime, And left great footprints on the sands of time. We follow, sailing o'er life's solemn main, And seeing, tremble, losing heart again. For being taught in Darwin's unique plan, , We thought perfection grew from man to man. Such dreams, we see, are idle — time misspent — When " understandings " narrow with descent. A. Conifer. * See the Duke of Argyll's letter to "Nature," April 19th. NOTES AND QUERIES. The Rose. — The rose is a plant which has been famous from all ages, and its history is largely interwoven with legends. Concerning the origin of the red rose, the three following versions are the most beautiful which I have come across : — " It was holiday in Olympia, and the gods and goddesses were drinking ambrosial nectar. Venus, for this occasion, had decked herself in garlands of white roses. Her son Cupid, while sporting with the nymphs, struck with the tip of one of his wings the goblet which his mother held, thus spilling a few drops of the celestial liquid, which, falling on the roses, suddenly changed them into a lovely scarlet." Another is : " Venus, during the heat of the day, was reposing in her bower, the floor of which was strewn with white roses. On learning the death of her beloved Adonis, who had been killed by a wild boar, she left her couch, crying bitterly ; and while her eyes filled with tears which ever and anon fell to the ground, the blood shot forth from her foot, which had struck against a thorn : thus the roses became red and from her tears sprang the anemones." The last and, to my mind, the most beautiful : " A rose-tree, growing by a river-bank and seeing her lovely white corolla reflected in the stream, blushed with pride on seeing how beautiful she was." — W. H. Newberry, Ghent, Belgium. Appearance of the Swallow. — It will perhaps interest your readers to know that on Tuesday last (the 3rd of April) I noticed here (Leeds) a common swallow (H. rustica) on the wing. There was no doubt about the bird, its peculiar head, tail, breast, &c, being distinctly observed. Tuesday was a beautiful day, and I have no doubt this had induced the bird to come out of its winter-quarters ; for as there were no others present 'and I have not seen it since, I concluded that it had hybernated. This is another proof that the swallow does not always leave us, and corroborates Dr. Abbott's statement.— "Plutarch." Wood- pigeons and Owl. — On the 7th of April my brother disturbed a pair of wood-pigeons (Columba palumbus) and a white owl, out of a tree covered with ivy. Upon climbing up he found the wood- pigeons' nest with an almost fully-fledged young pigeon in it, and separated from this by only a small partition of ivy was the'roosting-place of the owl, which had evidently been long in use, judging from the amount of excrement which lay there. It seems almost incredible that the owl should not have frightened away the pigeons whilst building, or de- voured the young one when it was hatched. — F. Hayward Parrott, Walton House, Aylesbury. Curious Phenomenon seen at Burnham, Somerset. — My attention and that of many others directed to it, April 6th, before and after sunset. All at once there shot up from the sun a column of fire towards the zenith. There were not other rays of light. It was like a huge pine trunk slightly knobbed at the top. This rose and fell, waxed and waned like an Aurora streamer ; sometimes looking 300 feet high, and anon 3000. A gentleman who has lived here over forty years never saw anything like it before, and I, having watched the skies for over forty years, cannot remember such an appearance. It lasted about three-quarters of an hour. — A. H. B. Lundy Island. — I have great pleasure in referring Mr. Wilkinson to a little book by Mr. J. R. Chanter of Barnstaple, in which he will find particulars of HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 141 the natural history, geology, and botany of Lundy ; together with a great deal of other information about this "right little, tight little island," which, if not useful to him, will at any rate prove interesting. The book, which is published by Messrs. Cassell, Petter, and Galpin, is entitled " Lundy Island : a Monograph, descriptive and historical." — G. M. Doe, Great Torrington, N. Devon. Lundy Island. — Your correspondent, W. E. Wil- kinson, asks for information on Lundy Island. Having been there, I can inform her, I did not find any plant at all resembling the one named in the " Standard," which much puzzled me. I believe, however, the plant must be the pink centaury, which is frequent — parti- cularly the variety pseudo-latifolia. I showed this to the late Mr. Ii. C. Watson, as I imagined it was real " latifolia," but he decided otherwise. It is possible this may have been used as a dye, for many other members of the same order possess dyeing properties, Chlora perfoliate:, for instance. I do not think there is very much worth going there for ; your correspon- dent must be careful to avoid going when the island is covered with fog, as it is most dangerous. This, unfortunately, is its normal state. The geological for- mation is granite. Sea birds exist in the greatest number I have ever seen, particularly a small puffin ; " Lundy Island parrots " sailors call them. A better botanising locality is Clovelly, but accommodation in the village is scarce and dear. — J. R. Neve, Campden, Gloucestersh ire. Slow-worm. — Can any reader give me any hints as to the management of a slow-worm, and what to provide it with in place of its natural food, which is difficult to procure ? Any hints respecting the manage- ment of a snake will also oblige — Clara Kingsford, Canterbury. Epping Forest. — The readers of Science-Gossip will doubtless rejoice to know that the London Naturalists, especially those living in the Northern and Eastern districts of the Metropolis, were by no means lax in opposing the projected railway across Epping Forest. To the Essex Field Club belongs the credit of having taken the initiative in this matter. The famous broadsheets, circulated by this Club, were of a most argumentative character, and doubtless roused public opinion to a full sense of the evils which would accrue if the obnoxious railway Bill were allowed to become law. The action thus commenced was ably seconded by the East London, Hackney, Highbury, and Walthamstow Natural History Societies, while the East London„Haggerston, and West London Entomological Societies did their share. All these passed resolutions strongly de- nouncing the scheme as a direct violation of the " Epping Forest Act," which directs, inter alia, that " the Forest is to be preserved in its natural aspect." Copies of these resolutions were sent to Members of Parliament, Local Boards, and the Press. More- over, many petitions were presented by Parliament. The defeat of this contemplated act of vandalism by the House of Commons on 12th of March has now become a matter of history. The second reading of the Bill (High Beech Extension) was rejected by a majority of 148. In the words of the com- temporary : "The vote of the House of Commons has smashed, pulverised, and utterly destroyed the wanton attempt of the Great Eastern Railway, supported, we are sorry to think, from not too dis- interested motives, by the Corporation of London, the appointed Conservators of Epping Forest, to ruin the seclusion of the most picturesque part of the forest by driving a line from Chingford to High Beech. The despised entomologists will now be able to pursue their butterflies in peace, and the lovers of sylvan scenery which never palls, will be able to enjoy the solitude of the forest undisturbed." — F. Coles, F.L.S. Mind in the Lower Animals. — I beg to thank Mr. H. C. Brooke for his valuable criticism on my article in the April number. But let those who enter the lists as warm friends of the lower animals beware lest their feelings bias their judgment. It is incon- testable that an experienced dog-fancier ' ' can tell to a great degree what feelings are uppermost in the dog's mind by the different sounds it utters." But are not feelings very different from notions or con- ceptions ? The grand question at issue is, are brutes competent to form the abstract and general notions implied in the intelligent use of speech ? Mr. Brooke exhibits a catalogue of facts which tend to prove the affirmative side of the case. Thus, for instance, when his dog hears the word " meat " or " walk " or " street "or " cats," she thereupon listens attentively and becomes excited, frisking about, &c. But does it follow that the dog bears in her mind, during this paroxysm of excitement, any intellectual notion or conception corresponding to what men express when they use these words ? Are her actions at this time guided or directed by any such abstract or general notion ? Does she make towards the kitchen or the dining-room, or towards the hall-door, or towards the resort of the cats? At the word "meat" does the dog beg, or lick her lips, or does her mouth water ? No doubt it may be possible that the word "fish " may be so often repeated in a cat's ear when she was actually eating fish, that on this sound being uttered on another occasion she may actually remember her last meal, and thus will manifest a certain amount of pleasure ; but we entertain grave doubts as to whether the feline memory is so highly endowed. Then, again, is not the dog a very excitable and effervescent crea- ture, and only too prone to catch the infection of his master's animation ; so that when the latter sings out "cats "or "rabbits," at the same time throwing his arms about and looking particularly vivacious, is it not more than probable that the dog is sympathetically affected by this demonstration, rather than that he is pondering upon some ideal notion of these creatures ? So also when the tame thrush is restrained from too hastily gobbling a boiled potato by the words "too hot," does the bird actually and truly understand that this adjective specially expresses that particular burning sensation ? Surely not. Mr. Brooke goes so far as to say that "the various little sounds made by a dog are as much words and as expressive of ideas to another dog as our own language is to a fellow-countryman." Now, to seriously combat this view would be wholly superfluous. No doubt there are some stories in circulation about dogs which apparently lend colour to this assertion, but it is sufficient to observe that they are either wholly ima- ginary or fictitious, or they have been concocted by some person unused to reflection. "If we mention water," says Mr. Brooke, "a pet dog will show by his signs that that is what he wants." Did Mr. Brooke ever perform the crucial experiment of mentioning to the animal some other name, and accompanying it by the same or equally expressive gestures ? — P. Q. Keegan, LL.D. Notes on Gnats, Ash, &c— While walking on Friday, April 20th, on the Crumbles, immediately east of this town, I observed swarms of insects which looked rather like large gnats flying about the bushes, 142 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. especially the bushes where bramble and roses were common : in such swarms were they that it was quite impossible to walk in some places without getting these insects either in one's mouth, or ears, or nose, or eyes. During the eight years that I have been in Eastbourne (although I have not observed this sort of things except during the last four or five) I have never seen such large numbers of gnats (or whatever they were, for I do not think that they were the common gnats) either so early in the year or at a later period. I thought that perhaps this note might be interesting. The proper thing would have been to have boxed a few for examination, but I did not think of it. I should also like to notice that the ash (Fraxiiuts excelsior) is now out in many parts of Sus- sex in bud or leaf, and has been in bloom for nearly a month ; the oak is only just beginning to bud, and is still quite brown. Surely this is unusual, or else how can we justify Tennyson, who says, " as lingereth the tender ash to clothe herself when all the woods are green" ? — T. A. Dymcs, Eastbourne. " The Star of Bethlehem."— Mr. Dipton Burn, under the heading "The Star of Bethlehem," in your last number, refers to a conjecture, recently brought forward again, that the star seen by the Magi at our Lord's nativity was identical with a new star observed by Tycho Brahe in 1572, that it appears regularly in periods somewhat exceeding three hundred years, and that it will be seen once more in two or three years from the present time. I have shown in "The Observatory," a scientific journal which circulates amongst astronomers, that there is no real ground for supposing that Tycho Brahe's star of 1572 has any such period. It^has indeed been stated that new stars were seen in a.d. 945 and 1264 ; but Tycho himself has shown, in his elaborate work on the star of 1572, that there is no sufficient evidence of these supposed earlier appear- ances, and that the allusions were in all probability to comets which were observed in those years. (The splendid comet of 1264, the year of the battle of Lewes in England, is mentioned by all the historians of that period.) And with regard to the star of the Nativity, nothing can be more evident, as was pointed out by St. Chrysostom, than that it was a miraculous appearance in the form of a star (perhaps visible, as many divines think, to the Magi only), sent expressly to indicate the Saviour's birth. Let me quote part of a sentence from the learned Tycho : — "Stella ilia, qua? in OrienteMagis apparuit, . . . ilia, inquam, stella non erat de ccelestium astrorum genere." And these are wise words, as all the circumstances of that appear- ance, recorded in the sacred narrative, show. — W. T. Lyjin, B.A., F.B.A.S., Blackhcaih. Natural History of North Wales.— Do any of your readers know of any books treating on the natural history of North Wales? If so, will they kindly answer through your correspondence column ? — W. 7- B. Vinula.— As regards the disease Mr. Finch no- tices in his larva? of Vinula, I think it must be attributed to giving them damp food. This should never be done with these larvae. I always dry the food well ; and if Mr. Finch will do the same, I hope his larva? will be free from this disease. I have reared many of these insects from the egg, and when I first began I found the same thing happen, but since I have given them well-dried food I have never had any die in this way. Of course this rule is not universal, as Potatoria and Caja, if kept without any moisture, will dry up. About the excrement of Vinula, of which I wrote in April, perhaps I should have called the colour pink instead of red. The last pellet very often gets spun into the cocoon, and this is perhaps the reason for Mr. Finch not noticing this very obvious fact. — T. A. Dy tries, Eastbourne. Ovid's Hyacinth. — The flower fabled to have sprung first from the blood of Hyacinthus, then from that of Ajax, is described by Ovid, a correct observer of nature, somewhat fully (Met. x. 210-216, and xiii. 394-398), yet the modern synonym of the flower is still an open question. According to his descriptions the plant must be (1) of the liliaceous type ; (2) the blossom purple, reddish, violet or brownish (the word purpureus as used by Latin poets may be translated by any of the above*) ; (3) the perianth segments must be marked with the letters A I. It may be added that Dioscorides describes the hyacinth as a bulbous plant, with long narrow leaves. Other characteristics of the plant may be inferred from the facts of the story. Thus, it must be a native of Greece and Italy ; must blossom in the early part of the year : for in Southern Europe grass is parched early in the summer, while Hyacinth is said to have sprung from the green turf; besides, Hyacinthus was killed by Phcebus and Boreas, an apt description of the precarious life of an early spring flower, liable on the one hand to be withered by scorching sun, and on the other nipped by blasting winds. Finally, the plant must have an appearance suggestive of sorrow (it was an emblem of death among the Greeks). The species of the genus Fritillaria growing in Greece and Southern Italy — viz. F. Messanensis, Pontica, Grceca, conica, and tristis — fulfil in a remarkable degree these requirements, especially the last two. It must be noted that they form so natural a group, in other words are both so variable and nearly allied, that Floras differ in the naming of them. Loudon selects the character of chequered flowers as a distinctive mark of Fritillarias among European Liliaceas. They have a peculiar tesselation which readily lends itself to the forming of letters in several of the species. In F. Meleagris small square letters can be easily traced, while in Sib thorp's "Flora Grseca" there is another species figured, in which the purple veins of the flower look like cursive characters, among which the combination A I more than once occurs. The drawing is not likely to be exaggerated in this direction, for Sibthorp looked upon Gladiolus By- zantinus as the Greek hyacinth ; moreover, Bauer, who drew the figures, is remarkable for the accuracy of his botanical drawings. The general appearance of Fritillarias is strongly in their favour, being plants of a forlorn and gloomy appearance. The species above named may be thus roughly described : — The stem is unbranched, bulbous below, bearing narrow leaves, and a solitary, drooping flower ; the flower is an inch or more long, tulip-shaped ; in systematic descriptions the colours are given as wine-purple or livid ; the chequering is darker than the ground colour ; finally, it is an early flowering genus, some species beginning to blossom in March, none later than June. Ovid's commentators are una- nimous in rejecting the claim of the modern hyacinth, //. orieutalis, to a heritage of tradition ; but give their allegiance to one or other of the following plants : Gladiolus Byzantinus, Lilium Martagon, Iris Germanica, and Delphinium Ajacis. These all fail in three of the qualifications named above : they flower in summer and autumn, the colours of the flowers are bright, and the plants of robust * Lewis and Short's Latin Dictionary. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. i43 appearance. But, besides, each plant has special disqualifications : — Gladiolus Byzantinus has indeed a V-shaped streak down the middle of three of the perianth segments, but there is no other mark to serve for an I. The leaves are sword-shaped, and Ovid would hardly have overlooked this opportunity of alluding to Ajax's famous sword : this last remark applies also to Iris Germanica. Tris also has a rhizome, not a bulb. Lilium Martagon is a formidable rival in that it is a true lily, but it completely falls short as regards the crucial test, viz. the marks : there are spots on the flower, but they are round and isolated. The last claimant to be dealt with, Delphinium Ajacis, has no shadow of resemblance to a lily, and no distinct marks on the petals. — C. Garlick. Disease of Larvae. — The case mentioned by Mr. Finch, I am inclined to think is a kind of dysen- tery common to insects. The cure is to wash them in clean cold water and put them on fresh food. The prevention would be never to give them food having any external moisture on it. If the food is obtained in damp weather it should be kept till dry. — G. Robson, Leicester. SlDMOUTH FOR SHORE COLLECTING.- — Can you or any of your readers say if this locality is a good one for procuring anemones, zoophytes, &c, for the microscope ? Are there reefs, rock-pools, and other suitable habitats ? and are the specimens clean, i.e. free from the fine encrusting mud so common where the rocks are soft, which is so difficult to get rid of? If the rocks are there, are they fairly close to the town ? Any hints from those who are acquainted with this locality would be very acceptable to the writer, who is fairly acquainted with the Devon coast from Exmouth to Dartmouth. June or July would be chosen, and of course spring-tides, for a visit— M. C. W. Bumble Bees and Clover. — In the April number of Science-Gossip, p. 77, Mr. Malan says : " Clover cannot thrive without bumble-bees, nor bumble-bees without cats." I can understand the first part of the sentence, but should like an expla- nation of the latter.— E. L. R. Name for a Stoat in the North of Eng- land.— Mr. J. H. Ingleby writes in your April number that in his neighbourhood (that of Northallerton, Yorkshire) a stoat is called by the name of Clubstei, and he wishes to know whether that word is local and what is its origin. I must premise that there is evidently an error (probably a misprint) in the word, which should be Clubster. In Halliwell's "Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words," it is stated that Clubster or Clubtail is a north- country dialectic word for a stoat or summer ermine {hcrmine d'e'te, as the French call the animal). The last syllable, "ster," is evidently the old word "start" (in Anglo-Saxon steort), which still exists as part of the compound word red-start, but has in "clubster" been denuded, by a not uncommon process, of its final letter. — W. T. Lynn, B.A., Blackheath. Sending Lepidoptera by Post. — I think it would interest a good many readers of Science- Gossip if entomologists would give their experience with regard to sending boxes of insects by post. I have nearly always found, especially lately, that the boxes get smashed and the insects damaged. Is there any contrivance whereby this can be avoided ? — A. E. Gibbs, St. Albans. Male of Epeira umbratica. — I should be glad if some one can inform me if the male Epeira umbratica is scarce, and from what cause. Last year, at various periods and in different situations, I found about a dozen females, but not one male. — J. E. A. Eye in Cyclops. — I should be glad if any reader could inform me whether, in regard to the freshwater animalcule cyclops, the red spot in the centre of the head is in reality an eye or merely a highly sensitive organ. In examining one the other day under a Jin. obj. the red spot was of somewhat an angular form, and I did not observe any feature about it that would lead me to suppose it to be an organ of sight. — J. S. C., Newcastle. The Slavonian Grebe {Podiceps comutus). — A female specimen of this rare bird was shot near Gloucester on the 29th of January, 1S83, and is now in my possession. — R. Newstead, jun., Ince, near Chester. Curious site for Rook's Nest. — On the Forest Road, Nottingham, a pair of rooks have selected a curious site for their nest. It is placed, contrary to all rules of rook architecture, in the corona to iron firxial of the turret of the Nonconformist College on the Forest Road. There is a small rookery about 200 yards from it. This is the first instance that has come under my notice of a rook building anywhere except in a tree. Has any similar occurrence come under the notice of your readers? — W. J. Razvson, Nottingham. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than heretofore, we cannot possibly insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries which do not bear the writers' names that we are forced to adhere to our rule of not noticing them. To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of "exchanges" which cannot be tolerated. James Barclay. — In answer to your note, we are sorry to say that we have not received any tube containing larva. H. M. Evans. — We know of no book on British birds' eggs to equal Hewitson's. J. W. (Mile End Road, E.) — No. i. Hypnum velutinum, 2. Polytrichum commune, 3. H. splendens. W. L. B. (Warksworth). — The mosses are, No. 1. Hypnum Kneiffii ; 2. H. abietinum, 3. H. cupressiforme, 4. Mnium hornum, 5 and 7. Jung, albicans, 8. Milium punctatum, 6. Hypnum. A. J. S. (Kentish Town.) — Jung, albicans, in early stage. G. B. (Watford.) — Your specimens are, No. 1. Hypnum cupressiforme, 2. H. serpens, 3. Hypnum, not in fruit, 4. H. serpens, 5. no fruit, 6. H. splendens, 7. Mnium, parcel No. 1. contained three species. B. B. Scott. — Accept our thanks for the specimens of the beautiful Trichinium Manglesii from Western Australia. D. Williams. — Grove's Battery was invented by the present Mr. Justice Grove, when Professor at the Royal Institution. See " Philosophical Transactions," for 1843. C. H. G.— It is not at all uncommon to find white varieties of hyacinth. Mr. T. S. Morten, 42 Haverstock Hill, who has kindly acted as one of our " Assistant Naturalists " in answering queries and naming specimens of micro-fungi, &c, writes to say he will be unable to act in the future on account of business. 144 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. G. R. (Boothstown.) — Your specimens are too imperfect to be critically determined ; kindly send others in fruit, and we shall he most happy to aid you. A. Bealev. — The best book on British and foreign freshwater shells.jis that by R. Rimmer, price iar. 6d. It gives a photo- graph of every species of shell. H. W. L. — The "Wampum Clam" (Venus mercenaria) is not a plant, but an 'edible bivalve mollusc, well known in the United States. It has just been laid down in British waters on the Cheshire coast, where we hope it will breed. W. Hambroiigh. — The specimen of a cowslip sent us is an interesting example of "fasciation," whereby is meant the growing or fusing together of two or more flower stems. F. Emsby. — "The Midland Naturalist" is published by David Bogue, 3 St. Martin's Place ; " The Field Naturalist " by Heywood, Manchester ; "The Young Naturalist " by John Kempster & Co., Bolt Court, Fleet Street. You will get Doubleday's List from Van Voorst. EXCHANGES. Unset Lepidoptera. — I have a quantity of last year's insects, which require relaxing and resetting ; they include Sibylla, Paphia, Adippe, ./Egon meliloti, &c. Will give them to any one on receipt of box and return postage. — A. E. Gibbs, The Hollies, St. Albans. Wanted for special research. Living specimens of Gordius aquaticus, the hair worm. — Thomas Bolton, 57 Newhall Street, Birmingham. Wanted, Aulacodiscus Kittoni, with 2-10 or more processes, for which three slides of diatoms are offered for each, Pleuro- hippocampus, P. angulatutn, or others. — W. Hanwell, 46 Charlotte Street, Hull. Eggs of osprey, killdeer, plover, mealy redpoll, gull-billed tern, and others equally rare for exchange. — T. Dealy, Grey Street, Derby. Brilliant object, crystals of plumbic iodide (mounted opaque) in exchange for other equally interesting slide. John R. Marten, Cottage Hospital, Redhill, Surrey. Wanted, L. C. Ed. 7 — 436, 438c, 460, 463, 474, 481, 485, 493. 5°9» 5io, 518, 521, 561, 564, 567, 574, 579,580, 593, 594.595. 6oo, 605, 611, 613, 620, 623, 638. — T. A. Dymes, Eastbourne. Wanted, micro-photographs of statuary or animals, will give in exchange insect preparations. Communicate with list first. — J. Boggust, jun., Alton, Hants. Wanted, Bate & Westwood's " Sessile-eyed Crustacea," Shuckard's " Bees," Rye's " Beetles," Moggeridge's " Harvest- ing Ants and Trapdoor Spiders," and other Natural History Works, for Stark's " Mosses," Moore's " Ferns," Landsborough's " Sea weeds," &c. — C. A. Grimes, Dover. Having some dried specimens of the fritillary (Fritillaria Meleagris),' a few of which are white, I shall be glad to send a specimen' to any botanist applying for one and enclosing a stamp. — F. Hayward Parrott, Walton House, Aylesbury. A telescope, and a few books, amongst others, "Public School Atlas of Ancient Geography," edited by Rev. George Butler, and " Manual of Natural History for Travellers," in ex- change for a good pocket lens, lepidoptera, bird's eggs or fossils. — F. B. Mason, St. Gregory's, Stratford-on-Avon. Slides of Bacillus tuberculosus in sputum, and Bacillus Anthracis in lung, to exchange for well-mounted slides of selected or named diatoms, or insects, either whole or dissections. — Dr. Wallis, East Grinstead, Sussex. Bankivia varius, Stomatella imbrkata, Nassa pellucida, Uttio margariti/er, Conovulus myosotis, and about 150 other duplicate foreign and British shells to exchange. — J. W. Cundall, Carrville, Alexandra Park, Redland, Bristol. For specimens of Trichinium Manglesii, a beautiful flower from W. Australia, and a beautiful object for the micro, send any other object or slide to — B. B. Scott, 18 Chiswell Street, Needham Road, Liverpool. Wanted correspondents in foreign countries to send the sea- weeds, zoophytes or dried specimens of flowering plants in ex- change for British mosses, plants, ferns, sea-weeds, &c. — B. B. Scott, 18 Chiswell Street, Needham Road, Liverpool. L. glutinosa and British marine shells for British or foreign land and freshwater shells. — T. D. A. Cockerell, 62 Wimpole Street, London, W. Wanted, either a cabinet or box with trays to hold micro objects; for exchange, Cassell's " History of the War between France and Germany," 2 vols, cloth, gilt, illustrated, and vol. 1 Cassell's " Household Guide," illustrated. — J. Burton, 78 Theobalds Road, London, W.C. Swiss Plants. — Spendidly-mounted and well-preserved Swiss plants, all correctly named, price 6d. each. — Address, Dr. B., care of Editor of Science-Gossip. Wanted, good specimens of Botrychium lunaria and Ophioglossum vulgatum. Rare British plants given in exchange. Also specimens of American plants offered for Continental species, especially Carices. — H. Lomax, 56 Vauxhall Road, Liverpool. Science-Gossip for 1865, 66, 67, and other natural history works ; also a quantity of micro material ; offers, plants accept- able.—A. Allettsee, 49 Colby Road, Upper Norwood, S.E. Lantern Slides full size, wanted in exchange for first-class microscopic slides. — B., 36 Windsor Terrace, Glasgow. Wanted, interesting microscopical slides. Send list to — Mr. T. F. Uttley, 5 Clarence Street, Albert Square, Manchester. Brula ceca — parasite of hive bee— well mounted in fluid without pressure, for good anatomical or mineralogical slides. — Edward Horsnaiil, n Snargate Street, Dover. A few herons' eggs for exchange. Wanted, gulls', sand- pipers', grouse, and other rare English eggs. — W. J. Hart, London Road, King's Lynn. A small collection of Lepidoptera, including some rare species in pine store boxes ; Nummulites larvigatus and vario- larius ; also twelve species of marine zoophytes, named, for mounting.— G. W. Colenutt, 48 Union Street, Ryde, I. of W. Wanted, Tate's "British Molluscs," Carpenter's " Micro- scope," &c, Thome's or Prantl-Vine's "Botany," in exchange for well-mounted micro slides, algae, diatoms, desmids, micro fungi and other material, and rare flowering plants. — Thomas Birks, jun., Old Goole Mill, Goole. Wanted, good specimens of Barbadoes chalk containing polycistina or sponge spicules, quantity preferred ; will give good exchange in well-mounted objects or material. — J. M., 51 Great Prescott Street, Goodman's Fields, London, E. Valuable collections of British fossils, minerals, recent shells, and rock specimens for disposal. Wanted, first-class microscope or Geological Society's journals. — E. Wilson, 18 Low Pavement, Nottingham. Two small six-drawer cabinets for exchange, corked, glazed, and papered ;* offers invited. — H. H. Druce, The Beeches, 43 Circus Road, St. John's Wood, London, N.W. Three hundred microscopic slides to exchange for polariser objectives, books on natural history, or other good slides ; send lists, &c. — Wm. Tylar, 35 Burbury Street, Hockley, Bir- mingham. To exchange or otherwise — Cypraa, Conus, Oliva, and other genera. — J. M. W., The Hawthorns, Bootle, Liverpool. Wanted, copy of Wood's " Insects at Home." Exchange first-class slides or cash.' — W. S. Harris, 44 Partridge Road, Cardiff. A large 'number of duplicate interesting micro slides for exchange ; send list or offers. Also, bull's-eye condensor, universal motion, for micro apparatus, slide cabinet, or offers.— J. E Read, 112 Pottergate Street, Norwich. Wanted, eggs of the following, in clutches: ring ousel, wood- lark, merlin, golden plover, sandpiper, snipe, rock-pipet, pied flycatcher, and others ; will give rare British lepidoptera and other eggs in exchange. — Thomas H. Hedworth, Dunston, Gateshead. Beautiful fossil sand from Sancat's tertiary deposits, con- taining well-preserved foraminifera, shells, coral spicules (any quantity), in exchange for good mounted slides. — E. Rodier, 61 Rue Mazarin, Bordeaux, France. Wanted, zoophytes and marine shells for British mosses or micro slides. — Lichen, 15 Horton Lane, Bradford. Ceterach officinarum, A. adiantum-nigrum, A. trichontanes, A. ruta-muraria, for other ferns. Please send list. — Edward Howell, Gasworks, Yeovil. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. "The New Principles of Natural Philosophy." By W. L. Jordan. London : David Bogue. " Land and Water." "Midland Naturalist." " Natural History Notes." " Studies in Microscopical Science," edited by A. C. Cole. " Ben Brierley's Journal." " American Naturalist." "American Monthly Microscopical Journal." " Science." " Boston Journal of Chemistry." " The Botanical Gazette." " Cosmos : les Mondes." " Le Monde de la Science." "Ciel et Terre." . " Bulletin des Sciences de !a Societe Beige de Microscopic" &c. &c. &c. Communications received up to ioth ult. prom : — J. N. Y.— A. H. B.— B. H.— J. B. T.— W. H.— T. D.— A. J. S.— J. B.— C. G.— E. L. R— H. M. E.— H. G. W.— A. L.— A. H. S.— C. K.-C. F. G.-C. R.— J. W. C— T. F. U.— P. E. W.— F. H. P.— E. T. S.— J. B., jun.— W. T. L.— T. A. D.— T. H. M.— E. T.— S. E. C. and Coy. — C. H. G.-T. S. M— A. E. G.— J. R. M.— G. M. D.— D. W. M.— A. B.— J. B.— H. W. K.— B. B. S.— T. D. A. C. — H. E. W.— Dr. P. Q. K.— H. H. D.-A. P.— F. E.— H. L. — E. A. K.— Dr. C. C. A.— A. O.— J. M.— G. S. T.— W. S. C. B.— E. L.— F. C— J. P. P.— M. G— G. R.— E. W. —A. H. B— W. J. R.-G. W. C— W. I. H.— J. R. N.— W. I. L— W. W. M— W. T.-W. L. B.— A. A.— W. W.— A. J.-W. !H.— A. E. L.— D. B.— F. K.— S. C. S.— E. R.— J. P. G— T. H. H.— H. E. W.— J. E. R.— E. H.— W. H. H. — C. L. W., &c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. M5 HOLIDAY RAMBLES. IN TEESDALE. By G. CLARIDGE DRUCE, F.L.S. FTER revelling in the sylvan recesses of the New Forest (where the crim- son spikes of gladiolus glistened among the fern fronds, or the handsome flowers of Melittis grew under the Sibylla- haunted brambles), and gathering the fragrant Dianthus on the steep cliffs of Cheddar, I started northwards for the rich clas- sical ground of Clova ; but Tees- dale and its singular geological formation, the beauties of High Force, and the varieties of Cronkley and Widdy bank tempted me to break the journey at Penrith, in order to gather the special plants of Teesdale. From Penrith a short journey by the Castle Eden line brought me to Barnard Castle, and thence to Middleton in Teesdale. From Middleton it is about six miles to the comfortable hostelry of the High Force, and the walk is very agreeable, the hedges being full of the splendid Campanula latifolia, while the dark-coloured roses, mollis, tomentosa, carulea, &c, and the pretty willow, S. Phylicifolia, var. Weigeliana and nitens, with an abundance of Trifolium medium and Crepis paludosa, makes the distance to Winch Bridge seem short. Here, on the steep banks overhanging the Tees, grow Pyrus rupicola, Thlaspi sylvestre, Crepis succisccfolia, Viola lutea, Equisetum variegatum ; about the wood of the High Force, Poa Parnellii, Myosotis sylvatka, Sesleria carulea, and other plants were gathered, and No. 223.— July 1883. then coming in sight of the High Force some time was spent in viewing this fine waterfall, seen under favourable circumstances, the previous heavy rain having well filled up the river which now tumbled in grand confusion its dark peat-coloured water over the rough basaltic rocks, great masses of foam being carried down a long distance from the fall^ the water in the pool below being perceptibly warmer than the river above the fall. Then the surroundings are fine, the Durham side covered with larch, while the opposite is bleak moor, studded with juniper bushes, breaking suddenly off into the cliff overhanging the river, with here and there a bush of the local Potent ilia fruticosa in fine flower. Keeping by the river side above the fall, Viola lutea, both yellow and blue, were plentiful, and then came Alsine verna, Primula farinosa, and the sweet- scented Gymnadcnia conopsea, while the Potentilla fruticosa was very plentiful. Reaching the base of some rocky cliffs, Hieracmm iricum, Rosa Doniana, Lastrea Borreri were gathered ; following the river to its junction with the Langdon beck, and wading over that, the boggy pastures opposite Cronkley Scar were soon reached. Here Botrychium occurred, and then on a sloping bank by the river side came a great gathering of varieties, Tqfieldia, Primula farinosa, Gentiana verna, Equisetum variegatum, Carex capil- lars, Bartsia alpina very abundant, and Kobresia caricina ; Polygonum viviparum and Saxifraga aizoides being, as elsewhere in Teesdale, common. From here a short walk brings one to Widdy bank house, and then it is only a mile or so to the top of Widdy bank itself, 1660 feet ; here, on this peculiar sugar limestone, occurred Juncus triglumis, T/ialic- trum alpinum, Kobresia, Arenaria verna, Scirpus pauciflorus, &c. We were much troubled by the persistent attacks of a green-eyed fly, Chrysops, which rendered the search for Alsine stricta and Viola arenaria some- what less pleasant than it might have been, but lengthy though the search was, it was at last succe;s- 11 146 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. ful, the violet however Lbeing over flower ; a rather boggy descent brought us to the Caldron Snout, another fall of about a hundred feet over ledges of basalt, and it is the continuance of this basaltic rock which forms the celebrated Falcon Clints, irregular craggy cliffs on the Durham side of Tees, which afford a home in their broken and scattered debris for Saxifraga hypnoides, Scdum Fabaria, Galium boreale, Allosorits crispus, and magnificent plants of A. viride ; here, too, occurred not yet exterminated Aspidium Lonchitis, as well as Lastrea abbrcviata and Poly podium ealcareicm. Retracing our way towards High Force, Peucedamun Ostruthium and Rumex pratensis were found near Langdon. Another day spent in exploring was Cronkley Fell on the York- shire side of the river. Scdum villosimi was found in several places in abundant flower, and a long search was made for Polygala uliginosa, but although a plant gathered had the same narrow sepals with slightly anastomosing veins, and equal arils, yet the branched habit and large flowers rendered it very different in appearance from the typical plant. On the summit of Cronkley, like Widdy bank, composed of disinte- grated limestone, occurred Helianthemum vineale, Dryas octopetala, Juncus triglumis, Alsitie vema, and Gentiana vema, and then a descent brought one to the Tees, nearly opposite the Caldron Snout. Keeping by the side of the Maize beck, we crossed the stream by fording it into Westmoreland, and struggled over the boggy slopes of Dufton Fell, in a heavy shower, for some distance, then again forded the stream, and keeping on the north side of Murton Fell, gradually ascended High Cap Nick, one of the most singular views in Britain, like some huge graving dock, the sides of which were more than a mile long ; then ascended Blackstone edge, 2620 feet, whence could be seen a fine view extending to the Lake district mountains. While here a thunder cloud was hanging over Murton Fell ; thunder echoing grandly from the rocks around. A walk, about ten miles through pleasant country scenery, brought us to Kirkby Thore, in direct communication by rail with Penrith and the north. " ADMISSION OF LAND SHELLS TO THE BRITISH LIST." By G. Sherriff Tye. IT is satisfactory to note that the question asked by Mr. Loydell, SciENCE-Gossir, September 18S2, p. 214, has awakened the interest of some concho- logists, and elicited various replies from which, let us hope, some knowledge may be gained by students. In my own notes, December 1882, p. 278, respect- ing the admission of certain shells to the British list, I thought my proviso, "in the absence of any information to the contrary," would meet the requirements of the question ; but Mr. R. M. Christy, May 1S83, p. 1 12," takes exception to my remarks, because he thinks there is a probability of certain of them having been introduced by human agency. I quite agree with him as to the probability, but we have no reliable "information." Touching the sea-port theory (quite a fair one, I freely admit), I may mention that all the localities given for Succinea oblonga in Britain," save one, are near sea-ports, no one has advanced "introduction" in this case, and we need not jump to a hasty con- clusion with regard to Helix villosa. When I sent my notes, I omitted to notice Mr. J. T. Marshall's remarks, November 1882, p. 261, which is unfortunate, as he disposes of Clausilia solida, much to my satisfaction. The gentleman who found it, found also a variety of Unio tumidus, which he insisted (to me) was a new species. Clausilia parvtila was found at Kinver, by Mr. Grant Allen, then, I believe, a member of the Birmingham Natural Historical and Microscopical Society, now a well-known writer on evolution, &c, and was submitted by him to Dr. Gwyn-Jeffreys, who named it, and who probably has the shells now ; therefore there should be no doubt about the matter, so far as this species is concerned. Helix personata. — " It is especially unlikely that a species which has never occurred in England, should be found in Ireland," says Mr. Christy. Does he remember that Limncea involuta and Gcomalaats macidosus are peculiar to Ireland, and as yet have not been found elsewhere ? Really, in nature, many things actually are matters of fact which are, prima facie, "especially unlikely ; " we must therefore be cautious. Dr. Gwyn-Jeffreys says, in speaking of this finding of Helix persona/a by Mr. S. A. Stewart, " I have every reason to believe that H. personata is a native of Ireland, and that his specimen was not accidentally introduced." Doubtless the learned doctor has good grounds for his belief. To conclude that any of the species about which we are speaking would have been found by collectors, if they occurred in places other than those mentioned, is " begging the question." It would be as fair to say that every locality was known for any given species, yet no collector will assert this. Let us look at some recent examples. My corre- spondent, Mr. T. Rogers, added Zonites glaber to our list in 1870, and my friends Messrs. H. & J. Groves added Vertigo Moulinsiana in 1S77 ; these species had escaped collectors until then. The theory of migration ! Why have I arrived at a most " illogical conclusion " ? England has mollusca of its own, i.e. the species inhabiting our island are derivative ; it has no species peculiar to it ; they are continental, and came from thence before England was separated from the mainland. The migration or spreading of mollusks has been a slow process, some have reached farther than others. Various causes operate to retard or increase HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. i47 the area of their distribution : inability to bear cold, slower production. &c, retards, e.g. Helix obvoluta, II. Cartusiana, II. piscina, Clausilia biplicata ; while a hardy constitution, and greater plenty tend to increase. Doubtless, human agency has had much to do with the distribution of some species, inhabiting, as they do, localities which man has continual access to, for business purposes ; as examples, take Helix aspersa, II. nemoralis, H. hispida, Zonites cellarius, and the slugs. Much may be written on this subject, but I have only an opportunity of touching one or two salient points. As the species are derivable from the continent, I should "expect to find them in S.E. England," as I stated in my notes ; or, in other words, that is where, if I searched for continental forms, I should look first. Doubtless migrations have taken place which do not come within the general theory of Reeve ; for example, Helix lamellata may have crossed England from North Germany, and reached Scotland from Sweden, and so progressed to Ireland, and this points to a remote period of introduction into Britain. It has not been found in England south of Scarborough, so far as I know, and Anglesea in Wales ; it has not been noticed in France, hence I should not look for it in the south of England. As bearing upon this migration, may I call Mr. Christy's attention to some notes on Helix Cantiana in the " Midland Naturalist," p. 323, vol. i. ? From its then known distribution through the counties, I named a number of others in which I should expect it to be found. I have since received intimation of its occurrence in four of them. If in these few words I have made the subject clearer, I shall be glad. MICRO-FUNGI BATHONIENSES. [Continued from page 83.] No. II. I CONTINUED my rambles after the Micro- Fungi, after an interval of some months from the time at which most of the specimens named in my last paper were found. It may seem to some that the list of specimens I am about to give does not represent any number of specimens such as one might with diligence have expected to find ; but when it is noted that I was not for some months at a time on the spot, this idea will cease to exist. In order to really furnish a full and as far as observation goes complete list, the observer should be in the locality from the beginning of the year till the end. Labouring as I did under a disadvantage in this respect, I must be pardoned if my list seem sparing and very incomplete. I can, however, but do my little, and leave it to abler observers who have more leisure and who are resident all the year through, to add to that which I have begun. I can only add one /Ecidium to my last list, viz. AL. Epilobii on Epilobium montanum, to be found at the top of Bathwick Hill, on the wall by the side of the road leading to Bradford, and also in many other places. It may be worth while noting here how the number of ^Ecidiums fall off about June. Before naming other finds I should like to say a few words on two specimens that we are told are common — I mean AL. Tragopogonis and Ai. Urticce. I have never yet found either of these specimens. In the case of AL. Urticce, I have searched nettle- beds in all parts of Bath and its locality, and have never yet met with it. I have also searched in other places and counties, but without a find, and the same remarks apply equally to Ai. Tragopogonis. I am therefore inclined to the belief that, at any rate of late years, they cannot be so common as we should infer from our text-book.