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New-lurk wributtt
EDITION

HARPER'S ENCYCLOPÆDIA
of
UNITED STATES HISTORY

FROM 458 A.D. TO 1905

BASED UPON THE PLAN OF

BENSON JOHN LOSSING, LL.D.

SOMETnlE EDITOR OF "THE A:\1ERICAN HISTORICAL RECORD" ANI> AUTHOR OF
.. THE PICTORIAl. FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOI.UTION" .. THE PICTORIAL FIELD-
BoOK OF THE WAR OF 1812" ETC., ETC., ETC.

WITH SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS COVERING EVERY PHASE OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND
DEVELOPl\IENT BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES, INCLUDING

JOHN FISKE.

THE AJIERICAN HISTORIA.V

WM. R. HARPER, Ph.D., LL.D., D.D.
PRESIDENT OF TRE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D.
PROF. OF HISTORY AT HARVARD

JOHN B. MOORE.
PROF. OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AT COLUMBIA

JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D.
PROF. OF LITERATURE AT UNIV. OF CALIFORNIA
WILLIAM T. HARRIS, Ph.D., LL.D.
u. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION

WOODROW WILSON, Ph.D., LL.D.
PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.
PROF. OF HISTORY UNII/. OF TORONTO
MOSES COlT TYLER, LL.D.
PROF. OF HISTORY AT CORNELL
EDWARD G. BOURNE, Ph.D.
PROF. OF HISTORY.AT YALE
R. J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.
PROF. OF SE,JUTIC LANGUAGES AT COLUMBIA
ALFRED T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D.
CAPTAIN UNITED STATES NAVY (RetindJ

ETC., ETC., ETC., ETC.

WITH A PREFACE ON THE STUDY OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY

WOODROW WILSON, PH.D., LL.D.

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY

AUTHOR OF
.. A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE" ETC., ETC.

WITH ORIGINAL DOCU.lIIENTS, PORTRAITS,lIIAPS, PLANS, &c.

COMPLETE IN TEN VOLUMES
VOL. III

HARPER &
NEW YORK

BROTHERS
1905

PUBLISHERS
- LONDON

Copynght, I<jOS. by HARPER & BROTHERS.
Copyright, 1I}OI, by HARPER & BROTHERS.
All "Chts rUlrved.

LIST

OF

PLATES

PRESIDENT !\hLLARD FILL
IORE . Frolltispiece
FAc-snIlLE OF THE ORIGINAL DRÅFT OF THE DECLA-
RA TION OF INDEPENDENCE . Facing page 4 0
READING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE,

CITY HALL SQUARE, NEW YORK CITY. " " 3 8
INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA " " 48
PONTIAC'S ATTACK ON FORT DETROIT . " " 108
ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY " " 112
ADMIRAL DAVID G. F ARRAGUT " " 3 18
THE BA TTLE OF FREDERICKSBURG-VOLUNTEERS
CROSSING THE RIVER u " 43 0

HARPER'S ENCYCLOP ÆDIA

UNITED

OF

STATES

HISTOR Y

Dablon, ('LAUDE, Jesuit missionary;
horn in Diepp(>, France, in 161S; began a
mission to the Onondaga Indians in Xew
York in Hi.") 5 , and six years afterwards he
a{"(
!)mpanied Druillettes in an overland
journey to the Hudson Bay region. In
WüS he went with l\Iarquette to Lake
Superior, and in lô70 was appointed su-
perior of the missions of the Upper Lakes.
fIe prppared the Relations concerning- New
France for 1671-72, and also a narrative
of l\larqlwtte's journey, published in John
Gilmary
hea's Discovery and Explora-
tion of the JIi88Ï!ulippi r alley (IS;)3). He
died in Quebec, Canada, Sept. 20, ] GDi.
Dabney, RICIIAHD HEAT II, educato
;
horn in l\Iemphis, Tenn., March 29,
ISGO; graduated at the rnÏ\'ersity of Vir-
ginia in 18SI; Professor of History in the
University of Vi}'ginia in I8!}7. He is the
3uthor of .fohn /(andolJJh: The CallSe,'1 of
lhe Prrnch NrrolutiOIl. ('tc.
Dabney, Homml' LEWIS, cI('rgyman;
horn in Louisa l'!)unty, \'a.,
larch 5,
I H
II; graduah'd at th(' ('ninrsity of Vir-
gillia in IH-t:!; ordai}l<'d a Presh"terian
minister in 1847: and hecame PI
of(,!""or
of Chul"eh History in ('nion
eminary, Vir-
ginia, in ]8::;;1. \\'hcn the Civil \\'ar broke
out he ('nt(,l"pd the Conff'derate armv as
C'haplain, and lat('r becamc chief of st
{ff to
(;(>n. Thomas J. Jackson. His publica-
tions inelude Life of 1'. J. Jackson, and
lhfence of l"irginia and the South. He
dif'd in Victoria, Texas, Jan. 3, ISU8.
Dabney, \\'ALTER DAVID, lawyer: born
in Albemarle county, Va., in n
',)3; grad-
TH.-A I

D.

uated at the law department of the Cni.
,'ersity of Virginia in IS7.'); appointpd
legal secretary of the United States in-
tpr-State COn1l11erl'e commission in I8BO.
and, later, solicitor of the State Depart-
ment. In ISH,) he hecanw Professor of
Common and Rtatute Law in the Cniwr-
sity of Virginia. He died in (,harlottf'
-
,'ille, \.a.,
Iarch l
, ]8!1!L
Dabney's Mills, \'a. :-;P(' HATcHlm's
RUN.
Dacres, JAMES RICHARD, naval oJficer;
born in Sut1'olk, England. Aug. :!:!, I iS8;

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DADE-DAHLGREN

,",on of \ïce-.\dllliral Dal're::;, who "as a
('ommander in the battle with .Arnold on
Lake Champlain in 177G. The son en-
tered the royal navy in 17!)G, and, being
placed in command of the frigate Gue?"-
1"ière in 1811, was sent to fight the Amer-
ieans. He proudly boasted that he would
"send the Constitution to Davy Jones's
locker" when he should be so fortunate
as to meet her. She had escaped him in
her famous retreat, but willingly met and
fought the Gue?"rière afterwards. Dacres
was then captain. He attained the rank
of flag-officer in 1838, and in 1845 was
vice-admiral and commander - in - chief of
the fleet at the Cape of Good Hope. He
Was presented with a gratuity from the
"Patriotic Fund" at Lloyd's, in con-
sideration of his wound. He was mar-
ried. in 1810, to Arabella Boyd. who
died in 1828. He died in lIamp
llÌre,
England, Dec. 4, 1833. See COXSTITlTTIOX
(frigate) .
Dade, FRANCIS LAXGIIORX, military
officer; born in Virginia; entered the army
as third lieutenant in 1813. During the
war with the Seminole Indians, while on
the march to Fort King, he, with almo
t the Dahlgren gun, which he perfected at
the entire detachment, was destroyed b)' the na"y-yard at Washington, and in HW2
a treacherous attack of the Indians, Dec. he was made chief of the burcau of onl-
28, 1833. A monument at 'West Point was nance. In July, 18G3, he took command
erected to the memory of
Iajor Dade and of the South Atlantic squadron, and, with
the men in his command, and Fort Dade, the land forces of General Gillmore, capt-
35 miles from Tampa, Fla., is named in ured Morris Island and Fort 'Wagner,
his honor. and rcduced Fort Sumter to a heap of
Daggett, XAPHTALI, clergyman; born luins. He conducted a successful ex-
in Attleboro, Mass.. Sept. 8, lí27; grad- pedition up the St. John's River, in
uated at Yale College in 1748; ordain- Florida. in 18G-t, and co-operated with
ed pastor of a PresbJ,terian church at General Sherman in the capture of Savan.
Smithtown, Long Island, in 1751; and nah. After the evacuation of Charleston
in 1755 "as choscn professor of dh'inity he mond his ve!'sels up to that city.
at. Yale, which place he helrl until his Admiral Dahlgren. bf'si(lf's hf'ing the in-
death, in 1\"ew Haw-n, Conn., 1\"0\'. 2ij, ventor of a cannon, introduc('d into the>
1780. In lí(jfi. on the> resignation of navy the highly esteemed light boat-
President Clap, he was chosen prf'si- howitzer. II(' was author of seYf'ral
d('nt of the collf'ge pro tempore and works on ordnance, which became text-
officiated in that capacity more than a hooks. Hf' died in Washington, D. C.,
year. He was an acti"e patriot when July 12. 1870.
the \Yar of the Revolution broke out; and Dahlgren,
IADELEIXE VINTON, author;
when the British attackcd New HaYen, in born in Gallipo1is, 0., about 1835; widow
1779, he took part in the rcsi!'tance made of Rear-Admiral John A. Dahlgren. She
hy the citizcns and surrounding militia. established and was the vice-president for
Dr. Daggett was made a prisoner, and the several yeara of the Literary Society of
severe treatment to which he was sub- "'ashington; was oppo:>ed to woman suf-
jected so shattered hiB constitution that frage, against which she puhlished a
he ne
er recovered his health. After the weekly paper for two years. and also sent
2

famous DARK DAY (q. v.), in 178U, he
)luhli
hed an account of it.
Dahlgren, JOlIN ADOLPH, naval officer;
horn in Philadclphia. Nov. 13, 1809; ('n-
tered the na\";y in lR:W, and was made rear-
admiral in 18(j3. He> was th(' inv('ntor of

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JOllY ADOLl'1I DAHLGRF.Y.

DAHLGREN-DAIQUIRI

a pctition bearing JlIany ::;ignatures to Con-
gress, reqtH'l'ting that women !;hould not be
given the ele(>tive franchise. Popes Pius
IX. and Leo XIII. se\'eral times thanked
her for the val'ious services she had ren-
dered to the Roman Catholic Church. Her
publications include Thoughts on Pemale

r..;uffrage
' Memoirs of .John A. Dahlgren,
f'tc. She died in Washington, D. C., May
2R, IS9R.
Dahlgren, LLRIC, artillery officer; born
in Bucks county, Pa., in 1842; son of
Rear-Admiral Dahlgren. At the outbreak
of the Civil \Var he became aide first to
his father and later to General Sigel, and
.was Sigel's chief of artillery at the second
battle of Bull Run. He distinguished
himself in an attack on Fredericksburg
and at the battle of Chancellorsville, and
on the retreat of the Confederates from
Gettysburg he led the charge into Hagers-
town. He lost his life in a raid under-
taken for the purposc of relf'asing Na-

11 uguenot faith in lfiS:t, iI nd rCIIIII\ cd it)
X ew York to \\ ork among the French
unùer the Reformed Church. In 1688 the
French erectf'd their first church in
l\farketfielù Street, hetween Broad and
Whitehall streets; in lü9
Daillé narrowly
escaped imprisonment bf'cause he had de-
nounced the violent measures of JACOB
LEISI"ER (q. v.); and in IGH6 he became
pastor of the School Street Church in
Boston. He died in no
ton. 1\[ass., May
21, 1715.
Daiquiri, a sea-coa..t town in the
province of Santiago. about 15 miles east
of Santiago, Cuba. It was here that the
American army of invasion disembarked
after the declaration of war against Spain
in 1898. After GEN. WILLIAM RUFUS
SUAFTER (q. 1")' commander of the expe-
dition, had accepted the offer of the servicf'g
of the Cuban troops undpr General Garcia,
he furnished thf'111 with rations and am-
munition. A numhf'r of sharp-shooters,

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DAIQUIRI, WH.;RE TH.; AMKRICA
AR}JV OF IX\"ASIO
D1S.;MIHRKF.n,

tional prisoners at T
ibby prison and Belle
Isle, near King and Queen's Court-house,
Va., March 4, 1864.
Daillé, PIERRE, clergYlimn; born
France in Hi49; banished becau..e of

machine - gunR, and mountain artillf'ry
were landed to aid the Cubans in clear-
ing the hills, after which 6,000 men were
in put ashore on .Tune 22. The landing was
his difficult on account of the d<,fective trans-
3

DAKOTA-DALE

port facilities, but still the Spaniards
('ould offer no serious opposition, as thf'Y
were held in check by the Cubans and the
shells of the American warships, and also
Ly the feint of Admiral Sampson to bom-
bard Juragua. On June 23, 6,000 more
troops were landed, and a division under
1\faj.-Gf'n. HENRY 'Yo LAWTON (q. v.)
marched to SmONEY (q. v.) in order to gÏ\ C
place to the division of l\Iaj.-Gen. JACOB
F. KE
T (q. v.) While General Shafter
conducted the disembarkation, :Maj.-Gen.
.Joseph 'Vheeler direeted the operations
a
hore. The only losses sustained in this
landing were one killed and four wounded.
Dakota, originally formed a part of
l\Ennesota Territory. It was a portion
of the great Louisiana purchase in 1803.
The Xebraska Territory was fOl"med in
1854, and comprised a part of what be-
came Dakota. The latter TerritoT)T was
organized by aet of Congress, appron-'d
::\Iarch 2, 1861, and included the present
States of Montana and Washington. In
1863 a part of the Territory was ineluded
in Idaho, of which the northeastern part
was organized as l\Iontana in 1864, and
the southern part was transferred to
Dakota. In 1868 a large area was taken
from Dakota to form ',"yoming Territory.
The first permanent settlements of }:uro-
peans in Dakota were made in 183!), in
what were then Clay, Union, and Yank-
ton counties. The first legislature con-
\'ened l\Iarch 17, 18G2. Emigration was
limited until 1866, when settlers began to
flock in, and population rapidly increased.
In 1889, two States were created out
of the Territory of Dakota, and ad-
mitted to the L'nion as NORTH DAKOTA
and SOL"TII DAKOTA (qq. v.).
Dakota Indians. See SIOUX I
D-
L\XS.
Dale, llICIIARD, naval ot1ìcer; born
near Norfolk, Ya., :SOY. G, I i:iG; went
to sea at twelve years of age, and at
ninptpen commanded a merchant w's-
sel. He was first a lieutenant in the
Virginia na\-y, and entered the Con-
tinental navy, as midshipman, in 1;;6.
He was captured in lii7, and confinpd
in ::\Iill Prison, England, from which
he escappd, but was recaptured in Lon-
don and taken back. The next year ,...... -
, j.;'
he escapf'd, reached France, joined t- '"J,
Paul Jones, and soon became lieu.

t('nant of the BOil Homnlf' Rid",,.,l, re('(#Iv-
ing a \\ound in the fanlllll:-. hattle \\ ith the
Serapi,ç. He eontinuf'(l to do good sef\'ice

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kH'lIAHU UALto:.

to the end of the war, and in li9-t was
made captain. lIe commandí'd the squad-
Ton ordered to the ::\If'diterrancan in ISO},
and in April, 1802, returning home, be
reRigned l.is conllni"sion. lie sppnt the
latter years of his life in ease in Phila-
delphia, where he died, Feb. 24, 182(i.
The remains of Commodore Dale were
huried in Christ Church-yard. Philadel-
phia. and oYer the graye is a white marble
!'lab with a long inscription.

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4

Dale, SA
n-EL, pioneer; born in Rock-
bridge count
., Va., in 1 ïi2. His parents
emigrated to Georgia in. 1 ï83. In 1 i93,
after the death of his parents, he enlist-
ed in the United States army as a scout,
and suhsequently became well known as
.. Big Sam." In lS:n he supen-ised the re-
moval of the Choctaw Indians to the Ind-
ian Territory. He died in Lauderdale

ounty, l\Iiss.. l\Iay 24, 1841.
Dale, SIR THO
IAS, colonial governor;
was a distingui:.;hed soldier in the Low
Countries, and was knighted hy King
James in lG06. Appointed chief magiÐ-
bate of Virginia, he administered the go\'-
enmlent on the basis of martial law;
planted new settlements on the .J ames,
towards the Falls (now Richmond); and
introduced salutary changes in the land
laws of the colony. He conquered the Ap-
pomatto'C Indians. In lGlI Sir Thomas
Gates succecded him, but he resumed the
office in 1614. In 1616 he rpturned to
England; went to Holland; and in lûl9
vas made commander of the East India
fleet, when, near Bantam. he fought the
Dutch. He died near Bantam, East Indies,
early in 1620.
DaB, '\'ILLIA:U HEALEY, naturalist;
born in Boston, :Mass.. Aug. 21, 1845; took
part in the international telegraph ex-
pedition to Alaska in lRG;)-68; appointed
assistant in the Cnitcd Statcs coast sur-
vey of Alaska in 18ïl, whcre he spmt

eYeral years in various kinds of work,
which included the geography, natural his-
tory, geology, etc., of Alaska and adjacent
islands. Among his books are .l1a81,a and
its Rcsourccs; Tribes of the Extreme
Yort1w;(','d
' '<:cicnti{ic Results of the Ex-
p1nration of
4.1aska, etc.
Dallas, a city in Georgia. wher('. dur-
ing the .-\tlanta campaign. Sherman's ad-
nmce under General Hooker was tempo-
n\ril
' clwckcd, May 2;). 1864. Three da,.s
later Hardee attacked :McPherson on the
right, with great loss. The Confederates
retired )la,y 29.
DaUas,

T.F.XANDER JA1\IES, statesman;
horn in tlte island of ,Tamaica. .June 21,
1ï;'9; len HUale III 17
3, settled in Phila-
,lelphia, and was admitted to the bar.
I Ie soon became a practitioner in the Su-
prcme Court of the l'llitcd. :-\tates. He
wrote for the newspapers, and at one tinlP
was t11f' e{lito!" of the ('()lll/llh;al/ 1I11flaÛ,w

DALE"::DAL Y

He was appointed secretary of state ot
Pennsylvania in 1 i!H, and was engaged a

paymaster of a force to quell the \YHISKEY
LXS"LRRECTIOX (f). v.). In 1801 he was ap-
pointed rnited
tates attorney for the
Eastern Department of Pennsylvania, and
he held tha t place until called to the cabi-
net of ::\Iadison as Secretary of the Treas-
uTJ' in Octobcr. 1814. In 181.') he al
o
performed the duties of the \Yar Office.
and was earnest in his efforts to re-
establish a national hank. He resigned.
in Novemher, HUH, and resumed the prac-
tic
of law. He died in Trl'nton, N. J.,
Jail. 16, 1817.
Dallas, GEORGE
IIFFr.rx. statesman;
born in Philadelphia. July 10, 1 ifJ2: a
1'011 of the preceding; graduaÌf.d at the
College of Xe\\" .Jersey in 1810, and ad-
mitted to the bar in 1813. He went
with l\Ir. Gallatin to Russia as pdvate
secretary. and returned in 1814. when
he a"sh.ted his fatl1er in the Treasurv
Department. In IH28 he was mayor
f
Philadelphia: rnited States
enator from
IR:
2 to 18

. and declined a re-clection.
Hf' was ambassador to Russia from
18
ï to 1839. and Vice-President of the
rnited States from 184.3 to 18-t!). From
18.')6 to 1861 he was American minister
in London. Mr. Dallas was an able
law
'er and statesoman. He died in Phila-
de!phia, Dec. 31. 1864.
Dallas-Clarendon Treaty, a convention
negotia ted in 18.36 for the adjustJ1wnt of
difficulties between the l'nited Stah>s and
Great Britain arising under the CLAY-
TOK-Brr.WER TREATY ('1. r.). It was re-
jectpù 1I.v the Senate.
Dalton, a city in Georgia, strongly
fortified by the Confederates under Gen.
Joseph :Eo Johnston. who checked the ad-
vance of General Sherman until forced to
cvacuate by a flank movement by General
McPherson, May 12. 1864.
Daly, CHARLER PATRICK, jurist; born
in Nf'W York ('ity, Oct. 31, 1816; ad-
mitted to the bar in 1839; elected to the
:\ ew York Assemhly in lR43; became jus-
tice in 1844. and chief-justice of the
Court of Common Pleas in 1871; presi-
dent of the American Geographical So-
ciety for more than forty years. Among
his writings are History of
Tatural-
i
atinn: Fin'!t Settlement of Jpll'S in
North 4 lI/(',.;m: lrhnt lVp Knoll' of Mnp.'i
5

DALZELL-DANA

and Map-J1akillg before the Time of Jlcr-
catur, etc. He died on Long Island,
X. Y., Sept. 19, 18!)t).
Dalzell, JA}IES, military officer; was in
('arly life a companion of Israel Putnam.
He marched to the relief of the garrison
of Detroit with 2GO men in liG3; and on
July 30, the day after his arrival, he 1f'<1
a sally against the Indians, in which tlH'Y
were badly defeated. During the struggle
Dalzell was killed. The ri\"ulet which waH
the scene of this defeat is known to this
day as "Bloody Run."
Dalzell, RODERT :'II., in\"entor; horn
near Belfast, Ireland, in 1 ìn:J; wa
dri\"p1I
into e-xile with his family by the Irish
Rebellion of 1798, and came to Kf'w York.
In 182G he settlcd in Rochester, N. Y.,
where he became a millwright. Later he
invented and introduced the elevator s
's-
tem for handling and storing grain. He
died in Roehestf'r. X. Y., Jan.
2, IH7:t
Dames of the Revolution, a patriotic
organization established in the United
States in 189G. The qualifications for
membership are that applicants be abo\"e Cyclopædia (lô vols., IS.37-G:J), which
the age of eighteen :years, of good moral they thoroughly re\"iscd aUtI rf'issupd
standing, and descended in their own under the title of the .1mcrican Cyclo]Jædia
right from a military, nand. or marine (I873-7G). In 1883, in association with
officer, or official, who aided in founding Rossiter Johnson, he edited Fifty Perfect
American independence during the Reyo- Poems, and subbequentl
., in association
lutionary ',"ar. Local chapters may be with Gen. .Tames II. Wilson, he wrote the
formed when authorizf'd bJ' the board Life of Ulysses S. Grallt. In 1897 his
of managers of the society. The presi- Roninisccnccs of the Cil"il War and East-
dt.nt in 1900 was ::\Irs. Edward Paulet (Tn Journeys were published posthumous-

teers, and the s('eretary and historian l:y; he was also the compilf'r of House-
:\Iiss Mary A. Phillip
. TIt(' It('adquarters hold Book of ['odry. He died on Lon

were at G4 Madison ..\\-enue, New York. Isla!ld, N. Y., Oct. 17, 1897.
Dana, CIIARLEs .\X()EHSO
, journalist; Dana, FRA:\'CIS, jurist; born in Charles-
born in Hinsdale, N. H., Aug. 8, 1819; town. ::\la88., June 13, li43; son of Ri('h-
was for a time a student in Harvard ard Dana; graduat('d at Harvard in
College; joined the BROOK }'AR'I .\SSOCIA- I ïG2. He was admitted to the bar in
TIO:\' (q. v.) in 1842; and, after two :rears I 7(j7; was an active patriot; a delegatp
oi editorial work in BOl'ton, bf'eame at- to the Provincial ('ongreFis in 17i 4; went
tached to the staff of the Xew York to England in 177;) with confidential let.
Tribune in 1847. In 1848 he went to ters to Franklin; was a nwmbf'r of the
Europe as corrt'l'ponclf'nt for several e
eeutive council from 177(j to 1780;
American newspap('rs, dealing particu- n\t'lIIher of the Continental Congress from
lady with the numerous forpign revolu- I ï7G to I i7R. and again in 178-1; member
tÏons. Soon after his r('turn to X('\\, of the board of war, Kov. 17, I 77ï; und
York he became managing ('ditor of tlw was at the hmd of a committee charged
Tribune, and held the placp till 18G
, with the entir(' 1"POrganimtion of the
whén he was appointf'd assi
tant Re{'re- army. "hen Mr. Adams went on an em-
tarv of War. In IRIi(j he organizf'd the h:u,sy to negotiate a treaty of ppace a.JHI
sto
k company which bought th(' old Xf'W commerce with Great Britain, :\Ir. Dana
York 8'm, of which he became editor. "as s('crf't:uy of the If'
ation. At Paris,
n

in-chief, continuing !'Oo till his death. In
addition to his work as a journalist, in
conjunction with the late George Ripley,
hl' planned and editf'd tll{' X ('w . L 11L('ricu n

.I':r- I
,.
.ø "1"1

" '\'

i 1\ l\
1
; 11
\:\''''\
J

'" 4' ,iIt'\ "\ H
. .J.; T' þ' 'IP

.:
frY I
-

:'1 f,) ;\\ P"-,j
,
/)"
'/
-

.,.. :....
ü- f' t'!: Þ-
fJ;'rl. ('/

,.

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1

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"...

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//
y

'l I
":"
I'/
/' .

. If
'

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I I

;'/
/ Ii;:,

CHARLES A:oiVERSO:\ DA:oiA.

held till 1890, and was for many years
associated with his brother-in-law, Ben-
jamin Silliman, Jr., in editing and pub-
lishing the American Journal of Science
and .-trt, founded by the elder Silliman in
1819. Professor Dana contributed much
to scientific journals, and was a member
of many learned societies at home and
abroad. In 18i2 the \Yullaston gold
medal, in charge of the London Gcologi-
cal Society, was conferred upon him. He
died in
ew Hayen, April 14, 1895.
Dana,
APOLEO:-i J ACKSO:-i TECU!\[SEH,
military officer; horn in Fort Sullivan,
Eastport, Me., _\ pril 10, 1822; gradu-
ated at West Point in 18-12; served in the
war with l\Iexico; resigned in 1855; and
in Octobel. 1861, became colonel of the 1st
l\Iinnesota Y olunteers. He was in the bat-
tle at BALL'S BLUFF (q. v.); was made
brigadier-general early in 1862; was ac-
tiye throughuut the whole campaign on
the Peninsula, participating in all the
battles; and at Antietam commanded a
brigade, and was wounded. A few weeks
later he was promoted to major-general
of volunteers; was with the Army of the
Uulf in 1803; commanded the 13th Army
Corps a while; and had charge of the
district of Vicksburg and west Tennes-
see in 186-1. From December, 1864, to
::\Iay, 1803, he was in command of the
Department of the ::\Iissis..ippi. He re-
signed in ISO;), and was reappointed to
the army with the rank of captain, and re-
tired in IS!!.!.
Dana, RWIIARD, jurist; born in Cam-
bridge, !lIa!'s., July 7, 16!H); graduated
at Han t\.rd in H18; and was a leader of
the har in the Revolutionary period. He
was a memher of the Sons of Liberty, and
al1'o a member of the committee to in-
wstigate the incidents of the Boston
massacre in liiO. Hc dicd May 17, Hi2.
Dana, UICIIARD HEXRY, poet and essay-
ist; born in Cambridge, 1\1ass., Nov. 15,
1 i87; son of l"rancis Dana; chose the
profession of law, but his tastes led him
into literary pursuits. In 1814 he and
others founded the Xorth American R(
riclo, of which he was sole conductor for
a while. He closed his connection with
::\lr. Dana. He was elected to the chair of it in 1820. It was while Dana was editor

illiman Professor of Katural History of the Review that Bryant's Tizallatop.'lis
anù Geology in Yale Col1ege in 1830, was published in its pages. the author
entered on his duties in 1853, a place he hcing then unknown. In 1821 the first
7

early in 1781, he received the appointment
from Congress of minister to Russia,
clothed with power to make the accession
of the United States to the" armed neu-
trality." He resided two
Tears at St. Pe-
tersburg, and returned to Berlin in 1783.
He was again in Congress in the spring of
liS.!, and the next year was made a justice
of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts.
In 17!H he was appointeù chief-justice of

Iassachusetts, which position he held
fifteen :rears, keeping aloof from political
life, except in 1 iU2 and 1806, when he was
Presidential elector. He retired from the
bench and public life in 1800, anù died in
Cambridge, l\Iass., April 25, 1811.
Dana, JA
[ES DWIGHT, mineralogist;
born in Utica, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1813;
graduated at Yale College in 1833; went
to the Mediterranean in the Delau;arc as
teacher of mathematics in the United
States nayy, and was mineralogist and
geologist of Wilkes's exploring expedi-
tion, 1838-42 (see WILKES, CHARLES).
For thirteen years afterwards
Ir. Dana
was engaged in preparing the reports of
this expedition and other scientific labors.
These reports were published by the gov-
ernment, with atlases of drawings made by

.;.

. I

JA \II>S DWWUT DA:\A.

DANA

DANA-DANENHOWER

,-olume of The Idle Man was published.
It was unprofitable, and
Ir. Dana
dropped it. In it he published stories
and essays from his own pen. In the

ame vear he contributed to the Xew
York Rcricu' (then under the care of l\Ir.
Bryant) his fir!'t poem of much preten-
!;ion. The Dying Na"cn. In 1827 his most
("plcbrated poetical production. The Bucca-
ticer, was puhlished. with some minor
poems. After lR

:\lr. Dana wrote but
little. He dif'd in Bo
ton. Ff'h. 2, IR79.
Dana, RH.'I1AHD IIE:\ RY. 2d. lawyer:
born in Cambridge, )ras
..
--\ug. I, HH5:
gradunted at Hnn'anl l-ni\"er
ity in 1837;
admitted to the har in Is-tO: author of
Tu'o }' ears Before the 11 ust and many ar-
ticles on legal subjeets: re\"i
er of Whea-
ton's Intel'national L(tw
' nominated min-
ister to Great Britain in 187ü, but not
('onfirmed by the
enate; United Statf's
eounsf'l at the Halifax conference. HE'
died in Rome, HaIJ', Jan. 7, 1882.
Danbury, DEsTRr(,Tlo
OF. Governor
Tryon was one of the most malignant foes
of the American patriots during the Revo-
lutiona.ry War. He d('lighted. appan'nt1y.
in conspicuously cruel acts: and whcn any-
thing of that nature was to he done he
was emploYf'd to do it b.r the morp re-
"pf'ctable British officers. IIp was chosen
to lead a marauding f':\.pedition into Con-
necticut from Xf'W York jn the spring of
1777. At the head of 2.000 men. he left
that city (April 23), and landf'd at
Compo, betwecn Xorwalk and Fairfield,
two days latpr. They pu...hed on toward.,
Panbnr,y, an inland town, where the

\mericans had gatllf'red a large quantity
of provisions for the army. The maraud-
f'r8 reachf'd the town unmolestf'd (April
2.ï) b,p some militia that had retired. and.
Jlot
ontcnted with d('stroying a large
'pIan ti t
. of !'tor('s gathered there, they
laid eighteen houses in the village in
ashes and cruelly treatcd some of the
inhabitants. Ge
eral Silliman, of the
Connecticut miJitia. was at his home in
I.'airfield when the enemy landed. H(' im-
mediately sent out expresses to alarm the
country and call the militia to thc field.
The call was nohl
' responded to. Rcar-
ing of this gathpring from a Tory scout.
Tryon made a hasty retreat hy way of
Ridgefie1d. near whiC'h plaC'e he \\ as con-
fmntpd by tne militia lIndf'r General..
R

Wooster, Arnold, and Silliman. A sharp
skirmish ensued, in which \Yooster was
killed. and Arnold had a narrow escape
from capture, after his horse had bCf'n
shot under him. For hi
gallantry on that
occasion the Congress presented him with
a horse richly caparisoned. Tryon spent
the night in the neighhorhood for his
hoops to rf'8t. and ea rl
' the ne
t morn-
ing he hurried to his ships, terribly smit-
tcn on the wa
' hy the gathcring' militia,
and at the landing by cannOlH.hot dircct.
ed by Lieutcnant-Colonel Oswald. TheJ'
escaped capture only through the gal-
lant services of some marines led by Gen-
pra] Ers1.ine. Ahout sunf::l'Ì the fleet de-
parted. the British having lost about 300
mcn. including prisonf'rs, durin;.! the in-
vasion. The
\mericaus lost ahout 100
men. The private losses of propert.\' at
Danbury amountf'd to about $80,()()o.
Danbury is now a city widcl
' known for
its extensive manufactureg of hats, ami
]Ias an ass",ss('d property valuation e:\.-
ceeding $11.;;00.000. Th(' population in
Hmo was 16.:)52: in ] flOO. lIi.:"i
7.
Dane, XATIIAX. jurist: born at Ips-
wich. Ma!"s.. Dec. 27, 1752: gradlwtC'(]
at Han-anl in ]7i8. An ahle lawp'r
3m] an influcntial memhf'r of Congrf'
s
( 1 ï8.3-88). he was the framf'r of the ('eIe-
Lrate(1 ordinance of 17R7. lIe was a
memher of the
[a"saellU.;etts leg'islature
spveral
'ears. and was engagf'd to revise
the laws of the State (I7f1f1), and revisc
and puhlish the ehartf'rs (IH] 1) which
had hecn gmntpd therpin. )[r. Danp wa

a mem]wr of the Hartford Com-pntion (se('
J1ARTFORD) in ISI4. IIis work putiU"d .1
(,('n('ral -1 bri,z.'lfll('11t nnd n;f/('sf of A mer-
ican 1,n"., in fI lnrge \"OhIIllPS (182
-2!)).
is a monullwnt of hi.. If'arning' and ill-
du
try. H(' fOlmdpd thf' Dane professor-
ship of law in IIilr,'ard rni\"f'rsity. HI'
died in neverl
., Feb. ]5. ]R3.>.
Danenhower, .Jollx \\'II.sOX, explorf'r:
horn in Chica
o. Ill., Sept. 30, 1849:
graduated at the rnited
tates Xaval
Aeadpmv in 18iO; ser\"cd on the ran(]ali(L
during Gf'n. U. S. (irant's visit to Egypt
and the Levant; ant] \\ as promotf'd I ipl\-
tenant in 1879. He joilwd the Arctil"
Hteamer J('anctte as second in command
in 1878. The vesspl sailed from fo\:m
Francisco on July 8, IRi!l. through Bel-
ing
traitq into tnp An-tic OC'Nm. wherl"

DANFORTH-DANISH WEST INDIES

it was held in the ice-pack for twenty-two
months. From the place where the
steamer was caught the crew travelled
south for ninety-five days over the ice,
drawing three boats with them. They
then embarked, but were separated by a
storm. Lieutenant Danenhower's boat
reached the Lena delta, where the Tun-
g US('8 sa ved th e crew, Sept. 17, 188l.
.\fter making an ummccessful search for
the oth('r boats he left E
GI
EEH GEORGE
\V. 'MElXILLE (q. 1'.) to continue the
search for LlElJl'. GEORGE \\'. DE LONG
l q. v.), and with his crew made a journey
of 6,000 miles to Orenburg. He arrived in
the United States in June, 1882. He pub-
lished The )-arratirc of the .Jeannette.
He died in Annapolis, l\Id., April 20, 1887.
Danforth, TUOl\IAS, colonial governor;
horn in f'uffolk, England, in 1622; set-
t)el] in )\pw EII
land in lIi:H: in 1679 was
(.Il,(:t('(l president of the province of
Iaine;
:lnd was al!"o a judge of the Snperior
('pur1. in which (,Hpa('it
. he !"trongly con-
demIlf'11 the actioIl of the conrt in the
witchcraft exdtcnwnt of lIifl
. He died
in Camhridge.
Iass.. 1'10'-. 5, !ü!H).
Dangers from Slavery. See PARKER,
TIIEODOHE.
Daniel, .JOHx
IONCe({E, editor: horn in
Ptafford county, Ya., Oct. 24. IH
:): in
I R.)
was appointed minister to Italy.
(tarihahli requestf'd Daniel to anm-x r\ice
to the Cnitcd States, but Daniel declined
on the ground that such action would be
contn\r
to the l\Ionroe doctrine. \Yhen
the ('Ï\:il "T
\1" hroke out Daniel hastened
home and ('ntercd the Confederate army,
hut rl'<;ignf'd and rc..umed the editorship
(Ii Uw H.i('hmond E.rnminrr, in whid) he
H ttackl'll .Jpfff'rson Davis, He died in
Hil'hHlond. Ya..
Ian'h
O, 18ü.').
Daniel, .1oll
\\'ARWICK. legislator;
horn in Lynehhurg. Va.. Sppt. 5. lR42;
sprypd through the Ci,'il "-ar in thf' ('on-
f edpra tf' 3rm
': mPIII hpr of CongTf'SS in
IS
:i-87 amI of tll<' t 'nit<-d Statf's Sf'nate
in lR87-l!)(}.'); author ()f
4.ttachment8
'under tlte ('ode uf l'ir!Jinia, etc.
Daniel, PETI<:H YInAx. statf'sman; horn
in Stafford county. Va.. April 24. liR-t:
graduatpd at Princ('ton in IROfi; appoint-
ed judge of t}H' I'nited States (,ircuit
Court in IS:J6; and to tlJ(' Unitf'd Stah's
Sllprpme Court in IS-H. He died in Hich-
mond. Va.. .Tnnf' 30. 1860.

Daniel, WILLIAM, prohibitionist j born
in Somerset county, l\Id., Jan. 24, 1826;
graduated at Dickinson College in 1848;
admitted to the bar in 1851; elected
to the :Maryland legislature in 1853,
and to the State Senate in lR57 j was
an ardent supporter of temperance meas-
ures, and in 1884 joined the National
Prohibition party, which nominated him
for Vice-President of the United States
with William St. John for President. The
Prohibition ticket received about 150,000
votes.
Daniels, \VnJLIA
I HAVEN, author; born
in Franklin, Mass.,
Iay 18, 1836; edu-
mWat

;

Mm
of Rhetoric there in 1808-69. He then
devoted himself to religious work. chiefly
in the capacity of an evangelist. His pub-
lications inc1mlf' Th(' Illustrated History
of lfethodism in the United States; A
Short History of the Pcople called
.1Icthodist, etc.
Danish West Indies, a grou p of
is1ands lying east by southeast of Porto
Rico, and consi
ting of St. Croix. St.
Thomas, anrl St. .John. Rt. ('roix is the
largest, being about 20 miles long and !)
miles wide, with an area of 110 square
miles. It is generally flat, well waterf'<l,
and fertile. Two-fifths of the surface is
in sugar plantations, and the principal
crops are sugar, cotton, coffee, indigo,

md rum. The climate is unhealthful at
all seasons, and hurricanes and f'arOI-
quakes occur frequently. The population
ig about 18,000. St. Thomas is about
17 miles long by 4 miles wide. Its Rur-
face is ruggerl and f'levatf'd. reaching its
greatest height towards the centre. The
Roil is !;andy, and mostly uncultivated.
Charlotte Amalie. which is the principal
t(;wn and the seat of government for th(>
Danish \Vest Indie.., has an excellent
harbor and large tradc. The popuhttion
o
the island is about 14,000. St. John
has an arpa of 42 square miles. The
chief exports are cattle and bay-rum,
and the population is about 1,000. Ke-
gotiations with Denmark for the cession
of the islands to the Pnited States began
in lRfl8. after the close of the war with
Spain; but owing to political changes in
the Danish government. no definite re-
sult!'! ,wre then attained. In December.
HIOO. C'ongres!'l becamt" favorable to till'
9

DANITES-DARIEN SHIP CANAL

bill of Senator Lodge, advising the pur-
chase of the islands, and negotiations to
that end were reopened. Un Dec. 29,
l!JOO, the Cnited States offered to pay
$3,240,000 for the islands; but the Danish
Upper House rejected the trcaty to sell,
Oct. 2
. I flO
.
DaRites, an alleged secret - order so-
ciety of the l\Iormons, accused of various
crimes in the interest of Mormonism.
These are denied by the Mormons. "Dan
shall be a serpent by the way, an aùder
in the path," Gen. xlix. 17. 111e members
were also known as the Destroying An-
gels. See l\IOR
IONS.
Darby, \VILLIA
I, geographer; born in
Penns;ylvania in 1775; served under Gen-
eral .Jackson in Louisiana; and was one
of the surveyors of the boundary between
Canada and the United States. Among
his works are Gcographical Dcscription of
J,ouisiana " Geography and H istor.ll of
Plorida; rie1{' of the United Htates; Lect-
ures on the Discol'ery of A.mericnj etc.
He died in Washington, D. C., Oct. 9, 1854.
Darby town Road, Va., the place of
three fights during thc Richmond and
Petersburg campaigns. The first, July 2f1.
1864, between Hancock's corps under
Gregg and Kautz and thE:' Confederates;
the second, Oct. 7, whm Kautz was de-
feated; and the third. Oct. 13, when the
Kationals under Butler were defeated.
General Lee claimed to have captured
1,000 Kationals.
Dare, VIRGI
IA. the first child of Eng-
lish parents born in thp Kew WorM. In
l:iR7 .John White went to Roanoke Tsland
as governor of an agricultural colon
- sent
out by Rir "'alter Raleigh. He was ac-
companied by his !'Ion - in - law', William
Dare. and his young wife. It was in-
tended to plant the colony on the main-
land, but \Vhite wpnt no farther than
Roanoke. The new coloni!'lts determined to
cultivate the friendship of the Indians.
1fanteo (the chief who ac('ompanied
Amida.
and Barlow to England), living
with his mother and relatives on Croatan
Island. invited the colonists to RettIe on
hi.. domain. "'bite persuaded him to re-
ceive the rites of Christian haptism. and
hestowed upon him the title of baron.
a
Lord of Roanoke--the first anù last
JWerage ever created on the !'Ioil of the
American r('puhlic. It h('('amp neecs-;ary

for the ships to return tð England for
supplies, and, to hasten them, \Yhite went
with them, leaving behind eighty - nine
men, seventeen women, and two childrf'n.
Among the women was his married daugh-
ter, Eleanor Dare, who had given hirth
to a daughtcr, in August, }.38ï. to whom
they gave the name of Yirginia. On his
way home, White touched at Ireland.
where he left some potatoes whie-h h(' took
from Virginia-the first of that kind ewr
seen in Europe. He started back with two
ships laden with supplies; but instead
of going directly to 'nrginia. he pur-
sued Rpanish ships in search of plunder.
His ves:;els were so battered that he Was
obliged to rpturn to England, and Span-
ish war - vessels in Briti
h water"- prp-
vpntE"d his sailing for America again until
1.') t) O. lIe found Roanoke a desolation.
anù no tracp of the colon v was p,'er
fûund. It is belipwd that tlwv hecanw
u'ingled with the natives. for I
ng years
afterwards families of the Hatteras tri1JP
e'Xhibited unmistakahle spe('imen
of blood
mixed with that of Europeans. It is
up-
}><,sed thf' fripndly "Lord of Roanoke"
had saved their lives.
Darien Ship Canal, one of the great
interoceanic canal projects which havp
attracted the a ttent ion of intprpsted na-
tions for many
ears. and. most par.ticu-
larly, the L'nited
tates. [n IH-lB an
Ir-ish adventurer published a book in
which he sa id he had crossed and re-
crossed the Isthmus of Darien. and that
in the construction of a canal there
only "3 or 4 miles of deep ro('k cut-
ting" would he required. Belipving thi
.
an English company was formed for tllP
purpOSf', \\ Hh a capital of *i .).ono.ono.
anù an enginper was spnt to sUT\'ey a
route. WI10 reported that thp distance b('-
tween" tidal effect!>" was only 30 milp
.
and the summit le'"el only 1;;0 fpet. The
governments of England. France. the
rnited States, and Np\\" r.ranada joinpd,
latr in lR.ï3. in an e'Xplorntion of the hf'st
routf' for a canal. It was soon ascer-
tained that the Engli<:h engincer had
never crossed the isthmus at all. The
summit level to which he directed the
e" )>pdition was I.()no feet above tide-
watH, instead of I:i() feet. The exppdi-
tion pffp('ted nothing-.
Tn IS.ï-l Li('lIt. [..aac :-;train let! an

10

DARK AND BLOODY GROUND-DARLEY

American e
pedition for the same purpose. open air. Birds became silent and went
They followed the route pointed out by to rest; barn-yard fowls went to roost,
the English engineer, and, after intense and cattle sought their accustomed even-
suffering, returned and reported the pro- ing resorts. Houses were lighted with
posed route wholly impracticable. The candles, and near1y all out-of-door work
success of the Sucz Canal revived the was suspe
.ded. The obsc\.1l"ation began
project, and in 18iO two e
peditions were at ten o'clock in the morning and con-
sent out by the United States govern- tinued until night. The cause of the
ment--one under Commander T. O. Sel- darkness has never been revealed. The
fridge, of the rnited States navy, to the air was unclouded.
Isthmus of Darien; and the other, under Darke, "7ILUA
I, military officer; born
Captain Shufeldt, of the navy, to the in Philadelphia county, Pa., in 173ü;
Isthmus of Tel1Uantepec. Three routes served under Braddock in 1755, and was
were surveyed across the narrow part with him at his defeat; entered the patriot
of the Isthmus of Darien by Selfridge, army at the outbreak of the Revolution as
and he reported all three as having ob- a captain; was captured at the battle of
stacles that made the construction of a Germantown; subsequently was promoted
canal impracticable. He reported a colonel; and commanded the Hampshire
route by the Atrato and Napipi }'ivers a
and Berkeley }'egiments at the capture of
perfectly feasible. It would include }.30 ('ornwaIIis in li91. He served as lieuten-
miles of river navigation and a canal less ant-colonel under General St. Clair, and
than 40 milcs in eÜent. It wouM calI was wounded in the battle with the Miami
f()r 3 miles of l"Ock cutting 123 feet Indians, Nov. 4, 1791. He died in Jeffer-

eep, and a tunnel of 5 miles, with a roof son county, Ya.. Xov. 2ü, 1801.
sufficiently high to admit the tallest- Darley, FELIX OCTAVIUS CARR, de-
masted ships. Selfridge estimated the en- signer and painter; born in Philadel-
tire cost at $124,000,000. Thc whole mat- pllia June 23, 1822; evinced a taste for
ter was referred in 18i2 to a commission drawing at an early age, and while a lad
tf:' continue investigations. A French in a mercantile house spent his leisure
(;ompany undertook the construction of a time in sketching. For some of these
('anal between Aspinwall and Panama in he was offered a handsome sum, and this
IRRl. under the direction of Ferdinand induced him to choose art as a life pur-
df' Lesseps. _\.fter expending many miIl- suit. He spent several years in Phila-
ions, the proJect was temporarily aban- delphia, always living by his pencil, and
donpd in 18!10. Spe C'LAYTO:V - Bn.wER iu 1848 he wpnt to New York, where he
TI
EATY: XICARACUA SHIP CA:VAL; PA:V- made admirable illustrations for some of
A
rA f'A:VAT.. Irving's humorous works. Among thesc
Dark and Bloody Ground. Two bec- were ']'he Legend o( Rleepy Hollow aUlI
tions of the {Tn:ted f-;tates ha\Te received Rip ran 1Vinkle. These works procured
this appeIIation. First it was applied for him the reputation, at home and
to Kentucky, the gn>at battle-field bc- abroad, as a leader in the art of outline
tween the 1\orthern 3-ud Southern Inrlians, illustrations. lIe iIIustrated a great many
und afterwards to the portion of that books and made numerous admirable de-
State wherein Daniel Boone and his com- signs for bank-notes. For Coopf'r's works
panions were compelled to carryon a he made 500 illustrations. )[ore than
warfare with the savages. It was also sixty of them were engra,'ed on steel.
npplied to the YaIley of the Mohawk, in He executed four large works ordered by
Xew York, and its vicini tv, known as Prince Napoleon while in this country.
1'ryon f'ounty, wherein the
Six Nations These were: Emigraltts A.ttacked by
and their Tory allies made fearful forays lndians on the Pra
ries; Thp Villagc
during the Rpvolution. RlacT.-8mith; The Umcilling Laborer, and
Dark Day. On :May 12, 1780, a re- '1 he Repo.<ip. He illustrated several of
markable darkness overspread alI New Diekens'H works, and during the Civil
l-:nglulld, yarying in intf'nsity at differpllt "7ar delineated m:ln;\' ('haraderistic
1)1 aces. In some s('dions persons could I'cenes. Some of the more elaborate pict-
not read common printed matter in the ures on the United States governmcnt
11

DARLING-DARTMOOR PRISON

bonds were madp b)- him; and also the
beautiful design of the certificate of stock
f!i\"en as evidenee of subscription for the
Centennial }:xhibition in 18i6. Among
llÏs later works in book illustrations
\\ ('re 500 beautiful df\signs for Lo
sing's
Our ('OlilltTY. )11'. Ð:tr]e,r went to Europe
Ileal' the close of the war, studied models
in Rome, and returned with a portfolio
full of personal sketches. He died in
l'Ia
mont, Del.. )larch 2i, 188H.
Darling, Ht::\"RY. e1ergyman; horn in
Heading, 1>a., Df'c. 27, 1823; graduated
at Amherst College in 1842; ordained to
the ministry of the Preshyterian Church
in 1847; published Hlavery and tll(' War
( 1863), etc. He died in Clinton, X. Y.,
April 20, IS!)!.
Darlington, \\'ILLIA
r. scipntist: horn
of Quaker parents in Binnin
ham, Pa.,
April 28. 1782; studied medicine. lan-
guages, and botan
T, and \\ ent to Calcutta
as I'urgeon of a ship. Returning in 1807,
II(> practispd nwdieine at W pst (,ll('
ter
with I'uccess; was a )Iadisonian in poli-
ties, and w])('n thp war hroke out in I R I

he aSl'istpd in raising a corps for the ser-
,iee in his neighborhood. He was chospn
major of a \"olunteer regiment, but did
not see any active sen-ice. lIe was a mem-
her of Con
rpss from 181:> to lR17 and
from lRl!J to 18
3. In hie; town he
founded an amdf'my. an athf'næum, and a
society of natural history. Dr. Darling-
ton was an emim'nt botanist, and a new
and remarkable variety of the pitcher
plant, found in California in 18,')3. was
named, in his honor. narlingtonica Cali-
fUr1zia. He wrote a 1111 published works
on botany, medicine, hiography, and his
tory. Dr. Darlington was a memhf'r of
ahout forty learned societies in America
and Europe. He died in West Chester,
Pa., April 23, 1863.
Darrah, J.YlHA, heroine; place and date
of birth unknown; li\"('(} in Philadelphia
in 17ii. ()ne of tlJ(' rooms in her llOUSf'
was uspd hy the British ofticers, who
planned to surprise 'Yashington's army.

he o\"f'rheard their plan", and earlJ- in
t he morning of Dec. 3 left her home,
ostensibly for the purpose of purchasing
flour, bllt in rpalit
. to give warning to
\\ ashing-ton. Aft...z' a walk of several
milp!, in thf' !'.now sllf' mpt onp of "'ash-
ington'<; of1i("('r
. to \\ hmn shp rf'vf'alf'd

what she had overheard. Through this
timely information 'Washington was pre-
pared and the British e
pedition proved
to be a failure.
Dartmoor Prison, 8. notable pla('e of
dc,tention in De\"onshirl:', England. At the
(']ose of the ,rar of UH:!-15 pr:!'olll'r,.,
ht'ld by both parties were relea!'ed as 800n
as proper arrangements for their enlarw'-
ment could be made. _\t the conclusion
of peace there were about n,ooo Ameri-
can capti\"es confined in Dartmoor Pri
on,
inC'IUlling 2,:>00 Arne) i('an
1'aJJlen im-
pres!'oed by British cruisers, who had re-
fused to fight in the British na ,.
. against
their eountQ'men. and were there when
the war began. Some had been captiyes
ten or ele"en yea)"!
. The prison was situ-
ated on Dart )1001', a desolate region in
De.onshirp. where it had been con-
struC'ted fur the confinement of Frpnch
IJrisoners of war. It comprisl'd about 30
aeres, enclosed "ithin double walls, with
!'(','en distinct pri
on - 110usps. with en-
closures. The placp, at the time in qups-
t ion. wa;; in chargp oi Capt. T. (L
hort-
land, with a military guard. 1Ip was

H!cu!'.ed of cruelty towards the captin!>.
It was nearly three months after the
treaty of peace was signed hpfore tIll'Y
were permitted to know the fa('t. 1"1'0111
that time they were in daily expPC'tation
of release. J)play cau
ed uneasiness and
impatience, and symptoms of a deter-
mination to escape soon apppared. On
April 4 the prisoners demanded Im.ad
Instead of hard bis('uit, and refusl'd
to rf'cpive the latter. On the (jth,
so reluctantly did tile prisoners obp)"
orders to retire to thpir quarters, that
when some of them, with thf' apl'f'aranl'p
of mutinous intentions. not on 1," rf'fllsf'd
to retire, but pas
f'cl beyond thf' I'rf'
l'rihf'd
limits of their confinement, thpy were fired
upon by order of Captain Short land, for
the purpo!'.p of intimidating all. The fir-
ing was foJlowed up hy the soldif'J"s. with-
out PXCUSf'. Five prisonf'rs were killpcI and
thirty-thrf'e wprp wounded. Thi!' ad was
regardf'C1 by thp American!'> HI' a wantlln
mas!:.acre, and wlll'n the nriti!o.h authori-
tips pronounced it "justifiablp" tllf'
hottest indignation was excitpd through-
out the repuLlic. The last !'uniyor of thp
Dartmoor prisoners wae; J_ewis P. ('IO\'f'r.
who (lip(l in Rrooklyn. T.ong T!'ilalHl. ,. Y.,
]2

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE

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1111

DART)10uR 1'IU"O
.

in FpbruarJ', 18i!!, at thp age of eightJ'- Rivpr. in thp "estern part of Xew Hamp-
nine years. shire, and ;!rants of about -l-t-.ooO acrps of
Dartmouth College, one of the highest land were madp. Go"ernor "'entworth
institutions of }parning in the English- gave it a charter (1 ili!)), undpr the title of
American colonies; chartered in I iG9. It Dartmouth CoIlege, 1'0 named in honor of
grf'w out of an earlier school established Lord Dartmouth. Thp institution was rp-
ty Hev. Dr. \Vheelock at Lebanon, Conn., moved. with the pupils, to Hanover. in
designpd for the education of Indian chil- 17iO, where President Wheelock anù all
dren. lie heing encouraged by his success others ,Ih'ed in log cabins. for it was au
in educating a young Mohegan, Samson almost untrodden wilderness. Dr. \Yhce-
Oeco111, who bf'came a remarkable preacher. lock held tJw presidency until his death, in
Pupils from the Dplaware tribe were re- Ii79 (see \YHEELOCK, J<:LE-\ZAR), anù wa,..
pf'i,'ed, and the school soon attracteù pub- succeeded by llÌs son, John. who was st'nt
lip attpntion. .Tames
roor, a farmer, gave to Europe to Pl'ocm'e funds for the sup-
two acrf'S of land and a how..e for the use port of the colleg
. Hp obtained con
idf>r-
of the school. and from that time it was able SUIllS. and philosophical impleulPnts.
known as 1\I0or's Inùian Charity School. In 1816 a religious contrO\"ersy led to a
()ceom accompanied RH. K. Whittaker to conflict with the legislature, and the laUpr
England to rai:-;e fund:; for the increase of creatf'd a new corporation, callf'd Dart-
the usefuJncsR of the school, and about mouth l'"ninrsity, in which the property
$.ïO,OOO were suhscribed. A board of trns- of the old corporation was vested. A law-
tf'f'S was org:lIli7ed. of which I..ord Dart- suit ensued. carried on for the college hy
mouth. one of the subscribers, was elected Daniel "'ebsta, which resulted (1819),
I're!"ident. The children of the Xew Eng- finally, in the pstahlishment of the in-
land Indians camp to the school in large violahility of chartered rights and the
numbers, and Dr. \Vheelock resolved to restoration of the old charter. \Yheplock
transfer it to a place nearer the heart of was raised to the pre!'lidpncy in 1817, by
thf' Indian population in that rpgion. Hp the npw board, but died a few months
c;plp('tf'(l Uanoyer, on the ConnpctiC'ut nftprwards. He was succeeded by William
)3

DARTMOUTH OOLLEGE DECISION-DAVENANT

\Ilf'n.
\t the duse of woo the eollege th
constitution, al'e "social, literary, his-
reported sixty-one proff'ssors and instruct- torical, monumeutal, benevolent, and hon-
ors, 741 students, 85,000 volumes in the orable in every degree." In 1900 there
library, 9,000 graduateH, and $2,300,000 in were 400 chapters in the Unit
d States,
produetive funds. R
v. William J. Tucker, North and Routh, with about 8,000 mem-
D.D., LL.D., was president. bers. The president was 1\[rs. Kate Cabell
Dartmouth College Decision. By an Currie, Ða]]as, Tex.; recording secretary,
act of the legislature of New Hampshire Mrs. ,Tohn P. Hickman, NaslnilIe, Tenn.
ill 1816, the name of Dartmouth CoJ1ege Daughters of the King, THE, a re-
was changed to Dartmouth University, the ligious society of the Protestant Episco-
management was changed, and the State un- pal Church, founded in New York City,
dertook to control the affairs of the college. Easter evening, 188.3. It is often co
.
Daniel \Vebster was retained to oppose the fused WitIl the KIXG'S DA UGIITEI(R (q. v.),
action of the State, and the case was u1ti- a societJ' from which it differs in many
mately carried up to the rnited States Ru- lespects. Its chicf purposes are to aid
preme Court, the decision of which estab- rectors in their parish work and to ex-
lished the inviolability of private trusts. tend Christianity among young women.
Daston, SARAH, an alleged witch; born In 1900 the pr{'sident of the council was
about 1613. When eighty years old she :Mrs. E. A. Bradley; secretary, Miss
was imprisoned in Salem as a witch, and Elizabeth L. Ryerson. Thc officc of the
although the practice of punishing sup- council is in the {"hurch Missions House,
posed witches was meeting with public dis- 2S1 Fourth Avenue, 1'ì.ew York City.
approbation the superstitious party clam- Daughters of the Revolution, an
ored for her conviction. She was tried organization established in New York
in Charlestown, Mass., in February, 1693, City, Aug. 20, 1891. Any woman is
and was acquitted. Later her persecutor, eJigible for membership who is a lineal

[inist{'r Parris, was driven out of Salem. descendant of a military, naval, or marine
Daughters of Liberty, a society of officer, or of a soldier or marine or sailor
\YGmen founded in Boston in 1 ïGn, pledg- in actual service under the authority of
in
themseh.{'s to rdrain from buying any State or colony or of the Continental
EJlgJish goods. Congress, or of the Congress of any of the
Daughters of the American Revolu- colonies or States, or of a signer of the
tion, a society or
anized in "-ashington, Declaration of Independence, or of a mem-
D. C., Oct. II, 18f10. All women above ber of the Continental Congress, or of any
eighteen y{'ars of age who are descend{'d colonial or State Congress, and of any
Í1"om patriots, soldiers, sailors, or civil other recognized official who supported
officerf.\ who f;llpported the cause of inde- the cause of American independence.
pendence, are eJigihl{' to memhership. In State soeif'ties exist in a large number of
1900 there wpre 4!)2 Statc chaptcrs in Rtates. In H)OO the president-general
fourteen Statp,,! and Territories, in the was Mrs. Henry Sanger Snow; recording
Di!'triC't of Columhia. and in Hawaii. with secretary-general, Mrs. I... D. C:a1lison.
a total memh{,J"!'Ihip of about 27.000. The The office of the genN'al society is at ]56
prf'sid('nt-g{'neral was :\frs. Danipl 'fan- ]"ifth Avcnue, Nf'w York.
ning: r{'('Ording se('T{'tary - general, ::\lrs. Davenant, RIR \Yn,LTA1'>f, dramatist and
.\Ihert Aek{'rs. Nashville, Tenn. The poet; born in O-xfotd, T'
ngland, in HiOá;
memhf'rship was reported as 3.>,OD2 in son of an innkeeper, at whosf' house
Fehuary. IDOL Shakespeare often stopped while on his
Daughters of the Confederacy, an journeys betwecn Rtratford and London,
organization establislled in Nashville, and who noticed tIle boy. Young Davenant
Tenn., Sept. 10, ]8D4. Its membership left college without a degree. Showing
consists of the widows, wh'es, mothers, much literary talcnt, he was encouraged
sisters, and lineal female descendants of in writing plays by persons of distinction,
the men WllO served in the Confederate and on the death of Ren Jonson in 1637
army and navy, or who were connected he was made poet-laureate. He adhered
in any way with the Confederate cause. to the royal cause during the civil war
The objects of the society, as declared in in En.'!land, and escaped to France, where
14

DA VENPORT-DA VIDSON

he h('('awe a 1:0111:111 Catholic. _\fter the !'piritllal retreats fur UI(' lait),. In IHUH
death of his King he projected (1651) a he
H'cpptcd a professorship in the Col1ege
colony of French people in Virginia, the of St. !\Ialfs; in 1810 went West anù
only American province that adhered to founded the St. Thomas Theological
royalty, and, with a vessel filled with Seminary in Bardstown, Ky.; and in 1823
French men, women, and children, he secureù a charter from the Kentuckv
sailed for Virginia. The ship was capt- legislature raising the institution he had
ured by a parliamentary cruiser, and the founded to the grade of a university. He
passengers were landed in Englanù, where died in Bardstown, Ky., in 1841.
the life of Sir \Villiam was spared, it is be- Davidson, GEORGE, astronomer; born in
Jieved, by the intervention of John Milton, Xottillgham, England, )Iay 9, 1825; came
the poet, who was Cromwell's Latin secre- to the United States in 1832; gradu-
tary. Sir \Villiam bad a strong personal ated at the Central High School, Phila-
resemblance to Shakespeare, and it was delphia, in 1845; engaged in geodetic field
currently believed that he was a natural and astronomical work in the Eastern
son of the great dramatist. This idea Sir States in 1845-50, and then went to San
William encouraged. He died in April, lGG8. Francisco, and became eminent in the
Davenport, HE
RY KALLOCK, naval eoast survey of the Pacific; retiring after
officer: born in Savannah, Ga., Dec. 10, fift,y :years of active service in June, 189;).
1820; joined the navy in 1838; command- He then became Professor of Geography in
ed the steamer Hetzel in 18GI-G4; took the University of California. Of his
part in Uip engagements on James Riyer numerous publications, The Coast Pilot
and off Roanoke Island; and was promoted of California, Oregon, and lVashington;
captain in 18G8. He died in Franzensbad, and The Coast Pilot of
4.laska are uni-
BollPmia, Aug. 18, lSi2. versally known and esteemed.
Davenport, JOHN, colonist; born in Davidson, JOHN WYNN, military
Coventry, England, in 139i. Educated at cOker; born in Fairfax county, Va., Aug.
Oxford, he entered the ministry of the Es- 18, 1R24; graduated at West Point in
tablished Church. He finally became a 18 !5, entering the dragoons. Accompany-
Kon-conformist, was persecuted, and re- ing Kearny to California in 1846, he
tired to Holland, where he engaged in was in the principal battles of the war
secular teaching in a private school. He with Mexico. He was also active in
returned to I_ondon and came to America New Mexico, afterwards, against the Inù-
in June, IG3i, where he was received with ians. In 1861 he was made major of
p-rcat res]wct. The next year he assistcd cavalry, and early in 18G2 brigadier-
in founding the Kew Haycn colony, and general of volunteers, commanding a bri-
was one of the chosen "seven pillars
' gade in the Army of the Potomac. After
(sce K EW HA YEX) . He concealed Golfe serving in the campaign on the Peninsula,
and Whalley, two bf the "regicides," in be was transferred (August, 18(2) to the
Iii!'! house, and by his preaching induced Department of the Mississippi, and co-
fhp people to protect them from the King's ûperated with General Steele in the capt-
commissionprs sent o,-er to arrest them ure of Little Rock, Ark. He was breYet-
(see RF.GlCIOES). In 16GS he was or- ted major-general of volunteers in :March.
dained minister of the first church in 186:>; promoted to lieutenant-colonel.
noston, anù left Xew Havcn. He was the 10th Cavalry, in lSGG; was Professor of
autlwr of !"eycral controversial pamphlets, Military Science in Kansas Agricultural
and of A Discourse about Oivil Govern. College in 18G8-i1; promoted to colonel,
ment in a New Plantation. He died in 2d Cavalry, in lSi!J. He died in St. Paul,
noston. :!\Iarch 15, 1GiO. .
Iinn., June 26. 1881.
David, .TEA
BAPTIST, clergyman; born Davidson, \VILLIA]\[, military officer;
in France, in 17G1; educated at the born in Lancaster countv, Pa., in 174G;
Diocesan Rcminary of Kantes; became a was appointed major in
ne of the North
priest in li85; came to the United States Carolina regime.nts at the outbreak of
in 1792; and was superintendent of mis- t he Revolution; took part in the battles
sions in lower )Iaryland. He was tIle of Brandywine, Germantown, and :Mon-
first priest in America to establish mouth; commissioned brigadier-general;
15

DAVIE-DAVIS

and able a,upporter. In Iiml he was gov-
ernor of North Carolina, but was
oon
afterwards sent as one of the em"oys to
the }'rench Directory. \ery soon after
his return he withdrew from public lift'.
In 1\Iarch, 1813, he was appointed a ma-
jor-general, but declined the sf'n-i('e on
account of bodily infirmities. He died in
Camden, S. C., Kov. R, IS
O.
Davis, A
DHEW JACKSO
, spiritualist;
Lorn in Blooming Grove, Orange eo., N. Y.,
Aug. 11, IR2ß. While a shoemaker's ap.
prentice in Poughkeepsie, early in I84;
.
)"('markable clain-o,rant powers were d(>-
wlop{'d in him b
' the manipulation of
mesmeric influen{'es by "'illiam Leving-
ston. He was quite uneducated, :yet while
under the intluen{'e of mesmerif;m or ani-
mal magnetism he would discourse flu{'llt-
ly and in prolwr language on medi{'ul,
psy{'hologiml, and g{'neral scientific sub-
jeds. 'Yhile in a magn{'tic or tran{'e
state he made medical diagno:;e:s and gave
prescriptions. In )larch, 1844, he fell
into a trance state without any previous
manipula tions. during wh ich he {'On-
v{'rsed for si \:t('('n hours, as he allegt'(l,
with invisibl{' b{'ings, anù r{'{'l'ind inti-
mations and instructions (,olu't'rning the
position he was aftprwards to Ol"I'upy a!'!
a teacher from the interior state. In
1845, while in this state, he dil"tated to
Hev. William :Fi
hbough his first and
most considerable work, The IJrindplc.'l of
he graduated in 17ïß), and adopt{'d him ;.,
ature, her Di,.ine Rc,.clatiolls, alld a
as his heir. He plepared himself for Yúice to J!alll.-ind, wlIidl embraces a wid{'
the law as a profession, but became an ac- range of !mbjects. He aft{'rwanls puh-
tive soldier in the Revolution in a troop of lished several works, all of which lIe
dragoons. \Vhen he was in command of claimed to have been the production of his
the troop he annexed it to Pulaski's mind under divine illumination and the
L('gion. He fought at Stano, Hanging infhl{'nce of dispmbodif'd spirits. .\mong
Hock, and Rocky Mount; and at the head hi
most <'Ol1sidf'rable works
11"P Tilt>
of a legionary corps, with the rank of Grmt rrarmonia, in 4 volumps: Thr
major, hc opposed the advance of Corn- T'cndralia: lIi.'dory n1Hl Philo.<lO/llIy or
wallis into Xorth Carolina. Aftpr the Edl: Th(' Ha,'1Iil1!1C1' of flcnlfh: F::tdl(//"
overthrow of the American army at ('am- K('!I fo fll(' t
1lmmcr ',and: and l!('nfal
dl>n he sanù the remnant of it; and llf' lJi.'1cOo'lrs and Di.'lord('rs of fh(' Rmill. )fr.
was a most efficient commissary und{'r Davis may bf' ('onsidpred as the pionepl"
General Gr(>{'ne in the
outhern D{'part- of modl'l'n RpirituaJism.
nlent. He ro!':e to gr{'at f'mÏ1wnee as a Davis, ('HAT
U:S HF.:'iRY. naya] offi('pr:
lawyer after the war, and wa!- a del{'gate horn in Boston. .Tan. lG. 1R07: f'ntered
to the convention that framed tllf' na- the naval s{'n-ice as midshipman in 182:1:
tional Constitution, but sickness at home "as on{' of the chief organizers of the ex-
compellf'd him to leave before the work pedition against Port Royal. R C.. in
\vas accomplished. In the com'ention of 1861. in which he bore a conspicuou'\ part.
Xorth Carolina he was its most earnest For his services during the Ch.n War he
]6

and was at Co\\an's Ford, N. ('., Feb. 1,
1 i8I, "h{'n the British army undpr Corn-
wallis forced a passage. During the fight
General Davidson was killed.
Davie, WILLIAM RICHARDSO
, military
dIicer; born near \Vhitehaven, England,
.Tune 20, 17.36; came to America in lïG4
with his father, and settled in South
Carolina with his uncle, who educated
him at the College of K{'w Jen;ey (where

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WILLlA}! IUl:IIAKV80:ll DAnE.

receivro the thanks of Congress and pro-
motion to the rank of rear-admiral In
1865 he became superintendent of the
Xaval Observatory at Washington. He
was a recognized authority on tidal ac-
tions and published several works on that
subject. He died in Washington, D. C.,
Feb. 18, 1877.
Davis, Gt:sIBrAN KELLOGG, Rtatesman;
born in Henderson,
. Y., June 16, 1838;

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CUSII'I.lA!oo h.!l:LLUGlX VA \ J>!.

graduated at the Lnh-ersity of
Iichi-
gan in IS37; studied law and bí'gan prac-
tice in Waukesha, Wis. During the Cidl
\Var he served three years in the Union
army. In 18135 he removed to St. Paul,
Minn. He was a member of the Minne-
sota legislature in IS07; United States
district attorney for
Iinnesota in 18ù8-
73; gO\"ernor of
Iinnesota in 1874-75;
and elected to the L'nited States Senate
in 1887, 1893. and 18!)9. For several yearH
he was chairman of the Senate committpe
on foreign relations, and was a memIwr
of the commi,.,sion to negotiate peace with
Spain after the war of 18!)8. He pub-
lished The Law in Shali(wpcare. He died
in St. Paul,
ov. 27, 1900.
Davis, DAVID, jurist; born in Cecil
('(,unty. ::\ld.. March 9. lR15; graduated
at Kenron Collí'ge. 0., 183
; admitted
to the bar of Illinois in 18:1.,: electf'd
to the State legislature in 1834; and
al.pointed a justice of the Supreme Court
oi the Cnited States in 1862. He resign-
í'U this post to take his seat in the United
States Senate on March 4, 1877, having
been eleí'ted to succeed JOH
A. LOOA

III -II Ii

DA VIS

(q. v.). In 1872 he was nominated for
Ple
ident by the Labor Reform party, but
declined to run after the regular Demo-
cratic and Republican nominations had
been made. He resigned in 1883 and re-
tired to Bloomington, Ill., where he died
June 26, 1886.
Davis, GEORGE \YIIITEFIELD, militar
'
officer; born in Thompson, Conn., .July 2(;,
1839; entered the Union arm
. as quarter-
mastpr's sergeant in the II th Connecticut
Infantry, Kov. 27, 1861; became first lieu-
tenant April 5, 1862; and was mustered
out of the service, April 20, 1866. On
Jan. 22, 1867, he was appointed captain
in the 14th enited States Infantry. At
the beginning of the war with Spain he
was ('ommi'3sioned brigadier-general of vol-
unteers; and on Oct. 19, 1899, he was
promoted to colonel of the 23d United
States Infantry; and on the reorganiza-
tion of the regular army, in February,
HJOI. he was appointed one of the new
brigadier - generals. He was for several

"ears a member of the board on Public
\Yar Records: commanded a division in
the early part of the war with Spain; in
May, 1899, was appointed governor-general
of Porto Rico; and in 1904 governor of the
American zone of the Panama Canal cp..;-

sinn.
Davis, HE
RY GASSAWAY, legislator:
born in Baltimore.
Id., Xov. 16, 1823; re-
c(:ived a country-school education; was an
employee of the Baltimore & Ohio Rail-
rOf,d Company for fourteen vears; after-

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BRIO.-OKS. GRO'<lHi: WIiITi:FII!:LV !lA'"Is'

DAVIS

ward engaged in hanking and coal-mining
in Pwdmont, \\". Va.; and was prf':-,ident
of the Pil'dmont Kational Bank. In 181;;)
h
was elf'l'tf'd to the House of Delegates
of \Yest Yir
inia; wa::; a member of the
national Ðemoeratic com-entions in 18G8
and 1872: Rtatf' Senator in lR67-0D; and
a L'nited Rtatl's Sl'nator in IH71-83. He
also served on the Intf'r-crmtinental Rail-
way Commission, as chairman of the
American dplf'
ation to the Pan-American
Congress. and ,,-as tll{' Df'11l0f'ratif' eandi-
d3te for Yif'p-Prf'si,h'nt in IHIH.
Davis, I1EXny \YIxTER. legislator: horn
in Annapolis,
Id..
\u
. Hi. IRli: !!radu-
ated at Ken
'on ('ol1...gP in 1R37: f'lp('Ìpd

to l'ongr('!o.,. as a Whig in IH;)4, and at
the dissolution of that party joined the

\nlPrican or Know -Xothing party, and
"a
re-elected to Congress in 18;)8. In
18lH he announced himself in fa,'or of an
unconditional Lnion while a candidate
fur re-election. lie waH on'rwhelmingly
df'fc>ated, hut in 1863 wa
rp-elected.
-\I-
thou!!h representing' a sla\{' State, Senator
Davis was a strong antislavery ad,'o-
eater fie dif'd in Baltimore.
rd.. Dpc. :m.
IHli,).
Davis, ISAAC, patriot: horn in 174;);
took part in the fight with tllP Briti,.h
f;ol(lif'ry at ('oneord hridgf'. .\pril In. 17i;).
:1nil was ki11ed b
' the first vol)(',\'.

DAVIS, JEFFERSON

Davis, JEFFERSO;S, statesman; born in was a continuous ovation. He made
Christian county, Ky., June 3, 180R: twenty-fin speeches on the way. Ml'm-
graduated at \\'est Point in 1828; served bprs of the convention and the authoritif's
as lieutenant in the BLACK H.-\ WI.: \V AR of :\rontgonH'r,\' met him eight mill's from
(q. v.) in 1831-32, and resigned in 1835 the city. Ill' arriwd at the .\labama
to become a cotton-planter in ::\Ii,.sissippi. capital at ci
ht o'clock at nigl1t. Can-
Uf' was a member of Congress in 1845-46, non thundereù a welcome, and the shouts
and sened as colonel of a ::\Iississippi regi- of a multitude gref'ted him. Formally re-
ment in the war with ::\Iexico. He was c('ived at the railway station, he madf> a
"Cnited States Senator from 1847 to 1851. sTJeech, in which he briefly rf','iew('d thf>
and from 1857 to 181H. He was called to position of the
outh, and said HIP tinw
the cabinet of Presiùent Pierce as Secre- for compromises had passed. ""'f' are
tary of 'VaT in 18:)3, anù rf'mained four now determined," he said, "to maintain
)"f>ars. He resigned his seat in the f'\enate our position, and make all who OppOSI' us
in January, J8Gl, and was chosen pro- smell Southf'rn powder and fpel Sout1lPnt
visional President of the Southf'rn Con- steel. . . . "'e will maintain our rights
federac;r in February. In No,'ember, 1801. and our government at all hazards.
he was elected permanent President for si" '''e ask nothing-we want nothing-and
)'f'ars. Early in .\.pril, 186;). he and his we wiJ) have no complications. If thf'
associates in the government f)(,d from other States join our Confederacy, the,"
Hif'hmond. first to Danvi1Jf', ,r a ., and then can freely come in on our terms. Our
towards the nulf of
Iexico. Hf' was ar- separation from the "Cnion is eomplf'tf'.
re
ted in Georgia. takf'n to Fort )[onroe, and no compromise, no rf'construction,
and confined on a charge of treason for can now be entertained." The inaugural
Hbout two Years. wllf'n he was relf'ased on cHemonies took place at noon. Ff'h. 1R, OIl
bail, Hora
e Grf'eley's name heading the a platform erected in front of t hp pot.t if'()
list of bondsmpn for $100,000. He was of the State-house. Davis and thf' 'ïcf'-
never tripd. He pub1i
}lPd The Rise and rresident elect, ALEXAXDER H. STEPIIEXS
Fall of tllr rOllfcdrrate Gorcrnmpnt (q. v.), with Rev. Dr. :\rarly, rode in
(1881). He died in Xew Orleans, La., an open harouche from thf' Exdwngf'
Dec. 6, IS8f1. Hotel to tile capitol, foIlowed by a mu1ti-

[r. Davis was at his hOllie, not far tude of StRtf' officials and citizens. Thp
from Yif'ksburg, whf'n apprisf'rl of his oath of offiCf> was ad!llil1istHf'rl to Davis
f'lpction as President of the ('onff'deraf'Y h
' HowelI Cobb, president of the Con-
formed at '[ontgomery, February, 1861. gress, at the close of his inaugural ad-
He hastl'ned to that city, anù his journey dre

. In the evening President Davis held
18

DAVIS, JEFFERSON

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le\ ee at Estelle HalJ. and the eitr was for troops. President ])a \Ïs i,."upd a prada-
brilliantlJo lighted up by bonfire" and mation, in the preamble of whith he said
iilllminations. President Da vis chosl' for the P)"(.
idpn t of tJJ(> {'ni tl'd :-\ta tes had
his constitutional advisers a f'ahinet COIl1- ., Rnnounct'd the intC'ntion of inyading- the
pI ising Rohf'rt Toombs. of Gporgia. Spc- ConfedC'racy with an a 1"1111-'1] foree for the
retary of Statl': CharlC'!'I (
. l\Iemmingf'r. purpo..e (,f C'aptllr;n'! il
fortn'",,('s. a 1111
of South Carolina.
C'('rC't;H
' of tlw tlwrC'hy suhn'rting its int!ppenùence, and
1'1"C'asnry; 1.e Boy POpC' \\"a1\';:f'I', of .\ hl- f<uhjpl'ting the free p('oplf' thereof to tlw
hama, :-:C'cl'f'tary of \\-al': r-;tf'Jlh{'1I H. ,10m inion of a foreign power." lIt' said
Mallory, of Florida, :'-;,'el'f'ta1".'" of t11(' it \\":.
tl.p iI.1f \' of hi" g"m'f'l'nmf'nt to TP-
Xa\
r, anù .John II. Rf'agan. of 1'1':\a". pf'1 this threatpllf'd im'asion. :tnel .. dAf'1lI1
Postmaster-General. After\\'ard
. ,Judah tl1f' right
and liht'rt iI''' of tlw Jlmp'f' h.'"
P. Hf'njamin was made Attorney-Gf'IIf'n\ 1. all t}1f' mf'ans whi{'h the laws of n;ltion

Two days after President Lin('oln'
('all ancl u!'Iagf's of civilized warfare pla('C'ù at
HI

DAVIS, JEFFERSON

famil
' allli propert.", I illing" rapidly 18
miles. Tlwy \\ere Iwar In\ in
\ ille, bouth
of :'IIacon, Ga. The tf'nts wen' pitched at
night, and the wearit-d ones J"l.tired to
1"('8t, intending to resume tlwir fli
ht in
the mornin
. (;('neral \\ïlson. at 'lacon.
ht.aring of Davis's flight towards the Gulf.
had :;eui out Michigan anti \\ïsconsin
('èlvalry, whose vigilallt'f' wa, quickt'nl'd
b} the olferf'd n-\\anl of $lOO,OOU for the
arrest of the fugiti\e. Simultaneously,
from opposite points, these two parties
approached the camp of Davis and his lit-
tle party just at dawn, :'Ilay II, ISH.i.

listaking eaeh other for foes, the}' f'X-
changed Shot8 with
mch precision that
two men were killed and
;pn'ral wounded
before the error was dibcon'rell. The
sleepers \\ ere
HoUbl-ll. The camp was
E.urrounded, and Davis, while attempting"
to escape in disguise. \\as captured alii I
('oJ\\t'rf'd to (:f'lwral \\ïlson's head-
quarters. Davis had slf'pt in a wrapper.
and when aruust-d hastily pulled on his
hoots and went to the tent-door. He ob-
!>erved the Xational ca\",llry. .. Then you
are capturf'd?" ('xclain1f'd his wiff'. In
an instant she fastellf'd the wra ppf'r
around him before Ilf' was aware, and
then. hidding him
adieu, urgf'tI him
to go to a spring
Ilf'ar hy, wherf' his
horse and arms
were. lIe complif'tl.
and as he was
Il'a \"Ìn
the tf'nt-
door. followf'd hy
a st'rvant with a
watf'r - Imckf't. his
sistf'r-in-Ia w flung
a "hawl m'pr his
head. It was in
this di'lguio>.f' that
}If' was eaptun'tl.
Sueh is t IH'
t()r
'
as t01<l hy C. E. L.
Stuart. of Davis's

talr. The f'onff'd-
pm tf' Pre sid I' n t
was tak(>n to For!
)Jomoe by way of
urf' that wa
eanif'11 away from Ridl- Savannah and thp St'tl. I:eagan. who W,I

mond was with 'frs. Davis. had formed mptun',1 with na\ is. anti .-\If',andl'r If.
a plot to seize all her trunks in sf'arch Stephens Wf'rf' !'Iront to Fort \\'anen, in
of it. TIf' !J;\c;tpnerl to the rescue of hie; P""1nn lLnhoJ.

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al:' He im'itetl tIll' pl'uple of
the Contedenlcy to engage in pri\ ateel'iug,
and he exhorted those who had .. felt the
wrongs of the past" from those whose
(-nmit." was .. more implacable, because
unpro\"okeù;' to exert themselves in pre-
serYing orùer and maintaining the author-
ity of the Conff'llf'rate laws. This l'rochl-
mation wa
met hy }")residcnt Lincoln by
a public notice that he 8hould immf'-
diately ordpr a hloc....adf' of all the South-
ern porb cia imf'd as belonging to the Con-
federacy: and also that if any person,
under the pretended authority of such
States. or under any other prett'nce,
should molest a vessel of the L'nited
Statf's, or the person or cargo on hoard
of her, su<-h person would he held amen-
ahle to the laws of the Vnited States for
the prevention and punishmf'Ilt of piracy.
With this opptl
ing proclamation the
great Civil War was actinly hegun.
In April, 1St;;'). :1\[r. Davis's wife and
children, and his wife's si
tf'r, hall
accompanied him from Dam-me to
Washington. Ga., where, for prudential
1 pasons, the father separated from the
others. lIe soon If'arned that f;ome Con-
ff'derate soldit'rs, hclif'\'ing that the trf'as-

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DAVIS, JEFFERSON

scrted the right which the Dpdaration of
Independence of 1776 defined to be in-
alienable. Of the time and occasion of
its exercise the,}' ,1S so\"ereigns were the
Gf'ntlf'men of the Congress of the Con- final judges, each for himsf'lf. The im-
federate State!'; of America, Friends, and partial. enlightened yerdi(.t of mankind
Fellow-Citizens,-Called to the difficult will vindicate the rectitm{(' of our con-
and responfo'iLle station of chief executive duct; and He who know:,; the hearts of
of the provisional government which rou men wiII judge of tlw sincerity with which
have instituted, I approach the discharge we labored to preSl'rve the gO\"ernment of
of the duties assigned me \\ ith an humble our fathers in its spirit.
distrust of my abilities. but with a :-oU!,;- Thf' right solemnly proclaimed at the
taining ('onfidence in the wisrlom of thuse hirth of the
tates, and which has been
who are to guide and aid me in the ad- offinned and reafiirmed in the bills of
ministration of puhlic affairs. and an ri
hb of the St;ltes subsequently ad-
abiding faith in the virtue and patriotism mittf'd into the "Cnion of 17S!). undeniahly
of the people. l,ookin
forward to the )"('co;..mi7es in the people the power to re-
speedy estahlishment of a permanent gov- sume thf' authority delegated for the pur-
ernnlPnt to take thf' place of this, and poses of g'oH>rnment. Thus the sovereign
whieh hy its greater moral and physical
tates l)('re rf'presented proceeded to
power wilJ be lwttf'r able to comhat with form this Confederacy, and it is by the
the many difficulties which arise from the 3}-.use of language that their act has been
conflicting interests of separate nations. denominaterl revolution. The,\" formed a
I enter upon the dutif's of tllf' officp to 1If'\\" alliance. but within each
tatf' its
\\ hich I ha\ e bepn chosen with the hope government JlaS remainf'd. The rights of
that the beginning of our ('areer as a }If'rson and property have not l)f'en dis-
cnnfedf'racy may not he obstructed by turhprl. The agent through whom tJJeY
ho!';tilp opposition to our enjo
ent of ('ommunicated with foreign nations is
the f\('parate existence and independence changf'd. but this does not' necessarily in-
whiph we have asserted, and which, with terrupt t1wir international relation!';.
the blessing of Providence, we intf'nd to Sust3ined hy the consciou!';ness that tlw
maintain. transition from the fonner en ion to the
Our presf'nt condition. achie\"ed in a present Conff'derac
' has not proce('ded
mannf'r unprecf'dented in the history of from a disregard on our part of our ju!';t
nations. illustrates the Ameriean idpa ubligations or an:,' failure to pf'rform
that governments rest upon the cons('nt ('very constitutional dut
" moved by no
of the go\"Crnpd. and that it is the right interest or passion to invade the rights
nf thf' people to alter and abolish gonI'n- of oth{'l'!O.. an'\.ious to cultivate peace and
ment!'; \\"hf'uevf'r the.\' become destrnetiYe ('ommerce with all nations. if we may not
to the ('nds for whirh they were estah- hope to avoid war. we may at If'a!';t ex-
lished. The declared compact of thf' peet tlwt pOf\tpI-ity will a('quit \1!'1 of hav-
1'nion from which Wf' have withdrawn iug nf'edlessl.\' f'n
agerl in it. DOllbl
'
\\Hs to f'stahlish ju!"tice. in
ure dome!';tir Justified by th(' abf;enc'p of wrong on our
trauqllillitr. prO\'idp for the common dp- part, and h
' wanton aggrf''ision on the
fpupf'. promotp the g('neral welfare, and part of otlwrs, therp can he no causp to
secure thf' blessings of liberty to oursf'lws doubt the courage and patriotism of the
anù Our posterity: and wIlen. in tIte jud
- )I('oplp of the Confedpratp States will be
n}('nt of the so\-ereign States now com- found equal to any measures of defence
posing this Confederacy, it ha!'; IJPpn per- which soon their security may rf'quire.
vf'rted from the purposps for which it was An agricultural p('ople, whosf' chief in-
ordainf'rl. and C'('a!';pd to answer thp end
tprest j!'; thp export of a commodity r('-
for wJliph it was establi!';hprl, a pt'1lceful qllirerl in pypry manufacturing country,
fipppal to thp hallot-oox df'darpd that, a!'; our trIa' polip
T is peaC'e. and the freest
far as thpy wpre couN'rned, the gon'rn- traùe which our uP('essitie
will permit.
mf'Ut C'reat('d by that ('oJl1þapt
holllcl n is alike our interp<;t. and that of all
('pase to exi
t. In thi
thp,)' merely as- those to whom we would sell and from

1

Inaugural A ddress.-The following is
the text of the inaugural address, deliv-
ered at l\Iontgomery. Ala., Feb. 18, 1861:

DAVIS, JEFFERSON

whom we would buy. that there should
hp the fewest practicable rl'
trictions upon
the interchange of commoditips. There
(',111 be but little ri\-aJry beh\een onrs
and any manufacturing or navigating
community, i'uch a
tll(' Xorthea
tern
States of the American Cnion. It must
follow, therefore, that mutual interest
would invite good-will and kind omep
.
J f, however. passion or lust of dominion
!oohouhl cloud the judgment or inftanw the
ambition of those 8ta te8. we must pn>-
pare to m('et the emergpß(',y and maintain
I,y the final arbitrament of the !'word
t hp position which \H' h:1\'p assunwd
among the nations of tIIP PH rth.
\Ye have pnt('red upon a ca1"Ppr of inde-
l'pndence, and it must bp inlll'"ihly pur-
sued through many
'pars of ('ont ron'rsy
with our late associates of tlw "\"ortlwrn
f'tates. \Ye have \-ainly endea,-orpd to
secure tranqui11it
. and ohtain 1"f>!,;pPf"t for
the rights to whieh we are entitlp!1.
\s
a necf'ssity. not a dlOil'P. WI-' 11<1 "f' re-
!'ortpd to the remed.v of sepa ra tion, and
henceforth Ollr ener
ie,.. 111U:-.t h(' dirf'(.tpd
to the condm.t of our own affairs. and tJl('
perpetuity of the ('onfpdenlcy whieh we
have fornwd. If a just l)('rception of mu-
tual interest !'hall pprmit u!'; peaceahly to
pursue our separate politif'al carper. my
most earne"t desirp will haY(' bp('n ful-
filled. But if thi:i he dmjf'ù us. and t}1('
intf'grit
. of our territor
' and juri!';dietion
1.p a,..",ailed, it wi11 ùut rpuwin for us
with firm rp
olve to apl'pal to arms and
invoke the ble!"!"ing- of Pro,-i(lpn('e on a ju:<t
ea use.
.\s a con<;pqupn('p of our np\\" condition.
and with a vipw to mept anticipatpù
\\ ants. it will he np('Ps!';ary to prm-id(' a
s)'Pf'dy and pfficipnt organi7ation of tI1f'
branchf's of tIw pXf'('utivp dppartHwnt hav-
ing spef'ial f'ha rgf' of forpig-n intp1"('ol\1''''P.
6I1an('P. militar
' a fl'air!';. antI po!"tal ,..f'r-
viep. For purposp", of df'fPH('p tIw ('on-

pderatf' Statf's ma
'. um]pr 01(' on]inar
-
cireum!'Ìi\npP!". rpI.,' mainI." upon t}IPit.
militia: hut it is dpf'mpd ad, isahlp in thp
prpspnt condition f
f affair", th.tt thpre
!oohould he a wf'll-instru('Ìp(1. ,!i...eiplilwd
:11 my, more nunwrous than would ui'uall;\'
h(' rpquin'd on a ppaep f'stahli,..hnwnt. I
:11..0 !'ug-gf'<.:.t that. for thp protf'1't ion of
onr ha..\.or'1 ftnd eommerf'p on tIll' high
s(>a
, a n:n'y adapted to tho<\p ohip('t
will

be required. The
e neces!'itips ha"e. doubt.
less. engaged thp attention of Congre!'s.
\\ïth a constitution ùift'ering only from
that of our fathers in so far as it is e
-
planatory of their wpII-known intent,
freed from sectional contiicts, whieh Iu\\ e
interfered with thp pursuit of tIw gpneral
welfare, it is not unrpasonablf' to e
-
p('ct that the Stat
s from whit'll we ha\('
rccpntly parted may !,;pek to unite their
fortunes to ours, under the
O\'prnmpnt
whil'h we lla,"e instituted. For this
'our
const it ution makps adpquate provision.
hut I)('yond this, if I mi!';takp not. the judg-
1,I('nt and will of thp people ar('. that
union with the Statps from which tl)('
'
ha\l' separatpd is ,\('itlwr praetipahlp nor
deSlJ"3 ble. To inpr('ase thp power. dp-
\"elop tIH' 1'esOU1'ees. and promote the hal'-
pine,..s of the Confederacy. it is requi:-.itp
tlwre should be so much homogeneity that
the we]fa re of e, ery portion would be tIIP
aim of the whole. \n\('rp this dops not
pxi!'t, antag-onisms are cn
endered whil'h
lIIust and should rp!';ult in Hl'paration.