* As regards At. Urticce, Mr. Brittain, in his valu- able and most useful little work, "Micro-Fungi: when and where to find them," seems to agree some- what with me in my opinion. f I should be very glad if any one who has found either AZ. Tragopogonis or AL. Urticce in the Bath district would let me know. Passing on to Puccinia, I have found P. compost- tarum on Crepis -vircus, Widcome Hill, abundant. P. variabilis on Leontodon Taraxacum, Widcome Hill, not plentiful. P. Malvaceamm on Malva sylvestris, Claverton Down, plentiful. Coleosporium Sonchi-arvcnsis on Solicit ns oleraccus, Widcome Hill, and common in many places. Coleosporium Tussilaginis common where leaves of Tussilago farfara are to be found. Lecythca Valeriana on Valeriana officinalis, common at Conquell. Ustilago segetum very common in the summer of 18S1 in corn-fields. Urocystis pompholygodes on Ranunculus repens, common in lane leading to Hampton Down. These specimens I have named bring us up to the end of August in the year's course, and in my next paper I shall name a few others, and also give a full list of all I have myself found hitherto. Every specimen named by me has been gathered by myself and in the locality named, and I have not in any single case depended on specimens brought me by others and said to have been found in certain spots. I should like to call attention to the new edition of Dr. Cooke's valuable work on " Microscopic Fungi," though it bears date 1878 ; still some may be yet working with the edition of 1872, and they would do well to procure the last edition, which is carefully revised and enlarged. Bath. Charles F. W. T. Williams. [To be continued.) * Cooke's " Micro-Fungi," 4th ed., pp. 14, 195, 197. t Brittain's " Micro-Fungi," p. 27. H 2 14S IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. NOTES FOR SCIENCE CLASSES. No. VI. Hepatic^. SPECIMEN for use of students : Common Liver- wort. (Marchantia fo'ymorfha, L.) Every year it is becoming more important that microscopic examination. Many students fail in the examination, who have confined themselves simply to text-books. We commence with the Liverwort, because it is in an excellent state for study in the early summer months. There are two divisions of the Hepaticse, known as the Thallose and Foliose group. In the latter wc p#t ilMi Fig. 87.— Thallus of Marchantia. Fig. SS. — Long, section of Epidermis of Marchantia. *<<* Fig. 90. — Amphigastria of Marchantia. -2 -3 Fig. 91.— Trans, section of Thallus of Marchantia, to show Stomata. Fig. 92. — Cup, with gemmae. Fig. 89. — Gemma, magnified. Fig- 93- — Trans, section of Thallus, through the Conceptacle. the student should be practically acquainted with the life history, in connection with classification ; to do so, he must not only know the chief types, but have also a practical knowledge of their life history by have a familiar example in the Jungermannise, which have a stem bearing scale-like leaves, without midrib, standing in two rows, running in right or left-handed spirals. Neither group are possessed HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 149 of true roots ; the structure of the stem is very simple. In the foliose section, it consists of an elongated parenchyma, thickening externally, thus forming a cortical layer passing gradually into the central ground tissue. No Cryptogam possesses greater interest for the microscopist than the Liverwort, which is found on almost every damp rock, or wall, and even on the borders of well-kept gravel paths. First, a part of the frond, or thallus, should be washed to free it from particles of soil, or grit ; then having selected a portion of the outer edge, make a a single layer. The amphigastria are distinct from the root hairs, and consist of a series of cells, arranged like a necklace. In some of the other trans, sect, will be noticed the root-hairs (fig. 93) or rhizoids. Stain the section with magenta and observe their structure, the darker parts in the figure represent thickenings, which project inwards of the cell-wall and arranged in a spiral series ; the young rhizoids display the arrangement well. Select a bit of an older thallus, and make a long. sect, to trace the peculiar and interesting lozenge- Fig. 94. — Thallus, with Antheridia. Fig. 95. — Section through young Antheridia. Fig. 96. — Stalk bearing Archegonia. Fig. 97. — Arcliegonium Marcluintia, magnified. sketch of it as (fig. 87), so as to understand its dichotomous branching. The midrib is very con- spicuous, and continually divides in a forking or dichotomous manner. Then take the clean thallus, the upper portion, and cut several sections, betwixt a carrot, passing them from the razor blade, with a fine camel-hair pencil, into a watch glass containing water, then mount several so as to have them at hand beneath a cover slip. Now search for the amphi- gastria. With a little care, they will soon be seen. No. 1 (fig. 90) is the amphigastria ; 2, cellular tissue of the thallus, and 3, epidermis, the latter formed by shaped divisions, as fig. 88. The epidermis may be stripped off for the purpose, but I find it better to cut a thin section ; No. 1 is the lozenge-shaped division ; 2, stomata in the centre, and 3, a lighter band separating the division. Again cut several trans, sect, of the thallus, as before (fig. 91). To observe the peculiar stoma, note it well ; it takes a little trouble to secure a nice specimen. No. 1 is the stoma, forming an opening, composed of five parts, like the bricks in a chimney. The lower cells contract or expand, according to the state of the atmosphere, to regulate the moisture, Sec. ; 2, i=?o HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. epidermis ; 3, a series of conferva-like arrangement of cells, making a free ventilation into the whole of the lozenge-shaped divisions for air, whilst 4 is a solid layer of cells, rising into a wall on each side. The loose tissue, 3, in the centre, only contains chloro- phyll. Glancing over the thallus, a quantity of cup-like bodies are easily visible (fig. 92) called con- ceptacles, these contain gemmae, or buds. When viewed with a low power, the edge is seen to be fringed, in fact they are objects of singular beauty. Detach a few of the gemmae, and slightly magnify (fig. 89), they are composed of two or more layers of cells, and are round or oblong in outline ; event- ually they are washed out by rain to some damp spot, and grow rapidly into mature plants ; thus the thallus of the Marchantia is often, when it appears to be luxuriant, merely a thickening of young plants, produced from the gemmae. Examine the upper surface of the thallus, under a Coddington lens, to detect the slight elevation of the epidermis which is the first growth of the conceptacle ; then cut sections of these, to observe the formation of the gemmae. Fig. 93 is a sect, through the conceptacle ; they first appear as minute globular cells supported on other cells, as a kind of footstalk ; 1 is the single layer of epidermal cells, 2 is the gemmae, in various stages of growth. These single cells next undergo rapid change, until they become perfect buds, when they lie detached from the footstalk in the con- ceptacle. We find another mode of reproduction by fertilised oospores in the Liverworts. The anther- idia and archegonia are developed on special erect branches, more rarely on the same stalk. Search the mature thallus for the little umbrella-like stalks, which occur abundantly in summer. (Fig. 94.) Prepare a section of one, in the early stage, as observed in fig. 95. No. 1 is the thick frond, or thallus ; 2, openings, beneath which occur the antheridium. The archegonium, or female organ, is found on a distinct receptacle, or star-like stalked bodies. (Fig. 96.) A section cut through the receptacle will result in making an acquaintance with the ripe archegonia. (Fig. 97.) No. 1 is the neck connecting No. 2, a central cell, in which is seen the oosphere with nucleus, No 3. When the antheridium bursts it frees the antherozoid, which is a spirally coiled thread, furnished with two long cilia, these find their way down the neck of the archegonia ; after impregnation the sporogonium is formed, containing spores. The sporogonium is furnished with elaters, peculiar long cells with brown spiral bands. The spore when germinating gives rise to the pro-embryo, on which the future plant arises from a bud on its surface. J. F. R. Can any reader name me a book, with price, on Aphides and other micro slides ? — William R. Wells. NATURAL HISTORY JOTTINGS. Further Observations on the Ivy Aphis and- its attendant Ants. SEPTEMBER 10th, 1SS0.— To-day, on examining a number of small plants of ivy that have been planted in the interstices of the additional height of wall that has been added to the highest terrace- wall on the Measure Hill, St. John's Cemetery, Elswick, I observed that about a dozen of them were more or less infested with an apterous aphis clustered around the stem, leaf-stem, and from the leaf-stem, ex- tending on to the under side of the leaves, and that most of these clusters were attended upon by a small red ant (Myrmica), which is here, along with a larger black ant (Formica), pretty plentiful in its season. What these ants were after I could not at first make out certainly ; they were neither injuring the aphides, nor attempting to carry them away, as I had very frequently seen ants doing with much larger and more powerful insects. On a closer examination with; a lens, however, I found that the ants were running about over the small groups or clusters of the stout, dull, reddish-purple apterous aphides, gently and rapidly whipping them, as it were, with their long and versatile antennae or horns, though evidently not dis- turbing them in the least, much less injuring them ; and, on several occasions, I distinctly observed an aphis respond to this treatment, elevate the posterior part of its body, and emit a drop of pellucid liquor from the very tip of the abdomen, not the cornua, which was immediately sipped up by one of the attendant red ants : here then was an exhibition of the aphis- milking proclivities and capabilities of the ants, accounts of which I had early read, but which I had never before been so fortunate as to observe. On many subsequent occasions, up to Oct. 12th, I visited these aphis-infested ivy-plants, and found the aphides in numbers, and invariably attended on and caressed by the red ants, which I frequently observed repaid for their attentions and labour by the yield- ing up by the aphides of a minute drop of the coveted liquor. Aug. 31st, 18S2. — It was on the 21st inst. that, after having looked over my Natural History notes, and found that there was much interesting information jotted down respecting several species of aphis, or plant-louse, I determined on drawing up a short paper on the subject, and thought it desirable to make some further investigation of the habits and surround- ings of the ivy aphis, if haply it were yet in existence, as I thought it quite possible it might have perished in the wreck and removal of the greater portion of the terrace-wall upon whose plants it had alone been observed. However, on going to the spot, there it again was, though only upon one of the few remaining small plants ; and, there, too, were the attendant red ants, caressing and milking the small group of HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 151 .apterous aphides, as their ancestors had done two years ago ! Hence, during the past ten days, I have frequently visited this particular plant of ivy, as well -as several other larger plants, which, on searching, I found likewise to be infested with this same species of aphis ; and I have observed the gradual increase in numbers of the aphides, as also their gradual exten- sion on to other plants, with other additional interest- ing facts in their economy ; such as, that it is only the young and tender shoots of the ivy that they attack — extending themselves, not only on to the leaf-stems and the under side of the leaves, but also on to the adventitious roots, or rootlets, which the shoot of this climbing clinging plant throws out to grasp and adhere to the object over which it spreads itself ; that there are at present not only apterous viviparous females, but also pupa? and imagoes (winged indi- viduals), as well as a majority of larvae or young ; that the young are, in general, ushered into existence tail foremost and dorsum uppermost, and are appar- ently enclosed in an exceedingly delicate pellicle which is ruptured during parturition and worked backwards over the body towards the apex of the abdomen, and, on its completion, is observable ruffled up on the very tip or apex ; that not only are they attended on and caressed by the red ant (Myrmica), but also in at least equal numbers by the larger and more irritable black ant (Formica), for the purpose of obtaining their anal emissions of honey-dew ; and that they have an active enemy in the form of a minute jet-black fly with iridescent, almost veinless wings, short and obtuse (though acutely pointed) abdomen, and rather long, stout, clubbed, and kneed or down- wardly-bent antennae, which mounts upon the back of the chosen aphis, seats itself firmly with its tail towards the head of it, and evidently punctures it in the basal region of the abdomen, for the purpose undoubtedly of inserting its egg in the body of the aphis, which would shortly kick and plunge desper- ately as though in great pain and wishful to unseat its tormentor, while the fly would remain securely and calmly seated until it had effected its purpose, when it would dismount and again set out on an exploration amongst the herd of aphides, examining and passing over several (maybe already favoured with a visit) before fixing upon another victim as a living host for its carnivorous young. That these aphides are benefited by the attentions paid to them by both species of ant, there can be little doubt ; since, on the approach of an intruder, the ants are on the alert, elevating the anterior part of their body and widely and threateningly opening ■their powerful jaws, and when a grass-stem or other small object is presented to them, boldly seizing it with their jaws, and allowing themselves to be carried off with it ; the black ant, which is the more irritable and combative, bites and apparently attempts to sting the intrusive object, and will always even mount and attack one's finger if ^intruded upon its milking- grounds. Thus, in all likelihood, predacious insects will be in a measure intimidated from preying upon the aphides, or laying their eggs in their bodies or amongst them. On one occasion I observed on the foliage of the ivy close by one of the aphid herds, numerously attended on by the black ant, the small parasitical fly already mentioned and partly described, which would undoubtedly be there for the purpose of laying its eggs in the bodies of the aphides ; and, also resting near by, individuals of three different species of hoverer fly, or Syrphus, possibly there for the purpose of depositing their eggs on the foliage near by or amongst them, the grub or larva of which is terribly destructive to the aphides, rapidly clearing them off an infested shoot or leaf. Few indeed of the many species of aphis that I have taken note of are without this latter dire enemy, which, lying at its ease in the midst of the host or herd, feeds and fattens at its expense, and thus proves itself one of the best insect friends of the gardener and horticulturist, by effectually checking the increase of these too frequently injurious little creatures. Though the different individuals of the same species of these two ants always attended on and milked the aphides in evident harmony, however crowded they might be — and I have seen from ten to sixteen of the red ants all engaged at once upon the aphides cloth- ing not more than three inches of an infested shoot ! — yet I never observed the two species upon a common milking-ground. Wishful to see what effect would be produced upon the individuals of one species by the introduction of one of the other, I took a red ant and placed it upon a shoot upon which were three black ants attendant upon a few aphides : it was immediately attacked by all the three, and a good deal of very evident reciprocal biting and attempted stinging went on between it and its three larger congeners ; however, it at last managed to escape from them, apparently not much the worse for the very rough handling to which it had been subjected. Charles Robson. Elswick, Neivastle-npon- Tyne. Erratum. — In my former paper (" Oviposition and Description of the Ivy Aphis "), in the May issue of Science-Gossip, at line nine, page 105, for aphides in feeding them read aphides infesting them. — C.R. Slow-Worm. — I do not think Miss Kingsford's pets will thrive without their natural food, i.e. the small slugs found in a garden. I never fed mine with anything else, and it is not difficult to find them in damp spots, or, indeed, anywhere in wet weather. The common snake should be fed with live frogs (if there are no anti-vivisectionists in the neighbourhood), but very often they refuse all food, and cannot be kept alive.— II. UUyett. !52 HARDWICK&S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. THE FLORA OF BEN LAOIGH. [To our botanical friends who are going north for a holiday, the following paper will prove very important. — Ed. S.-G.] BEN LAOIGH (sometimes spelt Lui) forms a part of the Grampian range, its altitude being 3651 feet — only 213 feet lower, and about 35 miles south-west of, Ben Lawers — that mountain of world- wide fame. I have headed this "The Flora of Ben Laoigh," but, as 14 out of the 15 days I spent at the foot of it last summer were wet, I hope to be able to add to it, as my investigations were confined to the north-east and north-west watersheds, and these in no way complete. In the list of flowering plants eight of our rarer alpine ones will be missed from among those recorded from Lawers, but five will be found which I never gathered, or know to have been gathered, on Lawers ; and as for mosses and especially hepaticse, the north and west of Scotland seems to be little known. There is little doubt but that counties 15 and 16 form a much richer field for the collector than is generally supposed. Thalictrum alpinum, Linn. Anemone fie/norosa, Linn. Ranunculus hederacens, Linn. ; R. Lingua, Linn. ; R. acris, Linn. ; R. Ficaria, Linn. Caltha palustris, Linn. Trollins Europccus, Linn. Cardamine pratensis, Linn. ; C. hirsuta, Linn. ; C. sylvatica, Linn. A rains thaliana, Linn. ; A. petra:a, Lam. Cochlearia alpina. Draba incana, Linn. Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Mcench. Viola palustris, Linn. ; V. sylvatica, Flies ; V. lutea, Huds. ; and var. amoena. Droscra rotundifolia, Linn. ; D. anglica, Huds. Poly gala depressa, Wender. Silene acaulis, Linn. Lychnis diurna, Sibth. ; Z. Flos-cuculi, Linn. Cerastium triviale ; C. alpiman, vars. lanatum and pubescens. Stellaria media, With. ; S. Holostea, Linn. ; S. grandma, Linn. ; S. uliginosa, Murr. Cherleria sedoides, Linn. Sagina proenmbens, Linn. Montia fontana, Linn., var. rivularis. Hypericum pulchrum, Linn. Linum cathartiatm, Linn. Geranium pra- tense, Linn. G. Robcrtianum, Linn. Oxalis Acetosella, Linn. Trifolium pratense, Linn. Spinca Ulmaria, Linn. Alchemilla vulgaris, Linn., and var. montana ; A. alpina, Linn. Sibbaldia proenm- bens, Linn. Potentilla Tormentilla, Schenk. Rubus saxatilis, Linn. Geum urbanum, Linn. ; G. rivale, Linn. Dryas octopetala, Linn. Epilobium montanum, Linn. ; E. tetragonum, Linn. ; E. alsinifolium, Vill. ; E. anagallidifolium, Lam. ; E. alpinum, Linn. Sedum Rliodiola,T)C. Saxifraga oppositifolia, Linn.; S. nivalis, Linn. ; *S\ stellaris, Linn. ; S. aizoides, Linn. ; S. hypnoides, Linn. Chrysospleninm ofpositi- folium, Linn. Parnassia palustris, Linn. Bunium flexuosum, With. LIcraclcum Sphondylium, Linn. Cornus sueeiea, Linn. Galium boreale, Linn. ; G. saxatile, Linn. ; G. palustre, Linn., var. Witheringii. Aspenda odorata, Linn. Valeriana officinalis, Linn. Scabiosa succisa, Linn. Carduus palustris, Linn- Saussurea alpina, DC. Gnaphalium supinum, Linn. Solidago Virga-aurea, Linn., var. cambrica. Tussi- lago Farfara, Linn. LTypochceris radicata, Linn. Leontodon hispidus, Linn. ; L. autumnalis, Linn., and var. pratensis. Taraxacum officinale, Wigg., var. palustre. Crepis virens, Linn. ; C. paludosa, Mcench. Hieracium Pilosella, Linn. : H. holo- serieeum, Backh. ; H. murorum, Linn. Campanula rotundifolia, Linn. Vaccinium Oxycoccos, Linn. ; V. Vitis-Idcea, Linn. ; V. uliginosum, Linn. ; V. Jl/yrtil- lus, Linn. Arctostaphylos Uva-tirsi, Wimm. Erica Tetralix, Linn. ; E. cinerea, Linn. Calluna vulgaris, Salisb. Pyrola rotundifolia, Linn. Gentiana cam- pestris, Linn. Menyanthes trifoliata, Linn. Euphra- sia officinalis, Linn. Bartsia alpina, Linn. Rhin- anthus Crista-galli, Linn. Melampyrum pratense, Linn., var. montanum. Thymus Serpyllum, Fries. Prunella vulgaris, Linn. Pingidcula vulgaris, Linn.. Lysimachia nemorum, Linn. Armeria maritima, Willd. Plantago maritima, Linn. Rumex Acetosa,. Linn. ; R. Acetosella, Linn. Oxyria reniformisy Hook. Mercurialis perennis, Linn. Urtica dioica, Linn. Alnus glutinosa, Linn. Betula alba, Linn. lifyrica Gale, Linn. Salix aurita, Linn.; S. phylici- folia, "Linn.," var. Davalliana ;, S. repens, Linn., vars. prostrata and ascendens ; *S". herbacca, Linn. ; S. reticulata, Linn. Orchis mascula, Linn. ; 0. maculata, Linn. Gymnadenia conopsea, Brown. Habenaria viridis, Brown. Narthecium ossi/ragum , Huds. Tofieldia palustris, Huds. Luzida pilosa,. Wild. ; Z. sylvatica, Beck ; Z. campestris, DC. ; Z. multiftora, Koch, and vars. conges ta and sudetica ; L. spicata, DC. jluncus trifidus, Linn. ; y. casta- neus, Sm. ; y. triglumis, Linn. ; y. biglumis, Linn. ; y. conglomeratus, Linn. ; y. effusus, Linn. ; J. acuti- Jlorus, Ehrh. ; y. lampocarpus, Ehrh., and var. idgritellus ; y. bu/onius, Linn. ; y. compressus, Jacq. ; J. squarrosus, Linn. Rhynchospora alba, Vahl. Scir- pus palustris, Linn. ; S. paucijlorus, Lightf. ; S. cars- pitosus, Linn. ; S. setaceus, Linn. ; Eriophorum vagi- natum, Linn. ; E. angustifolium, Roth. Kobresia caricina, Willd. Carex dioica, Linn. ; C. pidicaris, Linn. ; C. paucijlora, Lightf. ; C. stellulata, Good. ;, C. curia, Good. ; C. ovalis, Good. ; C. atrata, Linn. ; C. acuta, Linn. ; C. rigida, Good. ; C. glauca, Scop., and var. stictocarpa ; C. pilulifera, Linn. ; C. palles- cens, Linn. ; C. panicea, Linn., C. capillaris, Linn. ; C. pendula, Huds. ; C. binervis, Sm. ; C. fulva, Good. ; C. Jlava, Linn., and var. lepidocarpa ; C. QEderi, Ehrh. ; C. ampullacea, Good. ; C. pulla, Good. Anthoxanthum odoratum, Linn. Phleum pratense, Linn., var. nodosum. Agrostis canina, Linn. ; A. vulgaris, With. Aira aespitosa, Linn., and vars. brevifolia and pseudo-alpina ; A. Jlexuosa,. Linn., var. montana. Avena pratensis, Linn., var. alpina. JTolcus mollis, Linn. ; IT. lanatus, Linn. Triodia decumbens, Beauv. Kosleria cristata, Pers. Molinia acrulea, Mcench. Glyceria Jluitans, Brown. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 153 Poa alpina, Linn. ; P. glauca, Sm. ; P. Balfourii, Bab. Cynosurus crista tits, Linn. Festuca sciuroides, Roth ; F. ovina, Linn., and vars. tenuifolia and glauca ; F. rubra, Linn., var. duriuscula. Lolium percnnc, Linn. Nardus stricta, Linn. Hymenophyllum unilatcrale, Willd. Pteris aquilina, Linn. Cryptogramme crispa, Brown. Lomaria spicant, Dew. Aspknium Tricho- mains, Linn. ; A. viride, Huds. Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh., and var. dcntata ; C. nwntana, Link. Aspi- dium Lonchitis, Sw. ; A. aculeatum, Sw. Ntphrodium Filix-mas, Rich. ; N. dilatatum, Dew ; N. Oreopte- ris, Linn. Polypodium valgare, Linn. ; P. Phcgopte- ris, Linn. ; P. Dryoptcris, Linn. ; P. alpcstrc, Hoppe. Botiychium Lutiaria, Sw. Lycopodium alpinum, Linn. ; L. selago, Linn. Srfaginella Sclaginoides, Gray. Equiselum arvcnse, Linn. ; E. pratense, Ehrh., and var. alpcstrc ; E. palustrc, Linn., and var. sub- nudum ; E. limosum, Linn., var. Jluviatile ; £. varie- gatum, Schleich. Mosses. Sphagnum acittifolium, Ehrh., and var. dejlcxum, Schpr. ; rubcllum, Wils. ; quinqucfarium, Lindl. ; elcgans, Braithw. ; S. squarrosum, Pers. ; S. rigidum, Schpr. ; S. subsccundum, Nees ; S. tcncllum, Ehrh. ; S. papillosum, Lindl. ; S. cymbi folium, Ehrh. An- dread pctrophila, Ehrh. ; A. alpina, Turn. ; A. fal- cata, Schpr. ; A . crassincrz'is, Bruch. Gymnostomum rupcstrc, Schwg. ; G. curvirostrum, Ehrh. ; G. com- mutatum, Mitt. Wcissia viridula, Brid. ; IV. mucro- nata, Bruch ; W. crispula, Hedw. Rhabdoweissia fugax, Hedw. ; R. dcnticulata, Brid. Cynodontium vircns, Hedw. Dicranclla squarrosa, Schrad. ; D. subulata, Hedw. ; D. hcteromalla, Hedw. Dicranum fulvcllum, Sm. ; D. Starkii, W. and M. ; D.falcatum, Hedw. ; D. Blyttii, B. and S. ; D. arcticum, Schpr. ; D. fusccsccns, Turn. ; D. scoparium, L. ; D. ma jus, Turn. ; D. palustrc, Bry. Brit. Campylopus atro- virens, De Not.; C. flcxuosus, Brid. ; C. paradoxus, Wils. ; C. Schwarzii, Schpr. ; C. fragilis, B. and S. Ditrichum homomallum, Hedw. ; D. flcxicaulc, Schwg. Barbula muralis, L. ; B. unguiculata, Dill. ; B. fallax, Hedw. ; B. rigidula, Dicks. ; B. convoluta, Hedw. ; B. tortuosa, L. ; B. fragilis, Hook. ; B. subulata, L. Ccratodon purpurcus, L. Distichium capillaccum, L. ; D. inclinatum, Hedw. Eucalypta r/uibdocarpa, Schwg. ; E. ciliata, Hedw. Grimmia apocarpa, L. ; G. pulvinata, Dill. ; G. Schultzii, Bred. ; G. torquata, Grev. ; G. funalis, Schwg. ; G. trichophylla, Grev. ; G. Doniana, Sm. Rhacomitrium patens, Dicks. ; R. aciculare, L. ; R. protensum, A. Braun ; R. sudcticum, Funck ; R. hctcrostichum, Hedw. ; and var. gracilesccns, Bry. Eur. ; R. fasciculare, Schrad. ; R. lanuginosum, Hedw. ; R. caucsccns, Hedw. Ptychomitrium polyphyllum, Dicks. Amphoridium lapponicum, Hedw. ; A. Mon- gcotii, B. and S. Ulota Bruchii, Hornsch. U. intermedia, Schpr. ; U. phyllantha, Brid. Ortho- trichum affine, Schrad. ; 0. Lyellii, H. and T. ; O. leocarpum, B. and S. GSdipodium Griffithianum, Dicks. Dissodon splachnoidcs, Schwg. Tetraplodon mnioides, Hedw. Splachnum spJucricum, L. fil. Funaria hygrometrica, L. Amblyodon dcalbatus, Dicks. Afecsia idiginosa, Hedw. Catoscopium nigri- lum, Hedw. Bartramia ithyphylla, Brid. ; B. pomi- formis, L. ; B. Halleriana, Hedw. ; B. QSderi, Gunn. Conostomum borealc, Swartz. Philonoiis fontana, L., and var. falcata, De Not. ; P. calcarea, B. and S. Breutella arcuata, Dicks. Wcbera acumi- nata, Hoppe ; W. polyinorpha, Hoppe ; W. elon- gata, Dicks. ; W. nutans, Schreb. ; W. cruda, Schreb. ; W. carnea, L. Zieria julacea, Schpr. Bryum pendulum, Hornsch. ; B. inclinatum, Swartz ; B. pallcscens, Schleich. ; B. erythrocarpum, Schwg. ; B. alpinum, L. ; B. acspiticium, L. ; B. argenteum, L. ; B. capillare, L. ; B. pallens, Swartz ; B. pseudo-triquetrum, Hedw. ; B. Schleicheri, Schwg. ; B. filiformc, Dicks. Mnium undulatum, Hedw. ; M. hornum, L. ; M. serratum, Schrad. ; Af. punc- tatum, Hedw. Aulacomnium palustrc, L. Tetraphis pellucida, L. Tetrodontium Broranianum, Dicks. Oligotrichum hercynicum, Ehrh. Atrichum undulatum, L. ; Pogonatum nanum, Neck. ; P. aloides, Hedw. ; P. urnigerum, L. ; P. alpinum, L. Polytrichum sexangulare, Hcerk. ; P. strictum, Banks ; P. commune, L., and vars. humile, Schpr. and fastigia- tum, Lyle. Diphyscium foliosum, L. Fissidens os- mundoides, Hedw. ; F. adiantoides, Hedw. Hedivigia ciliata, Dicks. Antitrichia curtipendula, L. Neckera pumila, Hedw. ; N. crispa, L. ; N. complanata, L. Hotnalia trichomanoides, Schreb. Cylindrotheciutn concinnum, De Not. Isothecium myurum, Poll. Orthothecium rufescens, Dicks, (fruits freely). Homa- lothecium sericeum, L. Brachythccium Starkii, Brid. ; B. rutabulum, L. ; B. rivulare, B. and S. ; B. plumosum, Swartz. Eurhynchium myosuroides, L. ; E.Swartzii, Turn. Plagiothecium pulchdlum, Hedw. ; P. dcuticulatum, L. ; P. undulatum, L. Amblyste- gium serpens, L. Hyp mini revolvens, Swartz ; H. tin- cinatum, Hedw. ; H.filiciiiuni, L. ; H. commutatum, Hedw. ; FT. falcatum, Brid. ; H. hamulosum, B. and S. ; II. ciiprcss/forme, L. ; H. molluscum, Hedw. ; II. ochraceum, Turn. ; H. stellatum, Schreb. ; H. cordifolium, Hedw. ; H. giganteum, Schpr. ; H. sarmentosum, Wahl. ; H. cuspidatum, L. ; H. Schreberi, Ehrh. ; H. purum, L. ; H. trifarium, W. and M. ; H. scoipioides, L. Hylocomium splcndens, Dill. ; H. squarrosum, L. ; H. lorcum, L. ; H. triquctrum, L. HEPATIC/E. Marchantia polymorp/ia, L. Pressia commutata, Nees. Conoccphalus conicus, L. Targonia hypophylla, L. Frullania dilatata, Dum. ; F. fragilifolia, Tayl. ; F. Tamarisci, Dum., and var. atrovirens ; F. germana, Tayl. Lejeunea serpyllifolia, Mich. Radula compla- nata, L. ; R. commutata, Gottsche. Porella platy- phylla, L. Plcurozia cochleariformis, Weiss. L(pi- i54 HA RD WI CKE 'S S CIENCE- G O SSI P. dozia reptans, L. ; L. stfacca, Mitten. Bazzania trilobata, L. ; B. tricrenata, Lindley ; B. triangu- laris, Schl. Odontoschisma Sphagni, Dicks. Ccpha- lozia bicuspidata, Dum. ; C. Lammcrsiana, Hiibn. Lophocolea bidcntata, L. ; L. hetcrophylla, Schrad. Chiloscyphus polyanthos, L. Saccogyna viticulosa, Mich. Kanlia Trichomanis, L. TricJwcolea tonien- tclla, Ehrh. Blepharozia ciliaris, Nees. Herbcrta ad- ufica, Dicks. Anthelia julacea,', Lightf. ; A. Ju?-atz- kana. Blcpharostoma trichcphyllum, L. Scapatiia undulata, Dill. ; S. nemorosa, L. ; .S. resupinata, Dumort ; S. purpurea, Carr ; .S". planifolia, Hook. Diplophyllum albicans, L. riagiochila asplenioides, L. ; P. spinulosa, Dicks. Mylia Taylori, Hook. Eucalyx hyalina, Lyell. Jungermannia crenulata, Sm., and var. gracillima, Sm. ; J. lurida, Dum. ; y. sphccrocarpa, Hook. ; y. cordifolia, Hook. ; y. riparia, Tayl. ; y. Mulleri, Nees ; y. barbata, Schreb. y. Flxrkii, Web. et Mohr ; y. quinquedentata, Web. ; J. lycopodioides, Wallr. ; y. ventricosa, Dicks. ; J. incisa, Schrad. ; y. minuta, Crantz. Nardia emar- ginata, Ehrh. ; N. compressa, Gray ; N. scalaris, Schrad. Gymnomitrium concinnatum, Corder ; G. crassifolium, Carr ; G. crenulatum, Gottsche. Blasia pusilla, L. ; Pellia epiphylla, L. ; P. calycina, Tayl. Aneura pinguis, L. ; A. sinuata, Dicks. ; A. multi- fida, Dill. Metzgeria furcata, Dum. ; M. pubescens, Schrank. ; M. conjugata, Lindley. P. Ewing. Glasgow. THE SUN : ITS WASTE OF HEAT, &c. MUCH speculation has been before the public for some time on this subject. On our little earth scientific men have for years told us that plants and trees, men and animals, decay and die, and are resolved into their respective elements to form new combinations and be utilised, and that nothing is lost ; why, then, should the sun have loss ? I give you the theory of an acute mind and good practical astronomer, Mr. Nasmyth, a first-rate engineer, as all know. His opinion is this, "Solar light, its main source appears to result from an action induced on the exterior surface of the solar sphere, a conclusion with which all observers of its surface will agree. I was led to consider whether we might not reasonably consider the true source of the latent element of light, to reside, not in the solar orb, but in space itself ; and that the grand function and duty of the sun was to act as an agent for bring- ing forth into vivid existence its due portion of the illuminating or luciferous element, which element I suppose to be diffused through the boundless regions of space, and which in that case must be perfectly exhaustless," vide "Life of Nasmyth," by Smiles, P- 355. These words coming from such a man are well 1 worthy of our most serious consideration. Allow me to suggest a theory of my own, recorded in my note- book long before I saw Nasmyth's autobiography. I know very well I shall have an army of spectroscope men down upon me at once. But let them tell us how many of their spectrum lines are due to our atmos- phere. Of course we must all bow down to the un- dulatory theory of light — though some things in my experience of 45 years seem to militate against it. Taken broadly, the theory is a sound one. Now, whether the sun propagates waves of light, heat, and actinism all round into space, or, as Mr. Nasmyth suggests, inaugurates mesial vibrations in a medium of extreme tenuity, matters little to my theory. I main- tain that however these waves are set in motion, they contain within themselves only latent heat, light, and actinism. For where a force is not energised it can hardly be said to exist except potentially. On meet- ing with a resistant body like our earth, the planets, or the moon, whether the soft cushion of an atmosphere, or the barren reefs and gigantic eminences of our satel- lite ; then thrown into abnormal vibrations (a cross sea), these waves break into heat and light. Is there any heat or light from the sun outside these conditions ? Ascend with Glaisher and a companion seven and a half miles above the earth's surface, and the cold is so intense that, but for the warm blood of a young man, the whole party would have perished. Imagine if you can, the cold 5,000 miles from our standpoint, and I fancy the polar regions would be genial compared with it. Light — if the sun is constantly wasting this on all sides in space — how comes it, that on a clear star- light night we have so little light ; or rather, mutatis mutandis, why should we see the stars any plainer than at noonday in the Tropics ? I will say nothing about refraction, which ought to give us more light at night, nor of the earth's shadow in space, of which I am quite aware. Take the following as illustrations of my meaning. The sun has been taking pictures for countless ages, but it requires the chemist's art and manual dexterity to develope a perfect photo- graph. I heave (I prefer the dear old Devon " Hevive " though no writing can express the softness of the u and v) a huge stone into a small pond. From the centre of depression, rings of tiny waves are propagated and reach the margin — still I am not aware that a drop of water is lost or wasted. . . . Watch a heavy ground swell coming in from the Atlantic. Not a cloud in the summer sky, not a breath of air — on they come, without a speck of foam or a break, massive, silent in their majesty — a cable's length from crest to crest. But let them meet a rocky islet, or an ironbound coast, and the passive becomes active — leaping up in wild horse's manes, and falling back in cataracts of foam, or in thunder searching out the recesses of each rock cave, shaking the earth around, and filling the mind with awe, and the potential becomes the actual. A. H. Birkett. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. J55 RECREATIONS IN FOSSIL BOTANY. (Sporocarpons and Zygosporites.) By James Spencer. No. X. '/ TRAQUARIA. — This is another very singular J- but most interesting organism. It was described some years ago by Mr. Carruthers, F.R.S., who gave it the name of Traquaria. This sporocarpon is about the same in size as S. elegans, the diameter of the central disc being about ^ in. on an average. It has a spherical body, which is furnished with long spine-like appendages, which are covered with muricated projections that in some of the older specimens have been developed into branches. Under a high power, these branches are seen to be round and hollow, like the parent spines, and to be arranged round the spines in verticels, four branches in each verticel. The spines appear to have been very flexible in the young state, but to have become rigid and brittle in the older specimens. A peculiar feature in this organism is that the whole of the body and appendages appear to have been enveloped in a plastic substance. The sporocarpon wall is composed of a dark structureless membrane, enclosing the nucleus, a protoplasmic substance, which, in the mature speci- mens, becomes converted into round sphere-like cells. A somewhat warm controversy has taken place concerning the real nature of these organisms. Their original describer maintained that they were of animal origin, and that they belonged to the class Radiolaria. That th'ey have a strong resemblance to some of the latter forms, is unquestionable ; and any microscopist examining them for the first time would be impressed with the idea of their animal nature. Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., however, has always maintained that they were of vegetable origin. "With a view of settling the point, he placed some of these Traquarice in the hands of two of the highest authorities on the subject, Professors Haeckel and Strasburger of Jena, who both declared in favour of their vegetable origin. At length the question was finally set at rest by the important discovery in our Halifax material of a Lepidostrobus containing Sporangia, in which some of these Traquaria? were enclosed. There were three or four of them in each sporangia thus proving most conclusively that these Traquaria; are true macrospores. In my last paper, at the end of my description of Sporocarpon pachyderma, I said I was inclined to think that those organisms were a young stage of Traquaria. My reasons for this opinion are the following : ist. They both occur in groups'; 2nd. They are both enveloped in the same kind of structureless tissue ; 3rd. The peculiar branching tubes of S. pachydermia, are of the same nature as those at the bases of the spines in Traquaria. It is impossible to say whether they really do belong to the same organism or not, until we have obtained further proof. Sporocarpon cellulosnm. — This is another seed-like object of which there appear to have been several varieties. It has a spherical body with a central nucleus, which generally contains a number of rather large spore-like cells. The sporocarpon wall is thin and structureless, but it produces externally a number of delicate wing -like expansions. In transverse sections there are generally six of these wings, which are united together at their bases by the same kind of gauze -like tissue. The wings are somewhat irregular in size, but this is probably due to the way in which they happen to have been cut through. In the form of their external coating and wing-like projections these seeds very much resemble what obtains in Sporocarpon astcroides, and yet no two species can be more distinct than these are. In the former organisms, the " wings " and sporocarp are composed of a thin walled parenchyma of very large cells, while in the latter the sporocarp is formed of a very thick walled parenchyma of small cells. This sporocarpon is generally smaller in size than any of those previously described, although a few specimens reach their average size. In consequence of their very delicate structure these sporocarpons are generally found with their " wings " in a more or less dilapidated state, so that although the species is by no means uncommon, yet good specimens are somewhat rare. Here again we have the same tale to tell, already often repeated, of our ignorance as to what these interesting organisms are, whether they are true seeds or spores, and we have not the least clue to the parent plants to which they belonged. Although, judging from what is known about analogous structures, it appears very probable that they are macrospores of some kind of Lepidoden- droid plant. Zygosporites. — Among the vast number of spores which are found in our coal-balls, there are none more interesting to the student of fossil botany, than those minute 'organisms which have been described under the name of Zygosporites. There are several varieties of these beautiful spores, and it is impossible for the geologist to examine them long without being struck with their resemblance to those well- known organisms which occur so abundantly in certain chalk flints, and which are familiar to us under the name of Xanthidia. So great is the resemblance that upon the first discovery of these spores, and for some time after, we made use of the term Xanthidia as a matter of con- venience in describing our new spores. The fact that no true and undoubted specimens belonging to the Desmidas have as yet been discovered in the coal measures, caused Professor Williamson to incline to the opinion that these spores belonged to some unknown form of Lycopodiaceous fruit, rather i56 HARDWICK&S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. than to the Xanthidia. Hence, by the term zygo- sporites it is simply meant that these spores are like zygospores, and not that they were true zygospores ; thus leaving the question as to their botanical affini- ties an open one. The wisdom of this course has been fully demonstrated by the subsequent discovery of spores belonging to one of the species (Z. brcvipes) in a true sporangium. I had the pleasure of reading a paper on this new discovery along with some others, before the geological section at the meeting of the British Association at York in iSSr. Zygosporites brcvipes. — These spores vary from the whole organism however is so very small that it takes a \ or I in. objective to bring out these results. The perfection in which these and other minute organisms are preserved in our Halifax material is truly marvellous, especially when we take into con- sideration the fact that every atom of the original material has been changed or destroyed by what has been termed a process of slow combustion and replaced by mineral matter (chiefly, iron pyrites and carbonate of lime, the latter being by far the best material for the purposes of the fossil botanist), and yet this has been accomplished so exquisitely that the Fig. -Sporocarfon traqitaria. TJD to the zlu part of an inch in diameter. They are spherical in form, and the whole surface is covered with curious appendages. When highly magnified the latter are seen to be hollow and turret-shaped and arranged in definite order around the spore. In the transverse section, from nine to twelve of these minute turrets may be seen projecting outwards from the periphery of the spore. The appearance of these appendages may be compared to that of the pieces on the chess board called castles, especially to some of those ornamental ones which have the battlements serrated or divided into segments. The fossils are in every minute point (even microscopically minute point) of detail an exact facsimile of the original organism. It is only by the contemplation of the anatomy of such extremely minute fossils as these that the mind fully realises the wondrous powers of fossilisation, and also the extreme minute- ness of the molecules forming the fossils. It has been remarked that in the process of fossilisation the natural colour of original plants has been destroyed, but this is no detriment to their examination under the microscope ; on the contrary, it is a very great advantage to have them stained as they are, which HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 157 brings out"! all their different structures in a most satisfactory manner. In order to examine the various tissues in recent plants under the microscope, the student finds it most advantageous to have his specimens double stained, but the fossil botanist finds this done for him, the process having been undergone in the laboratory of nature untold ages ere man himself came into existence. So that the even other colours, are found in the various plant structures. Generally speaking, the walls of the vessels and cells of the plants are of some shade of brown, while the interiors of the vessels and cells and intercellular spaces are filled with calc-spar or pure carbonate of lime, which though frequently a pure white, is generally slightly stained. Zygosporitcs longipcs. — This is an egg-shaped Fig. 101.