\ctuated sol ply hy a flesirp to prf'sf'r\ ('
our 0\\ n rights. and to promote our 0\\ n
\\"( Ifal'e. the sepa ra 1Ïon of the Conff'dpr-
ate 8tatps has hef'n markprl hy no ag'-
g-1'e!';sif)n upon othprs, and foIIo\\"pd hy no
domestic connll!'ion. Our indu!';trial pur.
suit!'; ha\"e recpived 110 ehe('k, the cultiva.
tion of our field!'; prog-1'Ps:-'f'S a!'; I\('rpto-
fore, and even should we 1)(' in\"oh'ed in
war. t]wr(' woulù he no cO!1si,Ierahle dimi-
nution in the produptioH of the staple,.;
which have ('onstitutpd our e
pol'ts. in
\\ hidl the commercial world lms UII in-
tprp;;;t !';ear('ely Ips;; than our own. This
('ommon intpre!"t of produ('pr amI pon-
S1lHWJ" (-an onl.v hf' intprcpptf'C] hy an p,-
Ì(.rior 10r('1' whidl should ohstruet its
t ransmi

ion to forpign markf't!';. a I'our!';e
of ('onduet whieh would II(' df'trinwntal to
manufaetul'ing and commf'reial intf'n.",t",
a1lroal1.

holl).1 ,'pason g-uiflp thp apt ion of tllP
gf',-prllmcnt ft-om whi('h wp have spI':I-
ratpd. a p()Ii('
' !';o dptrinlf'lItaI to tIw ('i,-
ili7f'd world. tIIP 'or1hf'rn Statp!'; inphJf]f'fl.
eould not hf' didatf'f] h
' (','pn a ;;;trongf'r
df',irf' to inflif"t iHi1\l'
' upon us: hut if it
1)(. othpr\\ i!"p. a tprrihlp rp<;pon!';ihi!ity will
rp",t upon it. and thp !'uffpring of million,.;
"ill hpar tf'!';timon
' to t1\f' folly an,! \\i,'k-
(',huh,,., of OUT aggrp!'lsor!'l. In the n1<'a II

2

time there will remain to us, beside" the
ordinary remedies before suggested, the
well-known resources for retaliation upon
thp commerce of an enem,Y'
Experiencp in publie stations of a
subordinate grade to this which )'our kind-
lIl>
S had eonferred has taught me that
('are and toil and disappointments are the
price of ofiieial elevation. You will see
many errors to forgi\-e, man)T deficiencies
to tolerate. but )TOU shall not find in me
eithel' want of zeal or fidelity to the
Ci1 use that is to me the highest in hope
and of most enduring affection. Your
g"t'nprosity has bestowed upon me an un-
dt'''l'l"\"t'd distinction. one whidl I neither
sought nor dl'sired. rpon the continu-
:lIIce of that sentiment, and upon your
wisdom and patriotism. I rel
' to direct
and support me in the performance of the
duties required at my hands.
\Ve ha\'e changed the constituent parts
hut not the system of our gO'TerßlIH'nt.
The Constitution fOl"llH'd by our fatlH'rs
i" that of these ConfedpratC' StatC'!o.. In
tJH'ir f'xpo!';ition of it. and in the judi,'ial
eon!';truction it has rpceived, wp han. a
light whil"h reveals it" tnlP meaning. TI..."
instnlcterl as to thp just interpretation
of that instrument, and ever renwmhel'ing"
that all offices are but tru"t!'; hPid for the
people, and that delegated powers are
to be !';trictly eonstrued. J will hope h
'
due diligence in the pedonnancp of my
duties, though I ma
' disappoint your ex-
peetation.
Tet to rptain. whpn rptiring. l1i1Ìl',1 in the battle of Corinth in 1
1;
:
!';omething of thp good-will and confidence commanded a division in the battlp!,; of
which wiJl we]come m
' entrance into Stone River, l\[urfreesboro, and f'11Ìc\"a-
office. IlIa uga in 1862-(î3; and in I RIi-t com-
It is joyous in the mirl!';t of perilous mandpd the l-tth Army Corp" in tlH' .-\t-
timp!,! to look around upon a people unÏtpd lanta campaig-n and in the )[arch through
in heart. whpn one purpose of high re!';oln' C('orgia and the Carolinas. He wa"
animatp<; and aetuates the wholp. wl}{'rp IIJ"t'\'pttpd major-r-eneral in ISH.). and tlH'
the sacrifiees to hp mal1p arp not \\"ciillPll l1e'\.t
'par was commi"sioned colonel ot
in the balance. against honor. right, Jib- 11w
3t1 Infantry. Hp was aftprwanls on
prty. and equality. Ohstaeles may re- Ow Pacific eoast: commamlpd troop!'; in
tanl, hut tlH'
' eannot long prp\Tpnt thp .\laska: an,1 also comnwndpd the forces
progrC'!';s of a mOVf'nwnt !';anptioned h
' that suhdlwd tlw ':Uodoes. aftpr the murdpr
it" justice amI sustainC'd hy a \'irtuous of GES. EDWARD H. H. ('ASHY ('[. ".), in
ppople. Rpverpntl
T let us inmke Ute Gorl ISï3. He dipd in Chicago, Ill.. :Km-. 30.
of our fathers to guirlp anrl protp('t us IR'j!}.
in OUl' effort!'! to lwrpptuate tlw prinei- Davis, .JOH"'. juri!';t: horn in Plymouth.
pIps which hy His hlessing thpy wprC' able l\lass., Jan. 2:). 17ßI: graduatpd at Har-
to vimlicatp. estah1i!'!h. anrl tran!';mit to varrl ColIege in I iSl: admittpd to thc
tl:pir postprit)': and with a C'ontinuanC'p har and began practice at Plymouth in
of His fayor, eyer gratpfulIy acknowl- !'jS(î. He was the last suryiying 1I1pml)('r
23

DA VIS

edged, we ma)- hopefullJ T look forward to
success, to peace, to pt'osperity.
Davis, JEFFERSOX C., military officer;
born in Clarke count
', Ind.. March 2,
1828; !';erved in thp war with Me
ico;
was made lieutenant in 1
.)2: and WU!;
cne of the garrison of Fort 811mtf'r clur-
ing the bombardment in April. lRI)]. Thp
same year he 'was made captain, and he-
came colonel of an Indiana regiment of
yolunteers. In December he was pro-
nloted to brigadier-general of voluntpprs.
Hnd commanded a division in the battle
of Pea Ridge early in HW2. Hp partici-

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.JF.FFER80X C. DA \ IS,

DAVIS-DAWES

of the convention that adopted the federal aetive in oth
r engagemf'nte. Hp was pro.
Constitution; comptroller of the United moted rear-admiral, and retired in
()-
States Treasury in 17D;)-D6; and eminent veruber, 188(;. He died in Wa
hingtoll,
for his knowledge of the history of Xew March 12, 1889.
England. In 1813 he made an address Davis, JOlIr\" \Y., !'tatesman; born ill
on the Landing of the Pilgrims before the Cumberland county, 1'a., Julr Ii, 17!!!1;
)1a8sachusetts Historical Society, over graduated at the Baltimore )[edical Col-
which he presidt>d i.n 181S-13. His pub- lege in 1821; settled in Carlisle, Ind..
lications include an edition of Morton's in 18
3; member of Congress in 1833-3ï,
YelL' England ]lemorial, with many im- lR:m-41, and 1843-47; 81wakpr of the
portant notes; Eulogy on George 'Wash- House of Representatives during his last
ington; and An Attempt to Explain the term; t:'"nited States commissioner to
Inscription on Diflhton Rock. He died in China in 1848-;)0: and governor of Ore-
Roston, )1a8s., Jan. 14, 1847. gon in 1833-34. lIe was president of the
Davis, JOlIX, statesman; born in North- convention in 18;)
which nominated
boro, :Ma!"s., .Tan. 13, 1787; graduated at Franklin Picrce for President. He died.
Yale in 1812; admitted to the bar in 1815; in Carlisle, Ind., Aug. 22, IS3!). .
member of Congress in IS24-34, dur- Davis, SOAH, jurist: born in Haver-
illg which time he opposed Henry Clay; hill, K. H., :-\ept. 10, IRIR; justice of the
and was electcd to the rnited
tates Sen- !\pw York
upreme Court, 18.>7; member
ate in 183.3, and resigned in 1841 to be- of Congress, lS(i!}-70; Cnited f'të\tcs di:---
t'Ome gm"ernor of )[assachusetts. He was trict attorn<,y, IB70: again pl<,{'Ü.d to 01('
a strotIg antagoni
t of .Tackson and Yan Xe\\' YOI'k Supreme Court. IH72. He pre-
Buren, and was re-electell to the rnited !"illpd at tl1<' trial of :-\tok<'R for the munlf'r
:-\tates F;pnate in 1
4;), but dedined to of .Jim Fiske and at the trial of \\ïlliam
!'en-e. He protest<,d strongly against the )1. T\\"('pd. lIe rdirl'd in IR
ï, and ,lie,l
war with ::\1e'\.Íco, and was in favor of the ill
t'\\" York City, :\Iarch 20, I!)O
.
e
dusion of slaven' in the rnited
tat('s Davis, HICHAIW H -\P.lHXG, authol"; horn
Territories. He di
d in \Yoreester, Mass. in PhihHll'll'hia. Pa., A\l'ril IS, ISli4:
on
_\pril I!), lR,>-t-. of H..hecca Harding Davis; educatl'd at
Davis, .TOIIX CUAXDLER llAXCROFT, Lphigh Pni\"prsity and .Tohn!'> 1I0l'kin:--
f;tate
man; born in \Yorcester, )Iass., Dec. Cniyersit
.. In 18S8 he joined the statr
29, 1822; graduated at Harvard in 1840; of the Kew York Ez-cllillg Sun, In 18!m
appointed secrctarJ' of the "Cnitpd States he became the managing <,ditor of lIar-
legation in J.ondon in IS-1!); and assistant T,er's lrcckly. His puhli('ations inehHlp
Secretary of State in ISGD, which post OW" Engli8h ('ousins: .lbout I'aris: Thr
he resigned in 1871 to represent the Ruln's of thc 1lcditcrranf'On; Thrrr
l"nited Statf'S at the Gene,"a court of Grin,qo,ç in rr1U
'llrl" flnd ('('Ilfrn7 AlI/fT-
ftrhitration on the A.labama claims. He iCfl: Î'llba in 11"(lr Timc; (Ollbrm and
was appointed rnited States minister to Porto Rican Campaigns, etc.
(;ermany in 1874, judge of the "Cnited Davis, YARIXA AXXE .TEFFECSOX,
States court of claims in 1878, and re- author; s<,cond daughter of Je{feraon
porter of thc rnitpd States Supreme Court Davis; ùorn in Richmond, Ya., June 27,
in IH83. If<, is the author of The Ca.se 18G4; known popularl
o in the Routh a8
(If the Cnit('(l Rtat(',q lairl before the Tri- "the Daughter of the Confederacy." Her
lmnnl of .l,.7IitrutiOIl flt (l('Il('r:a; Trcatics childhood was 11l0!'\tIy spent ahroad, and
of the T'nitcd StateR, ?ritl, Yotr.ç, etc. for several y<,ars SIIC dpvot<,d her
p1f to
Davis, .ToH
LEE, na\-al officer; born in literaturp. Her works in('lmle .in Irish
Carlisle, Ind., 8<'}lt. 3, 1823; joined the [(night of the l"'-inctc('nth Crntur!l;
navv in 1841; sernd with the Gulf block- Rketc/t, of the Life of Robrrt Emmrt
. Thr
'adi
g f;quadron in 18GI as executi\"e offi- T'cilcd Doctor: l'orcifln Eùucation for
('pr of the 1ratrr Tïitch: and on Oct. 12 A II/crican Girls: and .1 Romance of l\um-
of that year took part in the action with mer Sca.ç. She died at Narragftl1!';et Pipr,
th(' C'onfpd(']'at(' ram Ifanas.çaR, and in TI. T., f.;ppt. 18. IH!)S.
that with th
f1ppt npaT "Pilot Town. Dur- Dawes, ITEXHY J.Ar-P.l
XS, fltllte'lrn.ln;
illg the relllaimler of the war he was Lm'n in Cummington, )[a!':
., Od. :10, 181ß;
24

DAWES-DAYTON

graduated at Yale in 1!;3!J: admitted to
the bar in 18-t
: sf'rwd in the State leg-
islature in IH-tS-.'jO, awl in the State

enate in 1
.lU-:>2: member of Congress
in 18:>7-73, and of thp l:nitpd States Sen-
ate in lRï;)-B;
: and then became chairman
of the commission of the five civilized
t r. be",. HI' was author of III lilY tariff
Ine<l"ures, and to him \Va., due the intro-
ductiun of the 1reat1lcr Bulletin in 18û!}.
He died in Pittsfield, Mass., Feb. 5, IB03.
Dawes, WILLlA)I, patriot. On April IS,
1 ï75, he accompanied Paul Reyere, riding
through H.oxhury, whi]e- Rpyere went by
\\av of Charlestown. On the following
da;T, when Adams and Hancock recei,'ed
the mes,.,age from \Yarren, Heyere. Dawes.
and Samuel Preseott rode forward, arous-
ing the inhabitants. They were surprised
by a number of British at Lincoln. and
b
th Dawes and Re,'ere were captured,
Pn'seott making- good his escape to Con-
('(0 nl.
Dawson, HEXI
Y BAHTO:'.. author: born
in Linco]nshin'. England, .June S. 18
1:
('anH' to Xew York with his parf'nts in
1

4. He was the author of Balfles of the
rnited Stales by
'-:('a and Lalld,. Recol-
lrr-tiolls of Ihe .Jersey Prison-ship
' lrest-
chcsler COUll Iy in I he Naolul'ion; etc. For
Jmln
T )'<,ar,;; he wa!'; f'ditor of the Histori. count of ill health. In i\Iareh, Id!lï, llc
('al lfnguzin(? He died in 18R!1. was made assistant Recretary of State,
Day. The 'Vashington Prime Meridian and on April 26, 18!J8, !';ucceeded John
('onf('rf'llCe adopted a resolution declaring' Sherman as head of the department.
the universal day to be the mean solar \Vhile in the State Department he had
dar, beginning, for all the world, at the ('harge, under the Pre!';ident, of the deli-
moment of mean midnight of the initial cate diplomatic corre!';pondf'llee preced-
meridian, coinciding' with the civil da
T, ing and during the war with Spain, and
and that meridian be counted from zero of the negotiation of the proto<,ol of
up to 24 hours, Oct. 21, 1884. See RTA
D- peace. After the latter had been ac-
AIm TUrE. ccpted Judge Day was appointed chief
Day, or Daye, Sn:PIIEs, the first of the United States pmce commission. his
rrinter in the EngIish-
\meri<,an colonies; place as Secretary of State being filled
horn in London in 1611; wpnt to )[assa- by .John Hay, American amba!';sitdor to
ehusetts in Hì
H, anrl was employed to Great Britain. .Judg-e Dar wa" appointed
manage thp printing-press Sf'nt out hy jnd
e of tJIf' enitt'd Statp!'; f'ir(,1Jit Court
HfV. )fr. mowr. He hpgan printing at for tlw Si'\.tll judicia] eircuit. Feh. 2;;, 18!}!).
Camùridgf' in )[arch, lß3!}. He was not and an as
oeiat(' justi('e of the Unitpd
a skilful workman. and wa!'; s1Jceeedpd in f;ta tf'S Supreme Court in Ff'bruary, If10
.
the managpment, about lß48, by Samuel Dayton, ELIAS. military offiepr: born
Green, who pmploypd Day as a journpy- in EIizabethtown. N. .T., in July. 17:3ï:
man. He dipd at Cftmbridg-f'. -:\fas!';., Ðf'f'. fO\1g'ht with the ,Tersf'Y Rlues under Wolff'
22. WfìR. at QUf'be('; waf; nlf'mber of the com-
Day, "'(\,1.1 HI nt'tTS, RÌLtte!-\nmn: horn mitÜe of safety at the beginning of tIll>
in Ra\"f'JllIa. 0.. April Ii. ]R-t9: gT1I']- Hp,'o]1Jtion. and hef"ilJllf' ('olonpl uf the 3(1
Hated at the l"ni\"er
itr of i\[iehigan in ,p\\" .Jprsf'Y R('gimellt. He
er\"('d in Xpw
25

1870: studied law and was arlmitted to
the bar in 1872; began practice at Can-
ton, 0.; served a!'; judge in the court of
<,ommon pleas in 188tHlü; appointed
judge of tl1(' "Gnited States district court
for the northern district of Ohio in 1889,
but resigned ùefore taking office on ae-

,

WILLIA\.I RUFUS IIAY.

DAYTON-DEANE

York and Ke\\" Jersey; fought in several asylums have since been eðtablished, num-
LattIe!', the last at Yorkto\\ n, and in bering thirty-six in IH70, and a national
January, 1783. was made a brigadier-gen- deaf mute college was estahlishpd at
('ral. He was a memLer of ('ongress in \Ya!'ohington in !fHa. In IS7tj there w('re
17Hi-RR, amI was afterwards in the Xew ahout 4,400 pupils in thpse institution!..
,T('rsey legiglature. He dit'd in Eli/.uheth- .\t the dose of the school Yt'ar IH!IH
tnwn, .July Ji, 1807. the total numher of schools for d..,lf
Dayton, .TOXATIIAX, !-itat(,"IlHln: Lorn in mutes reporting to the Cnited Rtatt.

ElizaLethtown, K. J., Oct. Hi, 17(j{); son of bureau of education was 10:>, with 1,100
Elias; graduated at the College of Xe\V instructors and 10.878 pupils. There \\en
Jersey in 1776: entpred the arll1
' as 1)<\:"- fifty-one State public schools, whieh had
master of his father's regiment in August: !)45 instructors in the department,., of ar-
aidpd in storming a rf'doubt at Yorktown. ticulation, aural development, and in-
which was taken hv Lafavpttp: and :-,prn'd dustrial hranches, and n,s:

pupils. ahout
faithfully until th
close' of tht' war. He one-third of whom wt'rp t:uwht 11\ thp COIII-
was a m('mLer of the connlltioll that hined sn..tem and tll<' other:"v tll<' manual
framed the national Constitution ill 17R7, IIlPtho(Ì. The ahove in!'òtitutions had
and was a represpntatin in Congres!'; from grounds and Imildings ,alu('d at $11.17,"),-
17!}I to 17nn. lIe was speakt'r in 17f1:>, n
3 and liLmrips containing 9-t.2fìfl vol-
and was made rnited States Sf'nator in urnes. The total expenditure for support
1 j"!I!). He held the seat until 180.'). Hp was :I;
,208.704. There were also tH:J
!'('rnd in I'oth bralJ(:hes of hi

tate legb.- pupils \\ ith eighty-one in!ootruf'tors en-
lature. Ru!òopected of compli('ity in BUIT'S rolled in private sehoo]s for the deaf, and
(on
pinl('Y' he \\a" alT('st('11. hut wa
I\(-','('r :ïG3 pupils with seventy-four instnl(.tor

prosecuted. He died in Eli/.aLethtown, in ,'arious public day 8<'1100ls for the deaf.
Oct. fI, lR
-t. Dean, Jonx \\"Alm. historian: hom in
Dayton, \Yn.LI.\.:\1 LEWIS, stat(,!-lIlan: "ïscasset,
rp.. :!\ran'h 1
, lRl.'): h(>(,I\IIH'
horn in Baskingrillg-e. X. ,T.. F('b. 17, IHOï; lihrarian of the Xew Englantl J-li
tori('a I

raduatcd at Prin('('ton College in IH:!.'): (;('Iwa]ogical f'oci('t
., anll Nlited !I vol-
studied at the famous law school in ulI1es of its /(C!I is t('1". lIe ha
also writ-
Litchfield, Conn., and wa!< admitted to tt'll .UulLoi,. of .\ at/wniel iraI'd; Jlirhflf I
the har in 18
0: beeallle as"ociate judge Hïggleslcorth; Story of the Embarkation
of the
upreme Court of Xl'\\' Jer!-ie
' in af Cro/ll u;cll and his Friends for .\ eu;
]8
R. and entered the rnitpd
tat(,H :;:enate England, etc. He died Jan. 2
, 1!)O
.
in lR-t2. In 18.')(j he was the candidatp of Deane, CHARLES. historian; born in
the newly formed Repuhliean party for niddpfonl.
rf'., XO\-. 10, 1813; became a
Yice-Presidf'nt. From IR;)ï to IR(il he Ilwmher of the chif'f historical f;ocietil

was attorney-general of K ew J ('rsey, and of the countr,y; author of ,r;:ome X otif'r8
in the latter :,'ear was appointed mini::,teJ" of Sal1Lurl OO1'tOIl: rind Plymouth Pat-
to France, where he l'emained til1 his ('lit: Bibliogmphy of Oovernor Hutf'hin-
death, Dec. 1. HW-t. .'wn's Publications; lIfnflfield's DisrourSf'
Deaf Mutes, EIHTATIOX OF. As early of 1ïr!linia: ,f;J/IIith',<j Trltc Rdation; and
as 1 ï!lii Dr. \\'. Thorntoll puhlishpd an editor of llrndford's Hi.<dol'Y of 1'l!lltIOuth
('
sny in Philadelphia on 'I'cu('hill!l the I'lalltatiol1, etc. He di('d in Cambridge,
1Þumb to Sl'f'IIT.-, hut no attempt was II1:Hlp l\ra
!'!.. XO\'. Iii. lRRfI.
to estahlish a f;chool for the purpn"ie lwrf' Deane, ,LulEs, missionar
' to the Six
1Intil ]811, when the pITort was UI1!'1U(,Pf'SS- 'atioll!-o: horll in nroton, ('onn., Au:::.
fu1. A s('hool fOJ" thp in
truction of thp :!O, ]7-t8: g-raduatf',1 at Dartmouth Col.

il('nt that proypd s1l('c('ssful was olwned in lege in I,j
. From the age of tweh-e
llartforrl, Conn., hy REV. TIIO
IAS II. GAL' :'-l'ars 1)(' was with a mifoosiol1ary in the
I.H-IIET (q. 1.'.) in IS 17. allll wa.. chartered OIJ(.ida trihl' of Indians, and ma"ten'd
Hnder the name of th(' "Xc\\' Englan.1 their langua!!('. .\ft('r his graduation h('

\s
'lum for the ])('af and numb." Con- "ent as a TIIissional'Y to the Caughnawa-
gress granted for its I'upport a to" nship gas and Rt. Frand" trih('s for two years:
of land in .-\lahama, the proc('edi'l of whil'h and when the H('yolution hrokp out, Con-
formed a funll of about $340,000. Oth('r gn'ss employetl him to I"OIwiliate t)J('
26

and was in great distress. His landladv
became importunate, and he was threat-
ened with ejectment into the street. He
a
ain repeated his application for an in-
terview with Yerg-ennes, bnt was denied.
\\"hich way to turn he knew not. Ht.
walked in the fieh1s in the suburb
in <<It>-
spair. There he met a citizen to wholll
he revealed his distressed condition. The
dtizen invited him to make his house his
home until remittances should arrive.
losing hope of either funds or an inter-
view with the minister. he resolved to
n.turn to America. and was actuall:r pack-
ing his wardlOhe when two lctters reached
him, announcing the Declaration of Inde-
ppndpnce hy Congress and the action of
_-\rnold with the British flpet on Lake
Champlain. Two honrs later he received
a card from Yergennes. requesting his
company immediatel,y. Deane, indignant
at the tI-eatment he had received, rpfused
to go. The next mm'ning, as he was ri!';-
ing from hi!'; h('d. an under-
eC'retarv
called, inviting him to breakfast with th

count. He again refused; but, on the
s('crptary's pressing him to go, lIe con-
s('nted, and was received verv cordialh'
by Yergennes. A long conv
rsation 0;1
American affairs took place. when DpanC'
acquainted the minister with the nature
Congre
s. He was wr
' actiw in Con- of his mission.
o hegan the diplomatic
gress. in 17ï.5. in fitting out a naval relations behwen France and the "Cnited
force for the colonip:o;. ami in the spring
tates which resulted in the negotiation
of Ii7fi was sent to France as a !';ecret of a treaty of amity and alliance between
political and financial agent. with au- the two nations.
thorit
. to operate in Holland and elsp- To him were intrusted Hw receipts and
where. He was to ascertain th(' feeling expenditures of money by the commisFlion-
of the French government towards the re- prs to Europe. Dr. Franklin had dC'-
,'olted {'olonies and Great Britain, and serwd confidence in his ability and
to obtain military !';upplies. :\[r. Deane honp8t;\'. The jpalous, qnerulous _-\RTlU-R
went in the cha1'a(.ter of a Bennuda mer- T
EE (q. "'.). who became assoC'iah.d with
chant: and. the hetter to cover his dp- him and Franklin. soon made trouble. lIt'
!"igns. hp di,1 not take any {'Onsiderablt' wrote let1('rs to his brother in Congr('!'\

!';um of money or hilh. of p
C'hange with (Richard IIpnry Lpe). in which lIe madc
him for his support. Thp speret com- man;\' insinuation!'; against tl1<' prohity of
mittC'(. wa
to !,;pnd them aftp,' him by both hi!'; colleague!';. Ralph Tzard. com-
way of LOllllon. to arrive in Pari" nearl
" missioner to thC' Tm;;can Court. offpnded
a<; soon a!'; himself, lest a capture shoulcl because he was not consulted about the
hdray his secret. On hiH arrival in Paris treaty with France. had written home
he sought an inteniew with t1w Count de similar letters: and \Yilliam Carmichael.
Yergl'lIIws. the minister for forC'ig-n affairs. a sf'C'retar;\" of the commis!';ioners, who had
but no noti('(' wa
taken of him. Hf' re- rcturnpd to _-\merica. insinuated in Con-
};f'aÌt-.d hi!'\ application in yain. Hi
re- grl'sH that Dpane had appropriated the
mittaneps were all capturpd or lust. He puh1ip 111Onl';\' to hi<; own UH('. Dpnnp was
soon l''i:pended the cash he took with him. recalled. by order of Congre

. Kov. 21,
27

tribes along the northern frontier. He
was made Indian agent and interpreter
at Fort Stanwix with the rank of major.
He was many years a judge in Oneida
{'ounty, and twice a member of the Kew
York Assembly. 1\1r. Deane wrote an Ind-
ian mythology. He died in Westmore-
land. X. Y.. Sept. 10, 1823.
Deane, SILAS, diplomatist: horn in
(;'roton. Conn., Dec. 24, 1737: graduated
at Yale College in 1738; became a
merchant in \Yethprsfield, COllll. : and
was a df'lpgate to the first Continental

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81:..&8 DEAII"F..

DEANE

DEANE-DEARBORN

1 iii; arrÏ\ ed at Philadelphia Aug. 10, .\ug. 23, !is!). - In 1842 Dpane's long-
1 iiB; find on the 13th reported to Con- disputed claim was adjusted hy Congre!;:--.
gr('!';s. In that body he found false re- a large sum being paid over to his hpir....
ports operating against him; and finally, Dearborn, .FORT.
ee CUICA(;O.
e
asperated by the treatment which he re- Dearborn, HE:'\UY, military officer;
('eived at their hand
. he engaged in a born in Korthampton, N. H., Feb. 23,
('ontro\C'rsy with influential members. Ij.,I; became a physician. and emplo;ycf!
Ollt of this affair sprang two violent par- his leisure time in the stuùy of mi1itar
'
ties, Hohprt ){orris and other members of science. At the head of si
ty yoluntee!,..
('ongre
s who were commercial e
perts he hastened to C'ambridge on the day after
taking the side' of Deane, and Richard the affair at T.ðington, a distance of G.,
Hpnry Lee. then chairman of the ('om- miles. lIe was appointed a captain ill
mittpe on forpign affairs, being against
tark's regiment. participated in the bat-
him. tIe of Bunker Hill, and in :-'eptember fol-
Deane puhli!';hed in the Philadelphia lowing (I jj5) accompanied Arnold in his
r;a
cftc an "Addre!';s to the People of expedition to Quebec. lIe participated in
tl)e "Cnited
tates," in which he referred the siege of Quebec. and was made
to the brothers Lee with much severity, prisoner, hut was paroled in Ma
". I jiG,
and claimed for him!';elf the credit of ob- wl)('n he became major of Seammers New
taining supplie!'; from France through Hampshire regiment. He was in the hat-
Beaumarchais. TIIInlAs PAIXE (q. v.), tIes of Stillwater and Saratoga in the
then s('crptaQ' of the committpe on for- fa]] of Iii7, and led tl)(' troops in
eign affairs, replied to Deanp (Jan. 2, those engagements-in the latter flS
I jiB), availing himsplf of public doeu- lieutenant-colonel. He was in the 1.a t-
JIIPnts in his dmrge'. In that reply he tIe of )Ionmouth, was in f'ulli-
declared that the arrang(':JIent had been van's campaign again!';t the Indians in
marlp by
-\rthur Lee, in London, and re- 17i9, and in liRl was attached to \\"ash-
,'ealed the'
ecrct that thp supplies, ington's staff as deputy quartermaster-
though nominally furnished h
r a com- general, with the rank of eolOlwl. In
nwrcial hou!';e, rf'ally came from the that capacity he served in the sipge of
French government. Thi!'; !';tatement Yorktown. In 1 iR-1 he settled in )Iaine,
caned out loud complaints from the and became general of militia. He waH
French minister (Gprarù), for it exposed marshal of :Maine, by the appointment of
the duplicity of his gowrnment, and to Washington, in liS!), mpmùer of Congress
f-oothe the fp{'lings of their aWe!';. Con- from Iifl
to Ii!17. and was
ecretarr of
g-re!';s, by re'!';ollltion, expressly rlpnipd that \\"ar unùpr JefTer!';on from 1801 to ISOg.
anJ" gratuity had hppn received from the From ISO!) till lSI
he was collector of
French Court previous to thp trpat
r of the port of Boston. when he was appointed
aJliance. Thi.. resolution gaye ßpau- senior maj(Jr-gpnpral in the rnited Statf's
mar('hais a ,'alid claim upon Congrps
for arm", and conunander-in-chief of the
payment for supplies which he, umIt'r the Xorthern Department. On Sept. I, IRl2,
finn name of Hortales & Co., haù spnt General Rloomfield had collected about
to America (!';('P nFAr
IAR(,I1AIS, PIEHRE S,OOO men-regulars, yolnntpprs. and mili-
A n;rsTIx). ]
a inp'!'1 indiseretion cost tia-at Plattsburg, on J
ake Champlain.
him his p"\pe. IIp ,,'aR compel!pd to re- he
idps some Flmall adyanced parties at
sign his !,;t'f'rt'tar,\"ship. Thp (li,..euc;!';ion Chazy nnd Champlain. On the arrh'al
among the diplomat ic ag-('ntl-; !';non Ipd to of Gpneral J)parhorn. he as:--umpù direct
the recall of all of thm! exce'pting Dr. command of all th(\ troop!';, and on Kov.
Franl"lin, who renHlÌnpd !';ole mini!';ter at lô he moyed towards the Canada line
the Frpl1c-h Court. Deane, who waH un- with 3,000 regulars anù 2,000 militia.
dOllhte'dly an a1.le. honpst man, prefplTed He' moyed on to the La Colle, a small
elaimR for spryi(('q ancl priyate e
ppn- tribntan' of the ::::01"e1. where he was met
ditnrp
abroad. hut, undpr the malig"ll in- hv a eo
!';iderable force of mi"ed nritish
f1uen('(-' of OIP ] ('('S, hp \'H
trt'ate'd with n;ul Canadian troops amI Tnùian
. undpr
Iwglp(.t a 1111 fairly Il..i"'11 into poyerty },ipl1tl'nallt-Col(1)('l Dt'
alahl'lT
', on aC'-
Hnd r
ile. flnll dit'd in J>('al, En;.ðanò. tivp Hriti!'h ('ommamle'J". .TlI
t at dawn,
28

DEARING-DEBTS

on the lIloruing' of the 20th, Col. Zebulon Brotherhood of Locomoti\e Firpuwn in

l. Pike crossed the La Colle and 8ur- I HSo-93 ; president of the Anwrican Rail-
rcunded a block-house. Some Kew York way Union in 18!)3-97; and in June of
militia approaching were mistaken, in the the latter year was made chairman of the
dim light, for British soldiers. Pike's men nfltional council of the Social Democral'Y
opened fire upon them, and for nearly of America. \Yhpn president of the Amer-
IlaU an hour a sharp conflict was main- ican Railway Guion he conducted a strike
tained. \Yhen they discovered their mis- on the Great Korthern Railway, and in
take, they found De Salaberry approach- Hm4 directed another on the Western rail-
ing with an overwhelming force. Thpse roads, for which he was dHH
ed with eon-
were fiercely attacked, but the Americans
piracy, but was acquitted, and suhsf'-
were soon forced to retreat so precipi- quently, in 1893, served a sentence of six
tately that thpy left five of their number months' imprisonment for contempt of
dead and fh-e wounded on the field. The ccurt in violating its injunction. In 18%
army, dislwartened, returned to Platts- he lectured on The Relations of the Ghurdt
burg. Dparborn was superseded .July 6, to Labor, and in lflOO and 19Ù4 was the
1813, in consequence of being charged with candidate of the Social Democratic
a-
political intrigue. He asked in vain for tional party for President.
a court of inquiry. In 182
-24 he was Debt, RATIOXAL. The tables on pag-p

the American minister in Portugal. He 30 and 31 show the amount and details of
died in Roxbury, near Boston, June 6, the public debt of the Cnited Sta tes on
18
9. July 1, 190
, according to the official re-
Dearing, JA
IES, soldier; born in Camp- port of the Secretary of the Treasury.
bell county, Ya., April 25, 1840; gradu- See ASSL
{PTIO:V: XATIOXAL DEBT.
ated at Hanonr
\cademy: became a Debtors. In the Cnited States en'n as
cadet at 'Yest Point, but at the outbreak late as 1829 it was estimated that thpre
of the Civil 'Val' resigned to join the Con- were 3,000 debtors in prison in
Ia
"a-
federate army, in which he gained the chusetts; 10,000 in Xew York; 7.000 in
rank of brigadier-general. He took part Pcnn"ylvania; and a like proportion in
in the principal engagements between the the other States. Imprisonnwnt for debt
Army of the Potomac and the Army of was abolished in the Vnited Sbttps by an
Xorthern 'ïrginia, and was mortally act of ('ongrpss in IS33, though not full,'
wounded in an encounter with nrig.-Gen. enfor('(>d until IR3f1. Kentuck,- a holished
Theodore Hpad, of the National army. The the law in 18:!1: Ohio in 1828': 1\I.lJ
\'land
two genprals met on opposite sidp5 of the in 1830; Xpw York in 1831; Connecticut
Appomattox in April, 18(;:>, and in a pis- in 1837:
\1ahalUa in 1848.
tol fight Hp,\d was
hot dead and Deal'ing In 1828 there \\"pre l.ORS debtors im-
was so
(>ven'ly wounded that he died soon prisoned in Philadelphia: the sum total
aftprwards in Lynchburg, Yap of thf'ir debts was only $
!)..ton. and thp
Death Penalty. See LInXGSTON, ED- expense of keeping them $3ô2.07ô. whieh
WARD. was paid by the city, and the total amount
Deatonsville, Va. See SAILOR'S CREEK. recovered from priSOllf'rS hy this procps,.
De Bow, .LUIES Du
wOODY Bnow:xsoN, was only $2f1;).
journalist: horn in Charleston, S. C., Debts, nRITISH. "'hen the RpyolutÍou
.July 10, IH:!O; became editor of the South- broke out many Anwrican C'itizens O\\f'd
('Tn Qllarfrrl.'l Uerieu' in 18.-14, but with- monpy to nritish crpditors. Tht'se (It-ht"
drpw the next
-ear and estahlished De \\"erp genprally rt'pudiated, hnt tIt(' t1"paty
Bow's Go III mercial RC1'iew in New Orleans, of 1783 prodded for their pa.\'Inent. Romp
which was successful until the ('iyil \Var. of the State go\''C'rnments lwrmitted the
Aftpr the war it was resumed in New payment of such dehts into the Statl:'
York City, 8uh<;pqupntly in Xashville, Trp:1surÌes. and tIwn rpfused to pntertaiu
Tenn. TIp dif'd in Elizabeth. N. .J.. Feb. ;;;uits on the part of thp crpditors. Tlw

2, 1867. LTnitf'd States Supreme Court. in t1w casE'
Debs, EUGENE VICTOR, labor leader; of Ware l'S. Hylton. dpcided that such
born in Terre Haute, Ind., Nov. 5, 1855; debts 8hould be paid, but payment q wpre
rrrand secretary and treasurer of the evaded in ,'nriou'l way".
2!)

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DECATUR

Decatur, STEPHEN, na\al offi('er: horn
in HillJ1qmxent, 1\1d., Jan. 5, Iii!); dieù
near \\. ashington, D. C., )Iarch 2
, I R
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pntered the Pnited States nan' as a
m idsh i pma n April 30, 1 iD8, and' rose to

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captain in 1804. His first notablc ex-
ploit was the de'ltruction of the Phila-
delphia in the llarbor of Tripoli, in the
Preble Expedition, for which Congress
gave him thank
, a sword, and promotion.
32

The ]'hila<ldphia had chas<,ù a Tripolitall
ship into the harbor in front uf that to\\Il.
and struck upon a, rock not laid down on
the charts. Fast bounù. she was captured
by the Tripolitans, and Captain Bain-
bridge and his officers wer(' made
pri
oners of war, and the crew
"ere maùe sla\'es.
Decatur eaught a Tripolitan
ketch ladpn with maiden:>, \\hOIll
the Bashaw was
('nding to the
Sultan at Constantinople as a
present.
The captured ketch was taken
into the Lnited States service and
renamed the Intrepid. In her
Dccatur and seventy - four brave
young men sailed for TI ipo1i, ac-
companied by the Siren, undcr
Lieutcnant (afterwards Commo-
dorc) Stewart.
On a bright moonlit e\ ening
they saileù boldly into the harbor,
warped alongside the Philadelphia,
I
, sprang on Loard, and after a fierce
, struggle all the Tripolitans were
killed or driven into the sea, the
Philadelphia was set on fire, and
the Intrepid was towed out of the
harbor by the boats of the Sircll.
The Bashaw was greatly alarm-
ed by this display of
\nl<'rican
energy and boldness, and a(.tl'a!
with more caution in the future.
Decatur commanded a division
of gunboats in the attack on Trip-
oli, Aug. 3, lR04. In this :let ion
Decatur commanded a gunLoat.
which he laid alongsiùe of a large
Tripolitan war-ship, which he
captured after a brief struggle.
Immediately hoarding another yp!'l-
ReI, Deeatur had a desperatc per-
Ronal stru:;!'gle with the comm.lml-
el". The fight was brief hut dea(l1
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Decatur slew hi
nntagnni
t.
and tlle vessel was captur<,d: The
Am('rieans withdrpw. but four
days later renewed tlte eOllfli(.t.
which was inùeeÍsÏ\-e. but on .\ u
.
24 and 28, anù
I'pt. 3, ]>rl'lIl(' rt'-
lwated the attaek, and on the nigllt of
f\ept. 4 the Intrepid. unù<,r Captain
orn-
ers as a fire-ship. wa
lo"t in the uttal'k,
with all on board.
Tn command of the frigate Cnitnl

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Slales, Decatur
captured the
f riga te M ace-
dOt/ian, Oct. 2.3.
1812, for which
Congress gave
him a gold med-
al.' The M ace-
tlonian was a
new ship, rated _
at thirty - six,
but carrying
forty-nine guns.
She was badly
cut in the fight,
amI D e cat u r
thought best to
order his prize
to Newport,
while he return-
eù in the United
Staies to New
London. Both
vessels sailed
into Xew York harbor on New Year's :Cay,
1813. The Corporation gave Decatur the
"freedom of the city," and requestcd his
portrait for the picture-gallery in the City
Hal], where it still hangs. In January, 18!;),
after a running fight, the President, his flag-
ship, wa
captured by a British squadron;

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DECATUR, STEPHEN

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ALGIERS J:.Ii 1812.

KAI.OR.UIA.

and a few months later he was sent to the
:Mediterranean, and compelled the govern-
ment of Algiers to relinquish its barbarous
conduct towards other powers and to pay
for American property destroyed (see AL-
GlEns). lIe was appointed a navy com-
mi:o:sioncr in November, 181ii, and made
his residence in the
fine mansion of Kal-
Ol'ama, about a mile
fl"Om Georgetown,
built by Joel Bar-
low. Decatur had
opposed the rein-
!'tatement of Barron
to his former po
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tion in the navy. amI
a duel wa
the ron-
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Decatur was mortal-
ly wounded. anù was
b\ken to \\'ashing-
ton. G..n. Solomon
\Tan Hf'nss(>laer
wrote to his wife
from that city, on
'[arch 20, 1820. as
follows: ., I have
only tinH', after

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, II.
II

:i3

DECATUR-DECLARATION OF COLONIAL RIGHTS

to l)hiladelphia and reint<'l"1"f'd. wIth ::tp-
propriate ceremonies, in
t. p(.ter's ceme-
tery. Over them a beautiful monument,
delineated in the accompanying engraving,
wa!' f'reefed.
Decimal System. In 1782, Gouverneur
Morris, assistant fiscal agent of the Conti-
nental Con
re!'s, reported a decimal cur-
rency system, designed to harmonize the
moneys of the
tates. He ascer-
tained that the 1,440th part of a

panish dollar was a common di-
visor for the various currencies.
With this as a unit he proposed
the following table of moneys: 10
units to be equal to I penny, 10
p<>nce to I bill, 10 bills 1 dollar
(about 75 cents of the present
currency), 10 dollars I crown. In
1784, :Mr. Jefferson, as chairman
of a committee of Congress, pro-
po::-:ed to strike four coins upon the
hasis of the Spanish dollar, as fol-
lows: A gold pi
ce worth 10 dol-
lars, a dollar in silver, a 10th of
a dollar in silver, a 100th of a
dollar in copper. Congress adopt-
<,d his proposition, h<>nce the cent,
dime, dollar, and eagle of the Unit-
ed States currency. See )[ET, IUt
SYSTEM.
Declaration of Colonial Rights.
In the first Continental ('ongre:"s
(1774) a committee of two from
each colony framed and report<>d,
in the form of a series of ten re-
solves, a declaration of the rights
of the colonies: 1. Their natural
ball struck the upper part of his hip and rights; 2. That from their ancestry they
turned to the rear. He is ruined in pub- were entitled to all the ri
hts, liberti<>s,
lic estimation. The excitement is very and immunities of free and natural-born
great." ne('atm died March 22, and his l:Iubject
of England: 3. That by the <,mi-
remains were taken from the house in gration to America by their ancestors they
\\?ashington to Kalorama by the following never lost any of those rights, and that
officers: Commodores Tingey, Macdonough, their dl'!'cemlants were entitl('cl to flu'
Rodgers, and Porter, Captains Cassin, B.d- (''\':er<>is<> of tho!'.e rights; 4. 'rhat the foun-
lard, and Chauncey, G('nerals Brown and (1atiou of all free governments is in the
,Te
mp, and Lieutenant )lcPherson. The right of the people to participate in their
funeral was attended hy lwarly all the legislative council; and as the American
public functionarips in 'Yashington, .\mer- f'oloniRts couM not f'xereise such right in
ican and foreign, and a great number of the British Parliament, they were entitled
citizens. \Yhile the procession was mov- to a free and exclusive power of legisla-
ing minute-guns were fired at the navy- tion in their several provincial legislat-
yard. His remains were deposited in Joel ures, where the right of representation
Barlow's vault at Kalorama, where they could atone he preserved. (They conceded
r
mainf'd untit tR4ß. \\"h('n t1wy \\"I'rl' takpn the right of Parliam('nt to rf'gulate ex-
:H

writing to Sf'H'rat, to
ay that an affair
of honor took place this morning between
Commodores Decatur and Barron, in which
both fen at the first fire. The ball en-
tered Decatur's body two inches above the
hip and lodged against the opposite side.
I just came from his house. He ;yet lives,
but will never see another sun. Barron's
wound is seyere, but not dangerous. The

'w.

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t'MENT.

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.OJO

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

terllaJ commerce, hilt òIô'nif'd its right to That the eÀercise of legislatin power in
taÀ thell1 in any "aJ', without their eon- several colonies by a councH appointf'rJ
sent, for rai:,.in
an internal or external during pleasure by the crown was uncon-
revenue.) 5. That they were entitled to stitutional, dangerous, and destrudin to
the common law of England, and more the freedom of Amel"Îcan legislation. The
especial1y the great privilege of being report of the committee designated the
h'ied by their peers of the vicinage ac- various acts of Parliament which were
cording to the course of law; 6. That they infringements and violations of the right

were entitled to the benefit of English of the colonists, and declared that the rE'-
statutes at the time of the emigration of peal of them was essentially necessary in
their ancestors; 7. That they were en- order to restore harmony between Great
titled to all the immunities and privi- Britain and the American colonies. The
leges conferred upon them by royal char- acts enumerated were eleven in number
ters or secm'ed to them by provincial laws; -namely, Sugar act, stamp act, two quar-
8. That they had a right peaceably to as- tering acts, tea act, act suspending the
semble, state toeir grievances, and lwti- New York legislature, two acts for the
tion the King without interference of trial in Great Britain of offences commit-
ministers; 9. That the keeping of a stand- ted in America, Boston Port bilI, the act
ing army in any colony, without the con- for regulating [subverting] the govern-
sent of the legislature, was unlawful; 10. ment of Massachusetts, and the Quebec act.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

Declaration of Independence. It was
very important to have Lee's resolution
for independence, offered June 7, 1776,
prefaced by a preamble that should clear-
ly declare the causes which impelled thp.
representatives of the people to adopt it.
To avoid loss of time, a committee was
appointed (June 11) to prepare such
declaration. The committee was composed
of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benja-
min Franklin, Roger Sherman. and Rob-
ert R. Livingston.
[r. Lee having been
called home before the appointment of the
ccmmittee, :\fr. Jefferson was put in his
place. lIe was requested by the com-
mittee, after discussing the topics, to
make a draft of a declaration of inde-
p('ndence. It was discussed in committee,
amended very slightly, and finally report-
ed. Debates upon it w
re long and ani-
mated. There was some opposition to
voting for independence at all, and it was
considerably amended. It was evident
from the be
inning that a majority of the
colonies would vote for independence (the
vote in Congress v'as by colonies), but it
was important that the vote should be
unanimous.
The declaration was warmly debated on
the day (July 2) when the resolution was
passed, and also on the 3d. :Meanwhile
news came of the arrival of a large Brit. it

.;

ish armament, under the brothers Howe,
at Sandy Hook. Immediate and united
action was essential. McKean, one of the
two representatives of Delaware present.
burning with a desire to have th
VOtl'
of his colony recorded in the affirmatiw.
sent an express after the third delegate.
Cæsar Rodney. He was 80 miles frolll
Philadelphia. Ten minutes after receiving
:McKean's message Rodney was in the sad-
dle, and, riding all night, he reached the
floor of Congress ( July 4) just in time
to secure the vote of Delaware in favor
of independence. All three of the delegate:,;;
from Delaware voted for the declaration.
The vote of Pennsylvania was alRo secured.
a majority of its seven delegates being in
fa vor of the measure; and on the 4th of
July, 1776, the Declaration of Indepen-
dence was adopted by the unanimous vote
of the Congre
s.
ee \Yr"TITnoP, R. C.
On Thursday, July 4, lïïû, agreeable
to the order of the day, Congress resolved
ih:elf into a committee of the whole to
ccnsiùer the declaration, President John
Hancock in the chair. The secretary.
Benjamin Harrison, reported that the
committee had agreed upon a declaration,
which was read and adopted as follows:

\Vhen, in the course of human events,
becomE's necessary fOl' one peop1(' to

f'xperience hath 1'111H\ n that mankind are
more tiÏ!
posl'd to I'1I11"l'r, whil<, ('viIs arc
sufferable, than to ri..ht them::;eh-es bv
abolishing the forms to which they ar'c
aceustom<,d. But when a
long train of abuses amI
ul'urpations, pursuing in-
variably the same object,
evinl?es a design to reduc<,
them under ab:"olute d<,s-
potism, it is t]l{'ir right, it
is their duty, to throw off
such governnl<'nt and to
pro\'ide new guards for
their future security. Su<,h
has ul'en the patient suf-
ferance of these coloni('s;
anti such is now the ne-
('<,ssity which constrains
them to alter their formal
Rystem of government. The
history of the present King
of Or('at Britain is a his-
tory of repeated injuries
and usurpations, all hav-
::-.....ss ing in direct object the es-
tablishment of an abso-
lute tyranny over these
States. To prove this,
let facts be submitted to a
candid world.
He has refused his assent to I.lws the
most wholesome and necessary for the
public good.
He has forbidden his governors to pass
laws of immediate and pressing impor-
tance, unless ðuspcndcd in tlwir op<,ra-
tions till his aSSl'llt should be ohtaill<'(l;
and, when 1'0 su
pcndcd, he has utterly
ncglectf'd to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other laws for
the accolllmoda tion of large district" of
]>eoplt', unlf'
s those people would relin-
qllish the right of reprf'sf'ntation in the
kgislature - a right inestimable to thcm,
and fOl"Tllidable to tyrants only.
He has ca]}t'd together legislative bod if's
at pl.1("<'8 unusual, uncomfortable, find dis-
tant from the depository of their public
n,mrds, for the sole purpose of fatiguing
them into compliance with his measur<,s.
He ha
dissolved repn>8f'ntative houses
repeatedly, for opposing. with manly firm-
ness, his invasions on the ri
hts of the
people.
He has reftH.ed, for a long time after

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

dissol\e the political hands which ha\-e
l'Olll1Ccted them with another, and to as-
sume among the powers of the earth the
Reparate anù equal station to which the

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WROTE TJI
: DEf'I.ARATIO'i OF INDKJ'y':I'DESCE.

laws of nature and of nature's God en-
title them. a decent respect for the opin-
ions of mankind requires that they should
dE:clare the causes which impel them to
the separation.
'We hold these truths to be self-evident:
that all men are created equal; that they
are endowed by their Creator with cer-
tain inalienable rights; that among these
are life, liberty, and the pursuit of hap-
piness; that, to secure these rights,
governments are instituted among men,
deriving their just powell<:! from the con-
sent of the governed; that whenev('r any
form of government becomes d<,struetive
of these ends, it is the right of the p<,ople
to alter or to abolish it, and to institute
a new government, laying its f01lJHlilÌion
on such princÌples, and organizing its
powers in such form, as to them sha II
Repm most likely to effect their safety and
happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dic-
tate that governments long established
should not be changed for light and
transient rouses; and, accordingly, all

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DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

such dissolutions, to cause others to be
elected; whereby the legislative powers,
incapable of annihilation, have returned
to the people at large for their exercise;
Uw State rf'maining', in the mean time,
e
posed to all the danger of invasion from
without and convulsions within.
He has endeavored to prevent the popu-
lation of these States; for that purpose

He has made judges dependent on his
will alone for the tenure of their offices
and the amount and payment of their
salarie!".
He lHu. ercct<,d a multitude of new of-
fices, and sent hither swarms of officers,
to harass our people and eat out their
substan<,e.
He has kept among us, in time of peace,

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oh!';tl"llcting- the laws for naturaJization of
f01'ei;.!ners, refusing' to pass others to en-
l'OUTage their migration hither, and rais-
ing the condition", of new appropriation!>
of lands.
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jllsti<,e, by refusing his assent to laws for
e
tah1i
hjn
judiciary powers.

standing armi(.s, without the consent of
our If'gisJa tures.
He has affected to render the militarv
independent of and superior to the civil
powpr.
He has comhined with others to subject
l1R to a .iuri
diction foreign to our consti-
tution
lßd unaQkuowledged by our law. j
37

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

For abolishing the fr('e !ò
'Fotem
of English law in a neighboring
province, estahlishing therein an ar-
bitrary government. and enla.rgiug
its boundaries so as to render it at
once an e
ample and fit instru-
ment for introducing the same ah-
!'olute rule into these colonies:
For taking away our chartr'r
.
abolislling our most valuable law!',
and altering fundamentally the
forms of our go\-ernment:
For suspending our own legislat-
ures, and declaring themselves in-
ycsted with power to legislate for
us in all cases whatsoever.
lIe has ahdicated govermnpnt he1'c
by declaring us out of his prot('c-
tion, and waging war against us.
He has plundered our seas, rav-
GARm
HOl"8E n. ,,"HICII
EFFERSO
A"Ð OTH
;R!' CKLEIIRATED aged our coasts, burned our towns,
THE PASSAGE OF THE DECLARATIO'i. and destroyed the lives of our peo-
ple.
He is at this time transporting large
armies cf foreign mercenaries. to com-
plete the works of death, desolation, and

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giving his assent to their acts of pre-
tended legislation,-
For quartering large bodies of armed
troops among
llS:
For protect-
ing' them. hy a
mock trial, from
punishment for
any murders
which they
should commit
on the inhabi-
tants of these
States:
For cutting
off our trade
with all parts
of the world:
Jo'o
imposing
taxes on us
without our
consent:
For deprh-in:r
us, in many
('ases, of the
lwnefits of trial
by jury:
For trall!
-
porting- us hi>-
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tried for pre-
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DECLARATION OF INDEFENDENCE

t.yranny, already begun, with circum-
stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely
paraIleled in the most barbarous ages, and
totaIly unworthy the head of a civilized
nation.
He has constrained our feIlow-citizens,
taken captive on the high seas, to bear
anns against their country, to become the
c:\.ecutioners of their friends and breth-
ren, or to faIl themselves by their hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections
among us, a nd has endeavored to bring
on the inhabitants of our frontiers the
mcrciless Indian savages, whose known
rule of warfare is an undistinguished de-
struction of an ages, sexes, and condi-
tions. K e'W Hampshire.
In every stage of these oppressions we JOSIAH BARTLETT, \VILLlA;\[ WHIPPLE,
have petitioned fOl' redress in the most MATTHEW THOR
"TON.
humble terms; our petitions have been
answered only by repeated injury. A
prince whose character is thus marked
by every act wllich may define a tyrant,
is unfit to be ruler of a free people.
Rhode Island, Etc.
Nor have we been wanting in attention
to our British brethren. \Ve have warned STEPIIEN HOPIn
s, \VILLIAM ELLERY.
them, from time to time, of attempts
made by their legislatures to extend an
unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. \Ye
have reminded them of the circumstances
of our emigration and settlement here.
\Ve have appealed to their native justice
and magnanimity, and we lave conjured
them, by the ties of our common kindred,
to disavow these usurpations, which wouM
inevitaùly interrupt our connections and
correspondence. They, too, have been
deaf to the voice of justice and consan-
guinity. \Ve must therefore acquiesce in
the necessity which denounces our Repara-
tion, and hold them, as we hold the rest
of mankind, enemies in war-in peace,
fri{'nds.
\Ye, therefore, the representatives of
the "Cnited Htates of America, in general
Congress assembled, appealing to the Su-
preme Judge of the world for the recti-
tude of our intentions, do, in the name
and by the authority of the good people
of these colonies. solemnly publish and
declare that these united colonies are,
and of good right onght to be, free and
ind(>pendent States; t1lat they arf' ah-
solv(>d from a11 alIcgiancf' to the Rritish
(>r()\\"n. anò that all political connection
'I(>tw(>en them and the statf'8 of Great
:10

Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis-
solved; and that, as free and independent
States, they have fuIl power to levy war,
conclude peace, contract alliances, estab-
lish commerce, and to do aU other acts and
things which independent states may of
right do.
\nd for the support of this
declaration, with a finn reliance on the
protection of Divine Providence, we mu-
tuaIly pledge to each other our lives, our
fortun(>s, and our sacred honor.
Signed by order and in behalf of the
Congress.
JOlIN HA
COCK, President.
Attested, CHARLES THOl\IPSON, Secretary.

Massachusetts Bay.
SAl\[ù""EL ADA
[S. JOIIN ADAMS,
ROBERT TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY.

Oonnecticut.
TIOGER SUER:\IAN, SA
[rEf. HUNTINGTO:'i,
\\"ILUA
[ \VILUAMS, OLIVER "'OLCOTT.

Ncw York.
"
ILLIA)[ FLOYD, PHILIP T.lVINGSTON,
FRANCIS LEWIS, LEWIS l\IOImIS.

Ncw Jcrscy.
RICHAP.D STOCKTON, JOHN "ITHERSPOON,
l"RANCIS HOPKIXSON, JOII:i HART,
ABRAHAM CLARK.

North Oarolina.
'VILLIAM HOOPER, JOSEPII HEWES,
JOHN PENN.

Gcor!Jia.
DUTTON GWINXETT, LYMAN HALL,
GEORGE \YALTOS.

Pennsylvania.
TIODERT l\IORRfS, RENJA:\I1N RUSH.
DENJA:\[JN FRAXKLIN, JOHN l\IORTO
,
GEORGE CLY
IER, JAMES f::AIITII,
GEORGE TAYf.OR. \VILLlAl\[ PACA.
GEORGE Ross.

f)f,la /l'G rc.
CAE::>AR ROn
EY, GEORGE REA)),
THOMAR l\["KEAN.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

for
uch an act, he characterized it a

made up of "
Iittering and sounding gen-
eralities of natural right." What the
great advocate then so unh('sibtingly sug-
gesteo(l, man
3. thoughtful .\merican since
then has a t least 8uspeded-that our
grent proclamation. as a pi('ce of political
literature, CRnnot stand the t('st of modern
analJ'sis; that it belongs to the immense
class of oyer-praised productions; that it
is, in fact, a statel
' patch-work of swe('p-
ing propositiens of somewhat doubtful
validity; that it has long imposed upon
mankind by the well-known effectiveness
of verbal glitter and sound; that, at the
best, it is an example of florid political
declamation belunging to the sophomoric
IJeriod of our national life, a period which,
as \H' flatter ourseh-eJO, we have now out-
grown.
Nevertheless, it is to be noted that what-
ever authority the Oedaration of rnde-
pcndf>nee has acquired in the world, has
h('f>n due to no lack of criticism, either at
t!u' time of its first appearance, or since
thcn; a fact which secms to tell in favor
of its essential worth and strength. From
the date of its original publication down
to the present moment, it has been at-
tacked again and again, either in anger
or in contempt, by friend
as well as by
It can hardly be doubted that some enemies of the Amcrican Revolution, hy
hinòerance to the right estimate of the liberals in politics as well us by eonser-
Df'elaration of Independence is oeca- yatiHs. It has been censured for its sub-
sioned by either of two opposih> condi. stance, it has been censured for its form,
tions of mind, both of which al e often to for its misstatements of fact, for its fal-
he met with among us: on the one hand, lacies in reasoning, for its audacious nov('l-
a condition of hereditary. uncritical awe tics and paradoxes, for it:; total Jack of all
find worship of the American Revolution, 1I0veJty, for its repetition of old and
and of that !"tate paper as its absolutely threndbare statements, ('V('n for its down-
]\('rfe('t and glorious expression; on the right plagiarisms; finally for its grandiose
f,th('r hand, a later condition of cu1ti\'ated and vaporing- style.
distrust of the Declaration as a piece of One of the earliest amI ahlf'st of it

writing lift('ò up into inordinate renown assailants was Thomas Hutchinson, thf>
b.\' the passionate and heroic circumstances last civil gO\"f>rnor of the colony of )Iassa-
of it:;; origin, and evcr since t}J('n e\.Ìollpd chUS('tÌ!'I, who, being stramlf>d in London
heyond rf'ason hy thf' hlind cn('rgy of Ity the political storm which had hlown
patriotic enthusiasm. Turning from the him thither, published there, in the
former state of mind. which obviously autumn of 177G, his Rtrictllres Cpon the
caHs for no furt1wr commf'nt. w" may nwlaration of the Oongress at PhiTa-
note, as a partial illustration of t1w latter, ddphia. wllcrein, with an unsurpass('d
tlmt American confidence in the supn'me knowledgf> of the origin of the contro-
intellectual merit of this all-famous doc\I- YHS.\", awl with an unsurpassed acumf'n
ment recch'ed a serious wound frolll the in the di
cussion of it, he tra\'er
f'S tlu'J
hand of Rufus Choate, when. with a CO\\I"- f>ntirf' doe\lment. paragraph h
' para-
age greater than wòuld JlOW be required gntph, for the purpobe of showing that
40

11 aryland.
SA
llT};L CHASE, JAMES "7 rUlO N,
THOMAS STONE,
CILARLES CARROLL OF CARROLLTO
.
Virgiuia.
(;EOH(;E WYTHE, RICIIARD HENRY Ll.E.
THO
IAS .JEFFERSO:'i,
BE
JA:\[lr; HARRISON
1'HO:\lAS KELSOK, JR.,
FHA
CIS LIGHTFOOT LEE,
CAR fER BRAXTON.
South Oarolina.
EDWARD RUTLEDGE,
THOMAS HEYWARD, JR.,
THOMAS LY
CIl, JR.,
ARTIIt:R )lmBLETO:"l.
Declara tion of Independence in the
Light of Modern Criticism, TIlE. As a
student, critic, and compiler of Anll'rican
history PROF. )Imws C. TYLEI
(q. v.) held
an establishC'd position IUllon
thc most
eminent
('holar
. In lHliï }l(' was appoint-
f'Ù to thf' ehair of Engli
h Litprature at
the L"niversity of )lidligan. \\hich he
occupied until IH81, whf'n he wa
called
to the University of Cornell as l>rofessor
of American JIintory. Un the subject of
criticisms on the Declaration of Indepen-
dence he writes:

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r 'rHK DIICLAII.A"fIVN .
THK I!IGlWl>RII 0 41

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

its allegations in support of American
independence are" false and frivolous."
A hptter-\\ ritten, and, upon the whole,
a more plausible and a more powerful,
arraignment of the great declaration was
th(' celebrated pamphlet hy Sir John
Dalrymple, The Riyht8 of Great Britain
.tsscrted again8t tlte Claim8 of America:
Reing an .-tnSl/;cr to the Declaration of
the General ('ongl"('88-a pamphlet scat-
tpred broadcast over the world at such a
rate that at l('ast eight editions of it
were published during the last three or
four months of the
'ear 1 iiG. Here,
:J.Qain, the manifesto of Congress is sub-
j('cted to a searching examination, in
order to prove that" the facts are either
wilfully or ignorantly misreprf'sented,

'.nd the arguments deduced from premises
that ha,'e no foundation in truth:' It is
doubtful if any disinterested student of
history, any competmt judge of reason-
ing. will now deny to this pamphlet the
praise of making out a very strong ease
rt
ainst the historical accurac,r and the
logical soundness of man.\" parts of the
lkclaration of IndepP!Hlence.
L"ndoubtedly, thf' force of such cen-

ures is for us much hroken by the fact
that thcy proceecled from men who were
themselves partisans in the Re,'olutionary
controversy, and bitterly hostile to the
whole movement wllieh the dcclaration
was intended to justify. Such is not the
ca<;e. however, with the leading modern
English critics of the same document,
who, while hlaming in severe terms the
policy of the British government towards
the thirteen colonies, ha,-e also found
much to abate from the confidence due to
this official announcempnt of the reasons
for our sceession from the empire. For
example, Earl Russell, after frankly
saying that the great di<<ruption pro-
claimed by the Declaration of Indepen-
dence was a r('sult which Gn'at Britain
had "us('d every means most fittpd to
bring ahout." such as "vacillation in
('Olmci1. harslll1ess in language. feehleness
in execution. disregard of American sym-
pathies and affections," also pointed out
that" the truth of this memorahle decla-
ration" was" warpl'd " by "on(' singular
clc,fect "-namely. its f'''l'lu<;ivf' ancl P"{-
('pssivf' arrllignnH'lIt of l:f'org(' 1 r I. "as
:t singl!' amI c1pspotiC' t., rant:' ml\l'h likf'

I'hilip II. to the people of the
ether-
lands.
This temperate criticism from an able
and a liberal English statpsman of the
nineteenth centur;r may be said to touch
the very core of the problem as to the his-
toric justiee of our great inclictmcnt of
the last King of America; and tlwre is
deep significance in the fact that this is
th
very criticism upon the doculllf'nt,
which, as ,Tohn .\daUls te]]s us, he hiUl
('1f
lmd in mind when it was first submitted
to him in committce, and even wh('n,
shortly afterwards, he advocated its adop-
tion by Congress. After mentioning cer-
tain things in it with which he was de-
lighted, he adds:
"There were other expr
",sions which I
would not have inserted if I had drawn it
up-pa,.ticularly that which caned the
King tyrant. I thought this too personal:
for I never believed George to be a tyrant
in disposition and in nature. I ahnl
's be-
lieved him to be deceived by his courtiers
011 both sidC's of the A tlantie, and in his
official capacity only cruel. I thought the
expression too passionate, and too much
like scolding, for so grave and sol('mn a
document; but, as l?ranklin and Sherman
were to insppct it afterwards, I thought it
would not become me to strike it out. I
consented to report it."
.\ more minute and more poignant criti-
c]sm of the Dcclaration of Independence
has been made in recent y('ars by e;ti1l
another English writer of liberal ten-
dencies, who, however, in his capacity as
critic, seems here to labor under the dis-
advantage of having transferr('d to the
docunlf'nt which he undertakcs to judge
much of t1lC extreme dislike which he has
for the man who wrotf' it, whom, indpp(l,
he regards as a sophi!'t. as a clemagoglH',
as quite capahle of im-eraeity in speech.
and as hearin.... some r(,sf'mblance to Robes-
pierre" in hi,.. feline nature, his ma1i
-
nant egotism, and his int('n
e sU!'lpicious-
ne!'s. as well as in his hloody-minded, yet
pO!'lsihly ",in(>f're, philanthropy." Tn the
opinion of Prof. Goldwin Smith. our grpat
national manifesto is writtf'n " in a high-
ly r1Jetorieal ",train": "it opens with
swpeping apllOrisms ahouL the natural
J'ights of mall. at whic'h politic.al sc'it'!H'f"
now smiles, and which . might
('PIII
"trangp W\H'Tl fr:wH'cl for sla\.'I'-lHlltlill
Y
I

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

communities by a publicist who himself Government." The author of a life of
held slaves"; while, in its specifications Jefferson, published in the
rear of Jeffer-
of fact, it "is not more scrupulously son's retirement from the Presidency, sug-
truthful than are the general utterances" gests that the credit of having composed
of the statesman who was its scribe. It.;; the Declaration of Independence "has
charges that the several offensive ads of been perhaps more generally, than truly,
the King, besides "evincing a design to giwn by the public" to that grcat man.
reduce the colonists under absolute Charles Campbell, the historian of Vir-
despotism," " all had as their direct object ginia, intimates that some expressions in
the e!'tablislullent of all absolute tyranny," the document were taken without ac-
are simply "propositions which history knowledgment from Aphra Dchll'S tragi-
cannot accept." )Ioreover, the declara- comedy, The lriilow-Rantcr, or the H-is-
tion "blinks the fact that many of the tory of Bacon in rirginia. John Stock-
acts, styled steps of usurpation, were ton LitteJI describes the Declaration of
measures of repression, which, however Independence as "that enduring monu-
unwise or excessive, had been provoked by ment at once of patriotism, and of genius
popular outrage." "Ko government could and skill in the art of appropriation"-
allow its officers to be assaulted and their asserting that "for the sentiments and
houses sacked, its loyal lieges to be tarred much of the language" of it, Jefferson
and feathered, or the property of mer- was indebted to Chief-Justice Dravton's
chants sailing under its flag to be thrown charge to the grand jury of Charieston.
by lawless hands into the sea." Even deliyer('d in April, 1 iiG, as well as to the
"the preposterous violence and the mani- Declaration of Independence said to haye
fest insincerity of the suppressed clause" been adopted by some citizens of
I('cklf'n-
against slayery and the slave-trade" are burg county, N. C., in l\ra
", Iii.}. Even
('nough to ereate suspicion as to the spirit the latest and most critical editor of ilw
in which the whole document was framed." writings of Jefferson calls attention to
Finally, as has been already intimated, the fact that a glance at the Declaration
not even among Americans themselves has of Rights, as adopted by Yirginia on June
the Declaration of Independpnce been per- 12, 1 iiG, "would seem to indicate the
mitted to pass on into the enjoyment of source from which .Jefferson derived a
its superb renown without much critical most important and popular part" of his
disparagement at the hands of statesmen famous production. By no one, how('ver,
and historians. 1\0 doubt Calhoun had has the charge of a lack of originalit
.
its preamble in mind when he declared been pressed with so much decisiveness
that "nothing can be more unfounded as by John Adams, who took evident
and false" than "the prevalent opinion pleasure in speaking of it as a document
that all men arc born free and pqual"; in which were merely "recapitulated"
for "it rests upon the assumption of a pr('vious and well-known statements of
fact which is contrary to universal ob- .-\merican rights and wrongs, and who,
servation." Of course, all Americans as late as in the year 1822, deliberately
who have shared to any extent in Cal- wrote:
houn's doctrines respecting human society "There is not an idpa in it but what
could hardly fail to agree with him in re- had b
'en hackneyed in Congress for two
garding as fallacious and worthless those years before. The suhstanel' of it is con-
general propositions in the declaration tained in the declaration of rights and t}w
which seem to constitute its logical start- violation of those rigltts. in the journals
ing-point, as well as its ultimate defence. of Congress, in Iiï4. Indeed, the essence
Perhaps, howenr. the most frequent of it is containl'd in a pamphlet, voted
form of disparagement to which Jeffer- and printed by the town of noston, hefore
Ron's
Teat state paper has been !mbjepted the fin:;t Congress mpt. composed by
among us is that whi('h would minimize .TanH's Otis, as I suppo!'<e, in one of hiq
his merit in composing it, by denying to lucid intl'rvals, and pruned and polished
it the merit of origina1ity. "For example, by
amuel Adams."
Richard Henry T.lee sneered at it as a Pl'rhaps nowllPre in our literature
thing "popi('d from Lopk("s Trf'ati.<:f' on \"ouM it be possihlf' to find a ('ritic1!'1m
43

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

brought forw.ud by a really able man opinions as to men and a
to events in all
against any piece of writing less appli- that ugly quarrel, their notion!' of justice,
cable to the ea8e
and of less force and of civic dignit
, of human rights; finally,
\'alue, than is this particular criticism by their memories of wrongs which seemed
.John Adams and others. as to the laek of to tl\('m intolt-rable. ('specially of \\ rongs
originality in the Declaration of Tnde- inflicted upon them during those twelve
pend('nce. Indeed. for such a paper as
-ears by the hands of insolent and hrutal
.JpfTerson was commissioned to write, the men, in the name of the King, and by his
one quality which it could not properly npparent command 1
have had, the one quality which would :Moreover as the nature of the task laid
have been fatal to its acceptance either upon him made it necessary that he should
by the !omerican Congress or by the thus state, as the reasons for their in-
American people-is originality. They tended act, those very considl'rations both
were then at the culmination of a tre- as to fact and as to opinion \\ hich had
mendous controversy over alleged griev- actually op('rated upon their minds, so
ances of the most !'erious kind-a con- did it require him to do so, to some ex-
troversy that had bef'll steadily raging tent, in the very language which the
for at least twelve J'ears. In th(' conrse people themsclH's. in their more formal
of that long dispute. every phase of it, and deliherate utterances. had all along
whether as
bstract right or eon!'ltitu- b('en using. In the development of po-
tional privilege or personal procedure, had litical life in England and .\n\('rica. there
been present('d in almost every con('('iv- had alrcad
' hppn er('ated a vast literature
able form of spi>('ch. At last. they had of constitutional prog-ress-a literature
resolved. in view of all this experience, no common to both portions of the English
longer to pro
ecute the controversy as race, pen'aded b.r its own stately tra-
I!lf'mlwrs of the empire; they had r('solved ditiolls, and renrherating certain great
to revolt, and. ('aRting off forever their phrases which formed. as one ma
' say,
ancient f('a1ty to the British crown. to almost the vernacular of English justice,
separate from the empire, and to estab- and of F:nglish aspiration for a free,
lish thems('l\"f's as a new nation among manl
'. and orderly political 1ife. In this
the nations of the earth. In this emer- vernacular the Declaration of IndpI)('n-
gency. as it happened. .Jefferson was called d('nce was written. The phrasl'ology tlms
upon to put into form a suitable state- characteristic of it is the very phrase.
ment of the chief ponsidera tions which ology of the champions of constitutional
promptf'd them to this gr('at act of revolu- expansion, of civic dignity anel progr('ss.
tion, and which. as they believed. justified within the English ra('e eYer since Magna
it. What. t1wn. was .Jefferson to d01 '\"as Charta; of the great state papers of Eng-
he to regard himself as a mere 1iterary 1ish freedom in the sf'\'enteenth century,
('ssayist, I"pt to produce before the world particularly the Pptition of Right in 1629,
it sort of prize dissertation-a calm. ana- and the Bm of Rights in 17S9: of the
I.dic, judicial treatise on history and po1i- gr('at English charters for eoloni7ation in
tics with a particular application to Anglo- Am('rica; of the great Engli!'h pxponpnts
.\merican affairs-one e!'sential merit of of legal and political progr(''''", -Sir Ed-
which would he its originality as a con- ward Coke, .John
[jlton, Sir Philip f'id-
trihution to historical and po1itical lit- ney, .John J.ocke; finally. of the great
erature1 "-as he not, rather, to regard
-\meriean exponents of political libprty,
himself as, for the time being. the very and of the chief representative bodies,
mouthpiece and prophet of the people whether local or gpnera1. which had con-
whom he represented, and as such required n'n('d in America from the time of the
to bring to
ether and to "let in order. in Stamp Act Congre!':s until that of the
1h('ir name, not ,\ hat was new, hut what Congress which rpsoh'prl upon our in-
was old; to gather up into his own soul. dppemlpnc('. To f;ay. tllPrpfore, that the
as much as po!'sihlp. whatever \Va!'! thPl1 ot1icial declaration of that J"t.solv(' is a
also in their sottI!'!, tlwir v('ry thoughts and paper made up of the \'pry opinions, bp-
pa
!'ions. their idpa!'! of constitutional liefs, unbelief8, the very s('ntinlPnts, prej-
law, their interpretations of fact, their udices, paf,sions, even the errors in judg-
44

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

went alHI the personal miseonshuctions- Li\'ing::;ton, and, beðt of all, hut for his
if they were such-which then actually own opposition to the uwasure, Johu
impelled the American people to tllat Dickinson; but had anyone of these other
mighty act, and that all these are ex- men written the Declaration of Indepen-
pressed in the very phrases which they dence. while it would have contained, doubt-
had been accustomed to use, is to pay lhs. (H'arly the same topics and nearly
to that state paper the highest tribute as the same great formulas of po1itical state-
to its fitness for the purpose for which it ment, it would )'et have been a wholly dif.
was framed. fer('nt composition from this of Jeffer-
Of much of this, also, Jefferson him- son's. No one at all familiar with his
self seems to have been conscious; and other writings, as well as with the writ-
perhaps never does he rise beforf' us with ings of his chief contemporaries, could
more dignity, with more truth. than when, ever have a moment's doubt, even if the
late in his lifetime, hurt by the captious fact were not already notorious, that this
and jangling words of disparagement then document was by Jefferson. He put into
recently put into writing by his old com- it something that was his own. and that
rade, to the effect that the J)eclaration no one else could have put there. He put
of Independence" contained no new ideas, himself into it-his own genius, his own
that it is a commonplace compilation, its moral force. his faith in God, his faith in
sentences hackneyed in Congress for two ideas. his love of innovation, his passion
years before, and its essence contained in for progress, his invincible enthusiasm,
Otis's pamphlet," Jefferson quietly re- his intolerance of prescription, of injus-
marked that perhaps these statements tice, of cruelty; his sympathy, his clarity
might "all be true: of that I am not of \'ision, his affluence of diction, his
to be the judge. . . . 'Yhether I had power to fling out great phrases which
gathered my ideas from reading or re- will long fire and cheer the souls of men
flection. I do not know. I only know that struggling against political unrighteous-
I turned to neither book nor pamphlet ness.
while writing it. I did not consider it And herein lies its essential original-
a
any part of my charge to invent new ity, perhaps the most precious. and, in-
ideas altogether and to offer no senti- deed, almost the only, originality ever
mcnt which had ever been expressed be- attaching to any great literary product
fore." that is representative of its time. He
Refore passing from this phase of the made for himself no improper claim.
suhject, however, it should be added that, therefore, when he directed that upon the
while the Declaration of Independence granite obelisk at his grave should be
lacks originality in the sense just indi- carved the words: "Here was buried
cated. in another and perhaps in a higher Thomas .Tpfferson, author of the Declara-
E>ense, it possesses originality-it is in- tion of Independence:'
dividuaIi7pd bv t.hc character and bv the If the Declaration of Independence is
genius of its 'author. Jefferson gathered now to be fairly judged hy us, it must
np the thoughts and emotions and eyen be judgpd with reference to what it was
the charactpristic pl1Tases of the people intended to be-namely, an impassioned
for whom he wrote, and these he per- manifesto of one party, and that the
fpetly incorporat('d with what was aI- weaker party. in a violent race-quarrel;
ready in his mind. and then to the music of a party resolved, at. last, upon the
of his own keen. rich, passionate, and en- extremity of I"pvolution, and already
kindling styl('. he mustered them into that nU'naced hy the inconceivable disaster of
stately triumphant procession wherein. as hdng defeated in the wry act of armed
some of us still think, they will go march- r('hellion against the mightiest military
in,!! on to the world's end. power on earth. This manifesto, then, is
There were then in Congress several not to be censured heC'ause, being avow-
other men who could have written the pdly a statement of its own side of the
Declaration of Indepenrlence, and written quarrel, it does not also contain a mod-
it well-notably Franklin, either of the ('rate and judicial statement of the op-
two Adamses, Richard Henry Lee, William posite side; or because, being necessarily
4:;

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

parti!<HJI in method, it is likewiFoc 1I0th fad "hen he should make his first at-
partifo-a nand \ ehemen t in tone; or hc- tempt to g-aill a.1\ power O\'er his people,
cause it bristl('s with accusatiom; against by assuming the single power to take
the enemy bO fierce and so unqualified their prop('rt
without their consent.
as now to
eem in some respects over- Hence it was, as }:dmund Burke pointed
drawn: or because it resounds with eer- out in the House of Commons only a
tain great aphorisms about the natural few weeks before the American Revolution
rights of man, at which,
ndeed, political entered upon its military phase, that:
sdence cannot now smile, e
cept to its "The great contests for frPt'dom.. .
own discomfitur(' and shame--aphorisms were from the earliest times chiefly upon
which are likely to abide in this world as the question of taxing. .Most of the con-
the chief source and inspiration of heroic tests in the ancient commonwealths turned
f'nterpris('s among men for self-deliver- primarily on the right of election of mag-
ance frolIl oppression. iE'tratps, or on the balance alIlong the sev-
Taking into account, therefore, as we cral orders of the state. The question
are bound to do, the circumstances of its of money was not with them so immediate.
origin, and especially its purpose as a Hut in England it was otherwise. On
solemn and piercing appeal to mankind on t.his point of taxes the ablest pens and
behalf of a small and wcak nation against most eloquent tongues have been ex-
the alleged injustice and cruelty of a ercised, the greatest spirits have acted
great and powerful one, it stiB remains and suffered. . . . They took infinite pains
our duty to inquire whether, as has been to inculcate, as a fundamental principle,
asserted in our time, history must set that in all monarchies the people must in
aside either of the two central charges eft"ed, themselves, mediately or immediate-
embodied in the Declaration of Inde- ly. possess the power of granting their own
rC'ndence. money, or no shadow of liberty could sub-
The first of these charges affirms that sisto The colonies draw from you, as
the several acts complained of by the with their life-blood, these ideas a;1d prin-
colonists evim'ed "a design to rf'duce ciples. Their love of liberty, as with you,
them und('r absolute despotism," and had fixed and attached on this specific point
as their "direct object the establishment of taxing. Liberty might be safe or might
of an absolute t
'ranny" over the Ameri- be' endangered in twenty other particulars
can people. 'Yas this, indeed, a ground- without their being much pleased or
less charge. in the sense intendpd
v Jarmed. Here they felt its pulse, and as
the words "despotism" and "tyranny" they found that beat, they thought them
-that is, in the sense commonly given s('lves sick or sound."
to those words in the usage of the Eng- Accordingly, the meaning which the
1ish - speaking race? According to that English race on both sides of the Atlantic
usage, it was not an Oriental despotism were accustomed to attach to the words
that was meant, nor a Greek t.vranny, nor "tyranny" and" despotism," was a mean-
a Roman, nor a Spanish. Thf' sort of ing to some degree ideal j it was a meaning
despot, the sort of tyrant, whom the drawn from the extraordinary political
English ppople, e\('r since the time of sagacity with which that race is. endow-
King .Toh.n, and pspf'c>ially d\1l ing the ed, from thf'ir extrao1"l1inary Bensitive-
pf'riod of the Stuarts, had b('('n accus- ness as to the use of the taxing-power
tomed to look for and to guard against, in g"m'ernment, from tlIPir instinctive per-
\Vas th(' sort of tyrant or despot that could ception of the commanding place of the
he evolvf'll out of the conditions of Eng- ta"ing-power among aU the other form

lish politiml liff'. FnrtlIPnnore, he wa
of power in the state, from their perfect
not by them {''\.peeted to appf'ar among as"urancc that he who holds the purse
t1lem at tl1P outspt in the fully dpwlopf'd with the power to fill it and to empty it,
sl'ape of a Philip or an Alva in the holds the key of the sitllation--ean main-
Netherlands. They were able to recog- tain fln army of his own, can rule without
nize him, thf'
' were prepared to resist con"ulting Parliament, can silence criti-
him, in the earliest and most incipient ci!"m, can crush opposition, can strip his

1 age of hi" teing-at the momf'nt. in
uhjpetq of every vestige of political life;
.to

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

ill other word
, he caE make I'la\'es of ly succeedpd - hiJllsf'If dp.Lenuiniug- "hat
them, he can make a. de:-;pot and a tyrant ",hollld he the polic.r of each adlllinistra-
of himself. Therefore. the system which tion, what opinions his ministers shonld
in the end might develop into resnlts !-o ad\ocate in Parliament, and what meas-
palpably tyrannic and despotic, they ures Parliament itself should adopt. Says
bluntly caned a tyranny and a despotism Sir Erskine May:
in the beginning. To say, therefore, that "The King desired to undel"take per-
the Dcclaration of Independence did the sonally the chief administration of public
same, is to say that it spoke good Eng- affairs, to direct the policy of his minis-
Iish. Of course, history will be ready to ters, and himself to distribute the patron.
set aside the charge thus made in language age of the crown. He was ambitious not
not at an liable to be misunderstood, just only to reign, but to govern." "Strong
so soon as history is ready to set aside the as were the ministers, the King was re-
common opinion that the several acts of solved to wrest an power from their
the British government, from 1764 to hands, and to exercise it himself." " But
1776, for laying and enforcing ta-xation in what was this in effect but to assert that
America., did evince a somewhat particu- the King should be his own minister? . . .
lar and systematic design to take away The King's tactics were fraught with dan-
some portion of the property of the Amer- ger, as well to the crown itself as to the
ican people without their consent. constitutional liberties of the people."
The second of the two great charges Already, prior to the year 1778, accord-
contained in the Declaration of Indepen- ing to Lecky, the King had "laboriously
dence, while intimating that some share huilt up" in England a "s,ystem of per-
in the blame is due to the British Par- sonal government"; and it was because
liament and to the British people, yet he was unwilling to have this system dis-
fastens upon the King himself as the one turbed that he then refused, "in defiance
pprson chiefly responsible for the scheme of the most carnest representations of his
of Amcrican tyranny therein set forth, own minister and of the most eminent
and culminates in the frank description politicians of every party. . . to send
of him as "a prince whose character is for the greatest of living statesmen at the
tlms marked bv every a('t wllich may de- moment when the empire appeared to be
fine a tyrant.;' Is' this accusatio
of in the wry agonies of dissolution. . . .
George III. now to be set aside as unhis- Either Chatham or Rockingham would
torie? 'Vas that King, or was he not, ha\-e insisted that the policy of the coun-
chiefly rcsponsible for the American policy try should be directed by its responsible
of the British government between the ministers and not dictated by an irrespon-
years 1764 and 17i6! If he was so, then sible sovereign."
the historic soundness of the most im- This refusal of the King to pursue the
pOl"tant portion of the Declaration of In- course which was called for bv the con-
d<'pendence is vindicated. stitution, and which would hav
taken the
Fortunately. this question can be an- control of the policy of the government
swered without hesitation. and in a few out of his hands, was, according to thp
words; and for these few words. an same great historian, an act "the most
American writer of to-day, conscious of criminal in the whole reign of Gporge lIT.
his own hasis of nationality. wi1I rightly . . . fiS criminal as any of those a('1s
prpfer to citp snch words as llave hppn which led Charles I. to the scaffold."
uttered upon the subject hy thp ahlpst E\"('n so early as the yenr 1 iG8. Record-
F.nglish hi.3torians of our time. "Cpon ing to John Richard Green, "Gporge
their stat
ments alone it must be con- III. had at last reached his aim. . . .
eluded that George ITI. ascended his In the early days of the ministry"
throne with t1w fi-xed purpose of resum- (which began in that year) "his in-
ing to thp crown many of those powers fluence was felt to be predominant. In
which. hy the constitution of England, <lid its later and more disastrous days it was
not then belong to it, and that in this supreme; for Lord Xorth, who bpcame the
purpose, at lea
t during the first twenty- head of the ministry on Grafton's retirp-
flY(' ypars of hiq rpign, he substantial- ment in 1770, was the mere mouthpiece
47

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

of the King. . Xot onl
' did hf' direct thl' prespnt monu_'nt. ha
Uw J)('daration of
minister: a careful ohserver tell!. ns. 'in Independenee been tl'sted by criticism of
all important matters of forci
n and do- every possible kind-by criticism intended
nH'stic policy, but he instructed him as and e:\.pected to be destructive. Apparent-
to the management of debates in Parlia- ly, however, all this criticism has failed
ment, suggcsted what motions should be to accomplish its object.
made or opposed, and how measures should It is proper for UB to remember, also,
he carried. He reserved for himself all that what we call criticism is not the
the patronage, he arranged the whole cast only valid test of the genuineness and
of the administration, s('tUl'd the relatiw worth of an." piece of writing of great
place and pretension;:! of ministers of practical interest to mankind: there is.
state, law officers, and members of the in aùdition, the t('st of actual use and
f'r-
household, nominated and promoted the vice, in direct contact with the common
English and Scotch judges, appointed and sense and the moral semle of large ma!o."'l":i
translated bishops and deans. and dis- of nlPn, under various conditions, and for
lwnspd other preferments in the Church. a long period. Probably no writing which
He disposed of military governments. is not essf'ntiall,\' sound and true has ever
rf'giments, and commissions, and himself survived this test.
ordered the marching of troops. Hf' gave Neither from this test has the great
and refused titles, honors. and pensions.' Declaration any nced to shrink. As to
All this imnwnse patronage was steadily the immediate use for which it was sent
used for the creation C)f a party in both forth-that of rallying and uniting the
Houses of Parliament attached to the King friends of the Revolution, and bracing
himself. . . . George was, in fact. sole them for their great task-its effective-
minister during the fifteen years which fol- ness was so great and so obvious that it
lowed; and the shame of the d.arkl'st hour has never been denied. During the
of English history lips wholly at his century and a qual.ter since the Revolu-
door." tion, its influence on the political char-
Surely, until these tremendous verdicts actf'r and the political conduct of the
of English history shall be set aside, there American people has been great beyond
need be no an:\.iety in any quarter as to calculation. :For example, after we had
the historic soundness of the two great achieved our own national deliverance,
accusations which togf'ther make up the and llad advanced into that enonnous anrl
principal portio11 of thf' Df'claration of sO!l!C'w}mt corrupting matf'rial prospprit)'
Independence. In thf' pn'sence of thpsp which followed the adoption of the Con-
verdicts also, even the passion, the in- stitution and the dpvelopmpnt of the cot-
tf'n
ity of language. in which those ac- ton interf'st and the ðpansion of the rp-
cusations are uttered, seem to find a per- puhlic into a. transcontint'llÍal power, we
feet justification. T1I<1f'erl, in the light of fell under an appaJling tl'mptation-the
the most recent and most unprejudiced temptation to forget. or to rppudiate, or
p'\.pert tpstimon.", the wholl' document. to refm:e to apply to the casp of onr
l'oth in its sllhstancp and in its form, human brethren in hondage, the prin('iple

seem"! to have heen the log'ical response of which we had oncf' proc1ainlPd as th('
a nation of hrave 111f'n to the
reat words ba!'lis of every rightful government. Tlw
of tJ.(' greatc!'ot of En
li
h statesmen. as prodi
iou8 S('1"\ ice rendered to us in this
spoken in the House of Commons precise- awful moral I'nwrgf'nc;\' by the Declara-
ly ten years hefore: tion of Indf'penllf'ncf' was, that its publil'
"This king-dom has no right to lay a rI'I)f'tition. at least onl'e <,ycr.'" Y<'Rr, in tlw
tax on the pnloni('s. f:iir. I rejoil'f' that hf'aring of vast thron;!s of th('
\merican
.Amf'rica has 1"f':-,i
tf'd. 'rhl'pe million.:; of pf'ople in {',"pry I'OJ.tion of thp r<'public,
people, !:'o dmd to all the fp<,lings of lib- kl'pt con!'otantly l)f'fore our minds, in a
erty as \'oluntaril.'- to submit to be slaves. form of almost religious Fmnctity, thosp
would have heen fit instruments to make few great idpas as to the dignity of
slaves of the rest." human nature, and the sacredness of ppr-
Thus, ever since its first announcement sonali tJ', and the indestructible rights of
to thp \\'orlò. anò down almost to the man as mere man. with which we had so
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'A

I'

INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, IN THE CE
TE
NIAL YEAR.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

gloriously identified the beginnings of our up in th9 nursery of every king, and
national existence. It did at last become blazoned on the porch of every royal pal-
very hard for us to listen each 'year to the ace." it is because it has become the
preamble of the Declaration and still to classic statpment of political tmths which
remain the owners and users and must at last abolish kings altogether, or
catchers of slayes; still harder, to accept else teach them to identify their existence
the doctrine that the l'ighteotlsness and with the dignity and happiness of human
IJrosperity of slavery was to be accepted nature.
as the dominant policy of the nation. The Declaration of Independence, DUTCH.
logic of Calhoun was as flawless as usual, The following is the text of the declara-
when he concluded that the chief ob- tion of the States General of the enited
struction in the way of his system was Provinces, setting forth that Philip II.
the preamble of the Declaration of In- had forfeited his right of sovereignty over
dependence. Had it not been for the in- the sa it provinces, promulgated at The
violable sacrpdnt'
S given by it to those Hague, July 2G, 1581:
sweeping aphorisms about the natural The States General of the United Prov-
rights of man. it may be doubted whether inces of the Low Countries, to all fchom
Calhoun might not have won over an im- it may concern, do by these Pre.<lent.<I
mense majority of the American people sClld grecting:
to the support of his compact and plaus- As 'tis apparent to all that a prince is
ible scheme for making slavery the basis constituted by God to be ruler of a people,
of the repuh]ic. It was the preamble of to defend them from oppression and vio-
the Declaration of Independence which lence as the shepherd his sheep; and
elected Lincoln, which sent forth the wll('reas God did not create the people
Emancipation Proclamation. which gave sla"es to their prince. to obey his COllI-
,ictory to Grant. which ratified the Thir- mands. whether right 01" wrong, but
teenth Amendment. ra ther the prince for the sake of the sub-
\Ve shall not here attempt to delineate jeets (without which he could be no
the infhH'nce of this state paper upon rrince), to govern them according to
mankind in general. Of com'se, tile equity, to love and support them a
a
emergence of the
-\mprican Republic as an father his children or a slwl'herd his flo('],;:.
imposing world-power is a phenomenon and even at the hazard of (ife to def('nll
which has now for many ypars attracted and prcserve them. And when he docs nol
the att('ntion of thp Inmwn racp. Surely, hehave thus. hut. on the contrary. 01'-
no s1ight effpct mu"t havp resulted from prpssl's them, seeking opportunities tll
I he fact that, among all eiyilizpd peoples, infringe their ancient customs and privi-
the one AnlPrican docl11nrnt bpst known leges, exacting from them shl\'ish compli-
is the Ðpclaration of Independence and ance, then he i
no longer a prince, but a
that thus the spectacle of so ,'ast and tyrant, and the
llh.ie<'Ís are to considpJ"
heneficent a political success has been him in no other view. An,l partieu]arly
('\'erywhere associated with the af:sertion wIlen this i
.10ne dplihprate!y. unauthor
of the natura] rights of man. "The doc- i7ed hy the States. thf'
' ma.,' not on 1 ."
trines it eontainp(I." says Buckle, "were disallow his authority. hut leg-ally pro-
not merely we],'omed by a. majority of the ('ped to the choice of another prince fill'
French nation. but eyen the gO\"f'rnment thpir defpnce. This is the only nH'thod
itself was unable to withstand the gcn- left for subjects whose humble pditions
era] feeling:' "Its effect in hastrning and rr11l0nstran('('s con](\ np,'pr soften their
the approach of thp French Rpvo]u- prin('e or di"
uade him from hi8 tyran-
tion was inde{'d most remark- nical pro('(>pdin!!": and this is what the
able." ElsPw}ll're. also. in many land
. law of naturp did:lte<; for the defpnce of
among mfln
T ppoples. it has h('pn citpd ]ihprt.\'. whieh \\P oug'ht to transmit to
again and agflin R!'. an inspiration to po- pnstprity, ("'1'11 at the lwzard of our li,'e".
1itical courage. as a modpl for po1itical And this we have Sl"en done frequently in
ponduct; and if. as the brilliant historian !,pwral countries upon the like occasion.
just alluded to has affirmed, "that noble whereof there are notorious instancps. and
Declaration ou
ht to be hung more justifiable in our land, which has
lII.-D. 4!)