— Zygosporites longipes. Fig. 99. — Sporocar/ou cellulosum. Fig. 1 00. — Zygosporitcs brevipes. so-called new process of double staining is another illustration of the old saying, "There is nothing new under the sun." The material in which these fossils are best preserved is a light carbonate of lime, which appears to have completely saturated the bed of vegetable matter which has preserved its original colour of deep brown. But while the prevailing colour of the vegetable debris is brown, yet almost an endless variety of shades of brown, and sometimes Fig. 102. — Zygosporites oblonga. organism and rather larger than Z. brevipes. The body is covered with spines, which are fewer in number, and are also longer than those of Z. brevipes, hence its specific name of longipcs. The spines are seated on somewhat broad bases, and gradually become atten- uated as they approach the tips, but these tips expand into a cup-shaped form, but which appear to be divided into four segments, as seen in their transverse sections. In transverse sections of the spore, six i58 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. spines are visible, and they project out of the sporo- carpon wall at regular intervals, and present an appearance not unlike a number of short-pronged and long-handled hay forks. In tangential sections the spore may be seen bristling with these long spines. These organisms have not yet been seen inside of a sporangium, in the same manner as I discovered Z. brcvipcs, but it is not improbable that such will eventually be found to have been the case, as it is very probable that they are the spores of some kind of cryptogamic plant. Zygosporitcs oblonga. — This is another species of spore, belonging to the same group of zygosporites. It is the smallest spore of the three. It is a barrel- shaped organism, about two-and-a-half times as long as it is broad, hence its specific name oblougits. It is thickly covered with short stumpy projections, which are more numerous and much shorter even than those of Z. brevipes. They are round and hollow like the others, with thick rims which are broken up also into segments like the others. It is about the ^h in. in length, and about the 6ooth part of an inch in diameter. This must be taken as about its average dimensions, as, within certain limits, it is very variable in size. Tangential sections of the spore shew that it is thickly covered with these spinous projections, and in longitudinal sections as many as thirty of them may be seen projecting from the spore wall all around the periphery. The spines in all the three species are unicellular structures and are simply protuberances of the spore wall. Halifax. MICROSCOPY. Botanical Mounts. — We have received from Mr. B. Piffard, of Hemel Hempstead, a series of mounted objects illustrating botanical structures. The sections are stained and coloured, and are among the neatest we have ever seen. Mr. Piffard has adopted the idea of using an ordinary glass slide for mounting more than one object according to size. Thus we have sections of the common brake, casuarina, and spruce-fir, neatly arranged on one slide ; of acacia, abutilon, geranium, croton, and lemon on another ; and sections of the petioles of salvia, lemon, abutilon, geranium, aristolochia, croton, fuchsia, eucalpytus, and spiraea (nine in number) on another. The latter are most elegantly arranged in a circle, with the largest in the centre, and an engraved number on the glass denotes each object. These slides are a true botanical multum in parvo, and their neatness and high finish render them almost artistic objects. The Methods of Microscopical Research. — Under this title has appeared Part i of a work by Mr. J. E. Ady, who has proved his thorough fitness for the task by the able articles he contributed to Coles' " Studies in Microscopical Science," nearly all of which were from his pen. "The Methods of Microscopical Research " is intended as a Pre- liminary to Vol. ii. of " The Studies in Micro- scopical Science." The first part deals with "Reagents," "Methods of Preparation," "Micro- scopical Art," &c. Pond Life in Winter. — It may be interesting to some of your readers to know that, even in the severe winters of Northern Michigan, an abundance of microscopic life exists under the ice. I first noticed it in January of this year, in cutting holes through a foot or eighteen inches of ice, to water my team, in the valley of the Au Sable. Having no lens with me, I could not distinguish any of the species, but they were easily discernible with the naked eye. The winter here has been a severe one, and to-day (May 21st), there has been a slight fall of snow. — IT. IP. Hindshaiv, East Saginaw, Mich. ZOOLOGY. Direct Reproduction of Tape-Worms. — It is well known that these creatures usually require two or more hosts, in whose bodies they pass through their metamorphoses. M. P. Megnin, however, gives an account in the " Comptes Rendus " for May 7th of one species, Tccnia serrata, which directly reproduced its young in the body of a small dog. "The Butterflies of Europe." By H. C. Lang, M.D., F.L.S. (London : L. Reeve & Co.) — Part xiii. of this valuable work has just been issued ; the coloured plates are in our opinion the best which have appeared, including illustrations of Argynnis aglaia, A. Niobe, var. Eris, A. Adippe, A. Laodicc, var. Chloradippe, and Clcodoxa, A. paphia, var. Valezina, A. pandora, A. Ilecatc, A. Lathonia, A. Eliza, and A. Alexandra. Vanessa Callirhoe. — I read Mr. Swinton's article in the May number of Science-Gossip with great interest, especially his remarks on V. callirhoe. I have found this species in Madeira, in 1879. It is common in gardens in February. It flies like atalanta, and is often seen settling on a path or road with expanded wings, basking in the sun, in which position it is easy to approach. The larva lives on nettle {Urtica dioica), and resembles that of Vanessa atalanta ; it lives, like atalanta, in a rolled-up leaf in which it changes to a pupa. I have now an empty pupa-case before me ; it resembles that of atalanta, but is, perhaps, a little lighter in colour. I have found the larva and pupa in April. V. atalanta does not seem to occur at Madeira, but V. cardui is common in the sugar-cane fields in March. The Madeira specimens are rather larger and finer than any I have caught in England. The larvae are HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 159 found on the thistles which grow in the sugar-cane fields in May. Is not V. callirhoe the same as V. nidica, and V. vulcana? — T. D. A. Cockerell. Helix tersonata in Ireland.— It was I who found the specimen of Helix pcrsonata in Ireland, and as I have never yet made any public statement of the circumstance, perhaps I may be permitted to do so now. Mr. Christy is right in saying that the claim of this species to be regarded as British rests on a single dead shell. Some years ago I was searching for mosses over the sandhills at Newcastle, county Down, Ireland, and filled my vasculum with tufts of the various forms that I met with. On my return to Belfast the same evening, I proceeded to examine my plants, and at the roots of a tuft of a hypnum I found a snail shell which I did not know, but which was subsequently identified by Dr. J. G. Jeffreys as Helix personata. At first I thought of a fossil bed, but the shell is not a fossil ; though dead, and filled with sand it is quite fresh, and I can find no trace of a fossil deposit in the locality. Nevertheless, I do not regard H. personata as a British shell. Subse- quent searches in the same sandhills have all been unsuccessful, and unless there should be better reason than I have stated, it is better to leave this species out of our list. The shell in question was not introduced with ballast, it was found a long way off the quay, and there are no ballast heaps about the little port. Newcastle is one of the most popular watering places in the north of Ireland, and it is no unusual occurrence for people to stop there for a time who have also been at watering places on the continent. Shell collecting is one of the amusements of such resorts, and it is quite likely that some person, having foreign shells, dropped the specimen about which I write. This is my theory, but there are many ways by which the presence of this shell may be accounted for, without supposing it to have lived on the spot. — S. A. Stewart, Belfast. Nature-Printing. — We have to notice a novel style of printing from natural objects which has just been perfected by Mr. Thos. Stonywood. In this process the impressions are taken directly from the objects themselves, thereby possessing a vigour and a freshness, to which mere copying, however artistic- ally done, could never attain. Articles as diverse as a spider's web and a mutton chop are reproduced with almost photographic exactitude, round objects and flat being copied with equal facility. Thus leaves are copied with exquisite effects. As im- pressions of both large and small specimens can be transferred and on any substance, many channels are opened for the employment of this ingenious method of printing. Insect Life on the Mountains. — During a walk in May last, in North Wales, over that shoulder of Carnedd Llewelyn that stretches away below the bold peak of Yr Elen, I was struck by the abundance of insect life among the grass and moss of the mountain ; for over a space of at least two miles of my route, the singular creature commonly called the "Harry long-legs " was so abundant as almost to cover the surface, rising up at my steps ; and when I looked again and again to observe them, they were seen in swarms. Small beetles also of two or three kinds were very numerous, high up among rocks and short grass, at elevations varying from 1000 to 2500 feet ; so that I was led to reflect how varied and widespread, how profuse and generously scattered, are the forms of life in such wild and remote spots, generally looked upon as barren and desolate. Prob- ably such lavish multiplication of insect life thus, is to provide plenty of food for birds up there ; at least one reason among others. I may remark that I had gone there specially, selecting a good vantage ground, to see the magnificent precipices of Cefn Ysgolion Duon, plunging sheer down from the summit ridge of Carnedd Dafydd almost to his base, and forming a grand mural section of the rocks, said to be about 2000 feet nearly perpendicular : an estimate I should suppose not far from the reality. It needs braving a little unpleasant very boggy ground, which, even by keeping close to the streams, can scarcely be avoided altogether ; but the sight of this great wall of rock is worth considerable trouble to obtain, and when gazed upon from a good position will not soon be forgotten. From Bangor, as a resting-place, the base of the cliffs, or perhaps, better still, the grassy shoulder of Yr Elen, may easily be reached by leaving the main road a little beyond the village of Bethesda. I can recommend following up the Caseg stream, on its far side from the main road, and crossing it high up so as to strike over the shoulder of Yr Elen as before mentioned : the tourist then will soon find himself in a glorious solitude, sur- rounded by scenery of much beauty and grandeur. — Horace Pearce, F.L.S., Stourbridge. Swallows Hibernating. — Will the old contro- versy of swallows hibernating never be buried in oblivion ? I cannot imagine what proof of hiberna- tion is afforded by "Plutarch's" note in your last number. The swallow invariably arrives here (North- allerton) in April, and we are about 40 miles north of Leeds, where "Plutarch" saw his swallow on April 3rd. The following extracts from my diary show the times of appearance of swallows for several years back : 1863, April 16th ; 1868, April 14 ; 1869, April 13th ; 1872, April 29th (some had been seen by a friend before) ; 1873, April 16th ; 1879, April 28th (sandmartin seen on the 7th) ; 1SS1, April 23rd ; 18S2, April 27th (martin on the 16th and sandmartin on 23rd). I cannot believe that the bird was a hibernated specimen, because it was seen a week or two earlier than usual. — J. A. Wheldon. 1 6c HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. BOTANY. The /Ecidium of Ranunculus Ficaria.— This pretty /Ecidium is well known to many readers of Science-Gossip as a microscopic object. It is always interesting as being one of the first, if not the very first uredine to make its appearance in spring. Our knowledge of its life history, as derived from works in the English language, has, however, hitherto been either incomplete or inaccurate. Any one who places a few ripe spores of this fungus upon a drop of water on a glass slide, will find they germi- nate in less than twenty- four hours. If the spores be sown upon a healthy leaf of Ranunculus Ficaria, no result ensues ; for the fungus is unable to reproduce itself. As an ^Ecidium, as we have seen, the spores ger- minate at once, and hence are incapable of reproducing the /Ecidium in the following year even if the germ tubes could be persuaded to enter the stomata of the leaves of its host plant, which they cannot be. Unless we are wholly occupied in the mere collection of specimens of leaf fungi simply because they are interesting microscopic objects ; it is quite worth our while to inquire, how this fungus is kept alive from the spring of one year to the same season of the ensuing. There is not very uncommonly found a species of Uromyces upon the same ranunculus, and it has been suggested that because these two fungi occur upon the same host plant, that therefore they are states of the same fungus. This is, however, a pure assumption, and is not borne out by experimental culture. The ./Ecidium has never yet been produced from the Uromyces, neither has the sowing of the /Ecidiospore ever been followed by the develop- ment of the Uromyces. It has however been shown by Dr. Schroter, that if the spores of sEcidium Ficaria be sown upon various species of Poa, a Uredo, and subsequently a Uromyces, is the result. This Uromyces differs from the Uromyces dactylidis, Ottho (U. grammeum, Cooke), in various points, but notably in the absence of paraphyses in its Uredo, which the Uredo of U. dactylidis, always, possess. Up to the present time Uromyces poa, Rbh., however, has never been found in Britain. It must therefore follow that, either the Teutonic savant is wrong in his views of the life history of ^Ecidium Ficaria, or else our British fungus must have a different life- history. Believing, however, that Dr. Schroter was right, I took an early opportunity this year of search- ing carefully around any specimen of the /Ecidium I came across upon the grasses, and was as a matter of course rewarded upon the 25th May, by finding the Uredo, and soon after the teleutospores of Uromyces poa, Rbh., upon Poa trivialis. This is one more illustration of the fact, that careful experimental research is of infinitely more value than the haphazard destructions of the closet naturalist, however eminent he otherwise may be. If any of your readers are sufficiently interested in the subject, I have no doubt they will find as much Uromyces poa as they may want, if they only look for it on the grasses (Poa) contiguous to plants of Ranunculus Ficaria, which have earlier in the season been affected with sEcidium Ficaria. Since writing the above, I have received specimens of Uromyces poa from my friends, Mr. H. T. Soppett, of Saltaire, and from Mr. W. Marshall, of Ely, both of whom were kind enough to search for the fungus in question in the situation indicated above. — Charles B. Flowrigkt, King's Lynn. Our Charas.— As one of the ': few enthusiastic and isolated workers " who for the last few years have studied the life history of the Characese, and assisted in working out their British distribution, I most gladly welcome the article of Mr. Saunders that appeared in your pages last month. Some of his statements, however, appear to be slightly misleading, and as the article is written for the purpose of helping students in their study of these little known plants, perhaps I may be allowed to compare them with my own experience in collecting. Mr. Saunders says, "it is equally useless to search for them in shady pools or on the shady side of them." Whilst not disputing the accuracy of this statement as a record of the writer's own experience, I think it certainly is not correct in all cases, nor should it be accepted as a reliable guide in collecting. In the district worked by myself, the neighbourhood of the port of Goole and the rich tracts of marshland adjoining, charas are commonly found in shady places. Chara vulgaris is very common in deep shady ditches in Goole Fields, and at Polleric Carrs near Doncaster. A fortnight ago Nitella opaca was most abundant and in perfect condition, with ripe fruit in several ditches quite shaded by large hedges, and in Adlingfleet drain, near Goole, it flourishes abundantly in like circumstances, and also under the low arch of a bridge. That "they appear to grow only in such situations as are exposed to direct sunlight," is an observation quite new to me, and the species named in support of the assertion, " Tolypella intricata," does not quite justify that, nor the following statement that " in the summer they are in the best condition, and their curious fruits are ripe." Tolypella intricata is, according to my observations, developed very early in the year, and is in the best condition with ripe fruit in April, or early in May. After this time it rapidly decays, falling to the bottom of the ditch or pond. I have at present before me specimens, now almost rotten, gathered from a locality where in April they were strong and vigorous. Tolypella glomerata is also in best condition early in the year ; it occurred abundantly last year here, and was at its best in April ; after June it was not to be found. In keeping living specimens, my experience differs from that of Mr. Saunders. T. intricata in a glass jar soon HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. i6t died when constantly exposed to direct sunlight, whilst some kept on a shelf in the somewhat dark corner of a room was beautifully green and fresh the whole of the summer, decaying in autumn, and reappearing from the sand with bright green slender simple stems in January this year. Charas are like many other plants, in the best condition when their fruits are ripe, and in the before-mentioned species this is early in the year. Such species as Chara fragilis, which ripens its fruit in July or August, will no doubt then be in the best condition ; but my experience after some years of collecting is, that charas may be looked for with the best prospect of success in early spring, before the coarser vegetation which fills many of our ditches has started into growth. — Thomas Birks, jun., Goole. Leontodon Taraxacum. — I think both the classification and description given by A. II. Svvinton liable to mislead and confuse younger botanists in their attempts at identification. To begin with, the commonly accepted name of this genus is Taraxacum Leontodon. The full name is Taraxacum officinale. Then the varieties are not major, minor, andpalnslris. There are four varieties, as follows (vide "London Catalogue," last edition, and Sowerby's "English Botany," 3rd edition) with the separating characters for each ; 1. T. Dcns-leonis. Leaves bright green. Inner phyllaries simple at apex ; outer ones narrow, recurved. 2. T. erythrospermnm. Leaves dull green. Outer phyllaries lanceolate, spreading. 3. T. loevi- gatum. Leaves dull green. Outer phyllaries ovate- lanceolate, erect. 4. T.palustre. Leaves often almost entire, usually sinuo-dentate with the lobes ap- proximating. Outer phyllaries ovate, acuminate, and more adpressed than in 1, 2, or 3. Varieties 2 and 3 have a tiny ligulate appendage below the apex of the inner phyllaries, but may be separated as above, and by the fact that the achenes in var. 2 are dark red, and in var. 2 olive-coloured. The term "leaflets " is wrongly used here. The leaves are simple, with variously-shaped lobes. Var. 4 is not usually in flower until late summer. — H. W. S. Worsley-Benison. Flowers of Duckweed. — I took Lemna minor and L. polyrrhisa with flowers at Beccles last August, and L. gibba and L. trisuka near Willesden a week or two later, the former with a very few flowers here and there. L. triscnla I have seen in flower in Chepstow, Monmouthshire.— //. W. S. Worsley- Benison. Flowers with Double Colours.— Mr. Her- mann Muller has very clearly explained why such flowers as the common lungwort {Pnlmonaria offici- nalis), and others of the same natural order, have two colours, red and blue. The former colour is generally assumed first, and the latter as the flowers get older. He proved by examination that all the blue flowers of the lungwort were empty of honey, and the stigmas of their pistils were supplied with pollen. Mr. Muller concludes that the blue colours of the older flowers of the lungwort, whilst increasing the conspicuousness of the clusters of flowers, at the same time indicate to intelligent bees, such as anthrophora, to which flowers they should restrict their visits, to their own as well as to the plants' profit. The more intimately we are acquainted with the biological relationships of flowers, the more do- we discover that " every freckle, streak, and stain" has a distinct meaning and bears some active relation- ship to the well-being of the plant. In many flowers belonging to other orders the colours change as the flowers get old, as in hawthorn blossom and the little celandine, and these faded colours may also indicate to insects where their visits would be unnecessary and useless. Flowers of Pollard Willows.— Can any reader kindly tell me if there is any reason for the great preponderance of pistillate plants amongst pollard willows ? I have examined a great number, and have failed as yet to find a single staminate one- Is there any preference for the one as being more suitable for the purpose of pollarding ? Many of the trees were very old ones. — C. D. B. The Fertilisation of Willows.— Having, frequently heard it stated that the bee visited only the male catkins of the willow, I have, during the last few weeks, carefully observed the behaviour of these insects in their dealings with this plant. Fringing the Ouse embankment at Bedford, is a large growth of Salix triandra, and close by there are extensive beds of S. viminalis. The male catkins are yellow and decidedly attractive, but the females are green and less conspicuous. The bees also show the superior attracting-powers of the male over the famale catkins. Two or three times a week for the past month I have visited these willows, and only on one of these occasions have I seen the bees visit the female catkins, and then only because no males were near. Both sexes produce nectary glands, and the question arises what can be the object if the insect rarely visits the female catkins? The view I have formed (correctly or incorrectly I know not) is as follows : Amentiferous plants dependent entirely upon the wind for fertilisation have pendulous catkins, but in the willow the catkins are upright and elastic. The humble-bee is a heavy insect, and it almost invariably mounts to the summit of the catkin which is borne down by its weight. On the bee taking flight, the catkin springs suddenly to its original position, and thus shakes out the pollen-dust in the male, and further distributes that which may have lodged in the scales of the female catkin — both of which processes would be advantageous to the plant. The presence of the nectary-gland in the female 162 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. catkins I explain, partly on the principle of corre- lative growth, and partly by the slight encouragement it receives by the visits of the bee. — J. Ilamson, Bedford, GEOLOGY. " The Age of the newer Gneissic Rocks of the Northern Highlands." — Whilst Professor Geikie has been endeavouring to demolish the Archean rocks of Wales, other geologists have been finding Archean rocks in Scotland, and have thus succeeded in carrying the war into the enemies' camp. A paper on the above subject has just been read before the Geological Society, by Mr. C. Callaway, D.Sc, F.G.S. The object of the author was to prove that the eastern gneiss of the Northern Highlands, usually regarded as of "Lower Silurian" age, was to be placed in the Archrean. While admitting that this gneiss frequently overlies the quartzo-dolomitic group of Erriboll and Assynt, he held that this relation was due to dislocation accompanied by powerful thrust from the east, which had squeezed both formations into a series of folds, thrown over toward the west, so as to cause a general easterly dip. The Carson Footprints. — Professor Leconte, a well-known American geologist and naturalist, has been personally examining these footprints for several days, and he writes to " Nature," stating that the conclusion he has arrived at is that the tracks are not human at all, but were most probably made by a gigantic ground sloth, such as the Mylodon, the remains of a species allied to which were found in the Upper Tertiary Strata of Nevada. ."The great Ice Age." — At a recent meeting of the Royal Society, Professor James Geikie said that the limits were indicated of the Great Scandinavian ice-sheet which pushed itself southward over north Germany and over the watershed of Central Russia, and westward across the German Ocean towards our islands, thereby modifying the trend of the native ice-streams that have left their traces all over our hills and round our coasts. As an indication of the great power of this agent it was mentioned that some portions of the brown coal beds of Saxony which have been long worked are really not in situ, but have been pushed out of place by the ice-sheet. In describing the fluviatile deposits, Professor Geikie drew attention to a suggestion made by Darwin, that frozen snow accumulating in the valleys below the glacier limits might easily act as barriers and give rise to extensive flooding. The Liverpool Geological Society.— Part 4 of Vol. iv. of the Proceedings of this, one of the oldest •established of our provincial Geological Societies, is to hand, containing the following papers : — "Traces of an Interglacial Land Surface at Crewe," by D. Mackintosh, F.G.S. ; " Marine and Peat beds of Formby and Leasowe, recently disclosed by the cutting for the outersewer at Ilightown," by T. M. Reade, F.G.S. ; "Mammalian Remains from ditto," by F. G. Moore : " Subsidence of Land in the Salt Districts of Cheshire," by Thomas Ward ; " The Carboniferous Limestone and Cefn-y-Fedw Sand- stone of Flintshire," by G. H. Morton, F.G.S. ; " The base of the new red sandstone in the country around Liverpool," by G. II. Morton, F.G.S., &c. The Estuaries of the Severn and its Tributaries. — Professor Sollas read a paper before the Geological Society on June 6th on this subject. Various sources have been ascribed to the mud which is so characteristic of the estuaries of the Severn and its tributaries, such as the rivers them- selves, the waste of mud shoals, or of bordering cliffs, or the sea. The author considered the effect of these sources of supply, and showed that, although the first three are doubtless to a certain extent correct, they are inadequate to account for some very important phenomena. The tidal silt, on micro- scopic examination, is found to consist of both inorganic and organic materials, the former being argillaceous granules, grains of quartz, flint, &c. ; the latter, coccoliths, coccospheres, Foraminifera, occasional sclerites of Alcyonaria, fragments of Echinodermata, and triradiate spicules of Calci- spongia, together with numerous spicules of siliceous sponges, a few Radiolaria and a variable quantity of Diatoms. These organisms (described in detail by the author) are marine, and yet they occur on the banks of rivers at a great distance from a truly marine area. The author showed it to be improbable that they can have been derived, at any rate to a considerable extent, either from the older formations through which the Severn flows, or from the alluvial flats of its estuary ; for although the latter do contain marine organisms of a generally like kind, the spicules, &c, indicate corrosion, and are generally not so well preserved as those which occur in the tidal silt. It seems therefore necessary to conclude that a con- siderable proportion of the organisms now present in this have been brought from the sea ; but sponges are not known to grow in any quantity nearer Bristol than the coasts of Devon and Pembrokeshire. It would therefore appear that these organisms, contrary to what might have been expected, have beeu drifted up into the tidal estuaries of the river for a very considerable distance. The author concluded by describing in detail the alluvial tracts of the Severn, which he considers to have been formed (with certain differences of level) much as tidal deposits are formed at the present day ; and by pointing out the bearing of his investigations on the question of the probable results of the discharge of sewage into tidal rivers. In the HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 163 discussion which followed, Professor Boyd Dawkins said that he congratulated the author upon the way in which he had dealt with the phenomena which he had brought before the Society. The bearing of his remarks upon the sewage question was very im- portant. The physical change implied by the submarine forest in the area examined by the author and which Professor Dawkins had studied for many years, was to be observed all round our coast where the shore was a shelving one. The forests of oak, yew, and Scotch fir occupy a belt stretching from about Ordnance datum to below low-water mark, and he had identified the short-horned ox, goat, sheep, and hog among the animals discovered in them at various points. Between Porlock and Minehead he and the Rev. H. W. Winwood had found numerous flint chips and flakes. The forests, therefore, flourished in the age of the domestic animals, or the Prehistoric period, most probably in the Neolithic stage of that period, and formed a belt extending from our shores to an unknown distance seawards. With regard to the section at Porlock Weir, he could not agree with the author that there was a second bed of peat. It was, as Mr. Godwin- Austen describes it, merely a surface- growth of Iris. Dr. Hicks said that he could quite confirm, from personal observation, the views of the author in regard to the extension westward of the old forests. That the mud went landward instead of seaward was a point with important physical bearings. He remarked upon the distribution of the materials according to their weight and volume. Mr. Whittaker said that the paper had an interest from the analogies of the Severn deposits with others of a like kind. He had recently been working near the Wash, the low land bordering which was formed of material deposited by the up-tide, so that the materials were derived from the Yorkshire coast. The sections of the Severn alluvial flats corresponded with those of the Fenland. He thought it would be better to say that submerged forests occur at the junction of a river with the sea, rather than on a low shelving shore, as stated by Professor Boyd Dawkins. "Submerged forests" and " peat-beds " were sub- stantially the same phenomenon. It was, however, important to remember that the subsidence need only be slight. He had lately heard some facts with reference to the action of the tide in the Thames : — experiments had been made with floats, and in some cases the floats were found after a fortnight or more to have travelled up the stream ; others, however, had slowly descended. It was therefore evident that much remained to be learnt about the tides. Pro- fessor Sollas was glad to find that the results of his study of this particular estuary were sufficiently in harmony with Professor Dawkins's generalizations. He differed, however, in two particulars ; the first was with reference to the deposits immediately beneath the peat, which he regarded as not fluviatile, but tidal or marine ; and the next, as to the extent of the submergence which had taken place subsequent to the formation of the peat ; he thought the land need not have stood more than 20 feet higher than at present for the growth of the first peat-bed, and 10 ■ feet for the second. NOTES AND QUERIES. Land Shells. — In reference to Mr. C. Ashford's note in the April number of Science-Gossip, I may say that hitherto I have taken H. obvoluta in woods to a distance of five miles due west of Winchester, but have never had time to search further west. I don't know whether other collectors have noticed the abundance of Claiisilia Rolphii this year : here it is certainly the case, though C. laminata and Helix lapicida are less common than usual. Perhaps it is rather early for them. Cyclo- stoma elegans occurs in plenty, while in the water I have seen a great profusion of young L. truncatula and stagnalis. — B. Tomlins. Land Shells. — List of land and fresh-water shells taken during 1SS2 within a radius of twelve miles of Middlesbrough - on - Tees : — H. aspersa,. H. nemoralis, H. hispida, H. virgata, II. caperata, H. pulchella, H arbustorum, H. hortensis, H. hybrida (1 specimen), H. Cantiana, H.fusca, H. lamellata (1 specimen), H. aculeata, H. ericetorum, H. rotundata, H. concinna, Claiisilia laminata, C. ritgosa, C. diibia, Zua litbrica, Pupa umbilicata, P. muscorUm,. P. Anglica, Carychium minimum, Acme fusca, Helkella cellar/a, H. allaria, H. crystallina, II. pura, H. nitidula, H. excavata, Vitrina pellucida, Succinia elegans, Anodonta cygnea, Cyclas rivicola, C. cornea ; C. cornea, var. Jlavescens ; Pisidium pulcliellnm, P. amnicum, Valvata pisciualis, Bithynia tentaculata (also pellucid white var.), Planorbis carinatus, P. albits (1 specimen), P. marginatus, P. spirorbis, P. vortex, P. contort us, \Limneus pereger and vars. liueatits, ovata, and acutus ; H. stagnalis (very rare and small), Aucylus fluviatilis, A. oblongus, Paludina Lesterii (dead shell). Along the coast-line of the Tees Bay commencing at Salt- burn, we find the sand dunes occupied principally by H. nemoralis and H. caperata, between Saltburn and Redcar. Between Redcar and the Tees mouth, II. virgata and H. aspersa greatly outnumber nemo- ralis. North of the Tees, between the river and Seaton, virgata thins out and nemoralis becomes more abundant ; caperata ditto ; but near Seaton and towards Hartlepool H. cricetorum takes the lead. I have not found II. hortensis nearer to the sea than about seven miles ; arbustorum comes within a quarter of a mile of the sea in Saltburn woods.— Baker Hudson. Helix aspersa. — I recently took one of these snails with a bright pink lip to its aperture, and should be glad to know if this peculiarity is of common occurrence, as I have never observed it before. The inside of the outer lip is as distinct and bright a pink as sometimes may be observed in Helix pisana. — J. IV. Cundal, Bristol. Strange Food of Slug. — Mr. J. W. Slater's note on a predacious slug (Nov. 1877) calls to mind an. instance of, perhaps, a stranger taste in an animal of the same kind. In a city publishing-house, about two years ago, I discovered that the (cloth) binding 164 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. of a number of books had been destroyed by the colouring matter having been scraped off. A slimy track over the books and shelves left no doubt as to the author of the mischief, but the most careful search for it proved ineffectual. Since that period the damage has been repeated to a greater or lesser extent, almost nightly. About a year ago it was captured and placed in a match-box, in order to save it for me, but on opening the box I found it was empty. A few months since it was again caught and killed by an assistant who was not aware that I wanted it ; but the damage still goes on, and I am still in hopes of knowing the species which has developed such a strange taste. During all this period they must have subsisted on this colouring matter entirely, for there is no vegetation of any kind on the establishment, and although fresh leaves have been laid down at night from time to time with the hope of trapping them, they have remained un- touched. I may add in conclusion that a decided preference has been shown for books in crimson bindings. —2?. Step. Dredging off Sidmouth.— The Sidmouth coast varies very little from the coast from Hopes Nose to Langston Head. A similar class of anemones are to be found all round the bays from Hopes Nose to the end of the eastern cliffs. The class of anemones are as follows : Caryophyllia Smithii (madrepore) ; Sargartia viduata-anguicoma ; S. troglodytes, 5 sorts ; S. Candida ; S. miniata ; S. rosea ; S. nivea ; S. bellis, 4 sorts ; S. parasitica ; S. venusta, rare ; S. Aurora, rare ; .5". aurantiaca, rare ; S.pulcherrima, rare ; Corynactis viridis ; Bunodes alba ; B. gcmmacea ; B. thallia, rare ; B. elevata, very rare ; B. crassicornis, very plentiful ; Actinia Mesembryanthemum. The strawberry sorts very large, and the finest in England is to be found on this coast ; 4 sorts Anthea cereus, fine and common ; Adamsia palliata , rare ; Edwardsia spharoidcs — vestita, rare. The following also are found all round the coast : naked and tubed Hydroida, star fishes and sea urchins, sea cucumbers, tube and other worms, Crustacea, barnacles, polyzoa, and a great many kinds of mollusk, and fishes. The Sidmouth coast I have found much cleaner than the western coast, being open to the south and south- west gales. Having collected upwards of forty years on this coast, I shall be happy to give any information to inquirers coming my way. — A. J. R. Sclater, Naturalist, Bank St , Teignmouth. Natural History of North Wales. — In reply to W. J. R., asking for information as to any books treating on this subject, Williams's " Guide to Llan- dudno " contains a very good account of the natural history of the surrounding district. — J. E. IV., Chester. Bees and Colour.— On Sunday, the 3rd of June, a large bumble bee got into our church during the afternoon service. The east window was of stained glass, and the bee soon made his way to it. I watched with some little interest to see which colour he would select, and found a curious confirmation of .Sir John Lubbock's researches, by noticing him go straight to a blue band, about two inches broad, which formed a canopy over the side-light, although there were two other much more prominent colours for him to choose from. He crawled all along this, just as a bee crawls about in a flower. — F. C. Peccock. Bumble Bees and Cats. — In explaining the difficulty experienced by E. L. R., in the June number, it has to be remembered that the nests of bumble bees are frequently ravaged and destroyed by mice. The mice in their turn are destroyed by cats. Hence where cats abound mice do not, and therefore bumble bees do. This is how the fertiliza- tion of clover depends (indirectly) on the number of cats in the neighbourhood. — Henry Ullyett, Folke- stone. Bumble Bees and Clover. — Humble bees are (as explained by Darwin and Lubbock) aided in the struggle for existence by cats killing field-mice, which are very destructive to their nests. — Edward J. Gibbins, The Craig, Heath, Glamorgan. Species of Chrysomela. — Last week I found near Hendon, Middlesex, six specimens of a very interesting species of chrysomela, which I am unable to name. Would some reader kindly name it for me ? Its description is as follows : It is a little smaller than C. polita, its thorax is green with brassy reflections ; its legs are green, its elytra are almost brick red, with brassy reflections ; both the elytra and the thorax are covered with minute punctures ; the antennae are black (reddish at their bases) ; parts of the feet are covered with golden hairs. — T. D. A. Cockerell. Sending Lepidoptera by Post. — I should recommend A. E. Gibbs, if he has not done so already, to try the simple plan of affixing a separate label to the box in which the insects are. It is the stamping on the box which smashes it. The best way is to have a properly corked box, and surround it by wadding outside. The label generally prevents the box being smashed, even if it is only cardboard, which it should never be. Messrs. H. W. Marsden & Co., 37 Midland Road, Gloucester, have some very strongly made boxes, on purpose for postage of butterflies. — R. A. R. Bennett, Walton Manor Lodge, Oxford. Variety of Argynnis Euphrosyne. — It may prove interesting to some of the readers of Science- Gossip to hear that, whilst collecting in Belstead Wood last week, I captured a variety of the above in very good condition. On the upper surface it is deeply blotched along the outer margin of both fore and hind wings, and with only two spots on the costal margin of fore wing. Hind wings are very deeply blotched. On the under side the hind wings are of a pale greenish tint, with broad blotches of pearl, and a curious dark band on the outer margins of both wings. The under side is almost exactly like a variety of A. Selene in the cabinet of Mr. Bond, figured on page 37 of Newman's " British Butter- flies."