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

[,('en always p'O\'erned according to their prince's creatun
s at deyotion; and by
ancient privileges, which are exprcssed Ï1. the addition of the said canons he \\ ould
the oath taken by the prince at his ad- have introduced the Spauish inquisition,
mission to the government; for most of which has been always as dreadful anù
the provinces l'eceive their prince upon detested in these pro
.inces as the worst
certain conditions, which he swer..TS to of slavery. as is well known. in so much
maintain, which, if the prince violates. he that his imperial majesty. having once
is no longer sovereign. Kow tllùS it was before proposed it to these States. auù
with the King of t5pain after the demif>e upon whose remonstrances did desist. and
of the Emperor, his father, Charles the entirely gave it up, hereby gi,oing proof of
I'ifih, of glorious memory (of whom he the grcat affection he had for his sub-
received all these provinces), forgetting jects. But, notwithstanding the nHlIIY
the sen-ices done by the f'ubjects of these rellIonstmnces made to the King both b.y
countri('s, both to his father and hims('lf. the provinces and particular towns, in
by whose valor he got so glol'ious aud writing as wcll as by some principal lonls
memorable victories over his enemies that by \\ ord of mouth; and, namely, by tIlt'
his name and po\\er became famous and Daron of ::\Iontigny and Earl of Egmont.
dreaded over all the world, forgetting also who with the approbation of the Duchc
"
the advice of his said imperial majesty, of Parma. then governess of the I.o\\"
made to him bdore to the contrary. did Countries, hy the advice of the council of
rather llcarken to the counsel of those Slate were sent several times to Spain
f'panianls about him. wlw had conceind a upon this afTilir. _-\nd, although the King
secret hatred to this land and to its lib- had by fair words given them grounds to
erty, because they could not enjoy posts of hope that tJJ('ir requc!,t should be com-
honor and high employments here unùer plied with, yet by his letters he ordp}"{.J
the f'tates as in Xaples, Sicily, ::\Iilan, amI the contrary. soon after è''lnessly com-
the Indies, and other countri('s under the manding, upon pain of his dispJl'asure, to
King's dominion. Thus allured hy the admit the new bishops immediat<'ly, a 1\(1
riehes of the said prO\'incps, wherewith put them in posscssion of their bishop-
many of them were wcll acquaintNl. the dcs and incorporated ahheys. to hoM
said counsellors, I say, or the principal of the court of the inquisition in tllP plaC'es
them, frequently remonstmted to the King where it had been before, to obey amI
that it was more for his majesty's reputa- follow the decrees and ordinances of thu
tion and grandeur to suhdue the Low Coun- Council of Trent, which in many articlps
tries a second time. and to make himself are destructive of the privileges of the
absolute (by which they mean to tyran- countQr. This being come to the knowl-
nize at pleasure). than to govern accord- eùge of the people gave just occasion to
ing to the restrictions he had acC'eptf'd. gn>at uneasiness and clamor among them.
and at his admission sworn to ob
en'e. :nlll lessened that good affeption th"." had
From that time forward the King of always borne toward the King and his
f'pain, following these evil counsellors, predecessors. 4\nd, especially. speing t]lat
sought by all means possihle to re- lw did not only seek to t
oranni7.e O\'cr
duce this C'Olllltry (stripping them of their t1wir persons and estates. hut also O\Of'r
ancient prh-ilpges) to sla ,'ery, under their consciencps, for w]1Ích thpy },p-
the government of Spaniards having first, 1ipvcd themseh'es accountable to God onl
'.
under the mask of religion, endeavored to rpon this occasion the chief of the nobil-
settle new hishops in the largest and it." in compassion to tlle poor ppople. in
principal citips, endowing and incorporat- the year l),)GG, exhihited a certain re-
ing them with the richest ahbeys. assig-n- monstrance in form of a pptition. humhl
'
in
to each hishop nine canons to assist praying. in onlpr to appcase thf'm a III I
Mm as counsellors, three whf'rPOf should rTcwnt puhlie disturbnnC'es. that it wou1.1
superintend the inquisition. By this in- please his majE'sty (hy ",hewing that
corporation the said bishops (who might clemency due from a good prince to his
be strangers as well as natiyes) would ppople) to soften the said points, anI!
have had the first place and vote in the especially with regard to tnp rif1orm!<1
assembly of the States, and always the inquisition. Rnlt C'ap;tal pllni q hnwnts for
fiO

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

mattel's of n'll
lOll. _\.nd to inform the as 0111' of its grcatc"t clll'mieb, .lCCUIII-
Kiug of this atfair in a more soleUlu man- panied with eOliusellors too like himself.
ner, and to repre"ent to him how neces- And, although he came in without the
sary it was for the peace and prosperity least opposition, and was received by the
(Ii the public to remo,-e the aforesaid in- poor subjects with all ma rks of houor
novations, and moderate the se,-erity of and respects, as expecting no less frolll
his decJarations publislwll concerning di- him than tenderness and clemency, which
vine worship, the :\Iarquis de Berghen, t he King had often hypocriticaJ]y promi,.;ed
and the aforesaid Baron of
\Iontign.v had in his letters, and that himself intended
been sent, at the request of the said to come in person to give orders to their
bdy regent, council of statc, and of the gpneral satisfaction, having since the dt'-
Statcs General as ambassadors to Spain, parture of the Duke of Ah-a equipped a
where the King, instead of giving them fleet to cany him from Spain, and au-
audience, and redress the grie,-ances they other in Zealand to come to meet him at
had complained of (which for want of a the great expense of the countr.v, the bt't-
timely remedy did always appear in their tel to deceive his subjects, and allure
evil consequences among the common them into the toils, lle,-ertheless the said
pf'Ople), did, by the advice of Spanish duke, immediately after his arrival
council, declare all those who were con- (though a strang-er, and no way relaterl
cf-med in preparing the said remonstrance to the royal family), declared that he had
to be rebels, and guilty of high treason, a captain-general's conuuissiou, and soon
and to be punished with death, and con- after that of governor of these provinces,
fi!'.cation of their estates; and, what's contrary to all its ancient customs and
more (thinking him;::eJf well assured of privileges; and, the more to manifcst his
r(-ducing thpse countries under absolute designs, he immediately garrisons the
tyranny by the army of the Duke of principal towns and castlf's, and caused
Ah'a) , did soon after imprison and put fortresses and citadels to be built in the
to death the said lords the ambassadors, great cities to awe them into subjcction.
anù confismted tlwir estates, contrary to and vpry courteously sent for the chief
tlie law of nation:'!, which has been always nobility in the King's name, under pre-
religiouSly oh",en-ed ('wn amonO' the m
st tence of taking their alhice, and to em-
t) rannie
nd barbarous princes
And, al- ploy them in the !'erviC'e of their country.
though the said disturbances, which .And those who belieyed his letters were
in the
'car 1,j(i6 happened on the spized and carried out of Brabant. con-
fere-mentioned occa
ion, were now ap- tnIJ'J7 to law, where they were imprisoneù
pC'ased hy the gnYenwss and !wr and prosC'cutl'rl AS criminals I)('fore him
ministers, and man." fril'llds to lib- who had no right, nor could be a com-
erty ,,"pre either h.mi
hed or sub- retent jud;.!.p; and at last he, without
duer!, in so mueh that the King had not JlfarÎng' tlH'ir defence at huge. sentf'n('('d
any shC'w of ..ea
on to \\!-'e arms and yio- them to (kath, whi('h was puhliC'ly and
lenC('S. and further oPlu'ess this counb"r, igl)ominiousl.'" ('xPC'utprl. The others. het-
yet for these causes and reasons. long tel' aC'qunintpd with Spanish hypocri!-.". re-
time before sought hy the council of I"iding in f0 1 'l'Îgll C'ountrie",. were d
'clarpd

rain (ao;; appears b.y interceptcd lettcrs out1awrips, AmI had tlwir e!-tate
confis-
f!om the 8panish amh:lssador, AlanA, then eated, so that the poor subjeC'ts couM
iu Franí'e, writ to the D1lC'hess of Parma), mnkt> no 1I"C' of tl)(.ir fortrl'ssC's nor he as-
to I1I1nul a11 the prÎdlf''!es of this coun- Ristetl by their l"-irwps in def{'lWe of their
try, nnd g'm'C'rn it tyr:l'lTIipal1y at pleasure lihel-tv a['"ainst tIle yiolpní'e of the pope:
IU! in the Indies: anrl in their new COT)- 11(-'sid
R a
!l"f'ftt nU'11],f'r IIf other gentlf'-
qUf'RtS J1e J1as. at the instigation of the men and '
\\h;;;tantial cHi/pus. some of
couneil of Spain (shewillg' the little re- whom WC'1"f' e...-peuted. and ot1lf'rs hanishcd
ganl he had for lli:;; people, AO contral"." to that their e..tatf''' mi'!ht he confiscated.
the duty which a good prince owes to his pla'!lIing the oHwr hon('st inhahitants, not
sub.je{.ts), sent the Duke of Ah'a with a only hy the injuries done to their wives,
powerful army to oppreRS thiR land. WllO el-lÏldrC'n. and estates by the Spanish Rol-
for hi... innnmane enlf'1t if'S is 10IlkC'c] ll')()T) diel"!'! lodg-ed in tht>ir 11011':'f'!'!. as 1ik('wi,,

.it

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

by diversc contributions, which they were paymrnt of the troops. Aftrr which
forced to pay toward building citadels Rnd t he said troops, made more insolent
J1.ew fortifications of towns even to their by the conni\-ancC' of their co III II HlIId-
own ruin, besides the taxes of the hun- l'rs, procC'C'ded to open violencC', endeavor-
dredth, twentieth and ten the penny, to ing first to
urprise the city of BnlS-
pay both the foreign and those raised in !"'els, the prince's usual }"esidence, to
the country, to be employed again:-;t their he the magazine of thf'ir plunder; but,
fellow-citizens and against those who at not succeeding in that. they took by force
the hazard of their lives defended their the town of Alo::it. and aftl'r tlHlt surprised
liberties. In order to impoverish the sub- and forced
Iaestrieht, and soon after the
jects, and to incapacitate them to hinder Eaid city of
\ntwerp, wldeh they plunderf'd
his design, and that he might with more and burnt, and mas".lcred the inhahitants
ease execute the instructions received in in a most barbarou8 manner, to the irrep-
f'pain, to treat these countries as new arable loss not only of the citizens, hut to
conquests, he began to alter the course of all nations who had any f'tfects there. And
justice after the
panish Illode. directly notwithstanding the said :-':panianls Imd
contrary to our priviJeges; and, imagin- been, by the council of state (upon whi('h
ing at last he had nothing more to fear, the King. after the d('('case of the great
he endeavored by main force to settle a commander. had confl'rred the go\'ernment
tax called tlw tenth penny on I1lf'rchandise of the country) in the pr('sPIH'e of Jeron-
and manufactury, to the total ruin of imo de Rhoda, declarf'd enemies to the
these countries. the prosperity of which States, by reason of their outrageous ,-io-
depends upon a flourishing trad(', notwith- l('nces, newrthele:-;s the said Rhoda, upon
standing frequent remonstranrC's. not by his own allthol"ity (or as it is imagined)
a single province only, hut hy all of them hy virtue of eerhlin pri\ate instructions
united. whieh he had rfTeeted. had it not which hf' might possibly haw recei\rd
I,een for the Prince of Oran
f' with dinrse from
pain, l1ndprtook to hl'1ld tll(>
gf'nt1enH'n and otll(>r inhabitants. who had
panianls and tJwir accomplices. and to
followed this prinre in hiq e,\j1f'. most use tlw King'
name (in defiance of thC'
of whom were in his pay. and hani!'.lH'd hy said council) and authority, to cnuilterfpit
the Duke of Ah-a with otlwrs who the great seal, anù act openly 1lS gO\'f'l"nor
espoused the 1ibprty of tJwir C'ountry. and lieutpllant - gCIll'l"al. which ga\l' OC'-
Soon aftf'r the prO\'illef'!'I of UoHand and ca,.;ion to thc State's at the same timp to
Zealand for the I1lo..t part revo1tf'd, pl1t- agree with the afores1lÏfl Prince of Orangf'.
ting thf'lnsf'lws under the protection of in eOlljnJl('tion with the provinees of 1101-
the PrinC'e of Oran:!e. again!o;t "hieh land and Zl'111and. whieh agref'mf'nt was
pro\"inf'es tlw said dukf' during his go\"- approwd hy the said council of st'1.te (aR
f'rnnwnt. and the grf'11Í ('ommander (whom the only legal governors of the country),
the King Sf'lIt to thf'sf' cOl1ntrif'<:. not to to declare war unanimously against the
heal the evil. hut to pursue thp same tyran- Spaniards as their common f'nf'my, to
ni('al coursps It,v more "('('ret and f'autious drive them out of the (,Olmtrv; at t1lf'
methods) who slwf'f'f'df'd him. forppd the !;,ame time, 1ik(' good suhject s. ,;mking liSt>
prO\'inces. who h
' garrisons and C'itadels of all prop('r appli('1Üions. humhly pf'ti-
were already }"f'duced nnder Hw Spanish tinning the King to han
('ompassion on aC'-

;oke, both with their liws and fortuncs count of the calamitif's alrf'ady suffered,
to conquf'r thf'm. !'ihf'wing no more mf'rf'Y and of the grpatf'r f''\I)('ctf'd hourly. unless
to those they employ to assist them than his majesty would withdraw l.ïs troop!'!.
if they had been en('mif's, permitting the and f'xemplaril
' punish the authors of the
Spaniards. undC'r prf'Íl'ne(' of mutiny, to plundering and hurlling of our principal
enter the city of Antwf'rp forf'ihly. in the cities as some small satisfaction to 11w
sight of the great commandf'r. amI to l:\"e distressf'd inhahitant!'!. and to deter others
there at discretion for the Sp:1('e of six from committing the like violpncf's.
weeks at the expense of the inhahitants, Xe\"('rthel(>
=-. the King would JIH\'e u"' hf'-
and obliging them (to he free from lien that all this was transactf'd without
Spanish violence) to furnish thf' sum of his knowledge, and that he intendC'd tr
four hundred thousand florins fOl' the punish the authors, and that for the future
!i2

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

we might expect all tendernes
and clem- terest in order, by their assistance, to
ency, and as a gracious prince would give force those who would not join with him
all necessary orders to procure the public in making war against the Prince of
peace. And ;yet he not on];y neglected to Orange, and the provinces of Holland and
dü us justice in punishing the offenders; Zealand, more cruel and bloody than any
that, on the contrary, it is plain an was war before. But, as no disguises can long
done by orders concerted in the council conceal our intentions, this project was
('f Spain; for soon after the letters were discovered before it could be executed;
intercepted directed to Rhoda and other amI he, unable to perform his promises,
eaptains, who were the authors of all our and instead of that }Jf'ace so much boastell
miseries, under the King's own hand. in of at his arrind a new war kindled, not
which he not only approves of their pro- Yt:'t exting-uished. A]] these considera-
ceedings, but enn praises and promises tions gi,-e us more than !;:u(ficient reason
them rewards. and particularly to the said to renounce the King of Spain. and seek
Hhoda as having done him singular :,it:'r- f:OIne other pO\nrful and more graeious
vices, which he performed to him and to prince to take us under his protection:
all the rest who were ministl'l"s of his allll. 1IIore especia])
", as these
ountries
tYI"anny, upon his return to Spain. And. }HlVC been for thesc t\\'en1\' 'ears aban-
the more to blind his subjects, he sent doned to disturbance and 'op'pression by
at the same time Don John, his natural their King, during which time the in-
brother, as of his blood. to go,-ern habitants were not treated as subjects,
these countries, who und
r pretence but cnemies, enslaved forcibly by their
IIf appro,'ing the treaty of Glwnt con- own governors.
firming the promise made to the Hadng a!so. after the decease of Don
States of driving out the Spaniards. John. sufficiently declared by the Baron
of punishing the authors of the dis- de Selles that he would not a\1ow the
turbances, of settling the public pcacc. and pacification of Ghf'nt. the which Don .Tolm
of re-f'stablishing their ancient liberties, had in his nHljl'<;ty's name sworn to main-
endeavored to di,"ide the said estates in tainT but daily proposing new terml! of
order to enslave one after another, which agrf'emcnt ]f'
S ad,'antageous.
otwith-
was soon after discovered by the provi- standing tlwse discouragenw.nts we uSf'd
dence of God. who is an cnem
. to all all pos--ible mcans, by pptitions in writing.
tyranny, by certain intercepted letters, from and the good offices of tIw grratest princes
which it appeared that he was charged b
" in Chri,.;tf'IHlom. to be reconciled to onr
the King to fo]]ow the instruction,,> of King, hm'ing la<;tIy maintained for a long
Hhoda: and, the Letter to conceal this tinw onr dqmties at the Cong-ress of
fraud, they were forbiddpn to see one an- ('ologne. hoping that the intercession of
other, but that he shoutd conwrse fricndty hi,o:; impf'rial maj('sty and of the electors
with the principal lord of the countr
', would IH'oC'ure an honorable and lasting
that. gaining them OWl' to his party. lIe pmce. and somc degree of liberty. particu-
might by their assistanre rf'duce Holland ]arly relating to religion (which chiefly
and Zcaland. after which the other prov- concerns God and our own consciences).
inees woutd he easily subdued. "'hereupon at last we found by experience that noth-
I>on John. notwithstanding his solemn ing would be obtained of the 19n9 hy
promise and oath, in the presenl'P of all prilycrs and trcaties. which latter hI'
th(' aforesaid Rtates. to observe the pacifi- made use of to di,-idp anll ,,'paken the
cation of G}wnt, and other artiC]p,.: stipu- pro,'inccs, that he might the f'asier exe-
Iatcd between him amI the f'tates of an cute his plan rigorously, by subduing
the prm'inces, on the contrary sought, hy them one hy one. which afterwards p]ain-
an possibte promises made to the colonels ly appeared by certain proclamations and
atready at his devotion. to gain the Gf'r- pro:"criptions pub]is}ted h)' the King's
man troops, who were then garrisoned in orders. by virtue of which we and all om-
the principal fortresses and the eities, cers and inhabitants of the rnited Prov-
that by their assistanre he Illight IIHlstpr illl'l'S with al\ onr frif'nds are declared
them. as he h,td gainf'd U1anv of them al- rl'hl'ls. and as sm'h. to ha\"e forfeited our
Jf'ady, and held them attad
ed to his in- ti\es amI estates. Thus, by rcndcring u

53

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

odious to all, he might interrupt our council of the proyince. And, until such
eommerce, likewise reducing us to despair, a president and counsellors shall be nomi-
offering a great sum to aTIY that would nated, assembled, and aet in that capac-
assassinate the Prince of Orange. Bo, ity, they Rhall act in our nallH', e"c('pt
having no hope of reconciliation, and find- that in Holland alld Zf'aland where the
'
ing no other remed)', we have, agreeable shall u::;c the name of the l)rince of
to the law of nature in our own defence, Orange, and of the States of the said
and for maintaining the rights. privi- provinces tiH the aforesaid council shall
kges, and liberties of our countl")'men, legally sit, and then shall eonfonn to the
wi,'es, and children, and latest posterity directions of that council agreeahle to the
from being enslaved by the Spaniards, contract made with hi::; highnf'ss. And,
heen constrained to renounce allegiance instead of the King's seal afon",."Üd, the)'
to the King of Spain. and pursue such shall ma\,;:(' use of our great seal, contr('-
methods as appcar to us most likely seal, and signet, in affairs relating to the
to SeClUf' our ancient libf'rties and privi- public, according as the said couneil shall
If'ges. Know all men hy thí'sf' pres- from time to time 1)(' authorized. And in
ents that, being reduced to the last ex- affairs C'ollcerning Ulf' administration of
tremity, as abo,'e mentioned, we haye justice, and transactions peculiar to each
unanimouslv and deliberately declared. province, tll(' provincial c01l1wil and ot\wr

nd do by these presents dec1a
e, that {he councils of that country shall lbe respec-
King of Spain has forfeited, ipso jure, all tively the name, title, and seal of the said
hereditary rights to the sovereignty of proviní'e. where the case is to be tried.
those countries. and are determinrd from and no other, on pain of having all ]f't-
h('nceforward not to acknowledge his tf'rs. documents, and df'spatehrs annullNI.
....O\f'rf'ignty or juri<:dietion. nor any act
\IllI, for the bf'tter and efff'ctual perform-
of his rpln ting to the domains of the J
ow ancf' hereof. we ha "f' oròen'd anli ("0111-
Countries, nor makf' use of his name as manòpd. and do hereby order and rom-
prince, nor "utTer others to do it. In eon- mand. that all the seals of tl1(' King of
Rf'quence whpreof we also declare all offi- Rpain whieh ar(' in these rnited Prov-
eers. judgf's. lords, gentlemen, vnssalR. and inces shall imnwdiately, upon the puh1i-
all other the inhahitants of this country cation of these pr('sf'nt!'!. he df'li\"ered to
of what condition or quality 50ever, to the estate of f':\('h prodnce ref:.pecth"ely,
he hencf'forth dischargpd from all oaths or to such persons ns hy the f:.aid estates
allll obligations whatsoever made to the shaH be authorized and appointed, upon
King of Spain as sovereign of those peri] of discretionary punishment.
('ountrif's. And whereas, upon the motives :l\Ioreoyer. we ordcr and í'ommand that
a heady mf'ntionf'd. thp greatf'r part of from henceforth no money c()inf'd shall bp
the "l'nited Provincf's haye, hy common stamped with the nnnw, title. or arms of
(oonsent of their members. submittf'd to the King of Spain in any of tllf'SC FnitC'd
t h(' government and sovereignty of the il- Provinces. but that all nC'w gold nnd silypr
Illstrious Prin('e and Duke of Anjou, upon piee'es, with t11í'ir hah'es and quarter!'!.
(oC'rtain conditions stipulatcd with his shall only bear such impre...!'ions as the
highne!'!'!. and wherf'nR the most Sí'rene Rtates !'Ihall dirpct. \Ye ordí'r likewiAí' and
Archduke l\fatthias has rf'signecl the go\"- (,OInmand the presic1f'nt ancI other lords of
I'rnmC'nt of thpsf' ('ountrif's with our nr- thC' privy coune'il. ancI all other ehancel-
prohation, we command and orcIer all Jon". prf'!'!icIf'nts. and lonh-. of the provin.
justiciaries. offic-ers, and all whom it may C'ial council, a nl1 n 11 pn'sicIC'nts, account-
concern, not to IIIal
p use of t1le nanw. ant-geIwral, and to otht'rR in all thf'
titles, great or pri",\" spal of the King of cJm11lhers of aCPOlmts n'sp"C'tÏ'f'ly in the
p
:,pain from henceforward: hut in ]ipu of
aid countries. ancI li"f'wise to all othpr
them, as long ns his highne
s tllf' Duk(> judgps and officer!':. as we hoM them diA-
of Anjou is absC'nt upon urgent atTain;! re- ('harg('d from }wncdorth of thf'ir oath
lating to the ,wlf:l1"p of th(-'",e C'ountries. made to the King of Spain. pursuant to
haying !'!o agrped with his hig-hnC's,", or the tenor of their C'oI11miA!oIion. thnt thC'
'
..tllf'l"wisE'. they shall lu'O\'i..ionally 1I
(' ...JIRIl takí' a lIf'\\" oath to the States of
the naJIIe an,' 4-itle of the president and that countr
' on who!':e juriqòiC'tion thf'Y
54

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

depend, or to commissaries appointed by comprised a number of resolutions
them, to be true to us against the King adopted at a meeting of the citizens of
of Spain and all his adherents, acconling 11ccklenblll"g county, K. C., in May, 1775,
to the formula of words prepared by the thus antedating by more than a year that
f'tates General fOl" that purpose. And which is now universally }Oecognized as
we shall give to the said counsellors, the American Declaration of Indepen-
justiciaries, and officers employed in these dence. The :Mecklenburg Declaration has
provinces, who have contracted in our been a subject of historical controversy
J:ame with his highness the Serenisme, from the time that it was first made pub-
Duke of Anjou, an act to continue them lie, and this controvers
' has given birth
in their respective offices, instead of new to a literature which sharply questions
commissions, a dause annulling the for- the authenticity of the declaration. The
mer provisionally till the arrival of his circumstances alleged under which this
highness. :Morem'eT 10 all such eounsel- d{'claration was made known are, in brief,
lors, accomptants. justiciaries. and officers as follows: In the spring of 1 ï7 5. Col.
iu these pro,'iuces, who have not C'ontract- Adam Alexander callc'd upon the people of
ed with his highness aforesaid, we shall
fecklenburg county to appoint delegates
grant new commissions under our hands to a convention to devi:'òe ways and means
and seals, unless any of the said officers to assist their brethren in Roston. The
are accused and convicted of haYing acted delegates met in Charlotte on ::\Iay 19, al-
under their former commissions against most immediately after the receipt of
the liberties and privilegps of this coun- news of the battle of I.lexington. Colonel
try or of other the like maladministra- Alexander was elected chairman, and John
tiou. \Ve further C'ommand the prC'sident McKnitt Alðander clerk of the conven-
aud members of the privy council. chan- tion. Aftcr a free and full disC'ussion of
celloT of the Duchy of Bmbant. also the the various objects for which the conven-
ch:mcellor of the DuC'hv of Guddl'es. :md tion had been called, it was unanimously
county of Zutphen, to' the presi<<1ent and ordained:
members of the council of Holland, to the
receivers of great officers of Beooster- 1. Resoh'Pll. that -....hosoe\"er direC't1y or
sC'he1dt and Bewesterschf'ldt in Zealand. to indirectly abetted, or in any way, fOTm,
the president and council of Ft"Ïse, and to or manner, countenanced the unchartered
the 1':scoulet of
Ie('hel('n. to the president :md dang<'l"Ous im'asions of our right!'!, as
and members of the council of Utrecht, claimed hy Great B1"Ïtaill, is an enemy
:1]](1 to all other justiciaries and officers to this country. to American, nnd to the
whom it may concern, tn the lieutí'nants inherent and inalienable riglÜ
of man.
nIl and every of them. to cause this our 2. TIesoh'pd, that we, th(' citizen!'! of
C'rdinance to he published and proclaimed Mí'cklenburg county, do hereby dissolve
throughout their respí'cti,'e jurisdictions, the political bands whidl haw conneC'tpl1
in the usual places appointed for that pur- us to thí' mother - country, and hereby
po!'e, that none may pl('ad ignorance. <\nd alwolve ourselves from aIlegiancC' to the
to cause our said ordinance to hp ohserwd RIitish crown. and ahjure all politiea]
in\"Ïolably, punishing the offenders im- conneetion, contract. or association with
rartially and without delay; for so 'tis that nation, who }nwe wantonly trampled
found expedient for the public good. And, on our rig-hts and lilwrtips, and in-
for better maintaining all and ever
T arti- humanly slwd tIle innoc('nt blood of
cle hereof, w<, gh-e to all and ewry of
\n1f'rican patriots at JÆxington.
you, by express command. fun power and
. ResoIYed, that we do hcrehy declare
nuthority. In witnpss wherof we have ourselves a free and indep('ndent people;
hereunto set our hands and seals. dated are, and of right ought to b('. a soycr<,ign
in our assembly at the Haguí', the six and and self-g-owrning associntion. undí'r thC'
twentieth dav of Julv, 1581, indorsed bv contTol of no power oth('r than that of
the orders
f the States General, and our God and the genera] government of
siwwd J. DE ASSEUERS. tIle Congr<,ss; to the maintenance of
Declaration of Independence, )'h:('1
- whi('h independenee WP Rolemnly pledgp
LE"'ßtTRO, a (locum('nt alleged to have to C'3C'h otlH'l" our J\\ut 11:1 I co-op<,ration,
55

DECLARA..TION QF INDEPENDENCE, MECKLENBURG

our live3, our fortunes, and flur most
sacred honor.
4. Resolved, that, as W9 acknowledge
the existence and control of no law or
l
gal officer, cidl or military, within this
county, we do hereby ordain and adopt,
ng a rule of life, all, each, and every of
our former laws; wherein, nevertheless,

the crown of Great Britain ne\er can be
ccnsidered as holding rights, privileges,
immunities, or authority therein.
5. Resolved, that it is also further de-
c,ced that all, each, and every military
oJlìcer in this county is hereby rein-
stated to his former command and au-
thoritr, he acting conformably to thesc

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AUTOGKAPH:! OF TilE )In'Hy.R
OF THE .IiIECh.LEYIlUiG l"01lJlUTTEK.

56

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE-DECLARATION OF RIGHTS

regulations, and that every member pres- lUere day of the month on the ground that
eut of this delegation shall henceforth be this dibcrepanc:y was explainable by the
a civil officer-viz., a justice of the peace use of the oH !'-lyle and the new style of
in the character of a " committec-man," to <:alendars: !Jut they ignored the facts that
issue process, hear and determine all the two sets of resolution,.; were dissimi-
matter of controversy, according to said lar, that the latter were comparatively
adopted laws, and to preserve peace, and mild, and that the former contained ex-
union, and harmony in said county, and I'ressions almost identical with the ac-
to use every exertion to spread the love cepted Declaration of Independence of
of country and fire of freedom through- 1,,6. It is to be further stated that an
out America, until a more general and attempt was made to reconcile these dis-
organized government be established in cn'panci('s and f;imilaritif's on the ground
this pl"Ovince. that as the hook al1eged to ha,.e contained
These resolutions were supplemented br the original te'\":t had bcen destroyed by
a number of minor pro\"Ìsions to insure fire, some one, ycars afterwards, had pre-
the safety of the citizens, and at 2 A.)I. l'ar('d from recollection the draft of the
on May 20, the resolutions were unani- resolutions which were pub1ished in the
roously adopted.
\ few days afterwards TIa1eigh RegistC1". The fact ha,> been es-
Capt. James Jack, of Charlotte, was ap- tablished by acceptable evidence that the
pointed messenger to convey a draft of the do('umcnt taken to Philadelphia by Cap-
resolutions to the Congress then in session lain Jack contained the twenty resolution.,
in Philadelphia, and on the return of of
Iay 31. and not the declaration of
Captain Jack, tIle Charlotte convention May 20. The foregoing are the principal
was informed that thcir proceedings had facts touching this historical controversy;
been indh-idually approYCd by the mem- and whi1e Bancroft accepts the dcclaration
bers of Congress, but that it was deemed as an authentic document, equally emi-
premature to lay them before the House. ncnt historians ha\.e agreed that it was
On April 30, 1818, a copy of the alleged not entitled to the standing of a verified
Declaration of Independence was first docnment.
made public in the Raleigh Register, and Declaration of Paris. See CUBA: 11 c-
following the text was a certificate K inlcy's l[ Gssagc.
signed" James
IcKnitt;' tending to show Declaration of Rights by Virginia.
that the text was a true copy of the papers George :\la
on drafted for Virginia a
left in his hands by John :Matthew Alex- declaration of rights, and on
Iay 27, 17ìG,
finder, deceased; and that the original Archibald CaHr presC'nted it to the Vir-
book was burned in April, 1800. 'Vhen ginia conw'ntion. On June 12 it was
the Raleigh Rcgister published this state- adopted. It declarf'd that all men arf'
mC'nt there was a general demand for the by nature equally frf'C', and are invested
rroof conceming such an important event, with inalicnable rights-namely, the en-
that had been allowed to slumber for joynwnt of life, liberty, property, and thE"
more than forty years. All the questions pursuit of happiness and safety; that all
invoh-ed were investigatC'd by a committee powcr is vested in. anù consequently de-
of the Xorth Carolina legislature in 1831, ri,-cd from. the people; that gO'.f'1"nment

nd its report so far satisfied the people is, or ought to he, instituted for the com-
of that State that :May 20 was made a mOll benefit and security of the peoplp.
State holiday. In 1838, Peter ForC'e, a nation, or community, and that wlwn go,--
well-known scholar, announced the dis- ('rnment shall fail to perform its required
covery of another set of resolutions, en- functions, a majority of the pf'ople have
dorsed as having been adopted b
' the peo- an inalienable right to reform or abolish
pIe of :Mecklenburg county on
[ay 31, or it; that, public services not being de-
cleven days after the re!'òolutions above !'ccndible, the office of magistrate. legi:'!-
quoted. The last set of resolutions num- lator. or judge ought not to bc hereditary;
hered twenty, and mad(' no declaration that the legi!'llatin and exeC'uti,'e powers
of imlependenC'e. Some parties who de- of thp
tate should be diRtinct from the
fended the resolutions of May 20 cIaim('(1 jll!lil'aturc. and that the lIlem!J('rs of tll('
that there should be no question as to the first two should, at fixeù periods, return
57

DECLARATORY ACT-DEERFIELD

unto the body from which they were and vehementlY' declared that It taxation
(,liginally taken, and the ,-acancies be sup- and representation are inseparable." The
plied by frequent elections; that elections declaratory act became a law, but it was
ought to be free; that all men llaving a di
tasteful tn thinkiJl
Americans, for it
permanent interest in and attachment to ill\'ol\"f'd th(' ht'l"Iwl of royal prl'rogatiw.
the country have the right of suffrage, which the colonists rejected. But it wa,.;
and cannot be ta
ed or deprin'd of their overlooked. })itt had the hOlwr of the
property for public lIses without their own rep('al. The London merchants lauded
l'unsent or that of their represl'ntatives him as a benefactor, and there was a
freely elected, nor bound by any law to burst of gratitude towards him in Amcr-
which they have not, in Jike manner, as- ica. Xew York ,otl'd a stlltue to r"ïtt ami
sented; that there ought to be no arbi- the King; Yirginia ,ot('d a statue to th.'
trary power for suspendin
laws, for re- monarch; :Mar
-land p,,:-,st'd a similar vote.
qui ring excpssivc bail. or for grantill;.! of and ordered a portrait of TonI Camden:
general warrants; that no man ought to and thf' authorit ies of Boston onll'rl'tl fuIl-
be deprived of liberty e'\.ccpt by the law length portraits of Barré and Conway.
of the land or thc judgmf'nt of hi'i peers, friends of thf' .Americans, for Faneuil Hall.
hoMing sacred the ancient trial by jury; Decoration Day. f'ef' )JE:\lOltIAL D.\ \.
that the frel'dom of the press is one of De Costa, BEx.Lunx FR\'KLlX, cl('r:ry-
the greatest bulwarks of liberty. and can man; born in Charlest.own, 1\[ass., Jul."
nl'ver be restrained but by despotic go\"- 10, 1831; graduated at the Concord
('ruments; that a well-regulated militia, Biblical Institute in 18;)6; was a chaplain
<'Om posed of Ute body of the people. traincd in the National army in ISfîl-G3; and is
to arms, is the propcr, natural, and safe tIle author of The Pre-Columbian Di.<;-
dcf('nce of a free state; that standing- rOl"rryof tm(',.irn by the OKorthmen; Thr
armil'S in times of p('ace should be avnidNI Xnrthlllrn in l1ai11c, etc.
a:-. dangerous to libertr, and in all cases Deep Bottom, YAp In {}rant's Yirgillia
the military should be under
trict subor- campaign in 18G4 this pla('('. then lIPid h.v
dination to the civil power; that the Genl'ral Foster. was attack('rl hy a part of
1'('01'11' ha,'e a right to uniform go\"Crn- L-{'p's arll1.\" without SUeCI'S8. .June
l. .\
ment; that no free government can bp COllntl'l' attack h:r the Xationa]s was onl('r-
preserved but hy a firm adherence to jus- ed.J u].\"
tj and
i, whieh was partly !"11('-
tice, moderation. temperance, frugalit
., ('(':-sfuJ. 1'1](' Conferleratf's retirf'd to ('ha-
and virtue, and br frequent recurrences to pin's Bluir. whieh the.'" ('ontinucù to hold.
fundamental principles: and that r('lig-ion Deerfield, a town on the we!'.t hank of
can be directed only by reason :1.lld con- the COllllf'CtÏeut Hi,'er. in Franklin
,iction. not by force or vioIl'n('f'; there- county. ::\[as:-..; notabh' a
ha,'in
h(,(,11
fore an men are ('qual1y f'ntit1ed to the t" i("e thl' ,'ictim of a fora
' hy FreJl(oh allll
free exercise of it according- to thf' dic- h..lians. During Kin
Philip's "'ar a
tates of consl'il'nee. Thf' unanimous voicp t('nihle Flaughter oCCUlT('d a mil(' from till'
of tIle conYention a ppro,"ed of this dec- t4l" n,
ept. 18 (0. R.), Hi7.). The r nd-
Jaration. ians had hurned ])('('rfidd and lI1unll'r('d
Dec1aratory Act, TIlE. Pitt concluùed some of the inhahitants. '11le :-;uHin)I""
his speech in the Hritish House of ('om- fll.d. leaving ahout 3.000 bushpl
of w1)('at
mons again!"t thc Stamp Act hr a propo- in !-ota('ks in the fi(,h}. Capt. Thomas 1,0-
f;ition for its ahsolute and imlllcdiatf' rl'- throp. comnHlllrling part of a forcf' at Had-
llea], at the same tinw l'el'omm('mIin
fill I('y. was Sf-nt with I'ighty men to 8c("urf'
act, to a('company the repl'al. dl'l'lllrin
, thi
grain. .\8 they approa('lu.d f)pf'rfieM
in the most unqua1ifi('d t('rll1s. t.he SO\-. till'.\" f('11 into an Indian amhush. amI th('
ereign authority of Great Rritain ov('r JlCr ('aptain and s('vent.'"-,.;i'\. men w('re slain.
('olonif's. Thi" was intemkd as a salve 111 170-1. a party of French and Indians.
for the national honor, nl'eessar
'. as Pitt ullder )Jaj. U('rt('1 de Rouvi1le, who had
knew, to secure thc repeal of th(' act. Hut travdled on snow-shoes from C'anad1l, a}l-
J"ord Camden. who was the principal sup- proadll'd DI'f'rfidd. The ("hief ohject of
TJorter of the r('pml bill in thf' rpppr thp f''\.I)P(lition wa!'l to procur(' n littll' 1)(,11
Hou<;p, W:l
oppo<;eil to the declaratory act. hung onr the meeting-house in that vil-
':;8

DEERHOUND-DELAFIELD

lager It had been bought in France for
the church in the Indian village of
Caughnawaga, 10 miles above Montreal.
The vessel that bore it to America was
(:aptured by a Xew England privateer and
taken into Boston Harbor. The bell was
sold to the Deerfield congregation. Father
:Kicolas, the priest at Caughnawaga, per-
suaded the Indians to accompany him,
under De Rom'ille, to gct the bell. When
the invaders approached Deerfield, the
snow lay 4 feet deep in that region, and
was covered h,y a hard crust that bore the
men. Lpon drifts that lay by the pali-
sades they wen' ahle to crawl m-er these
defences in the gloom of night, while the
inhabitants were slumbering. The first
iI:timation the villagers had of danger was
t he bursting in of the doors before the
dawn C\{areh I, 1704), and the terrible
sound of the war-whoop. The people were
dragged from thcir beds and murdered,
without regard to age or sex, or carried
into captivitr. The village was set on
fin" and e"cry building, excepting the
chapd and olle dwelling-house, was laid in
ashes. Forty-seven of the inhabitants
were killed, a
d 1
0 were captives on their
way through the wilderness towaròs
Canada an hour after sunrise. Unòer the
direction of Father Xicolas, the bell was
carried awav, and finallv found its dcs-
tined pIaee . in the belfry of the church
at Cau.
hnawa:!a, where it still hangs.

\mon
tl!e victims of this forav were
11EV. :TOHX "
ILLIA)IS (q. v.), pa
"tor of
the church at Deerfield, and hiB family,
who w('re carried into captivity, except-
ing two children, who were murdered.
Deerhound, the name of an English
yacht, which, while conveying arms to the
Carlists. was seized hy the Spanish 1!Ov-
crnment ve!'lsel B1tf"Ylnl'cntllra, off Biarritz.
and captain and crew imprisoned, Aug. 13,
1873: and released about
Ppt. 18. This
yac11t rescued Captain Remmes and part
of his crew from the A Inbnma after her
destruction 1>y the Krnr.<mrf/p, .Tune H),
1 RG t.
Defective Classes. In no c01wtry on
('urth has there b('en such a 1!eneral and
lib('ral provision by national :md local
aut horities. soddies, and individuals for
tlw educ>ation of d('f('C'th'e vouth al'l in thp.
Pnit('1! Rta1('s. For d('tai1
of tllil'l grnnt1
work, sec ELI xn, Enl"C \ TIO
OF TIlE:
59

DEAF 1\lrTEs, EDl"c"'TIO
OF THE; FEEBI E.
l\IumED, EDUCATIOS OF TIlE; and REFORM
SCHOOLS.
De Forest, .JoIIN \YILLIA
I, military
officer; born in HumphreysvilIe (now
Seymour), Conn., :March 31, 1826; entered
the Kational army as captain at the be-
ginning of the Civil \Yar; sen'ed con-
tinuously till January, 186.3; and was ad-
jutant-general of the Veteran Resene
Corps in 1863-68. His publications in-
clude The History of the Indians of Con-
necticut, frortt the Earliest-know-n Period
to 1850, etc.
De Grasse, COUXT.
ee GRASSE-TILLY,
FRA

OIS JOSEPH PAUL, Cm-XT DE.
De Haas, Jon:v PHILIP, military offi-
cer; born in Holland about li33; was de-
scended from an ancient .family in north-
ern France; came to America in 1750;
was an ensign in the French and Indian
\Yar; participated in a sharp conflict
with Indians near Pittsburg; and was
colonel of the 1st Pennsyh-ania HegilJ1Pnt
in 17ïG. Hc served in the Amerie:\ n
army in Canada, and after\\"ardH at Ticon-
deroga. He led his regiment from LaJ..('
Champlain to New York, and partici.
pated in the battle on Long Island in
August, 177G. In February, 1777. he waR
promoted to brigadier-general. Gen('ral
De Haas was a good disciplinarian, and
"en'cd in various capacities during tlw
entire war with credit to himself and
benefit to his adopted country. The lat-
ter years of hi
life were passed in Phila-
delphia. whC're he diC'd .Tune :
. 1 iR(Î.
De Haven, EDWIN J., e'\":plorer; horn
in Philadelphia in IRI!}; mtered the navy
as midshipman, rose to lieutenant in I8.H,
and resigned in 18:>7. Hc was with
\Yilkcs in his great e
ploring expedition
in 1838-42. and commanded the first ex-
ploring exp('dition fitteù out at
ew York
to search for Sir .John Franklin in the
Arctic seas. The e'\.peditioll consisted of
the A.dmnr('. 140 tons, and the Rr,<lrlLC, 90
tons. Dr. K.111('. \\ ho accompaniC'd the ex-
pedition. pubIish('d a full account of it.
After his rC'turn T,if'lttenant De Hav('n
was employed on C'oast survey duty and
in th(' NtH-a 1 Obs(,TYatory. He died in
Philadelphia Oct. 2. IR().').
De Kalb, .rOIlAX:V, R.u:n:v. See KALR,
.TolT.\xx. B,\lWX DE.
Delafield, RICH\1m. military engineer;

DELAGOA BAY-DE LANCEY

born in
ew York City, Sept. I, 1798; Portuguese engineers certitkd was the bor-
graduated at the United f:;tates Mili- del' of the Tramn'aal. In ISH!! the Portu-
tary Academy in 1818, and entered the gllese government sen-ed notice on Colonel
<:orps of engineers; ,\as engaged in build- Mc
Iurdo that the real frontier was ü
ing the defcnces of Hampton Roads, the miles further inland, and that if the road
fortifications in the district of the :Mis- was not built to that point within four
sis;;ippi, and those within the vicinity months it would be seized by Portugal.
of Delaware Ri,'er and Bay in 181!)-38; Before :Mdlurdo's sidl' of the contro-

uperintendent of ',"cst Point in 1838-43 ,-ers)' could be heard, Portugal confiscated
,
nd in I8.3G-GI; and became chief of en- the entire property (.J une, ISS!)). 'I'll('
gineers in 18M. At the close of the Civil Cnited States, in behalf of the :MdIurdo
\Yar he was brevetted major-general, U. interests, unitl'd with England to compel
S. A., "for faithful, meritorious, and dis- l>ortugal to make 1 11 '-'pe1" n'paration, and
tinguislll'd services in the engineer depart- Portugal consented to ha,'e the dispute
llIent during the rebellion." He was re- ",eUled by arbitration. TIlt' tribunal '\<l

tired in 1800. He died in "-ashington, organized in Bcrn{'. Switzerland. in ISDO,
n. C., Nov. 5, 18i3. but it was not till March
!I, 1!100, that a
Delagoa Bay, a large bay, the estuary conclusion was reached. The total award
of several rivers, on the southeast coast to the claimants was $3,20
.8f10, with in-
of Africa, situated between lat. 25 0 40' tercst from 1880. and by a compromise
and 20 0 20' S. It extends GO miles from the fieirs of Colonel l\{c
Iurdo were award-
north to south, and 20 miles from east to cd $.300,000 towards the close of laoo.
west. It was disco\"Crcd by the Portu- De Lancey, Eow.um FLOYD, historian;
guese in 1408, and for nea;'I
r 400 ;years born at
Iamaroneck, X. Y., \pril 3,
was in dispute between ];:nglaml and Por- 1821; graduatcd at Hohart College in
tugal, the Boers al
o putting in a claim 18-13; is a membcr and officer of many
to it in 18:1::;. It is the on:y seaport avail- historical organintiol1s, and the authlJr
able for the Trawwaal, hut it is not in of biographies of .Tames De Lancey, Jamcs
that territor
r. The conte!lÌion between 'Y. Beekman, "
il1iam Allen; DOCtUILCltt-
England and Portu
al W.:;; I-eferred to ary History of :rew rork
. Capture of Fort
Presidcnt Thiel's, and settled by President If'ashingtoll, and many other historical
::\{ac::\{ahon. his succ<,ssor, in 18i5, in works.
fa\-or of Portugal. B
' an agreement Eng- De Lancey, ÉTIESSE (STEPIIE:N); mer-
land recf'i ved the right of pre-emption. chant; born in CaC'n, France, Oct. 24,
It was understood in the early part of the lGG3; fled to Holland on the re\'oeation
war betwecn tIle British and the Boers of the Edict of X antes; and wcnt thence
(18!W-l!)00) that í;reat Britain had to England and became a British subject.
either purcha:"cd the bay and its imme- lIe landed in Xcw York, June 7, lGRG;
diatc surroundings outright or had nego- became a merchant and mnas
ed a large
tiated an arnll1
<,n}('nt with Portugal by fortune; and was at all timcs a public-
which the ba
' could not be used for any spirited citizen. In I iOO he huilt the De
purpose hostile to British interest. In Lancey house, which subsequcntly became
ISR3 ('01. Edward ::\Ic::\{urdo, a civil engi- known as the " QUf>en's Head" and
neeI' of Kentucky, received from the King .. Fraunce's Tavern." In the large room,
of Portugal an c
tremcly liberal conces- originally :Mrs. De LanC'ey's drawing-room,

ion for the construl'tion of a railroad \Vashington hade fareweJJ to thf' officer

from Loren70
{arques to the Transvaal of the Army of the nevolution. He died
frontier, a distance of 57 miles. This in Xew York Cit,y, XU\'. IR. li41.
concession also included the grant of large De Lancey, J_UlEs. jurist; born in
tracts of land along the projected route, Xew York City, Xo,'.
i, li03; eldest son
the territory upon which much of the of :Étienne De T ancey: graduaÜ)d at
town of Lorenzo 1\Iarqups now standg, an the L'niversity of Camhridge, England.
island in Delagoa Bay, and certain com- anù soon after his return to
ew York
llwrcial pri,-il<,;.!<,s along the shore. By (l i2!)) wa
made a justice of thp
u-
the aid of British capital the road was prpme Court of t1mt prm ince, ana ehid-
C'omplet(,4} in
9}'eJUber, I88i, to what the justice in Ii33. For two years, as lieu-
60

DE LANCEY-DELAWARE

tenant-governor, he was acting governor
( 1 ï ,)3-.35), after the death of Governor
Osborn. Judge De Lancey was for many
years the most influential man in the
politics and legislation of the colony, and
was one of the founders of King's Col-
lege (now Columbia University). He
wrote a Review of the Military Opera-
tions from 17;).'1 to 1756. He died in New
York City, July 30, 1760.
De Lancey, OLIVER, military officer;
born in New York City, Sept. 16, 1708;
brother of Judge De Lancey; for many
;years a member of the Assembly and
Council, also a colonel of the pro-
vincial troop
, and whm the Revolution
broke out he organized and equipped,
chiefly at his own expense, a corps of
lo)'alists. In 1/;7 he was appointed a
brigadier-general in the royal service. His
military operations were chiefly in the
ngion of Xew York City. At the evacua-
tion of that city in 1783 he went to Eng-
land. He died in Beverley, England,
Nov. 27, 178.3.
De Lancey, OLIVER, military officer;
born in Kew York City in 1752; edu-
cated abroad; entered the British army
in 1766, and rose to major in 1773; was
with the British army in Boston during
the siege in 1775-76, and accompanied it
to Kova Scotia. He returned with it to
Staten Island in June, and commanded the
TIriti!"h cavalry when the army invaded
]
ong Island in August, which formed the
admnce of the right column. To him Gen-
eral ".oodhuIl surrendered lmder promise
of protection, but it was not afforded, and
the patriot was murdered. He was active
under Sir Henry Clinton throughout the
war. In liSI he succeeded Major Andrll as
adjutant - general, and on his return to
England undertook the arrangement of the
claims of the loyalists for compensation
for losses in America. He was also at the
head of a commission for settling all
army acconnts during the war. Because
of defalcations in his public accounts, he
was removed from office. He was elected landed on Cape Henlopen, and purchased
to Parliament in 17!)(j; was promoted to the lands along the bay and river as far
lieutenant-general in 1801, and to general north as the falls at Trenton (see :K"Ew
in 18] 2. He died in Edinburgh, Scotland, SWEDEN) . They bui [t Fort Christiana
Sept. 3, 1822. near the site of Wilmin!!ton. Their settle-
Delano, COLUMBl'S, statesman; born in ments were mostly pl;nted within thp
F;horeham, Yt., June 5, 1809; settled in present limits of Penns
Tlvania. Thp
Mount Vernon, 0., in 1817 j admitted Swedes were conquered by the Dutch of
61

to the bal" in 1831, and became prominent
as a cl'iminal lawyer. He was a member
of Congress in 18--l-t-G-l and 1866-68; was
appointed Vnited States commis::;ioner of
internal re
enue in 18GU, and later by
reorganizing the bureau increased the re-
ceipts in eight months more than 100 per
cent.; and was Secretar)' of the Depart-
ment of the Interior in 1SïO-75. He died
in ::\Iount Vernon, 0., Oct. 23, 18!W.
Delaware, the first of the thirteen
original States that ratified the federal
Constitution; takes its name from Lord
De la 'Van (Delaware), who entered the
bay of that name in lGlO, when he was
governor of Virginia. It had been dis-
covered by Hudson in 1609. In 1629
Samuel GodJ'n, a director of the Dutch
West India Company, vonght of the Ind-
ians a tract of land near the mouth of
the Delaware; and the next ;year De
Vries, with twenty colonists from Hol-
land, settled near the site of Lewes. The
colony was destroyed by the natives three
years afterwards, and the Indians had
801e possession of that district until 1(j;
8,
when a colony of Swedes and Finns

STATE SRAI, OF D
:LAWARE.

DELAWARE

, ( i'.I"" t-
v i\\;

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III.LI ,,\\ t;I'I!"1I ('lIl'I(I'Ii. WII.\Il
I;T"S. lit: I. \ W ARK.

New Ketlwrland in Hi53, and from and claim to Kew Castle and 1
mile!"
that time until lüG-l, when Kew Xether- around it, and to the land between that
land was conquered by the English, tract and the s('a: antl in the presence of
the territory was daimed by the all thp settlers he protluced his deNls
Dutch, and controll('d by them. Then (Odoh('r, 1682), and formany accpptf'(l
Lord Baltimore, proprietor of Maryland, the surrender of the territory. Lord Bal-
claimed all the territory on thc west side timore pressed his cla!m, but in 1683 the
of Delaware Bay, and even to lat. 40 0 ; I
ords of Trade and Plantations made a
and settlers from l\Iaryland attemptetl to decision in Penn's favor. A compromi!'l'
drive away the settl(,l"s from the present dterwards ad iusted all conflicting claims.
State of Delaware. \\"hen 'Yilliam Pl'nn The tracts which now constitute the f:;tß.tp
obtained a grant of Pennsylvania, he was of Delaware. Penn called "The Terri-
very desirous of owning the land on Dela- tories," or " Three Lower Counties on the
ware Buy to the sea, and procured from Delaware." They were governed as a
t he Duke of York a relea!"e of an his title part of Pennqylvania for ahout t w('nty
('2

DELA WARE

,
ar:" afterwards, and eaeh county had
six delegates in the legislature. Then
Penn allowed them a sepamte legislature;
but the colonJ' was under the governor of
Pennsylvania until 17i6, when the in-
habitants declared it an independent
State. A constitution was adopted by a
convention of the people of the three
counties-New Castle, Kent, and Sussex
-Sept. 20, li76. A State gO\"ernment
was organized, and John McKinley was
elected its first governor. In 1 i9
a sec-
ond constitution was framed and adopt('d.
.\Ithough Delaware was a sla\"e State, it
rt'Íused to secede at the \mtLreak of the
Civil "'al'; and, though it assumed a
S(,rt of Iwuh'alitJ', it furnished several
regiments of volunteers for the Cnion
army. In all the wars Delaware pah'i-
f'tically furnished its share of men and
money for the public ddence. In IfJ02
the State had an as
es
ed property valua-
tion of $nfJ.3.,l.6!)G: and in 1904 had
H!'!"ets of $635.250. in excess of all lia-
hilities. The population in ISfJO Was
Hì8.493; in 1900. 184.735.
When Howe entered Philadelphia (Sep-
tpmb('r, 1 ii7) the _\mericans still IH'Id
control of the Delaware RÏ\-er b('low that
citro On l\Iud Island, near the confhwnce
of the HcllU.dkiIl and Delaware. WilS
built Fort Miffiin. On the Kew Jer!'('
'
shore, opposite, at Red Bank. was Fort
::\f('rcer, a strong redoubt, well furnished.
with hea,'y artillery. At Billingsport, on
the same shore, 3 miles lower down, were
cxtensive but unfinished works d('signed
to guard sonw obstructions in the river
t iwr('. Ot IH'r formidable obstructions
\\('r(' phl('('(I in the river below forts
:Mifflin and M(']"('('r. in the form of
(hcraux-dc-frise-sunken crates of stones.
with heavy spears of iron-pointed timb('r,
to receive and pier('c the hows of ve
!"els.
Hesiifps these, there wer(' floating' batteries.

ee
lEHCEU. FOUT; ::\hFFLI
, FORT; eXIT-
ED STATES-DELAWARE, in vol. ix.
r.O\'ERNORS OF DELA WARE.

GOVERNuRS 01<' VELA W AHE-Ümlinw:å.

E:-iGLISH OOWNIAL.
lo'rolll 166-1 11\1 to 1682, under tl1e government of New
York; IUld from 1683 up to 1773, under tl1e proprietary
government of Pennsylvania.
l)'fATE.

X aJl1e.

Date.
1776 to 1777
1778 .. 1781
1782 " 178:1
1783
1784 to 1786
17li6 " 178!!
1789 .. 17!!6
1796 .. 1797
1797 .. Ii98
] 798 " 1801
1801 " 1802
IH02 .. 1805
1805 .. ]808
18u8 .. 1811
lli11 .. 1814
IHH .. 1817
1817 .. 1820
lli20 .. 1821
1821 .. 1822
1 li2:! .. 182:1
18:.13 .. 1824
1824 .. 1827
1827 " IH:IO
1830 .. lH33
1833 .. 11>,1(;
18:16 " 18:17
18:11 .. 1840
1840 " 1844
18,14 .. HS4.6
1846
1846
1
4'j to 1851
1851 .. 1855
1855 .. ]Hi'i9
1t!59 " 186a
186:1 .. IH67
IH67 .. lH';]
1871 .. IH71'.
H!75 .. 187!1
1879 .. ] 88:1
lH83 ., 1H87
lli87 .. 1891
1891 .. 1895
1895
1895 to IH97
1897 .. 1901
H)OI ,. 190;'
1905 .. 1909

John
lcKinley............. ....... ......
Cæsar Rodlley......... ............... ...
John Dickinson............. ..... ........
Jol1n Cook..............................

icbolas Vau Dyke....... ...............
Thomas Collins. .. .. .. . _ . . . . _" .........
Joshua Clayton. ... . . . .. ..... . . . ... .... . .
Gunning Bedford........................
Daniel Hodgers..........................
lticl1ard Ba:;:;Clt................ ........
J,lllles :,;ykes............................
David Hail............. ................

atl1aniel
Iitchell.......................
George Trll in. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . ... . .
J osepl1 Hazlf'tt..........................
Daniel Hodney ..........................
Jol1n Clark..............................
.Jacob 810ut................ .............
Jol1n Collins. ....... . .... . ..... . .. .. . ... .
Caleb H()(I ney . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . .. . . . . . . . . .
Joseph Hazlett..........................

I

:

':?s'

:::::: :::::::::::::: ::'.::
Ða,'id Hazzard..........................
Caleb P. Bennett.........................
Charles 1'01". . .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . .. . .... . .
Cornelius P. Comegys....................
\rilliam B. Cooper.......................
Thomas Stockton........................
Josepl1 Maul........ ....... ..............
William Temple..........................
\\illiam Thorp...........................
William H. Ross....... ............ ......
Peter F. Cansey. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
William Burlon.........................
""illiam Can non.... . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grove ::5aulf'bll ry . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . .
James Ponder...........................
John P. Cochran... ................ ......
John \V. Hall................... ........
Cl1arles C. 8tockley......................
Benjamin T. Biggs.......................
Robert J. Reynolds......................
J08hua H. ],(,lrvil................... ....
William T. 'ratson......................
Ebe \\'. Tunnell..........................

S
O
I;

.:.. ..::::::..::.... ., .:.....:: I

UNITED STATES 8E
ATORS

:Iò o. of Congre..

na"".

.Name.

Richard Bassett......... 1st and 2d
George Read.... . .. . . .. .

lt;
i
l
Henrv Latimer.. .......
John.'.ining............. 3d 5

õtl1
.Joshua ('Ia'.ton..........
William Hiil Wells..... _. 5th to 8th
S-amuel White.. .... ..... 7th" 11th
James A BIlyard ... __ __ 8th" 12111
OUIf'rbridge 1I0n:ey..... . , 11th .. 16th
William Hill Wells...... I:lth .. 14th
I'SDF.RTHR !'\\F.D.:!'. NicholasVnn Dyke...... 1 15th
. 19t11
NRme. Date. Cæsar A. Rodney........ I. th
Thomas Cia vton. . .. . . ... 18th to 19th
Peter 'rinuit.... ......................... 1638 to 1fiW Daniel Rodnf'Y........... 1 1!lth
Pl'ter Hollender.......................... lfi40" It;-I:! Henry M. Ridgely.......1 191h to 20th
.Tolum Printz............................ 164:1<< 1f.i'i2

I

s J
('d,

,;
:::: : : :: : I
i

::

It

::

I

:::::::::::..:::::::::::::
::::

f

dN
t1

y.

d::::::1

:1 ::

USDF:R THB DUTCH. Thomas Clayton......... 24th .. 2
th
Peu.'f
1L1\.\'e!'l\nt ....................., 1665 to 1664 Jobn hI. Clayton.........1 29tb .. aOth
Iì

1789 to 1793
17H9 .. 179:1
1793 .. Isul
1793 .. 17!!H
1798
1799 to I
05
1
0l " IH09
18/15 " ]81:1
1810 .. 1821
1813 .. 1817
IH17 .. 1827
1821 .. IR2:1
lli24 .. 1827
1826
lR27 to 1829
1
27 .. 1R'l9
11<29 .. IH35
18:10 " IH:!I;
18:11ì .. H!4:i
1837 .. l!i4 ';
1R4:i .. 18"1

UXITED STATES SEXATORS-Contimud.

DELAWARE-DELAWARE INDIANS

c.-' _.,.:

""",
\,><
,....

r

:

.
:

:::-
04'
....- .
. - } 'd"1 '
/_=--_ {('
- .
- '
'
.\ 1 'ig 'it
^-tt;t
:t
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Name.

No. of Congr_.

Date.

John Wales,............ 30th to 31st
l'resley :5pru.LDl'e,....... 30th .. S2d
Jamcs A. Bayard....,.., :t!d .. 3Hth
John
1. Clayton... ..... 3;Jd "34th
Joseph P. Comeg)'s...... 34th

Iartin Bates............ 3;;tl1
Willard Saulsburv... _... 3Gth to 41st
George Read Riddle...... 3Hth .. 4Uth
Jamcs A. B lynrd........ 40th
Tl10mas Francis Bnyard.. 41st to 4Hth
Eli Saulsbury. . . .. . ...... 4_.1 "õlltl1
George C;ray............ . 1 4
lh " úGth
Anthony Higgins........ 51st" õ4th
Richard R. Kenney..... 54th" õGth
lewis H. 8'111........... \ 58th I
,Jam('s F. Allee...... .,. 58th to 5
th I

1849 to 1:;.,1
1847 u IH53
11351 " 1864
1853 " 1856
1856
18;;8
1859 to 1Ríl
18G! " 18G7
11:!G7 " 186

U;.;9 " 1885
1811 " 1889
18:-<5 " 11;99
1"1;
" 1895
18
17 " 1901
1903 " 191/))
1
03 " 1907

Delaware, or Delawarr, Tno'IAs 'YEST.

I) LORU: appointl'c1 gon>rnor of Yirginia
in HiO!I. III' huilt t\\O forts at the mouth
of the .TanH's nin>r. which he named
Hf'nry and Charl('s, in honor of tIll' King's

ons. Tn Hill 11(' si1ill'd for the 'Yest
Indies. hut was dri\"l'n haek hy a storm
nnd Ian<ll'd at the mouth of the Df'Iaware
Riwr. when('(' 11(' !"ailed for England. Tn
1 (il R he embarked for Yirginia and died
on the yoyage.
Delaware Indians, an important fam-
ily of the Algonquian nation, also called
Lenni-L(,l1ap('s, or .. n1<'I1." 'Yhen the
Em'opf'ans founù t1wm, t}wy \\ ere dwell-

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WILLIAM PF.:!Io!ll Pl.RCHASl:!loU LA:!IoD FROJI 1HE DELAWARE I"lDIAN8.
(j-l

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.;;::r

ing in ùetached bands, under ,"cparate
sacl1ems on the Delaware River. Tl1e
Dutch traded with them as early as 1613,
and held frieudly relations with them;
but in lG32 the Dutch settlement of Swan-
endael was destro,yed by them. The
Swedes found them peacdul when they
settled on the Delaware. This family
claim to have come from the west with
the Minquas. to whom they became vas-
sals. They also claimed to be the source
of an the Algonquians, and were styled
" grandfathers." The Delawares COm-
prised three powerful fa mi! iI's (Turtle,
Turkey, and 'YoU), and weI'e known as
]'Iinse,ys, or Muns
es, and DeJa wares
proper. The former oceupied the no},thern
part of New Jersey and a portion of Penn-
sylvania, and the latter inhabiteù lower
New Jersey, the banks of the Delaware
below Trenton, and the whole valll'Y of
the Schuylkill. After the conquest of
K ew K etherland, the English kept up
trade with the Delawares, and 'Yilliam
Penn and his followers bought large tracts
of land fwm them. Thl'Y were parti('s
on the Indian side to the famous treaty
with 1")enn. At that time the Indians
within the limits of hi
domain were
u,;timateù at li,OOO in numh('r. The 1'-'I\'E

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DELAWARE INDIANS-DELMAR

-'ATlO"::'; ((1. v.) conquered the Delawares, of a treatJ' in 1787, a :,lIIall hand of Dela-
and called them "women" ill contempt; ,"ares returned to the :Mu!:;kingum, the
and when, at the middle of the eighteenth 1"<'mainder being hostile. These fought
century, the latter, dissatisfied with the \Vayne, and were parties to the treaty at
interpretation of a treaty, refused to Greenville in 179.3. The scattered tribes
leave their land, the Five Nations in Ohio refused to join Tecumseh in the
haughtily ordered them to go. War of 1812, and in 1818 they ceded all
Commingling with warlike tribes, the their lands to the United States, and set-
Delawares became warlike themselves, and tied on the \Vhite Rh-er, in Illinois, to
ùevelopeù great energy on. the war-path. the number of 1,800, leaving a small
They fought the Cherokees, and in liï3 remnant behind. They finally settled in
some of them went over the mountains Kansas, "here missions were established
and settled in Ohio. As early as 17.n among them, and they rapidly increased
the l\Ioravians had begun missionary work in the arts of civilized life. In the Civil
among them on the Lehigh, near Bethle- 'Var, the Delawares furnished 170 soldiers
}lem and Kazareth, and a little church for the National army. Having acquired
was soon filled with Indian converts. At land from the Cherokees in the Indian
the beginning of the French and Indian Territory, they now occupy the Coowees-
W'ar the Delawares were opposed to the coowee and Delaware districts; numbered
English, excepting a portion who were led 7!)4 in !f100.
ty the
Ioradans; but in treaties held Delaware River, \YASHIXGTO
'S PAS-
fit Easton, Pa., at different times, from SAGE OF THE. At the close of Xovember,
17.3G until 17Gl, they made peace with the 177G, the British occupied Xew Jersey.
English, and redeemed themselves from and only the Delaware River shut off Corn-
thcir vas:,alage to the SIX
.!.TIO
S (q. v.). wams from Philadelphia. On Dec. 2.
TIH'Y Rettled on the Susquehanna, the \Yashington. with a considerable forc(',
Christian Indians apart. Then anothcr crossed the river, securing eYf>ry boat sO
('migration over the mountains occul"l"('d, that the British were unable to follow
and they planted a settlement at :Mus- him. Determined to surprise the Hessians.
kingum, O. These joined Pontiac, and under Colonel RahI. at Trenton. \Yashing-
besieged Fort Pitt and other frontier ton recrossed the river a f('w mil('s abow
T,osts, but were defeated in August, 17G3, Trenton on Dec. 2.,. with 2.-WO men and
by Colonel Bouquet, and their great chief, twenty pieces of artiller
r. Owing to the
Teedyuscung, was killed. Their towns darkness and the floating i('e it was 4
were ravaged, and the Moravian converts, A.)I. on the 2Gth before the entire force
who were innocent, fled for refuge to had cros!'.ed. General Knox. the constant
Philadelphia. These returned to the SÙs- companion of \Vashington throughout the
quehanna in 17G4, and the Ohio portion war, had crossed the river before it became
made peace at
Iuskingum the same ehoked with ice, and during the night

'ear, and at Fort Pitt in 17G;). The that \Vashington and his party recrosRed
remainder in Pennsylvania emigrated to it. Kno'\: stood on the opposite shore, and
Ohio, and in 178G not a Delaware was indicated where a landing could be safelr
l('ft east of the Alleghany Mountains. mad('. H('(' T({E
TO",". IhTTT.F OF.
::\foravian mi"sionaries went with thpir Delfthaven, the port of Holland from
floeks, and the Christian Indians increa!"cd. whidl the Pilgrim fathers sail('d in the
The pagans kcpt upon the war-path until RJlCPdlf"rll. .Tuly 22. Hì20. for
outhamp-
th('." w('re se,'erely smitten in a drawn ton. They t>mbarked on the Jlnyflou:cr at
hlttle at Point Pleasant, in 1774. Plymouth.
The Delawares joined the English when Delmar, _-\LEXAXDER. political econo-
1}le Revolutior..ary 'Var broke out, but mist: born in
ew York, Aug. 9, IR:3fi:
made pea('e with the .Americans in 1778. edited Daily American '1'irnes
. Hunt's
when a massacre of ninety of the Chris- J/(Tchants' Jlaf]n.zine; Financial Ohron-
tian Indians in Ohio by the Ameri('ans icle, etc., and pnbli
hed Gold .llonc]/ awl
aroused the fury of the tribe. Being Paper ]loney: Treatise on Taxation; Thp
almost po\Verles!'l, they fled to the Huron National Banking System; Hi,çtor!l of
l:iver and Canada. Under the provisions 1foncy and thc Jlonctary F!ystcm, et('.
III.-E G.,

DE LONG-DEMOCRACY IN NEW NETHERLAND

De Long, GEORGE \VASIlINGTON, ex- port,
lelville \\ ith his party started im.
plorer; born in .Kew York Citr, Aug. 2
, ruediately on a search for De Long and
18.14; graduated at the ('nitI'd :-;tates his companions, and on
Iarch 23, lö

,
:Kaval Academ
' in HW:>, and promoted found their rcmains, together with the
ensign in 18Gü; Illaster in löü8; li"uten- records of the ðpedition and De Long's
ant in 18G!); and lieutenant-commander, diary written up to Oct. 30 previous. The
1\ov. 1, 1879. He Was with Capt. Daniel l:nited States government had the remains
L. Braine on me Juniata, whcn lie was of De Long and his companions bl"Ought
ordered, in 1873, to search for the miss- home and they were interred with appro-
ing Arctic steamer Polaris and her crew. priate honors on }<'eb. 22, 1884. See The
On July 8, 187!), he was given command of l'oyage of the Jeannette, by
It-s. De
the Jeannette, which had bpen fitted out Long; and I'll, the Lena Delta, by George
by JAMES GOIWOX BEXNETT, JR. (q. v.), W. Melville.
for a three years' explpmtion trip via Deming,

ILLlAY, gun-founder; born
TIering Strait. By an act of Congress the in 173G; during the Uevolution construct-
Yes!"el was placcd under the authority of ed the first wrought-iron cannon ever made
the government. Aftel" touching at Ouna- in America, one of which was captured
laska, St. Michacl"s and St. Lawrence by the British at the battle of Brandy-
Bay, the Jeannette sailcd to Cape Serdze wine, and is kept as a curiosity at the
J{amcn, Siheria, in search of Professor Tower of London. He dicd in ::\[iffiin, Pa.,
Nordensl"jold, the Swedish explorer. Sail- Dec. ID, 1830.
ing northwaI"d the ves:;;el was caught in Democracy in New Netherland.
the pack-ice, Sept. 5, 187D, off Herald IsI- Gov. WILLL\
I KIEFT (q. v.) had resolved
and, and, after drifting GOO miles to the to chasten the Raritan Indians for a grave
northwest in a devious course, was crushed offence. He called upon the people to
1
' the ice, .Tune 13, 1881. Thus Lieuten- shoulder their muskets for a fight. The
'
aTlt-Commander De Long and llis crcw kncw l1is avarice and greed, and witllal his
were adrift in the Arctic Sea 150 mile'! cowardice, and boldly charged thcse things
from the 1\ew Siberian Islands and more 'Cpon him. "It is all well for :rou," they
than 300 miles from the nearest point of said," who have not slept out of the fort
the mainland of Asia. "ïth 11Ïs party he a single night since you came, to endangpr
8tarted southward, and on July 28, 1881, our lins and our homes in undefended
arrived at Bennett Island, and on Aug. 20 places," and they refused to obey. This
at Thaddeus Island, from which place they attitude of the people transformed the
travelled in boats. De Long, with four- governor. He invited (Aug. 23, Hi4l) the
teen others out of his crew of thirty. heads of families of Xew .Amsterdam to
three, reached the main mouth of the meet him in consu1tation on public af-
Lena River, Sept. 17, having travelled fairs. They. assembled at the fort, and
ahout 2,800 miles, and landing on the promptly chose twelve citizens to represent
1aainlalld ahout !í00 miles from their ship. them. So appeared the first popular as-
'Yith his mpn hf' proceeded as fast as lie sembly, and so was chosen 1he first rep-
eould until Oct. !), wllpn it bccame im- resentative congress in Kew Ketherlant1.
pm:sihle to trawl farther owing to tbe It was a "pontaneous outgrowth of the
<It bility of the mpn. Thc party had sepa- innate spirit of dpulOeracy that anima1pd
rated into thrpe bI'andu>s, one eommand- the ppoplp. The tWf'lYe were the vigorous
ed by De Long. the seconù by LiNItenant secds of that rpprpsentative democracy
('hipp, and the thirù Ly CIIIEF EXGT-:'iEER which bore fruit in all the eolonips more
GEORGE W.
fI:LnLLE (q. v.). All of De than a century later. Again. when the
J.ong's party, excepting two, pcrishcd; colony was threatened with destruction hy
C]lÌpp's boat was lost in 8. gale, with the Indians, Kieft summonf'd Uie people
eight men; but
felvi11e, with nine others, into council (September, I(43), who
!'Iueceeded in reaching a small ,'i1lage on chose eight men as the popular represen-
the Lena. The two survÏ\-or'! of the De tatives to act with the governor in pub-
Long party, who had been sent by that lic affairs. Again when Gov. PETER
officer in scarch of relief, met the ::\[elvi11e STUYVESANT (q. v.) found the flnanpps of
party on 0<'1.
!). On IH'aring tllpir rp. t1u' colony of Xew Xf't}wrland in Buch a
Glì

DEMOCRACY IN NEW NETHERLAND

wretched condition that taxation was was to form and adop1 a remonf;tranee
necf'88ary, he dared not tax the people against the tp'annous rule of the govern-
without their consent, for fear of offend- or. It was drawn br Baxter, signed by
ing the States-General, so he caIled a all the delegatI's pre!'<cnt, and sent to the
convention of citizens, and directed them governor, with a demand that he should
to choose eighteen of their best men, of give a "categorical answer." In it the
whom he might select nine as represen- grievances of the people were stated
tatives of the tax-payers, and who should under six heads. StuJvesant met this
form a co-ordinate branch of the local severe document with his usual pluck.
government. He tried to hedge them He denied the right of some of the dele-
around with restrictions, but the nine gates to seats in the convention. He de-
proved to be more potent in promoting ]lOunced the whole thing as the wicked
popular liberty than had Kieft's twelve. work of Englishmen, and doubted whether
They nourished the prolific seed of George Baxter knew what he was about.
democracy, which burst into vigorous life He wanted to know whether there was
in the time of JACOB LEISLER (q. v.). no one among the Dutch in New Nether-
Stuyvesant tried to stifle its growth. The land "sagacious and expert enough to
more it was opposed, the more vigorous draw up a remonstrance to the Director-
it grew. General and his council," and severely
Late in the autumn of 1653 a conven- reprimanded the new city government of
tion of nineteen delegates, who represented New Amsterdam (New York) for "seiz-
eight villages or communities, assembled ing this dangerous opportunity for con-
at the town-han in Kew Amsterdam, os- spiring with the English [with whom
tensibly to take measures to secure them- HoIland was then at war], who were ever
sel\"es from the depredations of the bar- hatching mischief, but never performing
barians around them and sea-rovers. The their promises, and who might to-monow
gO\"ernor tried in vain to control their ally themselves with the North "-mean-
action; they paid \"ery little attention to ing Sweden and Denmark. The conven-
his wishes or his commands. He stormed tion was not to he intimidated by hluster.
and threatened, but prudently yielded to They informed Stuyvesant, by the mouth
the demands of the people that he should of Beeckman, that unless he answered
issue a call for another convention, and their complaints, they would appeal to
give legal sanction for the election of dele- the States-General. At this the governor
gates thereto. These met in Xew Am- took fire, and, seizing his cane, ordered
sterdam on Dec. 10, }G:i3. Of the eight Beeekman to leave his prf'senee. The
districts represented, four were Dutch and plucky ambassador cooJIy folded his arms,
four English. Of the nineteen delegates, and silently defied the magistrate.
ten were of Dutch and nine were of Eng- When Stuyvesant's anger had abated, he
lif>h nativity. This was the first really asked Becekman's parùon for his rude-
representative assembly in the great State ness. He was not so complaisant with the
of Xew York chosen by thc people. The com-ention. Hc ordered them to dis-
names of the delegates were as foIlows: pen;e on pain of his" high displeasure."
From Kew Amsterdam, Van Hattem, The connntion executeù their threat by
Kregier, and Van de Grist; from sending an advocate to Holland to lay
Breucklen (Brooklyn), Lubbertsen, 'Tan their grievances before the States-Gen-
d{'r Beeck, and B('eckman; from Flushing, era!.
Hicks and Flake; from Newtown. ('Of' and It has been ob"'erved how the first germ
Hazard; from Hf'emstede (Hempstead), of dpmoeracy or r('puhIicanism appeared
'Yashburn and Somers; from AmerRfoort in N('w AmRtenlam, and waR cheeked in
(Flatlands), 'VoIfertsen, Strycker, and its visible growth by the heel of power.
Swartwout; from Midwont (Flatbush), It grew, nevertheless. It was stimulated
Elbertsen and Spicer; and from Graves- b,. the kind acts of Gov. TUü:\fAS DO
GAN
end, Baxter and Hubbard. Baxter was ('q. v.); and when the English revolution
at that time the English secretary of of HiSS had developed the strength of
tIle colony, and he led the English the people's will, and their just aspira-
d('legatps. The object of this convention tions were formulatf'd in the TIm of
67

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES

Right
, it sprang up illto a vigorous into it. Bayard had proeurl'd all act. in
fruit-bearing plant. Its power was mani- Jr.!H, aimed at Lei!iler and his bupporters,
fested in the choice awl administration pro,'iding that any person who should in
of Leisler as rulcr until a roral governor any manner endca ,.or to disturb the gov-
was appointed, and his death caused the ermnent of the colonJ' Rhould be deemed
line of separation between democracy and ,. rebels and traitors unto their majc<;tieR."
uristocracr-republicanislIl and monarchy and should incur the pains and penalties
-" Leislerians" and "Anti-I..eislerians" of the laws of England for such offenee.
-to be distinétly drawn. During the BaJ'ard was arrested on a charge of
exciting period of I..eisler's rule, the treason, tried, convicted, and received the
aristocratic or royalist party were led by horrid sentcnce then impm:\ed by the Eng-
NICHOLAS BAYARD (q. v.), a wealthy and lish law upon traitms-to be hanged,quar-
influential citizen. who was warmly sec- tered, etc. Bayard applied for a rep1"Íe,'e
onded by ROßERT LIVINGSTON (q. v.). until his Majcstr's plea
mre f'hould be
These two men were chiefly instrumental J...nown. It was granted, and in the mean
in bringing Leisler to th
scaffold and time Cornbury an-iyed, when all was re-
treating his family and friends in a versed. Ba,yard was released and rein-
shameful manner. This conduct was con- stated. The democrats were nlaccd umler
tinued until the Earl of Bellomont suc- the lash of the aristocrats. ,,:hich Baranl
ceeded Fletcher as governor, when the and Lh'ingston used without mere
' b.'" the
., Anti-Leislerians" were reduced to a hand of the wretched ruler to whom tl1<,.,'
winority, and kept quiet for a while. offered libations of flattery. The chief-
After the death of Bellomont (March 5, justice who tried Bayard, and tIlt' advoeate
1701), John Kanfan, his lieutenant, ruled who opposed him. were compelled to flr to
for a while. Kanfan favored the demo- England. From that time onward tlH're
cratic party. As soon as it was known was a continuous conflict by the dell1oe-
that LoRD CORXBURY (q. v.), a thorough racy of New York with the aristocrae
'
aristocrat and royalist, had been appointed as represented by the royal governors and
governor. Bayard and his party hcaped their official parasites. It fought bravel.'".
abnse not only upon the dead Bellomont, and won many victories. tIlP greatl'st of
but upon Kanfan. The latter saw that which was in a fierce battle for tlH' fref'-
Bayard was on the verge of a pit which dom of the press, in the case of .JOIIN
he had digged himself, and he pushcd him PETER ZEl\'GER (q. v.).

DEMOCRACY

Democracy in the United States,
CHARACTER of.*-Prof. \Yoodrow Wilson
of Princeton l:niversity (Professor of
.Jurisprudence and Politics), the well-
known author, critic, and lecturer, writes
as follows:

Evcrything apprises us of the faet that
we are not the same nation now that
we were when the government was form-
I'd. Tn looking back to that time. tlH' im-
pn'ssion is inevitable that we started with
sundry wrong ideas about ourst'lves. \Ve
deemed ourselves rank democrats. whereas
we were in fact only progressÏ\'e English-
men. Turn the leaves of that sage man-
ual of f'onstitutional interpretation and
· By courtesy of Messrs. Charles
{'rlbn('r's
Rons.

advocacy, the Fc(leralist, and note the
perverse tendency of its writers to refer
to Gre('ce and Home for precedents-that
Orcl'f'e and nome which haunÌ(.d all our
ear1if'l" and even some of our more matm"f'
y('ars. Hecall , too. that familiar story of
Daniel Webster whid. tf'l1!'1 of his (.oming
home exhaustf'd from an inten'iew with
the first Prf':-.ident-eJect Harrison, who
e
Reel"etarv of fitate 1\(\ was to be. and ('x-
plaining'that he had lIel'n ohligf'd in th('
coursf' of the conff'rf'nce. wh ieh concerned
the inaugural address ahout to be deliver-
ed. to kill nine Uoman consnls whom it
had been the intention of the good ('on-
queror of Tippecanoe publicly to take into
office '\\ ith him. The truth is that we long
imaginf'd onrselves related in some un-
explained war to all nnf'ient l'epuhlicans.
foR

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

sympathy also, though little justification,
for such as caught a generous elevation
of spirit from the speculative enthusiasm
of Rousseau.
For us who stand in the dusty matter-
of-fact world of to-day, there is a touch
of pathos in recollections of the ardor for
democratic liberty that filled the air
of Europe and America a century ago
with such quickening influences. \Ve
may sometimes catch ourselves regretting
that the inoculations of experience have
closed our srstems against the infections
of hopeful revolution.

Strangely enough, too, we at the same
time accepted the quite incompatible
theory that we were related also to the
:French philosophical radicals. "'e claim-
ed kinship with democrats everywhere--
with aU dcmocrats. \Ve can now scarcely
realize the atmosphere of such thoughts.
". e are no longer wont to refer to the
ancients or to the French for sanction of
what we do. \Ye have had abundant ex-
perience of our own by which to reckon.
" HardlJ' any fact in history," says Mr.
Bagehot, writing about the middle of the
century, ., is so incredible as that forty
and a few years ago England was ruled
b;y )1r. Perceval. It seemb \Llmost the
same as being ruled by the Record news-
paper." (Mr. Bagehot would now prob-
Hbl
' say the Standard newspaper.) " He
had the same poorness of thought, the
same petty conseT\yatism. the same dark
and narrow superstition." "The mere fact
of such a premier being endured shows
how deeply the whole national spirit and
intere
t was absorbed in the contest with
Napoleon, how little we understood the
sort of man who should regulate its con-
duct-' in the crisis of Europe,' as Sydney
f'mith said, 'he safely brought the cu-
rates' salaries improvement bill to a hear-
ing '; and it still more shows the horror
of all innovation which the recent events Such was the inspiration which not
of French history had impressed on our \Yordsworth alone, but Coleridge also,
wealthy and comfortable classes. They and many another generous spirit whom
Wf're afraid of catching revolution, as old we love, caught in that day of hope.
women of catching cold. Sir Archibald It is common to say, in explanation of
Alison to this dav holds that revolution our regret that the dawn and youth of
is an inf{'dious disease, beginning no one democracy's day are past, that our prin-
knows how, and going on no one knows ciples are cooler now and more circum-
where. There is but one rule of escape, spect, with the coolness and circum-
(,"plains the great historian: 'Stay still; spection of advanced years. It seems to
don't move; do what you have been ac- some that our enthusiasms have become
clI!'\tollH'd to do: and consult your grand- tamer and more decorous because our
mother on eVf'Q?thing.''' sinews have hardened; that as experience
Almost equally incredible to us is the has grown idealism has declined. Rut to
ardor of revolution that filled the world in speak thus is to speak with the old self-
those first danl of our national life-the deception as to the character of OUT
fact that one 'of thf' rulers of the world's politics. If we are suffering disappoint-
mind in that gem\ration was Rousseau, m('llt
it is the disappointment of an
the apostl(' of all that is fanC'ifu1. unrf'a1. awakening: we were dreaming. For we
and mislC'ading in politics. To be rulf'd neVf'r had any business hearkening to
by him was likf' taking an account of life Rou!'seau or consorting with Europe in
from Mr. Rider Haggard. And yet there revolutionary sentiment. The gO\'ernment
is still much sympathy in this timid world which we founded one hundred years ago
for the dull people who felt safe in the was no type of an experiment in ad-
hands of Mr. Perceval, and, happily, much vanced democracy, as we allowed Europe
fi{)

.. Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,
Hut to be young was very heaven! 0 times
In which the meagre, stale, forbidding
waI's
Of ciÌstom, law, and statute took at once
The attraction of a country in romance!
When Reason seemed the most to assert
her rights,
When most intent on making of herself
A prime Enchantress, to assist the work
Which then was going forward in her
name!
Not favored spots alone, but the whole
eaI.th.
The beauty wore of promise, that which
sets
(As at some moment might not be unfelt
Among the bowers of paradise itself)
The budding rose above the rose full
blown."

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OP

freedom of thought and the diffusion of

nlightenment among the people. Steam
and el('ctricity have ('o-operated with SYR-
tematic popular ('ducation to accomplish
this diffusion. The progress of popular
('ducation and the progn'sR of democracy
have been insl'parable. The publication
of their great enc
'c1opæùia by Diderot
and his associates in France in tlw laRt
century, was the sure Rign of the change
that was setting in. Lf'arning waR turn-
ing its face away from the studious few
towards the curious many. The intellect-
ual movement of the modern time was
emerging from the narrow courses of
scholastic thought, and beginning to
!'pread itself abroad over the extended, if
shallow, levels of the common mind. The
serious forces of democracy will be found,
upon analysis, to reside, not in the dis-
turbing doctrines of eloquent revolution-
ary writers, not in the turbulent discon-
t('nt of the pauperized and oppressed, so
much as in the cducational forces of thl'
last 150 years, which have elevated the
masses in many countries to a plane of
understanding and of orderly, intelligent
purpose more nearly on a level with the
average man of the classes that have
hitherto been permitted to govern. The
movements towards democracy which
have mastered all the other political ten-
dencies of our day are not older than the
J'1iddle of the last century; and that is just
the age of the now ascendant movement
towards systematic popular education.
Yet organized popular education is only
one of the quickening influences that have
bC'en producing the general enlighten-
ment which is everywhere becoming the
promise of general liberty. Rather, it is
only part of a great whole, vastly larger
than itself. Schools are but flf'parated
s('('d-beds, in which the staple thoughts
of the steady and Rtay-at-home people are
prcparro. and nurR('d. Not muC'h of the
world. moreov('r, goes to Rchool in the
school-house. Rut through the mighty
infhlf'nCPS of pomnwrce and the press the
J world itself has becom(' a school. The
First, then, for the forpes which arf' air is alive with th(' multitudinous voices
bringing in democratic tpmp('r and mpthod of information.
tpadv trade-winds of
the world over. It is mattC'r of familiar intf'f('olJllll11nication }Jav
sprung up which
knowlcdg(' what these forC'f's are. but it earry Uw sf'eds of ('duC'ation and enlight-
will be profitable to our thought to pass ('n1l1I'nt. whf'r(,sof'v('r plantf'd. to ('vpry
Uwm onf'(' 1I10rf' in rf'vipw. ThC'y are quartpr of thp gloh(', No R(,Tnp of J1f'W
70

and even ourselves to suppose; it was
simply an adaptation of English consti-
tutional government. If we suffered Eu-
rope to study our institutions as instances
in point touching experil1H'ntation in
politics, she was the more deceived. If
we began the first century of our national
existence under a similar impression our-
selves, there is the greater reason why
we should start out upon a new century
of national life with more aceurate con-
ceptions.
To this end it is important that the
following, among other things, should be
kept prominently in mind:
1. That there are certain influenees
astir in this country which make for
democraey the world over, and that these
influences owe their origin in part to the
radical thought of the last century; but
that it was not such forees that made us
democratic, nor are we responsible for
them.
2. That, so far from owing our gov-
ernments to these general influences, we
began, not by carr
'ing out any theory,
but by simply carrying out a history-
inventing nothing, only establishing a
specialized species of :English govern-
ment; that we founded. not demoeraey,
hut constitutional government in America.
3. That the go,'ernment which we thus
set up in a perfectly normal manner
has nevertheless changed greatly under
our hands, by reason both of growth and
of the op('ration of the general democratic
forees-the European, or rather world-
wide, democratic forces of which I have

poken.
4. That two things, the grmt size to
which our J!overmuental organis::l has
attained, and, still more, this reeent ex-
posure of its character and purposes to
the common democratic forces of th(' age
of steam and eleetrieity. have created new
problems of organization, whieh it bf'-
hooves us to nwet in the old spirit, but
with new measures.

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

thought can escape being borne away
from its place of birth by these all-
absorbing currents. 1\0 idea can be kept
exclusively at home, but is taken up
by the trader, the reporter, the traveller,
the missionary, the explorer, and is given
to all the world in the newspapers, the
novel, the memoir, the poem, the treatise,
till every community may know, not only
itself, but all the world as well, for the
small price of learning to read and keep-
ing its ears open. All the world, so
far as its news and its most insistent
thoughts are concerned, is fast being made
every man's neighbor.
Carlyle unquestionably touched one of
the obvious truths concerning modern
democracy when he declared it to be the
result of printing. In the newspaper
press a whole population is made critic
of all human affairs; democracy is " virtu-
ally extant," and "democracy virtually
extant will insist on becoming palpably
extant." Looked at in the large, the
newspaper press is a type of democracy,
bringing all men without distinction un-
der comment made by any man without
distinction; every topic is reduced to a
common standard of news; everything
is noted and argued about by everybody.
Nothing could give surer promise of
popular power than the activity and
alertness of thought which are made
through such agencies to accompany the
training of the public schools. The ac-
tivity may often be misdirected or un-
wholesome, may sometimes be only fever-
ish and mischievous, a grievous product
of narrow information and hasty con-
clusion; but it is none the less a stirring
and potent activity. It at least marks
the initial stages of effective thought. It
makes men conscious of the existence and
interest of affairs lying outside the dull
round of their Own daily lives. It gives
them nations, instead of npighborhoods,
to look upon and think about. They
('atch glimpses of the international con-
nections of their trades, of the universal
application of law, of the endless variety
of life, of òiversities of race, of a wodò
teeming with men like thpmselves, and.
yet full of strangp customs, puzzled by
dim omf'ns, stained by crimp, ringing with
voicf's familiar and unfamiliar.
And all this a man can nowadays get
11

without stirring from home, by merely
spelling out the print that covers every
piece of paper about him. If men are
thrown, for any reason, into the swift
and easy currents of travel, they find
themselves brought daily face to face with
persons native of every clime, with prac-
tices suggestive of whole histories, with
a thousand things which challcnge
ctuiosity, inevitably provoking inquiries
such as enlarge
nowledge of life and
snake the mind imperatively loose from
old preconceptions.
These are the forces which have cstab-
lished the drift towards democracy.
\Vhen all sources of information are
accessible to all !TIen alike, when the
world's thought and the world's news are
scattered broadcast where the poorest
may find them, the non-democratic forms
of government must find life a desperate
venture. Exclusive privilege needs pri-
vacy, but cannot have it. King
nip of
the elder patterns needs sanctity, but can
find it nowhere obtainable in a world of
news items and satisfied curiosity. The
many will no longer receive submissively
the thought of a ruling few, but insist
upon having opinions of their own. The
repches of public opinion have been in-
finitely e
tended; the number of voices
that must be heeded in legislation and
in executive policy has been infinitely
multiplied. )[odern influences have in-
clined every man to clear his throat for
a word in the world's debates. They have
popularized everything they have touched.
In the newspapers, it is true, there i::.
very little concert between the writers;
little but piecemeal opinion is created by
their comment and argument; there is
no common voice amid their counsellings.
But the aggregate voice thunders with
tremendous ,'ohmIe: and that aggregate
voice is "pl1hlic opinion." Popular edu-
cation and cheap printing and traTel
vastly thichn the ranks of thinkers every-
where that their influence ÏR felt, and by
rousing the multitude to take knowleòge
of the affairs of government prepare the
time when the multitude will, so far as
possiblc, takp ('hargf' of the affairs of
governnwnt-tllf' time wl}(>n, to rf'ppat
('lIrlyle's phrase, democracy will hf'come
palpahly f"\.tant.
But, mighty as
mch forces arf', df'lllo-

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

ment of the men to whom we owe the
establishment of our institutions in the
United States, we are at once made aware
that there is no communion between their
democraCJ' and the radical thought and
restless spirit calJpd h)' that name in
.Europe. There is almost nothing in com-
mon bet\\pen popular outhreaks such as
took place in :France at her great Rf','olu-
tion and the establh,hment of a go, ernmput
like our own. Our memories of the ypar
1789 are as far as possible removed from
the memories which Europe retains of
that pregnant year. We manifested 100
years ago what Europe lost, namely, self-
command, se1f-po,",session. Democrac
' in
Europe, outsidp of closeted Switzerland.
has acted always in rebellion. as a dp-
structive force: it can scarcely be said
to have had, evpn yet, any period of
organic development. It has built such
temporary governments as it has had op-
portunity to erect on the old foundations
and out of the disf'rf'dited matf'rials of
centralized rule, elf'vating the pf'opl('s
representatives for a spason to the throne.
but securing almost as little as evcr of
that pvery-day local self-gowrnment which
lies so near to the heart of liberty. Democ-
racy in America, on the other hand, and
in the English coloni
:. has had, almost
from the first. a truly organic growth.
Tl)('re was nothing revolutionnry in its
movements: it harl not to oVf'rthrow ot1lPr
politif's; it haò only to orgnnize itsf'lf.
It had not to creatp. but only to f'''pand.
se1f-govprnmpnt. It did not need to
spread propagnnda: it nf'f'df'd nothing but
to mf'tllOdi7e itR ways of Hving.
Tn brief. we were òoing nothing eRsen-
tia lly nf'W a ef'ntur,\" ago. Our strengt 11
and our facility alikf' inllf'rf'ò in our tra-
ditions; those traditions madf' our ehnr-
netpr nnò shaped our institutions. Lih-
f'rty is not something that can be creatf'd
b.v a document; neithpr is it something
wllieh. whpn creatpò. can be laid away in
a doeumpnt. a complptpò work. It i
an
'''"pry different were the forces h('hind organie prineipl{'-a principlf' of life, rp-
us. Kothing estahlishes the rppuhlicnn nf'win1! and hf'ing renewed. Democratic
stntel:;ave trained capacity for sp1f-gov- institutions are ne"pr òone: they are 1ikp
ernment, practical aptitude for puhlic af- 1i,-ing ti
sl1P, alwn
-s a-making. It is a
fairs, habitual soberness anrl temperatp- 8trenuous thing. this of living the Hfe of
ness of united action. 'Yhen we look a frpp people; and ollr success in it Òf'-
back to the modf'rate sagacity and stead- 1'f'n<IR upon training, not upon clpver
fast, self-eontRined hRbit in self-govern- invention.
72

craUc as the;y are, no one can fail to per-
ceiw that they are inadequate to produce
of themselves such a government as ours.
Tlwre is little in them of constructive
eflieacy. The,y could not of themselves
huild any go\"Crnment at all. They are
crit ieal, analytical, questioning, quizzing
fureps; not architectural, not powers that
dl>vise and build. The influences of pop-
ular education, of the press, of travel,
of commerce, of the innumerable agen-
cies which nowadays send knowledge and
thought in quick pulsations through every
part and nwmbpr of society, do not neces-
sarily mould men for effective endeavor.
They may only confuse and paralyze the
mind with their myriad stinging lashes of
e
citement. They may only strengthen
the impression that" the world's a stage,"
anò that no one need do more than sit
and look on through his ready glas"" the
newspaper. They overwhelm one with im-
preSSh-'llS, but do they give stalwartness
to his manhood? Do they make his hand
any steadier on the plough, or his pur-
pose any clearer with reference to the
duties of the moment? They stream light
about him. it may be, but do they clear
his vision? Is he hetter ahle to see be-
cause they gi,-e him countless things to
look at? Is he better able to judge be-
cause the
' fill him with a delusive sense
of knowing everything? Activity of mind
is not necessarily strength of mind. It
ma;y manifest itself in mere dumb Elhow;
it may run into jigs as well as into stren-
uous work at noble tasks. A man's farm
does not yield its fruits the more abun-
dantly in their season because he reads
thc worlers ncws in thé pnpers. A mer-
chnnts shipments do not multiply bf'cause
he studies history. Ranking is none the
lp!'!<; hazardous to the hankc>r's capital nnrl
taxing to his powerEl beeause the best
writing of the best essayists is to he
bought cheap.

II

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

Our democracy, plainly, was not a body through long heredity. It is poison to the
of doctrine; it was a stage of develop- infant, but tonic to the man. Monarchies
ment. Our democratic state was not a may be made, but democracies must grow.
piece of developed theory, but a piece of It is a deeply significant fact, therefore,
developed habit. It was not created by again and again to be called to mind, that
mere aspirations or by new faith; it was only in the enited
tates, in a few other
built up b
" slow custom. Its process was governments begotten of the Englisll race,
t'xperience, its basis old wont, its meaning and in Switzerland. where old Tf'utonic
national organic oneness anù effective life. habit has had the same persistency as in
It came, like manhood, as the fruit of England, have examples yet been furnish-
youth. An immature people coulù not have ed of successful democracy of the modern
had it, and the maturity to which it type. England hErself is close upon
was vouchsafed was the maturity of free- democracy. Hpr backwardness in entering
dom and self-control. Such government upon its full practice is no less instruc-
as ours is a form of conduct, and its only tiH as to the conditions prerequisite to
stable foundation is character. A par- dcmocl"<\CY than is the f01"wanlness of her
ticular form of government may no more offspring. She sent out to all her colonies
he adopted than a particular type of which esC'uped the luckless beginning of
character may be adopted: both institu- being made pen,ll settlen1Pnts, compara-
tions and charactf'r must be developed th"ely Rmall, homogent-'ous populations of
by consciou5> effort and through trans- pioneers, with strong instincts of self-
mitted aptitudes. government, and with no social materials
Governments such as ours are founded out of which to build government other-
upon discussion. and gonrnment by dis- wise than democratically. She. hen,pIf.
eussion comes as late in political as scien- meanwhile, retained massf'S of populatioll
tiflc thought in intellpctual development. l!e\"Cr habituated to participation in gov-
It is a habit of Rtate life created bJT long- emment, untaught in political principle
established circumstance, and is possible Either by the teachers of the hustings or of
for a nation only in the adult age of its the school-house. She has had to approach
political life. The people who succe"s- democracy, therefore, hy Rlow and eau-
fuIIy maintain such a government must tious extensions of the franchise to tl\Ose
have gonf' through a period of political prepared for it; while l\('r hettf'r coloniC's,
training which shan have preparpd them born into democracy, }I<l\-e had to receive
h.'T gradual steps of acquired privilege all comers within their pale. She has
for aRRuming the entire control of their heen paring down ðclusive privileges and
affairs. Long and slowly widening ex- If'ypIling classes; the C'olnnies have from
perience in local self-direction must ha,-e the firRt been asyluJlls of ei\"il ('quality.
prepared them for national self-direction. TIH'Y have aSRimilated ]1(>W while Rhe has
They must have acquired adult self-rp- prf'pared olel populations.
liance,
e]f-knowledge, and self-control, Erronpous 3S it is to represent gm'C'rn-
adult soberneRR and deliberateness of ment as only a eOJl1monpl(\C'{' sort of husi-
judgment. adult sag
it.Y in self-govprn- ness. little cle,'ated in mf'thod above mer-
JI1('nt, adult vigilance of thought and chandising, and to be r('glllated by count-
quickness of insight. \Vhen practiRed, not ing-houRe principles, thf' favor easily won
by sml:1 n communities. but by wide na- for such views among our own people iR
tions, democracy, far from being a crude very signifipant. It nlPans self-reliance in
form of government, is possible only go,-ernment. It gi"(,R voice to the emi-
aJUong peoples of the highest and steadi- nently mod('rn rl('nlOf'ratic feeling that
est politiC'al habit. It is the hf'ritage of government is no hiddC'n cuIt. to he left
racps purged alikp of hasty barbaric pas- to a ff'w speciaIIy prepared indiddualR,
f.ionR and of patient servility to rulers, hut a common. ev('ry-day concern of lifp.
:md Rchooled in t('mperate common counsel. p'Tf'n if the higg(,Rt such concern. It iR
1t iR an institution of political noonday, this RcIf-ponfidence, in many cases mis-
not of the half-light of political dawn. taken. no doubt. which is gradually
It can never hf' made to sit easily or Rafelv sprf'ading among other peoples, less justi-
on first generations, but strengthen's fled in it than are our own.
73

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

One cannot help marvelling that facts
so oh,"ious as these should ha,'e escap(>d
the perception of :;ome of the sa
est
thinkers and most thorough historical
scholars of uur day. Yet su it is. Sir
lIenr)' l\1aine, e\"en, the great interpreter
to Eng1ishmen of the historical forces
operative in law and social institutions,
has utterly failed, in his plausible work
un Popular UOl'crnnU'nt, to distinguish
the democracy, or rather the popular
gO\"ernment. of the English race, which
is hred by slow circumstance and founded
upon habit, from the democracy of other
peoples, which is bred by discontent and
founded upon revolution. He has missed
that most obvious teaching of e\"ents, that
successful democracy differs from unsuc-
cessful in being a product of history-
a product of forces not suddenly become
operative, but slowl)' working upon whole
peoples for generation:; together. The
level of demoeracv is the level of everv-
day habit, the le
'cl of COmmon nation
l
experiences, and 1ies far below the eleva-
tions of ecstasy to which the revolutionist
climbs.

by nl'ighbors, by peoples not only homo-
geneous, but characterized within hy the
existence among their members of a quick
sJ'mpathy and. easy neighborly knowl-
edge of each uther. Kot foreseein
steam
and electricity or the ditrusiun uf new::;
and knowledgl' which we have witnessed,
our fathers were right in thinkin
it im-
possihle for the gO\'ernment whieh they
had founded to spread without strain or
break over the whole of the continent.
\Yere not Califurnia now as lwar nei
hbur
to the .Ulantic 8ta tes as Massachusetts
then was to New York, national self-gov-
ernment on our present scale would as-
suredl)' hardly be possible, or conceivable
even. Modern science, Bearcely less than
our pliancy and steadinl'ss in political
habit, may be said to ha"e created the
"Cnited States of to-daJ'.
Upon some aspects of this growth it is
very pleasant to dwell, and very profit-
able. It is significant of a strength which
it is inspiring to contemplatc. The ad-
vantages of bigness accompanied by
abounding life are many and invaluable.
It is impossible among us to hatch in a
corner any plot which will affect more
than a corner. \Vith life everywl1('rr
"'hile there can be no doubt ahout the throughout the continent, it is impossi-
derivation of our gOYernment from habit ble to seize illicit power over the whole
rather than from doctrine, from English people by seizing any central offices. To
ôperience rather than from European hold \Yashington would be as useless to
thought; while it is evident that our in- a usurper as to hold Duluth. Self-gov-
stitutions were originally but products of ernment cannot be usurped.
a long, unbroken, unperverted constitu- A French writer has said that the au-
ti0nal history; and certain that we shan tocratic asc(>ndency of .Andrew Jackson
preserve our institutions in their integrity illustrated anew the long - credited tcn-
and efficiency only so long as we keep dency of democracies to give them..eh'es
true in our practice to the traditions from over to one hero. The country is ollIer
which our first strength was derived, now than it was when Andrew Jackson
then' is, nevertheless. little doubt that deligl1tecI in his power, and few can he-
the forces peeuliar to the new civilization lie\'(' that it would again appro,'e or ap-
of our day, and not only these, but also plawl ehildish arrogance and ignorant
the restless forces of European democratic arhitrariness like his; hut even in his
tIlOught and anarchic turhulence brought case, 8triking and ominous as it was, it
to us in such alarming volume hy immi- must not be overlooked that he was suf-
gration, have deeply affectcd and may fered only to strain the Constitution, not
ùeeply modify the forms and habits of to hreak it. He hf'ld his office hv oròer-
our politics. I." l'lcction; he exercised its f
mctions
All vital govermnents-anù hy vital within the letter of thf' law; h(> could
go\'ernments I mean those whieh have silf'nf'f' not one word of hostilf' C'ritieism:
life in their outlying mf'mhers as wen and. his see'owl tflrHl C''"l'irf'rl. 11() l'as!'C'rl
as life in thf'ir heads - all Sy!'tfllllS in into pri,'atp life as harmlC'ssly as did
wl.ieh sC'lf-gnvC'rmnent li,'C's awl re!.aill!i .Tamcs
r()nroe. A nation t.hat can fJlli(.t-
its self-possession, mu.,t be gm'ernments ly rf'aLsorb a vast victorions army is no
74

III

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES 1 CHARACTER OF

more safely free and healthy than is a
nation that could reabsorb such a Presi-
dent as Andrew Jackson, sending him
into seclusion at the Hermitage to live
without power, and die almost forgotten.
A huge, stalwart body politic like
ours, with quick life in every individual
town and county, is apt, too, to have
the strength of variety of judgment.
Thoughts which in one quarter kindle en-
thusiasm may in another meet coolness
or arouse antagonism. Events which are
fuel to the passions of one section may
be but as a passing wind to another sec-
tion. No single moment of indiscretion,
surely, can easily betray the whole coun-
try at once. There will be entire popula-
tions still cool, self-possessed, unaffect-
ed. Generous emotions sometimes sweep
whole peoples, but, happily, evil passions,
sinister views, base purposes, do not and
cannot. Sedition cannot surge through
the hearts of a wakeful nation as patriot-
ism can. In such organisms poisons dif-
fuse themselves slowly; only healthful
life has unbroken course. The sweep of
agitations set afoot for pnrposes unfamil-
iar or uncongenial to the customary pop-
ular thought is broken by a thousand ob-
ftacles. It may be easy to reawaken old
enthusiasms, but it must be infinitely
hard to create new ones, and impossible
to surprise a whole people into unpre-
meditated action.
It is well to give full weight to these
great advantages of our big and strenu-
ous and yet familiar way of conducting
affairs: hut it is imperative at the same
time to make very plain the influences
which are pointing towards changes in
our politics-changes which threaten loss
of organic wholeness and soundness. The
union of strength with bigness depends
upon the maintenance of character, and
it is just the character of the nation
which is being most deeply affected and
modified by the enormous immigration
which, year after year, pours into the
country from Europe. Our own tem-
perate blood, schooled to self-possession It is thus that we are brought to our
and to the measured conduct of self-gov- fourth and last point. \Ve have noted
('rnment, i
rec{'iving- a constant infusion (I) the general forces of democracy which
and yearly experieneing a partial corrup- have been sapping old forms of govf'rn-
tinn of foreign blood. Our own equahle U1<'nt. in all parts of tJl(> worM; (2) t11f'
hahits 11av(l h(len cros!':f'd with the fever- {'Tror of supposing om'sf'h'('s indehted to
ÎRh hUlllor8 of the restless Old '''orld. those forces for the creation of our gov-
7fi

\Ve are unquestionably facing an ever-in-
creasing difficulty of self-command with
{'ver-deteriorating materials, possibly with
degenerating fibre. 'Ve IlRve so far suc-
ceeded in retaining

.. Some sense of duty, sometbing of a faith,
Some reverence for the laws ourselves have
made,
Some patient force to change them wben
we will,
Some civic manhood firm against the
crowd ;"

But we must reckon our power to con-
tinue to do so with a people made up of
"minds cast in every mould of race-
minds inheriting every bias of environ-
ment, warped by the diverse histories of
a score of different nations, warmed or
chilled, closed or expanded, by almost
every climate on the globe."
'Yha t was true of our early circum-
stances is not true of our present. \Ye
are not now simply ealTJ'ing out under
normal conditions the principles and
habits of English constitutional history.
Our tasks of construction are not done.
'Ve have not simply to conduct, but also
to preserve and frf'shly adjust our gov-
ernment. Europe has sent her habits
to ns, and she has sent also her politi-
cal philosophy, a l}hilosophy which has
never been purged by the cold bath of
practical politics. The communion which
we did not have at first with her heated
and mistaken ambitions, with her radi-
cal, speculative habit in politics, with her
readiness to experiment in forms of gov-
ernment, we may possibly have to enter
into now that we are receiving her popu-
lations. Not only printing and steam
and electricity have gotten hold of us to
expand our English civilization. but also
those general, and yet to us alien, forces
of democracy of which mention has al-
ready been made; and these are apt to
tell disastrously upon our Saxon habits in
government.

IV

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

('rnment, or in any way connected \\ ith ards, not policies. Questions of gov('rn-
tlJPm in our origins; and (3) the effect ment ar
infinitely complex questions, and
th('y ha,'e ne,-ertheless had upon us as no multitude can of themselVf's form clear-
parts of the general influences of the age, cut, comprehensive, consistent conclusions
111'1 well as bJ' reason of our vast immigra- touching them. Yet without such conclu-
tion from Europe. What, now, are the sions, without sin
le and prompt purposes,
new problems which have been prepared government cannot be carried on. N('ither
for our solution bJ' reason of our growth legislation nor administration can be <1on('
I1nd of the effects of immigration? They at the ballot-box. The people can only
may require as much political capac- accept the governing aet of representa-
ity for their proper solution as any that tives. But the size of thp moùern dr-
('on fronted the architects of our govern- mocracy necessitat('s the exercise of per-
ment. suasive power by dominant mimh: in the
These problems are chiefly problems of shaping of popular judgments in a very
organization and leadership. \Yere the different way from that in which it was
nation homogeneous, were it composed pxercised in former times. "It is said
simply of later generations of the same hy eminent censors of the press." said ::\11".
stock bv which our institutions were Bright on one occasion in the House of
planted,' few adjustments of thf' old ma- ('ommons, "that this d('hate will )'ield
chinery of our politics would, perhaps, about thirty hours of talk, and will pnd
be necessary to meet the exigencies of in no result. I have obsern'd that all
growth. But every added element of va- great fJuestions in this country require
riety, particularly every added element thirty hours of talk many timcs repeat-
of foreign variety, complicates even the ed before they are settled. There is much
simpler questions of politics. The dan-
hower and much sunshine betwpen tlw
gers attending that variety which is hete- sowin
of the seed and the reaping of the
ro
eneity in so vast an organism as ours harvest, but the harvest is gpnerally rpap-
are, of course, the dangers of disintegra- ed after all." Ro it must be in all sdf-
tion-nothing less; and it is unwise to governing nations of to-day. TIJPY are
think these dangers remote and merely not a single audience within sound of an
contingpnt because they are not as yet orator's voice, but a thousanò audiences.
very menacing. \Ye are conscious of one- Their actions do not spring from a single
ness as a nation, of vitality, of strength, thrill of feeling. but from slow com,hl-
of progress; but are we often conscious of sions following upon much talk. The talk
common thought in the concrete things of must gradually per('olate throu;.!h tl1<'
national poJicy? Does not our legislation whole mass. It ('annot he I'pnt straight
wear the f('atures of a vast conglomerate? through them so that th('
T are plectrifipd
.\re we conscious of any national leader- as thp pulse is stirreò by the call (If a
!o<llip? Are we not, rather, dimly aware trumpd. A score of platforms in evpry
of heing pllll('d in a score of directions npighhorhood n111
t ring with the in
istpnt
hy a score of cro
sing influences, a multi- voi('e oi ('ontrov('rsy; and for a few lIun-
tude of contending forces? dredR who hpar what is Raid hy the puhlie
This vabt and miscellaneous democracy 8peakprs. many thouRands must r('ad of
of ours must he led; its giant faculties the matter in the newspapers, discuss it
must be schooled and directed. Leader- interjectionally at the breakfast - tahlp,
ship cannot belong to the multitude; desultorily in thp f1tre('t-cars. laconically
masses of men ('annot he s('1f - directed, on the strpets, dogmatically at dinner:
IIpither can groups of communities. We all this with a eflrtain aòvantage. of
:-;peak of the !'o\"prei
rnty of the people, COl1r
f'. Through 1'0 many stagps of ('on-
hut that sovereignty. we know very w('lI, sideration passion mnnot possihly hold
is of a peculiar sort; quite unlike the out. It gpts ehill('(1 hy over-f'xposure. Tt
Rovereignty of a king or of a small, easily finds th(' mnòprn popular
tate orgnni7('d
mnc('rting ;.!roup of confident men. It for giving and hflarin
C'OIInspl in 811C'1I a
i
.iudieial m('rpl
'. not C'reative. It pas8('s wl1y thl1t t1lOse who gi\"p it mu!':t be carp-
.iudl!ment or givf's !'lanction. but it can- ful thl1t it is such counsel as will w('ar
not direC't or 8uggest. It furni8he8 stand- well. Th08e \\ ho 11('ar it h
lßdle and ex-
70

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

amine it enough to te
t its \\'earin
qual i- body to he p(.nma.ùed. it IlIU
t know its
ties to the utmost. All this, howcver, persuaders; in order tu hc effective, it
when looked at from another puint of must always havc choice of men who are
view, but illustrates an infinite difficulty impersonated po1icies. .Tust because none
of achieving energy and organization. but the finest mental batteries, with pure
There is a certain peril almost of disinte- metals and unadulterated acids, can send
gration attending such phenomena. a current through so huge and yet so rare
Everyone now knows familiarly enough a medium as democratic opinion, it is the
I->ow we accomplished the wide aggre- more necessary to look to the excellence
gations of self-government characteristic of these instrumentalities. There is no per-
of the modern time, how we have articu- manent place in democratic leadership
lated governm<>nts as vast and yet as except for him who "hath clean hands
whole as continents like our own. The and a pnre heart." If other men come
instrumentality has been representation, temporarily into power among us, it is
of which the ancient world knew nothing, because we cut our kadership up into
and lacking which it always lacked nation- so many small parts, and do not subject
al integration. Because of representation anyone man to the purifying influences
and tlle railroads to carry representatives of cpntred responsihility. Never before
to distant capitals, we have been able to was consistent leadership so necessary;
rear colossal structures like the govern- never before was it nf'ees
ary to concert
nIPnt of the United States as easily as the measures over areas so vast, to adjust
ancients gave political organization to a laws to so many interests. to make a rom-
city; and our great building is as stout pact and intclligible unit out of so many
as was their little one. fractions, to maintain a central and domi-
Rut not until recently have we been nant force whpre there are so many
ahle to see the full effects of thus send- forces.
ing mm to lcgislate for us at capitals dis- It is a noteworthy fact that U1<' ndmira-
tant thp breadth of a continent. It makes tion for our institutions which hns during
the leaders of our politics, many of them, the past few years sO suddpnly grown to
lIIere nanU's to our consciousness instead large proportions among publicists abroad
of real persons whom we have seen and is almost all of it òirected to the r<>straints
lleanl, and whom we know. \Ve have to we have effected upon the aption of gov-
a{'eept rumors con<>erning them. we have f'rnment. Sir Helll",\'
faiJle thought our
to know t1H'm through the variously col- federal Constitution nn admirable rpser-
orf'd aC'counts of othprs; we can seldom voir, in whieh thc mighty waters of de-
test our impressions of their sincerity by mocraC'y are held at rest, kept back from
stnnding with them face to face. Here frcp destructive course. J
ord Rosebery
cf'rtainly tl1<' ancient pocket republics had has wondering praise for the security of
mnph the nd,'antagp of us: in them citi- our Senate ngainst usurpation of its func-
zens and lemlers were always n<>ighbors; tion., by the House of Represf'ntative
.
they stood constantly in each othpr's pres- 'fro Goldwin Smith supposes the saving
f'nCf'. Ewrv A tl1f'nian knew Themisto- act of organization for a demoerapy to
f'le:-;'S mann
r. and gait. anò address, and hf' the drafting and adoption of a writtf'n
f('lt dire('tly tIle just influpnC'p of Aris- eonstitution. Thus it is always the static,
lid('
. No Athenian of a later period need- newr the dynamic, forces of O\1r gov<>rn-
f'd to hI' to 1 (1 of the vanitif's and fop- ment which arc praised. The grpater part
l)f'rif's of AI('ihiad('s. any more tl1l1n the of O\1r for<>ign admirf'rs find our success
pll1pr gpnpration J1f'('(lcd to have descrih('d to consi!'t in the acllievenJPnt of stahle
to thpm the pf'l"!"onality of Peric1e
. safpgnanls against hasty or retrogr<>ssive
Our separation from onr lpaders is the action: wp arf' askf'ò to b('li(',.e that Wf'
greater ppril. because democratic govern- h:n'e sUf'('peòpd bpcause Wf' have taken 8ir
Jlwnt morp than any other neeòs organiza- l\rchihalò Alison's ad,.iee. and ha'.e resist-
tion in order to escape disintegration: amI I'd tllf' inff'ction of revolution by staying
it can have organbmtion only hy full quite still.
knowlpdge of its leaders and full confi- Rut. after all, progress i!'l motion.
ov-
<!encp in tlwm. .Tust h('C'ans(' it is a vast f'rnment is n<>tion. 1'11f' waters of (1('1110('-
ï7

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES-DEMOCRATIC PARTY

racy ure useless in their reservoirs unless
they uw>. be used to dri,'e the wheels of
policy and administration. Though we
be the most law-abiding and law-directed
nation in the world, law has not yet
attained to such efficacy among us as to
frame, or adjust, or administer itself.
It may restrain, but it cannot lead us;
and I believe that unless we concentrate
If'gislative leadership-leadership, that is,
in progressive policy-unless we give leave
to our nationality and practice to it by

uch concentration, we shall sooner or later
suffer something like national paralysis in
the face of emergencies. 'Ve have no one
in Congress who stands for the nation.
Each man stands but for his part of the
nation; and so management and combina-
tion, whieh may be effected in the dark,
are given the place that should be held
by centred and responsible leadership,
which would of necessity work in the
focus of the national gaze.
What is the valuable element in mon-
archy which causes men constantly to turn
to it as to an ideal form of government,
could it but be kept pure and wise? It
is its cohesion, its readiness and power to
act, its abounding loyalty to certain con-
crete things, to certain visible persons, its
concerted organization, its perfect model
of progressive order. Democracy abounds
with vitality; but how shall it combine
\\ ith its other elements of life and
strength this power of the governments
that know their own minds and their own
aims? We have not yet reached the age
when government may be made imper-
sonal.
The only way in which we can preserve
our nationality in its integrity and its
old-time originative force in the face of
growth and imported change is by eoncen-
tra ting it; by putting leaders forward,
vpsted with abundant authority in the
(.oneeption and execution of policy. Thf're
is plf'nty of the old vitality in our na-
tional charaC'ter to tel1. if we wiII hut
give it leave. Give it )Pave. and it wiII
the mor(' impress and mould those who
come to us from ahroad. I hdieve that
we have not made enough of leadership.

II A people Is but the attpmpt of many
To rise to the completer life of one;
And those who live as mod{'I!I for tb{' mass
Are o;lngly of more value than tbey aH."

'Ve shall not again have a true national
life until we compact it b
' buch legisla-
tive leadership as other nations have. Hut
once thus compacted and embodied, our
na tionaIity is safe.
Democratic Clubs. The opposif-ion
party to Washington formed many clubs
or societips to expre

8ympathy with
France and the princ'iplps of the French
Rpvolution in 1 7!)
and 1794. They
passed out of existence a bout the end of
the 18th century. See GEXEST, EmlOXD
CHARLES: DE
IOCRATIC SOCIETIES.
Democratic Party. For the origin and
early development of the ]>art
., see the
article REPLßLICA
PARTY. Its main
tenets were strict construction of the
Constitution and opposition to extension
oi the federal powers. Jefferson, Madi-
80n, and Monroe were members of the then
dominant party, and under the last-named
President party lines for a short time
disappeared in the so-caned "era of
good feeling." Soon afterwards the
Democrats came under the leadership of
.Jackson, and were opposed to the Ka-
tional RppublicanR and Whigs. Jackson's
successor, Van Buren, was a Democrat. A
Whig interval (1841-4.3) ensued. Then
followed the Democratic administration
of Polk, sucC'eeded (1840-53) by another
Whig administration. Pierce and Ru-
chanan were the last Presidents elected
by the party for a long period. In the
general confusion caused by the increas-
ing prominence of slavery the Democrats
at first profited, while the Whigs disap-
peared. In the Civil 'Var many U war
Democrats" acted temporarily with the
Republicans. McClellan, though defeated,
rC'eeived a large popular vote in lRü-t.
Seymour in 18GB, Greeley in 1872 were de-
feated. In 187G the Democrats came nmr
suecess (see ELECTORAL COMMISSION;
HAYER, RUTHERFORD RnlCHARD; Tn,I>EN,
:;:A1.H'EL JO
ES). The House was now
frequently D('mocratic. but the Pr('sidenC'y
was again tak('n b:r th<'Ïr competitors in
ISBn. In 1884 th('y succf'eded in a dose
campaign. The two wings of the party,
revenue reform and protpetionist. long re-
fused to work together. Under the leader-
ship of :\forrison. Carlisle, and Cleveland,
tariff reform became the dominating issu('.
Defeated in 1888, the Democrats gainf'd
a sweeping victory in 1 RHO, and in ] H!12
78

DEMOCRATIC SOCIETIES

regained control of all departments, only
to lose all again in lS!16, when the part).
allo\\ed it
elf to be diverted from its orig-
inal principles by the Populists and sil-
ver men. In HIOO the same elements Con-
trolled it, with the addition of the
-\.nti-
EXpa. 1 1sionists. In both IS9G and 1900 it
lost its national ticket. See BRYA:V,
\\TILLI.UI JENNINGS.
Democratic Societies. In imitation of
the Jacobin club" in Paris, members of

tificate of e\-ery member, in which he was
colUmended to the good oftiees of e\-ery
I:;imilar society in the {;"nion. The in-
formed and thoughtful citizens saw scarce-
ly any resemblance between French and

\merican democracy. The former as-
sumed the aspect of violence in every
form, while the latter was calm, just, and
peaceful. A pamphlet was published in
li9G in which the difference is delineated
b)' an engradng called The Con.trust. It

THE CO
TR\ST.

the Republican party, at about the time was !>oon after that these societies began
when Genet arrived frum France, formed to dwindle in numbers and soon disap-
secret associations, which they called l'parcd.
"Democratic societies." Their ideas and The certificate of membership in these
feelings were almost wholly French, and societies read as follows: "To all other
a large proportion of their membership societies established On principles of
consisted of French people. They were LIB E R T Y ,
disloyal to the government of the rnited E QUA LIT Y ,
f'tates, and sought to control the politics UN ION, P A-
of the Lnion. They seem to have been TRIO TIC YIR-
jn
pired with the fanaticism which at that TrE, AND PER-
time controllcd France. They d
orously SEVERANCE: We,
denounced and opposed \Vashington's the members of
proclamation of neutrality. The societies the Hepnblican
('xisted in various Rtates, and fir"t intro- So e i e t y 0 f
duped the word" Democrat" into Ameri- Baltimore, eer-
can poJities. l\Ia.ny of the Republican par- tify and declare
ty wonM not adopt the word, prpferring to all Repuh-
the old name, until the combined oppo- liean or Demo-
8ition hecame known as the Democratic cratic societies,
Republican party. The Democratic so- and to all Re- SEAL
dE-ties flourished for a while with great publicans in-
vigor. Their members were pledged to dividually, that citizen - hath been
BPcrpcy. Each society had a distinct seal admitted, and now is a member of our
of its o\\"n, wllÌph was att:lC'hf'd to tll(' cpr- sopif'ty, and that, from hi!'! known 7('al
';!)

full powers to bcttle anti rulc in a region
extending over six dt'grees of latitude,
from Cape l\Iay to Quebec. The domain
was named Cadiê in the charter (see
ACADIA). Vested with the
monopoly of the fur-trade in
the region of the river and
gulf of St. Lawrence, they at-
tempted to make a settlement
on the former. l\Iaking ar-
rangements with Champlain
as chief navigator, De l\1onts
sailed from Franee in )Iarch,
HiO-t, with four ships, well
manned, aCl"ompanied by his
bosom friend, the Baron de
Poutrincourt, and Pont-
Ore\"(- as his lieutenants; and
finding the S1. Lawrence ice-
hound, on his arrival early in
April, he determined to makp
a settlement farther to the
southward. The ships also
bore a goodly company of
Protestant and Roman Cath-
olic emigrants, with soldif'rs,
artisans. and convicts. Tllf're
were se,'eral Jesuits in thp
com pan y . Passing around
Cape Br('ton and the penin-
sula of Kova Scotia into the
Bav of Fundv, they anchor('d
in
fine harl;or on' the north-
ern shore of that pf'ninsula
early in l\Iay. Poutrincourt
was charmed with the coun-
try, and was allowed to r('-
main with a part of the emll-
pany, while De Monts. with
the remainder, sev('nty in
number, wpnt tu Passama-
quoddy Ba)., amI on an i,.;l-
and near the mOllth of thp
him to all RepuhliC'ans, that Uu'y may re- Rt. Croix, built a fort, and there spent a
ceiH him with fraternity, which we offer tf'rrihly severe winter, that ki11('(1 half of
to all tho!-ie who may come to us with them.
similar credentials. In witnesRo where- In the spring tlwy return('d to Poutrin-
of, etc. Alexander l\If'Kinn, presid('nt; court's settlement, which he had named
George Rears, secretary." The seal of the Port Royal-now Annapolis,
. So l'
arly
Baltimore Society, which issued the the next autumn De Monts and Puutrin-
ahove certificate, is compo
ed of a figure court returned to France, leavin
Cham-
of Liberty. with pileus, Phrygian eap. and plain and Pont-Grt'v{o to make further e""{-
fasces, with the nan1f' of tlle soC'iety. pI orations. There was a strugglp for rule
De Monts, SIEUR (PIERRE DE GAST), and existence at Port Royal for a few
was a wealthy Huguenot, who was com- veal's. Poutrincourt returned to ]<'ranC'e
missioned viceroy of Xew Francp, with 'for recruits for hiq colony. .Tpsnit
SO

tu prumute Republican principles and the
rights of humanity, we have granted
him this our certificate (which he has
signed in the margin), and do recommend

J.

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StErR I1R )If)STS.

DE MONTS

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DENISON-DENNISON

prie!;ts who accompanied him 011 his re- licatiulls include Jlistury of the 1st Rhode
turn to Acadia (Xova Scotia) claimed Is/(wd Cawlry 7' Westerly and Its 1rït-
the right to supreme rule hy virtue of nesscs for 25() Years; History of the 3d
their holy office. Poutrincourt resisted Rhode TsTand Hcat.y Arti77('ry, dc. He
their claim stoutly, saJ"ing, "It is my part died in Providence, R. I., Aug. 16. IDOL
to rule you on earth; it is your part to Dennie, JOSEPH, journalist; born in
guide me to heaven." When he finally Roston, Aug. 30, lïGR; graduated at
left Port Royal (1612) in charge of his Harvard in 1790; became a law,yer; but
son, the Jesuit priests made the same abandoned his profession for the pursuit
claim on the fiery young Poutrincourt, of literature. He contributed articles to
who threatened them with corporal pun- various newspapers, while J"et practising
ishment, when they withdrew to Mount h1\v, over the signature of "Farrago." In
Desert Island and set up a cross in token 179.3 he became connected with a Boston
of sovereignty. They were there in 1613, weekly newspaper called The Tablet. It
when Samuel Argall, a freebooter of the survived only three months, when Dennie
seas, went, under the sanction of the gov- became the editor of the Farmer's lfeekly
emor of Virginia, to drive the French Jfuscltm, at 'Val pole, N. H., which ac-
from Acadia aoS intruders on the soil of quired an extensive circulation. To it he
a powerful English company. The Jesuits contributed a series of attractive essays
at :Mount Desert, it is said, thirsting for under the title of 'l'lle Lay Preacher. These
'"engeance, piloted Argall to Port Royal. gave their author a high reputation and
He plundered and bm"ned the town, drove were extensively copied into the news-
the inhabitants to the woods, and broke papers of the country. He went to Phil-
up the settlement. Unable to contend adelphia in 1799, where he was confiden-
with the English company, De Monts tial secretary to Timothy Pickering, then
abandoned Acadia and proposed to plant Secretary of State. In that place he re-
a colony on the St. I..awrence Ri,"er, under mained for a few months, and after edit-
the direction of Champlain and Pont- ing for a short time the United States
Orevé. But his monopoly was partially Gazette, he commenced, in conjunction
revoked in !G08. rnder the auspices of with Asbury Dickens, the Portfolio, at
a company of merchants at Dieppe and first a weekly, but afterwards a monthly
St. :\Ialo, settlements were begun at periodical, which acquired a high reputa-
Quebec and Montreal. Soon afterwards tion. In that publication he adopted the
the fortune of De l\Ionts was so much re- literary nRl;)e of "Oliver Oldschool." The
duced that he could not pursue his scheme Portfolio became the recognized leader in
of colonization, and it was abandoned. periodical literature, and was enriched by
Denison, DAXIEL, military officer; born the contributions of some of the foren.ost
in England in IGI3; scttled in New En::{- writers in the country. ::\[r. Dennie con-
land about IG:n; waR cOlnmissioner to tinul'd his eomwetioll with it until his
arrange the differenee>s with D'.\nlny. the death. .Jan. ï. lR12.
French commanlle>r at Penohscot. in I ß-tG Dennison, '\"ILLL\" ; war governor;
and lG.,:J; and late>r was ma.ior-gene>ra] of born in f'irwinllati. 0.,
ov. 23, 1815; was
the colonial forces for te>n
'ears. He> was e>llucatl'd at the Miami University, and
made commander-in-chief of the Massa- graduate>d in IS:J5. Admitted to the bar
c1lUsetts troops in IGi." but owing to ill- in lR40, he became an eminent practi.
ness during that year was not able to tioner. In 1848-50 he was a member of
lead his forces in the Indian 'Var. He the Ohio lep'Ì8lature; and he took an
published Ircnicoll, or .
aTvp for Jl,Tcu' Eng- ae>th"e part in financial and railroad mat-
land's SOTr. He dieci in Ipswich, Mass., ters. 1\Ir. })e>nnison was one of the
Sppt. 20, 1 r.S2. founders of the Republican party in 1 S.,().
Denison, FlmDERTC'. elerg-:nnan: horn in In ISGO he was ('hosen governor of Ohio.
Stoning-ton. Conn., Rept. 28. 181 fI: gr:ul- which office he held two years, during
nate>d at Brown College in 18.H: or- which time he performed most important
dRined to thp Baptist Jl\inistr
': ehaplain (Official Rerviep in putting troops into the
of the :M Uhode Island He>avy .\rtillery fir-Ill for thp l'nion army. From Odober.
for three
'eRrs in tlle> f'i,"n '''nr. 1Iis puh- hHi4, to .fuly, IStilì. he \Va!'! Pustma.;;te>r-
ITT.-F
1

DE NONVILLE-DENTISTRY

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WILLIA '\I DE:II
ISUX.

General, whpn he withdrew from the cab-
inet of President Johnson. He died in
Columbus, 0., June 15, 1882.
De Nonville, MARQUIS, military officer;
after reaching the rank of colonel in the
French army was appointed (1685) gov-
ernor of Canada, with instructions to
"humble the pride of ihe J roquois," who
were the friends of the English and had
rejected overtures from the French. He
took post at Fort Frontenac, on the site
of Kingston, Canada, and there prepared
for an expcdition against a portion of the
Five Nations. He dcclared to his

overeign that the Indians sustained
themselves only by the aid of the English,
who were "the chief promoters of the in-
solence and arrogance of the Iroquois."
He tried to induce them to meet him in
council, to seduce them from the influence
of the English, and a few went to Fronte-
llac; but when Dongan heard of the de-
<;i
ns of the French he invited representa-
tin's of the Fi,-e Nations to a council in
New York City. They came, and Dongan
told tlH
m the King of England would be
their" loving father," and conjured them
not to listen to the persuasions of the
French. Finan,)., in )[ay, 1687, De Kon-
ville was joined by 800 French reg-ulars
from France, and soon afterwards he,
assembling more than 2,000 French regu-
lars, Canadians, and Indians, proceed-
ed. ut their bead, to attack the Spne-
ca:.l. Hf' coa!'ted along the southern shores
of T.ake Ontario to Irondequoit Ray, in
Monroe county, where he landed and was
joined by some French and Indian"! ('om-
82

ing from the west. Thence he pene-
trated to Ontario county, where he was
attacked by a party of Senecas in ambush,
but he repulsed his assailants. The next
day two old Seneca prisoners, after hav-
ing been confessed by the Jesuit priests,
were cooked and eaten by the savages and
the French. Withdrawing to a point in
Monroe county, De Nonville proceeded to
take possession of the whole Seneca
country (.July, 1687) in the name of
King Louis, with pompous ceremonies.
After destroJ'ing an the stored corn (more
than 1,000,000 bushels), the growing
crops, cabins, and a vast number of swine
belonging to the natives whose country
he had invaded, De Konville returned to
Irondequoit Ray and thence to :Montreal.
An act of gross treachery committed by
him before he undertook the expedition,
in seizing deputies from those nations and
scnding them to France, gave the death-
blow to Jesuit missions among the Five
Nations. Lamberville, a faithful mis-
sionary, barely escaped with his life,
through the generosity of the Ononda-
gas.
Dent, FREDERICK TRACY, military offi-
cer; born in White Haven, )10., Dec. 17,
1820; graduated at the Unitpd States
:!\Iilitary Academy in 1843; served in the
war with :\Iexico with marked distinction;
and later was prominent in frontier duty.
In 1863-64 he commanded a regiment in
Xew York City to suppress riots; in the
latter year he became a staff officer to
General Grant; and in 1865 was command-
ant of Richmond and of the garrison at
\Yashington. After the war he received
the brevets of brigadier-general in thp
rpgular and volunteer armies; retired in
1883. He died in Denver, Col., Dpc. 24.
18f12.
Dent, JOHX HERßERT, naval officer;
born in Maryland in 1782; entered the
navy in 1798; served on the frigate ('on-
stellation in li99 when she captured the
French -vessels lnsurgente and La Ven-
geance. He had command of the ?\Tautilu8
and Scourge in Preble's squadron during
the war with Tripoli, and took part in
the assault on the city of Tripoli in
lR04; and was promoted captain in 1811.
He died in St. Bartholomew's parish, Md.,
July 31, 18
3.
Dentistry, SCHOOl.S OF. Thp develop-

DENTON-DEPENDENT CHILDREN

ment of the science of dentistry in the
United States is well attested by the nUlll-
ber of institutions giving instruction
therein. For the most part these schools
are departments of the universities and
large colleges which are authorized to
grant degrees and diplomas. At the end
of the school year 1898 there were fifty
such departments or schools, having 961
professors and instructors, 6,774 students,
and graduating classes aggregating 1,849

students. In the ten J'ears then emlin,!.!
the number of schools had e'-actIy doubled,
and the number of students showed an in-
crease of 327 per cent.
Denton, ÐAXIEL, author; in WiO liP
published in London A. Brief Description
of XC'Ll' York, which in 1845 was repub-
lisllf'd with notes in New York. It is be-
1ieved that this was the first printed Eng-
lish history of New York and New Jer-
sey.

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

and the reduction to mechanical routine
of all the ordinary offices of life. the child
had become dulled in faculty, unthinking,
and dependent. In the institution, he had
been, during the formative period of his
life, a "number," and he "ate, drank,
studied, marched, played and slept in
companies, platoons, and regiments." A
visitor to one institution found a cbss of
boys between eleven and thirteen years of
The history of the state care of children age who had never brushed their own hair,
the world over has been that of the work- the matron having found it easier to stand
house or almshouse. In France, indeed, them in rows and perform this service for
boarding-out seems to have been applied them than to teach each individual boy
widely as early as 1450, when an ordi- how to do it for himself. Hundreds of
nance was passed regulating the salaries girls in their teens left the institution
of the nurses and agents employed in car- yearly who had never made a fire, placed
ing for pauper children in country homes. a tea-kettle to boil, or performed any of
Fosterage existed even earlier in England, the minor household duties so necessa1'Y
where, in the reign of Edward IlL, an to their training as domestic servants. It
act was passed forbiùding English chil- was, in fact, discovered that the child.
dren from being cared for by Irish foster "ho, at great expen;,e to the state, had
parents, as it had been found that such Lecn fed and taught for a long period of
care denationalized t11e children. Rtatis- .'"ear!'" was less capab
e of earning his
tics attest the evilg of the workhousf> and 1i, ing than the youth who had grown up
the almshouse, where the children were ó. half naked anf] half starved" in his
herded with adult paupers, unfitting them parents' cottage in the peat bog" of Ire-
for anything but IiV{'" of pauperism and land.
10Wf>st crime. The pauper child. hf>lplf>sS and hopeless.
The efforts of privat
indh"iduals at la;,t had nUHle an appeal to nature. and nature
rescued the workhouse waifs. and placed Ilad aV(>'1g'pd him. In plaef> of tlw promi"e
them in institutions set apart fOT tIle care of youth aUfI th(> ideals which were to
of children alone. Here the child was guarantf'e the sf>curity of the state. she
made cleanly in habit, and amenahle to rf>turnpd. for nllue rf'('f'i,"ed. the institu-
discipline, while ophthalmia, scrofula. and tiona1i?pd youth, a chag upon society, and,
other diseases inherf>nt in institution life in the f>nd, an added burden to the ta,,-
showed some signs of abatement. But pn-,Ver. Grave as were these defects, there
when the child left the institution, it was was added the still graver one that in-
found that he still lacked in the grpat es- F-titutions incrf>ased juvenile pauperism.
sentia.l to success-capacity. From thf> sys- Where' er a new institution arose. thpr9
tem of constant espionage and guidance, 8pran
up, as if from tIw ground. hun.
83

Dependent Children, CARE OF. Henri-
f>Ua Christian Wright, an American lady
who has taken an acti\"C interest in
philanthropic \\-ork, and has been specially
interested in the condition of poor chil-
dren deprived of their natural protectors,
and whose education and training, there-
fore, ha ve to be assumed by the com-
J1mnity, writes as follows:

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

tlreds uf applicants for admIssion. The sent themselves and tlH'ir wards at tho
idle and vit'iouE parents eagf'rly took ad- annual nlf'etings of the society, the so-
\"antage of the means thus otrered for the ciety paying the traveHing e'\.penses. It
support of their children during the non- \\as found that the cost under the board-
wage-earning period; and, \\ ith every ing-out system was om.-third lJcr capita
new gift of a eustly edifice, the state of that ðpended in institutions, while
found itself putting a premium upon the the rate of mortality was under 1 per
poverty it was vainly endeavoring to cent. In IH!)!I, thirty-one years after the

tamp out. establishment of the !'>odety. the death
In the mean time a remedy for the evil rate of the children in a single work-
had aIrf'ady arisf'n. In 18
R, an educa- house in Cork was 8U pf'r cent. in une
tion inquiry commission, reporting upon year, while nearly all the survivors wcre
the condition of the Protestant charter flffiicted with scrofula. These horrors
schools of Ireland, found so discredit- were excef'df'd b.r the revelations of the
able a state of things that the schools Puhlin workhouse, which so e
cited popu-
were abolished, no provision being made, lar indignation that an act \\ as passed
tnpanwhile, for the orphans of that faith. in 18G2 authorizing the boarding-out of
Not long afterward
, three Protestant workhouse children.
Irish workingmen, considering it thf'ir That the problem of the state care of
duty to care for the children of a com- children was solved by the incorporation
rade who had just died, started a sub- of the Protestant Orphan Society of Ire-
scription of a penny a wef'k, amI, with land is proved by the subsequent history
the sum of thref'penee as capital, founded of dependl'nt child-life in nearly every
a refuge for the chihh'f'n among some re- civilized quarter of the globe. In places

pechlhle laboring people of their own widely separated by geographical limits.
faith. as well as by the differl'nces of race and
On the ruins of the charh..t schools creed, the fitate care of children is evolv-
arose, from the act of these workingmen, ing from im
titutionalism to the natural
the Protestflnt Orphan Society of Irpland, conditions of home life. England, Ire-
which has been the parent of the modern land, Russia, Italy, Rcotland, Germany,
system of boarding - out the dependent Switzerland. and otlwr Europf'an coun-
children of the state. The methods of tries ha Vf' their several modification!'! of
this society have bel'n sustained, in the the boarding-out system, attributable to
Illain, by succf'eding organizations. The the varying conditions of social life. hut
orphans were placed, as far as possible, conforming in the main to the Il'ading
in the familif's of small farmers, or ff'atures of the original plan. And al-
laborers, whose station in life corre- though no one of thf'Re count rips is yet
sponded to their own. In l""PQ' case, the freed entirely from the bane of institn-
<:hildren Wl're given into the charge of tionalism. yet ye'lr hy Yf'ar fostf'ragf'
th<> mother of the family, who W:l!'! made iR bl'coming- more popular, as its Ll'nefi-
directly re:-;pons:ble for tIlf'ir carf'. A e('nt l'fff'et:-; 1)('('0111(' more and morl' whll'ly
cl'rtificate of character was rf'fJuirf'd from known. In Belgium. RO thoroughly r('('-
the parish prif'st and the nearest magis- ognizf'd is the value of home training-
trate, attesting to hl'r "morality and for futnrf' f'iti7l'ns. that all ho:,'
undpr
sobriety, to the suitahility of hf'r house tllP carp of the state arp boardl'd ont.
and family. anI! the possl'ssion of one or though the girls arf' in many ('ase!'! still
more COWR," while it was also Rtipulated retained in institntions. In !'ome of the
that she rpceive no children from the department!'! of France. tIt(' sy!'tl'm of
foundling hospital or any other chari- fosterage ha!'! arri'-l'd at the prl'cision
table institution. The homes were vi!'!ited of a military org.mi7ation. Here tll('
by inspectors, whose reports containf'd child, who would otlll'rwiRf' he placl'd
the history of enry child while ullder the in a foundling or orphan a!'\ylum. iR f'n-
care of the socif'ty. The Prott'stant ro]]l'ù at hirth fiR an enfant de la patrie,
C'lergyman of f'fif"h district was al!'oo a and. whl'np\ l'r possihlp. is plal'pd at OI1('e
regular corrpspondf'nt of the !'ol'if'ty. find in a foster-homp in thf' conntry. Tll('re
the foster-mothers wprf' )"('qnirf'd to 111'f'- his phy
i('al and moral wl'Hare nnd hi!!
SI

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

f'ducation are watched over by the agent waifs, known as "street children," who
de surveillance, in whose quarterly reports had no homes, who begged and stole their
i
recorded the history of the child until food, who slept in the streets, assisted
his twelfth year. He is then eligible for professional criminals in their nefarious
apprenticeship, and he receins from the }Jractices, and in time were graduated into
state a certain sum of money for an out- the ranks of the adult criminal. This
fit. But, in nearly aJI cases, the aifec- menace to society, undreamed of by the
tion between the child anu its foster- more orderly cIa:,,:;, was made officiaJIy
parents has become by this time so strong public by the report of the superintendent
that he is either adopted legally or re- of police, and out of the exigency arose, in
tained in the family as an apprentice, 18.j3, the Xew York Children's Aid So-
the money that he earns being placed in ciety, whose president, Charles Loring
the savings-bank, in order that he may Brace, grasped with the intuition of genius
hUH a little capital to begin the world the true solution of the problem of child-
with on reaching his majority. saving. 'Vhen Mr. Brace asked the chief
Australia has, perhaps, the most perfect of police to confer with him in regard to
system of boarding-out yet evolveu. As means for saving these children, the chief
early as 1852 the first legislature of replied that the attempt would be use-
South Australia decreed that no public less. Kenrtheless :\lr. Brace began his
money should be given to denominational work; and, knowing that this wreckage
sehools, whether educational or charitable. of ci,-ilization could be saved only by a
Twenty-five J"ears ago the state began return to nature, he at once began
boarding-out its depf'Ddent children; the placing the wards of the society in
saving- to the p-o,-ernment, as well as the homes in the East and \Yest. In
rapiù dccrease in the juvenile pauper class, 183-1 the first company of forty-six
at once made the new departure accept- children left the office of the society,
ahle, though the law compelling children the greater numher to find homes in
to attend school throughout the entire Michigan and Iowa. 'Yithin the sec-
year inf'rf'aRed the expense of fosterage in ond year the society had placed nearly
Australia beyond that in European coun- 800 children in homes in the Eastern and
trics. \Vestern States. The society has contin-
The .\merican poorhouse, from the first ucd its work on the same lines, and
fell into line with the English workhouse through its efforts thousands of men and
in its influence as a hreeder of crime and women have been saved from lives of
paupe>rism. The poorhouse child came rauperism and crime. The reports of the
either from the directly vicious class, or society, which hås always kept in touch
from those "waterlogged" families with with its wards, show how fuHy the faith
whom pauperism was herf'ditary. and. as a of its founders has been justified, and how
rule. he left his early home hut to return they builded even better than they knew.
to it in later life. The enactment of each From out this army of waifs, rescued from
new law to mitigate the evils of the alms- the gutter and the prison, there have
houRe only marle the idle and vicious come the editor. the jurlg-e. the bank presi-
parf'nt more eager to af"cept the aih'an- dent, the governor, while thousands of
tagf's thus offered to his offspring, and simpler careers attest the heneficence of
panpf'rism incrf'ase>d out of all proportion this noLle charity. There iR smaIl reason
to the growth of the country. to douht that, if the guardianship of the
Outside> the almshouse there was a con- entire dependent children of the State had
dition evf'D worse. AJI over the country, l){'en giwn owr to the Children's Aid So-
and espf'ciaIly in cities. thf're arORe a dass ciety, the queRtion of juvenile pauperism
of children who anticipated in character and crime would long Rince have been
the adult tramp of to-day. These were soh-ed. Rut this was not to be, and alms-
in many cases runaways, to whom the houses and institutions stiJI retained the
rpstraints of the almshousf' were irksome, greater numlJcr of children committed to
and they also fornlf'd the larger propor- their care. The evil was greatly au
-
tion of jUYf'nile e>ril!linals. Tn 184R there mented hy the paHsage of the now cele-
were, in New York City alone, 30,000 such hrate>d "<'l,ildn'n'" law" in lRiã, which
83

DEPENDEN'Ii CHILDREN, CARE OF

contained a clause providing that all chil- before the passage of the "children's
dren committed to institutions should be law," showed that only 8 per cent. of the
rlaced in those controlled by persons of total had been in institutions over five
the same religious faith as the parents of years. An equally striking fact is that,
the children. Mrs. Charles Russell Low- since the pa:"sage of the "children's
ell says: "The direct effect of this pro- law," the number of children placed in
vision is found in the ebtablishment of families by institutions has greatly de-
nine Roman Catholic and two Hebrew in- creased. In 187:5, out of 14,773 children
stitutions to receive committed children, in institutions, there were 823 placed in
all except three having between 300 and families. In 1884, out of 33,558 children
1,300 inmates each." in institutions, there were only 1,370
Within twent:r years after this law placed in families. While the population
passed the number of inmates in the of the State of New York increased but
twenty-seven institutions benefited direct- 38 per cent. during the first seventeen
Iy by it increased from 9.000 to 16,000. Jears after the passage of the law, the
In 1889, of the 20,384 children cared for number of children in institutions in-
in the city institutions, only 1,776 were creased 96 per cent.
orphans and 4,987 half-orphans. The re- In New York City a report of 1894
maining 13,621 had been committed by sllOws the distribution of its 15,331 de-
magistrates, many on the request of par- pendent children as follows: 1,975 in
ents, or had been brought by parents Hebrew institutions, 2,789 in Protestant
voluntarily to the institution. In Kings institutions, 10,567 in Roman Catholic
county alone, five years after the passage institutions. This did not include the
of the "children's law," the number of blind, deaf, feeble-minded, and delinquent
dependent children increased from 300 to children who are cared for in special in-
1,479, most of the commitments being stitutions.
made by parents an'Xious to be reliend As opposed to its institutions, the State
of the care of their children until the has, in several of its counties, adopted to
wage-earning period was reached. An- some degree the more natural method of
other objectionable feature arose from the child-saving, with marked results. Alarmed
greater length of time that children have at the increasing expense of its jm"enile
been retained in institutions since the institutions, Erie county in 1879 began
passage of the law. With a direct per to take measures for boarding-out its de-
capita income from the State, the institu- pendent children, and through the me-
tions have not been ahle to withstand the diumship of the newspapers the agent
temptation to keep their charges as long placed the needs of the county before the
as possible. The reports of the comp- people. lIe also interested clergymen and
troller's office for October, 1804, showed editors in the project. Advertising cards,
that 1,935 children in institutions had with pictures of the children, were sent
been inmates ovpr five years; fifty-five of out, and this vigorous canvass resulted in
these were in Protestant institutions, 2G8 speed
T applications for the children, who
in Hebrew institutions, and 1,612 in Roman were sent to good country homes by the
Catholic institutions. The same year show- score. The agent always impressed upon
ed an average of 5fìi children in institu- the foster-parents the fact that the child
tions between thirteen and fourteen years was still the ward of the county, which
of age, 444 between fourteen and fifteen, expected them to co-operate with it in
and 247 between fifteen and sixteen years training him to a life of usefulness. The
of age. One institution in 1892 had wards chief opposition came from the institu-
t wenty-two
Tears old, and was "caring tions, which in many case'! refused to let
for" 129 youths O\"er se,'enteen years of the children go. Rut the hoard of super-
age. In 1894 it was found that 23 per vif'ors met this ohstacle by reducing the
cent. of the dependent children of New per capita price of board, and by passing
York City had been in institutions at puh- a resolution dee1aring that, if any ('lli1cl
he cost over periods ranging from fin' was refused to the county's agent, the
to fourteen years. A report of the State superintendent of the poor would at oncp
board of charities for 1873, three years stop payment for his board. This opened
86

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

the doors of the institutions, and Erie as fast as the general population. 'Vhen
county, which in 1879 was paying $48,000 New York City had a population of
yearly for the support of its dependent 1,750,000, it supported over 15,000 chil-
children, had by 1892 decreased its ex- dren in institutions, or one dependent child
penses two-thirds, though the population to every 117 of population. The number of
had increased one-third. Monroe, West- dependent children in Philadelphia in
chester, and Orange counties also placed 1894 was one to ever:r 1,979 of its popula-
out their children to some extent. Uon. This difference ariscs from the faet
When the revised constitution went into that Philadelphia had cea
f'd to be an
cffect there were 15,000 children, or more. institutionalized city, and boarded or
in institutions in New York City, costing placed out nearly all its dependciIllt chil-
the city over $1,500,000 yearly. The in- dren, the Philadelphia Children's Aid So-

titutions throughout the State received ciety being the agent (:mplo
'ed. :Kearly
about $2,500,000 yearly for the support of every county poor-board also takes advan-
their charges. The revised constitution tage of its aid to place its dependent
gave the State board of charities juris- children, as far as possible, in its care.
diction over all the charities in the State, During the thirteen
'ears of its exist-
whether public or private, and a law was ence the Children's Aid Society had re-
enacted by the legislature putting the ceived about 6,004 children from the vari-
placing-out of children into the hands of ous almshouses, poor-boards, and courts,
this board. Under this law, during the and placed them in homes in the country.
years 1896 and 1897, 1,300 children were It has the names of over 700 families
placed in homes in the rural communities. ,,,hose respectability and fitness are
The number of children in institutions vouched for, the society's agents having
was further decreased by the action of the visited and ascertained by personal in-
State Charities Aid
\ssociation in ap- vestigation their status in the eommu-
pointing examiners to investigate the nity. :Most of these families are at a dis-
status of the children already in institu- tance of at least 100 miles from any large
tions, or for whom application had been city, it being deemed best, in ease of de-
made. The official report of the exam in- linquf>nt childrf'n especially. to bring
ers for 1896 and 18Ð7 shows that, out of them up amid strictly rural surroundings.
26,561 investigations, 7,303 cases were dis- The attitude of the society towards its
approved, though the children in many charges is that" its duty to the child is
cases had been in the institutions for not one of mere support, but one of
years. preparation for life," and tþat the sole
Boys of twelve, thirteen, fifteen, six- question arising in the mind of the ob-
teen, and seventeen years of age were server of cit:r-institution life should be,
found, whose families were amply able "Is the precise thing which I am looking
to provide for them, but who had been at the very best thing that can be pro-
supported by the State for periods rang- vided, in order that the child may have
ing from six to nine years. One girl of the same reliance which makes the coun-
sixteen was found who had spent twelve try boy, on the whole, the best wage-
years of her life in institutions, being left CD rner that the city ever sees?"
at the critical age without home tics or The society poss
sses thousands of rec-
interests, and with an utter lack of train- ords attesting the happiness and well-
ing in ordinary domestic affairs. The being of its wards, and the unwritten
monthly reports from the comptroller's records obtained through personal visits
office show a pecuniary saving from the from its agents are more satisfactory
decrease of dependent children, while tIle still. The agent finds the little sickly
moral gains through the return of these two-year-old, whom slIP left a few months
children to the normal way!'! of life is, b('fore hanlly e
pecting to see it alive
of course, incalculable. Hitherto the ngain, well nourished and radiant with
State of New York has paid two-fifths of l"f.turning vitality. ",urrounded bv to\'s,
an the money spent in the enited States dressed 'in clean' clothing. the c;re a'nd
for the care of dependent children, while the pet of the whole family. One baby.
child pauperism has increased three times Ipft at the age of el('\"cn month" unahle
87

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

to hold up its ll<'ad or sit alone, had been has no dependent children, technically
restored to perfect health. The foster- speaking, in institutions supported by the
mother here had expressed a preference
tate. Largely affected by the problem
for a "real smart baby," one that she of immigration, and under the strain pro-
could show off to her neighbors. But, as duced by great centres of population en-
she bent over this tiny sufferer, his little, gaged in mill and factory work, and 80
thin face made its undeniable appeal, and removed from the more healthful in-
she said, as she cried oyer him, that fluences of smallcr village and country
H somebody would have to keep him, and life, this State has yet 80 succe88fully
she calculated she could do it as well solved the problem of juvenile pauperism
as anyone elsc." The agent carries away that, out of a popuhltion of 2,500,000, it
innumerable mental pictures of these has only 2,852 wards to support. The
little waifs who have founù home and btate has a nursery at Roxbury, where
health in the beautiful hill country of destitute infants are cared for while re-
Pennsylvania. Hhe sees the children on quiring medical or surgical treatment,
the benches of the vil1age school, or shar- and where children boarded out are
ing the innocf>nt pleasures of childhood in brought for treatment when neccssary.
wood and meadow. She finds them in the The nursery is a temporary homc only in
barn or field with the foster-father, piek- the strictest sense of the worù, boarding-
ing up useful knowledge, learning ways out being the end in view. There is also
of industry and honest living, and, above a temporary boarding-place at Arlington,
all, sharing the intf>rest of the family a!'l and a home for wayward boys. The
if he were to the manor born. Yery State has two indU!
trial schools, the Ly-
often these hoarded-out (:hildren I"tcp man School for Boys, ahd the f"tatc In-
into a place left vacant by dcath, and dustrial School for Girls. There are
often they bring to a childl('!'s home the also two reform I"chools. \\ïth tIll"
e
first knowlC'dge of the privile;.!('s a lid blcss- e:\.cC'ptions, the dependf'nt children of
ings tIwt come with children. The so- Massachusetts are placed or boarded
ciety has innumerahle photographs show- out.
ing the cl.ildren in thf'ir comfortahle In 1RRO California paid $
:H,
1.) for
hOIl1f'S, studying in the cosey sitting- the f'oupport of 3fi,OOO children in
rooms, pla
'ing gamcs with the farmer's asylums. while ::\fichigan, with double the
older bo
's, or with the farmer himself, population of California, paid only $33.-
and sharing, in fa('t, in all the simple and 000 for the support of 230 children. In
sweet scenes of famih' life. 18!)3, California, still working undcr the
A most careful m
thod of supervision old system, paid $2:)0,000 for the support
is enforced hy the society, not only of 40,000 children in im
titutions. while
through frequent visits of its agents, but l\Iinncsota, with a population about equal
through numerous reports made by the to California, supported only l(j!) dC'pend-
physicians, school - teachers. and othcr ent children in its State public schools,
reliable and interested persons. Ques- the remainder being placed or boarded
tion blanks arc sent for these rC'portR, out.
which are filecl and make a full record of Tlwrc are, in all, pcrhaps eight or nine
the child's history while undC'r the care Statf's in the rnion in whid. hoarding-
of the sociC'ty. .\s far as possihle, thf' out and l,laeing-out are canil'd on in
children are hoanlf'ù in families of the grf>atC'r or lC'Rs dC'gree, thf'se F\,ntf'll1s af-
same religion as that of their parents. feding ahout three-tenths of the df'pf'nd-
In order not to create a class distinction, ent dlildren in the country. The remain-
the society ùoes not allow the boarded-out ing seven-tenths. numbering more than
children of a village or farming district ;0,000, are stil1 in institutions.
evcr to exceed 2 or 3 per cent. of the The enited Rtates is an institutional-
child population. izC'd land, and the grf'at rC'puhlic, which
!\IassachusettR, with a population to hoasts of freedom amI f'quality, sti11 re-
the square llIile (,xC'l'pding tlla t of X f'W ganls her dl'Twnd('nt ('h ildn'n as a1i f'n "I
York, find in which the artificial cOIJIli- and hrands them with the 8tigma of
tions of living are prnctic-al1y the same. paupprisIll.
88

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

The evolutionist sees the earliest mani- posited in the letter-boxes were delivered?
fe:,;tation of altruism in that primary in- Would the community rest contented in
stinct, found even in the lowest forms the satisfaction that a large majority of
of plant life, to protect the young in its citizens were not unjustly thrown into
the seed and bud-the instinct of mother- prison? \Yould a father be satisfied to
hooel. Upon this eternal principle of life know that five of his six children were
the problem of child-saving must rest. not actually suffcring from hunger and
There is no one so morally fit to rear an cold?" And this is the principle upon
unfortunate child as the mother of a re- which child-savers must act. The il1sti-
spectable family, whose experience with tution may sa\'e the child up to a ('ertain
her own brood has taught her the needs point. But we want him saved for all
and demands of childhood. Nowhere else time. Only the abandonment of the cost-
is so abundantly manifested that trust in ly institutions-the expensive buildings
the" larger hope," as in the patience that might with profit in New York City be
waits upon motherhood. To this patience turned into public schools-and an ac-
and this hope the State may well com- ceptance of the method which experience
mit the welfare of its most unfortunate has so far shown to be the best, can solve
class. For, although the institution life the question of pauperism in the United
of to-day is not accompanied by all the States with success.
horrors that once disfigured it, yet sore The boarding-out system is another ex-
cJ'es, diseased bodies, and a high death ample of the truth of the adage that
rate still prevail. According to the official "mercy is twice blessed." The love and
report of 18D7 the death rate at the In- care of the foster-parents are in large
fants' Agylum on Randall's Island was, measure repaid by their chargf's, who yidd
for foundlings, 80 per cent.; for other them in old age that afTcctionate pro-
children without their mothers, 5f1 per tection which is the pri\'ilf'ge of children.
cent.; children with their mothers, 13 per "-hen at scrvice, they SQ\'e their wa
es
cent. Out of 36û children under six and deny tlwmselves little luxuries, that
months of age, admitted without their they may help their ioster-parents. They
mothers in 18Dû, only twelve lived, the come back to their former homes to be
remainder dJ'ing between five and six married; and, in case of a family, if
weeks after admission to the aSJ'lum. In- either parent dies, the sun-h-or brings the
stitutionalism is an artificial system, with children to the foster-mother to be cared
the stigma of failure attaching to it, in- for. Joy and sorrow are shared together,
asmuch as its presence always indicates and, when attacked by fatal sickncss, it
an increase of the very evil it was origi- is to the foster-home that the child re-
nally meant to combat. Without admit- turns to die.
ting as truth the statement, made by some Kature, the wise teadler. IJ:1S sealed her
experts, that all institution-bred children approval of fosterage hy forging that
turn out either knaw's or fools, sufficif>nt mysterious tie which binds parent and
tcstimony may be found to force home child, which no absence may sunder and
the startling argument that, of the 100,- ,dJich remains unbroken evcn in death.
000 children cared for by the State to- Boarding-out has paid in c\"ery sense. Out
day, there is grave danger that the seven- of thf> class in which pauperism was
tenths who are in institutions wi1I earrv herf'ditary-!wnwtinlf's three or fonr gen-
t1lrough life the brand of a system whif'll nations of the same family hf'ing paupers
has handicapped them in the race for -it has crf'atf'd a respectahle working
succesS. class, at a cost in dollars and cents far be-
Mr. Homer Folks, secretary of the State low the cost of institution life. Over t1H'
Charities Aid Association of
ew York, neglf'cted and despised pauper child it has
in speaking of child-saving, says: "Would extl'nùed the ::egis of the State, making-
the directors of a bank be satisfieù with the least of these little ones understand
knowing that most of it!'! funds were not that, though df'prived of love and home by
stolf>n? 'Youhl the working of the pos- fah-, hf' Jut!'! !'!tm a mothE'r-land whose care
tal c]f'partnlf'nt be considered AntiHfn('tory will g-l1nnl him Im'ingly and whosE' honor
if simply a majority of the letters de- lIlu:-;t be his sacred iù
al.
89

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

We celebrate to-day the centenary of
our nationality. One hundred years ago
the United States began their existenee.
The powers of government were assunll'd
by the people of the republic, and tlwy
became the sole source of authorit)". The
solemn ceremonial of the first inaugura-
tion, the reverent oath of 'Washington, the
aceJaim of the multitude greeting their
President, marked the most unique event
of modcrn times in the development of free
institutions. The occasion was not an
accident, but a result. It was the culmina-
tion of the working out by migl1ty forces
through many centuries of the problem of
self-government. It was not the triumph
of a system, the application of a theory,
or the reduction to practice of the ab-
stractions of philosophy. The time, the
country, the heredity and environment of
the people, the follJ' of its enemies, and
the noble courage of its friends, gave to
liberty, after ages of defeat, of trial, of
experiment, of partial succe!3S and sub-
stantial gains, this immortal victory.
J{('nceforth it had a refuge and recruiting
station. The oppressed found free homes
in this favored land, and invisible armifls
marched from it by mail and telegraph,
hal and Hudson River Railroad in 1869. by speech and song, by precept and ex-
He was secowl vice-president of the last ample, to regenerate the world.
mentioned road in 1885-98, and also presi- Puritans in New England, Dutchmen in
dent of the West Shore Railroad until New York, Catholics in )lar
v1and, Hugue-
1898, when he became chairman of the nots in South Carolina, had felt the fires
board of directors of the New York Cen- of persecution and were wedded to r('-
tral and Hudson River, the Lake Shore ligious liberty. They had been purified
and Michigan Southern, the Michigan in the furnace, and in high debate and on
Central, and the New York, Chicago, and bloody battIe-fields had learned to sacri-
SL Louis railroads. In 1885 he refused to fice all material interests and to peril
be a candidate for the United States Sen- dleir lives for human rights. The prin-
ate, and also declined the office of United ciples of constitutional gOYf'rnment harl
f-:tates Secretary of State, offered by Presi- been impressed upon th('m by hundreds of
dent nenjamin Harrison. In 18R8 he was years of struggle, and for each principle
a prominent candidate for the Presidential they could point to the grave of an an-
nomination in the National Republican cestor whose death atte!"tf'rl the ferocity
Convention, and in 18!)9 "as elected of the fight and the value of the conces-
rnited States Senator from New York. sion wrung from arhitrary power. They
He is widely known as an orator and knew the limitations of authority, they
after-dinnpr 'meaker. could pledge their lives and fortunes to
Washington" Gentenni(Ll Oration. - On re
ist enflrlJaeIunents upon their rights,
April 30, 1889, Senator Dt pew delivered but it required the les
on of Indian maSS3,.
90

Depew, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL, capital-
ist; born in Peekskill, N. Y., April 23,
1834; graduated at Yale UniYersity in
1836; studied law and was admitted to
the ba.r in 1858; member of New York

\ssemhly in 18GI-62; secretary of state
of Kew York iT: 1863. He became attorney
for the New York and Harlem Ri,-er Rail-
road in 1.;;Gli. and for the Kew York Cen-

t"

\..

?
.....

'"

-=-:,

--
---=-.==--=:-

CRAU:oiCEY MITCHELL DEPEW.

the following oration at the centennial of
Washington's inauguration as first Presi-
dent of t!le United States, in New York
City:

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

cres, the invasion of the armies of France upon the field of Runnymede, which
from Canada, the tyranny of the British wrested from King John ::\Iagna Charta,
crown, the seven ;years' war of Revolu- that great charter of liberty, to which
tion, and the five years of chaos of the Hallam, in the nineteenth century, bears
Confederation to evolve the idea upon witness "that all which had been since
which rest the power and permanency of obtained is little more than as confirma-
the republic, that liberty and union are tion or commentary." There were the
one and inseparable. grandchildren of the statesmen who had
The traditions and experience of the summoned Charles before Parliament and
colonists had made them alert to discover compelled his assent to the Petition of
and quick to resist any peril to their lib- Rights, which transferred power from the
erties. Above all things, they feared and crown to the commons, and gave repre-
distrusted power. The town-meetings sentative government to the English-
and the colonial legislature gave them speaking race. And there were those who
confidence in themselves, and courage to had sprung from the iron soldiers who
check the royal governors. Their inter- had fought and charged with Cromwell at
ests, hopes, and affections were in their Naseby and Dunbar and :Marston :Moor.
several commonwealths, and each blow by Among its members were Huguenots,
the British ministry at their freedom, whose fathers had followed the white
each attack upon their rights as English- plume of Henry of Xavarre and in an age
men, weakened their love for the mother- of bigotry, intolerance, and the deification
land, and intensified their hostility to of absolutism had secured the great edict
the crown. But the same causes which of religious liberty from French despot-
broke down their allegiance to the central ism; and who had become a people with-
government increased their confidence in out a country, rather than surrender their
their respective colonies, and their faith convictions and forswear their consciences.
in liberty was lar
ely dependent upon the In this Congress were those whose ances-
maintenance of the sovereignty of their tors were the countrymen of \Yillifl.m of
several States. The farmers' shot at Lex- Orange, the Beggars of the Sea, who had
ington echoed round the world, the spirit survived the cruelties of Alva, and broken
which it awakeneù from its slumbers the proud yoke of Philip of Spain, and
could do and dare and die, but it had not who had two centuries before made a
yet discovered the secret of the perma- declaration of independence and formed
nence and progress of free institutions. a federal union which were models of
Patrick Henry thundered in the Virginia freedom and strength.
convention; James Otis spoke with trump- These men were not revolutionists,
et tongue and feHid eloquence for united They were the heirs and the guardians of
action in )Iassacbusetts; Hamilton, Jay, the priceless treasures of mankind. The
and Clinton plpdged Xew York to respond British King and his ministers were the
with men and money for the common revolutionists. They were reactionaries.
cause; but their vision only saw a league seeking arbitrarily to turn back the hanò

of independent colonies. The veil was not \lpon the dial of time. A year of doubt
yet drawn from before the vista of popu- and debate, the baptism of blood upon bat-
lation and power, of empire and liberty, tIe-fields, where soldiers from every colony
which would open with national union. fought, under a common standa.rd, anù
The Continental Congress partially consolidated thc Continental army, grad-
grasped, but completely expressed, the uall)' lifted the soul and understanding of
central idea of the American republic. this immortal Congress to the sublime
:More funy than any other body which declaration: "'Ye, therefore, the repre-
ever assemhled did it represent the victo- sentatives of the United States of Amer-
ries won from arbitrary power for human ica, in general Congress assembled, a.ppeal-
rights. In the Kew World it was the con- ing to the Supreme Judge of the World
f1ervator of liherties secured through cen- for the rectitude of our intentions, do,
furies of struggle in the Old. Among the in the name and by the authority of the
clplegate!'l were the descendants of the men good peoplf' of these colonies. solemnly
who had stood in that brilliant array publish and declare that tllese united
91

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

((Ilunies are, and of rigl.t ought to be, tiyes and powers wrested from crown and
free and independent States." parliament. It condensed .:\Iagna Charta,
To this declaration John Hancock, pro- the Petition of Rights. the great body of
scribed and threatened with death, affixed English liherties embodied in the common
a Rignature which stood for a century like law and accumulated in the decisions of
the pointers to the north star in the fir- the courts, the Rtatutes of the realm, and
IIlament of freedom; and Charles Carroll, an undisputed though unwrittcn constitu-
ta unted that among many Canolls, he, tion; but this original principlc atHi dy-
the richest IIlan in America, might escape, namie force of the people's vower sprang-
added de!Ocdption and identification with from these old seeds planted in the virgin
,. of Carroll ton." Benjamin Harrison, a soil of the Kew \Vorld.
delep-ate from Virginia, the ancestor of .:\10re cleaTly than any statesman of the
the distinguished statesman and soldier period did T'homas Je'fferson grasp and
who to-day so worthily fills the chair of divine the possibilities of popular govern-
\Yashington, voiced the unalterable de- ment. He caught and crystallized the
termination and defiance of the Congress. spirit of free institutions. His phiIosophi-
He seized John Hancock, upon whose head cal mind was singularly free from the
a price was set, in his arms, and placing power of precedents or the chains of preju-
him in the Presidential chair, said: "\Ve dice. He had an unquestioning and ahid-
wiII show Mother Britain how little we ing faith in the people, which wa.s ae-
eare for her by making our President a cepted by but few of his compatriots.
::\[assachusetts man, whom she has excluded Lpon his famous axiom, of the f>quality
from pardon by public proclamation"; of all men before the la w, he construeted
aud when they were signing the declara- his s
Tstem. It was the trip-hammer es-
tion, and the Rlender Elhridge Gerry ut- F<'ßtial for the emergency to hrmk thc
Ì('red the grim pleasantry, "\Ve must hang links hinding the colonies to impf>rial I\U-
together or Rurcly we will hang separate- thority, a.nd to pulwrize the prÏ\ ileg"f's
ly." the portl
' Harrison responded with of caste. It inspired him to wdte the
a more daring humor, " It will be all over Declaration of Indf>I){'ß(lence, and per-
with me in a moment, hut vou will be snaded him to doubt the wisdom of
kicking in the air half an l;our after I the powers eonCf>ntrated in the Con-
:Jm gone." Thus flashed athwart the stitution. In his pa
sionate JO\Te of
g.'eat chartl'r. which was to be for the liberty he became int<'ßsely jealous of au-
signers a death-warrant or a diploma of thority. He dpstroyed the suhst:mce
immortality, as with firm hand, high pur- of royal prprogative. hut nevpr f>mf>rgf>d
pose and undaunted resolution, they sub- from its shadow. He would have the
sf'ribed their names, this mockery of fear States as the guardians of popular rights,
and the penalties of treason. and the harriers against cf>ntra1ization,
The grand cpntml idea of the Df>clara- nnd he saw in the growing pO\W'r of the
tion of Tnd{'pemlence was the sovereignty nation ever - increa<:ing enf'roachnH'nts
of the peopl{'. Tt relipd for original pow{'r. upon the rights of th(' p{'ople. For the
not upon States or colonies, or their citi- SUCf'ess of the pure d{'mo{'raf'Y which must
Zf>ns as such, but re('ob'11ized as the au- preeede presidf>nts and cahinf'Ì8 and Con-
tllOrity for nationality tllf' rf>volutionary gresses, it was, perhaps. providpntial that
rights of the "eopll' of the Lnit{'d States. its apostle n{'ver hf'lif>\T{'d a great peoplc
II stated with manellous cl{'arness the could grant and stiJI retain. could giw
f>neroachments upon liherties which and at wi1I reclaim. eould deJf>gate and
threatened tlleir suppression amI justified Jet firmly hold tlw authority which u1ti-
HVOlt, hut it was inspired by the very mately created the power of their re-
genius of freedom. and the prophetic pos- public and enJarg{'d the scope of their
siLilities of united ('ommonw{'alths cover- own lih{'rty.
ing the continent in one harmonious re- \nwrp this mastpr-mind ha1tpd, an
rubIic, when it made the people of the stood stiJ1. Thf> nf>cf',",sit,v for a p{'rman{'nt
thirtpen colonies all .\nwrieans and de- union was apparpnt. hut {'af'h
tntp must
volved upon them to administ{'r hy them- ha,'p hold upon tIw howstrin.!! whi,'h pn-
fwJveS. and for themselves, the preroga- circled its throat. It was admitted that
02

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

union ga,.e the machinery required suc-
ce:ssfully to fight the comlUon enemy, but
yet there was fear that it might become
a Frankenstein and destroy its creators.
Thus patriotism and fear, difficulties of
communication between distant com-
munities, and the intense growth of
provincial pride and interests, led this
Congress to frame the Articles of Con-
federation, happily termed the League of
Friendship. The result was not a govern-
ment, but a ghost. By this scheme the
American people were ignored and the
Declaration of Independence reversed. The
States, by their legislatures, elected dele-
gates to Congress, and the delegate rep-
resented the sovereignty of his common-
wealth. All the States had an equal
voice without regard to their size or popu-
lation. It required the vote of nine States
to pass any bill, and five could block the
wheels of government. Congress had none
of the powers essential to sovereignty. It
could neither levy taxes nor impose duties
nor collect excise. For the support of
the army and navy, for the purposes of
war, for the preservation of its own func-
tions, it could only call upon the States,
but it possessed no power to enforce its
demands. It had no president or executive
authority, no supreme court with gen-
eral jurisdiction, and no national power.
Each of the thirteen States had seaports
and levied discriminating duties against
the others, and could also tax and thus
prohibit interstate commerce across its
territory. Had the Confederation been a
union instead of a league, it could have
raiscd and equipped three times the num-
ber of men contributed by reluctant States,
and conquered independence without for-
eign assistance. This paralyzed govern-
ment, without strength, because it could
not enforce its decrees; without credit,
because it could pledge nothing for the
payment of its debts; without respect,
because without inherent authority;
would, by its feeble life and early death,
have added another to the historic trag-
edies which have in many lands marked
the suppression of fn>('dom, had it not
h<>en saved hy the intelligent, inherited,
and invincible understanding of liberty
by the people, and the genius and pa-
triotism of their leaders.
But while the pel'ils of war had

temporary strength to the Confederation,
peaee developed this fatal weakness. It
derived no authority from the people, and
could not appeal to them. Anarchy
threatened its existence at home, and con-
tempt met its representatives abroad.
"Can you fulfil or enforce the obliga-
tions of the treaty on your part if we
sign one with you?" was the sneer of the
courts of the Old 'Yorld to our ambas8a-
dors. Some States gave a half-hearted
support to its demands; others defied
them. The loss of public credit was
speedily followed by universal bankruptcy.
The wildest fantasies assumed the force
of serious measures for the relief of the
general distress. States passed exclusive
and hostile laws against each other, and.
I iot and disorder threatened the disin-
tegration of society. "Our stock is stolen,
our houses are plundered, our farms are
raided," cried a delegate in the Massa-
('husetts Convention; "despotism is better
than anarchy!" To raise $4,000,000 a
year was beyond the resources of the gov-
ernment, and $300,000 was the limit of the
loan it could secure from the money-lend-
ers of Europe. Even 'Vashington ex-
claimed in despair: "I see one head
graduaUy changing into thirteen; I see
one army gradually branching into thir-
teen; which, instead of looking up to Con-
gress as the supreme controlling power,
are considering themselves as depending
on their respective States." And later,
when independence had been won, the
impotency of the government wrung from
him the e
clamation: "After gloriously
and successfully contending against the
usurpation of Great Britain. we may fall
a prey to our own folly and disputes."
But enn through this Cimmerian dark-
ness shot a flame which illuminated the
coming century and kept brigl1t the beacon
fires of liberty. The architects of constitu-
tional freedom formed their institutions
with wisdom which forecasted the future.
They may not have understood at first the
whole truth, but, for that which they
knew, they had the martyrs' spirit and the
crusaders' enthusiasm. Though the Con-
federation ,vas a govt'rmnent of checks
without halances, and of purpose without
power, the statesmen who guided it
demonstrated often the resistless force of
given great souls animated by the purest pa-
03

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

triotism, and united in judgment and
effort to promote the common good, by
lofty appeals and high reasoning, to ele-
yate the masses aboye 'local greed and
apparent self-interest to their own broad
})lane.
The most significant triumph of these
moral and intellectual forces was that
which secured the assent of the States to
the limitation of their boundaries, to the
grant of the wilderness beyond them to
the general government, and to the in-
sertion in the ordinance erecting the
Korthwest Territories, of the immortal
proviso prohibiting "slayery or invol-
untary servitude" within all that broad
domain. The States carved out of this
splendid concession were not sovereign-
ties which had successfully rebeHed, but
they were the children of the "Gnion, born
of the covenant and thrilled with its life
and liberty. Th
y became the bulwarks
of nationality and the buttresses of free-
dom. Their preponderating strength first
checked and then broke the slave power,
their fervid 10yaltJ' haIted and held at
bay the spirit of State rights and seces-
sion for generations; and when the crisis
came, it was with their overwhelming as-
sistance that the nation killed and buried
its enemy. The corner-stone of the edifice
whose centenary we are celebrating was
the ordinance of 1787. It was constructed
by the feeblest of Congresses, but few en-
actments of ancient or modern times have
l:ad more far-reaching or beneficial in-
fluence. It is one of the sublimest para-
doxes of history that this weak confed-
eration of States slÌould have welded the
chain against which, after seventy-four
J'ears of fretful efforts for release, its
own spirit frantically dashed and died.
The government of the republic by a
Congress of States, a diplomatic con-
vention of the ambassadors of petty Com-
monwealths, after se,.en vears' trial was
falling asunder. Threat;ned with civil
war among its members, insurrection and
lawlessness rife within the States, forei::m
commerce ruined and internal trade para-
lyzed, its currency worthless, its mer-
chants bankrupt, its farms mortgaged. its
markets closed, its labor unemploYNI, it
was like a helpless wreck upon the ocean,
tossed about by the tides and ready to be
engulfed by the storm. Washington ga,-e
94

the warning and called for action. It was
a voice accustomed to command, but noW
eq,treating. The veterans of the war and
the statesmen of the Revolution stepped
to the front. The patriotism which ha{l
been misled, but had never faltered, rose
above its interests of States and the
jealousies of jarring confcderates to find
the basis for union. ., It is clear to
me as ABC," said ". ashington, "that
an extension of federal powers would
make us one of the most happy, ,,.ealthy,
respectable, and powerful nations that
ever inhabited the terrestrial globe. With-
out them we should soon be everything
which is the direct reverse. I predict the
worst consequences from a half-starved
limping government, always moving upon
crutches, and tottering at every step."
The response of the country was the con-
vention of 1787 , at Philadel phia. The
Declaration of Independence was but the
vestibule of the temple which this illustri-
ous assembly erected. \\ïth no successful
precedents to guide, it auspiciously
worked out the problem of constitutional
government, and of imperial power and
home rule, supplementing each other in
promoting the grandeur of the nation and
preserving the liberty of the indiddual.
The deliberations of great councils have
vitaHy affected, at different periods, the
history af the world and the fate of em-
pires, but this congress builded, upon
popular sovereignty, institutions broad
enough to embrace the continent, and
elastic enough to fit all conditions of race
and traditions. The experience of a hun-
dred years has demonstrated for us the
perfection of the work, for defence again:;t
foreign foes and for self-preservation
against domestic insurrections, for limit-
less expansion in population and material
development, and for steady growth in
intellectual freedom and foree. Its con-
tinuing influence upon the welfare and
destiny of the human race can only he
measured by the capacity of man to culti-
vate and enjoy the boundless opportuni-
ties of liherty and law. The eloquent
charactí'rization of Mr. Gladstone con-
dens('s its merits: "The American Consti-
tution is the most wonderful work ever
struck off at a gin-n time by the brain
and purpose of man."
The statesmen who composed this great

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

senate were equal to their trust. Their
conclusions were the result of calm de-
bate and wise concession. Their character
pnù abilities were so pure and great as
to command the confidence of the country
for the re\'ersal of the policy of the in-
dependence of the State of the power of
the general government, which had
hitherto been the invariable practice and
almost universal opinion, and for the
adoption of the idea of the nation and its
supremacy.
Towering in majesty and influence
above them all stood Washington, their
President. Beside him was the vener-
able Franklin, who, though eighty-one
rears of age, brought to the deliberations
of the convention the unimpaired vigor
1Jnd resources of the wisest brain, the
most hopeful philosophy, and the largest
ðperience of the times. Oliver ElJs-
worth, afterwards chief-justice of the
Pnited States, and the profoundest juror
in the country; Robert ::\Iorris, the won-
derful financier of the Revolution, and
Gouverneur
Iorris, the most versatile
genius of his period; Roger Sherman, one
of the most eminent of the signers of
tb.
Declaration of Indepcndence; and
John Rutledge, Rufus King, Elbridge
Gerry, Edmund Randolph, and the Pinck-
neys, were leaders of unequalled patriot-
ibm, courage, ability, and learning; while
Alexander- Hamilton and James :Madison,
as original thinkers and constructive
statesmen, rank among the immortal few
whose opinions have for ages guided
ministers of state, and determined the
destinies of nations.
This great convention keenly felt, and
with devout and serene intelligence met,
its tremendous responsibilities. It had
the moral support of the few whose aspi-
rations for liberty had been inspired or
renewed by the triumph of the American
RC'volution, and the active hostility of
every government in the world.
There were no examples to follow, and
the ðperience of its members led part of
them to lean towards absolute central-
ization as the only refuge from the an-
archy of the confederation, while the rest
dung to the sovereignty of the States, for
fear that the concentration of power
would end in the absorption of liberty.
The large States did not want to "Hr-
!I.í

render the advantage of their po
itiou,
and the smaller States saw the danger to
their existence. Roman conquest and as-
similation had strewn the shores of time
with the wrecks of empires, and plunged
civilization into the perils and horrors of
the dark ages. The government of Crom-
well was the isolated power of the might-
iest man of his age, without popular au-
thority to fill his place or the hereditary
principle to protect his successor. The
past furnished no light for our State
builders, the present was full of doubt
and despair. The future, the experiment
or self-government, the perpetuity and
development of freedom, almost the
destiny of mankind, was in their hands.
At this crisis the courage and confi.
dence needed to originate a system
weakened. The temporizing spirit of
compromise seized the convention with
the alluring proposition of not proceed-
ing faster than the people could be edu-
cated to follow. The cry, "Let us not
waste our labor upon conclusions which
will not be adopted, but amend and ad-
journ," was assuming startling unanim-
ity. But the supreme force and majestic
Sense of \Yashington brought the assem-
bhige to the lofty plane of its duty and
opportunit:r. He said: "It is too prob-
able that no plan we propose will be
aùopted. Perhaps another dreadful con-
flict is to be sustained. If, to please the
people, we offer what we ourselves dis-
a pprove, how can we afterwards defend
our work? Let us raise a standard to
which the wise and honest can repair:
the event is in the hands of God." " 1
am the state," said Louis XIV., but his
line ended in the grave of absoluti
m.
"Forty centuries look down upon you,"
was Napoleon's ac1drpss to his army in
the shadow of the Pyramids, but his
soldiers saw only the dream of Eastern
empire vanish in blood. Statesmen and
parliamentary leaders have sunk into
oblivion or led their party to defeat by
surrendering their convictions to the
passing passions of the hour; but \Va!';h-
ington in this immortal speech struck
the keynote of representative obligation,
and propounded the fundamental prin-
ciple of the purity and perpetuity of
constitutional government.
Freed from the limitlltion
of its en-

DEPEW, CHA UNCEY MITCHELL

vironment, amI the que:-õtion of the adop- and ;ret enlarge its scope aud broadpu ib

tion of its work, the com cntion erected powers, and to make the name of an
its government upon the etprnal foun- American citizen a title of honor through-
dations cf the power of the people. It dis- out the world, came complete from this
missed the delusive theory of a compact great convention to the people for adop-
between independent :-;tates, and derived tion. As Hancock rose from his seat in
national power from the people of the the old Congress, elf'ven year<;l before, to
L'nited States. It brokc up thc ma- sign the ]}eclaration of Independence,
chinery of the Confedpration and put in }'rankIin saw emblazoned on the back of
practical operation the glittering gener- the President's chair the sun partly above
alities of the Declaration of Independence. the horizon, but it seemed setting in a
From chaos came order, from insecurity blood-red sky. During the seven yeal"S of
came safety, from disintegration and civil the Confederation he had gathered no
war came law and lihprty, with the prin- hope from the glittering emhlem, but now,
ciple proclaimed in the preamble of the as with clpar yision he beheld fixed upon
great charter: "'''e, the people of the eternal foundations the enduring struct-
United States, in order to form a more ure of constitutional liberty, pointing to
perfect union, establish justice, insure the sign, he forgot his eighty-two years,
domestic tranquillity, provide for the com- and with the enthusiasm of youth elec-
mon defence, promote the gf'neral welfare, trifled the convention with the declara-
and secure the blessings of liberty to our- tion: "Now I know that it is the rising
selves and our postprity, do ordain and sun."
establish this Constitution for the L'nited The pride of the States and the am-
States." 'Vith a wisdom inspired of God, bition of their leaders, sectional jealousies,
to work out upon this continent the lib- and the overwhelming distrust of central-
erty of man, they soh-cd the problem of ized power, were all array('d against the
the ages by blenc1ing and :yet preserving adoption of tlw Constitution. Xorth
local self-government with national au- Carolina and Rhode Island refus('d to join
thority, and the rights of the States with the L'nion until long after \Yashington's
the majesty and power of the republic. inauguration. For months Kew York was
The government of the States, und('r the debatable ground. Her territory, extend-
Articles of Confederation, became bank- ing from the sea to tIle lakes, made IH'r
rupt because it could not raise $-t.OOO.OOO; the keystone of the arch. Had Arnold.

the go,"ernment of the L'nion, under the treason in the Revolution not bf'en foi1f'd
Constitution of the rnited States, raised by the capture of A 11('\ rl', England would
$6,000,000,000. its credit growing firmer haye held Xew York and subjugated the
as its l>ow('r and resources were demon- ('olonies, and in this crisis, unless K ew
strated. The Congress of the Confed- York asspnt('d. a hostilp and powerful
eration fl('d from a regim('nt which it ('ommonweaIth di,'iding the
tates madf'
('ouM not pay; thp Congress of the Union HIP rnion impos
ihlp.
rpviewed the comradps of I,nnO,Oon of RuccI's!'! was due to confidpnce in 'Vash-
its victorious soldiers, saluting. as tIley ington and the genius of Alexandpr Ham-
march('d, the flag of the nation, whose ilton. .TefTprson was thp in
piration of
supremacy they had sustainpd. The indpp('nrlence, hut Hamilton was the in-
promises of the confedC't"acy \\"('re the scoff carnation of the Constitution. In no a
e
of its States; the pledge of the republic or country has there appe!\,red a more
was the honor of its people. preco<'Íous or ama7.in
int('Ilig('nce than
The Constitution, which was to be Hamilton. At seventeen he annihilated
straightened by the strains of a century, the president of his college upon the ques-
to be a mighty conqueror without a sub- tion of the rights of the ('olonies in a s('ries
ject province, to triumphantly survive of anonymous articl('s which were credited
the great('st of eiviI wars without the con- to the' ahlest men in the eonntry; at
fiscation of an estate or the pxeeution of f01"tY-I'\ev('n. when hf' died, his hriefs halJ
a politieal off('nder. to ("r('ate amI g-rant become the law of Hlf' land, nnd his
home rule and State fl.overpigntr to fiseal system was, and aft('r 100 years 1'1'-
twenty-nin(' aòditiollal ('01H1Honw(':llth
. main!'!, the rule and policy of our go,'prn.
90

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

ment. He gave life to the corpse of na-
tional credit, and the strength for self-
po
session and aggressive power to the
federal union. Both as an expounder of
the principles and an administrator of
the affairs of government he stands su-
preme and unrivalled in American his-
tory. His eloquence was so magnetic, his
language so clear and his reasoning so
irresistible, that he swayed with equal
ease popular assemblies, grave senates,
and learned judges. He captured the peo-
ple of the whole country for the Constitu-
tion by his papers in The Federalist, and
conquered the hostile majority in the New
York convention by the splendor of his
oratory.
But the multitudes whom no arguments
could convince, who saw in the executive
power and centralized force of the Con-
stitution, under another name, the dread-
ed usurpation of king and ministry, were
satisfied only with the assurance, " \Vash-
ington wiU be President." ." Good," cried
John Lamb, the able leader of the Sons
of Liberty, as he dropped his opposition,
"for to no other mortal would I trust
authority so enormous." "\Vashington
wiJI be President" was the battle-cry of
the Constitution. It quieted alarm and
ga ve confidence to the timid and courage
to tIle weak. The country re!';ponded with
enthusiastic unanimity, but the chief with
the greatest reluctance. In the supreme
moment of victory, when the world ex-
pected him to foUow the precedents of the
past and perpetuate the power a grateful
country would willingly have left in his
hands, he had resigned and retired to
Mount Vernon to enjoy in private sta-
tion his weB-earned rest. The convention
created by his exertions to prevent, as he
said, "the decline of our federal dignity
into insignificant and wretched fragments
of empire," had caBed him to preside over
its deliberations. Its work made possible
the realization of his hope that "we
might survive as an independent repub-
lic," and again he sought the seclusion of
his home. But, after the triumph of the
war and the formation of the Constitu-
tion, came the third and final crisis: the
initial movements of government which
were to teach the infant State the steadier
steps of empire.
He alone could stay assault and
III.-G

spire confidence while the great and conl-
plicated machinery of organized govern-
ment was put in order and set in motion.
Doubt existed nowhere except in his mod-
est and unambitious heart. "My move-
ments to the chair of government," he
said, ,. wiJI be accompanied by feelings
not unlike those of a culprit who is going
to the place of his e
ecution. So unwill-
ing am I, in the evening of life, nearly
c:onsumed in public cares, to quit a peace-
ful abode for an ocean of difficulties, with-
out that competency of political skill,
abilities, and inclination, which are neces-
sary to manage the helm." His whole
life had been spent in repeated sacrifices
for his country's welfare, and he did not
hesitate now, though there is an under-
tone of inexpressible sadness in this entry
in his diary on the night of his departure:
'" About 10 o'clock I bade adieu to Mount
Yernon, to private life, and to domestic
felicity, and with a mind oppressed with
more anxious and painful sensations than
I bave words to express, set out for :New
York with the best disposition to render
service to my country in obedience to its
call, but with less hope of answering its
expecta tions."
Ko conqueror was ever accorded such a
triumph, no ruler ever accorded such a
welC'ome. In this memorable march of
six days to the capital, it was the pride
of States to accompany him with the
masses of their people to their borders,
that the C'itizens of the next common-
wealth might escort him through its terri-
tory. It was the glory of cities to re-
ceive him with every civic honor at their
gates, and entertain him as the savior of
their liberties. He rode under triumphal
arches from which children lowered laurel
wreaths upon his brow. The roadways
were strewn wi th flowers, and as they
were crushed beneath. his horse's hoofs,
their sweet incense wafted to heaven the
ever-ascending prayers of his loving
countrymen for his life and safety. The
swelling anthem of gratitude and rever-
ence greeted and followed him along the
country - side and through the crowded
streets: "Long live George Washington!
I
ong live the father of his people!"
His entry into New York was worthy
the city and State. He was met by the
in- chi('f officers of the retiring government
Ðï