— Harry Eaton, Ipswich. The alleged Habit of Hibernation of Swallows (C. G. Abbott, S.-G., March 1).— I read this with great interest. But allow me to bring to your notice, and that of your readers, two facts with- in my own knowledge. 1. The wife of our village blacksmith was the daughter of a respectable farmer, renting under the Harcourts at Newnham, and inca- pable of a falsehood. She told me this: "When I was a young girl, we had lots of swifts nesting under the eaves. Father thought they brought in a deal of dirt and vermin, so when the birds were gone in the autumn he had all the holes plastered up. The spring of next year was very early, fine and warm ; and sister and I were disturbed by a strange scrab- bling noise. Told Father. He said, Rats, and had the skirting board knocked away, and out came what we all thought was a great bat. Father took it up, and it was a swift, and we took out about forty of them, and as the poor birds were mere skin and bone we tried to feed them. No use ; so the poor things were tossed out of the window and flew away." 2. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 165 Many years ago I was at Sidmouth, in the winter. The autumn had been stormy. In December the weather changed, became mild, and on Christmas Day it was like June, —5 blue sky, a hot sun, and not a breath of air. Coming up to the wooden bridge over the Sid, I saw an old gentleman looking attentively at something in the pool. I soon joined him, and he said, "Look there, swallows flying about, sometimes touching the water, as they do in summer — sand-house martins, and there a true chimney swallow ; not tens, but hundreds of them." " Have they come from Egypt, sir, do you think?" I said. Old gentleman : " No sane man could believe it ; how could they get here in twenty-four hours ? " — A. H. B. " Appearance of the Swallow." — Under this heading, " Plutarch," in June Science-Gossip (p. 140) assumes that a swallow hibernated on the very small evidence of its being the first one he saw, and that he chanced to see no others for some time afterwards. The swallow was seen here (Glamorganshire) in con- siderable numbers on the same day (April 3) as " Plutarch " saw his supposed hibernated bird. The average of twelve dates of the swallow's first appear- ance this year, in different parts of the country, was the 10th of April. Barnsley (Yorkshire) sent date as 2nd of the month. Taking these facts into consider- ation, I think we cannot agree with " Plutarch's " assumption that his ear-ly swallow is another proof that the swallow does not always leave us. — Edward J. Gibbins, The Graig, Heath, Glamorgan. Tame and Wild Blackbirds. — Walking by some cottages last March, my attention was attracted by an unusual fluttering of birds, and, on looking, I saw a caged cock- blackbird, which was being violently attacked by a wild one ; the caged bird kept shifting from side to side, apparently from fear, and it was followed by the other. Is this a common occurrence ? — C. D. B. Wood-Pigeons and Owl. — At first sight it does seem strange that pigeons should show no fear at the approach of an owl. But your correspondent will recollect that white owls rarely (do they ever ? ) prey upon birds ; they frequently make their nests in pigeon cotes, surrounded on all sides by those of the pigeons, and doubtlessly prove of service in keep- ing down vermin that might be of more danger to the doves than the owls are. — jf. A. Wheldon. Ingenuity of the Lapwing. — When in the country this spring, my cousin told me of a curious thing he had noticed performed by a lapwing. When harrowing a field, one day, he accidentally crushed three eggs in a lapwing's nest, so that small pieces of the shell were wanting, and the rest much oracked. He noticed that incubation was well advanced, and placed them on one side. In the afternoon he went to look at them, and was surprised to find them all plastered and mended with mud, which was dry and set, quite covering the broken parts and cracks. The next afternoon the young ones were hatched. An elder brother told me he had seen the same thing done. — R. McAldcnvie, Aberdeen. Golden Plovers and Lapwings. — In reply to the query on this subject in the last number of Science-Gossip, a gentleman who has had much experience tells me that in Ireland he found to his cost, while shooting, that these birds frequently associate. He would frequently come across a number of both these birds feeding together, when the watchful lapwings would give the alarm before he could get near them ; if the golden plover were alone, a good shot might be obtained. On the other hand, in the south of England, he has met with flocks of golden plovers alone, which were fully as watchful as any lapwing. — II. C. Brooke. Starling's Eggs white. — On the 14th of May last, a boy brought me five eggs taken from the nest of the starling, two of which were white, although the two white eggs were the same size and shape of the others, I have doubts as to their being starling's eggs, never having heard of a similar case. I questioned the boy as to where he got them. He said he got them in a hole, in the wall of a cart-shed on the farm where he stays, and he had to put in his arm the full length before he could reach them, and he firmly asserts that all the five eggs were in the same nest. If any of the numerous readers of Science- Gossip could throw any light on the subject by past experience, it would be very acceptable. — A. Foster, Rodger Street, Anstrnther. Curious Eggs. — Two remarkable specimens of eggs have just come under my notice ; one is that of a common pigeon, a little bigger than a swift's egg, and exactly resembling it in shape ; another is that of a wood pigeon, which is rather smaller than that of a wryneck. Also I have seen a pair of thrush's eggs, not more than half the usual size, and some starling's eggs white, and almost round, being rather larger than a wryneck's. — //. C. Brooke. Ash and Oak. — In answer to Mr. F. A. Dymes, I may say that the oak is always in full leaf here before the ash. The oak referred to is the var. pedunculata of Quei ens robur. — J. A. Wheldon. Name for Stoat. — There is no doubt that the word "clubster" is a corruption of " clubstart." Stoats are still called "clubstarts" amongst the country people about Scarborough, and in other parts- of Yorkshire.— J. A. Wheldon. Sea Anemones. — I should be much obliged if some kind reader of this paper could tell me how to preserve sea-anemones by the dry process. — G. A. D. Slow-Worm. — Its food is generally of an insect nature, and it seems to be fond of small slugs ; its other name is the blind-worm {Anguis fragilis) ; it is called fragile on account of its custom of snapping itself in two when struck. Snakes can be fed oni tadpoles, or small fishes. They do not want feeding during the winter, but should always have a bath if kept in confinement ; a soup-plate answers that pur- pose very well, into which you can put the tadpoles- at feeding time. They also eat small frogs and newts.. or even mice. — G. A. D. Local Name of Stoat. — I have to thank your two correspondents, Mr. Southwall and Mr. Lynn, for their replies to my note on this subject in the April number of Science-Gossip. Clubstei was of course a misprint for Clubster, and the origin of the local word is now clear. The early dwellers in the north, wishing to give this animal a name to distinguish it from the weasel, would see in the black- tipped comparatively short tail its most distinguishing feature and would not unnaturally term it '•club- tail." Halliwall is somewhat indefinite in calling clubster a north-country word. I never heard it spoken of by this name in Cumberland. This name cannot, I think, be a corruption of Lobster, but is it not just possible that the latter might be a corruption of Clubster ? Doctors seem to disagree as^ i66 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. to the derivation of stoat. Some connect it with the Belgic stout, bold ; in Stormonth's English Diction- ary I find "stoat (from a supposed analogy to a stallion-horse ; Dut. Stuyte ; A. S. Stodhors, a stallion or studhorse.") Something as to the times and causes of the stoat's becoming white would be interesting. Some authors seem to speak as though •the stoat were never white in England, but only farther north. — John Howell, M.A., Ingleby Vicarage, Northallerton. Slow- Worms and Snakes. — Having kept many of both of these reptiles, I think I may safely give the results of my experience. With regard to feeding, I believe the slow-worm will not eat anything but white slugs and worms, preferring the former. The snake feeds on frogs and newts and tadpoles ; occasionally I have had them take mice, bread and milk, fish and insects ; but I think these are exceptional cases, and they do not thrive so well as when fed on frogs and newts. They should both be kept in light and airy cases, with a saucer of water for drinking and bathing. A piece of turf is also beneficial ; and the box should be so arranged that they can get sun or shade as they like. They both, especially snakes, like a strong-stemmed plant to climb about in. — H. C. Brooke. Mind in the Lower Animals. — I wish to answer some of Dr. Keegan's questions. When I say the word " Biscuits " (which is equivalent to meat), the dog does get up and beg. When I whisper the word "Cats," the dog does go where cats are likely to be found. Another dog, if the word " Mouse " be uttered, straightway rushes to a cupboard where he caught a mouse a long time ago ; while, if " Sugar" be said, he dances around one expecting that favourite luxury. When I say, "Out for a walk?" the dog straightway rushes to the hall door ; if I shake my head, he runs to the other way out. I have often tried the " crucial experiment" of taking a dog upon my knees and saying to it, "You're a stupid," or " You're a beast," as if it was something very excit- ing. The dog looked at me in a vague way, as if it would like to understand me. If, however, I say or whisper in a slow and measured tone, " Do you want to go out for a walk?" the dog instantly is very excited and rushes to the door. I have often stopped short at "Do you want to — " ; the dog looks very eager, for those words always precede something pleasant, but it is not till the words " Out for a walk " are spoken that he gives way to his delight. I intend to try the experiment of exciting the dog by saying " Do you want to — " and then to inquire if it wishes to be whipped ; if it manifests delight and runs to the door or to the biscuit cupboard, I shall admit that Dr. Keegan has proved his point. If, as I expect, it attaches no idea to the words, "Do you want to be whipped ? " I shall consider that Dr. Keegan must give a fuller explanation than he has yet given. — A. Dixon, Trinity College, Cambridge. Mind in Animals. — In the article "Mind in the Lower Animals," in the April number of Science-Gossip, the writer seems to think that animals are quite devoid of reason (the power of thought). I have always been fond of animals of all sorts, and I must say that as far as my knowledge goes I have found many cases which make me think the contrary. One instance which came under my notice was in connection with .a black and white rat ; as the writer mentions his cats and dogs as lower animals, I think I may be pardoned if I call a rat a lower animal. The incident in question was as follows : — A friend of mine had a pair of rats, which he kept in a large wooden cage. This cage was some- times hung outside on a nail driven into the wall, but more frequently was kept indoors. Some little time before the event I am about to relate happened, the mother rat brought into the world four very hand- some young ones, in which she had great pride. One day when the cage was in the garden, a sudden shower of rain came on, and we went into the garden to fetch the cage in. Noticing some small particles of wool sticking out of a small hole in the roof of the cage just over the nesting-place in which the young rats were, my friend opened the door of that compartment (which for ventilation had a few bars of wire across, in place of the wood which had been cut away). On doing so he found the mother fixed with her feet on to the door, so that part of her side and back rested against the hole ; and not only this, but she had poked some wool from the nest into the hole, but finding this not enough to keep her young from getting wet, she had placed herself in the position we found her in. Now, I think that this shows that the poor mother, finding her young getting wet, had thought out the cause, and came to the conclusion that the water came through that hole, and that therefore something must be done to stop the inflow of water from that hole. At any risk she therefore, with something more I think than instinct, first tried to stop it with wool ; but finding this of no avail, she acted with true mother's love, which is always ready to sacrifice its own comfort to that of her children. I think this proves that animals not only think, but are capable of acting on their thoughts. Should you think it worth while, I shall be happy to send you some more incidents of like nature. — A. G. Poiuis. Mind among the Lower Animals. — Though recognising the merit of Dr. P. Quin Keegan's paper on the above subject, I must admit that I cannot agree with all his assertions ; and without attempting to refute his logic, yet should like to hear his views upon the following instance of equine sagacity. A few days since I had occasion to avail myself of the tramway in order to proceed from the centre of the town to a suburb. I entered the car, and the horse started away merrily until we came to a place where the line branches, one line of rails running about east and the other north. The car I was seated on should have kept on the east line, but the horse decidedly refused to proceed in that direction ; in fact used every endeavour to get on to the north line. The whip, coaxing, patting, and leading were alike brought to bear upon the animal, but without success. As soon as the leader left the animal's head he again endeavoured to proceed northwards ; and it was only after a delay of some minutes and a thorough good thrashing, combined with a strong arm at his head, that he was persuaded that eastward he must go. I inquired the reason of his obstinacy, and was informed by the conductor that each horse had a certain number of runs to make (eastward), when he then took the car along the north line (at the end of which are the company's stables), and that at the terminus of that line a change of horses was effected. The conductor further explained that they were short of horses that day, and had to make an extra journey : this, he said, the horse objected to (no doubt wanting his corn), and that it was not the first time they had had the same trouble with him. Dr. Keegan states, nay asserts, that the lower animals cannot perform the simplest feat of mental arithmetic, and that any problem which requires for its solution that several reminiscences must be conjured up at will is utterly beyond the scope and resources of HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 167 the said lower animals' mind. I had his words in my mind when the incident I have related occurred, and it seemed to give the direct negative to his assertion. I should therefore be glad if he would be kind enough to look at the matter again, and let us have his opinion. — Baker Hudson, Middlesbrough. Mind in Lower Animals. — I should like to place one or two facts before Dr. Keegan bearing upon the above question. I had a black retriever dog from a puppy. When I first had him, I had a lodger in the house, and he never failed to distinguish betwixt persons who came to visit me and those who came to visit the lodger. My friends could go about the house with impunity at any hour of the day or night, but not so the friends of the lodger. He manifested the most determined dislike to their leaving the house after dark ; while a friend of mine, whom he saw for the first time, would be recognised the first day. With regard to understand- ing language, he was fed much on biscuits, which are always called cakes, and the word cakes always roused him, however spoken. He would always be close to my feet, if possible ; and many a time for the amusement of others, I have introduced the word " cake," into a sentence addressed not to the dog, but to them, without emphasis, and with my back to the dog. He never failed to show his recognition of the word, even if it went no farther than looking round to see whether it concerned him or not. The expres- sion of his face was a study sometimes. If the word was repeated he was sure to bark, having been taught to ask for food in that way. But a further fact, he could tell a lie. Now I think this an unquestionable proof of reasoning power. I was accustomed to feed him at one o'clock, and he knew the hour within ten minutes. He would sit as nearly in front of me as he could get, pattering with his paws, wagging his tail, and looking straight in my face. If I turned away he would come round to face my new position, and if ordered away, would give two or three short barks, but would not cease his importunities until fed. Now if I was away and someone else gave him his dinner, he would go through all this performance when I re- turned. If told him to go away, he had had his dinner, he always redoubled his exertions, and barked in a manner which I perfectly understood to mean denial. Several times he succeeded in duping me. The fact that my dog could tell a lie was well known to a number of people, and after he was found out, was a source of amusement to us. How will Dr. Keegan explain this without allowing some mind to exist in this dog ? However, I could cite other instances of other dogs quite as conclusive as this, only that I do not wish to occupy valuable space. — Edwin Holmes, 149 Essex Road, N. Miscellaneous Notes. — Seeing in the pages of Science-Gossip something about Paris quadrifolia, I might mention that I have found it growing in a wood not very far from Cockermouth, on the banks of the river Derwent ; it is rather rare. I have not seen it in any other district. The geological forma- tion of this part of the country is mountain limestone, which seems to be very rich in fossils. I have collected a good many specimens of shell fossils and ecrinites, &c. Could any reader give me some information on mountain limestone, as I know next to nothing about geology ? There are a good many species of ferns growing about here, the beech fern {Polypodium Pkegopteris), also the oak fern {Polypodium Dryoplcris), which is very common, in some places, almost carpeting the ground. The parsley fern (Allosorus crispus) grows in great quantities on our Fell sides. — A. Maud Dixon, Wood Hall, Cockermouth. Climbing Powers of the Dormouse. — Dor- mice can climb, and climb well. I have seen one climb up a curtain with the greatest ease, and hide away under the cornice at the top of a high window. Rats are expert climbers in a larder, though I know that farmers build their corn-stacks on raised foundations, erected on pillars, in order to prevent mice and rats from getting at the grain ; but I have seen both species climb a rough surface, or anything like cotton or woollen stuffs to which they can cling with their sharp claws, with wonderful quickness. — Helen E. Watney. Parcels Post. — A public notice has just been issued to merchants, traders, farmers, seedsmen, florists, and the public generally, that the Inland Parcels Post is appointed to commence on the 1st of August next. As regards science, geologists and mineralogists will probably benefit by this post, but it is doubtful whether the rest of the fraternity will reap an abundant harvest, since the measure is designedly framed for the convenience of dealers in glass bottles, fish, game and meat. By the way, has any brother naturalist in this nation of shopkeepers ever made experiment of the Sample Post, "Patterns" and ichantillons sans valeur arrange- ment ? Only last autumn I carried out an exchange of entomological specimens with the curator of a public museum in Italy. The matter was one of barter, and I considered myself justified in trans- mitting my butterflies and moths by the said post. As chance had it, my box proved in excess of the dimensions permissible, and after a detention of some weeks it was supposed at the Post Office that a question might originate as to the propriety of the proceeding. Rather than create any unpleasantness- I procured small boxes, lavished some ten shillings' worth of stamps on the labels, and sent them off letter post. My correspondent, allowing for the- rough ordeal of the Channel passage, received the consignment in a tolerable state of preservation, and then having restocked the boxes, he returned them to me "sans valeur" for less than that number of pence. Can any statist say what is the actual operation of this measure that renders possible the transmission of parcels into the United Kingdom at one-twelfth the charge of their transmission abroad ? Perhaps I take a partial view ! — A. H. Swinton. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than heretofore, we cannot possibly insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries which do not bear the writers' names that we are forced to adhere to our rule of not noticing them. To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of "exchanges" which cannot be tolerated. F. A. Steel. — Your specimen is the grape hyacinth [Muscari racemosus). Miss T. — It is not unusual for tortoises to lay eggs in this country, but we have never heard of any that were not infertile. L. Lee. — The specimen of the plant you sent us is Evplwrbia atnygdaloides. H. W. Kidd. — Your paper shall appear shortly. C. O. Lowe.— We shall be pleased to have your paper and sketch. 1 68 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. S. Sturt. — You cannot do better than get Gosse's " Marine .Zoology," 2 vols. Landsborough's " Sea- Weeds " (with coloured plates) would help you to the alga?. A. J. Shaw.— Get Dr. Cooke's " British Fungi," price 6s. Send us another specimen and we will name it for you. W. D. — We do not undertake to name exotic shells or speci- mens. A. H. Fisher.— It is a popular fallacy that the cuckoo sucks the eggs of other birds. The favourite food of the cuckoo is large caterpillars, which it consumes in numbers. Possibly the idea as to its egg-sucking habit may have arisen because the cuckoo is often chased by small birds, the latter possibly mistaking it for a hawk. See chapter on the cuckoo in Harting's new book " Sketches of Bird Life," and the article ' Cuckoo ' in the last edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica,"by Professor Newton. The goatsucker obtains its name from the current belief in Italy that it sucked the goats, hence its specific ornitho- logical name of Caprimulgus. T. H M. — From your sketch we judge that your zoophyte is not a Sertularian, but a Polyzoon. It is very like Valkeria imbricata. T. H.-We do not undertake to return the specimens sent to us to be named. All our answers are gratuitous, and are in- tended to help students, not to do their work for them and save them trouble (although many of the queries sent us are for the latter reason). You can procure a cyanide bottle, for placing your insect captures in, from any dealer in entomological apparatus. You will find full instructions in " Collecting and Preserving Natural History Specimens," edited by J. E. Taylor, price 3-r. 6d. See chapters in the above by Dr. Knapp and E. C. Rye. F. W. Crick. — Many thanks for specimens of Clepsine hyalhia. Answer next month. A Draper. — Could you send us another specimen of the parasite in Andonta? A. Beales. — Rimmer's "Land and Freshwater Shells," con- tains photographs of every species. Price ior. Mrs. Bell. — The best work on grasses is the volume of Sowerby's " Botany " on Graminese, which may be obtained separately. It has a coloured illustration of every British species. E. J. G. — You will find a good summary of Gadow's paper on the colours of the feathers of birds in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for last year. EXCHANGES. Wanted the following nests and eggs in exchange for others : nightingale, night-jar, golden-crested wren, goldfinch, hawfinch, red-backed shrike, stone chat, lesser whitethroat, linnet, jay dunlin, golden plover, snipe, waterrail, ducks (any). — H. Walton, Birtley, Chester-le-Street, Durham. Sixty species land and freshwater shells in exchange for small typical collections of fossils from either Silurian, Oolite, Cretaceous, Eocene, Pliocene. — C. T. Musson, Burton Road, Carlton, near Nottingham. For foraminiferous sand send stamped and directed envelope to F. A. A. Skuse, 143 Stepney Green, E. Science-Gossip for 1879-81, clean, unbound ; what offers? or exchange for vol. i. "Amateur Work." — H. G. Birch, 98 St. Michael's Street, Folkestone. Wanted fossils from chalk, Silurian or Gault, in exchange for foraminiferous sand from India, British land and freshwater shells, or a few Inf. Oolite fossils. — J. Rewcastle, 16 Hill Grove Hill, Stokes Croft, Bristol. Will exchange Mitchell's " Dictionary of Sciences," Schoedler's " Treasury of Science," Beeton's "Wild Animals in Freedom and Captivity," Chambers's " Practical Mathema- tics," Magnus's " Elementary Mechanics," for birds' eggs, shells, coins, British or foreign. — John Molony, 33 Gauden Road, Clapham, S.W. Irish eggs of dipper, grey wagtail, goldfinch, chough, hooded crow, heron-ringed plover, dabchick, swan, cormorant, puffin, razor-bill, guillemot, lesser black-backed and other gulls, and other species chiefly in clutches. Wanted in exchange good British-laid eggs in clutches. Send list of duplicates to R. J. Lusher, Cappagh, Lismore. Polycistinous earths, from Bermuda, Springfield, and Cambridge deposits, 6 slides per oz. of either, or books on •natural history, or Valentine's knife in exchange. — Tylar, 35 Burbury Street, Birmingham. For tentacles of the barnacle send a stamped directed envelope to W. H. Gomm, The Green, Somerton, Somerset. 300 microscopical slides for sale or exchange ; will exchange for polariscope or mounting materials. — M. S. Ridgway, 3 Bur- lington Building, Redland Park, Clifton, Bristol. A living plant of the Trichomanes radicans, dried specimens of foreign ferns, British mosses and shells, for other foreign ferns and shells. — T. Rogers, Oldham Road, Manchester. Offered 250 injected (trans and opaque), injected and stained, and stained preparations of 20 different kinds, all finished in cement, for micro cabinet, micro apparatus, or good slides. Send for list. — C. A. Lowe, Mill House, Old Park Road, King's Hill, Wednesbury. British marine shells for others new to my collection. — C. D. Salt, Maplewell, Loughborough. To exchange or otherwise, Mangelia striolata, M. costata, M. linearis, Venus ovata, Calptra>avinensis, Fusus Islandicus, F. antiquus, Lamcllaria perspicua, Natica nitida, Ianthina communis, Troc/tus exiguus, Emarginula rosea, Nucula nitida, N. radiata. Tapes pullastra, T. decussata, T. vir- ginea, Tellina solidula, Dcntalium Tarentinum, D. cntalis, Lacuna pallidula, Trochus granulatus, T. magus, Pandora rostrata, Ceratisolen pellucidus, S. marginatus. Will take Cape shells for any of the above. — A. J. R. Sclater, 23 Bank Street, Teignmouth. For exchange, over 50 varieties of rare parasites, Ixodes and Acari ; wanted, other parasites. — W. A. Hyslop, 22 Palmerston Place, Edinburgh. Larvae of Lacustris offered for British specimens of Betida Pruni, W. album, Arion, Lucina, Cassiope, Pansicus Actczou and C. album, also Sesiidae. — T. A. Dymes, Eastbourne. For flower of Sparmannia Africana (a lovely object for the micro.), send slide or interesting material. — B. B. Scott, 18 Chiswell Street, Needham Road, Liverpool. I.magos of Machaon, Edusa, Hyale, Rhamni, Galathea, &c, for other Lepidoptera or eggs of cuckoo. — J. B. Pilley, 2 High Town, Hereford. Duplicates : H. lapicida, H. rupestris, H. pulchella, IP. arbustorum, S. putris, P. marginata, Planorbis complanatus, &c, in exchange for other British or foreign shells, micro slides (palates and Diatomaceae preferred), &c. — P. T. Deakin, 46 Princess Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. To exchange, " Naturalist's Library," "British Butterflies" (1 vol.), "British Moths" (1 vol.); required, British birds' eggs, side blown, British land or freshwater shells. — E. F. Bechen, Hill House, Southwell, Notts. Wanted, Science-Gossip, 1871-81, unbound ; will give foreign shells. — J. R., Stonyhurst College, near Blackburn, Lancashire. Pillischer's Monocular, in case ; mechanical stage, xi inch objectives, two eye-pieces, &c. ; in good condition, figured, described, and priced in " Hogg on the Microscope," new edition, p. 93 ; one-third original value. — A. Stokes, Vestry Hall, Paddington, W. To microscopists : I have wings of those superb exotic butter- flies, Papilios Buddha and polyctor, Diadema bolina, Agraulis moneta, Apatura laurcntia, M orphos M enelaus and Sulktrwskyi, and Urania r/typ/ims ; microscopic objects not wanted. — J. C. Hudson, Railway Terrace, Cross Lane, Manchester. Mounted specimens of Batrachospermum vioniliforme for slides of other Algae (freshwater). — E. Wagstaff, 3 Waterworks Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. "English Mechanic," vols, xxx.-xxxvi., unbound, for "Midland Naturalist," or other works.— W. R. Wells, Green- brook Terrace, Taunton. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. " A Tour in the States and Canada." By Thomas Green- wood. London : L. Upcott Gill. " A Handbook to the Fernery and Aquarium." By J. H. Martin and James Weston. London : T. Fisher Unwin. " Half- Holiday Handbooks: Wimbledon, Putney, and Barnes." London : T. Fisher Unwin. " Third Annual Report of the Hampstead Naturalists' Club.' " Land and Water." "Midland Naturalist." " Journal of Conchology." " Natural History Notes." " Ben Brierley's Journal." " American Naturalist." " Science." "American Monthly Microscopical Journal." "The Botanical Gazette." "Canadian Entomologist." " Cosmos : les Mondes." " Le Monde de la Science." " Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes." " The Popular Science News." &c. &c. &c. Communications received up to 12TH ult. from :— F. A. S.— S. A. S.— W. C— N. A.— W. H. G.— H. G. B.— C. T. M.— F. A. A. S.— W. H. H.— H. W.— T. H.— E. S.— W. J. H.— R. I. U.— C. D. B.— J. M.— Miss T.— A. H. F.— P. E.— J. R.— "M. D."— W. T.— J. H.— W. H.— E. L.— T. A. C.-C. D. S.— C. B. P.— J. W. C— M. S. R— T. R. — R. M. McA.— L. L.— C. A. L.— S. A. S.— E. J. B.— H. W. K.— W. B.— A. I. R. S.— R. I. U.— I. C. W.— E. H. -W. H. G.-F. H. P.-A. H. S.— G. S.— I. S.— T. B., jun.— E. T. S.— M. D.-W. T. H.— I. C. T.— H. U.— R. A. R. B.— F. C— H. R. A.— A. M. D.— I. R.— E. J. G.— R. J. U.— J. A. W.— H. C. B.— H. W. S. W.-B.— E. F. B.— P. T. D.— K. F.— G. A. D.— A. D.— J. B. P.— B. B. S.— J. H.— A. F. — W. D.— A. J. R. S.— B. H.— A. D. S.— J. C. H.— T. A. D. — W. A. H.— Mrs. B.— H. P.— R. Y. G.— W. R. W.— H. H. H. — E. W.— W. H. H.— J. 0.— Dr. A. C, &c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 169 THE DANISH FOREST. By JOHN WAGER. V. — The Relationship of Associated Trees. AVING indicated the zones of the several species of Danish trees, I pass on, continues Dr. Vaupell, of part of whose works this and the following chapters are merely a sum- marised transla- tion, to consider their relation to each other when associated in the forest ; for there is, in reality, not a mere aggrega- tion of different trees and species, but also a certain relationship between them. They influence each other— form and transform, so that they may be regarded as parts of an organism, which absorbs and appropriates the natural elements. As re- gards the occurrence of the different species in the Danish forest, they are most unequally distributed ; while of one spefies large associations are found in nearly every forest district, there are of several other species but few unmixed collections, such being, in general, dispersed on plots in the forests, or upon their outskirts. The reason why they appear with comparatively so few individuals in mass, or do not form entire woods, must not be sought in sterility, or in want of capacity for associated growth ; for each species of our trees would certainly extend itself, and form entire woods, if not prevented by other species. Thus the oak copses of Jutland are of oak only ; there are purely oak-woods in South Zealand and Holland, and woods exclusively of hornbeam, of lime, of birch, and of alder, are also found. Thus we see, that not No. 224.— August 1883. the beech only, but other species of trees tend to pre- dominate and exclude the rest. The growth and extension of a species of plant is in general determined by the physical conditions — the presence of warmth, moisture, and nutritive soil, in sufficiency to enable it to grow and develop ripe seed. But these conditions, which suffice for the isolated plant, are not determinate when different species are associated during years of growth ; for then the relative growth depends also upon the degree in which one species can endure the proximity of another, and the interference and influence it exerts. In this respect there is great difference ; not because the one tree by respiration or contact can injure the other, but because it withholds from the other some portion of light. Conditions of light exercise a far greater influence upon the existence and growth of forest trees than of herbaceous plants. The different species of trees have a difference of adaptability to local physical conditions ; but each endeavours to cover the ground with growths of its own kind, and contention among them results. Some species of willow send forth an immense quantity of seeds ; the mass of winged fruit which in a single year falls from the ash, and is carried around by the wind, is so great that it could cover all Zealand with ash-forest if the seed got leave to develop itself ; and the same, in part, may be said of the birch and the elm. Birds every year sow all the forests with rowan-seed, yet it is rare to meet with even a small rowan-wood. Thus every species presses forwards, and there is struggling and strife in the woods. As with animals, so with trees, the one species oppresses the other. The beech dislodges the oak, the oak dislodges the fir ; the species which is in harmony with the special physical conditions obtains the sway. Meantime the fight is not without end ; when the tree has got the better of difficulties, it can peace- ably unfold its properties, and form forest after its nature. In the forests of former times the contest was between the aspen, the birch, the Scotch fir, and 1 170 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. the oak. This development obtained rest by the oak- forest becoming the dominant forest of the land. The oak's domination became disturbed by the intrusion of man into the forest, and perhaps at the same time by that of the beech, which is master of the oak. In many localities the new species made great progress ; but natural and social conditions impeded for many centuries its extension ; when these were removed the beech renewed the contest in all places. The new beech-forest now occupied all forest districts, as a result to which the agency of different other species had led. The fir, the aspen, the birch, and the oak, had all contributed to the formation of a soil suitable for the beech-forest, which in its natural, and not maltreated state, has first gained general extension in our days. In its completeness it presents itself with high, straight trunks, whose heads form an enclosing leafy roof. Seen from below, the heads appear small, but in reality are so large as to include a third or fourth part of the tree's height, and the leafy roof is so close, that light enough cannot struggle through to support the life of any species of tree upon the ground. Grass cannot grow in a good beech-wood ; of the numerous herbs, but very few kinds can be content with the sparse supply of light which reaches the soil when their leaves unfold. It is especially the wood-ruff and the wood-sorrel which form green garlands among the brown beech-leaves, and are living witnesses that the mutual bearing and order of the trees are what they ought to be. The following chapters are an attempt to show in what manner the natural conditions either do not hinder, or highly favour the aggressive tendency of the beech in the Danish forest, and to investigate the influence which heat, soil, moisture, light, and power of self-sowing exercise upon the distribution of tree- species in the forest. DAISY SLEEP. WHEN cycling along the highways and by- ways of South Beds, during some of the sunny afternoons of the spring of 1S82, my atten- tion was arrested by the contrast in appearance of the hedgebanks on the opposite sides of the roads. Those with a northerly or easterly aspect, wore a dull yellowish-green hue, by reason of the abundance of mosses on them, whilst those with a southerly or westerly aspect were gay with daisy blossoms. The bright sunlight which encouraged the growth of the latter, was fatal to that of the former, which luxuriate in the comparative shade and moisture of the cooler side. Or, in other words, when these banks were constructed, only those plants, to which direct sunlight was advantageous maintained their hold in the struggle for existence, whilst the others either perished or were but feebly represented. These contrasts just referred to, were, however, not always so strongly marked. On cloudy days, or as twilight came on, there was less dissimilarity between the two. The sides that had been all aglow with the white-rayed daisy heads were almost as sombre as the moss-covered banks. And why ? The daisies had gone to sleep ; or, in scientific parlance, had assumed their nocturnal position. The white ray- florets had folded inwards, covering the golden discs, and had themselves been partially concealed by the green linear bracts which surround the flower-heads. By these complicated movements, to which the term nyctitropism has been applied, the pollen is protected from the night dews and rain, and is reserved for those insects whose visits are necessary to ensure pollination. This is the transference of the pollen to the stigmas, without which fertilisation of the ovules would not take place, and hence no seeds would be formed. Since these insects fly about only during the hours of bright sunshine and frequent the sunniest spots, it is evident, that only in such situations and during such periods, expanded flower-heads are of greatest service to the plants. It has also been men- tioned to the writer by a keen observer, that when fertilisation has been accomplished, the flowers are less sensitive to the variation of light and shade. This has been confirmed by recent original observa- tions. Thus far the subject presents but little difficulty ; when, however, we come to enquire by what forces these mechanical movements are effected, much caution should be exercised in attempting to reply. When thinking over the subject, with the hedge- banks rapidly passing in review, as one sped pleasantly onwards, the problem forced itself on one's mind, and the following is an attempt at its solution. It may be presumed that at least two forces are concerned, viz., the varying turgescence of the interior and exterior sides of the involucral bracts ; and, the stimulus of direct sunlight on the ray florets. The latter is probably the most potent factor, and it is also accompanied by varying turgescence of the cells in the organs affected. Upon the examination of any bud of a daisy, it will easily be understood that during its development the exterior or lower sides grow more rapidly than the interior or upper. The difference though slight, is real, and is demonstrated by the fact that the convex side must necessarily be longer than the concave ; and as they both start from the same growing-point, the growth of the former must have been greater than that of the latter. When they have attained to com- parative maturity, growth in length is reduced to a minimum, although perhaps not absolutely arrested. During the hours of the night previous to the first opening, the air surrounding the flower is compara- tively moist and cool, and transpiration is hence but slight. As soon as the sun's rays fall upon the spot, the temperature is rapidly raised, and transpiration from the exposed surfaces of the involucral bracts is HARD WICKE* S S CIENCE- G OS SI P. 171 increased. This diminishes the turgescence of the cells of the exposed sides, the cell walls of which contract in consequence, and the whole organ is re- flexed. It is also probable that some of the water passes from the exterior side to the intercellular spaces of the interior one, which is hence rendered more turgid and forces the other back. Under these circumstances the inner side would be in a state of active tension, and the outer of passive. These con- ditions continue during the expbsure to direct sun- light, but when dense clouds intervene, or darkness comes on, the phenomena are reversed. Temperature is diminished, transpiration decreases, the cells of the exterior become turgescent, probably by the trans- ference of water from the cells of the interior side, and consequently the length of the exterior portion is increased, whilst that of the inner is proportionally diminished. Or in other words the exterior sides are in a state of active tension, and the inner of passive. Coincidentally with the processes that are going on in the green involucral bracts, the ray florets are being acted upon by the sun's rays. These cause them to expand their internal surfaces so as to reflect the greatest possible amount of sunlight and thus render the flowers conspicuous. In this way they are more readily distinguished by the insects who seek food in the tiny florets, and who are thus the uncon- scious agents of fertilisation. But how it is that the sunlight causes the ray florets thus to expand them- selves is not easy to determine, or at least a ready solution is not present to the mind of the writer. Possibly it is a power inherited from the true foliar organs, from which they have been modified, as leaves possess the power of expanding their lamina so as to catch the greatest possible amount of sun- light. This is very conspicuous in the rosette of radical leaves of the daisy, in which the arrange- ment is a compressed spiral. The thought also suggests itself that this compressed spiral of radical leaves is repeated in both the involucre and the capitulum. In the case of true foliar organs, this power of exposing their broadest surfaces to the sun is for the purpose of assimilation, whereas when they are modified into floral organs it is to render them attractive to insects. It is also noteworthy that in the latter case they no longer assimilate, but con- sume, for their tissues are constructed from the materials