DEPEW, CHA UNCEY MITCHELL

of the country, hy the governor of the and of hope from the generous assistanee
commonwealth. anù the whole population. of France, and peace had come and indc-
This superb harbor was alive with fleets l'cndcnce triumphed. As the 1>\
t soldier
and flags, and the ships of other na- of the invading enemy emùarks, \Vash-
tions, with salutes frolll their guns and ington, at the head of the patriotic host,
the cheers of their crews, added to the Euters the city, receives the welcome and
joyous acclaim. But as the captains who gratitude of its people, and in the tavern
had asked the privilege, bending proudly which faces us across the way, in silence
to their oars, rowed the President's barge more eloquent than speech, and with
swiftly through these inspiring scenes, tears which choke the words, he bids
"'ashington's mind and heart were full farewell forever to his companions in
of reminiscence and foreboding. arms. Such were the crowding memories
He had visited Xew York thirty-three of the past suggested to Washington in
years before, also in the month of April, 1789 by his approach to :New York. But
in the full perfection of his early man- the future had none of the splendor of
hood, fresh from Braddock's bloody field, precedent and brilliance of promise which
and wearing the only laurels of the battle, have since attended the inauguration of
bearing the prophetic hlessing of the ven- our Presidents. An untried scheme,
erable President Davies, of }>rinceton Col- adopted mainly because its administra-
lege, as "that heroic youth Colonel "'ash- tion was to be confidf'd to him, "as to
ington, whom I cannot but hope Provi- be put in practice. He knew that he was
dence has hitherto preserved in so signal 1.0 be met at every step of constitutional
a manner for some important service to progress by factions temporarily hushed
the country." It was a fair daughter of into unanimity by the terrific force of
our State whose smiles allured him here, the tidal wave which was bearing him to
and whose coy confession that her heart the President's seat, but fiercely hostile
was another's recorded his only failure upon questions affecting every power of
and saddened his depa-rture. Twenty years nationality and the existence of the
passed, and he stood before the Xew York federal government.
Congress, on this very "pot, the unani- \Vashington was never dramatic, but
mously chosen commander-in-chief of the on grcat occasions he not only rose to the
Continental army, urging the people to full idml of the event, he became him-
more vigorous measures, and made pain- self the en'nt. One hundred years ago to-
fully aware of the increased despera
day, the procession of foreign amùassa-
tion of the struggle, from the aid dors, of statesmen and generals, of civic
to be given to the enemy by dome<;tic societies and military companies, which
sympathi:lers, when he knew tl}at
he escorted him, marched from Franklin
same local military company which es- Square to Pearl street, through Pearl to
corted him was to perform the like \,oer- Broad, and up Broad to this spot, but
vice for the British (jovernor Tryon on the people saw only Washington. As he
h
;;; landing on the morrow. Returning stood upon the Rteps of the old govern-
;or the defence of the city the next sum- ment building here, the thought mu
t
mer, he executed the retreat from I.ong have occurred to him that it was a cradle
Island, which secureti from Frederick the of liberty, and, as such. giving a bright
Great the opinion that a great com- omen for the future. In these halls in
mander had appeared, and at Harlem 1735, in the trial of John Zenger. had
Heights he won the first American vic- been estahlished, for the first time in its
tory of the Revolution, which gave that history, the liberty of the prpss. JTprp
confidence to our raw recruits against the the New York Assemblv, in liG-t. madp
famous veterans of Europe which carried the protest against the
Stamp Act, and
our army triumphantly through the war. proposed the general conference. which
Six years I more of untold sufferings, was the beginning of united colonial ap-
of freezing and starving camps, of tion. In this old State-house, in 17G:ï,
marches over the snow by barefooted the Stamp Act Congrf'ss, the first and tlH'
soldiers to heroic attack and splenùid father of American congressps, assembl(>rl
victory, of despair with an unpaid army, and presented to the English government
D8

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

that vigorous protest which caused the with responding acclaim all over the
repeal of the act and checked the first land: .. Long live George 'Yashillgton,
step towards the usurpation which lost the President of the rnited States!"
American colonies to the Bl'itish Empire. The simple and imposing ceremony over,
Within these walls the Congress of the the inaugural read, the bleðsing of God
Confederation had conllni
sioned its am- prayerfully petitioned in oM :::;1. Paul's,
bassadors abroad, and in inefi'ectual efforts the festivities passed, and 'Yashington
at government had created the necessity stood alone. Xo one else could take
for the concentration of federal authority, the helm of state, and enthusiast and
now to be consummated. doubter alike trU!
ted only him. The
The first Congress of the l'"nited States teachings and habits of the past had edu-
gathered in this ancient temple of liberty, cated the people to faith in the indepen-
g-reeted \Yashington, and accompanied him dence of their States, and for the supreme
to the balcony. The famous men visible authority of the new gonrnment there
about him were Chancellor Livingston, stood against the precedent of a century
Vice-President John Adams, Alexander and the passions of the hour little besides
Hamilton. Governor Clinton, Roger Sher- the arguments of Hamilton, )Iadison, and
man, Richard Henry Lee, General Knox, Jay in The Federalist, and the judgment
and Baron Steuben. But we believe that of Washington. 'Yith the first attempt
among the invisible host above him, at to ð.ercise national power began the duel
this supreme moment of the culmination to the death between State sovereignty,
in permanent triumph of the thousands claiming the right to nullify federal laws
of years of struggle for self-government, or to secede from the rnion, and the
"were the spirits of the soldiers of the power of the republic to command the reo
Revolution who had died that their coun- sources of the country, to enforce its au.
try might enjoy this blessed day, and thority, and protect its life. It was the
with them were the barons of Runny- beginning of the sixty
'ears' war for the
merle, and William the Silent, and Sidney, Constitution and the nation. It seared
and Russell, and Cromwell, and Hampden, consciences, degraded politics, destroyed
and the heroes and martyrs of liberty of parties, ruined statesmpn, and retarded
every race and age. the ad\-ance and de\-elopment of the coun-
As he came forwarù, the multituùe in try; it sacrificed thousands of precious
the streets, in the windows, and on the lives and squandered thousands of
roofs sent up such a rapturous shout that miI]ions of money; it desolated the fair-
\Vashington sat down overcome with emo- est portion of the land, and carried mourn-
tion. As he slowly rose and his tall and ing into every home, Korth and South;
majestic form again appeared, the people, but it ended at .\.ppomattox in the abso-
deeply affected, in awed silence viewed the lute triumph of the repuhlic.
scene. The chancellor solemnly read to Posterity O\n>s to \Yashington's ad-
him the oath of office, and \Yashington, ministration the policy and measures, the
repeating, said: "I do solf'umly swear force and direction, which made possible
that I will faithfully execnte the office of this glorious result. In giving the organ-
President of the United States, and wi1l, imtion of the Department of State and
to the bcst of my ability, prese}"\'e, pro- foreign rclations to Jefferson, the Treas-
teet, and defend the Constitution of the ury to Hamilton, and the Supreme Court
United
tatel"." Then he renrentlv bent to Jay, he selected for his cabinet and
low and kissed the Bible, uttering with called to his assistance the ablest and
profound emotion: "So help me, God." most eminent men of hi" time. Hamil-
The chancellor waved his robes and shout- ton's marvellous versatility and genius
ed: "It is done; long live George '''ash- designed the armory and the weapons for
ington, President of the United States!" the promotion of national power and
"Long live George \Yashington, our first greatness, but \Vashington's steady sup-
President!" \Vas the answering cheer of port carried them through. Parties
the people, and from the belfries rang the crystallized, and party passion:,; were in-
bells, and from forts and ships thundered tense, debates were intemperatE', and the
the cannon, echoing and repeating the cry Union openly threatened and secretly
t}9

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

plotted against. as the finn pressure of the Deit
, and heliev('d liberty impossihlf>
this might
. per
onality funded th(' debt without law. IIf> f'poke to the soùer judg-
and established credit, assumed the State ment of t}H' nation, and made clear the
debts incurred in the "'ar of the Re\'o- danger. He sawd the infant gO\'ernment
lution and superseded the local by the from ruin, and e
pelled the Fr<'llch minis-
national obligation, imposed duties upon ter who had appealed from him to the
imports and excise upon spirits, and cre- pcople. The 'whole land, seeing safety only
ated revenue and resources, organized a in his continuance in office, joined Jeffer-
Jlational banking system for puùlic needs son in urging him to accept a second term.
and private business, and called out an "North and South," pleaded the Se('r('-
army to put down by force of arms resist- tary," will hang together while they have
ance to the federal laws imposing Un- you to hang to."
popular taHS. Cpon the plan marked Xo man e\'er stood for so much to his
out by the Constitution, this great ar- country and to mankind as George 'Vash-
ehitect, with unfaiJing faith and unfaJter- ington. Hamilton, Jefferson and Adams,
ing courage, builded the republic. III' :Madison and Jay, each represented some
gave to the government the principles of of the elements which formed the Vnion.
adion and sources of power which carried Washington embodied them all. They
it successfully through the wars with fell, at times, under popular disapprov-
Great Britain in 1812 and Mexico in 1848, aI, were burned in effigy, were stoned,
which enabled Jackson to defeat nuHifica- but he, with unerdng judgment, way
tion, and recruited and equipped millions alwa
's the leader of the people. Milton
of men for I
incoln, and justified and said of Cromwell, "that war made him
sustained his proclamation of emancipa- great, peace greater." The superiority
tion. of "'ashington's character and genius
The French Revolution was the bloody were more conspicuous in the formation
reality of France and the nightmare of the of our government and in putting it
civilized world. The tyranny of centuries on indestructible foundations than in
culminated in frightful reprisals and reck- lEading armies to victory and conquering
less revenges. As parties rose to power the independence of l}is country. "The
and passed to the gui1lotine, the frenzy of Pnion in any event," is the central
the revolt against all authority reached thought of his farewell address, and all
every country and captured the imagina- thl' years of his grand life were devoted
tions and enthusiasm of millions in every to its formation ana preservation. III'
land, who believed they saw that the mad- fought as a youth with Braddock and in
neSS of anarchy, the overturning of all the capture of }
ort Duquesne for the pro-
institutions, the confiscation and distribu- tection of the whole country. As com-
tion of property, would end in a mil1enni- mander-in-chief of the Continental army,
um for the masses and the universal his commission was from the Congress
hrotherhood of man. Enthusiasm for of the united colonies. He inspired
France, our late ally, and the terrible the movement for the republic, was the
commercial and industrial distress occa- president and dominant spirit of the Con-
",ioned by the failure of the government nntion which framed its Constitution,
under the Artic1ps of Confederation, and its President for eight years, and
aroused an almost unanimous cry for
uid('d its course until satisfied that, mov-
the young repuhlic, not yet sure of its ing safely along the broad highway of
own existence, to plunge into the vor- time, it would be surel.v ascending towards
tex. The ablest and purest statesmen of th
first place amonq the nations of the
the time bent to the storm, hut 'Vashing- world, the asylum of the oppressed, the
ton was unmoved. H(' stood like the rock- home of the free.
ribbed coast of a ('ontinent })('tween the no his countrymen exaggerate his vir-
surging billows of fanaticism and the ehild hIes! T,isten to Guimt, the historian of
of his love. Order is Heaven's first law, e!\'ili7ation: "'Vashington did the two
and the miml of 'Yashington was onlpr. gTeat('st things which in politics it i

'I he Revolution df'fied God and derided T,('rmitt('d to man to attempt. He main-
the Ja\v. 'Va!';hington devoutly reverenc('t! taincd by peace the independence of his
100

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

country which he conquered by war. He clouds overhead and no convulsions under
founded a free government in the name our feet. \Ve reverently return thanks
of the principles of order and by re- to Almighty God for the past, and with
establishing their sway." Hear Lord confident and hopeful promise march upon
J:rskine, the most famous of English ad- sure ground towards the future. The sim-
vocates: "You are the only being for pIe facts of these 100 years paralyze the
whom I have an awful reverence." Re- imagination, and we contemplate the vast
member the tribute of Charles James Fox, accumulations of the century with awe
the greatest parliamentary orator who and pride. Our population has gro\\n
ever swayed the British House of Com- from 4,000,000 to 65,000,000. Its centre,
mons: "Illustrious man, before whom all moving westward 500 miles since 1789, is
borrowed greatness sinks into insig- eloquent with the founding of cities and
nificance." Contemplate the character the birth of States. New settlements,
of Lord Brougham, pre-eminent for two clearing the forests and subduing the
generations in every department of hu- prairies, and adding 4,000,000 to the few
man activity and thought, and then im- thousands of farms which were the sup-
press upon the memories of )'our children port of \Vashington's republic, create one
his deliberate judgment: "Until time of the great granaries of the world, and
shall be no more will a test of the prog- open exhaustless reservoirs of national
ress which our race has made in wisdom wealth.
and virtue be derived from the venera- The infant industries, which the first
tion paid to the immortal name of Wash- act of our first administration sought to
ington." encourage, now give remunerative employ-
Chatham, who, with Clive, conquered ment to more people than inhabited the re-
an empire in the East, died broken- public at the beginning of \Vashington's
hearted at the loss of the empire in the Presidency. The grand total of their
"'est, by follies which even his power annual output of $7,000,000,000 in value
and eloquence could not prevent. Pitt places the United States first among the
saw the vast creations of his diplomacy manufacturing countries of the earth.
shattered at Ansterlib:, and fell murmur- One-half the total mileage of all the rail-
ing: "
Iy country! llOW I leave my lOads, and one-quarter of all the telegraph
country!" Kapoleün caused a nob
e lincH of the world within our borders,
tribute to 'YashingtoJI to be read at the testify to the volume, variety, and value
head of his armies, but, unable to rise of an internal commerce which makes
to \Vashington's greatness, witncssed the these States, if need be, independent
'Vast structure erect
cl by conquest and find self-supporting. These 100 years of
cemented by blood, to minister to his own development under favoring political con-
ambition and pride, crumble into frag- ditions have brought the sum of our na-
ments, and, an exile and a prisoner, he tional wealth to a figure which has passed
breathed his last babbling of battle-fields the r('sults of 1,000 years for the mother-
and carnage. \Yashington, with his finger land herself, otherwise the riehest of mod-
upon his pulse, felt the presence of dcath, ern empires.
and, calmly reviewing the past and forf'- During this generation, a civil war of
casting the future, answered to the sum:' unequalled magnitude caused the expend i-
mons of the grim mes:5enger, "It is well," ture and loss of $8,000,000,000, and kill-
and, as his mighty soul ascended to God, cd 600,000, and permanently disabled over
the land was deluged with tears and the 1.000,000 young men, and yet the impetu-
world unitcd in his eulogy. Blot out from ous progress of the North and the mar-
the page of llistory the names of all tllP ,ellous industrial development of the new
grcat actors of his time in tllP drama of and free South have obliterated the evi-
lIations, and preserve the nallle of "'ash- deuces of destruction, RIllI made the war
ington, and the century would be re- a memory. and have stimulated pro-
nowned. è.uction until our annual surplus nearl
'
\Ve stand to-day upon the dh"iding line equals that of England, France, and Ger-
bctween the first and second century of many combined. The teeming millions of
constitutional government. There are no Asia till the patient soil and work the
101

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

E'huttle and 100m as their fathers have rope. :\Iost of the kings. princes, dukes,
done for ages: modern Europe has felt tlH' and margra\t's uf Ut'l'Jllany, who reigned
influence and recei\'ed the benefit of the in- despoticaUJ', and sold thcir soldiers for
ealeulable multiplieation of force by in- foreign service, have passed into hiðtory,
\cntive genius since the Napoleonic wars; and their heirs have neither prerogatives
and yet, only 269
'cars after the little nor domain.
pain has gone through
band of Pilgrims landed on Pl.vlIlouth many \"Ìolent changf's. and the permanency
Rock, our peoplf'. nUllllwring le!os than of lwr prf'sf'nt gov('rnlllellt f'.f'ems to depend
onc-fifteenth of the inhahitants of the upon the f('phle lifp of an infant prince.
globe, do onc-third of its mining. onc- Fram'p. our a)lI'iellt frif'nd, with rcpl'ated
fourth of its Jlmnufaduriug. one-fifth of :tnd Itloody rf'\olutioll, has tried the gov-
its agriculture, and own one-sixth of its ermuent of Bourbon and convention, of di-
wealth. redory and eonsulate. of ('lIIpire and citi-
This rcalism of material }Iwsperity, zen hing. of }If'reditar
' sO\e)'eign and re-
surpassing the wildest ereations of the ro- puhlic. of empire. and again republic. The
mancers who have astonif'.hed and delighted JIapshurg and lIohenzollern. aftf'r ,,'om-ul-
mankind, would be full of dangers for fiions which have rocked the foundations
the present and nwnape for the future, if of theit. throncs, have been compelled to
the ,irtue, inte1ligell('p, and indf'pendcnce concede constitutions to their people and
of the people wpr(' not equal to the wiðe to diYide with them the al'bitrary }lower
regulation of its uses and the stern prc- wielded so autocratically and bri11iantly
'ention of its abuses. Rut following thc by Maria Thcresa and Fredprick the Great.
growth and power of the great factors. The royal will of (:eorge III. could crowd
whose aggregation of capital made possible thc American colonies into rcbellion, and
the tremendous pace of the settlenwnt wage war upon them until they were lost
of our national domain, the building of to his kingdom, but the authority of the
our great citics and the opening of the crown has devolnd upon ministers who
lines of communications which have hold office subject to the approval of
united our country and created our re- the representati\'es of the people. and
Sf'luces. ha\ e come national and State the equa.l powers of the House of Lord"
legislation and supcn'ision. Twcnty mi11- have been vested in the Commons, leaving
ions, a vast majority of our people of in- to the peers only the shadow of their an-
telligent agc, acknowledging the author- cient privilcges. Rut to-day the American
itv of thcir !',e\'eraI churches, 12.000.000 people, aftcr all the dazzlin
developments
oi children in the common schools, 345 of the centur.v, are stilI happily Jiving un-
universities and collcgps for the higher der the government of 'Yashington. The
education of men and 200 for womcn, 4.;0 Constitution during all that period has
institutions of learning for science, law, heen amended only upon the lines laid
mcdicine, and theology, are the despair of down in the original instrument. a.nd in
the scoffer and the demagogue, and the conformity with the recorded opinions of
finn support of civilization an(1 lil)f'rt
'. the Fathers. The first great addition was
Steam a.nd elcctricity han changed the the incorporation of a bill of rights. and
commerce not only, they have I'evolution- the iast the emlwdding into the Constitu-
i7ed also the governments of the world. tion of the immortal prinf'iple of the
They have gi\"f'n to the press it" power, Declaration of Indppendence - of the
and brought all races lmd nationalities equality of all men hefore the law. XO
into touch and s
vmpathy. Tlwy have test- crisis has hepn too perilous for its powers.
ed and are hying the strength of all sys- no revolution too rapid for its adaptation,
tems to stand the strain and conform to nnd no expansion heyond its pa....
. grasp
the conditions whiell follow the germinat- and administration. It lias assimilated
inO' influcnccs of American democraev. At di\-prse nationalitips with warring tradi-
th
time of the inauguration of 'Ya
hillg- tiOll''!. ('ustom". f'onditions, and languages.
ton, seven royal families ruled aq many imhued them with its !opirit. and won their
kingdoms in Italy, but six of them ha\e pas.;;ionate lo
'alty and love.
"een their thrones o\"l'rturnpd and t1...ir Thp fllI\\('r of tIlf' youth of the nation'!
(u\II!írif's dislpppar from the ma-p of Eu- of l'ontinclltal Eurol'P arc cOllscriplt'd frOJn
102

DEPEW-DERMER

productive industries and drilling in ing past and splendid present, the people
camps. Y"ast armies stand in battle array of these United States, heirs of 100 years
along the frontiers, and a kaiser's whim marvellously rich in all which adds to
or a minister's mistake may precipitate the glory and greatness of a nation, with
the most destructive war of modern times. an abiding trust in the stability and elas-
Both monarchical and republican govern- ticity of their Constitution, and an
ments are seeking safety in the repression abounding faith in themselves, hail the
and suppression of opposition and criti- coming century with hope and joy.
cism. The volcanic forces of democratic De Peyster, AßRAHA
I, jurist; born in
aspiration a.nd socialistic revolt are rapid- New Amsterdam (New York), July 8,
ly increasing and threaten peace and se- lü38; eldest son of Johannes De Peyster,
curity. We turn from these gathering a noted merchant of his day. Between 1691
storms to the British Isles and find their and 1695 he was mayor of the city of
people in the throes of a political crisis in- New York; was first assistant justice and
volving the form and substance of their then chief-justice of New York, and was
government, and their statesmen far from one of the King's council under Governor
confident that the enfranchised and un- Hyde (afterwards Lord Corn bury) , and
prepared masses will wisely use their as its president was acting-governor for
power. a time in 1701. Judge De Peyster was
But for us no army exhausts our re- colonel of the forces in New York and
sources nor consumes our :routh. Our treasurer of that province and New
navy must needs increase in order that the Jersey. He was a personal friend and
protecting flag may follow the expanding correspondent of 'Villiam Penn. HaYing
commerce which is successfully to compete amassed considerable wealth, he built a
in all the markets of the world. The sun fine mansion, which stood, until 1856, in
of our destiny is still rising, and its rays Pearl street. It was used by \Vashington
illumine vast territories as yet unoccu- as his headquarters for a while in 1776.
pied and undeveloped, and which are to He died in New York City Aug. 10, 1728.
be the happy homes of millions of people. De Peyster, JOHANXES, founder of the
The questions which affect the powers of De Peyster family; born in Haarlem, Hol-
government and the expansion or limita- land, about 1600; emigrated to America
tion of the authority of the federal Con- on account of religious persecution, and
stÏtution are so completely settled, and so died in New Amsterdam (now New York
unanimously approved, that our political City) about 1685.
divisions produce only the healthy antag- De Peyster, JOI
x \V ATTS, military his-
onism of parties, whieh is necessary for tori an ; born in Kew York City, March
the preservation of liberty. Our insti- 9, 1821; elected ('olonel New York militia
tutions furnish the full equipment of in 1845; appointed adjutant-general New
shield and spear for the battles of freedom, York, 1855; is author of The Dutch at
and nbsolute protection against every dan- the North Pole
' The Dutch in lIlaine;
gel' which threatens the welfare of the peo- Decisive Oonflicts of the Late Oivil War;
pIe will always be found in the intelJi- Personal and Military History of Gen.
gence which appreciates their value, and Philip KearnJ/, etc.
the courage and morality with which Dermer, TnmlAs, an actiye friend of
their powers are exercised. The spirit of colonization schemes, and a man of pru-
"'ashington fills the executive office. dence and industry, was employed by the
rresidents may not rise to the full meas- PIJ'mouth Company after his rpturn from
ure of his greatness. but they must not Newfoundland, in 1618, to bring about, if
fall below his sta.ndard of public duty possible, reconciliation with the Indians
and obligation. His life and character, of New England, and to make further ex-
conscientiously studied and thoroughly plorations. He !"ai1ed from Plymouth with
understood by comin
generations, will two vessels (one a small, open pinnace)
bp for them a liheral education for pri- in February, HìI9, touched at :Uohegan
yate life and public station, for citizen- Island, and then visited the coast. D(>r-
!'l.ip and patriotism. for 10\'(> and devotion nwr was ac-('ompanied from England hy
to union and liherty. \\'1th their inspir-
quanto; also hy Samoset, a native of
103

DERNE EXPEDITION-DE SMET

Sagadahock. whom John Mason, governor the siege of LorrsBrRo (q. 'I.'.), and was
of Kcwfoundland, had lately sent home, aide-de-camp to Wolfe when he fell at
he having been one of Hunt's captives. Quebec, that general dying in Desbarres's
Dermer succeeded, in a degree, and pro- arms. He was active in the retaking of
ceeded to explore the coast to Virginia. K ewfoundland in I ï62, and for ten years
He sent home his ship from Mohegan Isl- afterwards he "as emplo,yed in a coast
and, laden with fish and furs, and, leav- survey of Ko,'a Scotia. He prepared
ing Squanto at Saco, sailed southward. charts of the Xorth Amcrican coasts in
Xear Cape Cod he was captured by Ind- I ïï5 for Earl Howe, and in l'ii7 he pub-
dians, but ransomed himself by a gift of lished The Atlantic XcptUllC, in two large
some hatchets. Passing Martin's (Mar- folios. He was made governor of Cape
tha'8) nneyard, he navigated Long 1151- Breton, with - the military command of
and Sound by the help of an Indian pilot, Prince Edward's Island, in lï84, and in
the firsi Englishman who had sailed upon 1804, being then about eightJ,-two years
these waters, and passed out to sea at of age, he was made lieutenant-governor
Sandy Hook. The current was so swift of Prince Edward's Island. He died in
that he did not stop at Manhattan; but Halifax, N. S., Oct. 24, 1824.
on his return from \ïrginia (1620) he Deseret, PROPOSED STATE OF. See .:\IOR-
touched there and held a conference with
IOXS.
some Dutch traders" on Hudson's River," Desert Land Act, passed March 3,
warning them that they were on English IHï7, allowing !';ettlers 640 acres for pur-
territoQ'. Dermer sent a journal of his poses of irrigatiun and improvement.
procPf'dings to Gorges, and thus, no doubt,. De Smet, PETER JOlIN, missionary;
hastened the procurement of the new char- born in Termonde, Belgium, Dec. 31, IS01;
ter for the PLY
IO{;TII COMPANY (q. v.). ðtudied in the Episcopal seminary of
Derne Expedition. See TRIPOLI, \YAR Mechlin. With five other students he
WITII. sail('d from Ann,t('rdam in 1821 for the
Derry, JOSEPH T., author; born in :Mil- Cnited States, and entered the Jesuit
ledgeviIIe, Ga., Dec. 13, 1841; graduated school at Whitemarsh, .l\Id. In 1828 he
at Emory College in 1860; enlisted in the went to St. Louis and aided in founding
Oglethorpe Infantry in .January, 1861, the L'niversity of St. Louis, where he
and with his company joined the Confed- later became a profesðor. In 18:38 he
<'Tate army, March 18, 1861; served founded a misðion among the Pottawat-
throughout the war, participating in the tomie Indians on Sugar Creek. In JulJ',
West Virginia, the Tennessee, and the 1840, he \\ ent to the Peter Valley in the
Atlanta campaigns, being taken prisoner Rock
'
Iountains, where he met ahout
at the battle of Kenesaw Mountain, June I,GOO Flathead Indians. By the help of
27, 1864. Among his works are a School an interpreter he translated the Command-
History of the United Statcs; History of ments, the Lord'
Prayer, and the Creed
Gc01'.qia,' and the volume on Georgia in into their language, and these within two
the C'onfederate Uilitary History of which weeks' time the Flatheads learned. Dur-
Gen. Clement A. Emns is editor. ing his journey baek to
t. Louis he was
De Russy, FORT (La.), captured March several times surrounded by the Black-
14, 1864, by Gen. A. J. :-;mith with 10,000 feet Indians, who, when they saw his crn-
Xationals. Gen. Dick Taylor surrendered cifix and black gown. showed him thp
with about 10,000 men. See RED RIVEn greatest respect. On f'ippt. 24, 1841, with
EXPEDITION. a party of other missionaries, he reached
Desbarres, JOSEPH FREDERICK 'YAL- Bitter Root Hiver, where the mission of
LET, military officer; born in England, of
t.
rary's was l)('gun. After !';pending
French ancestry, in I ï

; ('dueated for aoout a .\"Car in learning" the Blaekfeet
the army at the I.:oyal :\IiIitary College h.nguage and in endeavoring to make St.
at \Yoolwich. and. as lieutenant. came to :\T.u'y's a permanent mission. he went t.>
-\merica in Ij5G. and, mising 300 recruits Eump(' to 80Iil'it aid. .\ftpr arousing
in Pennsylvania and
IarJ'land, formed great enthusiasm in Belgium and Fram'e
them into a corps of field-artillery. He he ""tiled from Antwerp in ])('cemher,
distingui"hed himself as an engineer in IH43, with five Jesuits and six sisters 4
104

Bobadilla, a scion of one of the most re-
nowned of the Castilian families, and his
influence at Court was thereby strength-
ened. Longing to rival Cortez and Pi-
zarro in the brilliancy of his deeds, and
believing Florida to be richer in the pre-
cious metals than
Iexico or Peru, De Soto
offered to conquer it at his own expensc.
Permission was readily given him by his
King, who commissioned him governor of
Cuba, from which island he would set out
on his conquering expedition. Elegant in
deportment, winning in all his wa
Ts, an
expert horseman, rich and influential, and
then thirty-seven years of age, hundreds
of young men, the flower of the Rpanish
and Portuguese nobility, flocked to his
standard, the wealthier ones dressed in
suits of gorgeous armor and followed bv
trains of servants. \Yith these and his
beautiful young wife and other noble
ladies De Soto sailed from Spain early in
April, 1538, with seven large and three
small vessels, the Ran Ghristoval, of 800
tons, b{'ing his flag-ship.
Amply supplied and full of joy in the
anticipation of entering an earthly para-
dise, gayety and feasting, music and
dancing prevailed on board the flag-ship
during that sunny voyage, in which richly
dr
ssed ladies, with handsome pages to do
their hidding, were conspicuous, especial1y
on warm moonlit nights within the tropic
of Cancer. At near the close of May the
ffeet entered Cuban waters. De Soto occu-
pied a whole year preparing for the expe-
dition. and at the middle of May, 1539, he
sailed from Cuba with nine nssels, bearing
1,000 followers, and cattle, horses, mules,
and swine, the first of the latter seen on
the American continent. He left public af-
.:::.
fairs in Cuba in the hands of his wife and
'" the lieutenant-governor. The voyage to
Florida was pleasant, and the armament
landed on the shores of Tampa Bay on
May 23, near where Narvaez had first
anchored. Instead of treating the natives
kindly and winning their friendship,
De Soto unwisely sent armed men to
f'apture some of them, in order to learn
Romething about the country he was to
of the h\(,:l;O\, aUlI the destruction of tlwir conquer. The savages, cruelly treated by
empire. :-;OOJl aftpr that e"pnt he re- Xarvaez, and fearing the same usage by
turneù to f'pain with large wealth, anù De Soto, were cautious. They were also
was receh'ed by King Charles V. with wily, expert with the bow, revengeful, and
great consideration. He married Isabel1a fiercely hostile. With cavaliers clad in
105

and in August, 1844, arrived at Fort Van-
COll\'er, and planted a central mission on
the Willamette River. In 1845 he under-
took a series of missions among the Sin-
poils, Zingomenes, Okenaganes, Koote-
nays, and Flatbows. He made senral
trips to Europe for aid. Father De Smet
wrote The Oregon Missions and Travels
Over the Nocky Mountains; lrestern Jlis-
sions and J[ issionaries ; New Indian
Sketches, etc. He died in St. Louis, Mo.,
in :May, 18i2.
De Soto, FER:VAJ'mo, discoverer; born
in Xeres. Estremadura, Spain, about 1496,
of a noble but impoverished family. Da-
vila, governor of Darien, was his kind
patron, through whose generosity he re-
ceived a good education, and who took
him to Central America, where he en-
gaged in exploring the coast of the Pacific
Ocean hundreds of miles in search of a
supposed strait connecting the two oceans.
"7hen Pizarro went to Peru, De Soto ac-
companied him, and was his chief lieu-
tenant in achieving the conquest of that
country. Bran and judicious, De Soto
was the chief hero in the battle that re-
sulted in the capture of Cuzco, the capital

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FERYA'DO DE SOTo.

DE SO TO

glided across the
river, and with kind
words welcomed the
I Spaniards and of-
fered them her
gervices. Presen ts
WPH' ('"changed. A
magnificent string of
pf'arls was hung
upon h('r neck. This
she drew over her
head and hung it
a rou nd the neck of
Dc Soto as a token
of her regard. Then
f;he invitc<l llim and
his followers to cross
ovcr to her yillagc.
In canoes and on
log-rafts they pass-
ed the stream, and,
encamping in tIle
shadows of mul-
berry-trees, they
soon recei yed a
bountiful supply of
steel and riding 113 horses, with many venison and wild turkeys. There they en-
footmen armed with arquebuses, cross- joyed the
'Olmg quccn's hospitality until
hows, swords, shields, and lances, and a l\[ay, and when they departed De So to
single cannon. and supplied with savage requited the kindness of the royal maiden
bloodhounds from Cuha, and handcuffs, with foul treachery. He carried her away
iron neck-collars, and chains for the cap- a prisoner, and kept her near his person
tives, De Soto began his march in June, as a hostage for the good behador of her
1539. He was accompanied hy mechanics, people towards the Spaniards. She finally
priests, inferior clergy, and monks in escapcd, and returned home a bitter
sacerdotal robes bearing images of the enemy of the pcrfidious white people.
'
irgin, holy relics, and sacramental bread De Soto crossed the bcautiful country
and wine, wherewith to make Christians of the Cherokecs (see CHEROKEE IXDIA
S),
of the captured pagans. and penetrated the fertile Coosa region,
At the very outset the expedition met where the Spaniards practised the most
with detcrmincd opposition from the dusky cruel treachery towards the friendly
inhabitants, but De Soto pressed forward natives. De Soto was rewarded in kind
towards the interior of the fancied land not long afterwards, and in a terrib1e
of gold. He wintered east of the Flint battle with tIle
[obilians, on the site of
Hiver, near TaJIahas
ee, on the bordcrs of :!\[obi1e, the expedition was nearly ruined.
Cieorgia, and in )[arch, 1340, broke up his Turning northward with the remnant of
f'nCamp.llent and marched northward, hay- 11 is forces, he fought his way through the
ing been told that gold would be found in Chickasaw cmmtrr (see C'HICKASAW biD-
that direction. He reaehpd the Savannah IA
S), and reached the upper waters of
River, at Sil\"Cr Bluff. On the opposite the Ya7.oo Ri\'er lale in December, where
side of the f\tream, in (present) RannH,n he wintered, in great distress.
Ioying
county, lived an Indian queen, young, beau- westward in the spring. he discovered the
tiful, and a lIlaidt'n, wllO ruled owr a Jargl' ]\[js<;issil'pi TIivpr, in all its grandeur, iJl
f'"tent of eountry. In a ri,'hly wrought Mav, }',)-11. It was nC'ar the Lower ChiC'a-
(.:IllOP, fil1<:d with sllawls and skins and fla,; nluO', in Tunica <,onnty,
[i
s. ('rlJ:--I-
{Itlwr things for prescnls, the du:;ky cacic((, iug the mighty stream, Dc I:;olo wcnt wcst-
106

DE SOTO, FERNANDO

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DE SOTO DISCOYERI'\G THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

DE SOTO-DE TROBRIAND

ward in his yet fruitless search for gold,
and spent a year in the country towards
the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains.
Returning to the :Mississippi in May,
1.)4
, he died of a fever on its banks on
the 21st.
As he had declared to the Indians, who
were sun-worshippers, that he was a son of
the sun, and that Christians couId not die,
it was thought wise to conceal his death
from the pagans. He was secretly buried
in the gateway of the SpaniRh camp. The
Indians knew he was sick. He was not to
be seen, and they saw a new-made grayer
They looked upon it and pondered. :Mos-
coso ordered the body to be taken up at
the dead of night. lIe was wrapped in
mantles in which sand had been sewed up,
taken in a boat to the middle of the great
river, and there dropped to the bottom in
IU fathoms of water. Herrera says it
was sunk in a l101l0W live-oak log. 'Yhcn
the Indian chief asked
IO:5COSO for De
f:oto, that leader replied,
'He has ascend-
ed to heaven, but will return soon."
Before his death De Soto had conferred
the leadership of the expedition upon
Moscoso, his lieutenant, who, with the
wretched remnant of the expedi tion,

made their way to )Iexico, where the ele-
gant Castilian ladies at the court of the
viceroy were enraptured by the beauty of
the dusky :.\Iobilian girls. The news of
De Soto's death cast a gloom over Havana,
and poor Doña Isabella, wife of the great
leader, who had so long waited for his
return, died of a broken heart.
Despard, JOH)i", military officer; born
in 1745; joined the British army in 1760;
came to America in 1773; was present
at the capture of Fort :.\Iontgomery and
of Charleston; and was with Cornwallis
in the campaign which culminated in the
surrender at Yorktown. He was promoted
colonel in 17H5. and major-general in
1 iUS. He died in Oswestry, England,
Sept. 3, 182!).
D'Estaing, COU
T. See ESTAING,
CnARLES HECTOR, COU:VT D'.
Destroying Angels. See DANITES.
De Trobriand, PHILIPPE RÉGlS, mili-
tary officer; born in Chflteau des Ro-
chettes, France. June 4, 1816; came to the
t:"nited States in 18.n; joined the Nation-
al army as colonel of the 55th New York
Regiment in August, 1861; took part in
the engagements at Fredericksburg, Chan-
ceIIorsviIle, Gettysburg, etc.; was present

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THE BURIAL OF DE ::!OTO.

wandered another year in the region west as the commander of a division at Lee's
of the :Mbsissippi; and returning to that surrender; received the brevet of major-
TÏ\'er in
Iay, 11)43, they built rude ves- general of volunteers in April, HHì5. He
Eels, and, with a number of beautiful Ala- joined the regular army in 1 HliIi: rt'ceiVf'rl
llama girls whom tlu.y had ('aniNI away the hrevet of briþ!:ulier-gelwral in IHli7;
Ct1ptive after the battle at :Maubila, tIley retired in 1879. He published Quu(re 0,118
107

DETROIT

dr campagncs à l'armée du Potomac. He
died in Bayport, L. I., July 7, ISD7.
Detroit, a city, port of entry, metropolis
of )Iichigan, and county seat of 'Vayne
countv: on the Detroit River, 7 miles
from 'Lake
t. Clair, and about 18 miles
from Lake Erie. It is noted for the
,'ariety and extent of its manufactures
and for its large traffic on the Great
Lakes. For the defence of the harbor and

:Forcign commerce and interstate trade
are facilitated by an excellent harbor, ex-
tensive dry-docks, and important steam-
boat and railroad connections. According
to the census of lúoO the city had 2,847
manufacturing establishmcnts, employing
$71,731,193 capital and 4;),707 wage-
('arners; paying $18,718,081 for wages and
$;)2,349,347 for materials used; and hav-
ing a combined output valued at $100,.

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LANDING OF C..6DlLLAC.

city the federal government is construet- R!l2,838. Thp principal manufactures were:
ing Fort \Yayne, a short di!'tance helow Foundr
' anrl machine-shop products. $R.-
the city, which is desig'Jwd to be the !J-l:
.311; ell ug-g-ists' preparations, $.t.!Il:,).-
stronge!"t American fortification on the !1l3: smoking and chewing tohacco and
northern frontier. The yalue of tllC'
nuff, *:
,7.Hi.04:;: iron and stepL $3.1!)
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forei
n trade of the city in merchandise
81; packed IIIt'at. $3.Iü7.430: cigàrs and
dluing the fbC'a1 year ending .June 30. dgan.ttC'5, *
.jnO.
üH; malt liquors. $
,-
1f104, was: Imports, $4.46i ,1;)4; (''(ports. !i!l3.0!J:
; and stC'alll-hcating apparatus, $Z.-
$23,608.435, both a considerable increa"e lO-t.O(j(j. I II 11103 the as:,essed property
oyer the returns of the previous year. \"aluations were: Real estate. Jì;190.l!)i.-
The principal shipments ar
grains. meat, (Itin: personal. $81.Gi1,HGO-tota1. $2i1.-
wool, iron and copper ores, and lumher. R(i!;,
I:W; aud the tax rate \\ as $16.57 per
108

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DETROIT

$1,000. The city owned property free were forced to make a precipitate retreat
from all encumbrance estimated in HIO
in the darkness, lea viug twenty of their
at $
5,427,13!). '111e net general city debt, comrades killed and forty-two wounded
Jan. I, H)04, was $3,G37,938; net special on the border of the brook, which has
debt, $291,276-total net debt., $3,9
L),214, eyer since been called Bloody Run. Dal-
besides a water debt of about $1,000,000. zell was slain while tr;ying to carry off
The population in 1890 was 203,876; in sOllie of the wounded, and his scalp be-
1900, 285,704. came an Indian's trophy. Pontiac con-
Detroit was first settled by Antoine Ca- tinued the siege of Detroit until the ar-
dillac, July 24, 1701, with fifty soldiers rival of Colonel Bradstreet in
Iay, 1764.
and fifty artisans and traders. Three I
January, 1774, the British ParliR-
years later the first white child, a daugh- ment included Detroit and its dependent
ter of Cadillac, was baptized in the place, territory with Canada, and the first ci,'il
which was called by the French" La Ville government was instituted June 22, 1774,
d'Etroit." The French surrendered Detroit with GENERAl. HE.'<RY ILnUI.ToN (q. v.) as
to the English, under Maj. Robert Rodgers, gowrnor. Governor Hamilton, a human
:Kov. 29, I7GO. tiger, delighting in blood, instigated tl:e
The tragedy of Pontiac's 'War opened Indians to murder the defenceless set-
in Detroit. Unller pretext of holding a lers on the border. He organized an ex-
friendly council with Major Gladwin, com- pedition in ] 77!) to capture Vineennes,
mander of the fort, the wily chief entered but GENERAl. GEORGE ROGERS CLARK (q. v.)
it in May, 17G3, with about 300 warriors, attackf.d him on the way on March 5,
each carrying a knife, tomahawk, and and forced him to an unconditional sur-
short gun under his blanket. "
hen Pon- rcnder. Hamilton was sent to Virginia,
tiae should rise and present the green side put into irons by Thomas Jefferson, and
of a belt, the massacre of the garrison eSC3 ped hanging only through the inter-
was to begin. Gladwin was warned of cession of 'Vashington, but was finally
the plot the day before by a friendly Ind- pa1"Oled. The British troops were allowed
ian, and the calamity was averted by to return to Detroit.
the appointment of another day for the In] 782 Detroit had a permanent popu-
council. 'Yhen the Indians retired. the lation of 2.100, of whom 178 were sla ,'es,
gates of the fort were dosed upon them, but tI1f' withdrawal of the British gar-
and, knowing the reason, Pontiac began rison and the exodus of the English set-
a siege that lasted a
'ear. tIers to found Amherstburg reduced the
General Amherst hastily oolleeted a inhabitants to about 500, most of whom
small bodV' in the East for the relief of were of French descent. During the forty-
Detroit a
d reinforcement of Fort Ni- five years after the close of the war
ag-am, and sent tJ1f'm under the command Detroit grew slowly, in 1828 having a
of Captain Dalzell, one of his aides. Dal- population of ],517 only. The opening of
zell left reinforcements at Niagara. and the Erie Canal in 182.3 sent a tide of emi-
proceeded to Detroit with the remainder qration wesbvard, and Detroit began its
of his troops and provisions in a w!'!'el marvellous growth. Bcginning with 2,222
that arrived on the pvpnin!! of .Jnlv
O. inhabitants in 1830, it has on an average
They suceeedcd in entcrÏng' the fort' with doubled each decade.
provisions. Pontiac had already 8um- The city was the scene of disastrous
moned Gladwin to surrendcr; now Dal- operations in the early part of the 'Val'
7eH proposed to make a sortie and attack of 1812-15. In Ang-ust, 1812, General
the besieging Indians. Gladwin thought Brock, governor of Upper Canada, with
it would be imprudent. but Dalzell per- a few regulars and 300 militia, hastened
sisted, and before daylight on the morn- to Amhersthurg. arridng- there on the
ing of July 31 he sallied out with 240 night of Aug. l
, and on thp following
chosen men to att...1.ck the Indians, who lay lllorning held a COnfel"enCe with Tecumseh
about a mile up the river. Pontiac was and 1,000 Indians, telling them he had come
on the alert, and, at a small stream on to assist in driving the Americans from
the nortIlern verge of Detroit, the Eng- their rightful hunting-grounds north of the
li!"h, furiously assailed by the Indians, Ohio. The Indians were pleased, and, at
109

DETROIT

a subsequent interview with Tecumseh that if the Indians were exasperated
and the other chiefs, they assured him and the fort shoul,l he taken there
that the Indians would give him all would be a general massacre of the
their strength in the undertaking. Then garrison and the inl1abitants, and his
Brock marched from Malden to Sandwich, kindness of heart and growing caution,
which the Americans had deserted, and a incident to old age, made him really
battery was planted opposite Detroit, timid and fearful. When Brock's prepa-
which commanded the fort there. The rations for attack were completed (on the
American artillerists begged permission 15th), he sent a summon'i to Hull for an
to open fire upon it, and Captain Snelling unconditional surrender of the p08t. In
asked the privilege of going o,-er in the that demand was a covert threat of let-
night to capture the British works. Hull ting loose the bloodthirsty Indians in
would not allow any demonstrations case of rcsistance. Hull's whole elTectiYe
against the enemy, find the latter pre- force at that time did not exceed 1,ÜO(}
pared for assault without any molest a- men. The fort was thronged with trem-
tion. Hull was much deceiwd by letters bling "omen and children and decrepit
intended to be intercepted, showing old men of the yil1age and surrounding
preparations for large and immediate re- country, who had fled to it for protection
inforcements to Brock's army; and he ft om the Indians. Hc kept the flag that
had also been deceived into the belief bore the summons waiting fully two hours,
that a large portion of the followers of for his innate branry and patriotism bade
the latter, who were only miJitia, were him refuse and fight, while his fear of
regulars. The miJitia had béen dressed dreadful consequences to his army and the
in scarlet uniforms, and were paraded so people bade him surrender. His troops
as to show treble their real number. Hull were confident in their ability to success-
was hemmed in on {',"ery side; his pro- fully confront the enem
', and he finally
visions were scarce, and he saw no chance refused compliance with the demand. Ae-
of receiving any from Ohio. He knew tive preparations were thcn made for de-

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9.
no

DETROIT-DE VRIES

fence. The British opened a cannonade English after the conquest of Canada, in
and uomua-rdment from their battery, 1 ï(jO. It was quadrangulal' in form, with
which was kept up until near midnight. bastions and uaITacks, and covered about
The firing was returned with spirit; but t\, 0 acres of ground. The embankments
Hull would listen to no suggestion for were nearly 20 feet high, with a deep
the erection of a battery at Spring Wells ditch, and were surrounded with a double
to oppose the enemy if they should a t- row of pickets. The fort did not com-
t.empt to cross the river. Early on the mand the river. The town, also, was sm".
morning of the 16th they crossed and rounded by pickets 14 feet in height, with
landed unmolested; and as they moved loop-holes to shoot throúgh.
towards the fort, in single column, Te- De Vaca. See CABEZA DE V ACA.
cumseh and his Indians, 700 strong, who Devens, CHARLES, jurist; born in
had crossed 2 miles below during the Charlestown, ::\Iass., April 4, 1820; grad-
night, took position in the woods on their uated at Harvard "Cniversity in 1838;
left ae flankers, while the right was pro- studied at the Cambridge Law School, and
tected by the guns of the Queen Charlotte. practised the profession of law several
in the river. They had approached to a years. In 1848 he was a State Senator,
point within 500 yards of the American and from 1849 to 1853 was Fnited States
line, when Hull sent a peremptory order marshal for
Iassachusetts. He was en-
for the soldiers to retreat within the al- gaged in his profession at \Vorcester,
ready overcrowded fort. The infuriated :Mass., when the Civil War began, and
soldiers reluctantly obeyed; and while was one of the earliest Union volunteer:;;,
the enemy were preparing to storm the becoming major of a rifle battalion April
fort, Hull, without consulting any of his 16, 1861, and colonel of the 15th Massa-
officers, hoisted a white flag, and a capitu- chusetts Regiment in July following. Be-
lation for a surrender was soon agreed fore the arrival of Colonel Baker, he com-
upon. The surrender took place at noon, manded at R-\u!s BLUFF (q. v.), anù again
Aug. !G, 1812. The fort, garrison, army, after that officer's death. In April, 1862,
and the Territory of Michigan were in- le was made brigadier-general; served on
eluded in the terms of 8urrender. The the Peninsula; was wounded at Fair
spoils of victory for the British were Oaks; was in the battles of South
roun-
2,500 stand of arms, twenty-five iron and tain and Antietam; and
onlInanded a
eight brass pieces of ordnance, forty bar- division in the 11th Army Corps at
rels of gunpowder, a. stand of colors, a Chanccllorsvi1le. In the Richmond cam-
great quantity of military stores, and the paign of 18G4-6.j he was continually en-
a)"med brig John Adams. One of the gaged, and in December, 1864, he was in
brass cannon bore the following inscrip- tempormy command of the 24th Army
tion: "Taken at Saratoga on the 17th Corps. In April, 1865. he was brevetted
of October, 1777." General Hull and his major-general of volunteers, anù in 18G7
fellow-capti,-es were sent first to Fort was appointed a justice of the
uperior
George and then to
Iontreal, where they Court of :MassachuHetts. He was rnited
arrived Sept. 6, when they were paroled, States Attorney - General in 1877 - 81, allll
and rctm"ned to their homes. Hull was justice of the Massachusetts Supreme
tried for treason and cowardice, and sen- Court from 1881 till his death, in Boston,
tcnced to be shot, but was pardoned by Jan. 7, 1891.
the President. Ilis character has since De Vries, DAVID PIETERSREN, coloni,t.
bt-en fullr ,-indicated. See HULL, "'ILL- In December, lG30, he sent out a nUll11J1-'I"
I.Hr. of {'migrants from Holland who establish-
Detroit, FORT. The old French village ed a settlement called Swanenùal, )lear the
of Detroit contained 160 houses in 1812, mouth of the Delaware River. where they
and about 800 souls. It stretched along began the cultivation of grain and t
-
the river at a convenient distance from bacco. Two years later when De Vries
the water. and the presf'nt Jefferson Ave- arrived at the head of a second party he
nue was the principal street. On the high found that an the first settlf'1"s had been
ground in the rear, about 250 yards from massacred by the Indians. In April. 1634,
the river, stood Fort Detroit, built by the he concluded that his enterprise was un.
III

DEWEY

succe8sful, and the expedition returned to in 1884 to captain; and in HmO to cou1-
Holland. He is the author of Voyagcs from modore. He was appointed to command
Holland to .4.merica, from 1632 till 16H. the Asiatic squadron in .January, 1898, an
Dewey, GEORGE, naval office)'; born in assignment then considered but little
)lontpelier, '-t., Dec. 26, 183i; gradu- short of exile. .\bout :March of the same
ated at the United States Naval Academy year, "hen it became evident that war
in 1858; and served on the frigate Wo,- would be declared between the Cnited
bash in the :Mediterranean squadron until Statcs and Spain, Commodore Dewey, act-
the beginning of the Civil War, when he ing on orders from \Vashington, began to
was assigned to the steam sloop JIissis- mobilize his vessels in the harbor of
sippi of the West Gulf squadron. On Hong-Kong. After the declaration of
April 19, 1861, he was commissioned lieu- war he received orders to canture or 12-
tenant, and was with Admiral Farragut stroy the Spanish fleet knO\
'n to be in
when the latter's squadron forced the Philippine waters. It was then supposeJ
passage of forts St. Philip and Jackson that the harbor of Manila, where the Span-
in April, 1862. He also took part in the ish fleet was most likely to rendezvous,
attack on Fort St. Philip and the subse- was mined with explosives and supplied
quent battles with gunboats and iron- with search-lights, and that the forts of
dads which gave Farragut control of Xew CAVITÉ (q. v.) had been put in readines

Orleans. In the smoke of the battle the for an attack. Taking all chances, the
JIissi.çsippi ran aground within range of United States squadron sailed boldly into
the shore batteries. When it was seen the bay on the night of April 30. Dewey's

.' .

-

IIJRTIIPLACK OF ....DJilIRAL DEWKY.

that the ship could not be saved, the offi- squadron comprised th
flagship Olympia,
cers and men set her afire and escaped in a first-rate
teel-protected cruiser; the
the boats. Later, Dewey served in the Boston, the Baltimore, and the Ralciqh.
Xorth Atlantic blockading squadron, and second-rate sh.d-protected crui...('rs; the
still later with the European squadron. Concord Rnd Petrel, sted gunhoats; the
In 1872 he was promoted to commander; Jl cCulloch, rcvenue-cuttcr; and two new
112

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AD
nHAL GEORGE DEWEY

DEWEY, GEORGE

TRll'MI'IIAL ARCH ER
;CTKD I
NEW YORK CITY TO CEU:ßRATE DI':WEY'S RKTlR
.

Iy purchased pupply ships. The Spanish the chief citý of the Philippines at his
squadron consisted of the Reina Christina, mercy, but made no attempt to Of>cuPY
stpcJ cruiser; the Cast ilia, wooden cruiser; that city. There ensued a period of mas-
the Don A.ntonio de 'Clloa, iron cruiser; terful diplomacy, which won for the victor
the Don Juan de .tustria, iron cruiser; the high commendation. Between the im-
Isla de Cuba, steel protected cruiser; the minent dangers of forEign complications
Isla de LUi::on, steel protected auiser; and the operations of the native insur-
the b;la de Jlindanao, auxiliary eruis- gents under AGT-IXALDO (q. v.), he
er; the gunboats General Le::o, El Cano, aequitted himself with rare judgment.
and Marques del Duero, and two After the occupation of )IAXILA (g. v.)
torpedo - boats. Early on Sunday morn- by the American troops. he was granted
iug, May 1, Dewey attacked the Spanish leave to return home, whenever and how-
squadron, under command of .Admiral CYH it should suit his convenience; and,
)[ontojo. Two engagements 'were fought; sailing in hi!'! battle-scanI'd flag-ship, he
during the interval between them the reached :New York on Sept. :W, 189n, and
American ships drew off to the east side \\",lS given tlle grandest reception ever
of the bay, that the men might rest and
I,("corded a public officer, the demonstra-
have breakfast. The fight lasted two Hons comprising a naval parade up the
hours, and resulted in the destruction of river to General Grant's tomb. on the 29th,
the Spanish squadron, by fire and sinking, and a land parade on the following day.
without the loss of an American ship or Subsequently, he establislH'd his residence
man. Immediately after the )'eceipt of in Washington, D. C., in It dwelling pre-
Dewey's brief message of victory, the Pres- sented to him by popular subscription.
ident promoted him to rear-admiral, and Dewey, MEL'IL, librarian; born in
Congress voted him the thanks of the coun- Adams Centre, K. Y., Dec. 10, 1851;
try and a sword. Subsequently, the grade graduated at Amherst in ISi -1; edited the
of admiral "\vas revived, and the President Library Journal in 18iG-Sl; became di-
conferred it on him. Holding the bay of rector of the New York Rtate Library in
Manila and the Ca,.ité works, he had 1S88; is author of Dcci:nal Classification
III.-H 11

DE WITT-DICKINSON

and RelatÏlJe Index; Library School Rules, It is of him that the story is told that
etc. he sent a lot of warming-pans to the \Vest
De Witt, SUI EON, surveyor; born in Indies, which he disposed of at a large
Ulster county, N. Y., Dec. 26, 17;)6; profit to the sugar manufacturers for use
graduated at Queen's (now Rutgers) Col- as skimmers. He died in Kewbur,ypurt,
It'ge in I ï7û; joined the army under Mass., Oct. 26, 1806.
Gates; and was made assistant geog- De Zeng, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, BARON,
rapher to the army in I ïï8, and chief military otlicer; born in Dresden, Saxony,
geogra pher in I i
O. He was surw;yor- in Ii;)6; came to America in 17S0 as cap-
gpneral of Kew York fifty Jears (l784- tain in one of the Hessian regiments; and
1834). In 1796 he declined the appoint- at the end of the Revolutionary War mar-
ment of surveyor-general of the United ried an American ladv and settled in Hed
States. He was re
ent, vice-chancellor, Hook,
. Y. He was. naturalized in 178!),
and chanceUor of the State of Xew York, and became intimate with ChanceUor
member of many learned societies, and Livingston, Governor Clinton, General
author of Elements of Perspective (183;)). SchuJ'ler, and others, and was greatly in-
He died in Ithaca, N. Y., Dec. 3, 1834. terested in the opening of canals and in
Dexter, HE:\'HY MARTYN, clergyman; the navigation of the interior waters and
born in Plympton, Mass., Aug. 13, 1821; lakes. He died in Clyde, N. Y., April 26,
graduated at Yale in 1840; became pas- 1838.
tor of the Congregational Church in Diamond State. A name applied to
Manchester in 1844; removed to Boston the State of Delaware because of its
as pastor of the Berkeley Street Church small size, its wealth, and its importance.
in 1849. He is the author of Congregation- Diaz del Castino, BERNAL, military
alism of the Last 300 rears; As to Roger officer; born in l\I('dina del Campo, Spain,
ll'illiams and his &nishment from the about 14!)8; came to America as an ad-
Massachusctts Colony j History of Old \Cnturer in 1514, joining the expedition
Plymouth Colonyj and the editor of of Cordova in 1517, and of Grijalva in
Church's East('rn Expediti01l!
j Entertain- 1518. He serwd Cortez faithfully and
ing Passagc,q Relating to Philip's lJ'ar. He valiantly. During his adventurous career
died in Kew Bedford, Mass., Nov. 13, IS90. he was engaged in 119 battles and skir-
Dexter, SAMUEL, jurist; born in Bos- misJles, and was wounded several times. 1-Ie
ton, May 14, 1761; graduated at Har- wrote a history of the conquest of New
vard in 1781; studied law at Worces- Spain, which he completed in i568, in-
ter, and became a State legislator, in tended to correct the misstatements of
which plaee he was distinguished for in- Gomara's Chronicle of Ncw Spain, in
tellectual ability and oratory. President which nearly all the glory of its conquest
Adams appointed him, successively, Sec- was ginn to Cortez. Diaz was a rough,
retary of 'Yar (1800) and of the Treas- unlettered soldier, and his history has
ury (1801), and for a while he Jmd charge been pronounced a "collection of fables."
of the State Department. On the acces- He died in Guatemala, about 1;)!)3.
sion of Jefferson (1801) he resumed the Dickerson, MAHLOX, statesman; born
practice of law. He declined foreign em- in Hanover, N. J., April 17, 1770; grad-
bassil's offered by AJams and i\Iadison. uated at Princeton in 1789; practised Jaw
Mr. De"\.Ìer was a Federalist until the in Philadelphia, where he became recorder
\Yar of 1812, when, being in favor of that of the city court. lIe returned to New
measure, he separated himself from his Jersey, was elected a member of the Jeg-
party. He was the first president of the islature in 1814, governor of the State
first temperance society formed in 1Iassa- in ISI;;, and United States Senator in
clmsetts. He died in Athens, N. Y., :May ISlG. He was Secretary of the Navy un-
4, 18lG. der Presidents Jackson and Van Buren.
Dexter, TIMOTHY, merchant; born in He died in Suceasunna, N. J., Oct. 5,
Malden, Mass., Jan. 22. 1743. Inordinate lR.i3.
vanity and eÜraordinary shrewdness were Dickinson, AXXA EUZABETH, reformpr;
combined in him "ith almo
t imbecility born in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 28, 1 R42;
in all matters excepting those of trade. made her first appearance among public
114

DICKINSON

speakers in 1857, and spoke frequently on
temperance and slavery. During the Civil
War she was employed by Republican COm-
mittees to make addresses, and after its
conclusion she lectured on reconstruction
and on woman's work and wages. She
was an ardent advocate for woman's suf-
frage.
Dickinson, CUARLES WESLEY, inventor;
born in Springfield, N. J., Nov. 23, 1823;
became a machinist, and gave his attention
to fine machinery. He perfected the bank-
note engraving lathe, first used by the
national government in 1862; and invent-
ed a pantograph tracer, improved type-
E!etting and type - distributing machines,
etc. He died in Belleville, N. J., July 2,
1900.
Dickinson, DON M., lawyer; born in
Port Ontario, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1846; set-
tled in Michigan in 1848; graduated at
the Law Department of the University of
Michigan in ] 866 ; began practice in
Detroit; member of the Democratic
National Committee in 1884-85; served as
Postmaster-General of the United States
in 1888-SÜ. He was appointed senior
counsel for the United States before the
Bering Sea Claims Commission in ISü6.
Dickinson, JOlIN, publicist; born in advocating- the adoption of the national .
Maryland, 1'0\'. 13, 1732; son of Chief- Constitution, appeared in 1788; and an
Justice Samuel D. Dickinson; studied law other sf'ries, over the same signature, on
in Philadelphia and at the Temple in Lon- our relations with France, appeared in
don, and practised his profession in Phila- liü7. 1\lr. Dickinson assisted in framing
delphia. In the Pennsylvania Assembly, the constitution of Delaware in 1792. Hii'
to which he was elected in 1 iG4, he showed monuml'nt is DrcKI
SO
COLLEGE (q. tJ.)
great legislative ability, and \Va!" a ready at Carlis
c, Pa., which he founded and
and vehement debater. At the s
me time, liberallyendO\H'(1. He died in \Vilmington
he wrote much on the sub.;('('Ì of Dr:îsh Del.. Feb. I-t, 1808.
infringement on the liherties of the colo- Dickin
on, PIlILEMO
, military officer
nies. The most noted of these writing-s born in Croisedore, 1\[d., April 5, 1 i3!1.
were papers (twelve in number) entitlf'd settled near Trenton. N. J. Tn July, 17i;)
Lettrrs (1'om a Pcnn'<;.'Ilrania Farmer, etc., he entered the patriot army; in OctobeT
published in the Pcnnsylz;ania (,hroniclc in of the same year was promoted brig-adier
1767. :Mr. Dickinson was a member of g('neral; in 1 ïi6 was a de
egate to the Pro
the first Continental Congr('
s. and wrote vincial Congr('ss of New J('r:,,('.v: in 1 iii
several of the sblte papers put forth by was promoted major-gen('ral of the Nf'\\
that body. Considering the resolution of ,T('rsey troops; in Octoher of that year
independence unwise, he voted against it mardwd a
ainst the nriti:,h on Staten Is]
and the Declaration. and did not sign the and, for \
'hich he r('eeiwd the thanks 01
latter document. This made him unpopu- \Yashington: and serwd with marked dis
lar. In li77 he was made a hri-yaò:er-O'en- tinction during- the remainder of the Revo
eral of the Pennsvlvania militia. He was Illtionarv War. Tn 1784 he scrved on thp
elected a Tepr('se
tative in Congre!"s from commiss'ion to choose a site for the cit

Delaware in 1779, anù wrote the J ddrcss of \Ya!"hington. He died near Trenton.
to the _ç:fates put forth by that body in N. J., Feb. 4, ISO!"!.
11!)

Iay of that year. He was successively
president of the States of Delaware and
Pennsylvania (1781-8.3), and a member
of the convention that framed the na,
tional Constitution (1 i8i) . Letters from
his pen, over the signature of .. .Fnbiu8:'

..,
)

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JOliN DleKI
SON.

DICKINSON COLLEGE-DINWIDDIE

Dickinson College, a co-educational
institution in Carlisle, Pa.; under the con-
trol of the l\1ethodist Episcopal Church;
organized in 1783; reported at the end of
1900, thirty professors and instructors,
480 students, 45,000 volumes in the
library, 3,951 graduates, and $3i3,000 in
productive funds; president, George E.
Reed, SoT.D., LL.D.
Dickson, JOIIX, statesman; born in
Keene, N. H., in 1 i83; graduated at
)liddlebury Col1ege in 1808; practised law
in Rochester, N. Y., in 1813-25; member
of Congress in 1831-35. He is credited
with having delivered" the first important
anti-slavery speech ever made in Con-
gress." He published Remarks on the Pres-
fntation of Several Petitions for the
Abolition of Slavery and the Slat-c-trade
in the District of Columbia. He died in
West Bloomfield, N. Y., Feb. 22, 1832.
Dieskau, J..GDWIG AUGUST, BARON, mi1i-
tar;r officer; born in Saxony in 1 iOI; was
lieutenant-colonel of cavalry under )lar-
shal Saxe, and was made brigadier-gen-
eral of infantry in 1748, and commander
of Brest. In 1 i5;; he was sent to Canada
with the rank of major-general; and in an

ttack upon the fortified encampment of
Gen. William Johnson at the head of Lake
George (Sept. 8, 1 i 35) he was so severely
wounded that he died in Surenne, near
Paris, Sept. 8, li57.
Digges, EDW ARD, colonial governor;
born in England in lü20; came to AnH'ri- From the opening of hi.., congressional
ca and introduced the silk-worm into Yir- career he was con=-picuous as an advocate
ginia; became governor of that colony in of high tariff. In ISUO he aided in the
1655, but before the close of the year formulation of the )IcKinley tariff bilI; in
resigned and became the bf'arer of a If'tter 18!)4, was a strong opponent of the \Yilson
from the Yirginia Assembly to Cromwell. bilI; and in UHli, as chairman of the
He died in Virginia, March 15, 16i5. committee on ways and means, he hrought
Dimick, .JGSTIX, military officer; born forward the tariff hill which was adoptptf
in Hartford county, Conn., Aug. 5, 1800; under his name. Presidt'nt '1(.Kinley
graduated at the rnited f;tates Mili- tendered him the post of Secretary of the
tary Academy in lRl!l; served in the war Treasury, but he dee1ined it. In lRn8 he
with l\re"Xico, and greatly distinguished became a member of the Joint High Com-
himself at Contreras and Churubusf'o. In mission to negotiate a 8pttlement of ex-
1861-63 he commanded the depot of isting differences hetween the l:nited
prisoners at Fort "
arren, )Iass. He was States and Canada. Hc died in \Yashing-
retired in 18lì3; received the hrevet of ton, D. r.. .Tan. 13, l
!)!I.
brigadier-general, U. f;. A., in 1SG'j. He Dinwiddie, ROßERT, colonial governor;
died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 13. 1871. born in Scotland about Hmo. Whilp act-
Dingley, KELSON, legislator: born in ing- a!'l clerk to a collector of customs in
Durham, Me., Feb. Vi, 1832: gradu- the \Yest Indies he discO\'ered and t'"X-
ated at Dartmouth College in IR55; posf'd enormous frauds practised h." his
studied law in Auhurn
'Hl \\"'1." admitted prineipal, and was rewarded with the
I 'r,

to the bar there in 18.jlj; and in the last
mentioned ;year became editor alHl pro-
prietor of the Lewiston Journal, a con-
nection he retained tilI his death. From
1861 till 1873 he was a member of the
State legislature, and in 18i3 and 18i5
was elected governor of ::\Iaine. In 1881
he was elected to Congress to fill the va-
cancy caused by the election of \\ï11iam
P. Frye to the United States F\enate, and
by re-elections hf'Irl the seat till his death.

!'oF-I SOS DlSf:I..;Y.

DINWIDDIE, ROBERT

office of surveyor of the customs, and
afterwards with that of lieutenant-govern-
or of Virginia. He arrind in the colony
in 1752. He was rapacious, and unscrupu-
lous in the accumulation of wealth.
Owing to his exaction of enormous fees
authorized by the hoard of trade for the
issue of patents for lands, he gained the
ill-will of the people of Virginia, and
when he called for money to enable him
to oppose the encroachments of the
French, the House of Burgesses paid no
attention to his expressed wishes. Din-
widdie, unmindful of this conduct, en-
listed a captain's command. and sent them
to build a fort at the forks of the Ohio
(now Pitts burg) , and called on neighbor-
ing colonies for aid in the work. He sent
George 'Yashington to the French com-
mander on a mission of. ohservation.
"-ashington proved himself to he a zeal-
OilS officer; and Dinwiddie, disco\"ering his
(.-a pacity, made him adjutant-general of a
military district.
The revelations made to "'ashington
at Fort Le Bæuf, the evident preparations
of the French to make a concerted move-
nH'nt to f;ecure the occupation of the Ohio
region,
nd the tenor of St. Pierre's an-

wer to Dinwiddie's letter, convinced the

p,-'1ì

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\1- ),
, ;

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>. . , ....
.

',.

.#f!
- <'1X1 .: ,_ -? ./ Æ
è
,3 ::rJ
_ r
Q J/-G">f? . 6).
.7 Vó f ;z!tð247.ntUtb

latter of the necessity of quick and ener-
W-tic countenailing measures. St. Pierre
d.-dared that he \Va,s acting under the in-
st l'ul"tion
of his SUPPl'iOl-, till' ::\rarquis
Duquesne, at Montreal, and refused to
117

withdraw his troops from the disputed
territory. Dinwiddie immediately pre-
pared for an expedition against the
French, and asked the other colonies to
co-operate with Virginia. This was the
first call for a general colonial union
against the common enemy. All hesi-
ta ted excepting North Carolina. The
legislature of that province promptly voted
400 men, who were soon on the march
for 'Yinchester, the place of rendezvous;
but they eventually proved of little worth,
for, doubtful of being paid for their ser-
,ices, a great part of them were dis-
banded before they reached the Shenan-
doa.h Valley. Some volunteers from
South Carolina and New York hastened
to the gathering - place. Virginia respond-
ed to the call to arms by organizing
a regiment of 600 men, of which Joshua
Fry was appointed colonel and :Major
". ashillgton lieutena.nt-colonel. The Vir-
ginians assembled at Alexandria, on
the Potomac, whence Lieutenant - Colonel
'Yashington, with the advance, marched
(April 2, 1754) at their head for the
Ohio. :Meanwhile Captain Trent had re-
cruited a company among the traders west
of the mountains, and had begun the erec-
tion of a fort at the forks of the Ohio.
They were attacked (April 18) by a party
o( French and India.ns, who expelled Trent
and his men, completed the fort, and
named it Duquesne, in honor of the cap-
tain - general of Canada. News of this
ew'nt reached Washington at Will's
Creek (now Cumberland) . He pushed
forward with 150 men to a point on the
:l\ronongahela less than 40 milps from Fort
Duquesne. There he was infor'med that
a strong force of French and Indians was
marching to intercept him. He wisely fell
hack to the Great Meadows, where he
erected a stockade, and called it Fort Ne-
cessity. Before it was completed, a few
of his troops aUacked an advanced party
of the enemy under Jumonville in the
night, and the commander and several of
hi!" men were killed. Some of his capt-
ured men were sent to Governor Dinwid-
die. H.einforced. 'Vashington marched for
Fort Duquesne again. but was driypn back
to 'Fort Necessity, which he was obliged
hI slllTendpr on July 3. See NECESSITY,
FOin.
Dinwiddie was the first to suggest to

DINWIDDIE COURT-ROUSE-DIPLOMATIC SERVICE

the .British board of trade the taxing of
the colonies (1754) for funds to carrv on
the wa.r with the French and Indi
ns;
and he was one of the five colonial gov-
ernors who memorialized Parliament
(1755) in favor of the measure. He had
much clashing and ycxation with the
House of Burgesses; and worn out with
trouble and age, he left Virginia under
3. cloud caused by a charge made by his
enemies that he had appropriated to his
own use :E20,000 transmitted to him for
compensation to the Yirginians f6>r money
expended by them in the public service.
He died in Clifton, England, Aug. I, 1770.
Dinwiddie Court-house, A('TIO
S AT.
In :March, lS6.'), the Kational force under
General Sheridan crossed the Appomat-
tox River from Bermuda Hundred, passed Addison C.. Harris, Envoy Extraordi-
to the rear of the army before Peters- nary and
Iinister Plenipotentiary, Vienna.
burg, and early on the morning of the 2\)th
marched down the Jerusalem plank-road,
and turning westward pushed on by way La\\ rence Townsend, Envoy Extraor-
of Reams's Station to Dinwiddie Court- dinary and :Minister Plenipotentiary.
house, where he halted for the night at Brussels.
5 P.M. Sheridan expected to cut loose
from the rest of the army on the 30th
to make a raid on the South Side and Dan- George II. JJridgman, Envoy Extraor-
vi11e railroads, but General Grant sud- dinary and :l\finister Plenipotentiary, l..a
denly changed his plans. General Lee, Paz.
seeing that his only line of communication
might be cut off at any hour, and feeling
the necessity of maintaining his ex- Charles Page Bryan, Envoy Extraor-
tended line of works covering Peters- dinary and
Iinister Plenipotentiary. Rio
burg and Richmond, concentrated a force de Janeiro.
of about 15,000 men, and hastened to place
them in front of the ;;th and 2d Corps of
the National army. II(' then sought to
strike a heavy hlow on the extreme west
of Grant's lines, then held by Sheridan,
which he supposed was a weak point. Edwin II. Conger, Envoy Extraordinary
f\heridan captured the works at Five and Minister Plenipotentiary, Peking.
Forks, and so gained the key to the whole
region that Lf>e was striving to protect.
In the struggle to regain this point strong
parts of both armif>s were soon facing each
other at Dinwiddie Court - house. Here
Sheridan won the day after a severe en-
gagement, the Confederates being unable
to make any rally, and the fighting ceased
with darkness. During the night the Con-
federates retired.
Diocese, originallv a dh i!'lion of df>-
partulf>nts or II ist de.tR under the eÍ\ i1 T..aurits R
governulf>nt of the Roman Empire, sub- dinary and
sequent1y restricted to the territory under Copenhagen.
118

the supervision of a bishop. In the United
States dioceses of the Protestant Episco-
pal Church bear the name of the State,
part of the State, or Territory under the
bishop's jurisdiction; in the Roman
Catholic Church they take the name of
the city containing the bishop's. cathedral.
Diplomatic Service. The following is
a table of the chiefs of the United States
embassies and legations in foreign coun-
tries on Jan. I, lUOI:

ARGE:VTIXE REPtJBLIC.

William P. Lord, Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary, Buenos
Ayres.

ArSTRIA-HUNGARY.

BELGIUM.

BOLHIA.

BRAZIl...

CHILE.
Henry L. Wilson, Envoy E'\.traordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary. Santiago.

('IIIXA.

COI.O
(ßIA.
Charles Burdett Hart, Envoy Extraor-
dinary and
Iinistcr Plenipotentiary,
Bogota.

COSTA RICA.
William L. Merry, Em oy Extraor-
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, San
Jos
.

J)F.Nl>fARK.

wens011, Envoy F.xtraor-
:Minister Plenipotentiary.

DIPLOMATIC SERVICE

DOMI
ICAN UEPUBLIC.
William F. Powell, Chargé d'Affaires,
Port au Prince.

ECUADOR.

N ETIIERLANDS.
Stanford X ewel. Envoy Extraordinary
and :Minister Plenipotentiary, The Hague.
KICARAGUA A:ND SALVADOR.

Archibald J. Sampson, Enyoy E
traor- WilJiam L.
Ierry, Enyoy Extraordinary
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, and Minister Plenipotentiary, San Jusé.
Quito. (See Costa Rica.)

EGYPT.
John G. Long, Agent and Consul-Gen-
eral, Cairo.

FCA:NCE.
TIorace Porter, Ambassador Extraor-
dinary and PlenipotentiaQ", Paris.
GERMAN EMPIRE.
Andrew D. White, Ambassador Ex:-
traordinary and Plenipotentiary, Berlin.
GREAT BRITAIN.
Joseph H. Choate, Ambassador Extraor-
dinary and Plenipotentiary, London.
GREECE, RU:UANIA, AND SERVIA.
Arthur S. Hardy, Envoy Extraordinary
and :Minister Plenipotentiary, Athens.
GUATEMALA AND HONDURAS.
'V. Godfrey Hunter, Envoy Extraor-
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Guatemala City.

HAITI.
'William F. Powell, Envoy Extraor-
dinary and :Minister Plenipotentiary, Port
au Prince.

ITALY.
, Ambassador Extraor-
dinary and Plenipotentiary, Rome.

JArA
.
Alfred E. Buck, Envoy E)"traordipary
and Minister Plenipotentiary, Tokio.

PARAGGAY AXD URUGUAY.
\Yilliam R. Finch, Envoy Extraordi-
nary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Montevideo.

PERSIA.
Herbert 'V. Bowen, Minister Resident
and Consul-General, Teheran.

PERU.
Irving B. Dudley, Envoy Extraordinary
and
Iinister Plenipotentiary, Lima.
PORTUGAL.
John N. Irwin, Envoy Extraordinary
and l\1inister Plenipotentiary, Lisbon.
RUSSIA.
Charlemagne Tower, Amhas:-.ador Ex-
traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
St. Petersburg.

.

SIA}r.

Hamilton King, Minister Resident and
Consul-General, Bangkok.
SPAIN.
l
elJamy Storer, Envoy Extraordinary
and :Minister Plenipotentiary, Madrid.
SWEDEN Al'\D NOltWAY.
\Villiam ,Yo Thomas, Jr., Envoy Ex-
traordinary and Minister Pleni potcntiary,
Stockholm.

SWITZERLAND.

KOREA.
Horace N. Allen, :Minister
and Consul-General, Seoul.

John G. A. LeiRhman, Envoy Extraor-
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Resident Berne.

TrRKEY.

LIBERIA. Osear S. Shaus, Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary, Constanti-
Owen I
. 'W. Smith, Minister Resident
no pie.
amI Consul-General, Monrovia. VEXEZUELA.
MEXICO. FranciR n. Loomis. Envov Extraordi-
"Pow<>l1 ('layton, Amhassador Extraor- nary and :MinisLcr Plenipute
ltiary, Cant-
dinary and Plenipotentiary, Me)"ico. Cas.
119

DIPLOMATIC SERVICE

The following is a table of the chiefs
of the foreign embassies and legations in
the United I:;tates on Jan. 1, I\)Ul:

ARGElS"TIlS"E REPUßLIC.
Dr. Eduardo Wilde, Envoy Extraordi-
nary and
linister Plenipotentiary.
Al."STHIA-IIulS"GAfiY.
:Mr. Ladislaus Hengelmuller von Hen-
germr, Em.o)' E:\traordinary and :Minister
Pleni potentia r,Y'
HELGIrl\[.
Count G. de Lichten-elde, Envoy Ex-
traordinary and ::\Iinister }>lenipotentiary.
BOLIVIA.
Señor Don Fernando
Envoy Extraordinary and
potentiary.

Eo GuachaHa,
::\finister Pleni-

BRAZIL.

GERMANY.
Herr von Holleben, Ambassador Ex-
traordinary and Plenipotentiary.
GREAT BRITAIN.
The Right Honorable Lord Pauncefote,
of Preston, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., Ambassador
Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary.

UUATE'\IALA.
Señor Don Antonio Lazo Arriaga, Envoy
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten-
tiary.
HAITI.
:Mr. J. N. Léger, Envoy Extraordinary
and ::\Iinister Plenipotentiary.
ITALY.
Baron de Fava, Ambassador Extraor-
dinary and ::\Iinister Plenipotentiary.
J AI' AN.

::\lr. .J. F. de \ssis-Brasil, Envoy Ex- E

Ir. Kogoro Takahira, Envoy xtraor-
traordinary and ::\1inister }>lenipoten- d. ' nary and .:'I1inister PI('lli p otentiary.
tiary.
_
CHILE. KOREA.

cñur Don Carlos ::\Iorla Yicuña, Envoy 1\Ir. Chin Pom Ye, Envoy }
:\traordinary
Extraurdinary and Minister Plenipoten- and Minister Plenipotentiary.
tiary.

('lII
A.
Mr. \Yu Ting-Fang. Em.oy Extraordi-
nary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

::\IEXICO.
Señor Don 1\Ianuel de Azpiroz, .\m-
bassador Extraordina.ry and Plenipoten-
tiary.

COLOl\IBIA. KETIIERLAXDS.
Señor Dr. l..uis Cuervo Márquez, Baron ,,,. A. F. nevers, Envoy Extraor-
Chargé d'Affaires. dinary and
Iinister Plenipotentiary.
COSTA RICA. KICARAGrA.
Señor Don .Joaquin .Bernardo Calvo, Señor Don Luis F. Corea, Envoy Ex-
Enwy Extraordinary and ::\linister Pleni- traordinary and ::\linister Plenipotentiary.
potentiary.

Dt;XMARK.
::\Ir. Constantin Brun, Fnvoy Extraor-
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.
DO)'fIXI(,A
UEPT-ßLIC.

eñor Don Emilio C. Joubert, Chargé
d'Affaires.

PERU.
::\[r. ::\lanuel Ah'arez Ca1<1eron. Envov
Extraordinary and ::\Iinister Plenipoten-
tiary.
PORn'GAL.
Yis('ount de :;;anto-Thyrso, 'Enmy 'Ex-
traonlinary and ::\Iinister Plenipot<'l1tiary.

ECl"ADou. Rl."RSIA.
Reñor Don T.uis Felipe Carho, Envoy Comte Cas<;ini, .Amhas!'ador E"traor-
Extraordinary and
linister Plpnipoten- d .
dmary an PI('llipotentIary.
tiar)'.

FRA ,('E.
,I. .Tules Camhon, Amhassador "Extraor-
dinary and Plenipotentiary.

S\I.VADOR.
Señor Don Raf3pl Zaldivar, 'Envoy "Ex-
traordinary and
Iini8ter Plenipotentiary.
120

DIRECTORY-DISCIPLES OF CHRIST

tourneur, and Carnot. The latter organ-
ized the armies with great skilL
Disbanding of the Union Armies.
See AR),[Y, ÐISßAxmNG OF TIlE UNIO

AIDIIES.
Disbrowe, SA
IUEL, magistrate; born
in Cambridgeshire, England, Nov. 30,
lü19; came to America in lG39; and
bought from the Indians the site of Guil-
ford, Conn. The constitution of this sct-
tlement in the writing of Disbrowe is still
}Jreserved and provides for judiciary, ex-
ecutive, and legislative departments, etc.
Hf' returned to England in lG30, and died
in Cambridgeshire, Dec. 10, HmO.
Disciples of Christ, a religious body
founded in Wa,shington, Pa., 1811, by
Thomas Campbell, a minister who had
left the Presbyterian Church in Ire-
land and cal1le to the United States in
1807. He deplored the divided state of
the Chureh and the evils which arose there-
flOm. He held that the only remedy for
this was a complete restoration of primi-
th-e apostolic Christianity. This view met
VENEZUELA. with some approval, a new sect was
Señor Don Augusto F. Pulido, Chargé formed, and the first church was organized
d'Affaires ad interim. on l\Iav 4, ISII. In addition to the funda-
See CONSUI,AR SERVICE. mentaÌ truths which the Disciples of
Directory, FRE:S-CH, the name given to Christ hold in eommon with all Chris-
thc government of the French Republic, tian hodies the following may be cited as
established by a eonstitution in August, some of their more particular principles:
1795, framed by the moderate republican 1. The Church of Christ is intentionally
party after the fall of Robespierre and the and constitutionally one; and all divisions
end of the Reign of Terror. The executivc which ohstruct this unity are contrary to
direetory eonsisted of five persons, who the will of God, and should be ended. 2.
promulgated the laws, a,ppointed the min- As schisms sprang from a dcparture from
isters, and had the management of mil i- the :New Testament Christianity, the rem-
tary and naval affairs. They deeidpd ques- edv for them is to be found in the restora-
tions by a majority vote, and presicled, hr ti
n of the Gospel in its purity. 3. In
turns, three months each, the presiding order to a
complish this restoration all
member having the signature and the seal. human formulation of doetrine as authori-
During their tcrms of office none of thpm tati,'c bases for chureh membership must
could ha ve a personal command, or absent be surrendered, and the Bible received
himself for more than five days from the alone as the basis of
,II faith and prac-
place where the council held its scssions ti(.e; the exchange of all party names for
without its permission. The legislative scriptural names, and the restoration of
power, under the constitution, was vested the ordinances as they were originally.
in two assemblies, the Council of Five The polity of the Disciples is congrega-
Hundred and the Council of the Ancients. tional; the local churches have elders and
the former having the exclusive right of deaeons. They ha.ve no general body for
preparing laws for the considera.tion IC'gislative purposes, but combine in dis-
of the latter. The judicial authority was trict and national organizations for mis-
committpd to clpctiw judges. The first sionary work. In 1900 they reported G,5
:1
directors chos{>ll (Nov. I, 1795) were 1\111. ministers, 1O.52S churches, and I,I-HI,!}8:!
Barras, He,-pIlière-Lepeauxt Rewbcll, Le- eommunÏcants.
121

SIAM:.
Phya Prashiddhi, Envoy Extraordinary
and l\1inister Plenipotentiary, aecredited
both to the United States and Great
Britain.

SPAIN.
Duke de Arcos, Envoy Extraordinary
and :Minister Plenipotentiary.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
Mr. A. Grip, Envoy Extraordinary and
Minister Plenipotentiary.

SWITZERLAND.
]\,fro J. B. Pioda, Envoy Extraordinary
and :Minister Plenipotentiary.

TURKEY.
Ali Ferrouh Bey, Envoy
xtraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary.

Uruguay.
Señor Dr. Don Juan Cuesta.s, ]\,finis-
ter Resident.

DISCOVERIES OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY-DISMAL SWAMP

contemplate the revision, of their consti-
tutions with a view to disfranchise illit-
erate n('groes.
Louisiana.-There is an educational
qualification, which, however, does not ap-
ply to men or to the sons or grandHons of
men who were qualified to vote in 18G7,
nor to foreigners naturaJized hefore Jan.
I, 1898.
.u ississippi.-An educational qualifica-
tion and a pon tax of $2, which may be
further increased hy a county poll tax
oi ;:;1.
]Ç orth Cflrolina.-An educational quali-
fication and a p01l tax are necessary, with
the exception that the educational qualifi-
cation shall not apply to anyone who
,,;as entitled to vote under the laws of any
State in the rnited States on Jan. 1, 18ü7.
South Carolina.-On Jan. 1, 18Dü, a
new con!'titution went into ('{fect by which
,oters could be enr01led up to Jan. 1,
IS!)S, provided they could read or could
explain to the satisfaction of the register-
ing officer such parts of the Constitution
of the L"nited States as might be read
to them, but after Jan. I, 18D8, only
thm:(> ahle to read and write any re-
quired part of the Constitution, or who
could prove themselves tax-payers on
property worth not less than $300, could
be enrolled as voters.
.1Iaryland.-A new law was passed
March 20, IDOl, practically makin
nn
the educational qualification to rcad and write
neccssary for enrolment as a voter.

('e also ELECTIVE FRA ,{'HISE.
Dismal Swamp, a morass in southern
I. The mariner's compass. Yirginia, extcnding into Xorth f'arolina.
2. The f:team-engine. It was formerly 40 miles long' and 2;}
3. The telcscope. miles wide, hut has hecome somewhat re-
4. The harometer and thermometer. <luced in arca by drainage of its horder.
5. Printing. It is d(.nscly timhered with cypress, juni-
6. Arabic numerals. per, cedar, pine, etc. Jake Drummond,
7. Alphahetical writing. near its ccntre, covers ahout () square
8. Modcrn chcmistry founded. miles. This swamp rises towards its
D. Electric science founded. ccntre, which is considerably higher than
10. Gravitation estabJishcd. its margin. The canal. constructcrl
II. lÜpl('r's laws. through the swamp to connect Chesapeake
12. TIle difTer('ntial calculus. Ray with Albemarle Sound. has large his-
13. The circulatioñ of the blood. toric interests. The company organized
14. Light proved to have finite \e- to huild the canal received a joint charter
locit)". from the l(>gi!'lative as!'embli(>s of Yir-
1;;. The d('vplopn1<'nt of g(>Ometry. ginia and Xorth Carolina on l)pc. L li87.
Disfranchisement. H('\"('ral of tllC 'I'h(> ('anal was oPl.ned to na \"Ígat ion in
Southern Statcs 1m vc rcvised, and others ] 822; was wholJy finished in 1828 t and
1 0 '>

Discoveries of the Nineteenth Cen-
tury. Alfred Russe1l Wa1lace, in his hook,
'l'he lrOl1dcrful Century, makes a compari-
!"'Oll between the great inventions and dis-
cm'erics of the nineteenth centul")' and
those of the entire previous historical pe-
riod, which is as follows:

OF 'fIlE KDIE'fEE
'fn CE
'fURY.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
II.
12.
13.
H.
ì5.
IG.

Railwa)'s.
Steamships.
:Electric telegraphs.
The telephone.
J.ucifer matches.
Gas iJIumination.
Electric Jighting.
Photography.
The plwnograph.
Ri.intgen rays.
Spectrum- analysis.
Anæstheticb.
Antis('ptic surgeQ'.
C'on"ervation of energ
'.

Iolecular tlleol")' of gases.
\"elocity of light directly mcasur('(l.
and ('arth's rotation e
perimental-
ly shown.
The u"(',, of dust.
Chemi",tr
', definite proportions.

Jeteors and the meteoritic theory.
The Glacial Epoch.
The antiquity of man.
Organic evolution estab1i
hed.
Cell theory and emhryology.
Germ theory of di
('ase, and
function of the leucocytes.

17.
18.

HI.

2().
21.
22.
23.
24.

OF AI,L PRECEDI
G AGES.

DISOSW A Y-DISUNION

was built with the assistance of the Da- connection \\ith this event was a curious
tional government and the State of Vir- proceeding. A free negro of the District,
ginia at a cost of $1,800,000. Originally who had bought and paid for his slave
it was 32 feet wide and 4 feet deep. Sub- wife, she and her children being, by the
sequ
ntly the width was increased to 40 slave code, his lawful slaves, claimed and
feet and the depth to 6 feet, and the de- received compensation for her and her
caying wooden locks were replaced with half-dozen children. In 18il, the District
stone ones. This canal was for many was organized as a Territory with a ter-
years the principal means of communi- ritorial form of government. So extrava-
cation between the North and the South, gant, ho.wever, were the e
penditures made
and was a very profitable venture. After for public improvements by the officials of
the Civil 'Var its usefulness departed. the Territory, that in 1874 Congress re-
Early in 1800, the canal, as entirely re- pealed the act creating the Territory, and
constructed, was reopened to navigation. invested the executive powers of the munic-
[t now extends from the village of Deep ipality in three commissioners-two civil-
Creek, Va., to South :Mills, N. C., a dis- ians and a United States engineer officer-
tance of 22 mile
. The present canal is appointed by the President. All legisla-
one of the most important links in the tive powers were assumed by Congress.
chain of inland waterways along the coast The law provided was the common law of
from Kew York to Florida, and, as the England, modified by acts of Congress.
dangers of Cape Hatteras are avoided by There is a supreme court of six justices,
it, it has a large value both in peace and with other tribunals and officials. The
war. Thomas ::\1oore the poet, while at expenses of the municipality are defrayed
Norfolk, put into verse an Indian legend, one-half bv revenues from taxes levied on
under the title of The Lake of the Dismal private p
operty, and one-half by con-
Swamp. . gressional appropriations. The citizens
Disosway, GABRIEL POILLON, anti- have no right to vote on national or local
quary; born in New York City, Dec. 6, questions.
1700; graduated at Columbia College in In 1000 the city of WASHINGTON (q. v.)
1810; author of The Earliest Ohurches of was co-extensive with the District of Co-
New York and its Vicinity. He died on lumbia. the former corporations of George-
Staten Island,
. Y., ,July 0, 1868. town and \Vashington having been ahol-
District of Columbia, the Federal Dis- if'hed, and the puhlic affairs of the distrÌct
trict and seat of goycrnment of the United phlCed under th(' managem('nt of three
States. In li!)1 the District was erected ccmmissioners. Thf' total fundpd d('ht was
into two countie!'>, as divided by the Poto- $15.mn,30n, and the assesspd valuation
mac, and was placed under the jurisdic. $101,040,744. The population in HmO was
tion of a circuit court, composed of a 230,3fJ2; in 1000, 27S,il8. See UXITED
chief-justice and two asse8sors; the judg. STATES-DISTRICT OF COLCMmA, in _vol. ix.
ment of this court to be final in criminal Disunion, EARLY THREATS OF. In
ca8es, but in civil cases. where the amount angry debates in Congress on the subject
in dispute exceeded $100 in value, a writ of the fisheries, in Jï7B, threats of dis-
of error to lie in the Supreme Court of union were made by df'puties of the
the United States. This arrangement was North and the South. It was shown that
afterwards modified. Instead of provid- the prosperity of New England depended
ing a homogeneous code of laws for the on the fisheries; but in tllis the Southern
District, those of :i\Iaryland and Virginia States had no common interest. Indeed,
were continued. A bill to abolish slavery in all the States the doctrine of State
in the District was passed by the Congress supremacy was so universally preyalent
(A pril II, 18ß2), and became a In w by that the deputies in Congress, instead of
the signature of the President, April lß. willingly legislating for the whole, legis-
It provided for the payment, out of the lated for their respective States. When
treasury of the United State8. of an ayer- appeals had lwen made in ('ongr<>ss for a
al!e of '$:300 10 the ma!'>ter or mistress of favornhlf' consid('ration of Kt'w England
each slave tlms emancipated. Thus eman- in relation to the fish('ries without ('fTect,
cipation began at the national capital. In Samuel' Adams said that "it would be-
123

DIVORCE LAWS

come more and more necP8sary for the ment. They professed to regard the meas.
two empires [meaning the
ortllPI"ll and ure as inimical to the :Korthern and East-
Southern States divided by Mason and f'rn sections of the Cnion. The Southern
Db.on's line] to separate." "Then the politicians had made them familiar with
Xorth offered a preliminary resolution the prescription of disunion as a renl('dy
that the country, even if deserted by for incurable political evils, and they re-
France and Spain, would continue the war solved to try its emcacy in the case in
for the sake of the fisheries, four States question. All through the years 1803 and
drew up a protest, declaring peremptorily 180-1 desires for and fears of a dissolu-
that if the resolution should be adopted tion of the T;nion were freely e).pressed in
thQ" would "ithdraw from the confedera- what were free-labor Stah's in 18Gl. East
tinn. Thesc sectional interests continu- of the Alleghanies, early in 180-1, a select
ally stood in the way of a perfect union convention of FeÙf'ralists. to be held in
of the struggling colonists. The infle).ible Roston, was contcmplatpd, in the ensuing
tenacity with which each State asserted autumn, to consider the qUl'stion of dis-
its title to complete so\"Creignty often union. Alðandcr Hamilton was indtcd
menaced the Lnion with de
truction, and to attf'nd it. but his emphatic condemna-
independence became, in the minch; of tion of the whole plan. only a short time
I'ome, an idle dream. '''hen, in
\u
ust, hpforc his death, seems to have discon-
liSI, em"OVS from Yermont were in Phila- ccrted the leaders and ùissipated the
delphia. e
treating for the admission of ,..dICH1P. Thp I:cv. Jedidiah )Iorsc. tht'n
their State into the Fnion. the measure ,-cry intilll'ntial in the Church and in poli-
waf; oppospd hy the Southern ddegates. tics in Xcw England. advocatcd tllc scver-
hceause it would" destroy thc halance of ance of the Eastern Statcs from the rninn,
po\\"cr" between the two scctions of the so as to gct riù of the e,oils of thc slave
confederacy. and give the preponùprance s
vstem; and. later, Josiah Quincy, in a
to the North. The purchase of J
ouisiana dphate in the House of Represcntati\"Cs,
was deprecated and dolently opposed hy e
presscd his opinion that it might bc-
the Fedcralist lcadcl"!';. bccam;e it would come necessary to dividc the rnion as a
strengthen the RoutlH'I"ll political influ- cure of evils' that seemed to be already
ence then controlling the national go,"ern- chronic.

DIVORCE LAWS

Divorce Laws. Excepting in South
Carolina, which has no divorce laws, a
dolation of the TIlol\Tiagc vow i!'> cause
for dh'orcc in all the Rtatps and Ter-
ritories. Other legal causes are 8hown
helow:

part of husband; conviction of felony.
Re8idence required, six months; pither
party may marry aga!n.
.1rT..-ans(ls.-Perman!'nt or inl'urablp in-
sanity; wil ful desertion one year; com'ie-
tion of fclonv or othe1" infamous crime;
cruel treatm:nt as to endanger life; ppr-
A.1abama.-Yoluntary abandonment for sonal indignities !mch a!'> to rpl1<lpr con-
two years; habitual drunkcnness after dition intolerablp; hahitual drunkenness
n'arriage and incapa(.ity; imprisonment one year. Residence required. one year;
in penitentiary for two ;years on a sen- either party may marry again.
tence of sevcn years or more. Tn making ('alífornía.-JIahitual drunkenness, neg"-
decree chancellor may dpcide whetllPr de- leet, or wilful de8ertion one year; ex-
fendant may marr
r again or not. Resi- trpme Crtlf'lt)'; conviction of fplon
r. Rpsi-
dence of one year in f'tate required; hut dence required, one year; either may rc-
H the application is made on ground ot marr
.
desertion, three years' residence is re- ('olorado.-IIabitual drunkcnness: wil-
quired. fnt dpsprtion or failurp on part of hus-
Ari.
ona.-E"ces
e
or C'nlCl treatnlPnt; h
ml to providp for wife, either continued
hJlhitual intcmpprance; alnmdonment for for one ,'car; conviction of fclony: ex-
!

months; wilful neglect to provide on treme cr
elty, causing either me
tal or
124

DIVORCE LAWS

ph)'sical suffering. Residpnce required, dence required, six months; either may
one year; neither can remarry within remarr)'.
one year. Illinois.-Extreme and repeated cruel-
O'onnccticut.-Habitual intemperance; ty; conviction of felony or other infamous
intolerable cruelty; sentence to imprison- crime; attempt by l'ither party on life
ment for life; fraudulent contract; wil- of other; wilful desertion two years.
ful desertion and total neglect of duty Residence required, one year; no statute
for three years; absent and unheard of as to remarrying.
seven years; any inÎalllous crime involv- I ndiana.-Habitual drunkenness; cruel
ing violation of conjugal duty, and pun- and inhuman treatment; abandonment
ishable by imprisonment in State prison. two years; failure on part of husband to
Residence required, three years: either support wife for two years. Residence
may remarry. required, two 3"ears; either ma
marry
Dclau:are.-Married under age; force or again, except [IS limited in decree.
fraud in procuring marriage; extreme Kansas.-Fraudulent contract; com'ic-
cruelty; habitual drunkenness; eonvic- tion of and imprisonment for felony;
tion of felony; desertion thrpe years; wiI- habitual drunkenness; extreme crueltv;
ful failure of husband to provide three gross neglect of duty; abandonment o
e
ypars. No statute as to residence; either year. Residence required, one year; par-
may remarr
', hut party guilty of infi- ties may remarry at once, unless appeal
delity must not marry party with whom i:; taken, and then thirty days after final
crime was committed. judgment on the appeal.
District of Columbill.-Wilful desertion Kentucky.-Uniting with religious so-
for two years; habitual drunkenness; ciety which forbids marriage of husband
cruelty and abuse C'ndangering life or and wife; abandonment one year; living
health; insane at marriage. Divorces apart without cohabitation five years;
from bed and board may be granted for condf'nmation for ff'lony; forcf', duress or
cruelty and reasonable apprehension of fraud in procuring marriage. '''ife may
physical harm. Residence required, two obtain divorce for husband's neglect to
years; no statutory provision as to re- provide, and habitually treating her in
marrying. such cruel and inlmman manner as to dp-
Florida.-\Vilful, obstinate, and contin- stroy her peace and happiness; cruel beat-
ued desertion one year; habitual intem- ing or in.lury indicating outrageous temper
perance for one year; extreme cruelty; and endangering her life; confirmed hab-
habitual indulgence in violent temper. its of intoxication. Residence required,
A person who has been a resident of Flor- one )'ear; either may remarry.
ida for two years, and whose husband Louisiana.-Desertion for five years,
or wife has procured a divorce in any having been summoned to return within
other State or country, may obtain a one year of filing claim; attempt on life
divorce. RC'sidence required, two years; of other; fugitive from justice; ha.bitual
either may marry again. intemperance to excess; condemnation to
Gcorgia.-Habitual drunkenness; cruel ignominious punishment; cruel trf'at-
treatment; wilful desertion three years; ment or outrages of such naturp as to
mental incapacity at time of marriage; render living together insupportable.
o
conviction of crime involving moral turpi- divorce, except for infidelity, shall bp
tude under which party has been sen- granted. except decree of separation pre-
tenced to imprisonment for two years or viously had and parties lived apart onp
longer; force, menaces, threats, duress,
'ea.r. Ko statute as to previous resi-
and fraud in procuring marriage. In pro- dence; woman cannot marry for tC'n
curing divorcC', concurrent verdict of two months after marriage is dissolved; on
.luries at differf>nt terms of court are divorce for infidelity guilty party shall
nf'ces
ary. Applicant must reside in State; not marry person with whom crime was
no statute as to marQ'ing again. committed.
Ida/lO.-Conviction of felony; extreme Maine.-Sentence to imprisonment for
cruelty; habitual intemperance; wilful life; desertion for three vears; failure
desertion and neglect one year. Resi- of husband to pl'ovide for
ife: cruel and
125

DIVORCE LAWS

abusive treatment; gross and confirmed drunk('nne8s one year; desertion one year,
habits of intm.ieation. Rebidence re- hushand descrting wife and ll'aving
tate
qui red, OI\e p'llr; either may remarry. without intention of returning. Re
;i.
Marylattd.-Abandunment three years; dence required, one )'ear.
any cause which would render marriage X('l)raska.-E
treme cruelty; utter de-
void ab initio. Re:öidence required, two sertion two
'ears; sentenced to imprison-
years; in caoSes of divorce for infidelity, ment for life or for three years or more;
court may decree that guilty party shall habitual drunkcnness; wilful desertion for
not marry during life of other. five years. Divorce from bed and board
Massachusctts.-Sentence to hard labor or from bonds of matrimony may be
for five years or longer; where either granted for extreme cruelt
. by personal
party has joined religious society that violence or other means, utter desertion
professes to believe relation of husband two years, or failure of husband to pro-
and wile unlawful, and has continued ,-ide. Previous residence, six months;
with such society three years, refusing neither can remarry within time alJowed
for that time' to cohabit; husband cruelJv for appeal, nor before final judgment if
and wantonly refusing to provide; gro!';'s appeal is taken.
Dnd confirmed habits of intoxication with i\-evada.-Xeglect of husband to pro-
liquors, by upium or other drugs; cruel vide for one 3"ear; extreme cruelty; wilful
and a.busive treatment; utter desertion desertion one year; conviction of felony
three years. Residence required, three or infamous crime; habitual gross drunk-

'ears where parties have resided together enness. Residence required, six months;
in State, otherwise five years; guilty either may remarry.
party cannot marry for two 3"ears. N cw 11 ampshirc.-Conviction of crime
MicTti!lart.-Imp1Ísonment for life or and imprisonment for one year; extreme
three years or more; where either has cruelty; where either party has treatcd
obtained divorce in another Sta.te; neglect. other as to injure health or endanger
by husband to provide; habitual drunken- reason; habitual drunkenness three )'ears;
l1ess; dcsertion for two years. Resi- absent and unheard of three
'ears; dpspr-
dence required, one year; court may or- tion for three years with refusal to co-
der that guilty pa.rty shall not marry for habit; desertion for three years with re-
term not excepding two yea.rs. fusal to support; where either party has
Minnrsota.-Wilful desertion, one year; joined society professing to believe rela-
sentence to State prison; cruel and in- tion of husband and wife unlawful, and
human treatment; habitual drunkenness refusal to cohabit with other for six
one year. Residcnce required, one year; months; where wife has resided out of
either party may marry again. State ten years without husband's con-
1I1ississippi.-Insa.nity or idiocy at timc sent, without returning to claim her mari-
of marriage unknown to other; habitual tal rights; whcre wife of alien has resided
cruel and inhuman treatment; habitual in State three y('ars, and her husband has
drunkenness; wilful dcsertion two
'ears; left "Cnitcd States with intention of be-
sentenced to penitentiary. Residence re- coming citizen of another country, not
quired, one year; court may decree that having made suitable provision for her
guilty party shaH not remarry. support. One or the othpr must be resi-
.Missou7"Ï.-Conviction of crime or felon.v dent of Rtate one year, unl('ss both" w('re
prior to marriage unknown to othpr; con- domiciled in Rtate when action was com-
viction of fplony or infamous crime; ah- mencpd, or defendant was sprypd with pro-
sent without cause one year; habitual c('ss in Rtate, th.. plaintiff bping domieilcd
drunkenness one
'ear; husband guilty of therein; eiUlPr C.1n rpmarrv.
such conduct as to constitute him a v
- Vew .Terscy.-Extrf'llle
ruelty; wilful,
grant; cruel or barbarous treatment as to continued and ohstinate desertion for
endanger life; indignities fiS to ren<1f'r two years. Residence r('quir('d, thre(>
conllition intolprable. Residence requirf'd, years; no statutory provision as to re-
one ypar; either may remarry. marriage.
Uonfann.-'Extreme cruelty; convi('tion NC1D Jlr.1'ico.-Kegleet of husband to
of felony or infamous crime; habitual provide; habitual drunkennes!õl; cruel or
. l
G

DIVORCE LAWS

inhuman treatment; abandonment. Resi- viction of felony; personal indignities or
dence required, one )'ear. cruel and inhuman treatment rendering
"^-ew l"ork.-.-\bsolute divorce granted life burdensome. Hesidence rcquired, one
only for adultery. Residence required, year; neither can marry until expira-
one year. \Vhen woman under age of
ix- tion of time for appeal, and in case of ap-
teen is married without consent of parent peal, until after judgment on the appeal.
or guardian, when consent was obtained Pennsylvania.-Conviction of felony
by frauù, force or duress, or where either and sentence for two years or longer; wil-
party was insane or idiot, marriage may ful and malicious desertion for two years,
be annl1lled. In such cases either party or where husband by cruelty and abuse
may remarry, but in cases of absolute di- has endangered his wife's life, or offered
vorce guilty party shall not marry during such indignities to her person as to render
life of other, with the following excep- her condition intolerable and her life
tions: He may be permitted by court to burdensome, and thereby forced her to
remarry upon proving that the other party withdraw from his home and family;
has remarried, that five years have elapsed where wife, by cruel and barbarous treat-
since divorce was granted, and that his ment, renders husband's condition intoler-
conduct haR been uniformly good. If the able; fraud, force or coercion in procuring
guilty party marries in another State in marriage. Residence required, one year;
accordance with laws of that State, the either may remarry.
marriage will be held good in Kew York. Rhode [sland.-Where marriage was
North Garúlina.-Divorce may be void or voidable by law; where either
granted to wife if husband is indicted for party is for crime deemed civilly dead, or
felony, and flees from the State and does from absence or other circumstances pre-
not return for one year; to the husband sumed to be dead; wilful desertion for
if wife refuRes relations with him for one five years or for a shorter time, in discre-

'ear. DÏ\-orces from bed and board may tion of court; extreme cruelty; continued
be granted for habitual drunkenness, drunkenness; neglect or refusal of hus-
abandonment, cruel or barbarous treat- band to pTovide, or for any other gross
ment endangering life, indignities to per- misbehavior or wickednes!'! in either party
son as to render condition intolerable, repugnant to or in violation of the mar-
maliciously turning other out - of - doors. riage covenant, and where parties have
Residcnce required, two years; on abso- lived apart for ten years. Residence re-
lute divorce either may remarry. qui red, one year; no statute as to re-
North Dakota.-Conviction of felony; marrying.
extreme cruelty, wilful desertion, ,vilful Ten.>>csscc.-Habitual drunkenness; wil-
neglect and habitual intemperance, each ful or malicious desertion for two years;
continued for one year. Residence re- attempting life of other; conviction of in-
quired, ninety days; guilty party cannot famous crime; conviction and sentence to
marry during life of other. South Dakota penitentiary for felony; refusal of wife to
same. move into this State, and wilfully absent-
Ohio.-Imprisonment in penitentiary; ing herself from husband for two years.
gross neglect of duty; extreme cruelty; Divorces from bed and board may be
habitual drunkenness for three ;years; granted for cruel and inhuman treatment
fraudulent contract; divorce procured b
T to wife, indi:mities to her person render-
either in another State. Residence re- ing her condition intolerable, and forcing
qui red, one year; either may remarry. her to withdraw, abandoning her or turn-
Ok1ahoma.-Hahitual intemperance; ex- ing her out-of-doors, and refusing or neg-
treme cruelty; ahandonnlf'nt one ;year; leding to provide for her. Residence re-
fraudulent contract; gross neglect of quired, two years; on absolute divorce
duty; conviction of felony and imp1"Ìson- either may remarry, but on divorce for in-
ment. Uesidcnce required, ninety days; fiùelity guilty one shall not marry party
decree does not become ahsolute till six with whom crime was committed during
month!'! aftcr its dnte. life of other.
o regon.-\Yilfu I desertion one year; Tc.ras.-Desertion for three yea.r!'!; ex-
habitual, gross drunkenness one year; con- c('s!'!('s; conviction of felony and imprison-
127

I

DIVORCE LA WS

ment in State prison; cruel treatment or
outrages, if of nature to render living to-
gether insupportable. Residence required,
six months; either may remarry.
Utah.-Conviction of felony; habitual
drunkenness; wilful neglect to provide for
wife; wilful desertion more than one
year; cruel treatment as to cause bodily
injuries or mental distress. Residence re-
quired, one year; either may remarry.
Vermont.-Scntence to hard labor in
State prison for life or for three years or
more; fraud or force in procuring mar-
riage, or either under age of consent; hus-
band grossly, wantonly, and cruelly neg-
lecting to provide; wilful desertion three
years, or absence seven years unheard of;
intolerable severity. Petitioner must re-
side in the State at least one year; guilty
party shall not marry again for the term
of three years.
Virginia.-WiIful desertion five years;
fugitive from justice two years; com'ic-
tion of infamous offence prior to mar-
riage unknown to other; sentenced to
confinement in penitentiary. Divorces
from bed and board may be granted for
cruelty, reasonable apprehension of bodily
harm, abandonment or desertion. Resi-
dence required, one year; court may de-
cree that guilty party may not remarry
without the consent of court.
1Vashington.-Abandonment one year;
habitual drunkenne!'!s or neglect or re-
fusal to proyide; consent to marriage ob-
tained by force or fraud; cruel treatment
or personal indignities rendering life bur-
densome; chronic mania or dementia of
either party for ten years; imprisonment
in penitentiary or any other cause deemed
Hufficient by the court. Residence re-
quired, one year; neither party can marry
until time for repeal has elap
cd, or if
appeal is taken, not until after final judg-
ment.
West Virginia.-WiIful desertion three
years; husband notoriously immoral; wife
immoral before marriage unknown to hus-
band; imprisonment in penitentiary.
Divorces from bed and board may be
granted for habitual drunkenness, aban-
donment, desertion, cruel and inhuman
treatment, or reasonable apprehension of
bodily harm. Residence required, one
year; no statute as to remarriage.
1f'isconRin.-Xeglect to provide:

ual drunkenness for one year; impri!'!on'
ment for lif(' or for three years or more;
cruel and inhuman treatment by personal
violence; where parties have voluntarily
lived apart five years. Residence re-
quired, one ;year; either may remarry.
Wyoming.-Conyiction of felony or in-
famous crime prior to marriage unknown
to other; conviction and sentence for fel-
ony; wilful desertion one ;rear; ne
lect of
husband to provide for one year; habitual
drunkenness; such indi
nities as to ren-
der condition intolerahle. R('sidence re-
quired, six months; no statute as to re-
marrying.
Divorce Laws, UXIFORM. Upon the
question of the desirahility of a uniform
divorce law in the Cnitcd f'tates, ELIZA-
BETH CADY STAN"TO
(q. v.), tIle well-
known advocate of woman's suffrage,
writes as follows:

There has been much discus!'!ion of late in
regard to the necessity for an entire re-
vision of the laws on divorce. For this pur-
pose, the State proposes a committee of
learned judges, the Church another of dis-
tinguished bishops, to frame a national
law wllieh shall be endorsed hyhoth Church
and State. Though women are as deeply
interested as mf'n in this question, there
i8 no suggestion that women shaH be
rcpre!'!ented on either committee. Hence,
the importance of some e
pressions of
their opinions before any changes are
made. As judges and bishops are pro-
verbially conservative, their tendency
would he to make the laws in the free
States more restrictive than thcy now
are, and thus render it more difficult for
wives to escape from unhappy marriage!'!.
The States which II aye liheral divorce
Jaws are to women what Canada W:UI to
the slayes before the emancipation. The
applicants for di,'orc2 are chieflJ' women,
as Kaquet's bill, which passed the
Chamber of Deputies of France, abun-
dantly proves. In the first year there were
3,000 applications, the greater number
being women.
Unhappy husbands have many ways of
mitigating their miseries which are not
open to wiV'es, who are financial dcpencl-
ants and burdened with children. Hus-
b3nds can leaV'e the country and invest
habit- their property in foreign lands. Laws
]28

.DIV01tC:g LA WB, UNXFORM

affect only those WllO respect and obey
them. Laws made to restrain unprin-
cipled men fall with crushing weight on
women. A .}"oun
woman with property
oi her own can now easily free herself
from an unworthy husband by spending
a year in a free State, and in due time
sbe can marr.r again.
Because an inexperienced girl has
made a mistake--partly, in many cases,
through the bad counsel of her advisers-
shall she be denied the right to marry
again? We can trace the icy fingers of
the canon law in all our most sacred
relations. Through the evil influences of
that law, the Church holds the key to
the situation, and is determined to keep
H. At a triennial Episcopal convention
held in Washington, D. C., bishops, with
closed doors, discussed the question of
marriage and di\'orce ad libitum, a large
majority of the bishops being in favor of
the most restrictive canons; and, though
an auxiliary convention was held at the
same time, composed of 1,500 women,
members of the Episcopa.l Church, they
had no part in the discussion, covering
a dozen or more canon laws.
A recent writer on this subject says:

necegsary that a private act of Par-
liament should bc passed in order that a
divorce could be obta.ined. In 1837, the
State took action looking towards the
granting of divorces by the courts with-
out the interposition of Parliament, but
this action has not been sanctioned by
the Church of England. Hence has arisen
a peculiar state of affairs in England,
which has led to considerable confusion.
The Church forbids the marriage of either
party, except of the innocent parties ill
cases where the cause is adultery. But as
the State permits the marriage of divorced
parties, the ministers of the Church of
England were put in an awkward position.
As ministers of the Church, they were
forbidden to marry these persons, but as
the Church is allied to the State, and to
a certain extent subject to it, a number
of them believed it their civil duty to per-
form such marriages, and they performed
them in violation of the canonical law.
The agitation over this question has at-
tracted a great deal of attention during
the last few years, and is looked upon a8
being one of the most powerful cause

which may lead to the disestablishment of
the Church of England.
l\Iarriage should be regarded as a. civil
contract, entirely under the jurisdiction
of the State. The less latitude the
Church has in our temporal affairs, the
better.
Lord Brougham says: "Before woman
can have any justice by the laws of Eng-
land, there must be a total reconstruction
of the whole marriage system; for any at-
tempt to amend it would prove useless.
The great charter, in establishing the su-
premacy of law Over prerogative. provid<,d
The question of marriage and divorce, only for justice between ma.n and man;
and the attitude the Church should take for woman nothing was left hut common
towarùs divorced persons who wish to law, accumulations Hnd modifications of
marry again, has been up before many original Gothic and Roman lll'athenism,
general conventions. '1he attitude of the which no amount of filtration through cc-
Episcopal Church has always been stmngly desiastic:a.I courts could change into
against divorce, and particularly against Christian laws. They are declared un-
the marriage of divorced persons. The worthy of a Christian people by great
Catholic Church takes a still narrower jurists; still, they remain unchan)!ed."
grounù, positively declining to recognize There is a dpnumd just now for an
!'Ouch an institution as divorce. 2mendment to the Unitf'd f;tates Con!'!ti-
As early as the year 100D, it was en- tution UHlt shall make the laws of mar-
acted by the Church authorities of Eng- riage and dÌ\orce the samC' in all the
land that a Christian should never marry States of the Pnion. .\s the suggestion
n divorced woman. Down to 1857, it wa's ('omC's nnicorJnly from those who con-
111.-1 12n

.. There Is no doubt that the sentiment In
the Episcopal Church, at least among the
clergy, Is strongly In favor of the Church
setting Its face firmly against divorce. An
evidence of tbis Is tbe circulation of a peti-
tion to tbe convention requesting tbat It
adopt Bome stringent rule for tbis purpose,
wblcb bas already received tbe signatures of
about 2,000 of tbe clergy. Tbe proposition to
adopt a stringent canon received tbe undivid-
ed support of tbe Hlgb Cburcb ministers,
and finds many supporters In the Low
(,burch."

DIVORCE LAWS, UNIFOBM

eider the present dÏ\orce laws too liberal, wholly to the civil rather than to the
we ma.r infer that the proposed national canon law, to the jurisdiction of the se,-
law is to place the whole question on the eral States rather than to the nation.
narrO\\ est basis, rendering null and void As many of our leading ecclesiastics and
the laws that have been passed in a statesmen are discussing this question, it
broader spirit, according to the needs and is surprising that women, who are equally
ðperiences of certain sections of the sover- l.appy or miserable in these relations.
{.ìgn people. And here let us bear in mind manifest so little interest in the pending
that the widest possible law would not proposition, and especiall
" as it is not
make divorce obligatory on anyone, while to their interest to have an amend-
a restricted law, on the contrary, would ment to the national Constitution estab-
compel many, who married, perhaps, un- lishing a uniform law. In making any
df'r more liberal laws, to remain in uncon- contract, the parties are supposed to ha\'e
genial relations. an equal knowledge of the situation, and
'\Ve are still in the experimental stage an equal voice in the agreement. This
on this question; we are not qualified to has never been the case with the contract
make a law that would work satisfactorily of marriage. 'Vomen are, and always
over so va8t an area as our boundaries now have been, totalIy ignorant of the pro-
embrace. I see no evidence in what has visions of the canon and civil laws, which
been published on this question, of late, men have made and administered, and
by statesmen, ecclesiasts, lawyers, and then, to impress woman's religious nat-
judges, that any of them ha\'e thought ure with the sacredness of this om>-sided
sufficiently on the subject to prepare a contract, they claim that all these heter-
well-digested code, or a comprehensive ogencous relations called marriage are
amendment of the national Constitution. nmd(' hy (;od, appealing to that passage
Some view marriage as a civil contract, of Scripture, "'''hat God hath joined
though not governed by the laws of othf'r together, let no man put asunder."
contracts; some ,iew it as a religious or- Kow, let us substitute the natural laws
dinance-a sacrament; some think it a for God. 'Vhen two beings contract, t]w
relation to be regulated by the State, State has the right to ask the que:-;tion.
others by the Church, and still others Are the partie'! of proper age, and have
think it should be left wholly to the indi- they sufficient judgmf'llt to make so im-
vidual. With this di\"ergenee of opinion portant a contract?
\nd the State should
among our leading minds, it is quite evi- have the power to dissoh'e the contract
dent that we are not prepared for a na- if any incongruiti{::'1 arise, or any deception
tional la.w. has been practised, just as it has the
Local self-government more readily per- power to cancel the purchase of a horse,
mits of experiments on mooted questions, if he is found to be blind in one eye, balks
which are the outcome of the needs and when he should go, or has a beautiful
convictions of the community. The false tail, skilfully adjusted, which "as
"maner the area OWl' which legislation the chief attraction to the purchaser.
f':\tends, the more pliable are the laws. "'e must remember that the reading
By leaving thf' States frce to experiment of the marriage senice does not signify
in their local affairs we can judge of the that God hath joined the couple together.
working of difTf'rent laws under varying That is not so. Only those marriages that
circumstances, and tIlUS learn their com- are harmonious, whert
the parties are
purative merits. The progress education rf'ally companion., for each other, are in
has made in America is due to thf' fact the lJighest sense made by God. But
that we ha\"e If'ft our sy!'tem of public in- what shall Wp sa
' of that large clash of
struction in tIH' hands of local author- men and women who marry for wealth,
ities. How difTf'rpnt would be the solu- po!->ition, mere sensual gratification, with-
tion of the gn>at educational question of out any real attraction or religious sense
manual labor m thf' !'choo1!'!. if tIle matter of loyalty towards each othpr. You might
had to be settIf'd at "
ashington! afo' we)] talk of the lIame code of regula-
From these considerations, our wisest tion., for honest, law-abiding citizens, ftnd
course seems to bf' to lpave these que"tions for criminals in our State prison!-l, as fOI
120

these t \\ 0 clað
es. The former are a law
to themselves; they need no iron chains
to hold them together. The other class,
having no respect for law whatever, will
defy all constitutional provisions. The
time has come when the logic of facts
is more conclusive than the deductions
of theology.
It is a principle of the common law of
England that marriage is a civil contract,
and the same law has been acknowl-
edged by statutes in several of our
American States; and in the absence of
e
pressed statute to the contrar
', the
common law of England is deemed the
common law of our country.
Questions involved in marriage and
divorce should be, in the churches, mat-
ters of doctrinal teaching and discipline
onlJ'-; and, after having discussed for
centuries the question as to what the
Bible teaches concerning divorce, without
arridng at any settled conclusion, they
should agree somewhat among themselves
before they attempt to dictate State legis-
lation on the subject. It simplifies this
question to eliminate the pretensions of
the Church and the Bible as to its reg-
ulation. As the Bible sanctions di\'orce
and polygamy, in the practice of the
chosen people, and is full of contradic-
tions, and the canon law has been pliable
in the hands of ecclesiastics, enforced or
set aside at the behests of kings and
nobles, it would simplify the discussion England began. While his father, Lieu-
to confine it wholly to the civil law, re- tenant-Colonel Dix, was at Fort McHenry,
garding divorce as a
tate question. Baltimore, young Dix pursued his studies
Dix, DOROTHEA LYXDE, philanthropist; at S1. Mary's College. In the spring of
born in \Yorcester, ::\lass., about 17!)4. 1813 he was appointed an ensign in the
_\fter her father's death she supported her- army, and was soon promoted to third
sf'lf by teaching a school for young girls lieutenant, and made adjutant of an in-
in Boston. Becoming interested in the dependent battalion of nine companies.
\\e]fare of the <:om'iets in the State prison He was commissioned a captain in 1825,
at C'harlestown. her philanthropic spirit and having continued in the army sixteen
expanded and embraced all of the unfort- years, in 1828 he left the military service.
unate and suffering classes. Having in- His father had been mortally hurt at
herited from a relative propçrty sufficient Chrysler's Field. and the care of extri-
to render her independent, she went to eating the paternal f'state from difficulties,
Europe for her health. Returning to Bos- for the benefit of his mother and her nine
ton in 1837, she devoted her life to the children, had devolved upon him. He had
investigation and alleviation of the con- studied law while in the army. After
dition of paupers. lunatics, and prisoners, visiting Europe for his health, Captain
encouraged by her friend and pastor, Dr. Dix settled as a lawyer in Cooperstown,
Channing. In this work she visited every N. Y. He became warmly engaged in
State in the Union east of the Rocky politics, and in 1830 Governor Throop ap-
:Mountains. endeavoring to persuade legis- pointed him adjutant-general of the State.
131

DIX

latures to aid the UJ1Íortunate, and was in-
strumental in bringing about the founda-
tion of se,"eral State asylums for the in-
sane. At the breaking out of the Civil War
she was appointed superintendent of hos-
pital nurses, and after the close of the
war she resumed her efforts in behalf of
the insane. She died in Trenton, N. J.,
July 19, 1887.
Dix, JOHN ADAMS, military officer;
born in Boscawen, N. H., July 24, 1798.
After he left the academy at Exeter, N. H.,
he completed his studies in a French
college at
Iontreal. He entered the army;
as a cadet in 1812, when the war with

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DIX, JOHN A.

General Dix was appointed major-gen-
eral of volunteers :May lG, 1861; com-
mander at Baltimore, and then at Fort
Monroe and on the Virginia peninsula;
and in September, 18G2, he was placed in
command of the 7th Army Corps. He was
also chosen prpsident of the Pacific Rail-
way Company. In 1866 he was appointpd
minister to France, which post he filled
until 1869. . He was elected governor of
the State of New York in 1872, and re-
tired to private life at the end of the
term of two years, at which time he per-
a fac-simile is ginn on the opposite page. formed rare seryi('e for the Q'ood namp of
The Confedf'rates in Npw Orleans had pos- the Statp of New -York. Gpnf'ral Dix was
session of the telpgraph, and did not allow a fine classical scholar, and translatpd
this df'spatch to pass, and the McClelland senral passages from Catullus, Virlril, and
133

In 1833 he was elected secretary of state
of X ew York, which office made him a
member of the Board of Regents of the
University and conferred upon him other
important positions. Chiefly through his
exertions public libraries were introduced
into the school districts of the State and
the school laws systematized. In 1842
he was a member of the X ew York As-
sembly, and from 1845 to 1849 of the
rnited States Senate. In the discussion of
the question of the annexation of Texas and
of slavery he expressed the views of the
small Free Soil party whose candidate for
governor he was in 1848. In 1859 he was
appointed postmaster of
ew York City;
and when in January, 18Gl, Buchanan's
cabinet was dissolved, he was called to the
post of Secretary of the Treasury. In that
capacity he issued a famous order under
the following circumstances: He found
the department in a wretched condition,
and proceeded with energy in the adminis-
tration of it. Hearing of the tendency
in the sla,'e-Iabor States to seize United
States property within their borders, htl
sent a special agent of his department
(Hemphill Jones) to secure for service
re"enue cutters at )Iohile and :Kew Or-
leans. He found the Lewis Cass in the
hands of the Confederates at
Iobile. The
Robert McClelland, at New Orleans, was
in command of Capt. J. G. P.reshwood, of
the navy. Jones ga"e the captain an
order from Dix: to sail to the :Korth.
Breshwood absolutely refused to obey the
order. This fact Jones made known, by
telegraph, to Dix, and added that the col-
lector at Xew Orleans (Hatch) sustained
the rebellious captain. Dix instantly tele-
graphed back his famous order, of which

THE DlX MEDAL.

was handed o\"Cr to the authorities of
Louisiana. As Secretary Dix's order was
flashed over the land it thrilled every heart
with hope that the temporizing policy of
the administration had ended. The loyal
people rejoiced, and a small medal was
struck by private hands commemorative
of the e\"Cnt, on one side of which was
the Union flag, and around it the words,
"THE FLAG OF OUR UNION, 18G3"; on the
othpr, in two circles, the last clause of
Dix's famous order. After the war the
authorship of the famous order was
claimed for different persons, and it was
asserted that General Dix was only the
medium for its official communication.
In reply to an inquiry addressed to Gen-
eral Dix at the close of August, 1873,
he responded as follows from his country
residence:

SEAFIELD, WEST HAVEN, N. Y , Sept. 21, 1873.
.. Your favor Is received. The' order' al-
luded to was written by myself, without any
suggestion from anyone, and It was sent otf
three days before It was communicated to the
President or cabinet. Mr. Stanton's letter to
:\Ir. Bonner, of the Ledger, stating that It
was wholly mine, was published In the New
York Times last October or late In Septem-
ber, to silence forever the misrepresentations
In regard to It. After writing It (about seven
o'clock In the evening), I gave it to
Ir.
Hardy, a clerk In the Treasury Department,
to copy. The copy was signed by me, and
sent to the telegraph office the same evening,
and the original was kept, like all other
original despatches. It Is now. as you state,
In possession of my son, Rev. Dr. nix,
o.
27 West Twenty-fifth street, New York. It
was photographed In 1863 or 1864, and you,
no doubt, have the facsimile thus maòe.
.. Very truly yours, JOlIN A. DIX."

DIXIE-DODGE

others into polished Englisb veree. He
mllde a most conscientious and beautiful
tJanslation of the Dies Iræ. He died in
New York City, April 21, 187\).
Dixie, a supposed imaginary land of
luxurious enjo;yment somewhere in the

outhern States, and during the Ci\"il War
it became a collective designation for the
slave-labor States. "Dixie" songs and
" Dixie" music prevailed all o,-er those
States and in the Confederate army. It
had no such significance. It is a simple
refrain that originatecl among negro emi-
grants to the South f!"Om )I:mhaltan, or
New York, island about 1800. A man
named Dixy owned it large tract of land
on that island and many slaves. They
became unprofitable, ancl the growth of
the abolition sentiment made Dixy's
slaves uncertain property. He sent quite
a large number of them to Southern
planters and sold them. The heavier
burdens imposed upon them there, and
the memories of their birthplace and its
comforts on Manhattan, made them sigh
for Dixy's. It becam
with them synon-
ymous with an earthly paradise, and the
exiles sang a simple r('(rain in a pathetic
manner about the joys of Dixy's. Ad-
ditions to it elevated it into the dignity
of a song, and it was chanted by the
negroes all over the South, which, in the
Civil War, was called the "Land of
Dixie."
Dixon, \VILLTAM HEPWORTH, author;
born in Yorkshire, England, June 30,
1821; was mostly self-educated. He visit-
ed the United States in 18G6 and 1874.
His treatment of the united States in his
published works has been considered un-
fair and incorrect in this country. His
hooks relating to the United States in-
clude White Conqucst (containing in-
formation of the Indians, negroes, and
Chinese in America); Life of William
Penn,. and "^
ew .4. merica. He died in I..on-
ùon, Dec. 27, 187D.
Dobbin, JAMES COCIIRAXE, statesman;
horn in Fa;yetteville, N. C., in '1814: grad-
uated at the University of North Caro-
lina in 1832; elected to Congress in 184:;:
and in 184R to the State legislature, of
"hich he became "peaker in 18.30. In
1853 President }>ieree appointed him
Secretary of the Xavy. He died in
Fayetteville, Aug. 4, 1857.

Docks, artificial basins for the re-
ception of vessels for safety, for repairing,
and for commercial traffic. Those for the
safety of vessels are known as wet-docks;
those for repairing only, as dry - docks;
and those for commercial tntffic, as basins
or docks. Wet and dry docks are float-
ing or stationary, according to construc-
tion. Basins or docks are constructed over
large areas, comprising docks for loading
and unloading vessels, and convenient
waterways for the movement of vessels.
The most notable dry-docks in the United
States are at Boston, Mass.; Portland,

Ie.: Xorfolk, Ya.; Sayannah, Ga.;
fare
J :;Iand. Cal.; Detroit, Mich.; and Puget
Sound, \\-ash. The costliest of these are
at the navv-vards. In 1901 one of the
largest dry:d
cks in the world was under
construction at Newport News. At New
York City, as well as aU the large ports,
there are numerous floating dry-docks for
the repair of the merchant marine. The
most notable hasins or docks for com-
mercial traflb are in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
where over 4,000 yessels are annually un-
loaded. The chief of these is the Atlantic
Docks, covering an area of 40 acres,
and capable of accommodating 500 ves-
sels at one time. South of this artificial
construction are the Erie and Brooklyn
basins, similar in design and purpose, and
still further south are two other docks
of the repair character.
Dodge, GREXVILLE )rELLE
, military
officer; born in Danvers,
rass., April 12,
18
1; educated at PartridO'e's )lili-
tary
-\cadem.r, XorwiC'h. Conn
. and he-
came a railroad surveyor and engineer
in Illinois, Iowa, and the Hock
' )loun-
tains. He was sent to \Ya--hinO'ton in
JR61 to procure arms and eC]llipm;nt" for
Iowa volunteers. and became ('olon('1 of
the 4th Iowa R('giment in .Tuly. He com-
manded a brigarlí' on the extreme right at
the battle of Pea Ridge, and was wounded.
For his sen'iees there he was made
hrigadier - gen('ral. TIp was appointed to
the eommand of tl)(' Di!"trict of the
:\[i!'!'if'sippi in ,Tune. IR6
. He was with
Sherman in his (;('(Jrgia campaign, and
was promoted to major-general. He final-
ly mmma.nded the Wth Corps in that
campaign, and in Decembf'r, 1864, he
succeeded Rosecrans in command of the
Department of :\!issouri. In 1867-fjf) he
134

DODGE-DONALDSON

was a member of Congress from Iowa,
and subsequently was engaged in railroad
business.
Dodge, HE
RY, military officer; born
in Yincennes, Ind., Oct. 12, 1782; com-
manded a company of volunteers In the
War of 1812-1.3, and rose to the rahk of
lieutenant-colonel of mounted infantry
in 1814. He fought the Indians trom
1832 to 1834, when bc made peace on the
frontiers, and in 183.3 commanded an ex-
pedition to the Rock)' Mountains. He
was governor of \Yisconsin and superin-
tendent of Indian affairs from 1836 to
1841; a delegate in Congress from 1841
to 1845; and United States Senator from
1840 to 1857. He died in Burlington,
Ia., June 10, 1867.
Dodge, RICHARD IRVI:NG, military offi-
cer; born in Huntsville, N. C., May 19, the annexation of Hawaii to the United
1827; graduated at the "Cnited States States, was gOYernor of the Territory of
Military Academy in 1848; served Hawaii in l!IOO-03; then hecame United
through the Civil \Yar; was commissioned States district judge for Hawaii.
colonel of the llth Infantry June 26, Dollar. Stamped Spanish dollars
1882; retired May 19,1801. His pub- (\alue 4s. Od.) \\ere is:med from the
lications include The Black Hills; The British mint in
Iarch, 1797, but called
Plain of the Great West; Our lVild Ind- in in October following. The dollar is the
ians, etc. He died in Sackett's Harbor, unit of the United States money. It is
June 18, 1895. coined in silver, formerly also in gold, and
Dodge, THEODORE AYRAULT, military is worth 4s. l%d. English money. See
officer; born in Springfield, )Iass., )lay COINAGE.
28, 1842; graduated at London Uni- Dominion of Canada. See CANADA.
versity in 1861; enlisted in the Kational Donaldson, EDWARD, naval officer; born
army in 1861; promoted first lieutenant in Baltimore, :Md., Nov. 17, 1816; joined
Feb. 13, 1862; brevetted colonel in 1866; the navy in 1835; during the Civil War
retired in 1870. He is the author of he took part in the capture of X ew
Bird's-Eyc Yicw of the Oivil War; Cam- Orleans, the passage of Yicksburg, the
paign of Ohancellorsville; Great Cap- battle of )Iobile Bay, etc.; was promoted
tains, etc. rear-admiral Sept. 21, 1876, and retired
Dole, SANFORD BALLARD, statesman; a few daY8 later. He died in Baltimore,
born in Honolulu, Hawaii, April 23, 1\1d., 1\1ay 15, 1889.
1844; son of American missionaries; edu- Donaldson, JA:!IES LOWRY, military of-
cated at Oahu College, lIa waii, and ficer; born in Baltimore, )1d., )larch 7,
Williams College, Williamstown,
lass.; 1814; graduated at the United States
\Vas admitted to the bar in Boston, and \Iilitary Academy in 1836; s('l'\'f'd in the
rdurned to Honolulu to practise. He war with
lexico and through the Civil
was a member of the Hawaii legislature \Yar; was promoted colonel and brevetted
in 1884 and 1886; became active in the major-general of volunteers; resigned in
rdorm movement of 1887; was judge of January, 1874. He was a personal friend
the Supreme Court of Hawaii in 1887-03; of Gen. G. H. Thomas, to whom he made
was chosen chief of the provisional gov- known a plan to establish cemeteries for
ernment in 1803, and in the following the scattered remains of soldiers who had

'ear was elected pre:;ident under the <,on- been killed in battle. It was this sugge!;-
stitution of the newly formed republic tion which led to the institution of Deco-
for the period of seven years. He was ration, or !\Iemorial, Day. He died in Bal-
an active promoter of the movement for timore, Md., Nov. 4, 1885.
135

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SAXFORD BALLARD DOLE.

DONELSON-DONELSON, FORT

Donelson, ANDREW JACKSON, sta tes-
man: born in Nashville, Tenn., Aug. 25,
1800; graduated at West Point in 1820;
resigned from the army in 1822; appoint-
ed minister to the republic of Texas in
1844; minister to Prussia in 184G; and
to the Federal Government of Germany
in 1
48. He abandoned the Democratic
party, joined the American party, and was
its candidate for Vicc-President on the
ticket with Millard }'illmore in 1856. He
died in Memphis, Tenn., June 2G, 1871.
Donelson, FORT, a notable fortification
on the Cumberland niver in Tennessee,
63 miles northwest of Nashville. After
the capture of :FORT HE
RY (q. v.), there
was no hinderance to the river navy going
up the Tennessee to the fertile cotton
regions of the heart of the Confederacy.
Foote sent Lieut.-Com. S. L. Phelps, with
three vessels, to reconnoitre the borders

-

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_
L____
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FOI:T DO'II<: I.!"O:\.

ated on the high left bank of the Cum-
berland River, at Dover, the capital of
Stewart county, Telhl. It was fornH'11
chiefly of outlying intrenchments, co,'er-
ing about 100 acres, upon hills furrowed
by ravines. At Fort HenQ', General
Grant reorganized his army in three di-
visions, under Generals l\IcClernand,
Smith, and Lew. Wallace. Commodore
Foote returned to Cairo to take his mor-
tar-boats up the Cumberland River to
a8sist in the attack. On the morning of
Feb. 12, 18G2, the divisions of MeCler-
nand and Smith marched for Fort Donel-
son, leaving Wallace with a brigade to
hold the vanquishf'd forts on the Ten-
nessee. On the same evening Fort
Donelson was invested.
Grant resolved to wait for the arrival
of the flotilla bearing troops that would
complete Wallace's dh'ision before making

..

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.

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.

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of that river. They penetrated to Flor- the attack. General Pillow was in com-
CDce, Ala., seizing Confederate vessels and mand of the fort; but. on the morning
del'tro
'ing Confederate property, and dis- of the 13th, General Floyd a.rrived from
cO\'ered the weakness of the Confederacy Virginia with some troops and superseded
in all that region, for Unionism was him. They were ftssi!'!tf'd Ly GEN. SnlO

everywhf're prevalent. but 8upprf'ssed by n. RUCKXER (q. 'l"), a better soldier than
thp mailed hand of the Confederate lead- either. All day (Fell. 13) there was skir-
ers. Phelps's report caused an immediate mishing, and at night the weather becamE
p" perlition aga inst }'(Irt Donelson, situ- extremely cold, while a violent rain-storm
136

DONELSON, FORT

was falling. The :Na.tional troops, biv- Oglesby's brigade received the first shock,
ouacking without tents, suffered intense- but stood firm until their ammunitio'l
ly. They dared not light camp-fires, for began to fail, when they gave way under
they would expose them to the guns of the tremendous pressure, excepting the ex-
their foes. They were without sufficient treme left, held by COL. JOliN A. LoGA X
food and clothing. Perceiving the perils (q. v.), with his Illinois regiment. Imi.
of his situation, Grant had sent for \Val- tating their commander, they stood a-;
lace to bring over his troops. He arrived firmly as a wall, and prevented a pank
a bout noon on the 14th. The transports and a rout. The light batteries of Tay-
had arrived, and Wallace's division was lor,
IcAllister, and Dresser, shifting posi-
completed and posted between those of tions and sending volle
?s of grape and
1\IcClernand and Smith, by which the canister, made the Confederate line recoil
thorough investment of the fort was com- again and again. At eight o'clock 11c-
pleted. At three o'clock that afternoon Clernand's division was so hard pressed
the bombardment of the fort was begun that he sent to Wallace for help. \Vallace,
by the Camnrlelet, Captain \Valke, and being assigned to a special duty, could
she was soon joined by three others ar- not comply without orders, for which he
mored gunboats in the front line. A sec- sent. Grant was away, in consultation
ond line was formed of unarmored boats. with Commodore Foote, who had arrived.
The former were exposed to a tremendous Again :McClernand sent for help, say-
pounding by missiles from the shore-bat- ing his flank was turned. Wallace took
teries; and they were compelled to retire, the responsibility. Then Buckner ap-
after receiving 140 shots and having fifty- peared. The battle raged fiercely. l\IcCler-
four men killed and wounded. Foote re- nand's Jine was falling back, in good
turned to Cairo to repair damages and "to order, and calling for ammunition. \Val-
bring up a sufficient naval force to assist lace took the responsibility of order-
in canying on the siege. Grant resolved ing some up. Then he thrust his brigade
to wait for the return of Foote and the (Colonel Thayer commanding) between
arrival of reinforcements. But he was the retiring troops and the advancing
not aHowed to wait. Confederates, flushed with hope, and
On the night of the 14th the Con feder- formed a new line of battle across the
ate leaders held a council of war and it road. Back of this was a reserve. In this
was concluded to make a sortie early the position they awaited an attack, while
next mflrning, to rout or dcstroy the in- l\IcClernand's troops supplied themseh-es
vading forces, or to cut through them and with ammunition from \\agons which "-al.
escape to the open country in the direc- lace had ordered up. Just then t1w com-
tion of Nash viJI e. This was attempted bined forces of Pillow and Buckner fell
at five o'clock (Feb. 15). The troops en- upon them and were repulsed by a bat-
gaged in it were about 10,000 in number, tery and the 1st Nebraska. The Confed-
c('mmanded by Generals piJlow and Bush- erates, after a severe struggle, retired to
1"Od R. .Johnson. Thev ad\'anced from their works in confusion. This was the
Dover-Mbsissippians, Tennesseeans, and last sally from the fort. "God bless you!'-
Virginians-aecompanied by Forrest's wrote Grant's aide the next dav to \Yal-
cavalry. The main body was directed to lace." you did save the day on the right."
attack l\lcClernand's division, who occu- It was now noon. Grant was in the
pied the heights that reached to the river. field, and after consultation with l\IcCler-
Buckner was directed to strike \Yallace's n.and and \Vallace, he ordered the former
division, in the centre, at the same time, to retake the hill he had lost. This was
so that it might not be in a. condition to soon bravely done, and the troops hiv-
help 1\IcClernancl. These movements were ouacked on the field of victory that coM
not ßuspected by the Nationals, and so winter night. 1\Ieanwhile, General Smith
quick and vigorous was Pillow's attack had been smiting the Confederates so vig-
that Grant's right wing was seriously orously on their right that, when night
menaced within twenty minutes aftf>r the came on. they were imprisoned within
sortie of the Confederates \\'as known. The their trf'nches. unable to escape. Find-
attack was quick, furious, and heavy. ing themselves closely held by Grant, HU'
137

DONGAN

question, How shaH we escape? was a duke's domain, and he took measures to
paramount one in the minds of Flo;yd protect the territOl"Y trom encroach-
and Pillow. At midnight the three Con- lll
nts. Dongan managed the relations
federate commanders held a private coun- between the }:nglish, French, and Indians
cil, when it was concluded that the gar- with dexterity. He was not deceived by
rison must 8urrender. "I cannot sur- the false pr01essions of the French rulers
Hnder," said Flo)'d; "you know my po- or the wil('s of the Jesuit priests; and
sition with the Federals; it won't do, when DE KOJ\"nLLE (q. v.) invaded the
it won't do." Pillow "aid, "I will not country of the Fi\'e Nations (lü8G) he
surrender m
'self nor my command; I showed himself as bold as this leader in
will die first." "Then," said Buckner, defence of the rights of EnglishnH'n.
cooHy, "the surrender will devolve on Dongan s)'mpathized with the people of
me." Then FloJ'd said, " General, if his province in their aspirations for lib-
)'ou are put in command, wiH
'ou anow ('rtr. which his predecessor (Andros) had
me to take out, by the river, my brigade?" denied; and he was instrumental in the
"If you will move before I surrender," formation of tIle first General Assembly
Duckner replied. FIord offered to sur- of Xew York, and in obtaining a popular
lender the command, first, to Pillow, who form of gowrnment. "'hen the King vio-
r('plied, " I will not accept it-I will never lated his promises while he was duke,
surr('nder." Buckner said, like a true Dongan was grieved, and protested; and
80ldier, "I will accept it, and share the when the monarch ordered him to intro-
fate of my command." \\ïthin an hour duce Fr('nch pri('sts among the Five Xa-
after the conference Floyd fled up the tions, the ('nJightened governor r('sisted
river with a part of his command, and Pil- the measure as dangerous to Engli
h
low sneaked away in the darkness and l'ower on the continent. His firmn('ss in
finally r('achcd his home in Tennessee. defence of the rights of the people and
The Confederates ne\'er gaYe him employ- the safety of the English colonies in
HH'nt aga-in. The next morning, the fort America against what he could not hut
and 13,;;00 men were surrendered, and the regard as the treachery of the King
spoils of victory were 3,000 horses, forty- finally offended his sO\-ereign, and he was
eight field-pieces, seventeen heavy guns, dismi
,.,
d from oOice in the spring of
20,000 muskets, and a large quantity of IGR8, when Andros took his place, bear-
military stores. During the siege the ing a vice-regal commission to rule all
Confederates lost 237 killed and 1.000
ew England besides. Dongan remained
".ounded; the Xational loss was estimated in the province until persecuted by Leisler
at 446 killed, 1,7'>;) wounded, and 152 in Hì!)O, when he withdrew to Roston. He
made prisoners. died in London, England, Dec. 14, li15.
Dongan, TIIO
IAS, colonial governor; On ::\ray 24, 1001, eight loose sheets of
born in CastIetown, county Kildare, Ire. parchment, containing the engrossed acts
land, in 1634; a )'ounger son of an Irish pas<;ed during HìRi-88. and hearing the
baronet; was a colonel in the rOJ'al army, signature of Thomas Dongan as governor
and served under the French King. In of tIle prO\-ince of New York. were rf'-
Wi8 he was appointed lieut('nant-governor "tored to the State of
e\V York In' the
of Tangier, Africa, whence he was re- Commonwealth of ::\ra!"!"aehusetts. This in-
called in !GRO. The relations between teresting historical find was accounted
England Rnd France were then delicate, for on the presumption that the do('u-
and Dongan being a Roman Catholic, like ments had formed a part of the archh.es
the proprietor of Kew York, he was of Massachu!"('tts since the time of Sir Ed-
chosen by Duke James gO\'ernor of tllat mund Andros, nnd the fact that they
province (1 (83), as it was thought his related to the province of New York had
experience in Franee might make it ('asier been ('ntirely overlooked.
to keep up fri('ndl
? relations with the The dates and title.. of the Dongan
French on tIle hord('rs. Dongan eaused ncts are:
a company of mf'rchants in Xew York to ::\rardl 17, lGSH-87.-An Act to Pre\'enf
he form('d for the management of the Fraud!> and Abuses in the County of Suf-
fisheries at Pemaquid, a part of the folk.
138

DONGAN CHARTER-DORCHESTER HEIGHTS

June 17, 1687.-An Act for Raieing %d.
per Pound on All Real Estates.
Aug. 20, 1687.-A Bill for Raising Id.
per Pound on All Persons, Estates, etc.
Sept. 2, 1687.-An Act for Raising %d.
per Pound on All Persons, Estates, etc.
Sept. 2, 1687.-An Act for Regulating
the Collection of His )Iajesty's Excise.
Sept. 27, 1687.-All Act for Naturaliz-
ing Daniel Duchemin.
Oct. 11, 1687.-A Bill to Prevent Frauds
in His Majesty's Excise by Ordinary Keep-
ers.
May lì, 1688.-An Act for Raising
f2,555 68. on or before the First Day of
November, 1688. See NEW YORK.
Dongan Charter, TIlE. See XEW YORK
CITY.
Doniphan, ALEXANDER 'YILLIA
[, mili-
tary officer; born in Kentucky, July 9,
1808; graduated at Augusta College in
1826; admitted to the bar in 1830. In
addition to his legal studies he was in-
terested in military matters and became
brigadier-general in the :Missouri State
militia. In 1838 he compelled the )IOR-
MONS (q. v.), under Joseph Smith, to give
up their leaders for trial, la,y down their
arms, and leave the State. In 1846 he
entered the enited States service as colo-
nel of the 1st
Iissouri Regiment; in De-
cember of that year he defeated a superior
force of
Iexicans at HRAC'ETI HIVER ((J.
v.); two days later he occupied El Paso.
In Fehruary, 1847, with less than 1,000
men, after a marcll of over 200 miles
through a sterile country, he met a force
of 4,000 )fexicans at the pass of Sacra-
mento. He attacked with such vigor that
the Mexicans were soon overpowered. hav-
ing lost over 800 in killed and wounded,
Doniphan's own loss being one man killed,
eleven wounded. He subsequently marched
700 miles through a hostile country until
he reached Salti1lo. He died in Richmond,
Mo., Aug'. 8, 1887.
Donkin, ROßERT. military officer; born
)lareh 19, 1727: joined the British army
in 1746; served through the Revolution-
ary \Var, first as aidf'-de-camp to General
Gage, and then as major of the 44th
Regiment. He published .1filitar.'l Col-
lrctions and Remarks, "published for the
hf'nefit of the clJildren and widows of the
valiant soldiers inhumanly and wantonly
butchered when peacefully marching to of
139

and from Concord, April 19, 1775, by the
rebels." He died near Bristol, England,
in :March, 1821.
Donnelly, IGNATIUS, author; born in
Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 3, 1831; removed
to :Minnesota in 185(;; elected lieutenant-
governor of the State in 1859 and 18(;1;
Representative in Congress, 1863-(;9;
president of the State Farmers' Alliance
of
finnesota for several years; nominee of
the Anti - Fusion People's party for Yice-
President of the United States in 1900.
He was the author of Atlantis, the Antedi-
lucian -World; The Great Cryptogram, in
which he undertook to prove by a word
cipher that Francis Bacon was the author
of Shakespeare's plaJ's; The American
People's Money, etc. He died in Min-
neapolis, Minn., .Jan. 2, 1901.
Donnohue, DILLlARD C., lawyer; born
in )Iontgomery county, Ky., Nov. 20, 1814;
was appointed a special commissioner to
Haiti in 1863 to investigate the practica-
bility of colonizing the slaves of the South
in that republic after their freedom. Both
President Lincoln and Secretary Seward
favored this plan. but the report of )lr.
Donnohue showed that it would not be
feasible. He died in Greencastle, Ind.,
April 2, 1898.
Donop, CARL E
UL KURT YON, mili-
tary officer; born in Germany, in 1740;
was in command of a detac1nnf'nt of mer-
cenary Hessian troops during the early
part of the Revolutionary War. On Oct.
22, 1777, wlÜle leading a charge against
Fort Mercer, at Red Bank, N. J., h('
was mortally wounded, and died on the
25th.
Doolittle, A
fOS, engraver; born in
Cheshire, Conn., in 1754; was self-edu-
cated; served an apprenticeship with a
silversmith; and established himself as
an engraver on copper in 1775. WhUe a
volunteer in the camp at Cambridge
(1775) he visited the scene of the skir-
mish at Lexington and made a drawing
and engraving of the affair, which fur-
nishes the historian with the only correct
rf'presentation of the buildings around
the "Green" at that time. He after-
wards made other historical prints of the
time. He died in New Haven, Conn..
Jan. 31, 1832.
Dorchester Heights, an elevation sontl,
Boston, which, on March 4, 1776, wa,.

DORNIN-DOUBLEDAY

occupied by the Americans, who threw
up strong intrenchments during the night.
This movement had much to do with
the evacuation of Boston by the British
on March 17 following.
Dornin, THo
IAS ALOYSIUS, naval of-
ficer; born in Ireland about 1800; entered
the United States navy in 1815; prevented
William Walker's expedition from invad-
ing- 1\[pxieo in I R51; later sailed to l\Ia-
7.a tlan and secured the release of forty
Americans tllere held as prisoners; after-
wards capturpd two slavers with more
than 1,400 "laves, and took them to Li-
beria; was promotpd commodore and re-
tired during the Civil War. He died in

orfolk, Ya., April 22. 1874.
Dorr, TnmlAs \VILSON, politician;
born in Providence. R. I., Nov. 5, 1805;
graduated at Han ard in 1823; stud-
ied law with Chancellor Kent; and be-
gan its practice in 1827. He is chiefly
conspicuous in American history as the
chosen gonrnor of what was called the
"Suffrage party," and attpmptpd to take
the place of what was deemed to be
the lpgal Rtate government (see RHODE
ISLAXD). He was tried for and convicted
of high treason. and spntenced to im-
prisonment for life in IR42. but was par-
doned in 1847; and in 1853 the Ipgislat-
ure restored to him his civil rights and
ordered the record of his sentence to be
expunged. He Jived to see his party tri- hpned in the artillery in the war with
umph. He died in Providence, Dec. 27,
Iexico; rose to captain in 185;;; and
1854. serwd against the Seminole Indian"
Dorr's Rebellion. See DORR, THO
IAS in IR;,,)6-;)S. Captain Douhleday was an
"'II.ROX; RUODE ISLAND. efficient officer in Fort Sumter \7ith
Iajor
Dorsey, STF.PIlE
WALLACE. politician; Anderson during the sipge. lIe fired the
born in Benson. Yt., Fph. 28, IR42; re- first gun (April 12, 1861) upon the Con-
(.'ein>d a common - school ('ducation: re- federates from that fort. On Mav 14 he
1110\"(.11 to Olwrlin. 0.; s{')"\"{' (I in the Ci\'il was promoted to major, and on "Feb. 3,
\\'ar in tlw Xational a rill)" : was plectpd 1862. to hrigadier-genpral of \'oluntpprs.
pr{'sidpnt of the .Arkan:-:as ('pntral Rail- In Hookpr's corps, at the hattle of Antip-
way; remov{'d to Arkansas: chm'pn c1lair- tam, he commanded a division; and when
man of the Hepl1hliean Statp Committee; Reynolds fell at Gettysburg, Doubleday
waR L'"nitpd States Sl'nator in 1873-jD; took command of his corps. He had bpen
was twit'e tri{'d for complieit,y in t]w STAR made major-general in Kovember, 18G2.
HorTE FRAt'OS (q. 't'.). the second hial and had b{'en conspicuously engaged in
resulting in a wrdict of not guilt
.. the bnttles of Frederiekshurg and Chancpl-
Doty, JA
[ES DrAKE. g-overnor; born in lorsville. lIe was hrentted hrigadit'r-gt'n-
Salem. K. Y.. in 179!}; studied law and eral and major-gpneral of the UnÏtpd State"
settled in Detroit; mpmbpr of the Michi- army in 1\Iarch. IR(j;;; was commissioned
O'an ]eO'islature in ] H
4. and t1lprp intro- ('o]one] of t]w 3.")th Tnfantry in S('ptpmhpl".
clu('erl ....the hill whieh providprl for thp HHì7; and was rptirpd in Dpppmber, 18j
.
divi
ion of 'Jic1Jignn ancl thp estahli"lJlllpnt He di('r] in 1\fpndham, N. J., Jan. 26, 18!)
.
140

of the Territories of Iowa and Wisconsin.
He aided in founding l\Iadison, Wis.. which
eity was made the capital of the
tate
through his efforts. lIe held a st'at ill
Congress in IS
Hi - 41 and 18-1!J - 53;
governor of Wisconsin in IH41-H; and
was appointed governor of rtah in ISli4.
lIe died in Salt Lake City, Ut., June 13,
18(j;').
Doubleday, AnxER, military officer;
born in Rallston f'pa, N. Y., Junp 2G,
1819; graduated at \\'est Point ill 1842;

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AII:I1ER DOCBLEDAY.

DOUGHFACES-DOUGLAS

General Doubleday was author of Rcminis-
("'/Ices of Forts Sumter and Jloultrie in
lð60-61; Clwncellorsville and Gettysburg,
and other military works.
Doughfaces. During the great debate
on the slavery question in 1820, elicited
by proceedings in relation to the admis-
sion of ::\Iissouri as a free-labor or slave-
labor State, eighteen Northern men were
induced to vote for a sort of compromise,
by which the striking out t:_
prohibition
of slavery from the )Iissouri bill was car-
ried by 90 to 87. John Randolph, who
denounced the compromise as a "dirty
bargain," also denounced these eighteen
Northern representa.tives as " dough-

faces "-plastie in the hands of expert
demagogues. The epithet was at once
adopter! into the political vocabulary of
the republic, wherein it remains.
Douglas, SIR CHARLES, naval officer;
born in Scotland; joined the British navy;
was placed in command of the fleet sent
to the Gulf of St. Lawrence at the begin-
ning of the Revolutionary War. Early
in 1776 he relieved Quebec, then under
siege by the Americans, after a difficult
voyage through the drifting ice of the
river. He introduced locks in lieu of
matches for firing guns on board ships;
and was promoted rear-admiral in 1787.
He died in 1789.

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

the leading political topics which now agi-
tate the public mind. By an arrangement
between :Mr. Lincoln and myself, we are
present here to-day for the purpose of hav-
ing a joint discussion, as the representa-
tives of the two great political parties of
the State and Union, upon the principles
in issu(' between those parties; and this
V&st concourse of people shows the deep
feeling which pervades the public mind in
regard to the questions dividing us.
Prior to 1854, this country was divided
into two great political parties, known as
the Whig and Democratic parties. Both
were national and patriotic, advocating
principles that were universal in their
application. An old-line Whig could pro-
claim his principles in Louisiana and

Iassachusetts alike. Whig principle!'!
had no boundary sectional line: they \\"er('
not limitcd by the Ohio River, nor by the
Potomac, nor by the line of the free anll
slave States, but applicd amI were pm-
claimed wherever the Constitution ruler!
or the American flag waved over Uw
American soil. So it was and so it i..
with the great Democratic pa,rty, which.
from thc days of Jefferson until this
period, has pr'oven itself to be the historic
party of this nation. \Yhile the Whig
and Democratic parties differed in regaTfI
te a hank, the tariff, distribution, the
!'pecie circular, and the sub-treasury, they
a
reed on the great slavery question which
J.adies and Gentlemen,-I appear before now a
itates the Union. I say that the
you to-day for the purpose of discussing Whig party and the Democratic party
111

Douglas, STEPHEN ARNOI.D, statesman;
born in Brandon, Vt., April 23, 1813;
learned the business of cabinet-making;
studied law; became an auctioneer's clerk
in Jacksonyille, Ill.; and taught school
until admitted to the bar, when he soon
became an active politician. Because of
his small stature and power of intellect
and speech he was called "The Little
Giant." He was attorney-general of Illi-
nois in 1835; was in the legislature;
('hosf'n secretary of state in 1840; judge
in lR41; and was in Congress in 1843-47.
If e was a vigorous promoter of the war
with ::\Iexico, and was Cnited States Sena-
tor from IR47 to 1861. He advanced and
supported the doctrine of popular sov-
ereignty in relation to slavery in the Terri-
tories. and was the author of the Kansas-

ebraska bill (sce K.\xSAs); and in
18;5G was a rival of Buchanan for till'
nomination for the President::y. He took
sides in favor of frecdom in Kansas, and
so became involved in controversy with
President Buchanan. He was a candidate
of the Democratic party in 1860 for Presi-
dent of the L"nited States, but was de-
fcated by Abrahåm Lincoln. He died in
Chicago. IlL, Juue 3, 18GI. See KA
SAS.
The Douglas-Lincoln Dcbate.-In open-
ing tIde famous debate, in Ottawa" Ill.,
011 Aug. 21, 1858, Mr. Douglas spoke as
follows:

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

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STEPHEN ARNOLD DOUGLAS.

agreed on the slavery question, while they the Presidency, the first thing it did was
differed on those matters of expediency to to declare the compromise measures of
which I have referred. The Whig party 1850, in substance and in principle, a suit-
and the Democratic party jointly adopted able adjustment of that question. [Her

the compromise measures of 1850 as the the speaker was interrupted hy loud and
basis of a proper and just solution of the long-continued applause.] My friends,
slavery quC'stion in all its forms. Clay silence will be more acceptable to me in
was the great leader. with 'Yebster on the discussion of th('
(' questions than
his right and Cass on his Ipft, a,nd sus- applause. I desire to adùress myself to
tained by the patriots in the Whig- and )'our judgment, )'our understanding, a,ne]
])pmocratic ranks who had de\"Íspd and ,your consciences. and not to your passion<;
pnacted the compromise measures of or ;vour enthusiasm. 'Vhen the Demo-
1850. cratic convention assembled in llaltimOl'e
In 1851 tJl(' 'Yhig P,lrt). and the Demo- in the samC' year. for the purpose of nom-
cratic party united in Illinois in adopting- inating a ÐC'mocratic candidate for the
l"Psolutions C'ß{]orsing- and approving the Presidency. it also adopted the com-
principles of the compromise measures promisp measures of 18;;0 as the ha!
is of
of 1850 as the proper adjustment of that Democratic action. ThU!
you see that up
question. In 1852, when the Whig party to 1853-54 the Whig' party and the Demo-
assembled in convention at Baltimore for C'l"atic party both stood on the same plat-
the purpose of nominating a candidate for form with regard to the slavery question.
142

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

That platform was the right of the peo-
ple of each State and each Territory to
decide their local and domestic institu-
tions for themselyes, subject only to the
federal Constitution.
During the session of Congress of 1853-
54 I introduced into the Senate of the
United States a bill to organize the Ter-
ritories of Kansas and Nebraska on that
principle which had been adopted in the
compromise measures of 18.')0, approved by
the Whig party and the Democratic party
in Illinois in 1851, and endorsed by the
Whig party and the Democratic party
in national convention in 1852. In order
that there might be no misunderstand-
ing in relation to the principle involved
in the Kansas and Nebraska bilI, I put
forth the true intent and meaning of the
act in these words: "It is the true in-
tent and meaning of this act not to legis-
late slavery into any State or Territory,
or to exclude it therefrom, but to leave
the people thereof perfectly free to form
and regulate their domestic institutions
in their own way, subject only to the fed-
('ral Constitution." Thus you see that up
10 18;)4, when the Kansas and :Kebraska
bill was brought into Congress for the
purpose of carrying out the principles
which both parties had up to that time en-
dorsed and approved, there had been no
division in this country in regard to that
principle except the opposition of the abo.
Jitionists. In the House of Representa-
tives of the Illinois legislature, upon a
resolution asserting that principle, every
Whig and every Democrat in the House
voted in the affirmative, and only four
men votpd against it, and those four were
old-line abolitionists.
Tn lRã4 :\lr. Abraham Lincoln and :\lr.
Lyman Trumbull entered into an arrange-
ment, one with the other, and each with
his respective friends, to dissolve the old
Whig party on the one hand, and to dis-
I'olve the old Democratic party on the
other, and to connect the members of
both into an aholition party. under the
name and disguise of a Republican part.\-.
The terms of that arrangement betwí'í'n
IJincoln and Trumbull have been pub-
Jished by Lincoln's special friend. James
H. Matheny, Esq.; and they were that
Lincoln should have General Shields's
place in the United States Senate, which
143

was then about to become vacant, and
that Trumbull should have my seat when
my term expired. Lincoln went to work
to abolitionize the Old Whig party all
over the State, pretending that he was
then as good a Whig as ever j and Trum-
bull went to work in his part of the State
preaching abolitionism in its milder and
lighter form, and trying to abolitionize
the Democratic party, and bring old
Democrats handcuffed and bound hand
:>nd foot into the abolition camp. In pur-
suance of the arrangement the parties met
at Springfield in October, 1854, and pro-
claimed their new platform. Lincoln
was to bring into the abolition camp the
eld-line Whigs, and transfer them over to
Giddings, Chase, Fred Douglass, and Par-

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MOXU1IE:o.T TO STEPBEY A. DOUGLAS,

DOUGLA
STEPHEN ARNOLD

sitions; and yet I venture to say t11at
,you cannot get 1\[r. Lincoln to come out
and say that he is now in favor of each one
of them. That these propositions, one and
all, constitute the platform of the Black
Republican party of this day, I have no
doubt; and, when you were not aware for
what purpose I was reading them, your
mack Republicans cheered them as good
Black Republican doctrines. ::\Iy object
in reading these resolutions was to put
the question to Abraham Lincoln this day,
whether he now stands and will stand by
each article in that creed, and carry it
out.
I desire to know whether Mr. Lincoln
to-day stands as he did in 1854, in favor
of the unconditional repeal of the fugitive-
slave law. I desire him to answer whether
he stands pledged to-day, as he did in
1854, against the admission of any more
slave States into the Union, even if the
people want them. I want to know
whether he stands pledged against the ad-
mission of a new State into the Lnion
with such a constitution as the people of
that State may see fit to make. I want
to know whether he stands to-day pledged
to the abolition of slavery in the District
of Columbia. I desire him to answer
whether he stands pledged to the pro-
hibition of the slave-trade between the
different States. I desire to know whether
he stands pledged to prohibit slavery in
aU the Territories of the L'nited States,
north as wen as south of the ::\!issouri
Compromise line. I desire him to answer
whether he is opposed to the acquisition
of any more territory unl('ss slavery is
prohibited therein. I want his answer
to these questions. Your nffirmatin'
cheers in favor of this abolition plat-
form are not satisfactory. I ask Abraham
I_incoln to answer these questions. in
order that, when I trot llim down to low('r
Egypt. I may put th
same questions to
him.
ry principleR are the same every-
where. I can proclaim them alike in the
:North. the South. thp East. and the Wpst.
:My principles will apply wherever the ('on-
stitution prevails and the American flag
"aves. I dpsire to know whpth('r ::\Ir.
Lincoln's principles will bear transplant-
ing from Ottawa to Jonesboro? I put
Now, gentlemen, your Black Republi- these questions to him to-day distinctly,
l'ans have cheered everyone of thos(' pro po- nnd ask an answer. I have a right to an
144

son Lonjoy, who were ready to receive
them and christen th('m in their new
faith. They laid down on that occasion
a platform for their new Republican party,
which was thus to be constructed. I have
the resolutions of the State convention
then held, which was the first mass State
C'onvention ever held in Illinois by the
Rlack Republican party; and I now hold
them in my hands and will read a part
of them, and cause the others to be
printed. Hpre are the most important
and material resolutions of this abolition
platform:

.. 1. Resolt'ed, Tbat we believe tbls trutb
to be self-evident, tbat, wben parties become
subversive of tbe ends for whicb tbey are
establisbed, or Incapable of restoring tbe
government to tbe true principles of tbe Con-
stitution, It Is tbe rlgbt and duty of tbe peo-
ple to dissolve tbe political bands by wbicb
tbey may bave been connected tbel'ewltb, and
to organize new parties upon' sucb principles
and wltb sucb views as tbe circumstances
and tbe exigencies of tbe na tion may de-
mand.
.. 2. Resoh'ed, Tbat tbe times Imperatively
demand tbe reorganization of parties. and,
repudiating all previous party attacbments,
names, and predilections. we unite ourselves
togetber in defence of tbe liberty and Con-
stitution of tbe country. and will bereafter
co-operate as tbe Uepubllcan party, pledged
to tbe accomplisbment of tbe following pur-
poses: to bring tbe administration of tbe
government baek to tbe control of first prln-
dples; to restore Xebraska and Kansas to
tbe p')sltion of free Territories; tbat, as tbe
Constitution of tbe Gnited States vests in tbe
States. and not In Congress, tbe power to
legislate for tbe extradition of fugitives from
labor, to repeai and entirely abrogate tbe
fugitive-slave law; to restrict slavery to
tbose States In wbicb it edsts; to probibit
tbe admission of any more slave States Into
the rnlon; to abolisb slavery In the District
of ColumbIa; to exclude siavery from all tbe
Territories over wbicb tbe general govern-
ment bas exclusive jurisdiction; and to resist
(he aCl]ulrement of any more Territories un-
It"ss tbe pl'actice of slavery tbereln forever
shall bave been problblted.
.. 3. Resoll-ed. 'l'bat in furtberance of tbese
pl'indples we will use sucb constitutionai and
lawful means as shall seem best adapterl to
their accompllsbment, and tbat we will sup-
(lOI.t no man for office. under tbe
eneral or

tate government. wbo Is not positively and
fully committed to tbe support of tbese prin-
C'lpies, and wbose personal <"lIaracter and con-
dud Is not a guarantee tbat be Is reliable,
and wbo sball not bave abjured old party
allegiance and ties.

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

answer; for I quote from the platform of brated proyiso, and the abolition tornado
the Republican party, made by himself swept over the country, Lincoln again
and others at the time that party was turnpd up as a member of Congress from
formed, and the bargain made by Lincoln the Sangamon district. I was then in the
to dissolve and kill the Old Whig party, Senate of the United States, and was
and transfer its members, bound hand and glad to welcome myoid friend and com-
foot, to the abolition party, under the panion. While in Congress, he distin-
direction of Giddings and Fred Douglass. guished himself by his opposition to the
In the remarks I have made On this plat- l\Iexican War, taking the side of the com-
form, and the position of Mr. Lincoln mon enemy against his own country;
upon it, I mean nothing personally dis- and, when he returned home, he found
respectful or unkind to that gentleman. that the indignation of the people foI-
I have known him for nearly twent,y-fìve lowed him ever,pvhere, and he was again
:years. There were many points of sym- submerged, or obliged to retire into pri-
pathy between us when we first got ac- vate life, forgotten by his former friends.
quainted. \Ye were both comparatively He came up again in 1854, just in time
boys, and both struggling with poverty to make this abolition or Black Repub-
in a strange land. I was a school-teacher lican platform, in company with Gid-
in the town of Winchester, and he a dings, Loyejoy, Chase, and Fred Doug-
flourishing grocery-keeper in the town lass, for the Republican party to stand
of Salem. He was more successful upon. Trumbull, too, was one of our own
in his occupation than I was in mine, contemporaries. He was born and raised
and hence more fortunate in this world's in old Connecticut, was bred a Federalist,
goods. but, removing to Georgia, turned nulli-
Lincoln is one of those peculiar men fier when nullification was popular, and.
who perform with admirable skill ev- as soon as he disposed of his clocks and
erything which they undertake. I made wound up his business, migrated to Illi-
as good a school-teacher as I could, nois, turned politician and lawyer here.
and, when a cabinet-maker, I made a and made his appearance in 1841 as a
good bedstead and tables, although my member of the legislature. He became
old boss said I succeeded better with noted as the author of the scheme to re-
bureaus and secretaries than with any- pudiate a large portion of the State debt
thing else! but I believe that I_incoln of Illinois, which, if succpssful, would
was always more successful in husiness I.Rve brought infamy and disgrace upon
than I, for his business enabled him to the fair escutcheon of our gloriou3 State.
get into the legislature. I met him The odium attached to that measure con-
there, however, and had sympathy with signed him to oblivion for a time. I
him, because of the uphill struggle we helped to do it. I walked into a public
both had in life. He was then just as meeting in the hall of the House of Reprp-
good at telling an anecdote as now. sentatives, and replied to his rppudiating
He could beat any of the boys wrestling speeches, and resolution" were canipd
or running a foot-race, in pitching owr his head denouncing rpplIdiation.
quoits or tossing a copper; could ruin and asserting the moral and Ipgal ohli;.!a-
more liquor than all the boys of the town tion of Illinois to pay every dollar of thp
together; and the dignity and impartial- debt she owed and e\'eQ' bond that bore
ity with which he presidpd at a horse- hcr seal. Trumbull's malignity has fol-
race or fist-fight excited the admiration lowed me since I thus defeated his infa-
and won the praise of everybody Ulat was mous scheme.
present and participated. I sympathizpd These two men. haying formed this
with him bpcau!';e he was struggling with eombination to aholitionize the Old \Yhig
difficulties, and so was I. Mr. Lincoln party and the old Democratic party. and
8erved with me in the legislature in IR36, put thpmselves into the Senatp of the
when we both retired: and he suh
idpd or {-nited States, in pursuancp of their bar-
lwcame submerged, and he was lost sight gain, are now carrying out that anange-
of as a public man for some years. In n1Pnt. l\[aUwny states that Trumhlll1
1846, when Wilmot introduced his cele- hroke faith; that the bargain was that
III.-K 145

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

Lincoln F-hould be the Senator in Shields's
place, and Trumbull was to wait for
miue; and the story goes that Trumbull
cheated Lincoln. having control of four
or five abolitionized Demo('rats who were
holding over in the Senate. He would
not let them \'ote for Lincoln, which
obliged the rest of the abolitionists to
support him in order to secure an aboli-
tion Senator. There are a number of
authorities for the truth of this besides
Matheny, and I !mppo
e that even l\Ir.
J.incoln will not d('ny.
:Mr. Lincoln demands that he shall have
the place intendpd for Trumbull, as Trum-
buH cheated him and got his; and Tmm-
bun is stumping the State. traducing me
for the purpose of securing the position
for Lincoln, in order to quiet him. It
was in consequence of this arrangement
that the Republican convention was im-
panelled to instruct for Lincoln and no-
body else; and it was on this account
that they passed resolutions that he was
their first. their last. and their only
choice. Archy 'Yilliams was nowhere,
TIrowning was nobody, 'Yentworth was
not to be considered; they had no man
in the Republican party for the place ex-
cept Lincoln, for the reason that he de-
manded that they should carry out the ar-
rangement.
Having formed this new party for the
henefit of deserters from 'Vhiggery and
deserters from Democracy, and having
laid down the abolition platform which I
Lave read. Lincoln now takes his stand
and proclaims his abolition doctrines.
Let me read a part of th('m. Tn his
Sreed) at Springfield to the convention
which nominated him for the Senate he
said:

.. In my opinion. it wiII not cease nntl1 a
crisis shall have been reached and passed.
. A house divided against itself cannot
stand.' I believe this government cannot en-
dure permanently half Rlave and half free.
I do not expect the Union to be dlssolved-I
do not expect the house to fall-but I do
npect it will cease to be divided. It will be-
('orne all one thing or all th(' other. Either
the opponents of slavery will arrest the fur-
ther spread of It. and plae'e It wlwre the
public mind shall rpqt in the belief that it
is in the course of ultimate extinction. or itR
a(]vocates will push It forward till it shall
become alike lawful In all the
tates-ol(] as
well as new.
orth as well as Soutb."
[" Good, II Good," and cbeers.]

I am delighted to hear you Black Re-
publicans say, "Good." I have no doubt
that doctrine expresses your sentiments;
and I will prove to you now, if you will
listen to me, that it is revolutionary nnd
destructive of the existence of this gov-
ernment. :Mr. Lincoln, in the extract
from which I have read, says that this
government cannot endure permanently in
the same condition in which it was made
by its framers-divided into free and slave
States. He sa,Ys that it has existed for
about seventy years thus divided, and yet
ll(' tells you that it cannot endure per-
manently on the same principles and in
the same relatÎ\'e condition in which our
fathers made it. 'Yhy can it not exist
(1i\'ided into free and slave States? 'Vash-
ington, .Jefferson, Franklin, :Madison,
Hamilton, Jay, and the great men of that
day made this go\'ernment divided into
free States and slave States, and left each
State perfectly free to do as it pleased on
the subject of slavery. 'Yhy can it not
('xist on the same principles on whieh
our fathers made it? They knew wh('n
they framed the Constitution that in a
country as wide and broad as this, with
such a variety of climate, production,
nd
interest, the people necessarily required
different laws and institutions in different
localities. They knew that the laws and
regulations which would suit the granite
hills of ,ew Hampshire would be un-
suited to the rice plantations of South
Carolina; and they therefore provided
that each State should retain its own
ll'gislature and its own sovereignty. with
the full and complpte power to do as it
pleased within its own limits, in all that
was local and not national. One of the
r('served rights of the States was the
right to regulate the relations between
master and servant, on the slavery qups-
tion. At the time the Constitution was
framed there were thirteen States in tl)e
rnion. twelve of which were slave-hold-
ing States. and one a free State. Sup-
pose this doctrine of uniformity preached
hr )Ir. T.ineoln. that the Stat('s should all
he free or all h(' slave, had pr('vailed; and
what would have h('(>n the result? Of
course, the twelve slave-holding State

would have onrruled Uw one free State;
and slavery would have been fastened by
a con8titutional provision on every inch
146

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

of the American republic, instead of being oi schools and dlUrches, reads from the
left, as our fathers wiRely left it, to each Declaration of Independence that all men
State to decide for it
elf. llere I assert were created equal, and then asks how
that uniformity in the local laws and ean you depri,'r, a negro of that equality
institutions of the different States is which God and the Declaration of lnde-
neither possible nor desirable. If uniform- I,endence award to him? He and they
ity had been adopted whcn the govern- maintain that negro equality is guaranteed
ment was established, it must inevitably by the laws of God, and that it is assert-
lJa,'e Let:n the unfonnity of slavery e'"ery- ed in the Declaration of Independence. If
whel'e, or else the uniformity of negro they think so, of course they have a right
citizenship and negro equality every- to sa.y so, and so vote. [do not question
where. )lr. Lincoln's conscientious belief that the
\Ve are told by Lincoln that he is utter- negro was made his equal, and hence is
ly opposed to the Dred Scott decision, his brother: but, for my own part, I do
and will not submit to it, for the reason not regard the negro as my equal, and
that he says it deprives the negro of the positively deny that he is my brother or
rights and privileges of citizenship. That any kin to me whatever. Lincoln has evi-
i1'! the first and main reason which he as- òently learned by heart Parson LovejoY'[I
signs for his warfare on the Supreme catechism. He can repeat it as well as
Court of the United States and its deci- Farnsworth, and he is worthy of a medal
sion. I ask you, Are you in favor of from Father Giddings and Fred Douglass
ccnferring upon the negro the rights and for his abolitionism. He holds that the
privileges of citizenship? Do you desire negro was born his equal and yours, and
to strike out of our State constitution that that he was endowed with equality by the
dause which keeps slaves and free negroes Almighty, and that no humR;n law can de-
out of the State, aoUd allow the free ne- prive him of these rights which were
groes to flow in, and cover your prairies guaranteed to him by the Supreme Ruler
with black settlements? Do you desire of the universe. Now I do not believe that
to turn this beautiful State into a free the Almighty ever intended the negro to
negro oolony, in ordf'r that, when ::\1issouri be the equal of the white man. If he did.
abolishes slavery, she can send 100,000 he has been a long time demonstrating the
emancipated slaves into Illinois, to be- faet. For thousands of years the negro
ceme citizens and voters, on an equa.lity has been a race upon the earth; and dur-
with yourseÌ\'es? If you desire negro citi- ing all that time, in all latitudes and
zenship, if ;you desire to allow them to ('limates, where,'er he has wandered or
ccme into tlw State and settle with the been taken, he has been inferior to the
white man, if you desire them to vote on race which he has there met. He belongs
an equality with yourselves. and to make to an inf('rior race, and must alwavs oc-
them eligible to office. to serve on juries, cupy an inferior position. r do not h01l1
and to adjudge
'our ri;..!hts, then support that. because the negro is our inferior.

fr. Lincoln and the Black R('puhIican therefore he ought to be a slave. By no
pr..rty, who a.re in favor of the citizenship m('ans can such a conclusion he drawn
of the negro. For one, I am opposf'd to f!"Om what I have said. On the contrary,
negro ('iti7.f'nship in any and every form. T hold that humanity and Christianit
.
I bf'lieve this go\"<'rnnlf'nt was made on hoth r('quire that the negro shall ha,'e and
the white basis. I believe it was made enjoy e,'ery right, every privilege, and
by white men. for the bf'neflt of white ('wry immunity consistent with the safety
men and their posterity fore\'('r: and I (If the socipty in whieh he lives. On that
am in favor of confining citiz('nship to point, I presnme. there can be no diversity
white men, men of European hirth of opinion. You and I are bound to e'{-
and descent, instead of conferring it tend to our inferior and dependent beings
upon negroes, Indians, and other inferior every right. every pri,'ilege. every fad li ty.
races. {lnd immunitr consistent with the puh-
Mr. Lincoln. following the example anò lie good. The question then arises,
lead of all the little abolition orators who What rights and privileges are con-
go around and lecture in the basements f\istent with the public good? ThiR
147

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

is a question which each State and I would never consent to confer the right
each Territory must decide for it- of voting and of citizenship upon a negro,
sf'If. Illinois has decided it for but still I am not going to quarrel with
herself. 'Ye haw provided that the negro ::\Iaine for differing from me in opinion.
shall not be a slave; and we have also Let l\Iaine take care of her own nearoes
provided that he shall not be a citizen, but
md fix the qualifications of her own ;oter

protect him in his civil rights, in his life, to suit herself, without interfering with
his person, and his property, only depriv- Illinois; and Illinois will not interfere
ing him of all politica.J rights whatsoever, with Maine. So with the State of Kew
and refusing to put him on an equality York. She allows the n('gro to vote pro-
with the white man. That policy of Illi- vided he owns two hundred and fifty dol-
nois is satisfactory to the Democratic lars' worth of property, but not otherwise.
party and to me, and. if it were to the While I would not make any distinc-
Republicans, there would then be no ques- tion whatever between a negro "ho
tion upon the subject; but the Republi- held property and one who did not, yet,
cans say that he ought to made a citi- if the sovereign State of New York
zen, and, when he becomes a citizen, he chooses to make that distinction, it is
becomes your equal, with all your rights h(>1 business. and not inine; and I will
and privileges. They assert the Dred not quarrel with her for it. She can do as
Scott decision to be monstrous because it slu' pleases on this question if she minds
denies that the negro is or can be a citi- her own busine
s, and we will do the
zen under the Constitution. same thing. Xow, my frif'nds, if we will
Now I hold that Illinois had a right cnly nct cnn"cientiousl
' and rigidly
to abolish and prohibit slavery as she did, upon this grf'at principle of popular
and I hold that Kentucky has the same fiovereignty, which guarantees to each
right to continue and protect sla,'ery that State and Territory the right to do as
Illinois had to abolish it. I hold that New it pleases on all things local and domes-
York had as much right to abolish slavery tic, in
tf'ad of Congress interfering, we
as Virginia had to continue it. and that will continue at peace one with another.
each and every State of this rnion is a Why should Illinois b
at war with Mis-
sovereign power, with the right to do as souri, or Kentuckv with Ohio or Vir-
it pleases upon this question of slavery ginia with New York, merel; because
and upon all its domestic institutions. thcir institutions (litrer? Our fathers
Slavery i
not the only question which intended that our institutions should
comes up in this controversy. There is a differ. Tlwy knew that the North and
far more important one to you; and that the South, having different climates, pro-
is, '''hat shall bf' done" ith the free negro? ductions. and interest!;', required different
We have settled the slavery question as institutions. This doctrine of :Mr. I.in-
far as we are concerned: we have prohibit- coIn, of uniformity among the institu-

d it in Illinois forever, and. in doing so, tiOI1S of the difff'rent States, is a new
I think we have done wis('ly. and there doctrine, never dreamed of by 'Va
hing-
is no man in the State who would be ton, Madison. or the framer<; of this
more strenuous in his opposition to the govNnment.
Ir. Linmln and the He-
introduction of slaYery than I would; but, publican party set them
elves up as
when we settled it for ourselves, we ex- wiser than th('se men who made this oov-
hau
ted all our power over that suhject. ernn1f'nt. which has t)(,urished for sev;nty
\\Te have done our whole duty, and can yt-ars under the principle of popular
do no more. 'Ye must leave each and sovereignty, recol!nizing thp right of eaeh
every other State to decide for itself the State to do as it pleas('d. Under that
same question. In rf'lation to the policy rrinciplf>. we ha.ye grown from a na-
to be pursued towards the free n('grof'S, tion of
.O()O.OO() or 4.000,000 to It nation
we have said that thev sh
II not ,'ote; of about :JO,ooo.oon people. We haVf'
while
Jaine. on the other hand, has said crossed the Alleghany Mountains and
that they shall vote. ::\Jaine is a
oYereign filled up the whole Northwest, turning

tate, and has the power to regulatf' thf> the prairie into a garden, and builrling
quaIif1cation
of yotf'rs within hf'r l;mits. ul' dl1lrches and
eh()ols. thus spreading
11

DOUGLAS-DOW

civilization and Christianity where before
there was nothing but savage barbarism.
Cnder that principle we have become,
from a feeble nation, the most powerful
on the face of the earth; and, if we only
adhere to that principle, we can go for-
ward increasing in territory, in power,
in strength, and in gIor)' until the re-
public of America shall be the north star
that shall guide the friends of freeelom
throughout the civilized world. And
why can we not adhere to the great prin-
ciple of self-government upon which our
institutions were originally hased? I
bdieve that this new doch-ine preached
b)'
Ir. Lincoln and his party will dis-
solve the Union if it succeeds. They are
trying to array all the Korthern States
in one body against the South, to excite
a sectional war between the free States
find the slave States, in order that the
one or the other may be driven to the
wall.
For 1\Ir. Lincoln's reply, see LINCOLN,
AnRAHAM. became editor of the Xational Era at
Douglas, \VILLIA
[, military officer; Washington City; in 1871 was appointed
born in Plainfield, Conn., Jan. 17, 1742; assistant secretary of the commission to
berved in the French and Indian 'Var, Santo Domingo; then became one of the
and was present at the surrender of Quebec. Territorial Council of the District of Co-
Re recruited a company at the beginning lumbia; in 1876-81 was Cnited States
of the H.e,-olutionary 'Var and accom- marshal for the District; in 1881-86 was
panied )Iontgomery in the expedition recorder of deeds there; and in 188!)-!H
against Canada. He participated in the was United States minister to Haiti. He
unfortunate campaign which ended in the was author of ?{an-ative of Jly E.rperi-
fall of New York, and greatly distinguished e1lces in Slavery (1844); Jly Bondage
himself in the engagements on Long Island and lly Freedom (1835); and Life and
and Harlem Plains. He died in North- Times of Frederick Douglass (1881). He
ford, Conn.,
Iay 29, !i77. died near 'Yashington, D. C., Feb. 20,
Douglass, FREDERICK, diplomatist; 1895.
born in Tuckahoe, Talbot co.,
Id., in Feb- Dow, LORENZO, clergyman; born in
ruary, 181 ï: was a mulatto, the son of a Coventry, Conn., Oct. 16, 1777; was
F,lave mother: li,-ed in Baltimore after he ordained in the
Iethodist ministry; went
was ten ycars of age, and secretly taught a!'\ a missionary to Ireland in 1 ï9!) and
himself to read and write. Endowed with 1805; introduced camp-meetings into Eng-
great natural moral and intellectual abil- land; and through a discussion which re-
ity, he (kd from slavery at the age of suited from these the Primitive Methodist
tw<,nty-one y<,ars. and, going to
ew Bed- Church was organized. On account of his
ford. married. and supported himself by <,ccentricities he was nicknamed "Crazy
day-labor on the wharves and in work- now." He died in Georgetown, D. C.,
shops. In 18-t] he spoke at an anti-slavery Feb. 2. IR34.
com'ention at Xantucket, and soon after- Dow. NEAL, reformer; born in Port-
wards was made the agent of the
Iassa- land,
Ie.. March 20, 1804. From the
chusetts Anti - slavery Society. He lect- time he was a boy hf' was noted for his
urf'd f'xtf'nsi'-f'l
' in New England. and, zeal in the temperancf' cause, and wa

going- to Grf'at Britain, spoke in n<,arly one of the foundt'rs of thf' Pl"Ohibition
all the large towns in that country on party. In 1851 he drafted the famous
14ü

the subject of slavery. On his return, in
1847, he began the publication, at Roches-
ter, N. Y., of the North Star (afterwards
Frederick Douglass's Paper). In 18iO he

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FREDERICK DOUGLAss.