elaborated by the true leaves and other green organs. In the closing of the ray florets when no longer stimulated by direct sunlight, they are probably passive to the force exerted by the closing of the surrounding bracts. They are also doubtless affected by the diminution of light. The movements induced both of the ray florets and the involucral bracts are not uniform through their whole length, but are most active in a zone near the base of the bracts and just above the tube of / the ray florets. "Whether these movements are ac- companied by growth in length, or otherwise, would require careful observation to determine, but the in- crease in length, if any, would be exceedingly small, and could only be expressed micrometrically. Such growth is possible, and its probability is suggested by the fact that it is always preceded by turgescence of the cells. To the phenomena of unequal growth of the sides of bilateral organs, the term Nutation is applied. In all these complicated movements the real agent is the protoplasm of the living cells. It is this which has the power of imbibing water and also of parting with it into the adjacent intercellular spaces. These movements of the water contained by the protoplasm are accompanied by the exertion of considerable force. This force is converted by the elasticity of the cell walls into motion, which affects the whole organ. The elastic cell walls are passive to the energy of the protoplasm which they enclose, and from which they were originally formed. This is the only living thing in the plant, and it is this which is sensitive to external stimuli, such as light and heat. It cannot be too strongly maintained that the proto- plasm is the essentially vital principle in all plants. In its substance the whole of the materials from which their tissues are constructed was originally formed, and by its energy their various organs have been differentiated. J. Saunders. Luton. THE ELECTRIC LIGHT APPLIED TO THE MICROSCOPE. IN the part of the Journal of the Royal Micro- scopical Society for February last is an article by Mr. Steam, the inventor, on a Special Microscopical Swan Incandescent Electric Lamp. As I have bought one, perhaps my experience of it may be interesting to some readers of this paper. The lamps are miniatures of Swan's, being with the battery, &c, made by Mawson & Swan, of Newcastle-on-Tyne. Each lamp consists of a glass globe T7g in. diameter, in which is a carbon filament Tg in. long and ygg in. diameter. At the bottom of the globe the glass is fitted into an ebonite socket about % in. high, on each side of which is a strip of brass for connecting with the wires from the battery. The lamp weighs about I ounce, and costs \os. 6d. The battery consists of five large special new form Leclanche cells in a wooden box, price 37^. complete. These, with is. worth of covered wire, are the only essential things. Any other battery sufficiently powerful will do, if the fumes are not objectionable. Each Leclanche cell would, when empty, hold about three pints. Each contains a central column with six grooves, surrounded by six thick circular pencils of I 2 172 HA RD WI CKE 'S S CIE JVC E- GO SSI P. carbon mixed with carbon-dioxide. These are held together top and bottom by two india-rubber rings which prevent contact with the hollow cylinder of zinc by which they are surrounded. There is no porous cell. The electrolyte used is merely sal- ammoniac dissolved in water. There is nothing acid, poisonous, corrosive, or objectionable, about it. Ammonia is given off, but in such small quantities that I have never noticed any smell. Holders for the lamp are sold at 21s. each, including stand; but I have contrived a holder to fix on to the stand of my bull's eye condenser for 8s. The condenser has a ball joint top and bottom. Into a small hole, which happened to be ready made in my Crouch's con- denser, just above the upper ball joint and just below the lens, a small steel rod 2 in. long fits with a shoulder, and a screw thread with a minute nut. It can turn round in the hole. At the end of the red is a cradle-joint (a universal ball joint would be better, (cost 5idata, Miill. ; H. rotundata, var. alba, Moq. ; H pulchella, MUH. ; Pupa secale, Drap. ; Clausilia rugosa, var. albinos, Moq. ; Cochlicopa tridens, Pult. ; Cyclostoma elegans, Miill., and Acme lineata, Drap. Montagu also gives an account of an attempt once made without success to introduce Helix pomatia, L. into a Buckinghamshire locality. Summarising the information, it would appear that the census of the Buckinghamshire mollusca yields a very meagre result, only 43 forms (three of them being merely varietal ones) being known for a county which is so close at hand to the metropolitan collectors that we might reasonably have expected that they would long ago have exhaustively worked out its fauna, instead of leaving our present knowledge of it to be based on scattered and isolated and ancient records (those of Lightfoot being now nearly a century old), and upon a single collection made by a gentle- man who was not specially studying conchology. We can only conclude with the hope that — by the labours of resident or metropolitan conchologists — we may some time hope to see a full and complete and reliable catalogue of the Buckinghamshire mollusca. W. Denison Roebuck. Leeds. How to construct a Microscope. — Could any of your readers give me any information as to how to construct a compound microscope, what lenses would be required, their probable cost, and how to arrange them ? — Amateur. J74 HARD WICKE ' S S CIENCE- G OS SI P. MICRO-FUNGI BATHONIENSES. [Continued from page 147.] NO. III. WITH this paper I shall complete my list of Micro-Fungi as far as my researches have gone. During the present year (1883) I hope to add very largely to the list given at the end of this paper. To those who may read these notes, and be at the same time well acquainted with this district, a thought may arise that I have kept too much to one quarter of the country outside Bath, without paying sufficient attention to other equally interesting and productive regions, lying away on other sides of the city. Should such a thought occur, it will without doubt be per- fectly correct. Injustice to myself, however, I may say that my researches have been made chiefly at times when time would not permit of my going very far afield. However, at some future time I will, if it should be thought advisable, note specimens found on other than my own side of the town. I must add four more Puccinia to my list : — P. Polygonorum on Polygonum aviculare, at Con- quell. P. Syngenesiarum on thistle leaves, common in the neighbourhood. P. Violarum on violet leaves, sides of road leading to Claverton. P. Silenes on Silene iti/Jata, cornfield near Sham Castle. Of Uromyces, I must add one specimen, U. intrusa, on Alchemilla vulgaris, Combe Down. Two specimens of Uredo : U. Potentillarum on various Rosacea?, common. Uredo bifrons on Rumex acctosa, Hampton Down. At the top of Bathwick Hill I have several times found Cysiopus Candidas on Capsella Bursapasloris. Trichobasis Pctroselini is found on various Umbelli- ferae, widely distributed, and also T. suaveolens. This, then, so far finishes my list. As I have before pointed out, if those who take an interest in this branch of microscopy would but turn their attention to an examination of their own district, many valuable discoveries would doubtless be made. The field is large and the examiners, I regret to say, very few. The pursuit is a pleasant one and abounding in interest. Much too can be learnt of other subjects of natural history while pursuing this one. I would refer those of my readers who may be about to commence collecting specimens, and who may also wish to mount them, to Cooke's " Micro- scopic Fungi," 4II1 edit, chapter xiii.; also to the "Introduction to Micro-Fungi: when and whereto find them," by Mr. Thomas Brittain, and to my own articles on the subject in Science-Gossip for 1S79, page 3, and 1881, page 97. In conclusion I shall give a list of all those Fungi I have so far found, and which have been named in these papers. ^Fcidiacei. — Peridermium : Peridermium Pirn. ^Fcidium : sE. quadrifidum, Al. Epilobii, Al. Ra- nunculacearu?n, AL. Taraxaci, AL. Tussilaginis, AL. Viola: . Puccini^ei. — Phragmidium : P. bidbosum. Puc- cinia : P. Polygonorum, P. Malvaccarum, P. Composi- tarum, P. Syngenesiarum, P. variabilis, P. Umbelli- ferarum, P. Saxifragarum, P. Violarum, P. Silenes. C^OMACEl. — Uredo : U. Potentillarum, U. bifrons. Coleosporium : C. Tussilaginis, C. Sonchi-arvensis. Cystopus : C. candidus. Lecythea : L. Roscr, L. Valeriana:. Trichobasis : T. Petroselini, T. suave- olens, T. Geranii. Ustilaginei. — U. segetum. Urocystis : U. Pom- pholygodes. Erysiphei. — Erysiphe : E. graminis. Charles F. W. T. Williams. Bath. A CONCHOLOGICAL RAMBLE AT TENBY. WE were fortunate in securing most comfortable lodgings on the North Cliff. Tenby is divided into the North Cliff and South Cliff, and while the whole of it is eminently picturesque, yet the palm must, I think, be given to the North Cliff, with its beautiful fringe of trees stretching down to the shore, its great mass of rock — called Goskar — standing out conspicuously from the sea ; its views of Waterwinch, Ferncliff, Monkstone Point, and, far away in the distance, Amroath, with its submerged forest, and Pendyne with its wondrous stretch of sand. No. 2, Kent House — this was the name of the house we lodged at — so-called because the chief part of its woodwork was made from the timbers of a vessel named "The Kent," which foundered off Tenby many years ago. The morning is beautifully fine, and we start on our rambles ; past the Gate- house Hotel, then sharp to the right, then sharp to the left, by the old walls, along the Esplanade, down by the wooden steps, over the sand, and on to the Burrows, for we intend to begin our excursion with a search for some of the rarer land-shells that are to be found in this locality. And here, on almost every blade of grass, are innumerable specimens of Bulimus acutus, some almost colourless, some streaked with brown, and some with a single dark band ; while the variety bizona, with its two dark bands on the body- whorl, is seen at very rare intervals. Quite as numerous are the specimens of Helix pisana, a shell only found, I believe, on the coast line, and never inland. Here, however, they are to be picked up by thousands, adhering to dead brambles, blades of grass, the spikes of Carex arenaria, and the withered HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. i75 branches of the Burnet rose {Rosa spiuosissima), which grows here in profusion ; while the pieces of old newspapers left here and there by the various picnic parties seem to have an especial attraction for them, for every piece we meet with is literally covered all over with these snails. The variety alba is very frequent, and some of the shells are especially beautiful, having a rosy band inside the mouth, probably the effect of exposure to the sun. Helix virgata also abounds in every possible variety of size, markings and colour — dark brown, light chestnut, single banded, many banded ; bands white, dark brown, continuous, and interrupted so as to give the appearance of the shell being spotted. On a bank dividing a lane from the adjoining fields, we come upon Helix cape?0ata, feeding after a shower. Leaving the Burrows and reaching the downs above Giltar Point, we espy among the grass some fine specimens of that elegant shell, Helix ericetorum, and its variety alba ; but the finest specimens are to be found on the cliffs above Lydstep Haven ; some of them measure nearly three inches in circumference. Here, also, is another elegant land shell, the Cyclo- stoma elegans, hiding away under the root-leaves of the common musk thistle (Cardiacs nutans) and the ox-eye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum). On a hedge bank are plenty of specimens of Helix serieea, with its epidermis thickly covered with downy hairs, and also what we believe to be its variety cornea, for the shells are "horn-coloured, semi-transparent, and very thin." Dwelling on the same bank are Helix nemoralis, Helix rufescens, Helix concinna, Helix aspersa, Helix hispida, Helix rotundata, Clausilia nigricans, and, on old wall close by, Balea perversa, Cochlicopa lubrica and Helix rupestris. The reversed monstrosity of Helix aspersa is in our thoughts, but, alas ! only there ; for though we pick up some hundreds of specimens of aspersa of all shades of brown, and yellow-ochre, and of all sizes, the much- wished-for monstrosity is not to be found. The tide is now low, and we hurry down to the shore to try and add a few marine beauties to our store. Our first capture is Patella pellucida, with its bright blue lines. We find it sticking to the large broad, dark olive fronds of the Laminaria, or oar- weed, while we dislodge its stronger and less elegant variety lavis from its shelter in the root. On a large boulder close by, and covered by the tide at high- water, is a numerous colony of Purpura lapillus, some white with orange-coloured bands, others white with brown bands, some light yellow, some dull red, some with purple mouths, others with orange mouths, some thick, some thin, some smooth, some imbri- cated (var. imbricata) of every size and age. Here we take one specimen, with the body-whorl puckered up in neat folds at the suture. On the same stone, in the same endless variety, dwells Littorina rudis, some of which stand out more conspicuously than the rest, in consequence of their bright scarlet colouring. We notice also large colonies of Patella vulgala, with its variety elevata, covering a portion of the stone like an encampment of Lilliputians, and in a shallow, rocky pool, some beautiful specimens of its first cousin (not very easily removed) Patella athlelica. We know that Fissurella reticulata is to be found here, but though we make diligent search we are unsuccessful. While we are hammering at the rock, we are greeted with a miniature shower-bath, and on looking closer find the source of these waterworks in the little shell, Saxicava rugosa, which has completely honeycombed the stone. With considerable trouble — for the stone is particularly hard — we dig out several specimens, which we determine to place in our cabinet with their siphons extended and stuffed with cotton wool. In the crevices of the same rock, and underneath the hanging seaweeds, we take several specimens of Chiton, namely, fascicularis, ruber, cinereus var. maculatus ; and safely imbedded between the cells of the Balani we discover Turtonia (Cyamium) minuta, while high up on the rock above, beyond high-water mark, we take Littorina ncritoides. H. Milnes. (To be continued.) ANOTHER GARDEN PEST. PERMIT me to call attention to another garden pest exceedingly plentiful this season, and which I have found to be very destructive to the French and kidney beans and onions in my garden, so much so, in fact, that it became necessary to repeat the sowing of seed. The grub, when full-grown, measures three-tenths of an inch in length, with an average width of one- twentieth of an inch ; it is made up of thirteen articulations, some of which, however, are not very clearly defined. The two anterior articulations con- tain the mandibles, which consist of two powerful (for the size of the creature) curved jaws, with one tooth on each, which work against two similar teeth situated immediately beneath the mandibles ; when examined in the living grub they show the wonderful adaptability of the organs for excavating a channel up a small stem of a plant ; the head, if such it can be called, tapers off to a blunt point, while the posterior articulation is by far the largest, and is furnished with sixteen prominent spines of a some- what cartilaginous texture, the object of which is evidently to enable the creature to obtain a firm hold in the burrow, to enable it to drive its jaws into the stem, while by continually rotating its body it con- trives to attack the exact centre of the plant. The legs, if any, are of a most rudimentary character, consisting of mere elevations on the skin, while the most powerful objective I possess has failed to detect anything that would pass current for eyes. 176 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. The trachea; are plainly visible, extending along the back of the grub in two parallel lines, and termina- ting in four spiracles of a most remarkable character, two are situate posteriorly, and two on the anterior part of the body. I have found them to vary slightly on different individuals, in some particulars, but they all bear the same general characteristic form ; they are pedunculated ; those on the fore part vary very considerably from those on the posterior portion, the former expand into a fan-like shape, and terminate with a varying number of small tubes, each of which again contain two smaller tubes. I have found the number of tubes to range from six to twelve on different creatures, those on the posterior part of the body are of lenticular form, slightly concave, and The grub is hatched from an egg, which in form is cylindrical, very slightly curved. It measures "05 in length, the surface is very elegantly marked with fine reticulations, pearly white in colour, and is a very pretty object under the instrument. The egg is deposited just under the surface of the ground by the parent fly, which belongs to the order Diptera, and is one of the exceedingly numerous family of the Muscidae. Species ? In size it is about equal to the ordinary house-fly, the males being the smaller of the two ; it is of a dull greyish-green colour, the upper portions of the thorax and abdomen are covered with rather strong hair. In the female when distended with eggs the under portion of the abdomen changes slightly in colour ; under the mi- Fig. 104. — Grub enlarged 9 diams. a, anterior spiracle ; b, posterior spiracle. Fig. 106. — Posterior spiracle. X 200 diams. jmn#. Fig. 107. — Anterior spiracie. X 200 di.ims. Fig. 105.— Mandible, a, lower teeth in position, magnified 82 diams. Fig. 108. — One tube, show- ing position of small tubules. X 680 diams. contain in the concavity three orifices of the ordinary stigmatic form ; they are, however, much larger. I should judge their capacity for admitting air would be quite equal to the entire number of openings on the anterior spiracles. Unlike other creatures of this class I have been unable to detect any form of spiracles along the sides, this clearly indicates another special adaptability of means to an end, the original burrow being only sufficiently large to admit the grub ; air would be obtained with difficulty if the ordinary arrangement were maintained, whereas, by the one indicated, all difficulty in this respect is obviated. I have taken as many as fifteen grubs from one small plant ; one is the pioneer, the others follow in groups. croscope this change is seen to consist of alternate stripes of two shades of similar colour, giving it the appearance of a brownish-green ; the central portion, however, is of the same nature as the upper surface, and is likewise covered with stiff hairs. This forms a neat pattern on each articulation, which unitedly has the appearance of a fine streak. The wings are strongly veined, and the lateral margin carries numerous strong hairs or fine spines, which gradually change into hair at the apex, and continue round the opposite margin to the base. The ovipositor is capable of being extended considerably, and defies description by me ; the'proboscis or tongue is of the usual type of this family, and the following is Mr. Wood's description in his " Insects at Home." This HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. i77 organ is "short and membranous, and terminated with two large lobes. These are seen to be traversed by a number of air-tubes of a rather peculiar structure, all radiating from two principal tubes, one to each lobe. Generally the air-tubes, or tracheae of insects, are kept in shape by a spiral thread, between two layers of which they are composed, but in the air- tubes of the proboscis the place of the spiral thread is taken by a number of incomplete rings, called false tracheae. These incomplete rings look something like the ancient torque, or, to speak more familiarly, like a horseshoe. The open part of each ring is downward, and the result of this structure is that developed ; it then consists of an oval-shaped form, and is contained in a thin membrane. One end of this body is semi-opaque, and is the first clearly- defined indication of the future egg it has been my lot to observe (as I have not yet been able to obtain the pupa; stage). The other half is translucent, and contains about sixteen small bodies of a somewhat circular form, each containing a central nucleus. Attached to this end are two small sac-like bodies, also semi-opaque, likewise covered with a thin, and apparently structureless, membrane. The succeeding stage is reached when the egg appears in the cylin- drical form, but has still attached to it at one end Fig. 109.— Ova taken from grub, first stage of Fig. no. — Partly de- development. X 200 diams. ; average size veloped egg. X 46 •004. diams. ; '03 long. 'kam Willi1,1 mm )\\ I MS Fig. in. — Perfect egg. X 46 diams. ; "05. "I v-- ■••''• '•'' . •' ■' „>--" ■' .'• '.■^"v**/*.-"" . •■;. ■ '- ~lS?-~.~ ;' - , ^--N^ ------- ; ■ .^W^//*/"* ■ Sii •••■ ' Fig. 113. — Small portion of empty egg-case, showing the general arrangement of reticulation. -a Fig. iT2. — Further stage. X 46 diams. ; •04, a, *oi. they form a sort of strainer through which the liquid portion of their food is passed." It is rather rapid in flight, easily disturbed, and, on account of its colour, not very easily seen, unless closely looked for. On dissecting a grub fully-grown, a mass of matter is met with which, to all appearance, looks like ova in an embryonic state. It comes out in a flat plate- like form, and under a power of 300 diameters is seen to consist of a large number of separate cells, closely packed side by side. The further development may be traced in the perfect .insect more clearly by taking them in different conditions. The next stage is reached when the egg can be seen to be partly three cells, the one adjoining the egg being the largest, but each may be seen to contain the small bodies above described, the office of which is doubt- less the formation and nourishment of the egg. The perfect form is now reached, the reticulations are visible, which consists of two distinct descrip- tions. At first sight the egg appears to be simply a network of elongated cells, but if a high power be used, these appear to be formed by the thickening of the outer covering, and the spaces between will be seen to be very finely marked with small circular dots. From the region of fact I would for one minute turn aside to that of speculation, and ask what object 173 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. in the economy of the creature these delicate mark- ings on an external covering of the egg are intended to serve ? That it is not for purely ornamental pur- poses we may be quite sure. I believe the true reason must be sought in the necessity of the enclosed germ to obtain air, and possibly moisture. If obser- vations were continued under still higher powers, possibly the dots would be found to be small aper- tures through which these necessaries are obtainable. The development of the grub in the egg would be a useful study, but I fear my ability is unequal to the task. After the deposition of the eggs, the mission of life being fulfilled, the fly soon dies, and may be taken off neighbouring plants as though unwilling to quit the neighbourhood of the great object of its creation. A few words as to getting rid of this pest may not be out of place. In the "Garden" newspaper of this week, 16th of June, 1883, I came across the following, and I can only say I wish it had been published sooner : " The onion-fly is a great pest in many places ; some have found by keeping the roots earthed-up that the flies cannot get at them to lay their eggs ; it is a very sure preventive. In thinning the crop care should be taken to disturb the ground as little as possible ; for the same reason, sowing sand which has been soaked in petroleum over the beds, or water- ing them with one pint of petroleum in two gallons of water has been useful in keeping away the flies. When an onion is infested there is nothing to be done but to remove it carefully and burn it ; this is best done by digging up with a trowel, for if any of the grubs are left in the ground, or are allowed to drop out, they will probably find their way to other roots. If this method be carried out, the next brood of flies will be very much decreased in numbers." I had tried soot, and diligently kept the surface of the ground stirred, and thus I suppose have assisted this creature to lay the foundations of a future crop of the pest in my garden. The skin of the grub, as it approaches its full growth, becomes appreciably harder, and ultimately is changed into a chitinous condition. When the pupa form is complete, it measures one quarter of an inch in length, and is just one-third of this in width at the widest part. On opening one of the pupoe, a quantity of white fatty matter escapes ; the insect may then be extracted entire. The jaws, now being useless, are cast off in the pupa case ; the pedunculated spiracles are also discarded. Opening the now semi-metamorphosed creature, we again meet with the ova in a stage slightly advanced from that in the grub form ; they have grown to "007, are more distinctly granular in structure, more easily separated, and are quite spherical in form. I have observed with satisfaction that something prevents all the grubs from changing into the pupa condition. I have transplanted infected plants into pots, and thus compared the changes with those in the open ground, and I think I may say only about one-fifth thus change. The cause may be primarily this : the stock of food in the onion attacked being exhausted, and the creature, being devoid of legs, becomes exhausted and dies before it can wriggle to another plant. Possibly they have an enemy of which I am not as yet cognisant. W. H. Harris. Card i J: DEMOISELLE CRANE. GRUS VIRGO, {ANTHROPOIDES VIRGO).* AT the request of the present editor of the new edition of Yarrell, I made some inquiries as to the occurrence of this bird near Wincanton in this county, Somerset, a notice of which appeared in Science-Gossip for 1876, p. 66, and was copied from there into the "Zoologist" for the same year, p. 4928. I received from Mr. Bidgood, the Curator of our Museum, who at my request made a good many inquiries into the matter, the two following letters, which seem to show beyond doubt that the record cannot be considered trustworthy. One letter from Mr. Galpin of Harwood, near Wincanton, says, "The supposed Numidian Crane was found by Mr. Henry Dyke, son of the late Mr. John Dyke of Myland. He described it to Mr. Wm. Herridge, now of Clinger Farm, Archling- ton, who consulted ' Cassell's Natural History,' and sent the note to Science-Gossip. I have written to Mr. Dyke asking if the bird was preserved, who saw it besides, and other particulars, and here- with enclose his reply. The persons whom he names as having inspected it, are both dead." Mr. Dyke's letter was as follows : "In reply to your letter respecting the bird, I do not remember very much about it ; we kept it several days, and then it was thrown away. Father and Mr. Jukes both said they had never seen such a bird before. It was some kind of a heron, but had such a very long tuft on its breast. I cannot say more about it as I do not remember." I think it worth while to send you this- note on the subject, as the record of the occurrence of the demoiselle crane near Wincanton still remains in Science-Gossip without any contradiction or explanation, and might lead to difficulties in the future, more especially as it has been perpetuated in the " List of British Birds," published by the ' Ibis ' Committee, and also in the last number of the new Yarrell, though in neither of these publications has Grus virgc been allowed a place as properly belong- ing to the British list. I think now, however, that * Science-Gossip, 1876, p. 66. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 179 all ornithologists will agree with me, at least as far as the Somerset reported occurrence is concerned, in a verdict of "not proven." I may add that I am much obliged to both Mr. Dyke and Mr. Galpin for so kindly writing to give Mr. Bidgood all the infor- mation they could on the subject. I have not written to Mr. Herridge who recorded it, as he appears never to have seen the bird himself. Cecil Smith. THE ADMISSION OF CERTAIN LAND SHELLS INTO THE BRITISH LIST. BEING away from home, I must ask Mr. SherrifT Tye to excuse a very detailed answer to his courteous reply (Science-Gossip, July, 1SS3, p. 146) to my former observations (p. 1 12). It seems to me that there is now no further cause for difference between us, since Mr. Tye confesses that he quite agrees with me as to the "probability" {vide top of p. 146) of certain of the species under discussion having been introduced by human agency. Now, this is all that I wished to contend for ; and it seems to me that this confession of Mr. Tye's hardly agrees with his former statement, that ' ' in the absence of any information to the contrary," we must regard them as indigenous. I do not think that Succitiea oblonga can fairly be compared with Helix villosa. Had only three or four specimens (some of them dead) ever been found in England, and had there not been at least one inland locality, I should certainly have urged "introduction" on its behalf. With regard to Helix personata I may observe that my conjecture, that this species at least is an introduction, is so fully confirmed by Mr. Stuart's note (p. 159), that probably not even Dr. Jeffreys will now retain his belief in its being a native. In this case the question as to whether or not a species is likely to occur in Ireland which has never been found in England, is not now essential to my argument, and I am free to confess that in writing I overlooked the two instances of this which Mr. Tye points out ; but, nevertheless, I believe I am not wrong in repeating that, seeing the mollusca of Ireland is as much a " derivative " one as that of England, and that the Irish species in their migrations must, at some time or other, have crossed England, the probability at least is, that they will still occur here, although, as already mentioned, there are at least two well-known exceptions to this. I fear I have written obscurely if Mr. Tye is under the impression that I wished to dispute the fact of any migration having taken place. All I objected to was his statement that " the theory of migration points in a N.W. direction," which I hold to be a somewhat odd expression, and his assertion that the species under discussion are there- fore more likely to occur in the S.E. of England than elsewhere, the reason for which I still fail to see — perhaps wrongly. As to Helix lamellata and Mr. Tye's suppositions concerning it, I may remark that, unless my memory greatly deceives me (I have no books or notes here to refer to), I have found this species in one of the latest of the Tertiary deposits of Essex. I thank Mr. Tye for having called my attention to his remarks on the distribution of Helix cantia?ia. In conclusion, I desire again to state my belief that, on account of the extremely few speci- mens that have hitherto been found of the species under discussion, and their striking proximity to sea- ports, there is not only a probability, but every probability, of their having been introduced by human agency. Liverpool. Robert Miller Christy. CURIOUS MOTION IN THE FRUIT OF THE LIME-TREE {TIL/A EUROPE A, L.). EVERY one is familiar with the singular in- florescence of the genus Tilia, in which the long peduncle, really auxiliary to the large papery bract, is so adnate to this for about half its length, as to appear to spring from the middle. Well known as are these lindens, or limes, and especially the Tilia Europaa, L., I do not recall having seen any mention of the use that the plant makes of this scale in distributing the fruit. As the globular nuts ripen, the scale becomes more dry and papery. It also bends back upon itself from the point where the peduncle becomes free ; it is weighted as it were by the fruit-balls below ; sometimes, more- over, there is a lateral twist to the wing, making it not unlike the fluke of the propeller. Now when a breeze disengages this apparatus, it falls by its own weight, but, through the influence of the wing, at once begins to revolve rapidly upon its axis, looking like the governor of a steam-engine in rapid motion. I take it there is here a chance for mathematical research, but this is unfortunately out of my line. Will not some botanist of a mechanical turn, if such a being exists, study into this matter a little ? I take it that the purpose of the apparatus is, as in the case of the ash, to propel the fruit outside of the immediate radius of the tree. So like butterflies do these scale-borne nuts in the air appear, that I have been repeatedly deceived by them. It seems to me that the subject would reward the diligent study of one who combined good powers of observation with certain mathematical attainments. I would add that the nuts more or less break off before the disarticulation of the scale from the tree, one or two only remaining, and these standing somewhat at right angles to the main peduncle. May not this throwing the weight to one side itself induce the revolution ? Professor W. Bailey. i8o HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. ON BRITISH FRESH-WATER MITES. By C. F. George. [Continued from j>age 82.] EXT to Arrenurus, I shall deal with the sub- family Atax. There is some confusion about the term Atax, in consequence of different writers N mandibles alone, but as these organs differ consider- ably in different species of Atax, they would not by themselves serve to separate them readily from all the other sub-families ; the front pair of legs are, however, sufficiently peculiar to answer that purpose. They are, as a rule, somewhat thicker than the other legs, and bent almost like the blade of a scythe ; but the characteristic part is, that they have very strong Fig. 114. — Tore-leg of Atax (magnified), showing swimming thorns. Fig. 116. — Sexual discs. I objective. Fig. 115. — Mandibles of Atax (mag.). applying the word to mites belonging to different families ; I shall, however, use it to signify creatures so called by Koch ; these are numerous in species, he having described twenty-one, a little more than half the number attributed by him to Arrenurus. They would easily be distinguished from Arrenurus by the Fig. 117.— Sexual discs. I objective. and rigid swimming bristles attached to projections in such a manner that, when the creature uses these legs in one direction, these bristles or thorns shut up like the blade of a knife, and, on the contrary, whilst making the effectual stroke in the other direction, they remain rigid at right angles ; one can under- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 181 stand what very powerful aids to progression these organs must be. The left front leg of a species of Atax shows the swimming thorns, and in Fig. 114 we have a portion much magnified ; the lower thorn is bent out of place, the other two are in position. These mites have soft bodies, and long legs. The bodies vary in shape in the different species. They swim in a very peculiar manner, making a few energetic strokes, and then resting with outstretched legs until they gradually sink for some distance, sometimes to the bottom of the vessel in which they are kept ; when they walk, the fore legs are kept stretched out in front, like antennae, and not used for progression. The palpi have on the outer side of the last joint but one, a large process, and on the inner side, two smaller ones, so that in extreme flexion, the last joint would have the one process on the outside, Fig. 118. — Atax. 2 inch objective. and the two smaller ones on the inner side, and hence give the creature a powerful grip of anything capable of being seized by them ; the figure shows the outer side of the upper mandible, and the inner side of the lower one ; the processes mentioned are well shown, they are not, however, so well developed in all species of Atax, the eyes are very curious, and can be moved by powerful muscles ; each eye has two lenses, one in front, and the other at the side, as in some species of Trombiclium. The termination of the body, and the arrangement of the sexual discs, or cups, is very variable. I have very generally found it difficult to make any specimens agree with those figured by Koch. Fig. 118 represents an Atax, under a two-inch objective, it resembles Koch's Atax elegatis. The Y-shaped mark is yellow, the cceca black, and the legs green ; the eyes are a dark cinnabar red. THE COMMON ORCHIS {ORCHIS MASCULA). MR. MALAN, in his paper on this subject, falls into some errors with respect to the fertilisa- tion which, unless they are corrected, will be certain to lead those who have not been able to obtain this flower very much astray. I will endeavour to point them out, and also make a few remarks on other por- tions of his paper. On page 76 he says : " Directly the rostellum is touched a viscid drop exudes, which sets hard and fast like cement, and when the bee with- draws its head a pollinia is firmly attached." He very curiously gives this as a quotation from Mr. Darwin. Instead of that, Mr. Darwin's description is as follows : "Let us suppose an insect to alight on the labellum, which forms a good landing-place, and to push its head into the chamber, in order to reach with its proboscis the end of the nectary. Owing to the pouch-formed ros- tellum projecting into the gangway of the nectary, it is scarcely possible that any object can be pushed into it without the rostellum being touched. The exterior membrane of the rostellum then ruptures in the proper lines, and the lip or pouch is most easily depressed. When this is effected the one or both of the viscid balls will most infallibly touch the intruding body, and whatever they touch they firmly stick to." It will be noticed that this quotation is very different from Mr. Malan's, and I conclude he gave it from memory, and in so doing has confounded the ferti- lisation of Orchis mascida with that of Listera ovata or Ncottia nidus-avis, both of which explode ; and they are, I think, the only English orchids which do so. Mr. Malan does not seem to have noticed the lip or pouch which plays a most important part in the fertilisation, as it does, the viscid balls which are to the base of the pollinia. Should the pouch be depressed without the pollinia being re- moved, it rises and protects the viscid balls ; or if only one be removed it rises and protects the other. This, as will be seen, is most essential, as otherwise, the viscid matter setting in about thirty seconds, the pollen would be wasted. Again he says: "The viscid disc drying causes the pollinia to sweep through an angle of about ninety degrees." This, I venture to say, is rather misleading. If the viscid disc as a whole dried, the pollinia, as any one who will think for one moment will see, would not go through any movement of depression; but would remain in an upright position. It is caused by the drying of a small portion of the disc on the side nearest the centre of the flower, on the opposite side to the pouch. Mr. Malan says that in April the tubers are covering, attached 182 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. two inches below the surface of the ground, whereas in August they are six. Therefore they must make two journeys annually ; one downwards between April and August, and another upwards between August and the following April. If this is so, why did not the tuber mentioned by Mr. Malan as being planted deeply, rise to the surface? As to the new tuber going down for the purpose of obtaining fresh ground, this is obtained — and to my mind in a more effectual manner— by its growing by the side of the old one, and travelling always in one direction. Lastly, as to the breaking of the spike rendering the next year's tuber abortive, this from Mr. Malan's own reasoning I cannot understand. He argues that the tuber has little or nothing to do with the flowers and leaves, but simply converts itself, as it were, into a new one ; and mentions a case where he saw a perfectly healthy plant minus the tubers. Now if this is so, what can the breaking of the scape of the old flower have to do with the new one ? The old tuber takes no part in the growth of the spike, and of necessity would not be injured by any damage to the scape ; how then can the new tuber be thus affected ? I hope that Mr. Malan will take these notes in the spirit intended — that of obtaining all the facts pos- sible about this very interesting plant. G. M. THE SUN-DEWS. ON the skirts of the New Forest, about a mile out of Lymington, following the coast line towards Hordle Cliff, you come upon Pennington, a straggling village, as all villages are in that part of the county ; you soon emerge on a large stretch of open uncultivated land, the first portion, near the church, and it may be presumed the centre of the "village," for there is no other evidence of the fact, the common proper commences, a place devoted to cricket, the browsing of donkeys, and the privileges of the commoners generally. Beyond this, still bear- ing towards the coast, for half a mile, you reach primitive ground ; land trodden often, but untouched by plough or spade since the days of the Red King. In the distance the fir tops, black and weird, backed by an angry setting sun, can only be compared to the roofs and spires of a far distant city. But we are not here to contemplate the distant, so much as to seek for curious plants, and here they may be trodden down and crushed at every footstep. In this respect, the spot is full of interest ; here and there the shallow stratum of gravel has been pared off, revealing the chalk subsoil, leaving pools of surface water, which trickle away into boggy patches ; such a pool is the metropolis of Rotifera, Polyzoa, Diatoms, Desmids, and the many marvels of microscopic life. Large tussocks of water-loving mosses, and soft treacherous places become the nidus of a minute and strange vegetation ; and it is here (associated with, and modestly hidden by, its constant companion, the Sphag- num) may be found in great abundance, that strange insect-sucking plant, the spider of the vegetable world, sun-dew {Drosera rotundifolia). It is supposed to be somewhat rare and localised, but its minute- ness renders it liable to be overlooked, except to the practised eye (and sharper eyes than mine first detected it on these commons). It can only be dis- covered by one who knows the plant, and who purposely seeks for it ; to reveal its peculiarities it requires a magnifying power — its habitat is that of a dry sunny atmosphere (attractive to insects), with a constantly wet and extremely rich boggy soil ; it shuns interference, could never be transplanted or cultivated without the most constant attention, as it would re- quire "feeding." In this part of the county it was supposed to be found only in the recesses of the picturesque woods and preserves of Arnewood House, about a mile beyond ; without doubt, Drosera is common enough when you have observant eyes to "spot" it. The readers of Science-Gossip are too well ac- quainted with the plant to need any botanical description, but it is possible that many have never seen it under the most favourable circumstances. In Mr. Darwin's " Insectivorous Plants," most admirable drawings are found of its structures ; microscopical preparations of its leaves, hairs, and tentacles are within easy reach, as well prepared as they could possibly be. Again, you may endeavour, but in vain, to preserve it in "captivity," a term not inex- plicable, for it would require " feeding ; " and even if taken fresh from the bog, and as speedily as possible carried to your microscope, in every case its unique peculiarity and beauty would be lost. In a word, to behold it in its integrity, and to see the adaptability of the plant to the purposes of its peculiar necessities, it must be examined on the spot ; if ever a plant was born to blush unseen, it is Drosera ; lifting it from its bed, and examining at once through a good platy- scopic pocket-lens, is to behold what no drawing could illustrate, no pen could describe. In six plants examined, the leaves of all, with few exceptions, contained the integuments of insects sucked dry : ants and the smaller diptera seem to be the principal prey, but the interest of the plant consists in the singular conformation of its catching apparatus ; the centre glands of the leaf are obviously a modification of the outer tentacles which entirely surround the leaf. An insect coming into contact with only one of these processes is at once enveloped and delivered up to the centre glands to do their work ; the tentacles again expand for the capture of fresh prey. These glands and tentacles, seen under a lens, are singularly beautiful"; each is tipped with a droplet of tenacious and treacherous liquid, gleaming in the sunlight like diamonds. Any insect (and often many are of con- siderable size) touching them at once stimulates the HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 183 entire circle, and escape is hopeless ; so adhesive is this secretion that the entire plant may be suspended from the tip of a finger by only touching one of the leaves. Associated with the sun-dew are the butter- worts, and they may be found here in abundance. The solitude of the district is strikingly apparent. The naturalist may revel without fear of interruption ; few people are to be seen, and even the cottages straggle and settle themselves in obscure corners ; the villages have no cohesion, it is actually impossible to be assured when you are in a village. When a new cottage is contemplated, it is not built next door to an old one, but is hidden in some obscure corner, as far from human ken as possible. Hordle, about two miles beyond, bears the palm in this respect ; this unostentatious parish has carried the peculiarity of scattering itself to so interesting a point that it would seem as if the people had some idea of ascer- taining how far neighbours could live apart and yet be social. They may have an intense craving for breathing room, or possibly they cultivate "strag- gling " as a Fine Art, for it is a positive fact, that although Hordle is a large and considerable parish, take away the church and you could not find it, nor could any one tell you where it was, except the startling information that you were " in it." Taking its focus of interest, the post-office, which is combined with a bakery and general emporium (the only place of business for miles around) as a centre, the village takes to rambling, and with a cottage here and there, rarely two together, it spreads in all directions, over downs and commons, through " roughs," round plantations, up back lanes, until its outskirts are lost in the distant horizon, where its appetite for space is somewhat appeased, but even then unsatisfied. It originally started in the sea, for the surf now seethes over the foundations of the old church. The present churchyard is of considerable interest ; it was always a drear and uncanny place, with its surrounding belt of firs, and although of late years it has been much improved and the church rebuilt, it is still a pecu- liarly sombre spot, full of sad reminiscences : on one side a couple of rows of nameless graves, the dead and gone deluded Shakers — it may be remembered that Hordle was the headquarters of the priestess of these silly people ; on the other some little hillocks, each marked with a small rude cross in wood, in- scribed with one word — and that word a Christian name — pitiable to see. These are the graves of orphan babes, once the occupants of a so-called "Home" — what mysteries these homes contain! — established in the neighbourhood, uprooted, dispersed by epidemic and death ; with straitened means the fight was unequal, and ended in the churchyard ; and perhaps it were better, for these deserted inno- cents, it should be so. But in this churchyard there is a monument, carry- ing an inscription of so extraordinary a character as to deserve recording. In the district there is much interesting and curious folk-lore, but this is a speci- men perfectly unique and authentic. Some years ago, a gentleman of importance in the neighbourhood shot himself in his library — the house where it happened is well known. Among other testamentary wishes he desired that over his grave should be erected a granite memorial, on which was to be inscribed his name, date of death, and the following declaration (it cannot be called an epitaph) : — "Here lies the Friend of the Poacher ! " nothing more ! It may be imagined that such instructions somewhat puzzled the executors, and the clergy especially. It was conceived that so emphatic a declaration of friendship emanating from a county squire, and through the jaws of the grave, to such a class of men, might prove a bad example, especially when constantly paraded before the eyes of the rustics coming to their church ; it certainly was not conducive to morality, or, of far more importance, the preservation of game. So in the perplexity of the situation, a plan was devised to remove the difficulty ; it was possible, at all events, to postpone the baneful influence of this gentleman's sympathy, for at least another gene- ration. So it was decided in carrying out the testator's wish, to put it "delicately, in French," and to this day may be seen, deeply cut in the granite, " Ci git l'ami du braconnier." In another generation, the School Board (if ever it reach Hordle) will frustrate this artful and ingenious resource, and one may con- template the poacher of the future with the last French novel in his capacious pocket, reading this message from the grave, and slapping his velveteens, lamenting perhaps, with an expletive, the gross in- justice done to his grandfather, who had passed away without being cognizant of the friend he had lost, bamboozled by a foreign language, and frustrated in Nature's impulse to drop a tear over such honoured remains. To the general naturalist the whole of this part of Hampshire — to say nothing of its folk-lore — is of the deepest interest ; to an entomologist, a Paradise r Any one who can be contented with his own thoughts, a few books of reference, a microscope and sketch- book, may have a very good "time" by making Lymington headquarters. Within a radius of five miles he will find every diversity of broken country, and an easy walk takes him to a sea-beach replete with geological interest. Along the coast, from Keyhaven to Barton, the strata are laid bare ; it is said that nowhere in England is the Eocene better displayed than at Hordle Cliff; the formations are exposed and tilted up like the leaves of a book, dog's eared, broken, and crumbling with the excess of fossil remains. In the cliff below the amazing Past, in the bogs above the inscrutable Present, and the Drosera, the text of this little paper may be taken as the type of some of Nature's intricate puzzles. E. T. D. Crouch End. 184 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. MICROSCOPY. "Studies in Microscopical Science." By A. C. Cole.— We are glad to welcome No. I of the second volume of this work, of which the first volume deservedly won golden opinions among microscopists and naturalists generally. The present part deals with " The Morphology of the Cell." " The Methods of Microscopical Research." By John Ernest Ady.— Part ii. of this useful work treats on " Instruments and their Uses." The work is issued as a preliminary to vol. ii. of the " Studies in Microscopical Science," by A. C, Cole, F.R.M.S. Hygrometricism. — Examining some spores of Equisetum palustre the other day, whose elaters were highly hygrometric, I detached one from the rest and carefully observed the action of the elaters. These contracted and expanded with their well- known jerky action, according as they were subjected to the influence of watery vapour. By means of the jerky action of the elater the spore was carried to the distance of one inch and a quarter before the elaters were detached. Two other spores under observation were carried relatively one inch and a half, and seven-eighths, before the separation of the elaters from the spores. This sensitive action of the elaters converts them into locomotive organs for the dispersion of the spores, and so makes them the equivalents of the cilia in zoospores. Has any one noticed that the spores of Ophioglosswn vulgatum are hygrometric ? I carefully opened the sporangia of a ripe specimen the other day, and detached some of the granulated spores. Examining them upon a dark ground with a bull's-eye condenser, I observed that, as the clusters of spores became dry, they flew about in all directions with great rapidity. On introducing a small quantity of water beneath the cover glass, the spores grouped themselves together very regularly into almost equivalent groups. On drying they dispersed again, until the individual spores appeared to be arranged at regular distances from each other all over the field of view. — J. E. Taylor. Dale's Illustrated Photographic Cata- logue.— We beg to call the attention of those of our readers who are interested in practical photography to this very full and complete catalogue. Among the various novelties recently brought out by this enterprising firm may be specially mentioned their patent multiple back, which must prove very service- able to tourists and travellers, as it does away with the necessity of changing boxes. Mounting Insect Organs. — I should be obliged if any one would inform me the best method of pre- paring and mounting sting and tongue of bees, &c. I have tried first soaking in diluted acetic acid, also diluted nitric acid, and also turpentine, but find none of these produce that clearness and transparency which is so characteristic of those sold by opticians.— W.B. A good Cement required.— I should be much obliged if any reader could inform me of a reliable cement for fixing, and rendering more secure, objects mounted in Canada balsam, where oil of cloves has been used in the preparation. I find the oil of cloves prevents the balsam becoming hard for a long time, and most cements either run into the balsam, or else chip off the slide and allow leakage.— AT. D. Bedding Material for Section Cutting.— Mr. G. E. Davis, in " Practical. Microscopy," states that Mr. John Barrow has made an improved bedding material for section cutting, by mixing naphthalin and stearine in certain proportions. I shall be glad to know these proportions, and also if the material can be obtained ready mixed, and where. — J. Deans. The Postal Microscopical Society has just issued its July part, in which we find the usual wide range of subjects. First comes a paper by Mrs. A. Cowen on " The Application of the Microscope to Geological Research," forming a short guide to this comparatively new line of research. A paper on " The Palpi of Freshwater Mites," by Mr. C. F. George, follows. Mr. Edward Lovett contributes " A Day's Microscopic Shore-hunting among the low-tide Pools of Jersey." Mr. Fred. Fitch's " The Fly " is a paper that will be read with interest. Mr. John Brigg has a thoughtful article on " Imitative Colouring in Fish." Besides these there is " Half- an-hour at the Microscope" with Mr. Tuffen West. The collectanea are well edited and comprehensive, and including various forms of practical research in this and general microscopic work. The Royal Microscopical Society.— The June part of the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society contains a very important paper on " The Cultiva- tion and Life-history of the Ring-worm Fungus (Trichophyton tonsurans)," by Malcolm Morris, F.R.C.S., and G. C. Henderson, M.D. By means of a number of detailed experiments, under varying conditions, the gradual development of this fungus is traced, a short account being also added of the researches of previous observers. Amongst other conclusions arrived at are those that the spores of T. tonsurans grow freely at temperatures between 150 and 250 C, and that it is the spores of the second generation which reproduce ring-worm on the human skin. Dr. R. L. Maddox contributes a paper " On a Portable Form of Aeroscope and Aspirator." This instrument is intended to facilitate the study of the morbific conditions of the atmosphere in the course of zymotic and contagious diseases, and should attract the attention of those interested in such researches. The largest and most valuable portion of the part consists of a summary of original and current re- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 185 searches relating to zoology and botany, and amongst these will be found some very interesting articles. Nearly 130 separate subjects are here dealt with, as well as a large section appropriated to microscopic apparatus. ZOOLOGY. Pine Marten in Northumberland.— Mr. \V. Yellowby writes to "Land and Water," stating that a fine specimen of this rare British mammal has been caught at Chirton. A few still linger in the wilder parts of Cumberland and Northumberland. Distribution of Acme lineata v. alba, Jeffr. — Mr. Rimmer in "The Land and Freshwater Shells of the British Isles," gives the latest account of the distribution of this form, from which it appears to have been noticed only in Ireland at Ballinahinch, co. Galway (Jeffreys), and Killarney (Barlee). In England the only locality cited is the " rejectamenta of the River Avon at Bristol" (Jeffreys). It has however been found near Folkestone, Kent, by Mr. Fitzgerald, whose zeal and success in scientific research are so well known ; and recently Mr. W. West, of Bradford, Yorks, an enthusiastic cryptogamic botanist and conchologist, has detected it at Helks Wood, near Ingleton. Its range is thus widely extended, but further records are very desirable. — J. W. T. Monograph of the Land and Freshwater Mollusca of the British Fauna. — Mr. J. W. Taylor, the editor of the "Journal of Conchology," is accumulating materials for a work with the above title. He desires to enlist the assistance of all persons interested in the exhaustive study of the species and varieties of British mollusca, and with this object has issued a short announcement detailing the chief features of the proposed work, and advising those willing to help in what their aid is required, and how it may be most serviceable. It is intended to devote special attention to the following points : — Variation ; Distribution, local, general, and exotic ; Biological aspect, under which head embryological development will be treated ; Relation to environ- ment, including habits, parasites, popular super- stitions, vernacular names, &c. &c. Communications of all kinds, specimens, &c. should be forwarded to the care of Mr. J. W. Taylor, office of "Journal of Conchology," Leeds. Natural History Societies. — We are glad to see from the " Transactions of the Yorkshire Natura- lists' Union," that the important work of cataloguing the fauna and flora of Yorkshire is still being carried on. The different branches are worked by local specialists : Conchology, by Messrs. William Nelson and John W. Taylor ; Hymenoptera, by S. D. Baristow, F.L.S., W. Denison Roebuck, and Thomas Wilson ; Lepidoptera, by G. T. Porritt, F.L.S. ; Botany, William West and F. Arnold Lees, F.L.S. The " Report and Transactions of the Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society for 1882- 83," is somewhat bulky, denoting an active year. The Vice-President, Mr. John Ralfs, M.R.C.S., contri- butes a paper on " The Lichens of West Cornwall ; " J. Bernard Magor, some notes on "Two of the Common Brittle-Stars ; " Mr. E. D. Marquand, on "The Aculeate Hymenoptera of the Land's End District;" Mr. John Ralfs, M.R.C.S., " Additions to the Fungi of West Cornwall ; " Mr. S. Tait, " Wild Flowers at the End of the Year j" Edwin P. Mar- quand, "The Lepidoptera of West Cornwall;" Mr. J.Bernard Magor, "Teeth of Fishes;" Ernest D Marquand, "Desmids and Diatoms of West Corn- wall." Two papers on "Sussex Folk-lore and Customs," connected with the seasons and local superstitions, by Mr. Frederick Ernest Sawyer, F.M.S., from the Sussex Archaeological Collection, are very interesting. The third Annual Report of the Hampstead Naturalists' Club contains the address of the President (Mr. William Boulting, L.R.C.P. Lond.). It consists of a very clever summary of " Organic Evolution." Land and Freshwater Shells near Middles- borough. — Your correspondent, Mr. Baker Hudson, gives a list of land and freshwater shells taken during last year within twelve miles of Middles- borough. I can add to them the following species taken by myself : Vertigo substriata, \ V. pttsilla, Zonites radiatulus, Cochlicopa tridens, Limnaa palus- tris, Physa fontinalis, Bulimies obscurus, Vertigo edentula. Also the rare reversed variety of Helix aspersa. — Wm. C. Hey. New Variety of Neritina fluviatilis (Cerina, Cold.). — Last May, I took in the Avon and Bath Canal, near Timpley, Stoke, the " var. cerina" of Neritina fluviatilis, which Mr. Taylor, the editor of the " Quarterly Conchological Journal," has kindly noticed in his last journal as being a new variety for England, although it has long been found on the Continent. I have specimens from Italy and Dalmatia, but the specimens from the Avon Canal are smaller, although of quite as brilliant a yellow colour. I have taken several Helix aspersa near Bristol, with the bright pink lip Mr. W. Cundal describes. I think they are a beautiful hybrid between the type shell and the var. exalbida. They are a rare form. — F. M. Hele, Bristol. Provincial Societies, &c. — The June number of the "Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural His- tory Society" contains capital papers on "The Agri- cultural Geology of Hertfordshire," by J. Vincent Elsden, illustrated by two geological maps of the country; "The Importance of Minute Things of i86 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Life in Past and Present Times," by Prof. J. Rupert Jones ; " rhenological Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1882," by Jno. Hop- kinson ; and " Notes on Insects observed in Hert- fordshire during 1SS2," by Eleanor A. Ormerod. Besides these there is the Anniversary Address of the President, George Rooper, in which he gives a short sketch of the older works on Natural History. "The ' Westbury House ' School Ephemeris," is still flour- ishing, and the great variety of subjects treated in its pages shows the scientific interest with which our school-boys are now regarding all branches of Natural History. We have also received the " Report of the Boys' Association for the Improvement of the Mind" (Ackworth School), giving a summary of the work done by another active section of our practical boy naturalists. The first number of "The Rochester Naturalist " has just been published. This is founded as a quarterly record of the Rochester Naturalists' Club, and contains some useful local papers, such as the " Geology of the Rochester District," by C. Bird F.G.S. ; "Rochester UmbelliferEe," by J. Hepworth j Reports, Excursions, Notes, &c. BOTANY. " Our Charas." — Your correspondent, Mr. Birch, jun., is thanked most heartily for his kind communication, emphasising the article on this sub- ject in Science-Gossip for May. Most of what is there written is cordially endorsed, especially the hint that collectors should "begin early in the season." To this one might add, "don't leave off." The writer's practice is to keep on, year in and year out. If the weather is fine, then enjoy it, if not, endure it. Many a time last winter was the ice broken on the surface of ponds, so as to grope about underneath with a long stick. Anything good found out of season can be noted, and revisited at the proper time. This was the case with Tolypella intri- cate which Mr. H. Groves has run down to Bedford- shire to gather when in good fruit. It may interest some to know that that gentleman uses a small drag, which can be carried in the pocket. The advantage of this for large ponds and streams is sufficiently evident, and it involves but little outlay. — J. S., Luton* " Leontodon Taraxacum." — In my correction, on p. 161 (July), of Mr. Swinton's note with the above heading (appearing in June) I am represented as saying "the commonly accepted name of this genus is Taraxacum leontodon. This is an error in printing. I said simply Taraxacum, that being the generic name, and I immediately went on to say "The full name is Taraxacum officinale.''' Curiously enough, on p. 152 of July number, there occurs not only this genus rightly named, and its v ariety pa /ust re, but also the genus Leontodon, two of its species being named, namely, hispidus and autumnalis. To this genus alone is the term Leontodon rightly given. — H. IV. S. Worsky-Benison. Leontodon Taraxacum. — My remarks on the dandelion were certainly not intended to mislead young botanists, who, if in the first instant unobser- vant, would soon, I fear, be fairly floored when it came to synonymy. My intent was simply to draw attention to the influence of the soil and surroundings in fostering races of dandelions, nettles, and other succulent plants. Certainly the dandelion has here its races under the hedgerow, on the bare downs, and, as my friend Mr. Kidd notices, on the old walls too. The nettle too varies, and has races in all sorts of places, the most pleasing I have seen being a slim, long, knotted sort, I noticed in a covert close to Waverley Abbey a little back. I quite despair of getting any trivial names for all I see in my rambles, but I think the local habitation should be more important than the name. My friend, perhaps I am at liberty to mention, would term the cutting of the dandelion leaves as found on old walls " laciniated," which I conceive to be apt. — A. H. Swinton. Fasciated Stems. — Perhaps it may be of interest to note that this monstrosity in plants, and other similar malformations, did not escape the old savans of Charles the Second's time. John Evelyn says in his " Silva ": " At Hall, near Foy, there is a faggot which consists but of one piece of wood, naturally grown in that form, with a band wrapped about it, and parted at the ends into four sticks, one of which is subdivided into two others. It was carefully preserved many years by an Earl of Devonshire, and looked on as portending the fate of his estate, which is since indeed come into the hands of four Cornish gentlemen, one of whose estates is likewise divided betwixt two heirs. To this class may be referred what is affirmed concerning the fatal prediction of oaks bearing strange leaves, which may be in- quired of ; and of accidents fasciating the boughs and branches of trees, as noticed by Dr. Plott in willows and other soft woods, especially in an ash at Bisseter, uniformly wreathed two or three times round. Such a curiosity also hangs up in the portico of the physic-garden at Oxford, in a top branch o holly. Wonderful contortions and perplexity of the parts may be seen and admired in tea-roots." Con- cerning strange leaves, I may observe that some ash stumps cut and grubbed round by navvies at Guild- ford, have put forth leaves, many of which are shaped like those of the horse-chestnut with four or five fingers. Let us hope that these portents are not sinister for our new line of railway. — A. H. Swinton. The Preservation of Plants.— In reply to Mr. T. S. Wickes' question in the May number of this magazine, p. 1 18, I can recommend him to apply to HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 187 Mr. English, of Epping village, for the information he requires. Mr. English is the originator of a method of preserving plants, with their blooms re- taining not only their proper colours, but also their natural form. The modus operandi may be learned from a treatise published by him containing full recipes. He has also applied his method to the preservation of fungi with equally surprising success, and as I have had several opportunities of seeing many speci- mens of these short-lived plants, generally so difficult to deal with, treated by him to perfection, besides numerous flowers of various orders, which, after the test of years, still retain all their original natural charms, I can testify to' the efficacy of the system. Botanists generally would do well to adopt this method, as specimens for the herbarium undoubtedly possess a far higher value when set naturally, and present at the same time a much better appearance, than they can when squeezed out of shape into shrivelled up, dead-looking things, which have lost all the specific characters of value. — W. White. ^ECIDIUM URTIC/E and JE. Tragopogonis. — I am induced to furnish your readers with particulars of localities where I have met with the above. Mr. Charles F. W. T. Williams, in his interesting Paper No. II., in Science-Gossip of July, observes that he has never been able to meet with either of them. I can quite understand his difficulty, notwithstanding his great industry, for it was only after hunting for about a quarter of a century that I was successful. I first met with AL. Urticce on the high road leading from Milnthorp to Kendal. It was in quantity on the stalks of the nettles growing close to the foot- path. I next, a year or two afterwards, found it in smaller quantity on the road from Ambleside to Keswick, near Grasmere, and I have no doubt it might then have been met with all around the dis- trict. I afterwards met with it on the high land looking over Corwen, and on one occasion I found the Urtiaz on the borders of a lake in Sherwood Forest. I have twice found it in Derbyshire, once about three miles from Hathersage and once, but a single specimen, in a wood on the roadside opposite to Haddon Hall. I have not been equally fortunate in AL. Tragopogonis, but I have found it very plentiful in two localities not far from Southport. One was near Crossins, on a raised bank which runs from north to south, bordering some fields about two miles north of the Hesketh Public Park. I have met with it in large quantity on the bank of a river which is crossed by a railway bridge leading in the direction of Preston — the line is not yet complete. The dis- tance from Southport is about six miles. The infested plant (goatsbeard) is on the south side of the north bank of the river, about a third of a mile from the railway bridge.— Thomas Brittain. New Habitats for Plants.— It will be interest- ing, I think, to note the discovery of three plants in a locality which is at any rate not noticed in Sowerby's " Botany/' In the neighbourhood of Battle, Sussex, I found, a few days ago, Viola Intea, var. amecna ; Gen- ista tinctoria, var. humifusa ; and Sedum album, var. teretifolium. On Viola lutea Sowerby says, "Not south of Derby and Notts." Kynance Cove is always given as the station for var. humifusa of G. tinctoria, the hairiness of midribs, of leaves, of bracts, calyces and stem forced me to decide for this variety, the plant in its usual form being wholly glabrous. On Sedum album Sowerby writes, " Rather rare ; west of England, Gloucester and Somerset." The three specimens have been declared genuine by an able field botanist. — C. Stickland. NOTES AND QUERIES. Clausilia dubia et alia. — Will any concholo- gist afford information on the following points ? In Tate's Manual, C. dubia is figured with one tooth high up on the columella lip, and both Tate and Turtou agree that the shell is larger and more ven- tricose than C. rugosa. C. rugosa is figured by Tate with two tooth-like folds, high up on the colu- mella, and one more to the front of the aperture. Is C. dubia generally found with only the one tooth ? Any information will be welcome. I have lately taken several white pellucid specimens of H. cella- rius. Is this a recognised variety ? Can Helix con- cinna be rightly regarded as a distinct species ? If so, on what grounds ? Should it not rank with H. depi- lata as a variety of H. hispida ? Is not the variety costata of Helix pulchella obsolete, it having been found that the shells not costated were merely older and worn shells ? — Baker Hudson. Ranunculus Ficaria. — Does not 1 Mr. J. R. Neve make a mistake when he calls the Ranunculus Ficaria, p. 130, the common celandine ? The ranunculus is among the Ranunculaceae. The celan- dine, or chelidonium, is among the Papaveraceae, the calyx is two-leaved ; the ranunculus, five-leaved ; chelidonium has a siliqua. In the ranunculus, the seeds are naked, and there are various other distinc- tions. The Ranunculus Ficaria is usually called the pilewort. — E. T. Scott. Curious Phenomenon. — The phenomenon al- luded to by your correspondent, A. H. D., was plainly visible here on date, and at time mentioned by him, and so accurately has he described it, that I can add nothing more. I am only surprised at having seen no notice taken of it in the papers, or an explanation from those competent to afford it. — Windsor Ham- brough, Farnham. Peculiar Site of a Water-Hen's Nest. — On May 1 8th, I was out egg-hunting, and while going up to what I supposed to be a ring-dove's nest, was surprised to see a black-coloured bird fly off. My curiosity was at once aroused, as I could not imagine what the bird was, and upon looking into the nest found five water-hen's eggs. It was situated about half-way up a fir-tree, some twenty feet from the ground, in a small plantation. The nest was made of sticks, and had evidently been a ring-dove's, and was lined with a few pieces of sedge. A friend of mine, W. Wells Bladen, of Stone, has also noticed i88 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. a similar location ; the nest he found was built on the top of an old blackbird's in a large thorn bush, some ten feet above a pool of water. I should be interested to know if any of the readers of Science-Gossip have noticed similar locations for water-hen's nests. — W. T. Hart, London Road, Lynn. The Star of Bethlehem. — There is a point in your correspondent's very interesting communication on this subject that I experience a difficulty in under- standing. I refer to the allegation of St. Chrysostom that this was a miraculous appearance in the form of a star, the words in "the.likeness of " not being em- ployed as elsewhere in the context of the narrative. — A. H. Swinton, Guildford. Becaficos. — Perhaps the following quotation from "Our Old Country Towns," by A. Rimmer, pp. 181-2, may interest your readers : — " I heard that the Beca- ficos" (he is writing about the Cinque Ports) "had com- menced to pay their annual visits to Reculver, which yet contains some fig gardens. Of course there are not many persons in England who ever heard that such birds came here at all, and perhaps not a few never even knew there were such creatures ; but shortly after the Conquest there was an influx of monks from Normandy and Brittany, who introduced many seeds and articles of value. Among others, the fig was a novelty, and the plains of Fecamp were renowned for this delicacy. English figs ripened rather later than on the Continent, and hence the flocks of Becaficos, that had probably travelled from Spain and Italy, found their favourite food. They used also to be seen many years ago in Cheshire, near Combermere Abbey." — A. II. B. The Egyptian Gerbille. — I would advise H. C. Brooke to keep his animal from one of the opposite sex to prevent their introduction into this country, as if their habits should be the same here as in their native places, he would gain little credit from our farmers. They are very destructive to grain crops when living in cultivated districts, and at the same time are exceedingly prolific, the females producing large families several times in the year. They are con- fined to the east, south of Asia, as far as India, the African continent and the south-east of Europe. During the day they live in shallow burrows, and at night come forth to feed, their food consisting chiefly of grain and roots. They live both in dry deserts and in cultivated districts, and often assemble in large numbers, doing considerable damage to the crops when in the latter places. They store up large quantities of the ears of corn in their burrows, and in some districts the poor inhabitants procure a good supply of grain by digging up that which they have stored. The gerbilles belong to the family Muridae, and are therefore a species of mouse. — Dipton Burn. Can a Pig swim ? — One day last summer I was standing on the pier at Morecambe, watching' the disembarkation of a number of cattle and pigs from the Londonderry boat moored alongside. A pig of moderate size, after making a successful ascent of the gangway, was pushed by its comrades over the edge of the pier, and dropped about 20 feet into the sea. On rising to the surface, the animal appeared to take things very coolly, and, instead of making for the pier wall, struck out for the opposite side of the harbour ; and finally steered for the open sea, probably with the hazy klea of returning to the " ould country." This laudable intention was, however, frustrated by the Irish drover and another man pushing off in a small boat in pursuit of the porcine swimmer ; and piggy was soon sitting at the bottom of the boat looking none the worse for the swim. With regard to very fat pigs, I believe they run a much greater risk of lacerating their throats with their own claws when swimming. — E. A. Kirk, Leeds. Cocoa or Coco. — Cacao or Cocoa is equally correct when applied to the produce of the T/ieo- broma Cacao, a small tree the seeds of whose fruits furnish the chocolate and cocoatina of commerce. I remember seeing some of the fruit many years ago, at the time that Schweitzer of Brighton was preparing his since-famed cocoatina. A friend of his brought me some, and a sample of the cocoatina as well ; so I believe I was one of the first to taste this especial make before it had been introduced to the general public, and I have taken it ever since. This cacao-tree is largely cultivated. It grows about eighteen feet in height, and the name Theobroma is said to signify " food for the gods." " Ada P." will find that the words "cocoa" and "cacao" are both used, in the "Treasury of Botany," for the pre- paration made from the cacao fruit. — Helen E. IValney. Coco AND Cocoa. — In reply to a query in your May issue : The word Coco is, I believe, the Portuguese " Coco," signifying an ugly mask, or a monkey's face. It was applied to the fruit of the coco-nut palm because of the imagined resemblance to a face, which is formed by the three cavities at the base of the nut corresponding to the three original carpels. Cacao is said to be derived from the Central American word Cacauatl, the native name of the plant. It has been corrupted into cocoa, by a curious substitution and transposition of letters. It is needless to say the two words Coco and Cacao have no relation to each other. The coco-nut palm grows freely on the whole of the coast of the island of Ceylon. The Sinhalese vernacular word for coco-nut is Pol, which comes from the more reputable Sinhalese word Pala, a fruit (or the fruit of all the fruits, to the low country Sinhalese this is the most important) which is itself derived from the Sanskrit word Phala. The Sanskrit word for the coco-nut palm is Narikera, which comes from the roots Narika, a watery place, and Ir, to grow (literally the tree which grows by the water), and the old Sinhalese word derived from this Sanskrit root is Neli. Al- though the coco-nut is not a native of India, its introduction is of undoubted antiquity, as it is men- tioned in many old Indian medicine works ; for example, Charaka Samhita, Susruta, Vagbhata Tantra, and Raghuvansa, many of which date back long before the time of Buddha (nearly 2500 years ago). The Maldivian word for the coco-nut is Karhi, which is almost the Sanskrit word Kera. The cacao plant now flourishes in Ceylon, the failures of the coffee crop having induced planters to turn their attention to it along with other new products, and some very creditable sales of the produce have been made in the London market.— ^. Knight James, F.R.G.S., Colombo, Ceylon. Climbing Power in Mice. — I remember, some years ago, seeing a common mouse let himself down, in true sailor fashion, by a piece of twine about a yard long, which was hanging from a beam over the boiler of a large steam-engine. — G. M. Doe, Great Torrington, N. Devon. White Crane's-Bills. — On Whit Monday I walked from Yarmouth to Lowestoft along the cliffs, which at Gunton had been washed away to such an extent by the high spring tides, that I had to make a detour round by the village. Here, on a bank, HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 189 apparently of recent formation I found several plants of the crane's-bill tribe, and, so far as a cursory examination would allow me to judge, in all essential features similar to the dove's-foot crane's-bill (Geranium molle), except that the flowers were perfectly white. I have never before observed a crane's-bill with white flowers, nor do my botanical books mention such a deviation from the normal features of the Geraniacese. — Walter Cord-well, Harleston. Albinos, etc. — Referring to the note of Mr. E. J. Gibbins in your May number, I may mention that about two years ago I had brought to me a young but perfectly fledged specimen of the Indian crow (Corvus splendens) which was quite white, with pink eyes, and that I have frequently seen in Ceylon specimens of the same birds with white feathers in the wing, and occasionally with white heads ; but I have had no means of knowing whether these were original feathers, or whether they had been replaced after injury to the first ones. The other day I had brought to me a perfect albino of the palm squirrel (Sciurus tristriatus, Waterhouse), the only one I have ever seen. A curious example of change from coloured to white plumage is to be found in the paradise fly-catcher (Terpsiphone paradisi, Sharpe), which is a partial immigrant to Ceylon. The young males are of a chestnut-red colour, with greyish breast and glossy black crest, and at a certain age, probably at the second year, the central feathers of the tail elongate, until they reach from nine to twelve inches below the rest. Sometimes previous to, and some- times after this, the male commences to change from chestnut-red to white. The scapulars and primaries change first, then the tail feathers, and Captain Legge remarks that, of the body feathers, the upper tail coverts are first to fade. I have seen many speci- mens in the process of transition, and I have in my possession one with about half its feathers of each colour ; two of the centre tail feathers are elongated, one of which is perfectly white and the other perfectly red. It is difficult, I think, on any theory of mimicry or natural selection to account for this change of plumage, which takes place only in adult male birds. I shall be glad to have the opinion of any of your readers. — W. Knight yc, Hornsey, Middlesex. Drying Plants. — I should feel very much obliged if you or any of your readers would kindly inform me how flowering plants may be dried for the herbarium without the blossoms losing their delicate colour in the process, as is so often the case. Apologising for the trouble I give you, and thanking you in advance. — U. Aetona. Rare Birds. — My son shot here, in the winter of 1S79-S0, more than a dozen of the curlew-billed sandpiper (Tringa subarquatd) ; and at Burnham a few years ago a young gentleman killed out of a flock of sixteen a splendid black swan. The heathen actually plucked and ate it ! Now these cannot have been escaped birds. — A. H. Birkett, Burnkam, Somerset. Lundy Island (p. 116). — Mr. H. E. Wilkinson will find an excellent account of Lundy in Mr. J. E. Chanter's monograph on the island (published by Cassell, Petter, and Galpin, 3^. 6d.), which includes lists of its interesting fauna and flora. Additional information may be obtained from the publications of the Devonshire Association. For instance, a com- plete catalogue of the Lepidopterous insects which have been found on the island is appended to. the county list appearing in their Transactions for 187S, vol. x. — William White. Wood-Pigeons and Owl. — Your correspondent Mr. J. A. Wheldon, in Science-Gossip for last month, seems to doubt whether a white owl (Strix Jlammea) ever preys upon birds. About three years ago I had occasion to examine a hole in a tree in- habited by a white owl, and there I found a great number of birds' skulls, one of which was that of a blackbird. If then an owl will attack a blackbird, I see no reason (if it has the chance) why it should not devour young pigeons. Although the circumstance related by me, in Science-Gossip for last June, and the observations of naturalists hitherto tend to show that white owls will not attack pigeons. I am not aware that there has been any positive proof of it, and I am inclined to think that when an owl is hard pressed for food, it would not hesitate to do so. It may be that white owls dwelling in trees differ slightly in their habits from those dwelling in old buildings, etc. — F. H. Parrott, Aylesbury. Mind among the Lower Animals. — I cannot help thinking that Dr. Keegan would have refrained from his remarks concerning the lack of reason in dogs if he had kept them himself. Experience would tell him he is quite wrong in his opinions, and I am glad to see the able papers written in defence of our favourites by gentlemen of such evident power in reply to Dr. Keegan's rather sweeping criticism on all keepers of dogs, as well as the dogs themselves. I do not exaggerate in the following example of canine sense : A toy terrier I had, early one morning visited my sister, who is housekeeper, going to the top of the house for this purpose, and against her will, at first pulling her by the dress towards the door. At last feeling curious as to what Tiny's anxiety was about, she followed him until he took her to the bottom of the house to the breakfast-room ; a kettle of boiling water had rolled off the fire to the floor, and this he wished to show her. His barks of delight were his expressions of approval at being understood at last. Another dog we had, on one occasion, when he thought we had been searching too long for shells in a hedge, fetched from somewhere, I do not know where, a cluster of Helix aspersa, and threw into my lap — showing he knew what we were looking for. All people who have kept dogs could tell many stories which would prove the reasoning powers of dogs. I hope they will do so, and thus settle the question. — Fanny Jlf. Hele, Bristol. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than heretofore, we cannot possibly insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries which do not bear the writers' names that we are forced to adhere to our rule of not noticing them. To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of "exchanges" which cannot be tolerated. H. E. C— In reply to H. E. Milkman, I beg to say that the book below mentioned gives all particulars of the natural history of Lundy Island. "Land and Sea," by Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. London, James Nisbet & Co., 21 Berners Street, 1865. D. Wellington'.— Taylor's "Geological Stories," price 4s., published by W. H. Allen & Co., would form a good intro- duction to Geology. M. D. — We are always glad to help students gratuitously, but the least you could do was to separate your questions from your exchanges. We have had to write each out separately. R. Y. Green desires the name of the publishers of Groves' " Review of the British Characes." Perhaps some reader will reply. L. M. Bf!LL. — Accept our best thanks for the specimens of the rare Dero obtusa found near Leamington, which you were good enough to send us. 192 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. C. O. Lowe. — We shall be very pleased to have your sketch of a revolving table. J. P. Page. — You would get either of the books you mention of Mr. W. Collins, scientific bookseller, 157 Great Portland Street, London, W. R. F. Z. — The Religious Tract Society have just published a pleasant little book, called "Ants and their Ways." T. J. Wilkes. — No. 4 is the dogwood {Cornus sangui- neus) ; No. 8, Orchis metadata ; No. 10, fig-wort (Scropltu- laria nodosa) ; No. 16, the flowering rush [Butomus umbel- latus); No. 18, Polygonum amphibium. The rest were rightly named. T. S. T. — The recipe for a good cement for joining together rockwork, as given in Taylor's "Aquarium," is the best we know of. Marine glue also forms a good cement ; gutta-percha is untrustworthy. A. J. S. (Kentish Town). — It is a specimen of pear [Pyrus torminalis), but the fruit is not so pleasant as the jargonelle pear. S. A. S. (Belfast). — You will find the species alluded to in Berkeley's " Cryptogamic Botany," as a puzzling one, in the fungi. F. W. C. (Bedford). — It is the reindeer moss, so called, though it is a lichen. J. S. (Bolton). — The firm you mention are still to be found in Paternoster Row. No. 1, Tortula inuralis ; 2, Funaria hygrometica ; 3, Bryum, but not in fruit. D. D. (Thornhill, N.B.). — No. 1, Carex sylvatka; 2, C. riparia. The Salices are such a puzzling species that, unless they are carefully dried with male and female catkins, it is unwise to name them. However, No. 4 is ^. cinerca. EXCHANGES. Wanted, Bate & Westwood's " Sessile-eyed Crustacea," Yarrell's " Fishes," Huick's " Zoophytes," and other Natural History works in exchange for Bury's "Polycystius," Berkeley's "Cryptogamic Botany," Quekett "On the Microscope" (last edition), &c. — C. Grimes, Dover. Wanted, a few good specimens of Dytiscus marginalis, Gyrinus natator, suitable for microscopic objects ; must be fresh, and need not be set. Well-mounted micro objects in exchange. — M. J., 51 Great Prescot Street, London, E. Wanted, authenticated specimen of type and varieties of Anodonta cygnea, A. anatina, Unio pictorum, U. tumidus, Spluerium comeum, and 3". lacustre. Shells or mounted palates in exchange. Ceylon lepidoptera, pinned on papers, for micro-slides or material — diatoms, foraminifera, &c, or other exotic insects.— Dr. W. G. Clements, 2 Galle Face, Colombo. Will exchange Nicholson's " Palaeontology " for Sowerby's "Grasses of Great Britain." — " Tyne," 326 Essex Road, Islington, N. Wanted, tree-frogs, lizards, salamanders, and other reptiles. Exchange larva; Lacustris, Carpini, Occllatus, Lonicera, or cash. — W. Finch, 158 Arkwright Street, Nottingham. For some beautiiul hairs of the sea-mouse, send a stamped directed envelope to W. H. Gomm, The Green, Somerton, Somerset. Snakes (splendid grass), common, smooth, and warty newts for exchange. — Edmund Lye, Stony Stratford, Bucks. Beautiful fossil sand, from Sourcat's tertiary deposits, containing well-preserved foraminifera, shells, corals, spicules (any quantity); in exchange for good mounted slides. — E. Rodier, 61 Rue Mazarin, Bordeaux, France. Wanted, living specimens of Geotnalactis macztlosus or Tcstacclla Mangel. I should also be glad to receive (for study- ing variation and geographical distribution) consignments of the common slugs of any district whatever. — Wm. Denison Roebuck, Sunny Bank, Leeds. A fine collection of pleistocene and neolithic remains offered for a complete human skeleton. — Ernest L. Jones, Belmont, Sale, Manchester. Wanted, good specimens of rhinoceros horn, hoof of bison, antelope, &c, pieces fit for cutting sections from. Good micro slides given in exchange. — M. J., 51 Great Prescot Street, Goodman's Fields, London, E. Cassell's " Butterflies and Moths," Parts 35 to 60, mostly uncut ; also " Knowledge," Nos. 37 to 66, perfectly clean. What offers in cash? — Fred. Calver, 10 Somerleyton Street, Unthanks Road, Norwich. Irish nests or eggs of dipper, goldcrest, sedge warbler, chiff- chaff, grey wagtail, rock pipit, buntings, goldfinch, lesser redpole, bullfinch, chough, teal; eggs of sea birds in clutches. Wanted, good British-taken eggs in clutches. — Send list to R. J. Ussher, Cappagh, Lismore. Wanted to exchange shells with a resident in North America. British land and freshwater shells offered for American. Espe- cially wanted, American Helicidseand Limnacidas. — F. M. Hele, Fairlight, Elmgrove Road, Cotham, Bristol. Wanted to exchange vols. iii. to xxiv. of "Nature" in parts, clean — vols. iii. and ix. want one part each, viz., April in each — for vols, i., ii., iii., and iv., of " Britisk Conchology," by Jeffreys, and some good work on the Britisk oolite. Unnamed shells for British beetles ; zoophytes, and marine algae preferred. — M. Dods, 24 Ballater Road, Acre Lane, Brixton. Wanted, the following eggs and nests: pied fly-catcher, ring ouzel, stonechat, lesser whitethroat, rock pipit, woodlark, gold- finch, linnet. Will give other eggs and rare British Lepidoptera. — Thos. H. Hedworth, Dunston, Gateshead. Sixty Australian birds' skins, prepared for stuffing; 150 microscopic slides ; pair of buffalo horns, over 6 feet long. Ex- change for good micro slides, a polariser or pair of prisms, Valentin's knife, or books on natural history or otherwise. — William Tylar, 35 Burbury Street, Hockley, Birmingham. Wanted, Science-Gossip for 1869, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75, un- bound, for Silurian and coal measure fossils, good cabinet spe- cimens, cleaned and named. — C. Beale, Lime Tree House, Rowley Regis, Dudley. Several comprehensive series of duplicates, Upper Silurian and coal measure fossils, good cabinet specimens, cleaned and named, to exchange for geological books or maps, or fossils from other formations, flint implements, or other objects. — C. Beale, Lime Tree House, Rowley Regis, Dudley. For exchange for slides, viz. : fluid for preserving organic substances, Dean's compound, glycerine and gum, glass-clean- ing solution, preserving fluid for animalcula, zinc oxide cements (red, white, blue, and yellow), fluid for infusoria, double stain for vegetable tissues {vide Science-Gossip, vol. xvi. p. 6), brown cement, concentrated solution of chloride of lime, asphalte varnish (not Brunswick black), and several others ; write for list, post free. — S. H. Robinson, 20 Branston Road, Burton-on- Trent. Wanted, parts of wings of exotic Lepidoptera, also wing- cases, and other parts of brilliant Coleoptera for mounting.— F. A. A. Skuse, 143 Stepney Green, London, E. For exchange, a good reversible compressorium. — E. B. L. Brayley, 13 Burlington Road, Clifton, Bristol. For foraminiferous sand, send stamped and directed envelope to F. A. A. Skuse, 143 Stepney Green, London, E. Wanted, Erebia Blandina, Arge Galathea, Pieris Napi, Polyommatus Arion, P. Corydon, P. Adonis, P. sEgon, Thecla Pruni, Thecla W. album, Argynnis Lathonia, Apona Crata-gi, Co/ias Hyale, Colias Edusa, Apatura Iris, Limenitis Sibylla, Papilio Machaon. All senders of those named should send box in order to have some others sent back in return for those received. — G. H. Skuse, 143 Stepney Green, London, E. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. "Whence, What, Where?" By J. K. Nichols, M.D. London : Triibner & Co. "The Standard Value of Gold." By W. L. Jordan. London : D. Bogue. " Manual of Taxidermy." By C. J. Maynard. Boston ; S. E. Cassino & Co. " British Marine and Freshwater Fishes." By W. Saville Kent. London : W. Clowes & Sons, Limited. " Sunspottery." By J. A. Westwood Oliver. London: Simpkin & Co. "Hardy Perennials." By J. Wood. London: L. Upcott Gill. " Land and Water." "Midland Naturalist." " Journal of Conchology." " Natural History Notes." " Practical Naturalist." "Young Naturalist." " Ben Brierley's Journal." " American Naturalist." " Science." "American Monthly Microscopical Journal." "The Botanical Gazette." " The Popular Science News." "Canadian Entomologist." " Cosmos : les Mondes." " Le Monde de la Science." " Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes." " Bulletin de la Societe Beige de Microscopic" &c. &c. &c. Communications received up to 12TH ult. from : — J. J. O.— J. G.-G. M.— J. T. G.— A. S. W.— E. R.— R. Y. G. — T. S. T.— D. S.— E. L. J.— M. I.— E. T.— J. W. T.— M. C W.— L. M. B.— H. F. H.-L. C. M.— H. & E. J. D.— J. E. C— A. H. B.— W. D. R.— M. K.— W. H. T.— P. T.— J. W.— W. B.— W. C. H.— W. K. J.— J. E. A— J. S.— F. B.— R. M. C— M. I.— Dr. W. G. C— W. H. H.— G. H. R., Jun.— F. M. H.-C. S.— C. B. M.— F. W. S.— J. T. G.-M. S. W. G. — T. C. M.— C. A. G.— C. S.— W. H. D.— J. D. J. B. B.— W. F., Jun.- 1. F.— W. I. V. V.— T. H. H.— H. W. S. W.— B.— W. W.—W. B.— D. W.— Rev. E. G.— R. I. U.— F. C— I. S.— F. M. H.— H. C. B.— A. H. B.— F. H. P.— F. A. A. S. — W. T.— S. H. R.— C. A. L.— A. D.— G. H. S.-P. Q. K.— C. B.— H. P.— E. L— W. G. W.— R. M.— W. S. K — E. B. L. B.— T. H.-J. W. W.— R. T. V. S. W.-A. E. C. S. — G. H. S., &c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. J93 ON DRAWING MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. By BERNARD HOBSON. PLANNED the apparatus about to be described without previous- ly knowing of similar inventions, such as that of Mr. C. W. Cooke, mentioned in Beale's book, page 2S, or that of Mr. Morrison, mentioned in the American Month- ly Microscopical Journal for 18S2, page 59- Drawing by this " micro- graphic camera " is the simplest, cheapest, most convenient, and at the same time, not at all a bad, although, perhaps, not the best, method of delineating objects. The camera consists of a Huntley & Palmer's large square-shaped tin biscuit canister, measuring oi X 8£ X 92 in. deep. In the centre of the lid I have had a circular hole 5 \ in. diameter cut, and a similar hole z\ in. at the bottom of the canister. In the hole at the bottom a conical tube, 2^ in. long X 2 in. greatest X \\ in. least diameter, is soldered. The paper being stripped off the canister and the whole being japanned black, it presents a neat appearance. Inside the canister a piece of plate-glass, 8}| x 8§ in. fits underneath the lid, but rests on the top edges of the canister, and is held firmly in position by the lid, when the canister is shut. A piece about 5^ in. square of the thinnest, whitest tracing paper obtainable is inserted between the lid and the plate glass, which hold it in position opposite the large central hole. The whole of the camera is painted dead-black inside, with lamp- black and turpentine. Cost as follows : No. 225. — September 1883. Canister ......... 1 Japanning, cutting holes, soldering tube on, cutting circular plate mentioned below . . . .2 Plate glass . o d. o o 4 Total 3 4 I intended to use the above-mentioned apparatus with eye-piece of the microscope, arranging the tracing-paper to be at ten inches, the fixed distance of distinct vision, from the eye-piece, but found that when the light brought to focus at a point was diffused over a circle of 5f in. diameter the loss of definition was too great. By taking off the eye-piece far better results are obtained. The conical tube of the camera is then slipped over the microscope tube, after having first focussed the object .with the eye- piece. If the illumination be strong enough, and all light be excluded from the top of the camera, where the tracing-paper is, an image of the object will be thrown on the tracing-paper. To bring it to focus, the coarse-adjustment milled-head must be turned ; then, by moving the object and the light, the image may be made to occupy the centre of the field, and the centre of the circle of light projected on the tracing- paper. For convenience in drawing it is better to incline the microscope at the usual angle, and sup- port the camera above it at the same angle. I make use of a small wooden camp-stool, with a fiat wooden top, and insert books or two oblong iron seven-pound weights under the camera to prop it up at the right inclination. If any light enters between the tube of the camera, and that of the microscope, it may be completely excluded by using an india-rubber cone (used by plumbers for connecting wash-basin pipes), price &d., made like a funnel, and open at both ends. This serves to make a light tight connection between the two tubes. It is convenient to have a circular plate of tin japanned on the outside, and blackened on the inside surface to fit into the large circular hole in the camera. In this plate a much smaller round hole is cut. This enables one to vary the size of the field of view, and centre the image if required. I saw in a book called the " Minor Arts," by K 194 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. C. G. Leland, page 62, the following recipe for making tracing-paper, which can be reconverted into ordinary opaque drawing-paper after drawing upon it:— If one volume of castor-oil be dissolved in two or three (I prefer three) volumes of spirit of wine, the mixture will render paper immersed in it transparent, and the spirit rapidly evaporating, the paper will become fit for use in a very few minutes. (I find two or three hours necessary to dry it.) If the paper be afterwards placed in spirits of wine, the oil is dissolved out, and the paper presents its original appearance. I find the recipe to be quite correct, and think that many readers of this paper will find it useful. The illumination I make use of is that of Swan's Special Microscopical Incandescent Electric Light, of which more in last month's number. The full power of the battery should be put on, so as to give a dazzling light if the object be viewed with the microscope eye-piece, otherwise a clear image will not be cast on the paper. As, however, most readers of Science-Gossip have not the electric light, perhaps a few words as to the use of daylight would be use- ful. The dazzling light reflected directly from the sun, gives the most distinct image. Should the heat of the rays be feared, it might be cut off by interposing a cell containing a solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper between the light and the mirror, although, not having tried this, I am afraid the light would be much diminished. The tracing-paper must* be ex- ternally in darkness. This may be secured by closing the shutters and drawing blinds and curtains so as to exclude all light but that on the mirror, or by cover- ing one's head with a dark-cloth like a photographer. Probably the most convenient plan would be to cut a hole large enough to admit the tube of the microscope, including the adjustment milled-head in a dark tent. If this were done the camera-box might be dispensed with, and the image might be thrown on to tracing- paper stretched over a framed plate of glass placed at any convenient distance. A dark tent, which would be easy to make, is de- scribed by Mr. J. C. Leake in CasselPs " Popular Recreator," vol. ii. page 227. The following is an extract from his remarks : — " The first thing required will be a shallow box or tray of wood which will form the bottom of the tent. This should be made of dry pine about half or three- quarters of an inch in thickness. For a nine-by- seven (photographic) plate the base should be about two feet by eighteen inches. To the outer edges of this board should be screwed a wooden rim, about two inches deep (and one inch thick). This will form a capital operating table of convenient size. The top will consist of a light board, say half an inch in thick- ness, and of exactly the same size as the base ; round this must be screwed a fillet of wood, so placed as to fit into the tray which forms the base of the tent. " The next thing will be the covering, which should consist of two thicknesses of black "twill" (also yellow calico if used for photography). This covering should be secured at the edges by small tacks to the inner side of the bottom tray, and the inner side of the top fillet, taking care to nail it very closely, so as to exclude light, and make it very secure. The covering material should be made to extend along the back of the tent, over the two ends, and for six inches each way along the front. (The length way of the boards forms front and back, the ends form sides.) Each thickness of covering material will therefore require to be two yards in length and the edges in front of the tent will require to be neatly stitched, so as to unite the thicknesses. In order to ensure the tent standing square when erected the lining should be fixed both at the top and bottom, quite parallel with the base and cover. " In order to stretch the lining and erect the tent, two stout rods will be required, which should be rather longer than the height of the tent, when the top is raised to the extent allowed by the lining. If these rods are inserted at the ends of the tent, and pushed firmly up, so as to stretch the covering out tightly, a box will be formed ; which, if the work has been well done, will be almost as firm and rigid as if made of wood. '* The next thing will be to provide a curtain which may cover the opening left in the front of the tent. For this purpose the same black material may be employed, and it should be large enough to reach some little distance round the edge to the ends of the tent and to fall quite loosely. "This curtain should now be secured to the top by strings of tape inserted in small eyes placed upon the cover of the tent, and to the sides by strings of the same material, fastened both upon the curtain and the sides of the tent. The curtain (being intended to wrap round the operator and exclude light) should be made very full, and long enough to fall at least two feet below the bottom of the tent. The whole tent, when folded up, will be enclosed in a flat box about three inches in thickness." For use with the microscope probably the best plan would be to make the base board six inches wider, say two feet by two feet. Then the tent might be made of the size above described, and a ledge two feet long and six inches wide would be left outside at the back, at the opposite side of the tent to the operator. Two holes might be made in the twill at the back, one of them provided with a tape to draw it up tightly round the lower end of the microscope limb, the other having a circular brass curtain-ring stitched into it to admit the light from the mirror. If thought desirable, a broader ledge to hold a lamp might be left. Such a tent would be convenient for ordinary work with the microscope, as I have seen somewhere pointed out. If the eye-piece be removed from the microscope HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. J95 as previously recommended, the image thrown on the tracing-paper at about 20 inches distance from the object will not be as highly magnified as if seen with the eye-piece down the microscope tube. A i-in. objective will magnify about 30 diameters instead of 50 diameters. Among the advantages of this camera apparatus is that of enabling one to obtain intermediate magni- fying powers, in fact it is in itself a microscope stand. By using only the objective of the microscope fitted on to the end of the conical tin tube by means of the india-rubber cone, a magnified image of any object may be cast upon the tracing-paper. With the i-in. objective used in this way the magnifying power will be about 15 diameters. If the box were made so that the distance of the paper could be varied, any amplification might be obtained although with loss of light and definition at long distances. If such a camera were desired it would no doubt be better to buy a photographer's bellows-camera, which could be used for drawing objects by substituting a sheet of plate-glass and one of tracing-paper, for the ground- glass used for focussing on. A photographer's tripod stand would also be convenient for inclining the camera at any angle. In order to support slides in front of the camera, when the microscope stand is not used, I have made a simple holder as follows : — Two slips of wood, about 4 in. high, have a slit 2 in, long, and broad enough to admit the slide edgewise, cut in them with a fret saw. These uprights are joined by a cross piece at the bottom, and stand 2 in. apart. The cross piece is fastened by a hinge in the middle to a flat oblong board 6| X 3 in. so that the uprights stand equidistant from each end, and can be inclined at any angle. Near the end of the board, behind the uprights, two small oblong holes are made, into which two small pieces of wood are fastened by pins driven from the edge of the board. These "struts" serve to support the uprights as they turn on the pins, and their upper ends are cut off at angle of about 45 degrees, so as to make them fit into notches in the back of the uprights. This holder might be placed on a book, but if four brass shutter-screws turning in brass pieces let into the board were added, it could be raised or lowered as desired. By using two boards, the upper sliding on the lower, and a shutter- screw or rack and pinion in a horizontal position, probably it would be easier to focus. Another plan of holding an object which* I find to answer beautifully, is to use the microscope stand as a holder merely. If the limb be placed in a hori- zontal position, the body racked back out of the way, the mirror, and, if possible, the pivoted limb holding it turned aside, the slide may be held in the ordinary clip. The upper side of the slide should be turned downwards, and the tube of the camera brought to coincide with the centre hole of the stage. By bringing the electric or any other available light between the body and the stage or "above the stage," the magnified image will be thrown on the paper-screen of the camera. A diagram of this ar- rangement is given in my article last month, page 172. The ease with which the magnifying power can be ascertained by the actual measurement by this apparatus is obvious. Another and very great advantage of it is this, that in a dark room an object may be exhibited to several persons at once. It would be very convenient for class demonstrations. I have no doubt that, for drawing objects in the way I have described, the Oxyhydrogen Lantern Microscope, mentioned on page 229 of Davis's " Practical Microscopy," and sold by Mr. Browning, complete with objectives, but without lantern, for ,£5 ios., would be very useful, and certainly better for class demonstration. Mr. Davis says that for exhibition neither oil nor the best paraffin-lamps yield enough light. The electric light would do if a larger lamp were used, and possibly for drawing merely, less powerful lights. I have only just seen the series of articles on "Drawings, &c, from the Microscope " in Science- Gossip for 1882, pages 1, 39, 49, 74, 90, 97, 230. Mr. Draper remarks on page 1 : " The effect of a microscopical painting is greatly enhanced by its being drawn within a circle, surrounded by a black margin forming a square." I think it would be much the best plan to buy paper with the black square and white circle in centre, ready lithographed, from Messrs. Watson & Sons, High Holborn, who execute the plates for Cole's " Studies in Micro- scopical Science." In Februrary 1882, page 39, [Mr. Holmes remarks : " E. T. D. omitted to notice that outlines produced by camera-lucida are reversed." In reply to this remark, Mr. Draper, in April, page 74, says : " The neutral tint reflector . . . has the great disadvantage that everything is reversed ; consequently, when removed, any further drawing from the microscope is extremely difficult, not to say impossible." He says further : "I am persuaded this neutral glass reflector has often been a snare and delusion to many a young draftsman, and should at once be abandoned by those who are ambitious to do prolonged after work." This is a good instance of the danger of hastily condemning appliances which happen to differ from those of which one habitually makes use. It is perfectly obvious that nothing further is required than a semi-rotation of the stage, to place the object the other way up, and enable one to fill in details. Of course the light and shade require attention, but the larger structural detail could be filled in. In March, on page 49, Mr. Suffolk says: "I dispense entirely with camera-lucida, and substitute a grating ruled in squares ... on a double convex lens. The drawing is made on ruled paper." In May Mr. Draper, page 97, comments on this, that K 2 196 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. " for a highly finished painting . . . such a method of fixing positions cannot be employed, the pencilled 'squares' on the paper are difficult to erase, and you can never permit any ' rubbing out ' on paper designed for tender drawing and delicate colouring." No doubt true ; but neither Mr. Suffolk nor Mr. Draper seem to be acquainted with the ' ' Sectional Papers " of Messrs. Letts, Limited, London Bridge. These papers are ready ruled in very faint squares of • ' ' 11311111537 anci one inch. and although for "fine art" drawings, the lines might be objectionable, for scientific purposes they would be advantageous, if each square were arranged to represent ^ or ^ of an inch. Tracing-paper ruled in the same way may be had, and by placing it over a finished drawing, the latter can be copied on sectional paper, without disfiguring the original. In May, on page 98, Mr. Draper says : "Favourite sub- jects are the various parts of insects. How best to see them ? Certainly not distorted between flattened glasses." There is an article on this subject (entitled " Unpressed Mounting for the Microscope ") in the Journal of the Postal Microscopical Society, for September 1882. (is. ; W. P. Collins, pub.) In April 1882, page 89, T. R. J. makes an astounding assertion : " An object drawn by means of a camera or tinted reflector at ten inches from the eye-piece, would be twice as large as if drawn at five inches, but both pictures would represent the same magnify- ing power." I do not see how this can be true in any sense of the words "magnifying power," evidently not in the sense of mere amplification, and certainly not as regards the amount of detail observ- able. The object as seen at ten inches will be as truly magnified as if it had been examined with an objec- tive of higher power at five inches, although the light may not be so good. T. R. J. is quite right in saying that, as usually understood among microscopists, a drawing of an object said to be magnified 500 diameters, should represent the details of structure visible under the microscope to the draftsman. If one of the statues of the apostles, which I have seen at St. Peter's, at Rome, and which is 16 feet in height, shows no details of structure that would not be visible in a man 5 feet 4 inches high, no microscopist, in his senses, would maintain that it was a correct represen- tation of a man, magnified 3 diameters. Magnified representations of objects would be of very little use if they meant absolutely nothing more than an en- larged diagram of what was visible to the naked eye. I am sure that if Mr. E. Holmes (see page 114) had a drawing of a flea said to be magnified 500 diameters, in which nothing was delineated except what was visible to the naked eye, he would consider that Dr. Carpenter, or whoever the author of the book might be, was misleading him. Tapton Elms, Sheffield. NOTES ON FASCIATED STEMS. By H. W. Kidd. AS not a few of these curious malformed stems have come under my notice from time to time, I think some remarks thereon may not be unacceptable to your readers. Through the kindness of my friend Mr A. H. Swinton, I am enabled to forward you sketches of some examples. With regard to the term " fasciated," I think there is no doubt that this term was originally and correctly applied to these stems in its radical sense, of a long narrow strip of cloth or bandage, and that Dr. M. C. Cooke correctly defines them as stems flattened out. From the Latin noun fascia, we get fasciatum 'in bundles,' that is, bound by a fascia. It unfortunately happens that these stems have at first sight very much the appearance of being formed by the union of several shoots. In Ogilvie's Comprehensive Dictionary, " fasciated" is said to be in botany applied to certain flattened stems of trees which appear to be formed by the union of several. The word "appear" must be taken for what it is worth. Even if these stems were formed by the con- fluence of shoots, "bundle" would not be a happy designation ; one would scarcely describe a Pandean pipe as a bundle of reeds, seeing all the reeds are on the same plane. That these stems are one stem flattened is perfectly clear, there being only one pith which is always pressed nearly flat ; this has been pointed out by Herr professor Makowsky, in a paper published in Germany, of which a friend has kindly furnished me with a translation.* Only a few months since I found a dandelion with a flattened stem, crowned by two distinct flower-heads, but the stem was a single flattened tube, and not two connate stems, as I at first supposed. Moreover I have before me a drawing of a daisy, brought me by a friend in April 1866 which has four confluent disks and a flattened stem, but whether this stem was four stems united I cannot tell. Judging from the dande- lion, I should rather think it was not ; I do not know of a single case of two or more shoots being produced in confluence, although there seems no possible reason why this might not happen, seeing that what are commonly called " double fruits " are by no means rare. Of course woody stems sometimes become confluent, simply because there is not room for their annual increase ; this may be often seen in the common ivy. When smaller flattened shoots are produced from the coxcomb end of these fasciated stems, I believe they are always on the same plane as Herr Makowsky observes, as in the holly, in fig. 119, a ; at least I believe this to be the case, although the stems have somewhat twisted in drying. I have a sketch of a flattened holly stem, made in 1S66, which seems to be the first stage of fig. 1 19 a ; the blade being * Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brunn, III. Band 1864, S. 19. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. i97 crowned by a confused crest of leaves, in the axils of which buds were probably forming for ramification of the flattened stem. A fasciated stem of vegetable marrow has been brought to me rather more than six feet long, and from an inch to an inch and a quarter in width. Towards the top it has divided into two branches, both of which are flat, and are decidedly on the same plane. On the other hand, it must be borne in mind that where round branches are produced from these flattened stems, they arise from a letter to the writer respecting the fasciated stem of asparagus, remarks that the fasciated asparagus is extremely common, due no doubt to the rich soil given to a plant which in its wild state is but poorly fed. I possess sketches of two fasciated stems of daphne, very similar to the ash, fig. 119, d, as also one of a Canterbury bell. In the case of the cock's-comb {Celosia cristata), Herr Makowsky states that by dint of propagation and artificial selection, the fasciated form has become permanent, and is now so much Fig. 119. — Malformation of the Holly and Ash. a, fasciated branch of holly (//er aquijolium), reduced ; b c, fasciated branch of ash [Fraxinus excelsior), reduced ; d, fasciated branch of ash, natural size. any part, the edge not excepted. A glance at the ash, fig. 1 19, a, will show at once that phyllotaxis, or leaf arrangement, is quite obliterated in these flattened stems, as buds of the ash are normally in pairs. "What the cause of these deformed stems may be, is rather hard to say ; but I am disposed to think they are caused by a super-abundance of sap, as, upon the whole, rank growing species and individuals, seem more liable to it than plants which are of a less vigorous habit, and that cultivated plants are more liable to it than wild ones. Sir J. D. Hooker, in better known than the round stem that it not unfrequently passes for the normal condition of the plant. In conclusion, it may be as well to give a summary of all the plants which are known to pro- duce fasciated stems. Holly {Ilex Aquifolium), ash {Fraxinus excelsior), daphne, dandelion {Leontodon Taraxacum), daisy {Bellis perennis), Asparagus offici- nalis, a species of Campanula, and the vegetable marrow {Cucurbita ovifera), have been already men- tioned, and I am told they are to be found on willow, elm, and chestnut. There were exhibited in 198 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Kew Gardens Museum Number 2, a few months since, and are probably still to be seen, a fasciated stem of Scotch fir {Pinus sylvestris), and fasciations in the stems of certain British plants, as the Convolvulus arvensis, dandelion, primrose {Primula vulgaris) in a species of Campanula, and in the common wall- flower (Cheiranthus Cheiri), also a fasciated flower stem of Lepidium campestre ; and what is yet more singular, a twisted stem of the Fuller's teasel (Dip- sacus fullonum), a plant not naturally a climber. Herr Professor Makowsky mentions larch (Larix), oak (Quercus), and also, though more rarely, an Ailanthus and Rhus (Sumach), and likewise upon Farsetia* Cirsium (thistle), Matricaria (Mayweed), and Bupleurum (Hare's-ear), and probably fasciations occur on many other trees and plants. SEPTEMBER AT THE ENGLISH LAKES. OUR stay being limited to three weeks, I de- voted myself chiefly to botany, and worked up the flora the more carefully, as I was dissatisfied with the information on botany given in the guide books. Though our visit was at the end of September, I found about fifty species of plants, some of them being of the less common kinds. We left Cambridge on the 12th of September, and after breaking our journey at Northallerton, started early next day for Penrith, then taking the coach to Pooley Bridge. On our way we passed King Arthur's Round Table, a circular plateau surrounded by a trench, the use of which is still unknown, as far as I can make out. On arriving at the lake, we embarked in the little steam yacht and made for Patterdale, where we had determined to make our head-quarters. A few walks sufficed to make us tolerably well acquainted with the general appearance and flora of the neighbourhood. The rocks "are the result of a chaotic intermixture of Green Slates and Porphyrites," the limestone being left near Penrith. The commonest plant (perhaps, excepting the bracken) is the parsley fern (Cryptogrammc crispa), which grows like a weed all over the rocks, accom- panied on some of the slopes by the lovely little Alchemilla alpina. Of the club-mosses, Lycopodium clavatum, alpinum, and selago grow all over the hills, whilst the closely allied Sclaginella selaginoides occurs frequently in moist places. Large tufts of sphagnum form a wet spongy carpeting wherever water trickling down the slopes supplies them with moisture ; this is tenanted by Droscra rotundifolia, Eriophorum vaginatum, Narthccium ossifragum, J\iniassia palustris, Pedicularis sylvatica, Pinguicula vulgaris, though most of these occur frequently where there is no sphagnum. In many places a * One of the Cruciferae. species of sphagnum, of a beautiful red tint, covers the ground. By the streamlets on the slopes of Place Fell, Anagallis tenella, Saxifraga aizoidcs and stellaris, the two last named also on Helvellyn, and Cochlearia cordala. In woods, Polypodium dry- opteris and phegopteris, Lastrea oreopteris and dilatata, Polystichum filix-mas, A thy ri urn fdix- fixmina ; among the phanerogams, Solidago virga- aurea. The oak fern is commoner than the beech, but the above plants all grow in woods about Stybarrow Crag. In open meadows, Alchemilla vulgaris, Geranium sylvaticum (occasionally), San- guisorba officinalis. In Patterdale, Circaa lutetiana, Geranium lucidum, Jasione fnontana ; up Dovedale, Gnaphalium sylvaticum, Gentian a campestris. On walls, Polypodium vulgare. Less frequent are Poly- gonum viviparum, Meconopsis Cambrica. One of our first walks was over the Grisdale Pass to Grasmere. It was a lovely sunny morning as we ascended the valley, and the bogs full of Parnassia, Droscra, and other plants had put on a very bright appearance. Some little way up the valley we came upon a small plant or two of Sedum Anglicum, and some of the Saxifraga stellaris and aizoidcs were still in flower. After crossing the stream and making a steep ascent, the view down the valley with the steep rocks of Helvellyn on one side, and of St. Sunday Crag on the other, and the bracken-covered slopes of Tlace Fell at the bottom of the valley was splendid. We passed several little cascades, and in one stream I found Chrysosplenium oppositifolium in leaf. At last we arrived at the little Grisdale Tarn sparkling in the sun, and then at the summit of the pass. In places the ground is said to be carpeted with Silene acaulis in the season. We had to hurry down to Grasmere to meet friends. After a rest we walked on past Rydal Water, finding Sedum Telephium, Gentiana campestris, Meconopsis Cambrica, as well as Parnassia palustris, and old spikes of Narthccium ossifragum, visited Rydal Falls and went on to Ambleside, a reputed locality for the Hymenophyllum, which grows or grew in one or two places in the neighbourhood. Next morning we took a trip down Windermere Lake, but it being cloudy, we did not see the largest but not most beautiful lake to advantage. In the afternoon we walked back to Patterdale over the Kirkstone Pass. The summit was enveloped in a thick Scotch mist, but we managed to see the indistinct form of the Kirk Stone, which certainly does not look much the shape of a " kirk." Lower down Brothers Water shone at our feet, and was afterwards passed. Near here were a few poor plants of Achillea Ptar?nica. Menyanthes trifoliata grows at the end of the lake. From this point a three miles' walk took us back. Of course we took the first fine day for going up Helvellyn. And here, in the event of any of my readers following my steps, let me give one piece of HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 199 advice, which is not given in any of the guide books. If you are at all nervous or giddy, don't go up Helvellyn by Swirrel Edge. I am aware that this advice is given with respect to one of the other ways tourists go up Helvellyn — Striding Edge — in most of the guide books. But none mention this way as being at all dangerous, bad, or uncomfortable ; indeed, I read in Baddeley's Guide Book that as the way up by Striding Edge is dangerous and very narrow, " giddily inclined people will feel more comfortable in going up Swirrel Edge." Soon after leaving Patterdale, we found some Galium saxatile. The way up was excellent, till, after crossing the end of the Red 1'arn, we got out into the ridge between Helvellyn and Catche- decam. And even then, till we came to the last climb, it was not bad. But then the climb up was as bad as going along the Mauvais Pas at Chamounix, and worse, while all along the latter there is a railing to hold on to and here none. Large rocks had to be clambered over as best one could, while the precipice on one side did not add to our feelings of " comfort." One of our party felt so uncomfortable as to stop behind while we reached the top. We found a good many people up there that had tried coming down the Swirrel Edge, but turned back. But we were well rewarded for our trouble; for, from the top, we could not have had a better view. From the Scotch hills on our north, to Morecambe Bay on our south, and the Yorkshire hills in the far east, every outline was perfectly clear ; in the foreground Scawfell and Bow- fell were particularly prominent. The top consists of loose stones, very similar to pumice stone, and in many places beautiful quartz crystals are to be found. We came down a much better way by Dollywaggen Pike and the Grisdale Tarn, and were glad we did so, as the views of the part by Windermere and Coniston were better than from the top. The following plants, though not to be seen so late in the season, are said to grow on Helvellyn : Cerastium alpinum, Chryso- splenium oppositifolium, Ilieracium alpinum, Juncus triglumis, Oxyria reniformis, Rhodiola rosea, Salix herbacea, Saxifraga hirculus, hypnoides, oppositifolia, nivalis, Thalidrum alpinum, Woodsia ilvcnsis. Of Vaccinium Vitis-Idcca we found the leaves near the top. We had many beautiful walks about Patterdale. The Greenside Lead mills were very interesting, and we saw how the material as it comes from the mines is crushed, sifted, and washed to separate the lead, which sinks by its own weight. Afterwards the ore is smelted, to separate the silver with which it is largely mixed. Above the mines, near a reservoir, grow Erica tetralix and Empetrum nigrum. The Aira Force made another walk. The falls, 80 feet high, are in a lovely little glen, the rocks on either side carpeted with ferns and mosses bathed by the spray. On the road, about half a mile before the turning to the falls, Narthe- ciurn ossifragum and Hydrocotyle vulgaris grew plenti- fully in a bog. Another lovely walk was along the lake side in the direction of Howtown. The slopes of Place Fell are here covered with Junipents communis, while Blechnum spicant, Calluna vulgaris, and Erica cinerea grow in one or two places. In their full beauty are Lycopodium clavatum, 'jilpinum, selago, Alchemilla alpina, Cryptogramme crispa. Farther on, near a little cascade, Corydalis claviculata covers some of the bushes. We returned by the Boredale glen, and found in a bridge near Sandwick, Asplenium Ruta-muraria, which, with A. trichotjianes grow in bridges or other places where there is mortar, but not elsewhere, and hence, occur but sparingly. Cystoptcris fragilis grows up the glen in one or two places. But all the valleys and glens have their own beauty. Deepdale is interesting from the numerous glacier moraines at its extremity ; Glencoin as being divided into two parts by a ridge, while Dovedale ha6 been mentioned as a locality for one or two plants. We spent a couple of days at Keswick, and did that most frequented coach drive the " Buttermere excursion." At first the road runs along at some distance from the lake, and is separated from it by woods, in one of which we saw a notice that " The ferns are strictly preserved." Having seen numerous advertisements about of " all the choice British and local ferns for sale " we understood the necessity of preserving ferns if one wanted to save them from ex- termination. Lodore Falls were perhaps improved by recent rains. Hymenophyllum and Thalictrum majus are supposed to grow here, but no traces of them were to be seen. Sedum Telcphium was growing on a wall. At Grange, a rock close to the bridge is scratched and polished by glacier action. A tradition reports that the inhabitants of Borrow- dale once built up a wall to try and keep in the cuckoo, believing that if they did they would have everlasting spring, but they found the wall too low for the purpose. The rocky sides of the valley are richly wooded, and a clear torrent runs along the bottom. Here is the Bowder Stone, a huge boulder standing on edge, on such a narrow base that two people on opposite sides can shake hands through a hole at the bottom. Then on to Seatoller, where a steep climb brought us to the top of the Hornster Pass. Many of the Patter- dale flora, Drosera rotundifolia, Alchemilla alpina, the Lycopodiums and Saxifraga aizoides grow here freely. This is an extremely wild situation. The towering crags on either side are scarred .with slate quarries from which the best building slate is pro- cured. Formerly the quarrymen ran down some hundred feet of loose screes with the slates on their heads, but rails are now laid to the place where the slates are found. From this point till near Butter- mere Water, the road is dreadful. At Buttermere we rested, and walked down to Crummock Water, which is well stocked with trout and char. In our drive back by the Vale of Newlands, nothing 200 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. occurred worth mentioning, except that a quantity of white Geranium robertianum grew by the road, and Narthechim was plentiful in a bog near Keswick, the gone over spikes being very noticeable. At Keswick we visited the pencil works. Almost all the lead now used for pencils is brought from Mexico, and is prepared by grinding down to a paste and baking. Genuine Borrowdale lead or "wad" is now worth from two to three shillings per ounce, and is used only for the best drawing pencils, the mines having been some time closed. It was merely cut to the right size and put into the pencil. Besides this, raised maps or models of the Lake district are shown at Keswick. One on the scale of three inches to the mile was made some sixty years ago by Mr. Flintoft, from measurements made entirely by himself, and is exhibited with a small but interest- ing local museum containing collections of the fauna of the district, granites, porphyrites, "wad" from Borrowdale, quartzes, rock borings, ores, and antiqui- ties, also a rock harmonicon, a musical instrument formed of slabs of hornblende slate from Skiddaw. A newer model on the six inch scale is also among the sights of Keswick ; this was made after the Ordnance Survey. It is very hard to decide which is the loveliest ; Derwentwater or Ullswater. Many prefer the richly-wooded sides and broad expanse of the former to the wilder hills which encompass the latter. About Keswick, however, there are rows of boat landings, which seriously mar the beauty of the lake. And when Ullswater again burst on our view, we at once decided in its favour. As we skirted the shores, the full moon rose over the lake, and it was truly glorious. Only a few days, and then — we took the same walk, but the other way, and with feelings of sorrow at its being our last walk ; and often did we look back at Patterdale where we had had so pleasant a three weeks' stay. Where we greeted the lake with pleasure a short while before, we now parted from it with regret, and soon were brought back into every-day life. I have examined the list of Local Floras published in Science Gossip a year or two ago to find whether any flora of Cumberland or Westmoreland is published, but, to my great surprise, considering the richness of this district, I find none named. Unless there is one published of whose existence I am unaware — and if so your readers will, I trust, kindly inform me on this point — there is great need of a "Flora of the Lakes," as the botanical information in guide books is very fragmentary and incomplete. Thus, " Jenkinson " gives only two localities — Barrow and Castlerigg — for the parsley fern, and one, Causey Pike, for Lycopo- dium clavatum, alpinum and selago — how abundantly we found them at Patterdale I have mentioned above. While in an old " Murray " we had with us many of lhe botanical names are misspelt, and one is at first puzzled as to what are the Cystopleris fragilis, Sedura rhodiola, Armenia maistima or Dnosera rodundifora. G. H. Bryan. OBSERVATIONS ON CLEAVAGE. No. II. PROFESSOR GEIKIE remarks that, "among curved rocks, the cleavage planes may be seen traversing the contortions without sensible deflection from their normal direction, parallelism, and high angle," and he further affirms, on the Fig. i 20. authority of Jukes, that the trend of the cleavage over the whole of the south of Ireland seldom departs io0 from the normal direction E. 250 N., no matter what may be the differences in character and age of the rocks which it crosses.