DOWIE-DRAKE

prolúbitory law of Maine, and was elected
mayor of Portland in 1851 and 1854. In
the Ch'il 'War he was commissioned colonel
of the 13th Maine '-olunteers; waR pro-
moted to brigadier-general; and was a
prisoner of war at Mobile and in Libby
prison. In 1880 he was the candidate of
the Prohibition party for President, and
in 1894 temperance organizations through-
out the world observed his ninetipth birth-
day. He died in Portland, Me., Oct. 2, 1897.
Dowie, JOII
ALEXANDER, ad\'enturer;
born in Scotland. At one time a pastor
in Australia, he afterwards went to Chi-
cago, Ill., and became a "healer," real-
estate operator, newspaper proprietor, and
manufacturer. lIe founded a lace-making
industry near Waukegan, Ill. The place
was called "Zion" and his followers
" Zionites." He announced that he was
the Prophet Elijah returned to earth, and
surrounded himself with armed guards
under a pretence that his life was in
dangcr. In l!)0-t he pruclainwd himsp]f First
Apostle of the Christian Catholic Church.
Downie, GEORGE, naval offiC'er; horn in
Ross, Ireland; at an carly age entered the
l3ritish navy; in 18U was given command
of the squadron on the Lakes and com-
manded the British fleet at tlw hattle of
Plattsburg, in which he was killed, Sept.
11, 1814.
Draft Riots. See CO
SCRIPTIO
; NEW
YORK (city).
Dragoons, an old name for candry.
Drainsville, SKIRMISH AT. The loyal
people of the country became impatient
because the Army of the Potomac, fully
200,000 strong at the end of 18tH, was
seemingly kept at bay by 60,000 Con-
federates. There was a sense of relief
when, on Dec. 20, Gen. E. O. C. Ord had
a sharp skirmi
h with a Confederate
force near Drainsyille, led hy Gpn. J. E. n.
f'tuart. Ord had gone out to capture
Confederate foragers, and to gather for-
age from the farms of Confpdpratps. He
was attacked by Stuart, who had come up
from Centreyille. A severe fight occurred,
and the Confedcrates were beatpn and
tied. The Nationals lost seven killed and
Rixtv - three wounded; the Confederatps
lost" forty-three killed and 143 wounded.
The
ati'onal!i returned to camp with six-
toon waion-Ioads of hay and hventy-two
pf corn.

Drake, SIB FRANCIS, na viga tor; born
near Tavistock, Devonshire, England, bc-
tween 1339 and 1546. Becoming a seaman
in early )'outh, he was owner and master
of a ship at the age of eighteen years.
After making C'ommercial voyages to
Guinea, Africa, he sold her, and im'ested
the proceeds in an expedition to Mexico,
under Captain Hawkins, in 1567. The
fleet was nearly destroyed in an attack
by the Spaniards at San Juan de Ulloa
(near Vera Cruz), and Drake returned to
England stripped of all his property. The
Spanish government refused to indemnify
him for his losses, and he sought revenge
and found it. Queen Elizabeth gave him
a commission in the royal navy, and in
1572 he sailed from Plymouth with two
ships for the avowed purpose of plunder-
ing the Spaniards. lIe did so successfully
on the coasts of South America, and re-
turned in 1573 with greater wealth than
he e\"pr possessed before. Drake was wel-
comed as a hero; he soon won the title
honorably by circumnavigating the globe.
lIe had sepn from a mountain on Darien
the waters of the Pacific Ocean, and re-
solved to explore them. Undcr the patron-
age of the Queen, he sailed from Plymouth
in December, 1577; passed through the
Strait of Magellan into the Pacific Ocean;
pillaged the Spanish settlemcnts on the
coasts of }")eru and Chile, and a Rpanish
galleon laden with gold and silver bullion;
and, pushing northward, discO\'ercd the bay
of San :Francisco, took posscssion of Cali-
fornia in the name of his Queen, and
named the country New Albion, or New
EngJand.
lIe had sailed northward as high, prob-
ably, as latitude 46 0 , or near the boundary
between Oregon and the British posses-
sions, and possibly he went farther north,
for he encountered very cold weather in
June, and turned back. Drake entered a
fine bay and landed his stores, prepara-
tory to repairing his ship; and he re-
mained on the coast fully a month,
hospitahly treated by the natives. Late
in .June he was visited by the king of the
country and his official attendants. The
former was dressed in rabbit-skins-a
peculiar mark of distinction. His officers
were clad in feathers. and his othf'r fol-
lowers were almost naked. Drake received
them cordially. The sceptre-bearer and
150

DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS

another officer made speeches, after which country to the English b
' the king and
the natives indulged in a wild dance, in people. On the same plate were engraved
which the women joined. Then Drake the 11Ol.trait and arms of the Queen and
was asked to sit down, when the king and the navigator. Then he sailed for the
his people desired him to ., become the l\Iolucca Islands. It is belien>d that Sir
king and governor of the country." Then Francis Drakc entered the" Golden Gate"

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SIR FRAXCIS DRAK
:.

the king, singing with all the> rest, set a of
an FranciE>co Bay, and that ncar its
crown upon Drake's head, and saluted him Rhores the ceremony of his coronation took
as Hioh, or soverpign. Drake accl'pted the place.
honor in the name of Queen 1,'lizabeth. Fearing f'ncounters with the Spaniards
After taking possession of thc country he on his return with his treasure-laden \"es-
erpctell a wooden post, placf'd upon it a Rels, Drake sought a northeast passage to
copper platf', with an inscription, on which England. l\Iet by severe cold, hc turned
was assertf'd the right of Queen Elizabeth back, crossed thc Pacific to the Spice Isl-
and her successors to the kingdom, with Hnds, thence o\"er the Indian OCf'an, and,
the time of his arrival there, and a state- doub1ing the Cape of Good Hope, reached
uwnt of the voluntary resignation of the England in Xm-ember, l.>HO. The de1ightf'.}
131

DRAKE

Queen knighted Drake, who afterwards
plundered Spanish towns on the Atlantic
coasts of America; a.nd, returning, took
a distressed English colony from Roanoke
bland and carried them to England. In
command of a fleet of thirty vessels, in
1.387, he destroyed 100 Spanish vessels in
the harbor of Cadiz; and from a captured
H'ssel in the East India trade the English
learned the immense value of that trade
and how to carry it on. _\s yiee-admiral,
Drake materially assisted in defeating the
Spanish Armada in 1588; and the next
year he ravaged the coasts of the Spanish
peninsula. After various other e-xploits
of a similar kind, he accompanied Haw-
kins to the West Indies in 1595. H'l.w-
kins died at I'orto Rico, and Drake, in
supreme command, gained victory after

mphy; Life of Gen. Henry Knox; The
'1'own of Roxbury; Indian 11 istory for
Young Folks, etc. He edited Schoolcraft's
History of the Indians. He died in Wash-
ington. D. C., F('b. 2
, 1885.
Drake, JosEPn RomIAN. See HALLECh.,
FITZ-GREENE.
Drake, SAMUEL ADAMS, historian; born
in Boston, Mass., Dec. 20, 1833; adopted
journalism as a profession, but at the be-
ginning of the Civil \Var entered the
Xational service and rose to the rank
of colonel of United States volunteers in
ISG3. He is the author of Nooks and Cor-
ners of the ?to- e'W England Coast; The M ak-
ing of N e'U' England; Old Landmarks of
Buston; History of Middlesex County, etc.
Drake, SA:
n'EL GARDXER, antiquarian;
born in Pittsfield, K. H., Oct. II, 1798; re-

I'ART OF MAP OF DRAKE'S "OYAGKS, Pl"BUSUKD AT CWSK OF IIIXTEKXTH CE""Tt"RT.

\ ictory ov(>r the Rpaniards. He died near ceh'cd a common-school education, :l.uò
}'uerto Bello, Dec. 27, 1595, and was taught in a district school for sf'veral
burif'd at sea. )"('ar8. Settling in Boston, he there estab-
Drake, FRAl'ìCIS RA:
ILEL. biographer; lished the first antiquarian book-store in
horn in XorthwoOlI. X. H.. Feb. 2
, IS
H: OJ(' ('nitf'll States. in lR28. Iff' \\as cnp
son of
aJIllIf'l Garùn('r Drake. H
i,.. the of the fuunders of the l\"('w En;.ðawl II i
-
author of LJiet iOlla,.y of .1 meriean lIiog- toric:ll Genealogical Societ
., of \\ hieh he
132

DRAMA-DRAPER

was at one time president, and in 1847
began the publication of the l\' ew England
Genealogical Register, continuing it many
Jears as editor and publisher, making
large contributions of biography to its
pages. Mr. Drake resided in London
abou t two years (1858-60). He prepared
many valuable books on biographical and
historical subjects. His Book of the Ind-
ians is a standard work on Indian history
and biography. He prepared an excellent
illustrated History of Boston, and his
illustrative annotations of very old Amer-
ican books and pamphlets are of exceed-
ing value. He died in Boston, June 14,
1875.
Drama, EARLY AMERICAN. As early
as 1733, there appears to have been a
sort of theatrical performance in the city
of :Kew York. In October of that year,
George Talbot, a merchant, published a
notice in Bradford's Gazette, directing in-
quiries to be made at his store "next
door to the Play-house." In 1750 some
young Englishmen and Americans got up he took the dpgree of M.D. He became
a cofTee-house representation of Otway's (18
G-39) Professor of Chemistry, Natural
Orphans in Boston. The pressure for en- Philosophy, and Physiology in Hampden-
trance to the novelty was so great that Sidney College, Virginia. From 183!) Dr.
a disturbance arose, which gave the au- Draper waoS connected, as professor, with
thorities reason for taking measures for the University of the City of New York,
the suppression of such performances. At and aided in esta.blishing the University
the next session of the legislature a law Medical College, of which he was appoint-
was made prohibiting theatrical enter- ed (1841) Professor of Chemistry. In 1850
taimnents, because, as it was expressed physiology was added to the chair uf
in the preamble, they tended not only" to chemistry. From that year he was the
discourage industry and frugality, but president of the medical faculty of the in-
likewise greatly to increase immoral- stitution, and in 1874 he was a.lso presi-
ity, impiety, and a contempt for religion." dent of the scientific department of the
Regula.r theatrical performances were in- university. Dr. Draper was one of the
troduced into America soon afterward3, most patient, careful, and acute of scien-
when, in 1752, a company of actors from tific investigators. His industry in ex-
London, led by \Yilliam and Lewis Hal- pcrimental researches was marvellous, and
lam, played (a part of them) the Beaux' Ids publica.tions on scientific subjects are
Stratagem at Annapolis. Soon afterwards ,"<,luminous. He contributed much to
the whole brought out the play of the other departml'uts of learning. His His-
Merchant 0; Yp-nice at Williamsburg, Va. tcry of the lntell'cctual Development of
The same company afterwards played at :Rurope appeared in 1862; his Thoughts
Philadelphia, Perth Amboy, New York, on the Future Cil,il Policy of .4.merica, in
and Newport. The laws excluded them 1865; and his History of the .4.mcricUlt,
from Conncf'ticut and
lassaehu8etts. Cwil lVar, in 3 volumes, appeared be-
Dramatic Art. See JEFFERSO
, Jo- tween 1867 and 1870. To Dr. Draper are
SEPII. due many fundamental facts concerning
Draper, .JoIIN \VILLlAM, scientist; born the phenomena of the spectrum--of light
in Rt. Helen's, near Tjverpool, Englanò. and heat. Among his later productions
May fi. lRll; was educated in seií'ntific were reports of experimental examination!'!
t>tuòií's :1.t the University of London; came of the di
tribution of heat and of chemi-
153

to the United
tates in 1833, and ron-
tinued his medical and chemica.l studies
in the Unh'ersity of Penn!"yl\'ania, where

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JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER.

DRAPER-DRAYTON

cal force in the spectrum. Dr. Draper's
researches materially a.ided in perfecting
Daguerre's great discovery. In 1876 the
Rumford gold medal was bestowed upon
Dr. Draper by the American Academy of
Sciences. He died Jan. 4, 18S
.
Draper, LYl\IAN COPELAND, historian;
born in Evans, N. Y., Sept. 4, 1813. In
1833 he gathered information regardiug
the Creek chief \Veatherford. and from
that time onward he was an indefatigable
student, devoting his lifp to the collection
of materials bearing upon the hi:o;tory of
the \Yestern States and biographies of
the leading men of the country. In 18'>3
he was appointed secretary of the "'is-
consin State Historical Society and was
connected with the library of the society,
with a few short intervals, till his death.
He published the Collections of the State
Historical Society (10 volumes); The
Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence,
etc. He died in Madison, Wis., Aug. 2G,
189l.
Drayton, PERCIVAL, naval officer; born
in South Carolina, Aug. 2.>, 1812; entered
the navy as a midshipman in lR27; was
promoted lieutenant in 1838; took part in
the Paraguay expedition in 1858; com-
manded the monitor Passaic in the hom-
bardment of Fort l\Ic.-\llister, and Far-
ragut's flag - ship, the Hartford, in the
battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864; and
afterwards became chief of the bureau of
navigation. lIe died in Washington, D. C.,
Aug. 4, 1865.
Drayton, \YILLlAl\[ HEXRY, sta te
man;
horn in Drayton Hall, S. C., in Septem-
her, 1742; educated in England, and on
his return he became a political writer.
In 1771 he was appointcd pri,'y coun- "but, for my part." he said, ., in my
cilIor for the province of South Carolina, judicial character I know no mastel' hut
but he soon espoused the cause of the the law. I am a !'en'ant, not to the King-.
patriots, and protested against the pro- but to the constitution; and, in my esti-
ecedings of his collcagues. In 1774 he Illation, I shall be
t discharge my duty
addressed a pamphlet to the Continental as a good servant to the King and a trusty
Congress, in which he stated the griev- office>r under the coustitution when I
ances of the Americans, and drew up a boldly df'dare the laws to the people and
bilI of rights, and substantiaIIy markt-d instruct them in their civil rights." This
out the line of conduct adopted hy the ('IH1rge>. f'cattered broadcast hy the press,
Congress. He was appointed a judge in had a powerful influence in the colonies,
1774, but was suspended from the office aud. with otlWl" patriotic acts, cost .J udge
when he became a member of the com- Drayton his ofJice. [n] 775 he was presi-
mittee of safety at Charleston. The first dl'nt of the Provincial Congress of South
charge to the grand jury at Camden. S. C., Carolin:l. In 177G he became chief-jw
-
in 1774, by Judge Drayton is conspicuous tiee> of the State; and his published charge
].ï4

in American history. "In order to
stimulate :your exertions in favor of yout'
civil liberties, which protect your relig-
icus rights," he said, "instead of dis-
coursing to J'ou on the laws of other
states anà comparing them to our own,
aHow me to tell you what your civil lib-
erties are, and to charge you, which J do
iu the most solemn manner, to hold them
dearer than your lives-a ll':-.:oon and
charge at all times proper from a jli(l
e,
but particularly so at this crisis, ","pu
Auwrica is in one general and grievolls
commotion touching this trul.y important
)loint." The judge then discoursed on
the origin of the colony, the nat-
ure of the constitution, and their
civil rights under it, and concluded by
saying that
ome might think his charge
ineon
istent with his duty to the King
who had just placed him on the bench;

i

.}.

WILLIA
IIEXRY DRAYTOY.

DRED SCOTT CASE-DRUMMOND

to a grand jury in April, that year, dis- "all men are created equal"; that the
played great wisdom and energy, and was patriots of the Revolution and their pro-
widely circulated and admired. 1\1r. Dray- genitors "for more than a century be-
ton was chosen president, or governor, of fore" regarded the negro race as so far
South Carolina in 1777, and in 1778-79 inferior that they bad no rights which
was a member of the Continental Congress. the white man was bonnd to respect, and
He wrote a history of the Re,'olution to that they were never spoken of except as
the end of the year 1778, which was pub- property. He aJso declared that the
lished by his son in 1821. He died in framers of the national Constitution
Philadelphia, Sept. 3, 1779. held the same view8. The chief-justice
Dred Scott Case, THE. At about the went further in his extra-judicial decla-
time that Mr. Buchanan became Presi- rations, saying tItat the MISSOURI
dent-eJect of the republic, a case of much ('ú
IPP.OMISE (q. v.) and all other acts
moment was adjudicated by the Supreme restricting slavery were unconstitu-
Court of the UniteJ States. A negro tional, and that neither Congress nor
named Dred Scott had been thp slave of local legislatures had any authority for
a United States arm)'- officer living in restricting the spread over the whole
Missouri. He was taken by his master Lnion of the institution of slavery. The
to a military post in Illinois, to which dominant party assumed that the de-
the latter had been ordered in the year eision was final; that slavery was a na-
1834. There Scott married the female tional institution, having the right to
sJave of another officer, with the consent exist an
'where in t:w enion. and that
of their respective masters. They had the boast of a Georgia politician that
two children born in that free-labor Ter- h
should yet "count his slaves on
ritory. The mother was bought by the Bunker Hill" might be legally carried
master of Scott, and pal'ents and chil- out. President Buchanan, who had been
dren were taken by that of1icer back to informed of this decision hefore its
Missouri and there sold. Rcott sued for promulgation, foreshad0wed his course in
his freedom on the plea of his involun- the matter in his inaugural adòress
tary residence in a free-Iahor Territory (l\1arch 4, 18;)ï), in which he spoke of
and State for several years. The case the measure as one which would "speed-
was tried in the Cire-uit Court of St. ily and final1y" settle the slavery ques-
IAouis, and the decision was in Scott's t ;on. The decision was promulgatcd
favor. The Supreme Court of the State March (i. IH.>7.
reversed the decision, and the case was Drewry's, or Drury's, Bluff.
f'e
carried to the Supreme Court of the Unit- RODGERS, JOliN.
e(1 States, CIIIEF-JUSTICE ROGER B. Drum, RICHARD COULTER, military otH-
TANEY (q. v.) presiding. The chief-jus- cer; born in Pennsylmnia, May 28. 1
2.);
!ice and a majority of the court were joined the army in 18-lG, and served in the
friends of the slave system, and theÌl de- l\Iexican \Yar, being pre
ent at the siege
cision, which, for prudential reasons, was of Vera Cruz and the actions of Chaput-
withheld until after the Presidential elec- tepec and l\Iðico City. He was com
tion in 1856, was against Scott. The missioned colonel and assistant adju-
chief-justice declared that any person tant-general, Feb. 2
, 18(j!); promoted
" whose ancestors were imported into this brig<Ldier-general and adjutant-general,
country and held as slaves" had no right June 15, 1880; and retired May 28, 188!)'
to sue in a court in the United States; Drummond, Rm GEOlmE GORDON, mili-
in other words, he denied the right of tary officer; born in Quebec in 1771; en-
citizenship to any person who had heen b,red the llritish army in 178!); served in
a slave or was a de<;eendant of a slave. Holland and Egypt; and in 1811 WR3
The chief-justice, with the sanction of a made lieutenant-general. In 1813 he was
majority of the court. further declared second in command to Sir George Prevost;
that the framers anll supporters of the planned the capture of }.'ort Niagara in
Declaration of American Independf'nce December of that year; took the villages
did not include the negro race in ollr of Black Rock and Buffalo; captured Os-
country in the great proclamation that wego in May, 1814; and was in chief com-
\55

DRUMMOND-DUANE

mand of the British forces at the battle
of Lur\DY's LAJ'\E (q. v.) in July. In Au-
gust he was repulsed at Fort Erie, with
heavy loss, and was severely wounded. He
E,ucce('d('d Prevost in 1814, and returned
to England in 1816. The next year he re-
ceh'ed the grand cross of the Bath. He
died in London, Oct. 10, lR.34.
Drummond, \YILLlAl\[, colonial gov-
ernor; born in Scotland; was appointed
governor of the Albemarle county colony
by Sir William Berkeley, governor of Vir-

inia, and joint proprietary of Carolina.
During the Bacon rebellion (
ee BACON,
XATIIANIEL), when Berkeley retreated to
.\ccomac, Drummond proposed that
Berkele)' should bf' depo,:ed. This prop-
osition met \\ith the faw)r of the lead-
ing planters, who met at \YiIliamshurg
and agreed to support Bacon against
the government. The df'ath of Baeon
left the rebellion without a eompetf'nt
leader. f'ir \"ilIiam Berkeley 'Hf'aked
l1is ,'engeance on thirty-three of t}1f'
principal offenders. 'Yhen DrulIlmonll
was brought before him Berkeley ex-
cIaimed: .. I am more glad to Sf'e yon
than any man in \
irginia. Yon slt',l1
be hanged in half an hour." JIe d:I.II
Jan.
O. Hi77.
Drury's Bluff, BATTLE AT.
RODGERS. JOII
.
Dry Tortugas, a group of se"eral
small, barren island
, abont 40 miles
west of the Florida K('y:-.. They ser\'ed
as a place of impri
omnent during the
Civil ',"ar.
Dryden, JUII
FAIRFIELD, states-
man; horn near Farmington. )Iaine,
Aug. 7. 183!J; educatf'd at Yale L"ni-
V('rsit.,.: relIlO\'ed to Xew .T('rsf'Y, IR71;
estahIi!<hf'd the Pruòential Tnsunu1f'e
Cumpany in IHi:;; el('{.tf'd to the rnit-
cd f-;ta t('s Sena tp from X ('w .T ersey to
fill vaeaney cau!-f'd by the death of
General :->ewell in I!IOI.
Duane, .JA'IES. juri!,t; born in Xew po
al at that time, as it wa:" ealculah'd
York Citr, Feb. n, 1733. In 17:;!) he to cool the ardOl' of n

istance which UWIl
marri('d a daughter of Co1. Rohert Liv- unimated the people. Duane was a stant'h
ingston. He was a mem}){'r of the first patriot. but was an
ious for peace, if it
Continental Congress ( 17i 4): of the could be procured with honor and for the
J>rovineial Convention of X('w York in good of his country. 1Iis proposition was
177G-77; al...n in Congr('foos, 17S0-82. consid('red h
' ('ongre
8 at the !-lame time
IIp rpturnl,(l to X('w York ('ity in 1783, wJwn a prupo
ition for a Himilar purpo
f'
after till" ('\"acnation, and was till" firfoot which had eume from Lord Xorth W;I:'I
ma
'ur of t hat city after the He\"ulutiun. before that bodf. The timid purtion 01
156

See

In 1783-84 he was a member of the coun-
cil and State Senator, and in Iï88 was a
member of the con\"ention of Kew York
that adopted the national Constitution.
From 1789 to 17!)4 he was United States
district judge. He died in Duanesburg,
N. Y., Feb. I, 17n7.
Late in
Ia
', 1775, Judge Duane moved
in Congres3, in committee of the whole,
the "opening of negotiations in order to
accommodate the unhappy di
putes sub-
sisting betwef'n Great Britain and the col-
onies, and that this he made a part of the
[second] pf'tition to the King" pr('pared
by John .Jay. It was a dangerous pro.

.....

". ... I

""\

\..

DUANE-DU CHAILLU

Congress prevailed, and it was resolved
to address another petition to his Majesty,
but at the same time to put the colonies
into a state of defence. Duane's motion
was carried, but against a most deter-
mined and unyielding opposition, and it
rather retarded the prospect of a peaceful
solution. It had no practical significance,
unless it was intended to accept the
proposition of Lord North as the basis for
an agreement.
Duane, JAMES CHA THA
I, military offi-
cer; born in Schenectady, N. Y., June 30,
1824; graduated at the United States
Military Academy in 1848, and served
with the corps of engine
rs till 18.34.
He rendered excellent work during the
Civil War, notably in the building of a
bridge 2.000 feet long over the Chicka-
hominy River. He was brevetted brig-
adier-general in 1865; promoted brig-
adier-general and chief of engineers, U. S.
A., in 1886; retired June 30, 1888. From
his retirement till his death, Nov. 8, 18!)],
he was president of the New York
Aqueduct Commission.
Duane, \VILLIA
I, statesman; born in
Devonshire, England,
Iarch 18, 1747; re- 1868, of negro descent; was graduated at
moved to Sew York in 1768; member of Han-ard Unh'ersity in 1890; and became
the Kew York provincial congress; dele- professor of economics and history in At-
gate to the Continental Congress, 1777-78; lanta Pniversity in 1896. He wrote The
secretary of the trcasury board, 178!); Suppression of the Hlave Trade, etc.
.chsistant Secretary of the Treasury under Du Chaillu, PAUL BELLO
I, explorer;
Hamilton. He died in Kew York City, born in New Orleans, La., July 31, 1838.
May 7, 1799. He is best known by the results of two
Duane, \VILLIA"M ALEXA
DER, jurist; exploring trips to west Africa, during
born in Rhinebeck, N. Y., Sept. 8, li80; which he discovered and examined consid-
entered the t:"nited States navy in 1798; era
e territory almost unknown previous-
admitted to tIle bar in 1802; member of ly, and added sixty species of birds and
the State Assembly; judge of the Kew twenty of mammals to the zoology of
York Supremp Court, lR22-2!}; president Africa. His accounts of the gorillas and
of Columbia College, lR29-42. He wrote pygmies e-xcited a large interest among
The Life of Lord Sterling, The Steamboat scientists, and for a time many of his as-
Controversy, etc. He died in New York sertions were sharply contradicted as he-
City, ::\'fay 30, 18;)8. ing impossible; but subsequent explo-
Duane, \Yn,u.BI JOHN, lawyer; born rations by others confirmed all that he
in Ireland in 1780; was Secretary of the had claimed. His publications include
Vnited
ta tE'S Treasury in 1833, but was E;rplorations and A dm:>n.tures in Equa-
oppospd to Gpneral .J ackson's action in the torial Afrira; _ t .!ourney to Ashango
matter of the UniÌ<.d States Dank, and Land j Storics of the Gorilla Country j
was tllerefore removed from office. He 11ïld Life Under the Equator; My Apingi
died in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 27, 186;). J{Ülg,zOIll " The ('oltnfr.'l of the Dwarfs;
Dubois, FRED T., legislator; born in The Land of the Jlidnight Sun; The
Crawford county, Ill., May 27, 1851; re- T'iT.-ing A..'w: lmr, the Viking; The
mO\ed to Idaho in lR80; was a member of Ppoplf' of t/lf' areat African Forest; etc.
Congress in lR87-!H; secured th
admis- Hp clif'd if} f;t. Pptprslmrg, April 29, HJ03.
l!ji

sion of Idaho to the Vnion in 1890; and
was its first Senator, serving from 1891
to 1897; and was re-elected in 1901.
Dubois, \VILLI.UI EDWARD B., educator;
born in Great Barrington,
lass., Feb. 23,

:-- ;., ,

.II ."'\.:

..;JJ ;

PAUL BELWNI DU ('HAlLLU.

DUCHÉ-DUDLEY

Duché, JACOB, cl
rgyman; born in
Philadelphia, in 1737; educated at the
University of Pennsylvania; and became
an eloquent Episcopalian. A descendant
of a Huguenot, he naturally loved free-
dom. He was invited by the Con-
tinental Congress of li74 to open
their proceedings with prayer. In li7.3 he
hecame rector of Christ Church, and
('
poused the patriot cause. Of a timid
nature, Duchê, when the British took pos-
sf'ssion of Philadelphia (1777), alarmed by
tht' gloomy outlook, forsook the Amer-
icans, and, in a letter to \Vashington,
urged him to do likewise. This letter
was transmitted to Congress, and Duchê
fled to England, where he became a popu-
lar preacher. His estate was confiscated,
and he was banished as a traitor. In li90
Duché returned to Philadelphia, where he
died Jan. 3, 1798.
First Prayer in Congress.-The follow-
ing is the text of Dr. Duché's first prayer
in Congress:

be speedily closed; that order, harmony,
and peace may be restored, and truth and
justice, religion and piety prevail and
flourish among the people. Presen'e the
health of their bodies and the vigor of
their minds;
hower down on them and
the millions they represent such temporal
blessings as Thou spest expedient for them
in this world, and crown them with ever-
lasting glory in the world to come. All
this we ask in the name and through the
merits of Jesus Christ, Thy Son, our
Saviour. Amen.
Duchesne, PHILIPPA ROSE, missionary;
born in France in 17t.iU; came to America
in 1818 and engaged in religious work
among the Indians of Louisiana. In 1820
she founded in Darriens. on the Bois-
Brule, the first permanent home of the
sisterhood of the Sacred Heart in America,
and lived to see the order established in
all the large cities of the United States.
She died in S1. Charles, La., in 1852.
Ducking-stool. The English colonies
in America continued for a long time the
o Lord. our HeavenlJ' Father. high and manners and customs of their native land;
mighty King of kings and Lord of lords, among others, that of the use of the duck-
Who dost from Thy throne behold all the ing-stool for the punishment of inveterate
dwellers of the earth, and reignest with scolding women. Bishop ::\I<,ade, in Old
power supreme and uncontrollable over Churches, Ministers, mId Familir8 in Tïr-
th
kingdoms, empires, and governments, ginia, says, "If a woman was convi<,tpd
look down in mercy, we beseech Thee, on of slander, her husband was made to pay
these American States, who have fled to five hundred-weight of tobacco"; but the
Thee from the rod of the oppressor and law proving insufficient, the penalty was
thrown themselves on Thy gracious pro- chang<,d to ducking. Places for ducking
tection. Desiring to bE' henceforth only were prepar<,d at court-houses. An in-
deppmlent on Thee, to Thee have they ap- stance is nlPntionpd of a woman who was
ppalp(l for tIle rightpousneFs of their ordered to be ducked three times from a
cause: to Th<'E' do they now look up for vessel l
'ing in the .Tames River. The
that <'Olmtenance and support which woman was tipd to a chair at the longer
Thou alone mnst give. Take them, there- end of a lever, controll<'d at the shorter
fore, Hea\"<'nly FatIH'r, uml<,r Thy nurtur- end by 111<,n with a rope. Thp stool h<,ing
ing care: gÎ\'e them wisdom in counf'il planted firmly, the woman wac; raised on
and valor in the field. Defpat
he the lever, and then lowered so as to be
malicious dpsigns of our advprsaries, plunged under thp water.
convince thpm of the unrighteousnpss of Dudley, DEAN, genealogist; born in
tlleir cause; and. if they stilI pprsist in Kingsfield,
Ie., ::\IaJ' 23, IR23; admitt<,d
their sanguinary purpose, oh! let the voice to the bar in 1854. Among his works are
of Thy unerring justice, sounding in tlwir genealogies of the Dudle
' amI Swift
hparts, constrain tht'm to drop the families; Officers of Our enion .1 rmJ/ and
wparons of war in their unnerved hands Xal"J" etc.
in the day of battIp. TIe Thou present. 0 Dudley, .JOSEPH, colonial govprnor;
Cod of wisòom, and dirpd the c01l11eils of born in Roxhury, Mass., .Tuly
3, Hi-t7:
this honorable assembly; pnable them graduatpd at Harvard in !Gfi.); prE'-
to spttle things on the' best and f!urest parpd for the ministry, but, prefprring
foundation, that the scene of blood may politics, became a representative in tlln
158

DUDLEY-DUG SPRINGS

general court and a magistrate. From
1677 to 1681 he was one of the commis-
sioners for the united colonies of New Eng-
land. He was in the battle with the Nar-
ragansets in lG75, and was one of the com-
missioners who dictated the terms of a
treaty with that tribe. In September, lG85,
King .James commissioned him president
of New England, and in lG87 he was made
chief-justice of the Supreme Court. Dud-
ley was sent to England with Andros
ill. lG8U, and the next year was made
chief-justice of New York. He went to
England in 1693, and was deputy govern-
or of the Isle of Wight. He entered
Parliament in 1701, and from 1702 to
1715 he was captain-general and governor
of Massachusetts. Then he retired to his
quiet home at Roxbury, where he died,
April 2, 1720.
The disputes between the royal govern-
ers and the people, which continued
about seventy years, were begun in :1\[as-
sachusetts with Dudley. In his first
speech he demanded a " fit and convenient
house" for the governor, and a settled
and stated salary for him. The House,
in their answer the next day, observed
that they would proceed to the considera-
tion of these propositions "with all con-
venient speed." They resolved to present,
out of the public treasury, the sum of
{500, and said, "as to settling a salary
tor the governor, it is altogetllPr new to
us, nor can we think it agreeable to our
present constitution, but we shall be
ready to do, aecording to our ability,
what may he proppr on our part for the
support of the government." The govern-
or sent for the speaker and the repre-
sentatives to come to his chamber, when
he declared his disappointment because
of their procedure, and expressed a hope
tltat they would think better of the mat-
ter.
Dudley, THOMAS, colonial governor;
born in Northampton, England, in 1576;
was an officer of Queen Elizaheth, serving
in Holland; and afterwards he became a
Puritan, and retripved the fortunes of
the Earl of Lincoln by a faithful care of
his estate as his steward. He came to
TIm,ton in lli:W, aR dpputy governor, with
hiH Hon-in-Iaw. Simon Bnuh4rppt. and
tJe!d the of1i('p tt'n years. HI' was ap-
pointed major-general of the colony in

lG44. He died in Roxbury, Mass., July
31, 1653.
Duelling. See BLADENSBURG DUEL-
LING FIELD.
Duer, \Vn.LIAM:, statesman; born in
Devonshire, England, March 18, 1747;
in 1767 was aide to Lord Clive in India;
came to America, and in 1768 purchased
a tract of land in Washington county,
N. Y.; became colonel of the militia,
judge of the county court, member of the
1\ ew York Provincial Congress, and of
the committee of safety. He was one of
the committee that drafted the first consti-
tution of the State of New York (1777),
and was a delegate in Congress in 1777-
78; and he was secretary of the Treasury
Board until the reorganization of the
finance department under the national
Constitution. He was assistant Secre-
tary of the Treasury under Hamilton
until 17DO. Colonel Duer married (1779)
Catharine, daughter of Lord Stirling.
He died in New York City, May 7, 17D9.
Duffield, WILLIAM WARD, military
olJicer; born in Carlisle, Pa., Nov. 19,
1823; graduated at Columbia College
in 1842; served with gallantry in the war
with Mexico. In 1861 he was made
colonel of the 9th Michigan Infantry; in
1862 he captured the Confederate force at
Lebanon, and was made commander of all
the troops in Kentucky. He was brevetted
major-general of volunteers in 1863, and
was compelled by his wounds to resign
from the army before the close of the
war. He published He/tOol of Brigade and
Evolutions of thr Line.
Dug Springs, BATTLE AT. General
Lyon was 80 miles from Springfield when
he heard of the perils of Sigel after the
fight at Carthage. He pushed on to the
relief of the latter, and on July 13, 1861.
he and Sigel joined their forces, when
the general took the chief command. The
combined armies numbered. at that time.
about 6,000 m<>n, horse and foot, with
<>ighteen pipcps of artillery. There L)'on
rpmained in a defensive attitude for some
time, waiting for reinforcements which had
been called for, but which did not come.
The Confedprates had been largely rein-
forced; a 1111 at th(' c 1 m\(' of .TII'."
Lyon was inforJlJ('11 that th('.'" WI'If'
marching lIJ10n
Jlrillgfil.ld in j wo ('(I'
umns -
O.OOO - II nder t he n'
JJt.('Í i H

DU LHUT-DUNLAP

commands of Generals Price, :McCul- erected on the site of what is now Brattle-
loch, Pearce, McBride, and Rains. Loro, in Vermont, the oldcst English set-
Lyon went out to meet them with tlement in that State.
about 6,000 men, foot and horse, and Dummer, JEREMIAH, patriot; born in

ighteen cannon, leaving a small force Boston, Mass., in Iü80; was graduated at
to guard Springfield. At Dug Springs, Harvard in lG!)9; went to England as
19 miles southwest of Springfield, in n agent of Massachusetts in 1710, and re-
broken, oblong valley, they encountered - mained in London till 1721. He published
a large Confederate force under Gen- a defence of the New England charters,
eral Rains. While the National vanguard in which he claimed that the colonists
of infant.Q' and cavalry, under Steele and through redeeming the wilderness did not
Stanley, were leading, they were unex- derive their rights from the crown but
pectedly attacked by Confederate in fan- by purchase or conquest from the natives.
try, who suddenly emerged from the He died in Plaistow, England, May 19,
woods. A sudden charge of twenty-five of I ï3H.
Stanley's horsemen scattered the Con fed- Dunkards, or GERMA:'i BAPTISTS, a
erates in every direction. The charge was body of Christians who trace their origin
fearful, and the slaughter was dreadful. back to Ale1.':ander
lack, one of a small
" Are these men or devils, they fight so Y" number of Pietists who had migrated to
asked some of the wounded. Confederate the province of \Vitgpnstein, Germany, to
cavalry now appeared emerging from the escape persecution. In 1708 he became
woods, when some of Lyon's cannon, man- their minister, and after they were bap-
aged by Captain Totten, threw shells that tized in the Eder by being thrice im-
frightened the horses. and the Confeder- mersed, a church was formed. In 1719
ates were scattered. They then withdrew, Mr. Mack and all his followers came by
leaving the valley in the possession of the way of Holland to America and settled
Nationals. Lyon's loss was eight men in and around Philadelphia. From this
killed and thirty wounded; that of Rains beginning the Dunkards have spread
was about forty killed and as many through the Eastern, Korthern, and \Yest-
wounded. ern States. Their doctrine is similar to
Du Lhut, or Duluth, DANIEL GREY- that of the Evangelical Churches. They
SOLOX, explorer; born in Lyons, France; endeavor to follow closely the teachings
carried on a traffic in furs under the pro- of the Bible. They dress plainly, refrain
tection of Count Frontpnac; explored the from taking active part in politics, affirm
upper Mississippi in Iü78-80, at which instead of taking an oath, settle th
ir
time he joinpd Fathpr Hennepin and his quarrels among themselves without going
companions. He took part in the cam- to law, do not join secret societies, etc.
paign agaim,t the Seneca Indians in 1687 They hold th:1t every believer should be
and brought with him a large number of immersed face forward, being dipped at
Indians from the upper lakes. In lG9.3 he the mention of each name of the Trinity.
was placed in command of Fort Frontenac The Dllnkards now consist of three bodies
and in 1m); was promoted to the command -the Conservative, Old Order, and Pro-
of a company of infantry. He died near gressive. In 1900 they reported 2.H93
Lake Superior in 1;09. The city of ministers, 1,123 churches. and llI.287
Duluth was named after him. members, the strongest branch being
Dummer, FORT. In the war against the Conservatives, who had 2,612 minis-
the Norridgewock Indians (1723) repeated t{'rs, 8;')() churches, and 9;).000 members.
attempts were made to engage the as- Dunlap, JOlIN, printer; born in
sistance of the Mohawks. but they were Strabane, Ireland, in 1747; learned the
unsuccessful, <lnd Massachusetts was ad- printing trade from his uncle, who was in
vised, with justice, to makp peace by re- business in Philadelphia, and at the age of
storing to the Indians their lands. The eighteen began the publication of the
attacks of the barbarians extended a11 Pennsylvania Paclí:rt. This was made a
along the northern frontier as far west daily paper in 1784. and was the first
as the Connecticut River. To cover the daily issued in the United States. The
towns in that \"ill1py Fort Dumm(,T was title was afterwards changed to the North-
HiO

DUNLAP-DUNMORE

the Alleghany Mountains. He was a na-
tiye of I'ellns,ylvania, and lived at Pitts-
burg; and it is believed that he suggested
to Dunmore the plan of combining the
\Vestern Indians against the colonists.
He visited General Gage at Boston early
in the autumn of 177.3. and immediately
after his return to Williamsburg he left
Dunmore and departed for the Ohio coun-
try, with two companions. They were
stopped near Hagerstown as suspicious
persons, sent back to Frederick, and there
an examination of Connelly's papers re-
vealed the whole nefarious plot. He bore
Dunmore's commission of colonel, and was
directed to raise a regiment in the west-
ern country and Canada, the rendezvous
to be at Detroit, where hostilities against
the white people might be more e':lsi1y
fomented among the Indians. Thence he
was to march in the spring, enter Vir-
ginia with a motley force, and meet Dun-
more at Alexandria, on the Potomac, who
would be there with .1. military and naval
force. The arrest of Connelly frustrated
the design. He was put in jail and his
papers were sent to the Continental Con-
gn'ss. He was kept a prisoner until
ahout the end of the war.
mediately dissol\'ed it, and in May, 1774, What is known historically as "Dun-
he again dissolved the Assembly becau
e more's \Var" was a camp;ign against
it had passed a resolution making the l"t the Ohio Indians undertaken by Lord
of June a day of fasting and prayer. This Dunmore in 1774.
III,-L 161

A mer-ican and United Statcs Gazette. As
printer to Congress Mr. Dunlap printed
the Declaration of Independence. He died
in Philadelphia, Pa., Kov. 27, 1812.
Dunlap, WILLIAM, painter, drama.tist,
and historian; born in Perth Amboy,
N. J., Feb. HI, 1766. His father, being a
loyalist, went to New York City in lii7,
where William began to paint. He made
a portrait of Washington at Rocky Hill,
N. J., in 1783. The next year he went to
England and received instructions from
Benjamin \Vest. He became an actor
for a short time, and in 1796 was one of
the managers of the John Street Theatre,
New York. He took the Park Theatre in
1798. From 1814 to 1816 he was pay-
master-general of the New York State
militia. He began a series of paintings
in 1816. In 1833 he published a History
úf the American Theatres, and in 1834 a
llistory of the ..11-ts of Design. His His-
tory of New Kethcrland and the State of
Nett; York was published in 1840. Mr.
Dunlap was one of the founders of the
National Academy of Design. He died in
New York City, Sept. 28, 1839.
Dunmore, JOliN
1UHRAY, EARL OF,
royal governor; born in Scotland in
1732; was descended in the feminine line
from the house of Stuart. He was
made governor of New York in January,
1770, and of Virginia, July, 1771,
rriv-
ing there early in 1772. When the Vir-
ginia Assembly recommended a committee
of correspondence (March, 1773), he im-

SEAL OF LORD Dl'
:IIORR.

was the same day which had been ap-
poillteù by the
Iassachusetts legislature
for the same purpose.
In 177.'), finding the people of his
colony l'Olllluitted to the cause of free-
dom, he engaged in a conspiracy to bring
the Inùians in hostile array against
the Virginia frontier. He employed Dr.
John Connelly, whom he had commis-
sioned in 1774 to lead a movement for
sustaining the claims of Virginia to thè
whole district of Pennsylvania west of

c

LORD DU:SMORE'S BIG:SATI:"RE.

DUNMORE, JOHN MURRAY, EARL OF

The cold-blooded murder of the family
of LUlìA:'I1 (q. '1.'.), an eminent :\lingo chief,
and other atrocities, had caused fearful
retaliation on t]le part of the barbarians.
\nlile Pennsylvanians and the agents of
the Six Kations were making efforts fm'
peace, Go\ernor Dunmore, bent on war,
called for volunteers, and 400 of these
were gatherpd on the banks of the Ohio, a
little below \Vheeling. This force marched
against and destro)'ed (Aug. 7, 1774) a
f;ha\\nee town on the l\Iuskingum. They
were followed by Dunmore, with 1,500 Yir-
ginians, who pressed forward aga.inst an
Indian vj]]age on the Scioto, while CoI.
Andrew Lewis, "ith 1,200 men, encoun-
tpred a force of Indians at Point Pleasant,
at the mouth of the Great Kanawha
River (Oct. 10), where a bloody battle en-
sued. The Indians were led by Logan,
Cornstalk, and other braves. The Yir-
ginians were victorious, but lost seventy
men kiJJed and wounded. Dunmore was
charged with inciting the Indian war and
arranging the campa.ign so as to carry out
his political plans. It was charged that
he arranged the e'\.pedition so as to have
the force under Lp\\ is annihi]atpd hy the
Indians, and therpby weaken the physical
strenpth and break down the spirits of
the Yirginians, for they were defying royal
power. His efforts afterwards to incite emor sent a deputation to meet him. One
a servile insurrection in Virginia for the of them was the receiver-genera] of the
same purpose f:how that he was capable province. They met IG miles from \\ïll-
of exercising almost a.uy nwans to aCCom- iamsburg, where the matter Was eom-
pUsh his ends. The Indians in the Ohio promised by the receiver-general paying
country, alarmed at the approach of Dun- the full value of the powder. Henry sent
more, had hastened to make peace. Logan the money to the public treasury and re-
refused to attpnd the confprence for the turned home.
purpose, but sent a speech which he came In Novpmbpr, 1775, T.ord Dunmore pro-
famous in historv. Dunmore's officers in ceeded in the war-ship FOtccy to Xorfolk,
that p
p<,dition. having h{'3rd of thp move- w]1f>re he proclaimpd frppdom to al1 slaws
ments in X<,w F:ngland. and of the Con- wllO should join the royal standard, which
t inental Congrp<;s. ll<'ld a meeting at Fort he had unfurled. and take up arms against
nower (mouth of the Hockhocking Riwr). the "rebels." He declared nmrtial law
and after complimenting the governor and throughout Yirginia. and made Xorfolk
dpclaring tll(>ir al1<'giance to the King. re- the relu-)<'7vOUS for a British flept. He spnt
solYCd to maintain the rigIlts of the colo- 111arauding parties on the ..hor<'8 of the
Jlists by pwry means in thpir power. EJi7ah('th and .Tames rivprs to distress the
The hold mon>mpnt in th<> Yirginia \\"hig inhabitants. Rping repd]pd with
conwntion ('larch, 177.;) excit('(l the spirit, hp resol\"('d to strike a severe blow
<Aficial wrath of Governor Dunmore. who that !';hould produce tprror. Hp hpgan to
stormed in prodamations: and to frighten lay waste the country around. The peo-
the Yirgininns (or. prohably, with a more pIe Were arou"pd and the militia were
mi!,phiPW111S intpnt), he <,au!,pd a rumor rapidly gnthpring for the defence of the
to hp cirrulatpò tl13t hp intpndpd to pxcite inhabitants, whpn Dunmorp, 1)(>('OlJIing
lr.

nn insurrection among the slaves. }"inal-
ly, late in April, he caused marines to
come secretly at night from the /t'owey,
a sloop-of-war in the York River, and carry
to her the powder in the old magazine at
\\ïlliamsburg. The mOYement was dis.
covered. The minute-men assembled at
dawn, and were with difiiculty restrained
from seizing the gonrnor. The assemb]pd
people sent a I espectfu] remonstrance to
Dunmore, complaining of the act as spe-
cially cruel at that time, when a bervi1e
insurrection was apprehended. The gov-
emor replied e,-asively, and the people de-
manded the return of the powder. When
Patrick Henry heard of the act. he gath-
ered a corps of volunteers and marched
towards the capital. The frightened go\'-

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RE'IA''':;O OF LORD D(;
.MORE'I! PALA('K.

DUNMORE'S WAR-DUPONT

ulanlled, constructed batteries at Norfolk,
armed the Tories and negroes, and fortified
a passage over the Elizabeth River, known
as the Great Bridge, a point where he ex-
pected the militiamen to march to
attack him. Being repulsed in a
battle there (Dec. 9, 1775), Dun-
more abandoned his intrenchments
at Norfolk and repaired to his
ships, when, menaced by famine
-for the people would not furnish
supplies - and annoyed by shots
from some of the houses, he can-
nonaded tll(' town ( Jan. 1, 17 ï G)
and sent sailers and marines
ashore to set it on fire. The
greater portion of the compact
part of the city was burned while
the cannonade was kEpt up. The
part of the city which escaped was
presently burned by the Virgin-
ians to prevent it from becoming
a shelter to the enemy. Thus perished, a head of the foreign office of the govern-
prey to civil war, the largest and richest ment; and then studying law, was ad-
of the rising towns of Virginia. After mitted to practice in 178;;, becoming emi-
committing other depredations on the Vir- nent in the profession on questions of civil
ginia coast, he landed on Gwyn's Isl- and international law. He finally devoted
and, in Chesapeake Bay, with 500 men, himself to literature and science, and
black and white, cast up some intrench- made many valuable researches into the
ments, and built a stockade fort. Virginia language and literature of the :North
militia, under Gen. Andrew Lewis, at- American Indians. In 1819 he published
tacked and drove him from the island. a JIemoir on the Structure of the Indian
In this engagement Dunmore was wounded. Languages. \\.hen seventy-eight )rears of
Burning several of his vessels that were age (1838) he published a Dissertation on
aground, Dunmore sailed away with the the Chinese Languagc; also a translation
remainder, with a large amount of booty, of a Dcscription of Xew Swcden. In 1835
among which were about 1,000 slaves. the }'rench Institute awarded him a prize
After more plundering on the coast the for a disquisition on the Indian languages
vessels were dispersed, some to the \Vest of North America. Mr. Duponceau opened
Indies, some to the Bermudas and St. a law academy in Philadelphia in 1821
Augustine, and Dunmore himself pro- and wrote several essays on the subject of
ceeded to join the naval force at New law. He died in J)hiladelphia, April 2,
York, and soon afterwards went to Eng- 1844.
land. In 178G Dunmore was made gov- Du Po
t, ÉLEUTHÈRE IRÉNÉE, scientist;
Hnor of Bermuda. He died in Ramsgate, born in Paris, France, June 24, 1771; son
England, in May, 1809. of Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours;
Dunmore's War. See CRESAP, 1\11- emigrated to the United States in li99;
CIIAEI,; D-eXl\WRE, JOHN
1URRAY, EARL bought a tract of land near \Vilmington.
OF; LOGAN. Del., whpre he established the powder
Duponceau, PETER STEPHEN, philolo- works, which have since been maintain-
gist; born in the Isle of Rhé, France, ed by the Dupont (modern form) family.
June 3, li60; went to Paris in 1775, where He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 31,
he became acquainted with Baron Steu- 1834.
ben, and accompanied him to America as Dupont, SAMUEL FRANCIS, naval officer;
his secretary. He was brevptted a captain born in Bergen Point,
. J., Sept. 27.
(FebruarJ. 1778), and assisted Steuben in 1803; entered the {Tnited f::tatps navy as
IG3

the preparation of his sJ.stem of military
tactics for the use of the L"nited States
troops. From 1781 to 1783 he was secre-
tary to Robert R. Livingston, then at the

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DUPORTAIL-DUQUESNE

.\merica. He died at sea in 1802, when
returning to France.
Dupratz, ANTOINE SIMON LE PAGE, ex-
plorer; born in Tourcoing, France, in
WR!); settled on the Mississippi River
among the Xatchez Indians in 1720. For
eight years he explored the regions water-
ed by the Missouri and Arkansas rivers.
He published a History of Louisiana, 0" of
the lVestf'rn Parts of Jïrginia and Caro-
linn. He ùied in Paris, France, in 177;;.
Duquesne, FORT. a fortification erected
by the Fren{'h on the site of the city of
Pittsburg. Pa., in ]7;;4. While Captain
Trent and his company were building this
fort, Captain Contrecæur, with 1.000
Frenchmen and eighteen cannon, went
(]own the Alleghany River in shty bateaux
find 300 cauoes, took possession of the un-
finished fortification, and named it Fort
Duquesne, in compliment to the captain-
general of Canada. Lieutenant-Colonel
\\'ashington, with a small force, hurried
from Cumberland to recapture it.. but
was made a prisoner, with about 400 men,
at Fort Necessity. In 1755 an expedition
for the capture of Fort Duqucsne, com-
1!1anded by GE:'i. EDWARD BRADDOCK
(q. v.), marched from Will's Creek (Cum-
herland) on June 10, about 2,000 strong,
Hritish and provincials. On the banks
of the Monongahela Braddock was de-
feated and killed on Jul;y 9, and the ex-
pedi tion was ruincd.
\Yashington was a lieutenant-colonel
under Braddock in the expedition against
}'ort Duquesne, in 1735, and in that of
1758. In the former he 'was chiefly in-
mended report on the use of floating bat- strumental in saving a portion of the
tf'ries for coast defence. Hc dicd in Phil a- Hritish and provincia.l troops from utter
delphia, .Tune 2
, lR{ì;). destruction. At the battle near the :Mo-
Duportail, Lons LEBt:GrE, CUEVALIER, nongahela, where Braddock was killed, ev-
military (}flif'er; horn in France in 1736; ,'ry officer but "-ashington was slain or
('ame to Amt'rica in the early part of the wounded; and. he, alone, led the surviv-
l:evolutionary \\'ar. allil was appointed ors on a safe retreat. He was not injured
Inigadif'r-gcneral in the Continental army during the battle. To his mother he
in XO\'f'mh{'r, 1777. and major - g('neral, wrote: " I luckily escaped unhurt,

o\"ember, liRl. ]{f' was directing engi- though I had four bullets through my
)\(,f'r at tll(' sif'ge of York town in the fall coa t. and two horses shot under me. u
of liS1. Hf'tul"ning to Francc. he was 1'P his brother lIe wIOte: "Ry the all-
named mnrérhal-rlr-roml): and in
o\'em- powerful dispensation of Providence, I
lIpr, 17nO, was made minister of war. In }uH'e b('en protected "eyond a11 human
l)pcember, I 7!)]. he I"Psignf'd; and when probability or expectation. Death was
engaged in military service in T
orraine, ],'ve11ing my companions on every gide."
be received a warning of the designs of An Indian chief, who, fifteen years after-
the Jacobins, and sought safety in wards, travelled a long way to see Wash- .
164

mid
hipman at tweh-e years of age, and
hecame commander, Oct. 28, 1842. He
saw much active sen ice on the California
coast during the war with )lexico, clear-
ing the Gulf of California of
leÚcan ves-
sels. He was promotf'd to captain in
IS;;;;; and in October, 1861, he pro-
ceeded, in command of the South Atlantic

quadron, to captm'c Port Royal Island,
on the South Carolina {'oast, to secure
a central harbor and depot of supplies on
the Southern shores. In .July Commodore
Dupont was made a rear-admiral, and in
April, 1863, he commandeù the fleet which
made an unsuccessful effort to capture
Charleston. Admiral Dupont assisted in
organizing the naval school at Annapolis,
and was the author of a highly com-

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T.

ington when he
was in Ohio, said
he had singled him
out for death, and
directed his fellows
to do the same.
He fired more than
a dozen fair shots
at him, but could
not hit him. "\V e

felt," said the /=-.
chief, "that some
Manitou guarded
your life, and that
you could not be
killed."
The expedition of
1758wasc0111-
manded bv Gen.
John Forb
s, who
had about 9,0110
men at his dis-
posal at Fort
Cumberland and
Raystown. These
included Virginia
troops under Colonel Washington, th(; Forbes intended to p
'opose an abandon-
Royal Americans from South Carolina. 1l1ent of the enterprise, when three
and an auxiliary force of Cherokee Iud: prisoners gave information of the ex-
ians. Sickness and perversity of will heme weakness of the French garrison.
and judgment on the part of Forbes \\'ashington was immediately sent for-
caused delays almost fatal to the expedi- ward, and the whole arm
' prepareu to
bon. He was induced, by the advice of foJJow. \\'hen the Virginians were within
some Pennsylvania land speculators, to a day's march of the fort, they were dis-
use the army in constructing a military covered by some Indians. who so alarmed
road farther north than the one made by the garrison by an exaggerated account
Braddock. \Yashington, who knew the or' the number of the approaching troops
country well, strongly advised against that the guardians of Fort Duquesnc, re-
this measure, but he was unl1Peded, and dUCf>d to 500, set it on fire (Xov. 24), and
'51J slow was the progress of the troops fled down the Ohio in boa ts with such
towards their destination, that in Sep- I,aste and confusion Ulat they left every-
tcmbpr, when it wag known that tJ1Pre thing behind them. The Virginians took
\\ere not nlore than 800 men at Duquesne, possession the next day, and the name
Forbes, with G,OOO troops. was ypt pa8t of the fortress was ch
nged to Fort Pitt,
of the Alleghany .:\Iountains. Major in honor of the great English statesman.
Grant, with a spouting-party of Colonel Durand, ASHER HI
OWX, painter and en-
Bouquet's advance e.)rp8. was attacked graver; Lorn in .Tpffcrson, K. J., Aug. 21,
(Sept. 21), defeated, and made a pris- J ï!Hi. His paternal ancei'<tors were Hug-ue-
oner. Still Forbes went creeping on. IlûtS. IIis father was a watch-maker, and
wasting precious time. and e\:hausting the in his shop he learned engraving. In 1812
patience and resppct ("If \Vashington and hp l>pcame an apprentice to Peter Mave-
other energetic officer,,;; and when Bou- riek. an engraver on copper-plate, and bp-
quet joined the army it was 50 miles pamp his partner in lR17. Mr. Dura.nd's
from Fort Duquesne. The winter was ap- first large work was his engraving on
proaching, the troops were discontented. copper of Trumbull's ncclarntion of 1,,-
and a council of war was called, to which dependence. He was engaged upon it a
165

DUQUESNE-DURAND

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-"E.

DURANT-DUSTIN

year, and it gave him a great reputation.
His engravings of J(usidom and A.riadne
place him among the first line-engra,'ers of
his time. In lR
;) he abandoned that art
for painting. Mr. Durand was one of the
first officers of the National Academy of
Design, and was its president for several
:r ears . He died in South Orange, K. J.,
Sept. 17, ISRG.
Durant, HEXRY TOWLE, philanthropist;
born in Hanover, K. H., Feh. 20, 1822;
graduated at Harvard College in 18-n;
admitted to the bar in 184G; and be-
came connected with Rufus Choate and
other celebrated lawyers in practice in
Boston. Later he devoted hinu,p!f to the
promotion of education, and through his
efforts \Yellesley College was founded at
a cost of $1,000,000. It was openl'd in
18i5, was maintained by him at an ex-
pense of $30,000 a year until his death,
'lnd afterwards was aided hv his widow.
He died in Wellesley. l\lass.. 'Oet. 3, lRRI.
Durell, EDWARD IIEXRY. jurist; born in
Portsmouth, X. H., July 14. 1810; gradu-
ated at Harvard in 1831; rpmoved to Xew
Orleans in 183G. He held many offices
under the State government: resisted se-
ce!'sion in 1861; pre!':ident of tll(> Louisiana
C"on!'titutional convention in 18G-t. Among
his publications are History of .':('I'('lIt('('1I
)"rars from lS(j() to 18ìi; Essay on the
l/i8torJI of Prance,. etc. lIe died in Scho-
harie, X. Y., )Iarch 2H. 1887.
Durrie, DANIEL STEELE, antiquarian;
born in Albany, N. Y., Jan. 2, 18H);
a ppointed librarian of the State Historical
Society of Wisconsin in 1858; published
genealogies of the Steele and Holt
families; also a Bibliographica Gcnca-
logica A.mericana; History of _11adi.<;on,
lri.
.; History of Missouri; and the Wis-
consin Biographical Dictionary.
Duryee, ABRA
[, military officer; born
in Kew York City, April 29, 1815; joined
the State militia in 1833; became colonel
,)f the 27th Regiment, now the 7th, in
I
-tH; commanded his regiment during the
.\stor Place riots. In April, 18fi1. he
raisf>d a regiment known as "Duryee's
Zouaves," which took part in the battle of
Big Bpthe1. In 1861 he was promoted to
brigadier-gpneral, and served with the
.\rmv of the Potomac until 1863, when he
1 e!'igned. He -died in New York City,
Sept. 27. 1 RHO.

Dustin, HANNAH, heroine; born about
16GO; married Thomas Dustin, of Haver-
hill, 1\Iass., Dec. 3, 1677. When, in the
spring of lG!J7, the French and Indians
devastated the Kew England frontier set-
tlements, Haverhill, within 30 miles of
Boston, suffered severely, forty of its in-
113bitants being killed or carried into cap-
tivity. Among the latter were a part oi
the family of Thomas Dustin, who was in
the field when the savages first appea.red.
Mounting his horse, he hastened to his
house to bear awa,r his wife, eight chil-
dren,
nd nurse to a place of safety. His

'oungest child was only a week old. He
ordered his other children to fly. While
he was lifting his wife and her babe from
the beù the India.ns attacked his housf>.
"Leave me" cried the mother "and fly
to the protection of the other' children}'
Remounting his horse he soon overtook the
precious flock, and placing himself be-
tween them and the pursuing Indians, he
ddended them so valiantly with his gun
that he pressed back the foe. Meanwhile
the savages had entered the house, ordered
the fpeble mother to rise and follow them,
killed the infant, and set fire to the dwell-
ing. Half dressed, she was compelIed to
go with her captors through melting snow
in their hasty retreat, accompanied by
her nurse. They walked 12 miles the first
day without shoes, and were compelIed to
lie on the wet ground at night, with no
covering but the cold gray sky. This W
9
repeated day after day, until they reached
an island in the 'Merrimac 6 mi1es above
Concord, N. H., the home of the leader of
the savalres, who claimed Mrs. Dustin anù
her nurse 8S his captives. They werp
lodged with his family, which com\Ïsterl
of two men, three women, seven children.
and a captive English boy, who had been
with them more than a year. Thpv were
told that they would s
on start for an
Indian village where they would be com-
pelIpd to "run the gantlet"; that is, be
stripped naked. and run for their Jives be-
tween two files of Indian mpn. women,
and children, who would have the privilege
of scoffing at them, beating them, and
wounding them with hatchets.
The two women resolved not to endure
the indignity. :\11'8. Du!';tin planned 8
mean!'; of <,scape. and lpagued the nursp
Imll the English boy with hpr in the exp-
166

DUSTIN-DUTCH GAP CANAL

cution of it. Believing in the faithful-
ness of the lad and the timidity of the
women, the Indians did not keep watch
at night. Through inquiries made by the
lad, Mrs. Dustin learned how to kill a
)Han instantly, and to take off his scalp.
Refore daylight one morning, when the
whole family were asleep, Mrs. Dustin
and her companions instantly killed ten
of the slumberers, she killing her captor,
and the boy despatching the man who
told him how to do it. A squaw and a
child fled to the woods and escaped. After
scuttling all the boats but one, they fled
in it down the river, with pro\ isions from
the wigwam. Mrs. Dustin remembered
they had not scalped the victims, so, re-
turning, they scalped the slain savages,
and bore their trophies a way in a bag, as
evidence of the truth of the story they
might relate to their friends. At Haver-
hill they were received as persons risen
from the dead. Mrs. Dustin found her hus-
band and children safe. Súon afterwards
she bore to the governor, at Boston, the
gun, tomahawk, and ten scalps. and the
general court gave these two women $2;')0

-'-

shire erected a commemorative monu-
ment in 1874. On it are inscribed the
names of Hannah Dustin, :Mary Keff, and
Samuel Leonardson, the latter the Eng-
lish lad.
Dutch Gap Canal. There is a sharp
bend in the James River between the
Appomattox: and Richmond, where the
stream, after flowing several miles, a p-
proaches itself within 500 )-ards. To
flank Confederate works and to shorten
the passage of the river 6 or 7 miles,
General Butler set a large force of
colored troops at work, in the summer of
1864, in cutting a canal for the passage
of vessels across this penin.sula. This
canal was completed, with the exception
of blowing out the bulkhead, at the close
of December, 1864. It was 500 yards in
length, (30 feet in width at top, and 65
below the surface of the bluff. It was
e...::cavated 13 feet below high-water mark.
On Kew Ycar's Day, 18(3;'), a mine of
12.000 lbs. of gunpowder was exploded
under the bulkhead, and the water
rushed thl'ough, but not in sufficient
depth for practical purposes, for the mass

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each, as a reward for their heroism. They of the bulkhead (left to keep out the
received other tokens of regard. The water) fell back into the opening after
island where the scene occurred is called the explosion. The canal was then swept
Dustin's Island. On its highest point by Confedf'ratf' cannon, and could not be
citizens of Massachusetts and New Hamp- dredged. A!'I a military operation, it was
167

DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY

8 failure. It was excavated in 140 days, of America or the "
est Indies between
and has since been made navigable. Newfoundland and the Strait of Magellan,
While a greater part of the National except with the permission of the com-
naval force on the James River was on pany. It was vested with sovereign
the expedition against FORT FISHER powers, to he exercised in the name of the
(q. 1".), the Confederatcs sent down from
tates-General, and to report to that body,
the shpIter of Fort Darling. on Drewry's from time to time, all its transactions.
Bluff. a squadron of vessels for the pur- The government of the company was
pose of breaking the obstructions at the vesteå in five separate chambers of mana-
lower end of the Dutch Gap Canal, and gers, the principal one at Amsterdam, and
destroying the pontoon bridges below, so the other four in as many separate cities.
as to separate the National troops lying General executin powers were intrusted
on both sides of the James. The squad- to a board of nineteen delegates, caIled the
ron moved silently under cover of dark- CoIlege of Kineteen, in which one dele-
ness, but was observed and fired upon gate represented the States-General, by
when passing Fort Brady. The vessels whom the company was guaranteed pro-
responded, and dismounted a 100-pounder tection, and received assistance to the
Parrott gun in the fort. The Fredericks- amount of $380,000.
burg broke the obstructions at Dutch Gap The company was organized on June
and passed through, but two other 21, 1623; and with such a charter,
iron-clads and an unarmored gunboat such powers, and such privileges, it be-
grounded. At dawn the gunboat Dreu:ry gan the settlement and development of
had been abandoned, and a sheIl from a J'\ew :!\ctherland. The English claimed
National battery exploded her magazine, the domain, and the Dutch hastened to ac-
when she was hlown to a wreck. So hot quire eminent domain, according to the
was the firp from the shore that the yoy- policy of England, by planting permanent
aae of the Confederate ,'essels was settlements there; and the same year
checked, and all hut the ruined DrCluy (Hi23) they sent over thirty families,
fled up the river. chiefly Walloons, to Manhattan. The
Dutch West India Company. The management of Xcw Netherland was in-
Dutch East India Company was a great trusted to the Amsterdam chamber. Their
monopoly, the profits of the trade of which traffic was suC'cessful. In Hi24 the ex.
were enormous. Thcir ships whitened the ports from Amsterdam, in two ships, were
Indian seas, and in one
'f'ar t11P share- worth almost $10,000, and the returns
holders received in dividends the amount from XC'w Xethcrland were considerably
of three-fourths of thpir inYl'sted capital. more. The company establishcd a trad-
It was believed that trade with the We
t- ing-post. called Fort Orange, on the site
ern Continent might be madp equaIly of Albany. and traffic was extended east-
profitahle, and as early as ] 607 \VilIiam ward to the Connecticut River. and even
PsseIIinx suggested a similar association to Narraganset TIay; northward to the
to trade in the \\
est Indics. The States- Mohawk YaIlpy, and southward and west-
General of Holland were asked to incor- ward to the Delaware River and beyond.
porate such an association. The govern- To induce prin1te capitalists to engage in
ment. then engaged in negotiations for 3 the spttlpment of the country, the com-
truce with Spain, rpfuscd; but whC'n tha t pany g-a ve lands and special privileges to
truce expired, in 1621, a charter was sue'h as would guarantee settlement and
granted to a company of merchants which cultivation. These became troublesome
gave the association almost regal powcrs landholders, and in 1638 the rights of the
to "colonize, govern, and protect" Kew company, it was claimed, were interfered
Netherland for the term of twenty-four with by a sptt1ement of Swedes on the
vpar
. It was ordained that durin
that Delaware. In )(340 the company establish-
time none of the inhahitants of the 1:rnitC'(] eel the doC'trines and rituals of the Re-
Provinces (the Dutch Hepubl i(')
hou ld he fOJ med rhurC'h in the Cnited Provinces
permitted to sail thence to the ('oasts of as the only theological formula to be al-
Africa betwef'll the tropic of rancer and lowed in public worship in New Nether-
t.he Cape of (joQd Hope; nor to the coastB land. The .pirit of popular freedom,
168

DUTTÔN-DWIOHT

which the Dutch brought with them from lication of Arcturus: (Z Journal of Books
Holland, asserted its rights under the and Opinions, in connection with Cor-
tyranny of \VILLIAM KIEFT (q. v.), and a nelius Matthews, which was continued
sort of popular assembly was organized at about a )Tear and a half. He contributed
New Amsterdam. Its affairs in New to the eady numbers of the New York
NetherJand were necessarily under the di- Rn,iew. In 18.H, in connection with his
rect management of a director-general brother George, he commenced the Liter-
or governor, whose powers, as in the ary H 7 01-ld, a periodical which continued
case of Kieft and Stuyvesant, were (with an interval of a year and five
sometimes so arbitrarily exerciseù that months) until the close of 1853. In
much popular discontent was rnani- 18;)6 the brothers completed the Cyclo-
fested, and their dealings with their pædia of A merican Literature, in 2 vol-
neighbors were not always satis- lImes, a work of great research and value.
factory to the company and the States- To this Eyert added a supplement in 1865.
General; yet, on the wholli!, when we His other important works are, lVit and
consider the spirit of the age, the colony, nïsdom of Ritfncy Smith; X ational Por-
which, before it was taken possession of trait-Gallery of Eminent Arnerican.s; His-
by the English in 1664, was of a mixeù tory of the War for the Union; History
population, was manageù wisely and we]]; of the World frorn the Earliest Period
and the Dutch West India Company was to the Present Time; and Portrait - Gal-
one of the most important instruments in Ipry of Eminent Jlen and Wornen of
planting the good seed from which our Rurope and A.merica (2 volumes). Mr.
nation has sprung. Duyckinck's latest important literary
Dutton, CLARE
CE EDWARD, military labor was in the preparation, in connection
officer; born in Wallingford. Conn., May with \YILLIA \{ CULLEN BRYANT (q. v.), of
15, 1841; graduated at Yale Co]]ege a new and thorougHy annotated edition
in 1860; served in the National army in of Shakespeare's writings. Evert died in
1862-64 and took part in several impor- New York City, Aug. 13, 1878. His
tant engagements; was appointed a second brother, GEORGE LONG, was born in New
lieutenant of ordnance, U. S. A., Jan. 20, York City, Oct. 17, 1823; graduated
1864; and was promoted major l\Iay 1, at the University of the City of New
1890. After the close of the Civil War York in 1843. Besiùes his assistance in
he was assigned to duty with the United the conduct of the Literary -World and
States Geological Survey. His publi- the preparation of the Cyclopædia of
cations incIlIde Geology of the High A /nprican T,itcratw'(', he published biog-
Plateaus of Utah; Hau;aiian Volcanoes; raphies of George Herbert (1858), Bishop
The Charleston Earthquake of 1886; Tcr- Thomas Ken (IS;)!)), Jeremy Taylor
tiary History of the Grand Cañon Dis- (1860), and Bishop Latimer (1861). He
trict; Mount Taylor and the Zuñi died in New York City March 30, 1863.
Plateau, etc. Dwight, TIIEODOHE, journalist; born
Duval, GABRIEL, statesman; born in in Northampton, Mass., Dec. 15, 1764;
Prince George county, Md., Dec. 6, 1752; was a grandson of the eminent theologian
\\ as a member of Congress, 1794-96, when .T onathan Edwards; became eminent as a
he resigned upon his appointment as judge lawyer and political writer; was for
of the Supreme Court of Maryland. In many years in the Senate of Connecticut;
1811 he was appointed to the United and in 1806-7 was in Congress, where
States Supreme Court and !'\erved until he bpcame a prominent advocate for the
1836, when he resigned. He died in Prince !';uppre!'\sion of the slave-trade. During
George county, March 6, 1844. the War of 1812-15 he edited the Mirror,
Duyckinck, E'"ERT AUGUSTUS, author; at Hartford, the leading Federal news-
born in New York City, Nov. 23, 1816; paper in Connecticut; and was !';ecretary
graduated at Columbia Col1pgc in 1835. of the HARTFORD CO
VE
TION (q. v.) in
His fath
r was a successful publisher, 1814, the proceedings of which he pul,.
and Evert earlv show('d a love for liEhed in 1833. He published the Albany
books and a taste for literary pursuits. TJailu Ad1,ertis('r in 18H>. and was thp
In December, 1840, he commenced the pub- founder, in 1817, of the New York Daily
169

DWIGHT-DYER

Advertiser, with which he was connected
until the great fire in 1835, when he re-
tired. with his family, to Hartford. Mr.
Dwight was one of the founders of the
American Bible Society. He was one of
the writers of the poetical essays of the
" Echo" in the Hartford .U ercury. He
was also the author of a Dictionary of
Roots and Derimtions. He died in Kew
York City, July 12, 1846.
Dwight, THEODORE, author; born in
Hartford, Conn., March 3, liDO; grad-
uated at Yale College in 1814; set-
tled in Brookl,yn, K. Y., in 1833. In as-
sociation with George White it is said
that he induccd about 9,000 people to
lea \"e the East and settle in Kansas. He
was the author of a )
etC Gazetteer of the
United S ta tcs (with \Yilliam Darby);
History of Connecticut; Tltc [(ansas War:
or the Exploits of Chir:al1-y in the N ine-
tccnth Century; A utobio!lra phy of General
Garibaldi, etc. lIe diC'd in Brooklyn, K.
Y., Oct. lü, ISGG.
Dwight, THEODORE \\'ILLlA1.f, educator
and jurist; born in Catskill, N. Y., July
18, 1822; gradllatC'd at Hamilton Collcge
in ]840; appointed Professor of
[unicipal
Law in Columbia in 18:>8; Professor of
Constitutional Law in Cornell in ]868,
and lecturer on constitutional law in .\m-
herst in ]8(iB; appointed a judge of the

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TRF.ODORE WILLIAM DWIGHT.

commi.,sion of appeals in January, ]874.
Professor Dwight was the most distin-
guished teacher of law in the rllit('d

tates. He died in Clinton, X. Y., .Tune

, 1 SfJ2.

Dwight, TBWTHY; born in Norwich,
Conn., Nov. 16, 182H; graduated at Yale
in 1849; tutored at Yale 18.>I-,3,3; Profcs-

TI:IIOTUY D\\ IGUT

sor of Sacred Litcrature and Xew Testa-
ment Greek at Ya]e, 1858-86; president
of Yale University, 1886-D9, when he re-
signed the office.
Dwight, TUfOTIIY, edumtor; born in
Korthampton,
Ia58., ::\Ia
r 14, ]7;'2;
graduated at Yalc Colle;.!p in 17(;0, and
was a tutor thcre from] 771 to ] 777, whm
he became an ann." ehaplain. and !"er\"('d
until Octoh('r, 1778. In 17R] and ]7Rli
was a memher of the ConnpC'tiC'ut legis-
]ature. In 17R3 he was a settlC'ù minister
at Greenfield and principal of an acadC'my
therp; and from ] 7 f);) until his dcath was
pre!iiident of Yalc College. lIe publif'hC'd
Tral"cls in XClt' J:n[lland and Yew rod.-,
in 4 Yolunl<'s. He dieù in Xew Ha\'pn,
('onn., .Tan. ll, IR17.
Dyer, ÐAVI() PATTERSOX, hn\yer; horn
in Hcnry county, Ya., Feb. 12. 1838; rp-
mowd to .:\Jif'!'ouri in ]841: eduC'atC'd at
St. Charles ColIC'ge; admittpd to the har
in ] 8.")f) , and practised tm ]R7ij. He "ai>
a membf'r of C'ongTPf'>o in 1
1Ìf)-71; ap-
pointC'd rnited Rtatps attorne.\" in ]87;);
l"('lJlm"pd to Rt. Louis: pr",.e('uted tlw
great "\"hisk)' Ring" in ] H7 ;)-7fi; was
defeated for governor of .:\lisf'oul"Ì in 1880;
delegate-at-large to the Kational Repuhli-
can Convf'ntion in ]888 and If)OO; and be-
came enitpd
tates attorney for the ea
t-
ern distriC't of .:\Iif'''ouri in l!10
.
Dyer, EI.IPIIALET, jurist; horn in

170

Windham, Conn., Sept. 28, 1721; grad-
uated at Yale College in 1740; became
a lawyer; and was a member of the
Connecticut legislature from 1745 to 1762.
He commanded a regiment in the French
and Indian \Var; was made a member
of the council in 17(32; and, as an active
member of the Susquehanna Company,
wpnt to England as its agent in 17(33.
Mr. D,yer was a member of the Stamp Act
Congrcss in 1705, and was a member of
the first Continental Congress in 1774.
He remained in that body during the en-
tire war excepting in 1779. He was judge
of the Supreme Court of Connecticut in
I i(ì6, and was chief-jhstice from I i8!) to
17f13. He died in Windham, May 13,
1807. Judge Dyer is alluded to in the
famous doggerel poem entitled Lau'yers
(Iud Bullfrogs, the introduction to which
aver.s that at Old Windham, in Connecti-
cut, after a long- drought. a frog-pond be-
came almost dQT, and a terrible battle was
fought one night by the frogs to decide
which should k
ep posspssion of the re-
maining water. Many" thousands were
df'funct in the morning." There was an
uncommon silence for hours before the
battle commenced. when, as if by a pre-
conc
rted agreement everv fro cr on one
side of the ditch 'raised the..... w'ar-cry
,. Colonel Dyer I Oolonel Dyer I" and ; t
thf' same instant, from the opposite side,
resounded the adverse shout of " Elderkin
too 1 Elderkin too I" Owing- to some pecu-
liarity in the state of the atmosphere. the
sounds seemed to he overhead, and the
people of Windham ,,'ere rrrea t1v frirrht-
f'nf'd. The poet says: ..... . .....
II This terrlhlE' night the parson did fright
His peonle almost in despair'
For poor "'Indham souls among the bean-
polf'R
He made a most wonderful prayer.

DYER

Lawyer Lucifer called up his crew;
Dyer and Elderkin, you must come, too:
Old Colonel Dyer you know well enough
lIe had an old negro, his name was Cuff.'"

Dyer, MARY, Quaker martyr; was the
wife of a leading citizen of Rhode Island.
Ha \"Îng embraced the doctrines and dis-
cip1ine of the Friends, or Quakers, she
became an enthusiast, and went to Boston,
whence some of her sect had heen banished
to give her "testimony to the truth." II;
that colony the death penalty menaced
those who should return after banish-
ment.
Iary was sent away and returned,
and was released while going to the gal-
lows with Marmaduke Stevenson with a
rope around her neck. She unwillingly
returned to her family in Rhode Island;
but she went back to Boston arrain for the
purpose of offering up her life to the
cause she advocated, and she was hanged
in 1(360. :\[ary had once be
n whipped on
her bare back through the streets of Bos-
ton, tied behind a cart.
Dyer, OUYER, author; born in Porter,
N. Y.. April 26, 1824; was educated at
the Genesee \Ypslevan Seminarv. Lima.
N. Y.; taug-ht scho
l: and later' Ipctured
on and taught the Isaac Pitman system of
phonography. In IR48 he beca
e a re-
porter in the Pnited States Senate; later
studied law and practised for a short time,
ahandoning it to devote himself to jour-
nalism; and was on the staff of the
Tribune, Run, and Ledfler of Ne,v York.
lIe wa!; ordained in the Swedenborgian
Church in J Ri(3. and had charO"e of a.
church in )Iount Vernon. He
vas au-
thor of The 1Vieked('st J[an in Nett;
Y01'k; Great R('nators of the United
State.'J Forty Years A.go; Life of A 11-
nrf'lJ) .Tackson; and Sketch of Henry lr.
Grady.

tion of the mouth of the :Mississippi by
jetties. Ill' \\ as authorized to undertake
it (and was yerv successful). for whieh
the gOH'rnnH'nt l,aid him $;;,123,000. At
the time of his death, in Kassau, N. P.,
March S. IHHï. hc was engaged in the pro-
motion of a project he had conceived of
(Onstructing a ship railway across the
Isthmus of 'l\'hua ntepec, between the At-
lantic and Pacilic oceans. In ISHI he re-
ceind thp AI!,PI t lIIed,11 from thf' British
Society of .-\rts, the first Amcrican to be
thus honOl'ed.
The jetty system consists simply of a
dike or embankment projecting into the
water, whose purpose is to narrow the
channel :'\0 that the natural action of the
wa tf'r will keep it clmr of sediment or
ot her obstruction. The :Mississippi Riyer
is. at its mouth, W feet deep and 1 %
milt's wide, and carries every minute
ï
,O()O,OOO feet of water to the Gulf,
which holds in solution nearly 20 per
cpnt. of mud and !'land. The river has
three channels to the sea-the Southwest
Pass, the Passe l'Outre, and the South
Pass-the first carrying out about 50
per cent. of its water, the second 40 per
cpnt., amI the third 10 per cent. There
is a har at the mouth of each pass, and
f'ach has a channel through which large
\"('sseJs may pass. This channel is about
1.20() feet wide and :W feet deep in the
large pas'<es, and (i00 feet wide and 35
feet deep in the small one. The swift
and concentrated current keeps the chan-
nf'l open, but the bar is continually
f1preading outward, and as it thus
spreads the water excavates a channel
through it, though not of a uniform df'pth
or width. Thus, a frcquent drcdging of
thl. bf'ginning of July, 18ï4, he comvleted the channel was necf's;:;ary to preypnt the
the magnificent iron railroad bridge across continual grounding of vessels upon it.
the l\Ii!"sissipI)i at St. Louis. Then he Captain }
ads wag the first to suggest
pressed upon the attention of the goyern- that this lahorious and expcnsive dredg-
went hilS plan for improving the na\"iga. ing procel's might be clone away with by
172

E Pluribus Unum. Its earliest oc-
currence is in a Latin poem called .llore-
turn, which is ascribed to YicgiJ. It \\ as
snggested as the motto for the SEAL OF
THE U
ITED STATES (q. t..) by the com-
mittee of the Great
eal. consic;:ting- of
Benjamin Franklin, .Tohn .\dams, and
Thomas Jefferson, on Aug. 10, 1 ïïH.
Ends, JAMES nrCIIANA
, engineer;
born in Lawrenceburg. Ind.,
Iay 23, 1820.
In I8ül he was emplo.n-d hy the national
government to construct
unhoats suit-
ahle for use in "'estern rinrs. In the
space of sixtJ'-five days he eonstrucÌ\.d
seven iron-clad gunboats. In 18ü2 he built
six more; also heavy mortar-boa ts. At

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E.

EADS-EAGLE

the use of jettie!'!. He reasoued that if in the Gulf. Five and
half million euhic
the banks of the passage through the bar
arùs of earth had hpf'n remo\"E'd, mainly
<:QuId be eÜended, ll(lt graduaUy, but by the action of the strong current
immediately, into the deep water of the created by the jetty. In the construc-

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POI:T EADS. 8Ql'TH PASS OF TAR MISSI8:-IPPI kIVt.R.

Gulf some 2 miles or more, it would tion of this important improvement the
produce force enough to e'l::ca,'ate a foUowing amount of material had been
cha.nnel the whole length of the bar. u!'oed: Willow, 592,000 cubic yards; stone,
This project he undertook to carry out 100,000 cubic yards; gravel, 10,000 cubic
at his own e).pense, agreeing not to re- :yards; concrete, 9,000 tons; piling and
ceive compensation for the work until it lumbcr, 12,000,000 feet. Captain Eads's
was completed; and the truth of his rea- plan has been provetl to be very success-
soning was proved by the results. In ful, for the banks of the jetty continu

the winter of 18ï4-7.j he laid his plan be- firm, and the channr.l is kept clear by
fore Congress, and in March, 1875, a bill the movement of the concentrated current
was passed empowering him to put it between them.
into execution. The work was begun in Eagan, CHARLES PATRICK, military offi-
June, 1875. The jetties were laiù out cer; born in Ireland in January, 1841;
paraUel with the current of the river, sC'rved through the Civil \Yar in the 1st
and at right angles with the Gulf cur- \Yashington Territory Infantry; was com-
rent, extending with a slight curve 2VJ, missioned 2d tÏeutenant 9th United States
miles out from the mouth of the river. Infantry in 18(36; and became brigadier-
Piles were first driW'n in to mark the general and commissary-general May 3,
path of the jetties; then willows fastened Hm8. During the American-Spanish 'Var
together in enormous mattresses were h(' was in clmrge of the commissary de-
sunk, and these filled in with stonps and partment of the army, and in January,
gravel. This work was done on the IS!)!), was tried by court-martial for criti-
South Pass, the narrowe>st of the three ci!'ing General
Iiles during an investiga-
channels of the l\Iis.-;issippi delta. Cap- tion into the> character of supplies furnish-
tain Eads wished to try his e).periment ed. to the army during the war; was BUS-
on the
outhwest Pa
!-\. the deppe!-\t and ppnded from rank and duty for six years
widf'st chann('l, but ('ongre!-\s won 1 (1 not on Feb. !): and was restored and imme-
permit bim to do so. The work of mak- diately retired Ðf'('. n, 1900.
ing the Routh Pa;;:s .kttips was comp!etpd Eagle, the standard of the Persian and
July 9, 187U. A channel 30 feet dpep. the Roman; also adopted by Charlemagne
with a minimum width of 45 feet. had with a second head ae the standard of the
been made from the river to deep water holy Roman empire of Germany. The
li3

EAGLE-EARLE

eagle was the 8tandard of Fran('e during Bngland; (Y/lÌna - Collecting in America;
the empire. as it is now of .\ustria, Rus- ('/lstoms and F(u
hions in Old New Eng-
:sia, and Prussia. The great seal of the land; Life of Maryaret Winthrop; Diary
United :-\tates (se(' SEAL OF TIlE UXITED of a Boston ßrhool- Girl; Costume of
STATES) bears a shield on the breast of Colonial Times; Colonial Dames and
the eagle: The $10 gold coin of the GoodlL'ivcs: Old Narragansett; Colonial
United States is also called an eagle. It Days in Old ")..Tew J"ork; Curious Punish-
was first coined in 1794. 1\"0 eagles were ments of Bygone Days; Home [..ife in
coined between 1805 and 1837. The $20 COI01ii{ll Days; Child Life in Colonial
gold coin is popularly known as the double }Jays; Coach and 'J'al"ern Days; and was
(.agle. part author of Early Prose and l'erse;
Eagle, HEXRY, naval officer; born in Historic .Yew York: Chap Book Essays;
Xew York City, April 7, 1801; entered the Old-Time Garden,s, Sundials, and Roses of
na\"y in 1818; and had command of the J"esterdoy; etc.
bomb-vessel .Rtlla and also a part of the Earle, PLINY, inventor; born in Leices-
Gulf fleet during the ::\Iexican \Var. At ter, Mass., Dec. 17, 17G2; became connect-
the beginning of the f'ivil \Yar he carried ed with Edward Snow in 1785 in the man-
important messages from Brooklyn to ufacture of machine and hand caI'ds for
Washington. While in command of the carding wool and cotton.
Ir. Earl
llad
.1lontu-ello he was engaged in the first first made them by hand, but afterwards
naval engagement of the war, silencing the by a machine of his own invention.
guns of Sewell's Point battery. Va., .May OUVER EVANS (q. v.) had already invent-
19, 1861. He was promoted commodore in ed a machine for making card-teeth, which
18G2; rdin'd in January, 18lì3. He died produced :mo a minute. In 1784 Mr. Crit-
in Xo\"ember, 1882. tenden, of N"ew Haven. Conn., invented a
Eagle, JAMES PHILLIP, clergyman; born machine which produced 80,000 card-
in Maury county, Tenn., Aug. 10, 1837; teeth, cut and bent. in an hour. These

('quirecl a country-s('hool and a collegiate card-teeth were put up in hagA and dis-
education; served in the Confederate tributed among fami1ie<l, in which th

army in the Civil War, and attained the women and children stuck them in the
rank of colonel. After the war he became leather. Leicester waA the chief seat of
a Baptist mini!'>ter and cotton-planter; this industry. and to that place SA?n
L
was a member of the Arkansas legislature SI,ATER (q. ".), of Rhode Island, wf"nt
for four years; and of the constitutional for card clothing for the maehines in his
convention in 18i 4; one of tlw commis- cotton-mill. Hearing that Pliny Earle
sioners to adjust the debt of the Brook- was an expert card-maker, he went to him
Baxter war o\"er the governorship in 1874; and told him what he wanted. :Mr. Earle
and was governor of
\rkansas in 1889-9
. invented a machine for pricking th
holes
Eames, \YILBERFORCE, librarian; born in the leather-a tedious proeess by hand
in Kewark, N. J., Oct. 12, 185.'); appointed -and it worked admirablv. A f('w years
a8sistant in the Lenox Library, 18H5; Ii- afterwards Eleazer Smith (see WI;ITTE-
hrarian in 18!)
. He is the author of ;\IORE, A 'IO
) made a great improvemf'nt
many bibliographical books, among them by inventing a machine that not only
an account of th(' early New England cat- prickp() the holes, but set the teeth more
eehisms, a comparatin' ('Clition of the va- ('''pertl.\' than human fing-ers could do.
rious texts of Colnmhns's lett('r announe- About IR43 "ïlliam n. Earle, son of
ing the di!"covery of America, and 'editor Pliny. improved Smith's invention. and
of several volumes of
ahin's nictionary the machine thus produced for making
of Books relating to .1Il/rri,.o, besides card dothing proved the hest ever madp.
many articles on bibliographical Imbjects. By Mr. Earle's first invention the lahor of
Earle, AucE ::\[OR!',E, author; born in a man for fifte('n hourA ('ould be pprform-
\Vorcf'ster, Mass., April 27, lR!)
. She ed in fìfte('n minutes. 1[r. Earle possesspd
has written extensivelv on the manner and e"tensÌ\'e aUa inments in scienee and Jiter-
customA of the colo
ial periods in 1\"('w ature. Hp died in Leicester, Nov. 19. 18
2.
}:ngland and Xew York. Among her publi- Earle, THOMAS, statesman; born in Lei-
('ationA are Th,. ,ç:n1Jhnth ill Puritan N('/I"' ('Pstpr. MaAA., April 21. 17!}(ì; removed to
174

EARLY-EARTHQUAKES

tinued thunder, and the slwck lasted about
four minutes. The earth shook with sueh
,-iolence that in some places the people
could not stand upright without difficulty,
and many movable articles in the houses
were thrown down. The earth was unquiet
for twenty days aften,ards. On Jan. 26,
lGü3, a heavy shock of earthquake was
felt in Xew England and in N
w York,
and was particularly severe in Canada,
where it was recorded that "the doors
opened and shut of themselves with a
fearful clattering. The bells rang with-
out being touched. The walls were
split asunder. The floors separated and
fell down. The fields put on the appear-
ance of precipices, and the mountain!>
seemed to be moving out of their places."
Small rivers were dried up; SOme moun-
tains appeared to be much broken and
moved, and half-way between Quebec and
Tadousac two mountains were shaken
down, and formed a point of land extend-
ing SOme distance into the St. Lawrence.
On Oct. 29, 1727. there was a severe
earthquake in Kew England, lasting about
two minute!>. Its course seemed to be
from the Delaware River, in the south-
west, to the Kennebec. in the northeast,
a distance of about 700 miles. It oc-
cUlTed at about twenty minutes before
eleven o'clock in the morning. and th

sky was serene. Pewter and china were
cast from their sheh'es. and stone walls
served as a major-genf"raI of volunt<,ers and chimney-tops were shaken down. In
during the war with
Iexico. He waR ap- some places doors Were bur,;;t open, and
pointed colonel in the ('onfederate ser- people could hardly keep their feet.
vice at the outbreak of the Civil 'Var. He There had heen an interval of fifty-five
was one of the ablest and most successful ,wars since the last earthquake in New
of the Confederate generals, but was de- Enf!land. On the same day the island of
feated at "-inchester, Fisher's HilI, and
rartinique. in th(' "Test Inòies. was
CecIar ('reek. At Gettysburg he com- tllreat('ned with total destruC'tion by an
lIIand('d a ùi,'ision of Lee's army. and the earthquakp which lasted elen'n hours.
seconù at ('('ùar Creek, where Sheridan On
ov. 18, 1755. an earUlquake shock
arrived in time to rally his men after his was felt from Chesapeake Bay along the
famou!> ride. In 1888 he published a book coast of Halif,.x. Xova Scotia. ahout ROO
giving the history of the last .year of the miles: and in the interior it seems to
Civil "-ar, during which time he was in have ext('nded. from northwest to south-
command of tll(' army of the
ll('nandoah. east. more than l.000 miles. In Boston
He died in L
-nchburg. Va., 1farch 2. 18f1-t. 100 dlimneys were levened with the roof!"
Earthquakes. On .Tune I, Hi3R. b('- of t1w hOllS(,S. and 1.;)00 shattered. The
tween the hours of 3 and 4 P.],!., the vane on th(' public market was thrown to
weather clear and warm, and the wind the earth. At Xew Haven, Conn.. the
westerly, an Xew England was viol('ntIy grounò moved like waves of the sea; the
shaken by an internal convul..,ion of the houses shook and cracked, and many
('arth. It ranI(' on with a lIoi!'e lik<, con- chimnepi \\'(,1"e thrown down. It oc-
1 ï.)

Philadclphia in 1817; he edited succes-
sively The Columbian Obscrver, Ntandard,
Pcnnsyll:anian. and Jlechanics' Frrc Prr88
and Reform Adl:ocate. He was a member
of the Pennsylvania constitution COfl\"en-
tion of 1837, and is believed to have draft-
ed the new constitution. He died in Phila-
delphia, July 14. 1840.
Early, JURAL
\XDERSON, military offi-
cer; born in Franklin county, Va., Nov.
:J. 18lü; graduated from West Point in
I H:3 7, and served in the Florida war the
same year. In 1838 he resigned his com-
mission and studied law. In 18H he

.

';If, "

'1

-.

A,

.
': ,
. \y
1\' \

Â>-

JUB.AL A. EARLY.