* We have shown in a former paper that, in one portion of the Central Wales district at least, there is often very sensible deflection in the dip of the cleavage, and that this is due to the varying hardness (or resistance to fracture) of the beds crossed by the cleavage in the dip. Now, assuming that the strike of cleavage is constant, this non- variability of direction may be accounted for from the fact that cleavage-planes seldom cut across the planes of bedding along the line of strike. It is well-known that the strike of beds, and that of cleavage traver- * E.icyel. Trit. vol. x. 9th ed., p. 307. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 201 sing them, as a general rule correspond very nearly. Examine plate ix. of the late Mr. Ward's excellent memoir.* It shows the direction of the anticlinals, and synclinals in the true dip, and cleavage dip — they are parallel, or form very acute angles with each other. The cleavage of the Skiddaw slates, (Lower Silurian), which are often much contorted and crumpled, is constant in direction (N.E.), in dip (S.E.), and amount of dip (between 550 and 6o°). In the volcanic series the cleavage dips as high as 70°. There are exceptions to the above rules. Many years ago, De la Beche gave one example occurring at Sharkham Point, near Brixham, Devon. Here the direction of cleavage makes somewhat large angles with the planes of bedding, f When cleavage strata. Action and reaction being equal and opposite, our observations are evidences just as much of varia- tion in the direction of resistance to pressure. The major plication of strata, are usually termed anti- clinal and synclinal curves, but just as each mighty Fig. 122. planes run parallel with planes of bedding, no refrac- tion or bending of the planes is likely to take place ; when the angles formed by the two planes are very small, the refraction, if any, will be very slight, so slight as frequently to be overlooked, but when the angles are larger, no doubt the cleavage-planes are bent when passing obliquely from a hard to a soft bed, or vice versa. We have now to consider what appear to be evidences of variation in the direction of the pressure- forces which have contorted and cleaved certain * Geology of the Northern Part of the English Lake District, 1876. + Report on the Geology of Cornwall and Devon, fig. 3, P- 45- swell of the ocean is made up of a number of lesser waves, so each great rock-curve is usually composed of a number of smaller folds. The latter are termed troughs and saddles — words which explain themselves. The smaller folds of rocks may be distinct and regular, or greatly broken and confused. Fig. 120 is a rough diagram of a saddle existing on the top of the hill marked Pen-y-Bannau on the geological survey map (quarter-sheet 57. N.E.). A little north of the Roman camp the beds are marked contorted. The saddle occurs about one hundred yards to the south of the camp. There is no distinct axis or saddle- joint, but here and there are very palpable evidences of fracture, and the dotted line shows that the ruptures have not taken place in the same plane. The 202 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. fissure or saddle-joint is directed N. E. b E. (mag.) or very nearly that of the lodes of the district. The cleavage-planes on one side of the axis are clearly not parallel to those on the other side of it ; the two sets in fact form very acute angles with each other, but angles much less than those formed by the sides or " wings " of the saddle. The arrows show the pro- bable direction of the fissure which produced this local contortion. They may be said to represent the resultant of the forces which folded the beds of clay- slate into such sharp curves. Indistinct lines of bedding are traceable in the hard beds, and in these beds no cleavage planes are visible, so that the phenomenon of refraction is not represented. The cleavage-planes j near the crown or "buckle," form acute angles with the laminae, but, lower down, the two sets of planes are almost identical in dip. The outcrop of the saddle — owing to denudation — is, of course, irregular, but it can be traced about 24 feet in vertical height. In one spot the beds appear to have been folded in a very regular manner. Fig. 121 shows a very hard bed made up of a number of thin laminae, and apparently uncleaved. From A to B is only 8 inches, and, notwithstanding] this sharp bending, the crown of the arch is unbroken. "When a lamina is broken off and examined, it is seen to be by no means uniformly curved. The top of the curve is a wave whose crest and sinus form acute angles with the plane of the saddle-joint. Hence it would appear that oblique compression had pro- duced these contortions. Is not this small unbroken curve an evidence that the rock was rendered some- what plastic by the intense pressure brought to bear on it ? M. Tresca has shown that a powerful compressing force will produce an internal motion among the particles of solid metals closely analogous to that of fluids, and some geologists are ready to admit that locally the same thing may have occurred in rocks, when they were subjected to great lateral pressure.* Variation in the dip of cleavage-planes is still more marked in our next example. Fig. 122 is sketched from a series of beds occurring in the Lower Llandovery (bA), rocks of Tregaron (Q.S. 57 S.E.) About half a mile N.E. of the town, there is the word "Castell" on the map; the beds are here marked contorted. I counted five saddles and four troughs in a horizontal length of only eight yards. A few feet above these greatly contorted beds, the clay-slate is moderately regular, and made up of smaller curves or rock-ripples. Within a distance of a few feet, the dip of the cleavage varies as much as 260. At a, it is absolutely vertical ( dip of beds 220 S.) ; at b, it is 720 N. (dip of beds 20= N.) ; at c, it is 640 N. (dip of beds 360 N.). Close by the beds dip 530 N.W. and the cleavage dips 790 N.W. Prof. Geikie, art. Gcol., o/>. cil. At d, I have endeavoured to represent one of the sharper curves made up of a trough and a saddle, and the appearance of the cleavage dip at this point. "Where there is a trough, the cleavage on each side of the trough -joint forms what may be termed a cleavage-trough, which is much more acute than the rock or bed-trough. On the other hand where there is a saddle, the cleavage abuts on each side of the saddle-ioint so as to form a cleavage-saddle, also- much more acute than the rock-saddle. Assuming that the cleavage-planes are perpendicular to the pressure which has produced them, the arrows show how the direction of the pressure, or the resistance to pressure, has varied over the small area. Viewed generally, the cleavage-planes passing through a saddle have the appearance shown ; but Fig. 123 is a true representation of the relation between the cleavage and the bedding. Close to the saddle- joint, the cleavage-planes are parallel with it, or exactly perpendicular to the crown of the bent beds ; lower down, the planes form acute angles with the bedding, and, still lower, both sets of planes are identical in dip. A prolongation of a, a, shows that they form very acute angles with /', b. The cleavage can only be studied satisfactorily on or near the surface, because weathering action has there more or less separated the planes, and, owing to the unequal effects of denudation, some planes are left standing, and the lower or higher ones have been carried away, rendering the measurement of the dip an easy task. In sections of rock 300 feet below the surface, and possibly at much greater depths than this, the cleavage appears in section as a number of somewhat indefinite parallel lines, giving the rock the appearance of a ribbon-like structure. These lines are seen to traverse certain portions of the lead lodes uninterruptedly. Where this occurs the lodes consist of several parallel veins, and the cleavage-planes are visible only in the rock or " country " dividing the veins. This fact must have a bearing on the origin and history of the Cardigan- shire lodes. The general conclusion to be drawn from the above observations, is that where rocks have been sharply folded, the cleavage sometimes varies pretty considerably in dip, even within a distance of a few feet, and that such variation is evidence that the folding has not been of such simple nature as in certain experiments, e.g. those of Sir James Hall. Rocks are of very variable thickness, hardness, chemical composition, &c. ; and our experiments, as yet, only bear a faint resemblance to what has taken place in Nature's great laboratory. But if they do not teach us the whole truth, they show us the direction in which the truth lies ; and better experiments and keener observations will, no doubt, in time help to clear up this still mysterious and fascinating subject. E. Halse, A.R.S.M. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. J03 A NEW HISTORY OF THE SPARROW. By George Roberts. ARCHITECTURE AND BREEDING HABITS. THE sparrow (Passer domcstkus) well illustrates the theory of the survival of the fittest. Its attachment to man and his products gives it advan- tages over all other birds. Its manner of breeding enables it to bring up its young with greater ease and certainty than almost any other bird. In early spring it constructs a nest in holes in walls, and under tiles and slates in dwelling houses. These places are warm and secure from storms, and also from prowling enemies. The nests of other birds in the early spring are subject to frost, rain, and wind. A little later (the sparrow knows the time) it begins to build a nest in trees, and this nest is a pattern of stability, con- venience, and comfort. The female is the architect ; the male works to orders. As soon as the site is fixed upon, both begin to bring slender twigs, dry fibrous roots, and dry grass stalks, and these materials are worked and woven into a round, or rather oblong hollow structure, sometimes large enough to fill a peck measure. The male works tolerably hard till the nest is nearly finished ; he then becomes negligent, and often takes a jaunt with other idlers into the fields and gardens to see how the crops are coming on, leaving the female to collect all the soft feathers and bits of warm flannel and wool to line the inside of the cradle. When the eggs are laid the male takes his turn at sitting, but he dislikes being cooped up in a dark prison. He prefers mounting guard on a branch about a yard off the nest, where he can look about him ; he there sits and chirps at the top of his voice, proclaiming to the neighbouring community that all is going on prosperously. From this place he is also ready to join other small birds at a moment's notice in the task of mobbing any passing hawk or wandering cuckoo. This masterly nest gains for the sparrow at least three advantages over most of the other small birds. First, by being thatched it prevents the eggs from being seen by the rook, crow, or magpie, or any other egg-eating bird ; it also secures the young against that arch-enemy of nestling birds, the cat. Secondly, it preserves the eggs and young against the chilling effects of rain, snow, and wind. Whilst other young birds are starving and suffering in their roofless nests from the piercing blasts of early spring, the young of the sparrow, even when the mother is absent, are snugly enjoying a feather bed. Thirdly, the construction of the nest ensures greater and more uniform warmth, and thus brings the young on to maturity in less time, and with greater certainty. The position of the nest is another consideration. It is very often placed in a high tree out of the reach of ■ordinary enemies. It is often in some tall, ivy-covered tree, doubly shielded by its own roof, and by the pendent ivy leaves ; or in some thick scraggy thorn bush, which no cat or other nest-hunter can climb on account of the thorns, which present a thousand defensive dagger-points on every side. The nest is fre- quently pitched, it is said, under the nest of rooks ; the latter, in that case, will ward off the snow and rain and violent winds. The sparrow never places its nest on the ground, where it would be subject to damp, and to the depredations of snakes, weasels, hedgehogs, rats, mice, and cats ; and, lastly, to mischievous boys. Though the sparrow is very overbearing and tyrannical when among other birds, it is said that he is exceedingly polite and humble when among the rooks, seeming to consider it a great privilege to be allowed to take up his residence in the rook-city. He never attempts to usurp the nest of the rook, unless it be a deserted one, and then, like a skilful architect, he seizes it and adapts it to his own wants to save labour, but in all other things he behaves himself in the most submissive and condescending manner. Thus the two species — the most eminent of British birds for sociality — live together in amity. The nests which are in holes of walls are equally inaccessible with those that are in trees. In these cases the builder accommodates itself to circum- stances, and practises economy of labour. Knowing that there is already a roof, the dome of the nest is omitted, or at least only partially constructed of a few arching straws, though the nest sometimes is of considerable size. Trees are the normal nesting sites of the sparrow, and before there were any artificial walls it would be confined to trees or to rocks. But the bird has partially turned away from its normal nesting-places and attached itself to man's dwellings, which are convenient and much warmer than the trees, hence it is enabled to raise two or three broods, whereas formerly it might have raised but one. This is a clear gain to the sparrow as a species. It adapts its nest to the cavities in the wall ; that, in itself, must entail some modification of architecture. The modification is favourable to the bird, for it enables it to build its nest with less labour, a smaller nest being required, hence there is a saving of time. In addition, greater warmth is secured, as it often happens that the nest is placed close to some flue or chimney. The fecundity of the species is also increased by this semi-domesticity. The sparrow thus improves its condition, from these causes alone, so much so that it has gained a percep- tible ascendency over other species. But leaving aside its domestic habits and its predilection for warm walls, its domed nest gives it an immense advantage over birds that build an ordinary, hemi- spherical, exposed nest. There is as much difference in comfort between the house-sparrow's warm, bulky nest and that of the hedge-sparrow, as there is between a good dwelling-house and a gipsy-tent. Perfect, however, as the sparrow's nest may be, yet it might be more perfect. There is another bird (not •04 HARDWICK&S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. British) which is ahead of the sparrow ; it constructs a domed nest with two chambers, one for the eggs, and one for the male to roost in. If our sparrow could be informed of this it would probably take the hint. A little parlour would be very useful for the male to sleep in during the cold nights, or to take shelter in during a thunderstorm. Some philosophers maintain that there is no im- provement in the habits of birds, man alone being progressive. It must, however, be admitted that there can be alteration, and if the alteration is for the benefit of the species it must be an improvement. THE TREE TOAD and WOOD FROG {HYLA VERSICOLOR and RANA SYLVAT1CA). By Dr. C. C. Abbott. A PRETTY batrachian, with which Americans are more or less familiar, unless their whole lives have been spent in a large city, is the tree-toad. Unlike the common toad, which is terrestrial, or the frogs that are aquatic, this animal leads an arboreal life. In anatomical structure, therefore, it differs from both the others, so far as this is necessary to its - ■' /y Fig. 124. — The Tree Toad (_Hyla versicolor). The so-called accidental variations which have often been observed in the architecture of birds — many showing a tendency to improved construction — would, if properly investigated, be found not to be accidental at all, but the result of a fixed law, of which we know nothing. The probable fact is that birds progress and decline like the various races of man, but the steps are so slight and the process of progression so slow, and the data by which we might judge so limited, that we have not yet been able to take adequate notice of any progression or improvement. {To be continued.) peculiar mode of life ; the most prominent variation being found in the fingers and toes, which] are more or less dilated into disks at their tips. This little tree-toad soon attracted the attention of the early colonists of New Jersey, and I find mention made of it as early as 169S. Gabriel Thomas refers to a "sort of Frog that crawls up to the tops of trees, there seeming to imitate the Notes of several birds." The idea of the resemblance of its note to that of " several birds," or of any one kind of bird, is rather amusing. Like all of our batrachians, the tree-toads make their way to the water, as the proper place for de- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 205 positing their eggs. These eggs are " attached singly and in small groups, along the grasses resting on the water's surface." Eggs deposited on May 10th are recorded by Miss Hinckley, in the Proceedings of the Boston Natural History Society for 18S0, to have hatched on the 12th, and passed through the tadpole state by July 4th, when the tadpoles were found "at the water's edge, with the tail reduced to a mere stump." My own knowledge of these little creatures covers only their arboreal life. I have never seen them except in their high and dry quarters ; not always dry, either, for they love damp hollows, in the angles of the branches, where a little rain lodges. The old apple-trees in the lane are sure to be tenanted by several tree-toads, every year ; and the little that I have learned of them, has been by watch- over it, and the fretful fellow at once begins to croak. This croak is so very generally regarded as a sign of rain, that it almost invariably calls forth the remark, "It is going to rain," from some one who has happened to hear it. Even the Indians looked upon it in this light, and so did the Swedes in South Jersey. I am sorry, however, to have to say that the toads in the apple-trees have undermined my faith in the "sign," as they have not shown themselves superior in prophetic ability to the man who gravely informs us what the weather will be, when the indi- cations are so plain that even a blind man might detect them. The croaks and the coming rain, so far as my apple-tree toad is concerned, are mere co- incidences— nothing more — as the following observa- tions will show. In 1S80, the tree-toads croaked every day from May 9th to July 12th, inclusive, and Fig. 125. — Tne Wood Frog (Rana sylvatica). ing those that frequented one locality. This is not recommended as a safe way of studying the habits of animals, as there would be nothing improbable, from what we know of other animals, in tree-toads acting quite differently in different trees. Suppose them, for instance, to be hiding in a cedar or in a weeping- willow, and it is evident that trees so widely different would make it necessary that their movements, when in pursuit of insects, should be quite different. I have not been able to learn how far these animals vary in the choice of their haunts, as I know them only as frequenting the apple-trees. As is well known, the tree-toad is nocturnal and crepuscular in its habits. By day, it sits very still in some quiet nook. By sitting still, it must not be supposed that it makes no noise. Far from it. Let a patch of cloud as big as a barn-door cast a shadow there were but half-a-dozen wet days, during the sixty-five. The following summer (1SS1) gave the same results ; and during the summer of last year, I obtained similar results from daily observations extending over four months. Throughout the warm weather of 1882, they croaked more or less, every day, hot or cool, sunshine or clouds, and far more at noon-time than either in the early morning or at evening. The supposition that they are particularly noisy at night is wholly inapplicable to my apple- tree toads. Had I never heard anything about these animals, I should have reported them as croaking, not because it was likely to rain, but because it was so dry, that they were suffering for want of moisture. After an unusually hot day, during the early summer, I have noticed that they croak a great deal, when, after sunset, the air becomes damper, seemingly out >o6 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. of pure satisfaction at the desirable change; whilst during our annual summer drought, they croak much at mid-day ; and this, I have thought was a cry of impatience, uttered in anticipation of the refreshing bath of dew that only comes with night-fall. When we do have a fairly wet season, these tree-toads are less full of croak than during a dry one ; and never have I been able to detect the slightest connection between the cries of the apple-tree toads in the lane, and either a passing shower or a coming storm. It may be asked of the tree-toad, as of many of our other fauna, are they as abundant as formerly ? In answer to this question, Captain Jonathan Carver, in the concluding chapter of his "Travels in North America" (1667-69) says, "These creatures ... in- fest the woods in such numbers, that their respon- sive notes at these times make the air resound." The rest of the notice is a mixture of truth and absurdity and is omitted, but the portion quoted would indicate that either tree-toads were formerly more abundant than at present, or that the author has confounded the animal with some one of the tree-frogs ; possibly the wood-frog, which is a noisy fellow, and one that croaks more like the tree-toad than do any of the aquatic species. The great difference between them, however, can readily be seen by comparing the illustrations of the two animals given on pages 204, 205. The tree-toads, or Hylce, while always at home during the day, are as active as a hop-toad during the night, and wander about the home-tree in search of food. Unless disturbed, however, they do not, I think, go far away, certainly not so far that they cannot find their way back. I have long thought that they made one tree their home, and I know, from observations extending over several summers, that the same tree-toad will spend the day, the summer through, in the one spot on the tree from April and October, without a miss, except when making the journey to the nearest water to lay eggs. I have known a tree-toad, day after day, to stick to one and the same spot, wherever it might travel through the night. Of course such regularity of habit must be coincident with an abundant food supply. Let this once become uncertain, and, like sensible toads, they would quickly change their quarters ; but any change of locality is from necessity, not choice. I have never been able to find out whether this batrachian had any enemies. The snakes that climb trees do doubtless sometimes make a dinner upon them ; but these snakes are few, and hence the inference that they have less to fear than either the frogs or the toads, though they are by no means so numerous. A word further, in conclusion, with reference to the wood-frog, already mentioned. In the retired portions of our upland woods, far away from the muddy ponds and stagnant puddles, and close to the leafy haunts of squirrels and chipmunks, if it be even a little damp, we may chance upon a pretty frog which in colour, habits and disposition is unlike all the others. It is literally, quick as a flash, and for some reason has a great dread of mankind ; at least, it takes wonderful leaps and plenty of them, when- ever any one happens to come too near. I know of no harder task than to chase a wood-frog over uneven ground. Except in April, when they congregate at some neighbouring pond and lay their eggs, these frogs frequent the woods the year through ; feeding on flies and such small fry, until frost comes, when they burrow some two feet deep in damp earth, and there they remain until the weather has become fairly spring-like. By many people, even now, these wood-frogs are confounded with the tree-toads. Why two creatures so unlike should be mistaken for one another passeth comprehension, yet in spite of all the zoological literature, and thousands of school teachers, such is the fact. Worse than this, I know of a lad with a correct knowledge of our batrachians, who dared to correct his teacher on this matter, while on a Saturday fishing frolic, and who was, in turn, " corrected " by the teacher on the following Monday. Prospect Hill, Trenton, N.J., U.S.A. SEA-SIDE HOLIDAYS. No. I.— The Mollusca of Margate and the VICINITY. THE following is a list of the mollusca that I have met with in the neighbourhood of Mar- gate. I have taken as my limits Sandwich on the one side and the Reculvers on the other. Near Sandwich there is a beach called Shellness, composed almost entirely of shells, and on this beach I have come across many rarities, including a few that I have found nowhere else round this coast. The nomenclature throughout is that of Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys. CONCHIFERA. Anomia ephippium ; small specimens only on the roots of Laminaria, all round the coast from Margate to Pegwell Bay. Pccten pusio ; single valves, pretty common at Margate and Shellness, but perfect shells are rare. P. varius ; common everywhere. P. oper- cularis ; small specimens every now and then. Mytilus edulis ; everywhere in clusters where there are rocks or wooden piles to cling to. Mytilus bar- batus ; occasionally all round the coast. M. Adria- ticus ; now and then at Shellness. \MoJiolaria discors ; Margate, but very seldom. Nucula nucleus ; small specimens at Margate, but fine and fresh at Shellness. At Shellness also I have met with the var. ra'diata. Leda caudata, var. brmirostris ; one specimen at HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 207 Shellness. Pectunculus gly timer is ; single valves at Shellness,-- Area lactea ; single valves all round the coast, but I have never met with a perfect specimen. Loripes lacteus ; occasionally at Margate. Cardium cehinatum ; single valves at Shellness. C. exiguum ; very seldom at Margate. C. fasciatum ; now and then at Margate during the winter months. C. edulc ; on muddy shores in great profusion, such as off the Reculvers and at Pegwell Bay. The var. ruslieurn occurs in the marshes at St. Nicholas. C. Norvegi- cum ; single valves at Shellness. Venus ovata; Margate and Shellness, but this species is by no means common. Tapes pullastra ; extremely common all round the coast. The var. perforans is not rare. Tellina crassa ; two single valves at Shellness. T. Balthica ; all round the coast, but in great profusion at Pegwell Bay and Shellness. T. tenuis ; Shellness and Birchington, but only now and then. T. fabula ; very abundant at Shellness and as the other species. Corbula gibbet ; single valves all round the coast. Two perfect specimens at Shell- ness. Mya arenaria ; alive at the Reculvers. One small specimen at Pegwell Bay. M. truneata ; common all round the coast. I have found it alive in the holes made by Pholas dactylus at Margate. M. Binghami ; occasionally at Margate. Saxieava rugosa ; common all round j the coast, wherever there are rocks. Pholas dactylus; with Saxieava rugosa, but usually nearer low-water mark. P. can- didus ; Reculvers, Margate, and Shellness, in abun- dance. SOLENOCONCHIA. Dentalium Tarentinum ; very common at Shellness, but not elsewhere. Gasteropoda. Chiton faseicularis ; on the rocks at Margate and broadstair: RAMSGATE SANDWICH0 EAST KENT Fig. 126. also now and then at Margate and Birchingto.i. Psannnobia vespertina; a single valve at Shellness. Donax vittatus ; extremely common at Shellness, and at Margate very seldom. Macira solida ; single valves at Shellness. The var. elliptica is much more frequent, and good specimens are no exception at Shellness. Mactra stu/iorum ; very common at Shellness, and now and then at Margate. The var. cinerea occurs at Shellness. Lutraria elliptica ; a single valve at Shellness. Scrobicnlaria prismatica ; one good specimen at Margate. S. alba; often in abundance at Shellness, and now and then all round the coast. *S". tenuis ; often abundant at Pegwell Bay. S. piperata ; Pegwell Bay, but all the shells, or nearly all, that I have found, seem to be post-tertiary. So/en ens is ; all round the coast. S. siliqua ; Shell- ness. I have found this species in abundance between Ramsgate and Pegwell Bay. S. vagina ; by no means rare at Shellness, but elsewhere not so common Ramsgate. Chiton cinereus ; with the last, but more abundant. Chiton lavis ; occasionally at Margate. Patella vulgata ; everywhere in rocky places. The var. elevata also occurs. Helcion pellutidurn ; Margate, Ramsgate, and Shellness, often very large and fine. The var. /avis occurs now and then at Margate. Tectura virginea ; common, especially in the winter months, all round the coast. Emarginula fissura ; one large specimen at Margate. Shellness now and then. Emarginula rosea ; Shellness only, and never in any quantity. Fissurella Graca ; common at Shellness. Often large and fine. Also at Broad- stairs. Troehus tumidus ; common at Pegwell Bay and Shellness. T. cinerarius ; very abundant all round the coast. T. striatus ; worn specimens at Shellness. T. zizyphinus ; all round the coast. At Shellness I found three perfectly white speci- mens. At Shellness a very conical form of T. cinerarius 208 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. occurs, while at Margate they are often very depressed. Phasiandla pidla ; very common. But none of the specimens that I have found are large. Lacuna crassior ; at Shellness this species is not rare, and I found a number between Ramsgate and Pegwell Bay. L. pallidula, var. neritoidea ; common at Margate, but only during the spring and winter months. Littorina obtusata ; extremely common on the rock all round the coast. L. rudis ; all round the coast, but rather local. L. litorca ; everywhere. Rissoa parva, var. intcrrupta ; very abundant in shell-sand all the year round. R. membranacea ; rare. Margate and Shellness. R. striata; with R. parva, but less common. Hydobia ulvce ; can be picked up by handfuls at Pegwell Bay, and is also abundant in the salt marshes at St. Nicholas. Sea/aria communis; now and then at Shellness, but usually worn and chipped. S. daihraiula ; all round the coast, but larger at Shellness than elsewhere. Odcstomia lactea ; common in shell-sand at Margate and Shellness. Natica catena; abundant at Shellness, and very occasionally at Margate. N. nitida ; this species seems commonest between Broadstairs and Ramsgate. Adeorbaris subcarinatus ; two specimens in shell-sand at Margate. Lamdlaria pcrspicua ; Margate and Shellness, but this species seems very rare. Vein- Una lavigata ; Pegwell Bay and Shellness. Pegwell Bay, however, seems the more favoured locality. Cerithium rcticulatum ; Margate and Shellness in shell-sand, but generally worn and broken. C. reversum ; this uncommon species occurs with the last, and I have found a fine specimen at Shellness. Buccinum undatum ; all round the coast. Murex erinaceus ; all round the coast. Fusus antiquus ; with B. undatum, but not nearly so common. It often reaches a considerable size. Purpura lapillus ; wherever the coast is rocky. At Shellness I found some worn specimens of the var. major. Nassa reticulata ; not very common, but occasionally all round the coast. N. incrassata ; abundant every- where. Defrancia linearis ; Margate and Shellness, occasionally in shell-sand. Pleurotoma septangularis ; two specimens only at Margate. P. rufa ; plentiful, especially at Shellness. P. turricula ; this species, though not nearly so common as the last, is by no means rare. Cyprcea Europcca ; very plentiful every- where, as is also the spotted variety. Ulriculus obtusus ; Margate and Pegwell Bay. At the latter place I have met with large specimens. Actaon tornatilis ; an immature specimen from Margate. Philine aperta ; one specimen only from Shellness. Melampus myosotis ; this species occurs in the rejecta- menta of the Stour at Shellness and Reculvers. Freshwater Species. I have found Spharium corneum, Pisidium amnicum, Bithynia tcntaculata, B. Lcachii, Valvata piscin alt's, V. cr is tat a, Planorbis corneus, P. com- plaualus, P. contortus, P. carinatus, P. vortex, P. uaulileus, P. albus, Limncea stagnalis, and L. peregm, in the rejectamenta of the Stour. Spha:- rium lacustre occurs at Minster and St. Nicholas. Anodonia anatina at Minster. Bithynia Leachii at Minster, St. Nicholas, and Ebbsfleet. Planorbis lineatus, P. spirorbis, P. nitidus, and P. complanatus at Minster. P. corneus and the scarce var. albus at Minster and St. Nicholas. Litnna-a glutinosa L. peregra, L. stagnalis, and L. palustris at Minster and St. Nicholas, and the var. alba of L. palustris at Minster and Sandwich. Terrestrial Species. Succinea putris and S. elegans attain a large size at Minster. Zonites nitidus is more or less common wherever there is water, such as at Minster. Helix nemoralis, H. Cantiana, H rufescens, and H. hispida, are common at Minster. Helix virgata is general. //". ericetorum occurs at Margate with H. pulchella, and H. Cartusiana is abundant on the sand-hills near Sandwich, with a small var. of H. caperata. In shell- sand on the shore I found Vertigo minutissima and Carychium minimum ; and Pupa marginata is general, with its var. cdentula. (Journ. Conch., April.) Sydney C. Cockerell. Glen Druid, Chislehurst. MICROSCOPY. Mounting Insect Organs. — The stings must be soaked in strong solution of potassic hydrate, or even boiled in it, which renders them transparent in a very short time. When transparent enough they must be mounted in Canada balsam, after being washed first with hot water to remove the potash, and afterwards, when dry, with turpentine. If W. B. wants to know how to mount them in Canada balsam he had better read Martin's "Manual of Microscopic Mounting " or, if he wants a smaller book, " Half-hours with the Microscope " by Tuffen West, as it is a very long business to explain. — R. A. R. Bennett. A good Cement required.— Gold size made into a thick paste with lamp-black makes an excellent cement for securing slides ; gold size alone answers very well, but is so liquid that it is liable to run into the balsam, as M. D. observes. — R. A. R. Bennett. Microscopical Query. — I should be much obliged for information on the following points. The best method of illumination of viewing of, e.g. Stephanoceros with high powers to bring out detail ; a horn to retain in a position (extended) for drawing with camera lucida — E. F. B. A Substitute for a Revolving Table. — Nothing is more wearisome when one is entertaining one's friends with the microscope, and without the aid IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 209 of a revolving table, than the constant moving to and fro, in order to set and change the objects one is exhibiting. It was this untold nuisance that led me to devise the apparatus as described below, which will be found a great boon to microscopists not possessing a revolving table. It consists of a board, A, set on rollers, and carrying the microscope and lamp round a house table by revolving on the centre, B, through the medium of the arm on stalk, C. The board, A, should be about 15 inches long, 9 inches wide, and \ inch thick ; the top side must be covered with [thick cloth, and to the bottom side is attached by screws, the stalk, C, which should be of thin wood T section, to prevent vibration. The stalk must be of sufficient length to obtain radii varying from 18 to 24 inches to suit house tables of different diameters. At | DD are shewn r ■^ j 3 1 / 1 1 1 l * \ --c\ > \ 1 1 t 1 \ 1 A jooi ' ' \ / b 0 \ \o o] Fig. 127. — Scale, 1 inch to 1 foot. two pieces of wood, each 4 inches X i£- X ij thick, having a shutter roller § inch diameter let in. These pieces of wood must be set to radiate as shown by dotted lines on sketch, and fastened to the bottom of the board, A, by means of screws. As a screw put into a mahogany table would be objectionable, make a centre as follows : — Get a piece of wood 14 inches diameter, % inch thick, through the centre of this pass a stout wood-screw 2 inches long, then cover the bottom with thick cloth to prevent it scratching the table. On to this projecting screw place the stalk, C, the free end of which must be bored for that purpose ; now screw on a second disc of wood, 4 inches diameter, 1 inch thick, leaving sufficient space between the upper and lower discs for the stalk to revolve freely. Place a ten-pound weight on the uppermost disc to prevent the centre from slipping about the table and the apparatus is complete. If the foregoing description and sketch is not sufficiently clear, I shall be happy to furnish further details.— C. A. Lowe, King's Hill, Wednesbury. Cyclosis. — The power usually employed for observing this phenomenon is a quarter inch, but as I have been able to detect it with a two-inch objective of Browning's (advertised aperture of 160) I make a note of the fact. Selecting a good horizontally- cut section of Vallisneria, I screwed an inch objective into the sub-stage, fitting as a condenser, and very carefully adjusted the mirror, arming my microscope with a B-ocular, and only an inch objective as a finder. This enabled me to ascertain the portion of the section most suitable for observation. When I removed the inch and replaced it with Browning's two-inch, I was still able to see the chlorophyll granules in motion. Of course I could only just see them : the power was not suitable for any scientific observation of the phenomenon. To study it com- fortably and profitably a quarter inch is indispensable. But while so much attention is paid to high powers that beginners' hearts fail for want of them, it is desirable to point out what can be done with a little careful manipulation, and an effort to see into an object with good low-power objectives. The rotation of cell-sap can be seen with a wide angle two inch ; and better still with a good working one inch or half inch, although the quarter inch is the glass for it.— W. J. S., Calcutta. Micro-Slides for Science Classes.— Mr. B. Piffard has just sent out some of his slides illustrative of the five orders of Coniferse. They are exquisitely mounted, and comprise Taxinea (Salisburya) ; Abie- tinea: (Spruce-fir) ; Araucaruc (Araucaria) ; Taxodi