EARTHQUAKES-EAST INDIA COMPANY

. \

A RE8l T I.T 0.' THE KAI!TII4UAKK 1:10 (,HARUSTO
. AUGn'T 31, 1886.

curred at four o'clock in the morning. 2.000 houses were overthrown; and half
and lasted four and a haH minutes. At of the island of Madeira. GOO miles south-
the same time there was a great tidal- west from Portugal, became a waste.
wave in the \Vest Indies. In April, the The last earthquake of consequence was
same year, Quito, in South America. was on Aug. 31, 1886, when a large part of
destroyed by an earthquake; and eighteen the city of Charleston, S. C., was de-
days before the earthquake in Korth stroyed. with many lives.
America there was an awful and exten- East India Company, THE. At the
Rive one in southern Europe that extend- close of HiOO, Queen Elizabeth granted a
ed into Africa. The earth was violently charter to a company of London mer-
5haken for 5.000 miles-even to f'cotIand. chants for the monopoly of the trade over
In eight minutes the city of Lisbon. with a vast e
panse of land and sea in the re-
50,000 inhabitants, was swallowed up. gion of the East Indie8, for fifteen years.
Other cities in Portugal and Spain were The charter was renewed from time to
partially destroyed. One half of Fez, in time. The first squadron of the company
northern Africa, was destroyed, and more (five ves"e]s) sailed from Tor bay (Feb.
than I 2,000 Arabs perished. In the islan. 15, 160 I) and began to make footholds.
of Mitylene, in the Grecian Archipelago, speedily, on the islands and continental
Ii6

EASTMAN-EASTPORT

ehores of the East, establishing factories tion of leader of the minute-men of that
in many places, and at length obtaining tOW11. When the expedition to assail
a grant (1608) from a native prince of Ticonderoga was m:ganized in western
Calcutta and two adjoining villages, with :Massachusetts, Colonel Ea"ton joined
the privilege of erecting fortifications. Allen and Arnold in accomplishing the
This was the first step towards the ac- undertaking, and it was he who bore the
quirement by the company, under the first tidings of success to the Provincial
auspices of the British government, of Congress of :Massachusetts. He died in
,'ast territorial possessions, with a popu- Pittsfield, l\Iass.
lation of 200,000,000, over which, in 1877, Easton, JOlIN, colonial governor; son
Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress. of Nicholas j was gm-ernor of Rhode Island
The company had ruled supreme in India, in 1600-95. He was the author of a Nar-
with SOme restrictions, until 1858, when ,-ative of the Oauses 'which If'd to Philip's
the government of that Oriental empire India(/, War.
was vested in the Queen of England. Easton, LANGDON CHEVES, military offi-
Though the company was not abolished, cer j born in St. Louis, Mo., Aug. 10, 1814 j
it was shorn of all its political power. as graduated at the United States Mili-
it had been of its trade monopoly. The tary Academy in 1838; and served in the
East India Company first introduced tea Florida, Mexican, and Civil wars. In
into England. in the reign of Charles Dpcember, HW3, he was appointed chief
II. quartermaster of the Army of the Cumber-
Eastman, HARVEY GRIDLEY, educator; land; and in l\Iay, 1864, was assigned the
born in Marshall, Oneida co., N. Y., Oct. same post in the army under General
16, 1832: after attending the common Sherman. He received the brevet of ma-
schools of his neighborhood. completed his jor-general in March, 1863; retired in Jan-
education at the State Xormal School at uary, 1881. He died in Kew York City,
Albany; and at the age of twenty-three .April 20, 1884.
opened a commercial school at Oswego, Easton, NICHOLAS, colonial governor;
N. Y., having been a teacher in a similar born in 1593 j came to America in 1634,
school kept by his uncle in Rochester. In and settled in Ipswich, l\Iass. In Hì3H
tllat school he first conceived the plan of a he removed to Hhode Is]and and erected
cfJmmerda] or business college. On Kov. 3, the first house in Newport; was gm-eru-
] 859, 1\1r. Eastman opened a business col- or of Rhode Is]and and Providence in
lege in Poughkeepsie, with a single pupil. 16.'50-52. He died in Newport, R. 1., Aug.
In 1865 there were more than 1,700 stu- 15. 1675.
dents in the college. It was the first insti- Eastport, CAPTCRE OF. ESlrly in July.
tution in which actual Imsiness was 1814, Sir Thomas 1\1. Hardy sailed secretly
taught. 1\1r. Eastman was a very liberal from Halifax with a squadron, consisting
and enterprising citizen, foremost in every of the Rumillics (the flag-ship), sloop
judicious measure which promised to bene- Jlartin, brig Borer. t]w Bream, the bomb-
fit the community in which he lived. He ship Tcrror, anù se, pml tnm"ports, with
was twice e]eeìed mayor of the city, and troops under Col. Thomas Pilkington. Thl'
held that office at the time of his death, squadron entered Pas
amaquoddy Bay 011
in Denver, Col., .Ju]y 13, 1878. On the the 11th, and anchored off Fort Sullivan.
day of his funeral the city was draped in at Eastport. :!\Ie., th
n in command of Maj.
mourning and nearly an places of busi- Perley Putnam with a garrison of fifty
ness were closed, for he was eminently re- men, having si'i: pieces of artillery. HardJ-
sperted as a citizen and as a public officer. demand('ù an instant stIrrcnùer, giying
Easton, JAMES, military officer; horn in Putnam only fiye minute:') to consider.
Hartford, Conn.: became a builder, and The latter promptly refused. but at the
settled in Pittsfield, Mass., in 1763. Ac- importunity of the alarmed inhabitants,
tive in business and strong in intellect, he who were indisposed to resist, he surren-
became a leader in public affairs there, dered the post on condition that, while the
and was chosen to a seat in the 1\1assa- British should take posse"ósion of all
chusetts AS5emb]y in 1774. He was also public property. pri,'ate property should
colon('1 in the militia, and held the posi- be respected. This was agr.:>ed to, and
111.-),( 177

EATON

1,000 armed men, with wom
n and chil- the United States Bureau of Education,
dren, a battalion of artillery, and fifty or with circulars and bulletins for sixteen
si:ÜJ' piC'ces of cannon were landed on the ,years, addresses, and numerous magazine
main, when formal possession was taken articles.
of the fort, the to\\ n of Eastport, and all Eaton, JOHN HENRY, statesman; born
the islands and villages in and around in Tennessee in 1787; was United States
l'assamHquodd
' Ba.r. Several ye!-i!';els laden Senator from Tennessee in I818-2!); re-
with goods ntlued at $300,000, ready to be signed to become Secretary of War \lnder
!-illmggled into the United States, were President Jackson; appointed governor

eizl'd. Si
ty cannon were mounted, and of Florida Territory in 1834; resigned to
ciyil rule was t:'stabli
hed under British become "Cnited States minister to Spain
otticials. The Briti<:h Iwld quiet posses- in 1836. He published a Life of 4.ndrew
sion of that region until the close of the Jackson, who was his coll('ague in the
war. Renate for two years. He died in \Vash-
Eaton, DOP.)IA:'i BRIumlAx, lawyer; born ington, D. C., Nov. 17, 1856. See EATON,
in Hardwick, YL, June 27, 1823; grad- !\IARGARET L. O'NEILL.
uated at the University of Vermont in Eaton, MARGARET L. O'NEILl" daughter
1848; was active in promoting civil ser- of \YilJiam O'Neill, an Irish hotel-keep-
yiee reform. and was a member of the er in \Yashington; born in 1706, and after
lmited States Civil Service Commission the d('ath of her first husband, John B.
for many
'ears. He was the author of Timberlake, she married John H('nry
Ci1:il Hcn-icc in Great Britain: The In- Eaton, United States Senator from T(>n-
dep('ndent llol.'ement in Nc/(." Yor/.:, etc.; nessee. Upon the appointment of her
and editor of the 7th edition of Kent's husband to the office of Secrctary of War,
Commentari('s. He died in New York 1\lrs. Eaton was not recogniz(>d socially
Cit.r, Dec. 23, InOO. by the wives of the other membcrs of the
Eaton, JOlIN, (>ducator; born in Sut- cabinet. President Jackson interfered, and
ton, N. H., Dec. 5, 1820; was graduated demanded that
rrs. Eaton should receive
at Dartmouth CoJIege in 1854; applied the usual social courtesies. In consequence
himself to educational pursuits tiH 185!), of these social quarrels, a disruption of t h(>
when he entered Andover Theological cabinet took place in 1831. After 1\[r.
Seminary, and in 1802, after his ordi- Eaton's death his widow married an Ital-
nation, was appointed chaplain of the ian. She died in \Yashington, Nov. 8,
2ith Ohio Voluntcer Infantry. In 1'0- lR7!).
vember of the same ,year he was made Eaton, THEOPHILUS, colonial governor:
superintendent of fre
dmen, and later born in Stony Stratford, England, in
was given supervision of all military 1591; was bred a merchant, and was for
posts from Cairo to Katchez and Fort some years the English rcpresentative at
Smith. In Oct01l(>r, I8ß3, he b(>came the Court of Denmark. Afterwards he wa!';
('0101](>1 of t]w (j3d Cnited
tat(>s Colored a distinguislwd London merchant, and a('-
Infantry, and in March, 18tì5, was companied
Ir. Davpnport to Kew Eng--
brenttC'd briga,lier-gpni'ral. He was editor land in Hi:37. "7ith him })(' a!';sil"ted in
of the )lemphis Post in IRG(j-(ij, and founding the Kew Hawn colony, and wa

Htate buperintendent of public instruc- chosen its first chief magistrat('. 1\11'.
tion in Tennessee in IRG7-tì9. From 1871 Eaton filJed the chair of that office con-
to IR8G he was commisl"ioner of the United tinuous1y until his death, Jan. 7, 165R.
States Bureau of Education, and then be- Eaton, \YU.LTAM, military officC'r; born
came presid(>nt of )Ta.rietta Co]]ege, 0., in "'oodstock, ('onn., F(>b. 23, 17G4; grad-
where he remain(>d until IR!H; was presi- uated at Dartmouth Co]]ege in 17!)0; ('n-
dent of the Rhe1don .Jackson ('olJeg-e of t(>rC'(l the Continmtal army at the age
Salt Lake City in 18!)5-!l8. when he was of sixteen; and was discharged in 1783.
appointed inspector of public education In 1707 he was appointed American con-
in Porto Rico. He is author of History "iul at Tunil", and arrived there in 1799.
of 'l'hetford A cadrmy,. 1l0rmons of To- He acted with so much boldness and tact
day; The Preedman, in the War (re- that he secured for his country thE' free-
port); f
chools of Tr1llu'.<i.<i('r; reports of dom of its comrnf'ree from attacks by
17R

EBEN -EZER-ECONOCHACA

Tunisian cruisers. He returned to the Choetaw Inùians, arrh-ed near Econocha-
United States in 1803; was appointed ca, ur Holy Uround, a village built by
naval agent of the Cnited States for the \Yeathersford upon a bluff on the left
Barbary States, and accompanied the hank of thc Alabama, just below Powell"f'
American fleet to the 1\1editerranean in Ferry, Lowndes co., in an obscure place.
1804. He aEsisted Hamet Caramelli, the as a "city of refuge" for the wounded
rightful ruler of Tripoli, in an attempt to and dispersed in battle, fugitives from
recover his throne, usurped by his brother. their homes, and women and children.
Soon afterwards Eaton n>tunted to the No path or trail led to it. It had been
Cnited States, and pas"ed the rem:lÏnder of dedicated to this humane purpose h)'
his life at Brimfield. For his services to Tecumseh and the Prophet a few month!"
American commerce the State of l\lassH- before, and the Cherokees had been assured
chusetts gave him 10.000 acres of land. bJ them that, like Auttose, no white ma!)
The King of Denmark gaYf' him a gold could tread upon the ground and live.
box in acknowledgment
f hi!ì services to There the Indian priests performed their
commerce in general and for the release incantations, and in the square in the
of Danish captives at Tunis. Burr tried centre of the town the most dreadful
to enlist General Eaton in his conspiracy, cruelties had already been perpetrated.
and the latter testified against him on ''''hite prisoners and Creeks friendly to
his trial. Ue died in Brimfield, 1\1ass., them had been there tortured and roasted.
June I, Hill. Hee TRIPOLI, WAR WITH. On the morning of Dec. 23 Claiborne ap-
Eben-Ezer or Amana Community. pea-red before the town. At that moment
A communistic society originating in Ger- a number of friendly haH-bloods of both
many at the beginning of the eighteenth sexes were in the square, surrounded by
century. They removed to America in rine-wood, ready to be lighted to consume
1843 and settled near Buffalo, N. Y., but them, and the prophets were busy in their
removed to Iowa in 1855. mummery. The troops advanced in three
Eckford, HENRY, naval constructor; columns. The town was almost !ìurrounJ-
born in Irvine, Scotland, 1\1arch 12, 1775; ed by swamps and deep ravines, and the
learned his profession with an uncle at Indians, regarding the place as holy, and
Quebec, began business for him!"p1f in New having property there of great valut',
York in 17D6, and soon took the lead in though partially surprised, prepared to
hi8 profession. During the War of 1812- fight desperately. They had conve)'ed
If) he constructed ships-of-war on the their women and children to a place of
J.akes with great expedition and skill; safety deep in the forest. By a simul-
and soon after the war he built the steam- hHWOUS movement, Claiborne's three col.
ship Robert Fulton, in which, in 18
2, mnns closed upon the town at the same
he made the first successful trip in a craft moment. So une'\:pected was the attack
{,f that kind to New Orleans and Havana. that the dismayed Indians broke and fled
Made naval constructor at Brooklyn in hC'fore the whole of the troops c.-mId gl't
- 820, six ships-of-the-Iine were built after into aption. 'Yeathersfonl was there. The
his modpls. Interference of the board of Indians Hed in droycs along the hank of
naval commissioners caused him to leave the riw'r, and by swimmin
and the u;;;e
the service of the government, but he of canoes they escappd to the other !"idC'
afterwards made ships-of-war for Buro- and joined their families in the fore
t.
pean powers and for the independpnt V\'eathersford, when he found himself dp-
states of South America. In 1831 11e serted hv his warriors. fled swiftlv on a
huilt a war-vessel for the Sultan of Tur- hor!"e to' a bluff on tllf' rÎ\'er betw
en two
key, and, going to Constantinople, or
an- ravinpf::. hotly pursued. wllf'n his horse made
ized a navy-yard there, and there he died, n mighty hound from it. and the horse
Nov. 12. 1832. and rider disappeared under the wa.ter for
Econochaca, BATTLE AT. l\Iarching a mompnt. when both arose, 'Veathersford
from Fort Deposit, in Butler county, Ala. !"rasping the manp of hi
charger with om'
(December, 1813), General Claiborne. hand and his rifle with the other. Hp
pushing through the wilderness nearly eseaped in safety. Econochaca was plun-
30 milei with horie and foot and friendly df'Ted hy the Choctaws and laid in asheR.
179

EDDIS-EDGAR

.Full)" 200 huU!se
wet.e dcstroJel1, aud office many of the tea-party diøguised
thirty Indiaus killed. The Tennesseeaus themselves, and were there regaled with
lost one killed anl1 six wounded. punch after the exploit at the wharf was
Eddis, \YIJ,LIA
I, ro
'alist; born in Eng- performed. He began, with Mr. Gill, in
land about 1 i 45; came to America in 1769, Ii 55, the publication of the Boston Gazettø
and settled in Annapolis, l\Id. Hc was and Country Journal, which became a
sune)'or of customs till the troubles be- \ery popular newspaper, and did emineut
tween the colonies and the home govern- sH\"Íce in the cause of popular hbert
..
ment became so ..trong that it was unsafe Adams, Hancock, Otis, Quincy, \Varren,
for royalists to remain in the country. On and other le<lding spirits were constant
.Tune 11,1;;6, he was ordered, with others, coutributors to ib
columns, while 1\11".
b
' the patriot "Committee of Obsen-a- F.des himself wielded a caustic pen. He
tion," to leave the country before Aug. 1. \\.as in "'atertown during the siege of
His time, however, was extcnl1ed, and he Roston, from which place he issued the
continued in office till April, 1 iï7, when Gazette, the" muuth-piece of the \Yhigs."
he returned to England. He was the au- It was discontinued in 1798, after a life,
thor of Lettc'rs from Imerica. sustained by Edes. of forty years. He
Eddy, RICHAIW, author; born in Provi- died in Roston, Dec. 11, 1803.
dt'nce, R. I., June 21, 1828; removed to Edes, HEXI:Y HFlmERT. historian; born
Clinton, X. Y., in 1848; studied theology in Charlcstown. !\Iass.,
rarch 29, 1842;
titHe, and was ordained to the ministry of is a member of many historical societies,
the "Cnitarian Church. In HWI-63 he was and the author of History of the Harvard
eltaplain of the 60th Kew York Regiment; Chtt'rch in Charlcstoll"n; Historical Sketch
in 1878 was eledel1 president of the rni- of (,har1l'stou."n; editor of n r yman'8
tarian Historic'al Society; and became el1i- (;(11('010flics and Estates of (,harlestotCn;
tor of the CninTsalist Quartcr1!!. His Foote's .t 11na1s of J(ing's Chapd, Boston,
publications include a History of the GOth etc.; anl1 a contributor to the J[emo-rial
Rcgiment, "}..'ctO ror"Tv State roluntccls; ni.<;tory of Boston.
Universalism in .tmcrÍca, a History,' A leo- Edes, PETER, patriot; born in Bo:Üon,
llOl in llistor'y: and three sermons on Lin- Mass., Dec. 17, 1756; educated at the
coIn. entitled The JIO'rtyr to LibeTty. Boston T.atin School. Shortly after the
Eden, CIl.\HLES, colonial governor; battle of Bunker Hill he was impris-
born in England in 16ï3; appointed gOY- OJwcl hy General Gage, who charged him
ern or of Xorth Carolina, July 13, 171
. with ha\'ing fire - arms coneealcd in his
During his administration he arrested house. lIe spent 107 days in a room of
the pirate Edward Teach, usually called the Roston jai1. lIe was th(> publisher
"llIack-Reard." JIe died in :Korth Caro- of an edition of the Fifth of lfarch Om
lina, March 17, Iï22. tions: all"o an oration on \Yashington.
Eden, Sm ROUERT, ro
'al governor; bOIn Tn 1837 the diary of his impri,;;onment.
in Durham, England. Succeel1ing Gov- C'ontaining a Jist of the pri'ioner::! capt-
ernor Rharpe as royal governor of
Iary- ured at Runkel' Hill. wal" pnllli
ll('d in
land in 17(iR, he was more moderate in Bangor, and a Jetter allont tlu' .. BOl"ton
llis al1mini..tration than his prel1ecessors. tea-party," addressed to his gmnd>\on. ap-
He complied with the orders of Congrel"s pears in the Proccrdinfls of the .1fassu-
tu àbdicate the gO\'ernment. Hc went to chu8etts Historical f
ociet!l. He dicd in
England, and at the close of the war re- Hangor. l\f(>.. March 30. 18-tO.
turned to reco\"('r his cRtate in :Maryland. Edgar, IJEXRY CORXELIUS, dergymall;
lIe had married a sister of I.ord Balti- born in Rahway, K. J., April 11, lRll;
more, and was created a haron(>t, Oct. If!, graduated at PrinC'eton College in lR
I;
1776. lIc died in Annapolis,
rd., Sept. 2, became a merchant; was licensed to
178û. preach by the Presbyterian Church in
Edes, TIEx.T.UnS, journalist: horn in 1 R-t!). During the Civil \Yar he spokp
CharJestown. :\Iass., Oct. 14. 1 i
2: was forcihly against slavery. His puhlish('d
captain of the Ancient and Honorable Ar- orations and sermons include Thr('(' ',pr(-
til1ery Company in 1760. and one of the W'P8 on Slat"erJj; FOllr ni.<;rollr!U'.., OCC(
-
Boston Sons ,")f T.iberty. In his printing- sioned by the Death of Linroln: _4 n f.'z.
1St)

EDGREN-EDISON

pooitiQn of the lJast l\ïne Wars; Chrill-
lianity our Nation's 1Vi8
8t Policy; A
Discourse Occasioned by the Death of
President Garfield, etc. He died in Easton,
Pa., Dec. 23, 1884.
Edgren, AUGUST HJALMAR, author:
born in Wermland, Sweden, Oct. 18,
1840; graduated at the University of Up-
sola; came to the United States, and
joincd the National army in January,
I Sli2; was promoted first lieutenant and
assigned to the Engineer Corps in Au-
gust, 1863. Soon after he returned to

weden. His publications include The Lit-
f-rature of A_me1'iea.. The Public Schoúls
and Colleges of the United Statcs}' A met--
ican Antiquities, etc.
Edict of Nantes, THE, an edirt pro-
mulgated by Henry IV. of France, which
gave toleration to the Protestants in
f(-uds, civil and religious, and ended the
religious wars of the country. It was
published
-\pril 13, 1598, and was con-
firmed by Lo
is XIII. in 1610, after the
murder of hiR father; also by Louis xrv.
in lr,.)
: but it was revoked b
T him, Oct.
22, 1GS:;. It was a g-reat I"tate hI under,
for it deprived Fram'e of 500,000 of her
best citizens, who fled into Germany. Eng-
land, and America. and gave those coun-
tries the richcs that flow from industry.
skill, and sobriety. They took with them
to England the art of silk-weaving, amI
so gave France an important rival in that
branch of indw;;try.
Edison, THmlAs AI,vA, electrieian;
born in :Milan, 0., Feb. II, 1847. H(' was
taught by his mother till he was twelve
years old, when he hegan work as a new
-
paper boy, obtaining an exclusive contract
for the sale of newspapers on the Detroit
rlivil"ion of the Grand Trunk Rail ",a,". Hc
continued at this work for fin> years.
M('anwhile he bought a l"111a11 printing
outfit, wl1ieh 11e carried on the train, and
by which he printed a small weekly pap(,I',
caJl('d The Grand Trunk Hrrald. Its Ruh-
scription list showed 4'>0 names. When
the Civil 'Var broke out tJJ(' enonnom; in-
erease in n('wspap('r traffic confined his
whole attention to thnt hran('h of hi
husi- ployed. \\"('nt to Xew York with original
ness. He conceiverl and earri('d out tlw apparatus for duplex and printing teleg--
idea of having Jarg(' hu]]etin-hoards
et raphy, the latter b('ing the Im.sis of nearlv
up at every station along the line of thE' all the subsequent Gold and Stock Ex-
rRilronrl, on whil'h lIP l'auspd to lw rhalk('d ('hang(' telegrnph rcporting in
truments.
by telegraph operators and station agents rn Ncw York he soon formed Rn Rlliance
181

the new!!! headings of bis papers. The re-
lations which he thu5 formed with tele-
graph operators awakened a desire to
learn telegraphy. Not content with the
opportunities offered by the railway tele-
graph, he, with a neighbor who had simi-
lar inclinations, built a line a mile long
through a wood which separated their
homes. Edison made the instruments, hut
having no way of getting a battery felt
at a loss as to how he should proceed. He
soon thought of a novel expedient, but
its application proved a total failure.
Having noticed that electric sparks were
generated by rubbing a eat's back, he fas-
tened a wire to a eat's leg, and rubbing
its fur briskly, watched for an effect upon
the instrument, but none followed. While
engaged in commercial telegraphy in Cin-
cinnati in 1867, he conceived the idea of
transmitting two messages over one wire
at the same time, totally ignorant that
this hall been attempted by electricians
many years before. He continued to make
e)..periments in every branch of telegraph,y,
attending to his office duties at night and
experimenting in the daytime. In 186!J
he retired from the operator's table, and,
leaving Boston. wlwre lw was then em-

/

/

THO'll'AS AL'I'"A f'OTSO:'\".

EDMONDS-EDUCATION

with electricians and manufacturers, and,
after a few years of varied experience with
partners in the laboratory and in the shop,
he removed to ::\Ienlo Park,
. J., in 1876,
where he established himself on an inde-
pendent footing, with everything which
could contribute to or facilitate invention
and research. In 1886 ::\11'. Edison bought
property in Llewellyn Park, Orange, N.
J., and later removed there from Menlo
Park. Hi:-l inventions are many and
varied. His contributions to the develop-
ment of telegraphy are represented hy
siÜy patents und caveats assigned to the
Gold and Stock Telegraph Com pan)" of
Xew York, and fifty to the Automatic
Tdegraphy Company. His inventions in-
clude the incandescent electric light. the
carbon telegraph transmitter. the micro-
tasimeter for the detection of small
changes in the temperature; the mega-
phone, to magnify sound; the phonograph,
the patent of which he sold for $1.000.000;
the aerophone; the kinetoscope, etc. On
:':ppt. 27, 1889, he was made a Chevalier
of the Legion of Honor by the French gov-
ernment. appointed by the Indianapolis moneta-ry
Edmonds, .Tonx \YORTH, lawyer; born conference, which repùrted to CongrpC;;j5 a
in Hudson, X. Y., :March 13, 170!); grad- seheme of currency reform.
uated at Lnion College in 1816; ad- Education. Popular education made
mitted to the bar in ISI0: elected to the rapid progress in the United States dur-
Xew York .\ssembly in 18
1. and the Npw ing the nineteenth century. In 1776 there
York Senate in 18
2; became a circuit were seven col1eges in the English-
judge in 1845, and was appointed to the American colonies, and the common
Court of Appeals in u;;)
. He was the schools were few and very inferior. At
author of Spiritllali,çm; Letters and the end of the school year, 1808-f)!!, the
Tracts on Spiritualism, besides a numher population of the country was estimated
of law books. He died in Xew York City, at 76,000,000, of which 20% per cent.
April 5, 1874. was enrolled in the public elementary
Edmunds, GEORGE FRAXKLlX,
tates-
md high schools, or 15,138,715; and the
man; born in Richmond, Vt., Feh. 1, total in all schools,
lementary, second-
1 R28; took an early nnll active part in ary, and higher, both public and prh'ate,
Yermont politics, !'C'rving several terms in was 16,738,362. Of the total enrolment,
b0th houses of the legislature; was 10,389,407 were in av\'rage daily attend-
speaker of the Housc of Representatives ance in the public schools. There was a
and president pro t('ltI. of the Senate. In total of 415.660 teachers (males, 131.7n
;
lS66 he entered the United States Senate females, 283,867), to whom $128,GG2.R80
n8 a Republican, and till 18!!1 was one was paid in salarie... An public-school
nf thp foremost men in Congress. To" ards property had a ,"alue of $.j24,G8f1,2;;5. The
the clo!';e of his senaturial career he was receipts of the school-year were $1!!4,-
the author of the acts of lRK
and lR
7 9%,237; the expenditure!'!. exclusive of
for the suppression of polygamy and the paymC'nts on bonded debts, $1f)7.281.60
.
regulation of affairs in rtah. and of the The expenditure per "flpita of population
anti-trust taw (1800). In] 886 he framed wa
$2.67. and the a\'erage daily expendi-
t hf' act for countin
the electoral \ ote. ture per pupil, 13.3 cents. These flgure

IJC' rC'signed his seat in 1801 at thp con- exclude statistics of the education of the
182

clusion of twenty-five ).ear
of uninter-
rupted service. In 1
!H he was chosen
chairman of the monetary commission

. :

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GJo:unGK FRANKLlY ED)4t'
D8.

EDUCATION

the country has been considered to be the
weakest part of the entire system, al-
though it is conceded on all hands that
the teachers in secondary sehools are, on
the average, much superior in profes-
sional and general culture to the teachers
in elementary schools, if not to those in
colleges. The reason for this defcct in
secondary schools has been found in the
course of study. A majority of the puh-
lie high schools and a larger majority of
the private academies dilute their sec-
ondary course of study by continuing ele-
mentary studies beyond their proper limit.
At the meeting in 1892 the National Arithmetic, dcscriptive geography, gram-
.Educational Association appointed a com- mar, history of one's native country, lit-
mittce of ten persons to consider and re- erature written in the colloquial vocabu-
port upon the subjects of study and the lary, are each and all very nourishing to
methods of instruction in secondary the mind when first begun, but their edu-
schools, including public high schools, cath"e value is soon exhau!':tcd. The
IJrivate academies, and schools preparing mind needs for its continuous develop-
students for college. President Eliot, of ment more advanced branchcs. such as
Harvard, was appointed chairman, with algebra and geometry, physical geogra-
nine associates, four of whom were presi- phy, a foreign language, general history.
dents of colleges, one a professor in a col- But for these the secondary school often
lege, two principals of public high substitutes other branches that involve no
Echools, and one head master of a pre- new method!" nor more complex ideas,
paratory school. This committee of ten, and the pupil stops in the elementary
as it is generally called, had author- stage of growth.
ity to select the members of spccial con- The influence of the report of the com-
ferences and to arrange meetings for the mittee of ten has been to impel sccondary
discussion of the principal subjects taught schools towards tlH' choice of well-hal-
in preparatory schof\ls. The subjects rep- anced courses of study containing subjects
resented were Latin, Greek, English, other which belong essentially to secondary edu-
modern languages, mathematics, natural cation, like algebra, Latin, or ph,ysics; and
philosophy (including ph,ysics, astronomy, at the same time either to discontinue
and chemistry), natural history (and elementary branches, or to apply to the
biology, including botany, zoology, and study of these a superior method, by which
physiology), history (including also civil their principles are traced into higher
govcrnment and political economy), branches and explained.
geography (including physical geography, The success of the report of the com-
geology, and meteorology). The National mittee of ten has been such as to arouse
Educational Association appropriated the eager interest in a similar inquiry into
sum of $2,:500 towards defraying the ex- the work of the elementary s('hools. Al-
penses of the conferences. ready. in Fehruary, 1893, a committee
The report was completed and pub- had he en appointed by the department of
Jish('d in the spring of 1894. Thirty sup('rintendence in the National Educa-
thousand ('opies were distributed by the tioual A!"sociation. It was made to con-
national bureau of education, and since sist of fifteen members instead of ten,
then edition after edition 1)as been print- and has been known as the committee of
ed and sold by the National Educational fifteen.
Association through an agent. The report of this committee of flf-
No educational document before pub- teen was suhmitted to the department
Jished in this country has been more of superintendents at the meeting in 1 S!I.ï.
widely read or has excited more helpful It is the object of this paper to indicate
discus!"ion. The sccondary instruction of hriefl
T the points that gin it importance.
183

blind, the deaf, and other d-efective
classes, which are treated separately in
this work, and also SECO
DARY SCHOOLS
(g. v.).
Education, AMERICAN PUBLIC. See
HOLLAKD, JOSIAH GILBERT.
Education, CHAUTAUQUA SYSTE
I OF.

ee CHAUTAUQUA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION.
Education, ELE?I{E
TARY. \YILLIAM
Tommy HARRIS (q. v.), the U. S. Com-
missioner of Education since 1889, one of
the highcst authorities on the subject of
education, writes as follows:

EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY

If one were to summarize concisely the
hiI'Jtory of educational progress in the
rnited States for the nineteenth century
as regards the elementary schools, he
would say that there has been a change
from the ungraded school in the sparsely
r-ettled district to the graded school of
the C'ity and large village. The ungraded
;;;C'hool held a short session of three or
four months. was taught by a makeshift
teacher, had mostly individual instruc-
tion, with thirty or forty recitations to
be heard and fh"e minutes or less of the
teacher's time per day for each.
The graded school has classified its
pupils according to the degree of advance-
ment and assigns two classes to a teacher.
Instead of five minutes for a recitation,
there are twenty or thirty minutes, and
the teacher has an opportunity to go be-
hind the words of the book and by discus-
sion and questioning probe the lesson, find
what the pupil really unden;tands and
can e'\ plain in his own words. Each mem-
})f'r of t11f' class learns more from the an-
!':wers of his fellow-pupils and from the
C'rol"s-questioning of the teacl1('r than he
('ould learn from a lesson of equal length
with a tutor entirely deyotcd to himself.
The graded school continues for ten
months instead of three, and employs or
may employ a professional educated teach-
er. This is the most important item of
progress to he mentioned in the history
nf our education. Xormal schools, 200
in number, have been ('reated in the va-
rious States, and it is estimated that the
cities, large and small, have an average
ot 50 per c('nt. of professionally trained
teachers. while the ungraded schools in
the rural rlistricts are taught by persons
who leave their regular vocations and re-
I"ort to teaching for a small portion of the
year.
The urban anrl suburban population,
counting in the large villages, is at pres-
ent about 50 per cent. of the population
of the whole country.
One improvenwnt leads to another, and
where the grad I'd school has hcen e!'lÌah-
lil"hed with ite:; profl'ssionally traim'd
teachl'rs it has been followed hy the ap-
pointment of experts as supf'rintl'mlf'nts,
until over 800 cities and town
in tlw
nation have such supervision. The fifty

tatf'
11:1. ,'c (':teh a State superintl'nrlf'nt.
184

who, in most cases, controlt
the licenI'Jing
of teachers in rural districts.
'Vith the advent of the professional
teacher and the expert supervisor, there
has arrived an era of experiment and agi-
tation for reforms.
The general trend of school reforms may
be characterized as in the direction of se-
curing the interest of the pupil. All the
new devices have in view the awakening
of the pupil's inner spring of action. He
is to be interested and made to act along
lines of rational culture through his own
impulse. The older methods looked less
to interesting the pupil than to disciplin-
ing the will in rational forms. " )Iake
the pupil familiar with self - sacrifice,
make it a second nature to follow the bc-
hest of duty and heroically stifle selfish
desires "-this was their motto, expressed
or implied. It was an education ad-
dressed primarily to the will. The new
education is addressed to the feelings and
desires. Its motto is: "Develop the
pupil through his desires and interests."
Goethe preached this doctrine in his ll'il-
helm JI eisler. Froebel founded the
kindergarten system on it. Colonel
Parker's Quincy school experiment was,
and his Cook C'ounty Xormal School is,
a centre for the promulgation of thie;
idea. Those who advocate an extension
of the system of elective studies in t1H'
colleges and its introduction even into
s
condary and elementary schools jUl"tify
it by the principle of interest.
It is noteworthy that this word "in-
terest" is the watchword of the di!'lC'iplf's
of the Herbartian system of pedagog
'.
Herbart, in his psychology, substituterl
desire for will. He recognizes intellect
and feeling and desire (Bc!licrdc). De-
sire is. of course, a species of feeling-
for feeling includes sensations and desires,
the former allied to the intellect and the
latter to the will. But sensation is not
;yet intellect, nor is desire will; both arc
only feeling.
I have dcscribed and illustratcd this
general trend of school rl'form in ordl'r
to I"how its strength and its weakness.
and to inrlicate the province markl'd ont
for a report that should treat of the
branches of study and the methods of in
stnu'tion in the clementary 8chool unll

lIl!gf>l"t impron'mf'nt. .

EDUOATION, ELEMENTARY

regarding schools for the training of
teachers is !!Ieen when one re
alls to mind
the fact that the entire upward movement
of the elementary schools has been in-
itiated and sustained by the employment
of professionallJ' trained teachers, and
that the increase of urban population has
made it possible. In the normal school
the candidate is taught the history of
education, the approved methods of in-
struction, and the grounds of each
branch of study as they are to be found
in the sciences that it presupposes.
The method of eliminating politics
from the control of a city school system is
.. Our wills are ours, to make them thine." discussed in Judge Draper's frank and
The philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita persuasive st
'le, and a plan in essential
holds that the goal of culture is to anni- particulars similar to that adopted in
hilate all interest and attain absolute in- the city of Cleveland is recommended for
difference-this is adopted by Buddhism trial in all large cities. A small school-
in the doctrine of Nirvana. Indian re- board of five or ten members is appointed
nunciation reaches the denial of selfhood, by the mayor, which, in turn, elects a
while the Christian doctrine of renunci- school-director (but this officer may also
ation reaches only to the denial of selfish- be appointed by the mayor), who takes
ness and the adoption of altruistic in- charge of the business side of the manage-
terests. ment of schools. For the professional
However this may be, the pedagogic im- side of the work a superintendent is ap-
pulse to create devices for awakening the pointed by the school-director, with the
interest of the pupil becomes sometimes approval of two-thirds or three-fourths
a craze for novelty. Change at any price of the school-board. The terms of office
and change of any kind is clamored for. suggested are, respectively, for the mem-
It is a trite sa)'ing that change is not bel's of the school-board appointed by the
progress. It is more apt to be movement mayor, five years; for the school-director,
in a circle or even retrogres!':ion. An five years; for the superintendent, five
amusing example was lately furnished in to ten years. The superintendent ap-
í'ducational circles. A superintC'ndent of points all tC'3chers from an eligible list
rural s('hools defended their want of classi- of candidates whose qualifications are de-
fication as an ad,'antage. It was" individ- fined by the school-board.
ual in!':truction," and, as such, an improve- This plan of government is hased on
ment over that of the graded school of the idea of the importance of pprsonal
tI1<' cities. His reactionary movement re- responsibility at all points in the ad-
('pi\"pd the support of some of the advo- ministration. Only an actual trial ean
cates of educational reform on the ground determine its strength or weakness. All
that it was a new dpparture. This hap- plam;. as .Judge Draper well says. pre-
pcned at a time when one-half of the suppose a puhlic spirit and a moral sense
school children in the United States are on the part of the people; they presuppose
still taught, or rather allowed to memo- a sincere desire for good schools and a f
lir
rize their tpxt-books, by this metllOd. knowledge of what good schools are anrl of
The sub-committeps on training of the hl'st means of creating them. \Vher.'
teachers anù on organization of city tl1(' whole p('ople po!':sps<;cs political powpr,
school systems have hrought forward, in the intpl1igpnt and ,'irtuous citizens must
their respf'ctive rpports, the latest de- ('X(>rt a continual inlluenee or else thp
\"Ísed measures for the perfection of nor- demagognes will come into office. For thp
mal schools and the procurement of ex- natural representative of the weaklin

nprt sUJwn'isors for eity !':chool s,\'...t('III s. ('!assf>s i,.; the dpmagog"l1e. \\
hpther thp
The importance of the recommendations f'itiz('n is weak in intellect, or thrift, Ul
J85

While the old education in itø exclulive
devotion to will-training has slighted the
intellect and the heart (or feelings), the
new education moves likewise towards an
extreme as bad, or worse. It slights di-
rect will-culture and tends to exaggerate
impulse and inclination or interest. An
educational pSJ'chology that degrades will
to de!ìire mU!ìt perforce construct an
elaborate system for the purpose of de-
yeloping moral interests and desires.
This, however, does not quite succeed until
t.he old doctrine of self-sacrifice for the
sake of the good is reached.

EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY

morals, it is all the same; he will vote peal to experimental psychology in dealing
for the demagogue as ruler. with the question of the time devoted to
The report on the correlation of studies the several branches. For example, it
is an attpmpt to reconcile the old and the often discusses the danger of too much
new in education by discovering what in thoroughness of drill in teaching and the
the course of study is or sl10u]d he penna- use of processes that become mechanic-a I
nent and what in the nature of things is after SOllle time. The rapid addition of
transient. It admits the claims of th(> new lIumbers, the study of thc geom(>trieal
eùucHtion. as to making the appeal to the solids, the identification of the colors of
child'
intcn'l"t paramount. so f,lr as this the spectrum, the reading of insipid pip('e:-,
rela tes to the method<; of instruction, hut written in the colloquial voeahulary, t1H'
it finds a limit to this in the matters to memorizing of localities and dates; all
he taught. It diseul"ses the educational these things may be continued so long un-
value of the five principal factm s of the der the plea of " thoroughness" as to para-
course of study in order to dptermine Jyze the mind, or fix it in some stage of ar-
clearly where the propo
(>d new branches rested growth.
of study belong and what they add to the The committee have been at much pains
old curriculum. These five components of to point out the importance of leaving a
a course of study are: (1) Grammar, as a branch of study when it has l)een studied
study of the structure of language; (2) long enough to exhaust its educational
Literature, as a study of the art form of value. It is sllOwn in the case of arithme-
language-literature as furnishing a reve- tic that it ought to he replaced by algebra
lation of human nature in a11 its types; two years earlier than is the custom in
(3) Mathematics, as furnishing the laws the puhlic Rehools at preSf'11t. The arith-
of matter in movement and rest-the laws metical method should not he uscd to solve
grounded in the nature of space and time; the class of problems that are more easily
(4) Geography, as a compend of natural solwd by algebra. So, too, it is conten<l(><1
and social science-unfolding later, in that }
nglil"h grammar
llOUld be dil"eon-
secondary and higher cdueation, into timlf'd at tIle c1ol"e of the I"eventh ymr,
geology, botany, zoology. meteorology on and French, German, or Latin-preferahly
the one hand, and into anthropology and the last-substituted for it. The edu-
sociology, economics and politics on the cative value of a study on its psychological
other; (5) History, a
sIlO" ing the origin I"ide is greatest at the be!!inning. TI)('
and growth of institutions, especially of first six months in t1w study of alg(>hra
the state. It appears that these five or Latin-it is claimed that even the first
branches cover the two world.. of man and four weeks-arp more valuable than th('
nature, and that aH theoretic'al studies fall same length of time later on. For the
within thes(' lines. This i:'\ the correlation first lessons make one acquainted with a
of study. Each essential branch has some new method of viewing things.
educational value that another does not In recommending the introduction of
possess. Each hranch also
erves the func- T"atin and algebra into the seHnth and
tion of correlating tIle child to his environ- eighth years of the elementary school
ment-namely, to the two worlds of course, the committee are in accord with
nature and human society. the committee of ten. who urged the
Hitherto, we are told in this report, ('arlier commencement of the f'('condarv
the courl"e of I"tudy has h(>('n justified on cour..e of study. W
pl"ychological grounds-" literature cu1ti- The committee urge strongly the subor-
yates the memory and the imagination"; dination of elocution and grammar in the
"arithmetic the rpal"on," etc. Bnt each reading f''Xerei!''es to the
tudy of the con-
hranch has in S0111e meal"ure a claim on tents of the literary work of art, holding
all the facuIti('s. Arithmetic cultivates that the h(>l"t ]('sson learned at sehool is
the memory of quantity, the imagination the mnstery of a po('tic gem or a selection
of successions, and the reason in a peculiar from a great pro
(> writer. It is contend-
figure of the flyllogism different from the cd that the I"pleetions found in the school
three figure!'! u
e<l in qualitative reasoning. readers oft(>n POSS('ss moTe literary unity
The report, however, makes frequent ap- than the whole works from which they
186

EDUCATIONAL LAND GRA:N'TS-EDW ARDS

were taken. as in the case of Byron's Bat- caIled Fort L,rman after their commander.
tle of Waterloo from Childe Harold. The A garrison of 2,500 men under the Earl of
importance of studying the unity of a London, and later under General \Yebb,
work of art is dwelt upon in different made several expeditions against Canada.
parts of the report, and the old method After :Munro's defeat at FOln WILLIAM
of parsing works of art censured. HENRY (q. 1") the rf'mnant of the .\mer-
An example of the Herbartian correla- ican army fled to Fort Edward. Durin

tion is found in the method recommended Burgoyne's advance in July, 1777. Gcnel"al
for teaching geography-namely, that the Schuyler s()Ught shelter hcre. Sec Hell-
industrial and commercial idea should be RARDTON. BATTLE OF: MCCREA. JANI<:.
the centre from which the pupil moves Edward VII., ALBERT EDWARD, King
out in two directions-from the supply of of Great Britain and Emperor of India;
his needs for food, clothing, shelter, and born in Buckingham Palace, Noy. 9,
culture he moves out on the side of nat- 1841; eldest son of Queen Yictoria and
l1fe to the "elements of difference," that t he Prince Consort; created Prince of
is to say, to the differences of climate. soil, 'Vale!;' and Earl of Chester a month after
productions, and races of men, eXplaining his birth; educated by private tutors,
finally by geology. astronomy, and meteor- at Christ Church, Oxford, and at Cam-
ology how these differences arose. On the bridge. In 1860, under the guidance of
other hand, he moves towards the study the Duke of Newcastle, he visited the
of man, in his sociology, I1istory, and United States, where he received all en-
economics, discovering wIlat means the thusiastic welcome. President Buchanan
race has invented to overcome those" ele- and his official family extended to him
ments of difference ., and supply the mani- a grand entertainment at thE' national
fold wants of man wherever he lives by capital, and the cities which he vi!'ìitcd
making him participant in the produc- vied with one another in paying him
tions of all climes through the world com- high honors. The courtesies so generous-
mercer ]y extended to hiY}) laid the foundRt ion
Likewise in the study of general his- for the strong friendship which he always
tory the committee suggest that the old afterwards manifested for Americans.
method of beginning with the earliest ages After this trip he travelled in Germany,
bf' discontinued and that a regressive Italy, and the Holy Land. In 1863 he
method be adopted, proceeding from married the Princess Alexandra, daughter
(Tnited States history hack to Engli!'ìh of Christian IX., King of Venmark, and
history, and thence to Rome, Greece, and after his marriage he made prolonged
.Judea, and the other sources of our civili- tours in many foreign countries, most
zation. notably in Egypt and Greece in 1869, and
In contrast to this genuine correlation in Britisb India in 1875-76. He has al-
the report describes an example of what waJ's been exceedingly fond of out-door
it calls "artificial correlation" - where sports and athlf'tics in general, and has
Robimwn Cr1l80e or some lib>rary work of kC'pt himself in clo!'ì{, touch with his peo-
art is made the centre of study for a con- pIe. On the death of Quecn Victoria,
siderable period of time, and geography, Jan. 22, H)oJ, he succC'cdcd to the throne,
arithmetic, and other branches taught in- and was formany proc1ain1f'd king and
cidentally in connection with it. emperor at St. Janlf'8's Palace, London,
Educational Land Grants. The United on the 24th.
States has granted nearly 100,000,000 Edward, }'ORT, a defensive work built
acres to the individual States for educa- by the New England troops in 1755 on the
Lional endowments, or the erection of east bank of the Hudson River, 45 miles
schools and colleges. In many instances north of Albany.
these grants were mismanaged, but in Edwards, JONATHA
, theologian; born
others they have proved of great service. in En!'ìt \Vindsor, ('onn., Oct. 5, 1703:
Edward, FORT, on the Hudson River, graduated at Yale Coll.:>ge in 1720. having
forty-five miles north of Albany; built by begun to study Latin when he was six
Ow fi.OOO New England troops in the yC'ura of age. He is
aid to haw rea",oned
French and lrlllian war in Ii.,,); originally out for himself his doctrine of free-will
187

EDWARDS-EGBERT

before he left college. at the age of Sf>ven- fice until its organization as a State in
teen. He began preaching to a Prel'by- 1
18. From 1818 till 1824 he was United
terian congregation before he was twenty States Senator, and from 18:W to 1830
ypars old. and became assistant to his governor of the State. He did much. b,)"
grandfather, Rev. Mr. Stoddard, minister promptness and activity, to rf>strain Indian
at Xorthampton. )[ass.. whom he suc- hostilities in thp llIinois region during till'
eeeded a
pastor. He was dismissed in War of IRI2. He died in Belleville, 111.,
17.')0, beeausp he insisted upon a purer July 20. IR33. See A. B. PLOT.
and highpr standard or admission to the Edwards, OLI\ER, military otticer; bom
. ill ðpringtield, 1\1ass., Jan. 30, 183.3; was
commissioned first lieutf>nant in the 10th
.Mas!:'achusetts Volunteers at the outbreak
of the Civil War, and was promoted brig-
adier-general, )Iay 11), 18G3, for .. con-
spicuous gallantry." He recei H'd tllt'
Hurrpnder of Petersburg, Va.. and com-
manded Forts Hamilton and Lafa,)'ette, in

ew York Harbor, during the draft riots
of IS(i:t He was mustered out of thc
army in 1866.
Edwards, PIERREPOXT, jurist: born in

orthampton,
Iass., April 8, 17.3U; tit(-'
YOllng('st son of Jonathan Edwards. Sr.;
graduated at the College of Xpw Jerspy
in 17fiH. His,) outh was slwnt among
the Stockbridge Indians, whcre his fathpr
was missionary. and he acquired HI('
language perfectl,)'. He bpcanw an pmi-
nent lawyer; espoused the causp of t 11('
communion - table. Then he hpgan his patriots. and fOllght for ]ilwrty in the
missionary work (1751
amon;.! the St('ck- ann,)' of the Revolution. lIe was a nH'm-
bridge Indians. and prepared his grpatest her of the Cong-ress of the Confedpration
work, on 'l'he Preedom of the lrill, which in 1787-88, and in the Connpcticut con-
was published in 1751. He was in.\Up.'u- venti on warmly advocated the adoption of
rated presidpnt of the College of
,.:W the national Constitution. lip was judgf'
.Jersey, in Princeton, Feb. 16, 1758, and of the Cnited Statps Distript COllrt in
dipd of small-pox, March 2
. 17.3R. lip Connecticut at thp time of his fatllf'r's
u!arried Sarah Pierrepont, of Kew Haven, df'ath.
Ir. Edwards was the founder of
in 17
7, and thpy became the gralld- th(' "Toleration part,)." in Comlf'ctil"ut.
p.lTents of Aaron Burr. which marlp him excef'dingly unpopular
Edwards, XI:XIA:X. juri
t; born in with the Calvinists. Hp died in Bridgp-
)fontgonwry pounty. .Md.. in )Iarch, 177.'). port, Conn.. April 5. IR
Ii.
William \\ïrt directed his parI,)" educa- Egbert, HARRY C., military officer; born
t ion, which was fini,.;lw,] at Dickinson Col- in Pl'nn

'lvania. Jan. 3. 18:3!}; joined th!'
legp, and in 18]!) 1)(' settlf>d in tllP Grepn I
th Cnitpd Statf's Infantry,
ept. 2:t
Hiver di
trict of Kentucky. Bf'fore he IR61; sernd with distinction in the ac-
was twent
'-one he became a member of tions of Gaines's
Iills, l\Iah'ern Hill, Cedar
the Kentuck,)" legislature; was admittpd
Ioun
ain, (:f'ttysburg-. etc. lie was takl'n
to the bar in Kentucky in l7!)8, and to prisoner at ('('dar
Iountain and at G<,t-
that of Tpnnes,..ee the next year, and rOSf' tyshurg. and "as !-.f'riously wounded at
,pry rapidly in his profpssion. Hp pas,.;pd Bf'thesda Church. Whpn the war with
t1lrough the oftices ()f circuit judge and Spain broke out he was lieutenant-colonel
judge of appcals to dw hpnch of chief-jus- of the (jth "Cnited Htates Infantry, which
t j("(. of Kpntucky in IH08. The ne'\.t year }If' commandf'd in the Santiago campaign
hi' was appointed the first gm'ernor of tht, until he was shot through the body at
Territor
' of minoi
, and 1"('tainpd that of- El C'anpy, .Tuly I, IR!}R. He was pro-
188

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JU-'AT"A
t:,,\\ \1t1J:<.

EGGLESTON-EL CANEY

moted colonel of the 22d Infantry, and
befOl"e his wound was completely healeli
:o;ailed for the Philippine Islands. He ar-
rived at :Manila with his command,
Iarch
-1, 18BU, and while leading a charge
against
Ia1inta he receh'ed a wound.
from which he died ::\Iarch 26 following-.
Eggleston, EDWARD. author; born in
,,"pvay, Ind., Dec. 10. 1837; was mainly
spIf-educated; later became a minister
in the 1\Iethodist Episcopal Church. His
publications of a historical character in-
clude History of the United States and
Its PeoJ}le.. Household History of the
United Rlates and lis People; A First
Book of American History: and The Be-
[linners of a X at ion. He died at Lake
George, N. Y., Sept. 3, 1902.
Eggleston, GEORGE CARY, author; born
in Vemy. Ind., K ov. 2ü, 1839; brother of
Edward Eggleston; began the practice of
law in Virginia; served in the Confed-
erate army during the Civil \Var, and
then removed to the West. His publica-
tions include Red Eagle and the War
'Lcith the Creek Indians
' Strange Stor;(08
from History; an edition of Haydn's Dic-
tionary of Dates; and compilations of
A.merican 1I'ar Ballads and Southern Sol-
dier .';tories.
Eggleston, JOSEPH, military officer;
born in Amelia county, Va., Nov. 24,1754;
was graduated at William and :Mary Col-
lege in 1776; joined the cavalry of the
American army; became captain, and ac-
quired the reputation of being an officer
of great efficiency. In 1781 he displayed
remarkable bravery in the action of Guil-

ford Court-house and in the siege of .Au-
gusta; later in the same year he won the
first success in the baUle of Eutaw by a
wen-directed blow against the vanguard
of the British column. He held a seat
in Congress in 1798-1801. He died in
Amelia county, Va., Feb. 13, 1811.
Egle, WILLlA1I HE
RY, librarian; born
in Harrisburg, Pa., Sept. 17, 1830; grad-
uated at the University of Pennsylvania
in 1859; is the author of History of
Pennsylvania
' Pennsylvania in the Rev-
olution; Pennsylmnia Genealogies; H is-
torical, Biographical, and Genealogical
"'- otes and Queries
' Some Pennsylvania
lVomcn in the Revolution, etc.
Elbert, S.UIUEL, military officer; born
in Prince \YiJIiam parish, S. C., in 1743;
was made captain of a grenadier company
in 1774; joined the Revol utionary army
in 1776. He led an expedition into East
Florida in April, 1778, and took Fort
Oglethorpe; afterwards di!'played great
bravery in the assault on Savannah in
December, 1778. He was captured by the
British in the engagement at Brier Creek.
March 3, 1779; afterwards was exchanged
and re-entered the American army; was
brevetted brigadier-general, Nov. 3, li83;
became governor of Georgia in 1785. He
died in Savannah. Ga., l\ov. 2, 1788.
El Caney, an elevated suburban vil-
lage 3 miles northeast of Santiago, in the
province of Santiago, Cuba. It was here,
on July 1. 1898, that the Amel"Îcan army
of liberation met its first serious oppo-
sition. After the landing of the troops
a t DAIQUIRI (q. v.) on June 20-22. a

. ---

IP.ANlIØ B.ARTHWORKI.i A:\D I:-iTRII::SCIUIBSTI .AT .L C.ASBY.

]89

ELDORADO-ELECTION BILL

forward movement began, and by the 27th
the whole army, 16,000 strong, had
reached points within 3 miles of Santiago.
General Shafter, in consultation with the
other generals, determined on an envelop-
ing movement to prevent a junction of
t he forces under General Pando and those
under General Linares in Santiago. In
accordance with this plan the division of
General Lawton moved out on June 30,
into positions previously determined. By

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I
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BI'oCK-HOUBB AT EL CASEY.

daylight on July 1, Capt. AIlyn K. Cap-
ron's light battery reached a commanding
hiII, 2,400 yards from the viII age. The
brigade of Maj.-Gen. Adna E. Chaffee was
assigned a position east of EI Caney that
he might be prepared to attack after the
first bombardment, and Brig.-Gen. \V iII-
iam Ludlow went around to the west with
his brigade for the purpose of preventing
a retreat of the Spaniards into Santiago.
As soon as the battery opened fire upon
the stone block-house and church in the
centre of the village, and also the
trenches where the Spanish infantry was
situated. General Chaffee's brigade, com-
posed of the 7th, l
th, and 17th Infantry,
moved to attack in the front, keeping up
11 constant but careful fire, as the men

had only 100 rounds of ammunition each.
In the rear, General Ludlow moved his
troops forward, and from the south came
the reserves of Brig.-Gen. Evan Miles.
Thus the viIIage was the centre of a con-
centrated fire and was nearly encircled
with the lines steadily closing in. So
stubborn, however, was the defence that
reinforcements under Maj.-Gen. John C.
Bates were ordered up to strengthen the
line, which had been considerably weak-
ened in the desperate assaults. After the
enemy l:ad left their intrenchments, the
fire was concentrated upon the brick fort,
from which the Spaniards poured a gnJl-
ing musketry fire into the American lines.
The fort could not long withstand the
attack, and rents were soon torn in its
thick waIls. At this juncture the com-
mands under Chaffee, Bates, and Miles
made a charge, and captured the work,
but not until all the men defending it
were kiIIed or wounded. After its capt-
ure the smaller block-houses ceased fight-
ing, with the exception of one which was
soon destroyed by a few shots of Cap-
ron's battery. The brave defence of El
Caney was directed by Brig.-Gcn. Vera de
Rey (who died fighting), wi th 5
0 men, of
whom scarcely a fifth remained alive at the
end of the action. See SAN JUAN HILL.
Eldorado, the fabled country in Amer-
ica containing numerous kiñgdoms, the
cities of which were fiIled with gold.
Eldridge, HA
nLToN N., military offi-
cer; born in South \ViIIiamstown. Mass.,
Aug. 23, 1831; graduated at Williams
CoIlege in 1856; and engaged in law
practice in 1857. He recruited the 127th
IlIinois Regiment in July, 1802; was pro-
moted colonel; and was brevetted briga-
dier-general of volunteers in recognition of
his bravery at Vicksburg. He died in Chi-
cago, III.,
ov. 27, IR82.

ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL

cussion which it aroused, both in and out
of Congress, is a long bill. Yet if anyone
will take the trouble to compare it with
the general election laws of most, if not all,
of the Statps, he will find that in its clalol";
it is more conspicuous for brevity than
The national election bill of 1890, as was for length. The truth is that no election
pointed out c=e,-pral timps during the dis- law which attempts to provide accurately
HW

Election Bill, FEDERAL. During the
discussion on the Federal Election BiII,
the Ho
. TIIO:\fAS BRACKEfT REED, Speak-
P1" of the House of Representatives (q. v.),
wrote as foIlows

ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL

for all the different stages of an election catp of tI1P "Cnited States board is p1'ima
can be otherwise than long. At the same facie evidence and places the name of the
time, although it takes many paragraphs holder upon the roll of Representatives;
in a bill to state exactly how each act, but in this case any candidate may appeal
great and small, having relation to an from the decision of the board of can-
election shall be performed, it is perfectly vassers to the circuit court of the United
easy to put into very few WOMS the pur- States, which has power to set aside the
pose of an election law and the methods certificate of the canvassers and virtually
by which it proposes to accomplish that decide whose name shall be placed on the
purpose. roll of the House. A candidate who is
The first objQct of the national elec- not willing to have his cause tried by a
tion law was to secure entire publicity court of high jurisdiction must be hard
in regard to every act connected with the to please, when we consider that the only
election of members of Congress. To ef- other known method is that of a com-
fect this it provides for the appointment mittee of Congress made up of pady
of United States officers, selected from the reprpsentatives.
two leading political parties, to watch Thus it will be seen that the whole pur-
over and report upon naturalization, pose of this bill may be summed up in
registration, the conduct of the election, one word-" publicity." It proceeds on
the count of the ballots, and the certifi- the sound American theory that all that
cation of the members. These officers is necessary, in the long run, to secure
have no power whatever to interfere with good government and to cure evils of any
local officers or existing methods. Their kind in the body politic is that the people
only duty is to protect the honest voter, should be correctly informed and should
secure evidence to punish wrong-doers, know all the facts. It proposes, therefore,
and make public every fact in connection by making pubJic all the facts relating to
with the election. The State sJ'stems, elections, to protect the voters and to
whether they provide for the secret and render easy the punishment of fraud. If
official ballot or otherwise, are all care- wrong exists, it will disclose and punish
fully protected under this law against it. If all is fair and honest, it proves that
any interference from United States oill- all is well, restores public confidence, and
cers. :Moreover, if the oflieers of the removes suspicion. There is absolutely
enited States at any election precinct nothing in this bill except provisions to
exercise their powers improperly, the secure the greatest amount of publicity
local officcrs are there to report their in regard to elections, and to protect
conduct. Thus is obtained a double as- the ballot-box by making sure the pun-
surance of publicity from two sets of men, ishment of those who commit crimes
among whom both the leading political against the suffrage. It interferes with
parties are represented, without any in- no man's right!';; it changes no local
terference with local officers or local sys- system; it disturbs no local officers; but
tems. it gives publicity to every step and detail
At only one point does the United of the election, and publicity is the best,
States take what may be called control as it is the greatest, safeguard that \\"p
of any essential step in the election of can have in this country for good govern-
Representatives. \Vhere an entire con- ment and honest voting. No wrong can
gressional district is placed under the long continue when the people see and
law, a United States board of canvassers understand it, and nothing that is right
appointed for the distriC't receives the and honest need fear the light. The
supervisors' returns, and on those returns Southern Democrats declare that the en-
isaues a certificate for the candidate who forcement of this or any similar law will
appears to be elected. If that certificate cause social disturbances and revolution-
agrees with the certificate of the State ary outbreaks. As the negroes now dis-
omc('rs. the name of the candidate who franchised certainly will not revolt b('-
holds them both is, of course, placed upon cause they receive a vote, it is clear, therp-
the roll of members of the House. If the fore, that this means that the men who
two cprtificates disagree, then the certifi- now rule in those States will makE' social
1()1

ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL

di
turbance
and re"'olution in resistance statute-books for twenty years, and which
to a law of the United States. It is also would have remained and been in force,
not a little amusing to observe that small whether re-enacted or not, so long as it
portion of the newspaper press which has was not repealed.
virtue generally in its peculiar keeping, The President of the "Cnited States has
raving in mad excitement merely because from the beginning of the government had
it is proposed to make public e\'erJ,thing power to use the army and navy in sup-
which affects the election of the repre- port of the laws of the United States. and
Rentatives of the people in Congr<.>ss. There this general power was e
plicit1y con-
must be something very interesting in the ferred many years ago in that portion of
methods by which these guardians of vir- the revised statutes which now com
s
tue hope to gain and hold political power under the titJe "civil rights." The new
when they are so agitated at the mere election bill neither adds to nor det:racts
thought of having the darkness which now from that power, and as the liberties of
overhangs the places where they win their the countQ' have been safe under it for
victories dispersed. at least twenty years, it is not to be ap-
So much for the purpose of the bill. prehended that th<.>y will now be in danger.
A word now as to some of the objections The faC't is that the talk about this being
which have been raised against it. The a "force bill" and having bayonets in
most common is that which is summed up every line is men' talk de<;igned to
in the phrase" force bilL" There is noth- frighten the unwary, for the bill is really
ing very novel in this epithet, for it can an" anti-force" bill. int<.>nded to stop the
hardly be called an argument, or the RUg- exercise of illegal force hy those who use
gestion of one. It proceeds on the old it at the polls Korth or South; and it is
doctrine of giving a dog a bad name-a exactly this which the opponents of the
saying which is valuable, but perhaps a bill dread. The Cnited States have power
trifle musty. There was a bill introduced to enforce all the laws which they make,
Hlany years ago to which that description whether they are laws regulating elections
was applied not without eff<.>ct; and the or for other purposes. That power the
persons opposed to the new m
asure, whose Unit<.>d States must continue to hold and
strongest intellectual quality is not orig- to exprcise when needful, and the na-
inality, brought out the old name with- tional election law neither affects nor
out much regard to its appropriatene=,s. extends it in an\' wav.
The trouble with this is that the old bill The objection' next in popularity is that
and the new one are totally unlike, and the measure is sectional, and not nationaL
that what applies to one has no applica- That this should be thought a \'aluable
tion to the other except that they both a1l(1 important shibboleth only shows how
aim to protect American voters in their men come to belipye that there is real
rights. There is no question of force in meaning in a phrase if they only shout it
the new bill. One able editor referred to often enough and loudly enough. R<'>}lpti-
it 3S .. bristling with hayonets in every tion and reiteration are, no douht. pleas-
line"; but as there is ab
olutely no anu- ant political exercises, but they do not
"ion to anything or anJ'body remotely con- alter facts. In the first place. if we look
nccted with bayonets, it is to be feared a little below the surface, it will be found
that the able editor in question had not that no more damaging conff'ssion could
read the bill. So am::ious, indeed, are the be made than this very outcry. Thp law
opponents of the measure on this point when applied can have but one of two
that, not finding any bayonets in the bill. JesuIts. It will either disclose the exist-
they themselves have put them in rather ence of fraud. violence, or corruption in
than not have them in at all. One news- a district, or show that the election is
paper took a clause from the revised fair and honest. If the latter proves to
statutes of the rnited States relating to be the case, no one can or would object
t;'nited States troops and printed it as a to any law which demonstrates it. If. on
part of the election bill, although the the other hand, fraud is disclosed, then
hill contains no fluch clause, but merely the necessity of this legislation is proved.
re-enach a law which bali been on the The eleC'tion law ili deliisned to meet and
192

ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL

overcome fraud, force, or corruption, as abridgment of those liberties with the
the case may be, in elections anywhere and ballot-box of which the performances in
everywhere, and if it is sectional, it can Hudson county, N. J., have afforded the
only be so because fraudulent elections are most recent illustration. The South
sectional. Those who rave against the bill shouts loudest, but it is merely because
as sectional-that is, as directed against the ruling statesmen there think they have
the South, for Southern and sectional ap- most to lose by fair t'lections. \Vhat
pear to have become synonymous terms- chiefly troubles the oppont'nts of tht' bill
admit by so doing that they have a Korth and South is, not that it is 8PC-
monopoly of impure elections. If it were tional, but that it will check, if not stop,
otherwise, the law, even when applied. cheating at the polls everywhere.
would not touch them except to exhibit Another objection of a sordid kind
their virtues in a strong light. hrought forward against the bill is that
In the sense, however, in which the it will cost money. If this or any other
charge of sectionalism is intended there measure will tend to keep the ballot-bo'{
is no truth in it. Why, it has been asked. pure. it is of little consequence how much
did not the Republicans accept the amend- it costs. The people of the United States
ment of Mr. Lehlbach, of New Jersey, and can afford to pay for any system which
make the measure really national? The protects the vote and makes the verdict
Lehlbach amendment. if adopted, would of the ballot-box so honest as to command
have made the bill universally compulsory, uni\.'ersal confidence; but it is, of course.
but would not have made it one whit more for the interest of the enemies of the law
national than it now is. The clause on to make the expense seem as startling as
which the accusation of sectionalism rests possible. They talk about $10,000.000 be-
is that which makes the application of the ing the least probable expenditure. As-
bill optional; but to make a measure op- suming, as they do, that the law will be
tional is not to make it sectional. If put in operation everywhere, this sum is
everybody and every part of the country at least twice too large. Careful and lib-
have the option, the bill is as broadly na- eral estimates put the cost, supposing the
tional as if every provision in it were law were to be applied in every district,
compulsory. 1'0 one would think of call- at less than $3,000,000; but as there is
ing the local-option liquor laws, which are no probability that the law will be asked
not uncommon in the States. special and for in a third of the districts, the cost
not general legislation; and it is pqnally would not reach a third of the sum ae-
absurd to call an election law containing tually necessary for all districts. Admit-
the local-option principle sectional. A ting, ho\\"e\..er, that $5,000,000 or $6,000,-
law which may be applied anywhere on 000 would be expended, no better expendi-
the fulfilment of a simple and easily-ful- ture of money could be made than one
filled condition is as national and general which would protect the ballot, give pub-
3S a law which must be applied every- licity to the conduct of elections, and
where, whether asked for or not. demonstrate to a11 men their fairness and
:Moreover, the origin of the legislation honesty. The States of the North haW'
of which this is a mere continuance is the not heRitated to take upon themselves the
best proof of its national character. The burden of the expense of their own elcc-
original supervisors' law, of which this tions under the secret and official ballot.
is an e"dension, was designed especialJy and the wisdom of this policy is beyond
to meet the notorious frauds in the city question. It is difficult to see why the
of New York. and the new bill aims quite policy which is sound for the States is
as much to cure frauds in the gTeat cities not sound for thp Pnitf'd States.
of the North as in any part of tht> coun- It is also ohjected that tlw penal clam;p"
try. It is, indeed, the knowledge of this are very seW're. This is perfectly true.
fact which sharpens the anguish of the They a r<> very se\.-ere; nnd if any crime is
Northern Democrats at what they pa- more deserving of severe punishment or
thetically call an invasion of State rights. more dangerous to the public weal than
It is not the peril of State rights which a crime against the ballot, it has not yet
affiict
them. but the thought of an been made
enerally known in this coun-
III.-N ]!)

ELECTION :BILL, FEDERAL

tr,Y. The penal clauses of tlle law are of the House materially, and as Congref;s
intentionall,y 8evere, and the pena1tie
are !tas no such power, the cry. of course, is
purposely made heavy. The penaltif's wholly without meaning. 1:;0 keen, how-
against murder, highway robbery, and (','er, is the sympathy of the Korthern
burglary are also heavy and severe, but in Democrats with this view of the subject,
p\"ery case it is easy to avoid them. Do that definite threats of war against the
not be a murderer, a burglar, or a high- national government have been heard.
wayman; do not commit crimes against But there is, unfortunately, a much
the ballot, and the penalties for these more serious side to this phase of the
offences will be to
'ou as if they never question. Legislation is proposed which
existed. the Routh does not like, and, thereupon,
The last objection here to be touched, headed by the gallant Governor Gordon,
and the only one remaining which has Southern leaders and Southern news-
been zealously pushed, is that the enforce- papers begin to threaten and bluster as
ment of this law wiII endanger Northern if we were back in the days of South
property and affect Northern business in Carolinian nullification. It is the old
the South. It is not easy to see why honest game of attempting to bully the North
elections, whether State or national, should and 'Vest by threats. The North and
airect injuriously either property or busi- West are to be boycotted for daring to
ness. If honest elections are hostile to protect citizens in their constitutional
property and business, then the American rights, and even more dreadful things are
system of free government is indeed in to follow. It has been generally believed
danger; and no more infamous reflection that the war settled the proposition that
could he made upon the people of America this country is a nation, and that the
than to say that they cannot be trusted to nation's laws lawfuIIy enacted are su-
express their wiII by their votes, but preme. Yet here we have again the old
must have their votes suppressed in the slavery spirit threatening to boycott
interests of order and virtue. No one, Northern business, t1"J'ing to buIIy the
however, really believes in anything of Northern people, raising the old sectional
the sort. This is simply a revival of the cry, and murmuring menaces of defiance
old cry of the Northern "doughface" Rnd resistance if a certain law which can
against the agitation of the slavery ques- injure no honest man is enacted. The
tion in the days before the war. It was war was not wholly in vain, and it is
base and ignoble then, but at that dark time that this vaporing was stopped.
period there was at least a real danger The laws of the L'nited States will he
of war and bloodshed behind the issue. obeyed; election laws, as wcII as every
Xow it is not only as utterly ignoble and other, will be enforced; and the sensible
base as before, but it is false amI ludi- way is to discuss the question properly
crous besides. Property and business in and have the people pass upon it, and
the Southern States, as elsewhere, de- to throw aside these threats of hoycott
pend almost whoIIy for protection on and nullification as unworthy the use or

tate Jaw!'! and municipal ordinances; notice of intelligent men.
and neither this nor any other national The difficuIt
., however, with all thpsf'
law, even if it eould be conC'pived to be objections, both for those who make thpm
inj\uious to business interei3ts, coulll and those who repl.v to them, is that thC'y
tou<,h either Rtate or municipal gonrn- are utterly unrml. They are hut thp
Wf'nts. Tht> propo!'ition, without any b<,ating of gongs amI drums, without any
disguise. reaIIy is that fair elections of greatpr significancC' than mere noise can
Congressmen would endanger busine!'!s po":sess. The national election bill is a
and property in the Southern States; and moderate measure. rt is uot a force bill;
the mere statf'mf'ut of the proposition it does not interfere in auy way with
is its C'omplete confutation, fOT, even if 10<'31 t>lections or local go,'ernment. Tt
Congress had the power or the desire to dops uot im'oh-e e
travagant expf'udi-
interfere in local legislation. the election ture, nor is it sectioua1 in its scope. It
of fifteen or t\\enty Republicans in the does not seek to put the upgro or any
Routh would not afl'f'ct the composition otllf'r cla!'!'! of citizpus in C'onÌlol any-
HH

ELECTION BILL-ELECTIONS

ga vc. Ko people can afford to stand quiet
and see its charter of government made a
dead-letter; and no wrong can endure and
not bf' either cured or expiated. Fair elec-
tions North and South are vital to the
republic. If we fail to secure them, or if
we permit any citizen, no matter how
humble, to be wronged, we shall atone
for it to the last jot and tittle. No
great moral question of right and
wrong can ever be settled finally except
in one way, and the longf'r the day
of reckoning is postponed the larger
will be the debt and the heavier its pay-
ment.
Elections, FEDERAL COXTROL OF. When
the question of the federal control of
elections was under discussion, the Hon.
Henry Cabot Lodge, U. S. Renator from
:Massachusetts, wrote:

where, hut aims merely to secure to
(','ery man who ollght to vote the right
to vote and to have his vote hon-
estly counted. Ko one knows these
facts to be true l)('tter than the opponents
of the bill; hut tlwir difficulty is that they
cannot bring forward their real and hon-
est objection, and so they resort to mueh
!'hripking and many epithets. They be-
lieve. whether rightly or wrongly, that
fair elections mean the loss of the na-
tional Honse at least nine times out of
ten to the party to which they belong.
They believe that fair elections mean the
rise of a Republican party in every South-
ern State, led Ly and in good part com-
posed of white men, native to the ground,
whose votes are now suppressed under the
pretence of maintaining race supremacy as
against the negro. They believe that the
law threatens the disappearance of the
race issue on which they found their power No form of government can be based on
and the fall of the narrow oligarchy which systematic injustice; least of all a repub-
for f.O many years has ruled with iron lie. All governments partake of the im-
hand in the Southern States and in the perfections of human nature, and fall far
national conventions of the Democratic short not only of the ideals dreamed of by
party. good men, but evcn of the intentions of
The real objection to the bill, in other ordinary men. Keverthelcss, if perfection
words, comes from the fact that one of be unattainable, it is still the duty of
the two great parties believes that free every nation to live up to the principle!'!
elections imperil their power. They know of simple justice, and at least follow the
that by this bill the United States officers, lights it can clearly see.
takf'n from both parties, are appointed by \Vhatever may have been the intentions
the courts. the body furthest removed of our forefathers, the steady growth of
from politics. Theyknow that these United our government has been towards a
f::tates officers will be held in check by democracy of manhood. One by one the
local officers and be utterly unable to in- barriers which kept from the suffrage the
terfere with the proper conduct of the poor and the unlearned have been swept
election. But they know also that the away, and, in the long run, no majority
result will be publicity, and they believe has been great enough, no interf'st has
that in consf'quence of publicity many dis- been strong enough, to stand up against
tricts will be lost to them. This law is as that general public opinion which con-
fair to one party as another; but if one tinually grows in the direction of larger
party is cheating that party will suffer, liberty. That public opinion has nenr
amI where the cry against the law is loud- known a refluf'nt wave. \Yhat democracy
f'st it is tl)(' best evidf'nce of its necessity, has gaine(l it has always kq)t. If you
and proves that those who resist it profit suppose that the progress of democracy
hy tlle wrong-doing whieh it seeks to eure. among white nwn has been pleasant for
The f'on<;titntion of the "Lnited Statp!,! tho
e gentlemen who were at ease in their
promises f'qual reprf'
entation to the peo- possessions, you ha \"e not read history.
pIe. and it makes the negro a citizen. It is not an agreeable thing in any day
Equality of representation has been de- or generation to distribute power which
8t1"OY('(} hy the system in the South whieh any set of men have always had exclu-
make!'\ one votf' there overweigh five or sively to themselves among those who nev-
six votes in the North, and the negro has er had it before. It les!'!
ns one and exalt'!
been deprj.
d of the rights the nation the other.
195

ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF

We of the }l.orth han> hy no means
reached the perfection of sf'lf:goYernment.
Our apportionments of congressional dis-
tricts are by no means utterly fair; but
there is a limitation to injustice beyond
which no party does to go, except in In-
diana, where 4,000 majority in the State
gives Republicans but three out of thir-
teen Congressmen. Our voters are not
entirely free from undue influence, but
there is a point beyond which no employer
dares to go; and the votes in manufact-
uring districts show how sturdy is the
defiance of most workingmen to even a
dictation which is only inferred. :Uany
a man seems to vote against his own and
his employer's interest to show that he
is in every way his own ma;;ter. But
whichever way he votes. his vote gets
counted, and his will, whether it be feeble
or sturdy, gets expresspd.
It often happens that when dehate
springs up about the condition of affairs
in other parts of the rnion, when in-
timidation with shot-guns and mobs. when
systematic falsifications of returns. are
made subjects of comnwnt. the errors and
shortcominf!s in the North are dragged
in as a justifieation for all that has hap-
pened of illegal action elsewh('re. This
kind of answer is so common. and so re-
minds one of the bpam and the mote of
Scripture. that it is worth anal,yzing.
It is founded on the a '\.iom of geometry
that things whie-h are equal to the same
thing are equal to each other. This is
undoubtedly true, if you are sure of the
first equality. All things are not equal
because they han' the same names.
\Vhen an empIo,rer intimates to Rome of
his workmen that he cares most for men
who look after his intprests. and that his
interests arc with such and such a party,
that employer is guilty of intimidation.
When the interesting collpction of gentle-
men in a Southern district go forth to fire
guns all night. in order, as the mem-
ber from that distriC't phraspd it in oppn
House, "to let the niggprs know thpre is
going to be a fa ir t>lt>('tion tht> nt>'Xt
day," they also are guilty of intimidation.
Xewrtheless. n
pre is a differpnee; pspp-
dally if thprp bt> an 110n('st eye> to see it.
:\Iurder and catching fish out of season
Rre both crimes; but then> are odds in
crimps. Is a community where men vio-

la te the la \VB relating tu cloBe time de-
harred from complaining of murder ell!\e-
where when its own families suffer by it!
Must we ourselves reach absolute perfec-
tion before we ask others to treat us de-
cently 1 Is robbery by violence to be tol-
erated and approved until we have utterly
abolished petty larceny! The difference
between the nation of highest and the
nation of lowest civilization is only in
degree.
But, after all, have we any right to
complain of bad actions in the South!
\"hy should not the citizens of each State
be allowed to manage their own affairs!
If you have any confidence in a repub-
lican form of government, why not show
it! Let them wrestle with their problem
alone. It is theirs; let them manage it.
If it were founded on fact, this would be
a powerful appeal to onë who believes as
does the writer of this article, in democ-
racy-which is to say. in government by
8 n the people; who belien>s that no com-
munity can permanently dethrone justice;
who believes that all the laws of this uni-
verse are working towards larger liberty,
greater equality, and truer fraternity.
But so far as federal elections are con-
cerned, this appeal is founded on no fact
whatever. When he goes to elect a mem-
ber of Congress, the man from 1\fissis-
sippi or the man from
Iaine does not go
to the polls as a citizen of
Iississippi or
of Maine, but as one of the people of the
enited States. All meet on common
ground. They are citizens of one great
republic-<>ne and indivisible. Each one
votes for the government of himself and
of the other. The member from 1\Iissis-
sippi whom the one elects and the mem-
ber from Maine whom the other sends to
Washington must unite in making the
laws which govern both. The membpl"
from :\Iississippi has the same right to de-
mand that the membpr from :\Iaine shall
be elected according to the law of the
land as he has to demand the same thing
of a coll('ague from his own State.
The object of assembling the Congress
togethpr is to declare the will of the peo-
ple of the "Cnited States. How can that
will b(' df'c!ared if there be more than
twenty men returned to the House who
never w('re elected, whose very presence
is a violation of the Constitution of the

lQ6

ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF
United Statel!l and of the law of the land! press his negro and have him also T Among
Still less will the will of the people be all his remedies, he hal!l never propol!led
declared if those twenty men shift the to surrender the representation which he
control of the House from one party to owes to the very negro whose vote he re-
the other. All free countries are gov- fuses. The negro is human enough to be
erned by parties. They can never be gov- represented, but not human enough to
erned any other way. If, then, fraud have his vote counted.
changes th
very principles on which a Suppose it were a fact that negro domi-
country be governed, how can it be justi- nation and barbarism would follow from
fied! honest voting in the Southern State elec-
The attempted justification is this: tions; suppose it were a fact that disre-
We in the South, inasmuch as you have gard of law and complete violation of the
conferred the right of suffrage on the rights secured to the negro by the Con-
negro, and inasmuch as he is in the ma- stitution were absolutely necessary to pre-
jority in many of our States, are in grave serve the civilization of the South; what
danger of being overwhelmed by mere has that to do with federal elections!
ignorant numbers. We white people who Violation of law and disregard of statutes
pay the ta'Xes wiII never permit these bar- are not needed to save the United States.
barians to rule Over us. 'Vhen we Evidently, then, the question of race
thought it necessary to prevent their supremacJ' and of good government in the
domination, we swarmed around their South has nothing whatever to do with
cabins by night; we tenorized them: we that other question which concerns our
showed them by example
that to be a whole people, whether the Republican
politician was dangerous-that it led to party of the Unit
d States shall receive
death even. Those things have in great and have counted the votes which belong
measure pas!"f'd away now, and we simply to it by virtue of the Constitution of tllf'
falsifv the count; we stuff the ballot- country. If you teU us that these are
boxes: That makes less trouble and is ignorant votes and ought not to be
just as effectual. Finding that their counted, we answer-and the answer is
votes do not count. the negroes have lately conclusive-that ignorance is everywhere.
ceased to vote. 'Vhether clothed in the and that the Democratic party never
fervid eloquence of the late Mr. Grady or failed to vote its ignorance to the utter-
in th
strange language of the governor most verge of the law. Why should they.
of Soutb Carolina, which will be quoted of aB partisans, claim that only scholars
further on. thiH is the justification. should vote! Is the high and honorable
But this justification does not in the esteem in which the chief officers of the
least touch the su1Jj(>('t of federal elec- greatest Democratic city-the city of New
tions. "Evf'ry Routhern man knows that York-are now held among men an ex-
then' is no possihility of negro domination ample of what intelligence wiII do for a
in the United Rbtes. No federal taxes community! If a man thinks the same
wiII ever be imposed hy the neg-ro. No thing of the repuhlic that I do, must
federal ('ontrol is within his power. If there be an inquest held over his intelli-
aU this wrong at the ballot-box be needed genc
before I can have his vote counted
to preservf' a proper local State govern- with mine in the government of the
ment. to keep the Caucasian supreme in United Statf's!
the Rtate. not a living soul can darf' to Or, to put it more directly, in the lan-
say that the same wrong, or any other, gl1ag
of ex-Governor RuBock, of Georgia,
is nf'f'f's!"ary for Caucasian supremacy in which i!'l quoted in the Atlanta Constitu-
the Fnifed States. In fact, transferred to tion. "It is now generally admitted with
the broaòf'r arena, the struggle is hetween us that therf' is no more danger to the
the prouò C'au('asian and the Caucasian hody politic from an ignorant and vicious
wbo is not so proud. If it bf' a race qUf'S- black votf'r than from an iIIiterate and
tion, i!'l there any rf'a!'lon why the white vicious white voter."
man in the Routh
hould bave two votes This system of fals
counting is not in-
to my one! Is he alone of mortals to eat dulgf'd in with impunity. Its baleful in-
Itia ('flkr And hn,-" it too' Is he to BUP- fluence has nowhere more clearly shown
107

ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF

itself than in its effects upon the sense of seat and cannot find his supcrvisor, he
justice of Southern nwn. \Vhere else on has no remedy. Even among the most
carth would you get such a declaration intelligent and alert politicians it is easy
as came from John P. Finle
', of Grecn- to see what a va"t chance there is for mis-
vi lie, l\IibS., for twelve Yf'ars treasurer of behavior, and it needs no specification to
his county-a declaration made in the show how it works in South Carolina
presence of his fellow-citizens-that he did among that part of the population which
not considcr ballot-box !'Ituffing a crime, has just strl1ggl<,d to manhood. But in
but a llecessitJ'; that in a case of race order that the work of government by the
supremacy a man who stuffed a ballot- minority may be complete, the law dccrecs
box would not forfeit either his social or that there shall he eight din'crcnt ballot-
business standing; and that ballot-box hoxes, so that tllOse who can read can
stuffing, so far as he knew, was looked know where to put their tickets and those
upon by the hcst element in the South as who cannot read can e
ercise their ingenu-
a choice hetween necessary evils? You ity. The law also provides that the officials,
would search far beforf' J'ou would find who alone are present with the voter,
the parallel of what Watt K. Johnson shall read to him the inscrilltions on the

aid in the same case (Hill vs. Catchings). ballot-boxes; but as the governor provides
"I would stuff a ballot-box," said he, "if that all the officials shall bf' of one party,
required to do it, to put a good Republi- it is easy to see how valuable this provi-
can in office, as I would a Democrat, as sion is. In ordcr that the n<,gro shall
my object is to have a good honest gov- have no ad,'antage from the position of
ernmf'nt." the boxes becoming known, the boxcs are
.. Good honest government" by ballot- shuffled from time to time, and if a ballot
box stuffing! Think of the moral condi- get!!! into a wrong bo
it cannot be count-
tion of a community where a man would cd. In the 1\IiIIer and Elliott case, 1\Ir.
dare openly to make such an avowal. In Elliott's cOlm
cl, unahle to deny thc !'Ihift-
saying this there is no purpose to speak ing of ballot - hox<,s, jn
tifies it on the
unkindly, but only to point out the inevi- ground that there is no law against it,
tahle effcct upon public morals of con- and on the further ground that it is in
tinued violation of law. No community the !'Ipirit of the law; which last defcnce
can enconrage systematic di
rf'ga rd of is true.
law, eyen for purposes deemed justifiablf', With this prf'liminary statement the
without injury to all other laws anò to rf'ader can enter into the grim humor of
its own moral sense. It only nceds to tIle reply of the governor of South Caro-
have the fence hroken down in one place Jina, him
elf a candidate for re-election.
to have the bad cattle range through the when the Repuhlican!'l askf'd that among
whole garden. the judgf's of election should be some Re-
While this statc of things exi
ts in Mis- publicans. It would seem not 1mrf'aSOn-
sissippi, a glance at South Carolina wiII able that one of the grcat parties to the
gin evcn more food for reflection. In poJitical contcst
hould have a .. sworn
that State, by law there was hut on(' reg- ofJìcial" to Sf'e that the votf'r was C01T(,<'Í-
istration at the home of the voter (at the ly told which ho
to put hi:-- votf' into. and
polling precinct), which took placf' in to see that thf' votp was rightly countf'd.
1882.
ince that time all additions to the The govf'rnor. howp,'p!". ro:--,. ..hove party,
Jist havc been made at the county scats. l"f'jf'cted the Rppuh
if'nn requ<,st, put none
"'henever a man mons not mf'rely from but Democrats on guard. and in his reply
county to county, not merply from town nsf'ò. among other similar things, the fol-
to town, not only from precinct to pre- lowing words:
cinct, but whenever h(' remove !'I from housf' .. To the pternal honor of onr
tatp antI
to house in the same prccinf't, hf' thp J)pmorratlc party. It ("an now bp !oialel
must have a new certificate from the that OUl' f'lprt!ons are thl' frf'l'!oit anrl fairp!oit
supervisor of registration, who. nomi- In thp world. nnc1 that not a !oiln
le citizen
of hpr!oi. no mattpr what his rank. ('olor, or
nally at l<,ast. has his office at the county rondltlon. ran. undpr hpr .I11!oit anc1 1"llInl

f'at. 'Vithout thi!'l changed certificate. hc Inws. Impal"tlally admlnl
tprprl. a!oi thpv al"f'.
is dj!'\frnnrllÏsf'(1. If he tra"f'ls to the county be by any pervP!'!'1lon or Intlml,Jntion harrpd
)fIS

ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF

which it did after waiting for the death
of the contestant.
If any man replies, as sometimes peo-
ple do, " You are assuming that the
colored man will vote your ticket, and
tha t is not so," the plain answer is: "It
is either so or not so. If it is so, then
we are deprived of a vote which belongs
to us under the Constitution of the
United States. If it be not so, and the
negro is voting the Democl'atic ticket
from choice, where is your race issue?
If both white man' and negro are agreed
on white supremacy, why do you send
so much Southern eloquence North to
touch our Caucasian hearts?"
This state of things cannot be good for
this nation, either North or South. Re-
member that this is not a question of
Of course, the utterance of July 30 was outcries and epithets, of reproaches and
for the home market, and the letter of hysterics. It is a plain question of jus-
September for export. But when you tice and fair-dealing. Both sections of
consider that both these statements were this country can afford to be fair and
made to the same community, by the open with each other. If you say that

overnor of the State, you can form you have a right of local self-government
some idea of the effect which this system which we have no business to interfere
of action at the polls has had on the with, and that, unless you are allowed
morale of the people. to go on in your own way, you fear
This course of utterly riding over the disaster most foul, the next thing for
will of the voter has been carried to such all of us to òo is to find !'1ome plan
excess as was never dreamed at the out- which will give us the votes of the whole
set, even by those who planned the first people of the Pnited States, and lea,'e
great wrongs. 'Vhen South Carolina, by you your local sl'lf-gonrnment.
a gerrymander which remains up to date To put this whole matter in a nutshell,
the greatest spectacle that has ever been the Repuhlican party alleges that it is
put upon a map, and which to this day deprived by all manner of devices--differ'
almost defies belief, put 3l,onn colored ing in different States, but having one
ppople in one district with only 6,000 common purpose-of votes which under
whites, the framers of the apt meant at the Constitution of the land that party
ll'ast that that district should have the is entitled to. To this the parties offend-
rppresentative of its choice. But, en- ing reply that the suppression of votes
couraged by the success of the Southern and voters is nf'cessary to prevent the
plan elsewhere, even that district has thn>atenpd destruction of local self-gov-
he('n taken away. It is well known that ernment by the numerical superiority of
in the South itself this was regarded as race ignorance in very many States. "-e
an outrage, but the voice of those so re- have a right, say the
T, to prennt, by yio-
garding it has fallen into the silence of lence or hy fraud, if nf'ed he, the control
('on sent. of the ignorant in our own Statps.
In Alabama thf' 4th district was so Suppose all that to he so; suppose that
made that 27,000 colored men were all you are doing is needful for your pres-
packed in with 6,000 whites, and at ewry ervation, and that you must keep on at
election the Democratic candidate is re- all costs: how does that give you the
turned. So flagrant was one of the in- right to gO\"f'rn us by your methods?
stances that the Forty-eighth Congress, If you have the right of local se1f-govern-
J)pmocratic by ninety-five majority, was ment, have Wf' not thp right of national
obliged to disgorge the sitting n1f'mhpr, splf-goYf'rnmpnt? If you of thp Statf's
1
9

at the polls from the free and full exercfse
of his suffrage. There Is not only perfect
frepdom in voting, but the amplest protection
afforded the voter."

These words were in his letter of Sept.
29, 1888. On July 30 preceding, just
two months before, that same governor
said, in a public speech, which you will
find in the Charleston :Yews and Courier
of the 31st, the following:

II We have now the rule of a minority of
400,000 over a majority of 600,000.
o
army at Austerlitz or Waterloo or Gettys-
burg could ever be wielded like that mass of
600,000 people. The only tblng whlcb stands
to-day between us and tbeir rule is a flimsy
statute-tbe elgbt-box law-whicb depends
for Its effectiveness upon tbe unity of tbe
wblte people."

ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF

over, the exercise of this supervisory
power is to be called into being by
petition, thus singling out by their own
signatures those persons who are respon-
sihle for the claim that the elections need
supervision, and who thereby become ob-
nm..ious to the very violence which they
are
triving to avoid.
In some States, like North Carolina
and Virginia, a supervisor law would be
very helpful; hut there are States and
communities witb regard to which it is
said that it would be assuming a terrible
responsibilitJ- to enact it. Against such
a law the South urges sectionalism and its
interference with local self-government;
for no supen ision which does not examine
all the boxes and count all the votes is
worth the trouble of enacting. It is true
that in Xew York City, under the able and
thorough management of the chief super-
,-isor, great results have been accom-
plished by this law, and elections are held
80 satisfactory to both parties that there
have been no contested elections from that
city in my remembrance. \Yhether in
other regions, among a different people, in
sparsely settled places, this could be so
well don
is the point at issue.
In what we call theory, no really valid
objection can be urged against federal
supervision, for an honest count can hurt
no one. Even if all the boxes are sub-
jected to the supervision of a second set
of mpn, the result in Kew York proves
that when once established it is a solid
safeguard satisfactory to honest people.
So easily does the systcm now move, and
so free is it from friction, that it is doubt-
ful if a tenth of the readers of this article
e\'en remember that the system is fully
This dcclaration. madf' at a time when estab1ished. Many contests, however,
d<,hate is not usual on a bill, will attract were necessary to thus establish it in New
attention to the ohjf'ctions which are urged York City. But this is a practical world,
against the supervisor law. Some of where all unnecessary diffieulties ought to
them are worth re'pro,lucing in order that be avoided, and where the middle way is
people may carefully consider all parts oft
n the best because it is the middle
of a question which must have a settle- way.
ment, and can never have any final scttle- In this case the middle course is ap-
ment which is not right. The supervisor parently-but only apparently-the most
law is the subject of ohjection. among radical. Let the country at once assume
other things, because, while it leaves the at least the count and return of its own
elections in the hands of the Statf's, it elections. It may be that this could be
proposes to set watchers over the State don
in a w!tv that would leave the States
officials, and to U8
a kind of dual control which object' to supervision free from all
liable to 1J1l manner of friction. :More- interference from their neighbors, aø it

oo

are willing to take all hazards to save
yourselves from ignorant negro domina-
tion, are you going to blame us of the
United States if we refuse to submit to
fraudulent domination? You think negro
domination unbearable. \Ye think fraudu-
lent domination a crime.
But we need not quarrel. There must
bc some remedy consistent with the Con-
stitution, which was intended to provide
for this very local government, and for
this very federal government. Each was
to be respected within its sphere, and each
was to subsist side by side with the other.
So far as the electicn of members of Con-
gress was concerned, the Constitution pro-
vides for the very condition in which we
find ourselves. In the first instance, the
legislature of the State may make the
regulations for the election of members,
hut Congress may make or alter them in
accordance with its own will. It may
alter them by providing for federal super-
vision, or it may make such new regula-
tions as will assume the entire election
from registration to certification.
"-Te have, then. two kinds of remedy-
the alteration of State regulations and the
making of new ones of our own. As to
the first method, so far as it was ex-
hibited in the proposed Renate bill for su-
pervision, the Senator from Alabama, :Mr.
Pugh, when the bill was presented in the
Senate, rose and declared:

.. If the bill becomes a law, Its execution
will Insure the shedding of blood and the
destruction of the peace and good order
of this countQ'. Its passage will be resisted
by every parliamentary method, and every
method allowed by the Constitution of the
rnlted States."

ELECTIVE FRANCHISE

would certainly leave us free from false ton in cities and towns and in voting pre-
counting and false returns. They could cincts having 250 voters or more.
then govern their own people in their own In Texas cities of 10,000 or over may
way, free from federal supervision in require registration. In Rhode Island
congressional elections, and the United non-taxpayers are required to register be-
States could govern itself free from all fore Dec. 31, each year. Registration is
fear of those practices deemed indispen- prohibited by constitutional provision in
!'1ilh]p to local government. An we ask is Arkansas and 'Vest Virginia.
thilt in national matters the majority The qualifications for voting in each
of the voters in this country may rule. State and the classes excluded from suf-
'Yhy should any Southern man object to frage are as fonows:
tllis? Alabama.-Citizen or alien who has de-
Elective Franchise. During the Colo- elared intention; must have resided in
nial period the people elected their repre- State one year, county three months, town
sentatives in the assemb1ies or legislatures or precinct thirty days; per
ons convicted
by banot or, as in Virginia, by a riva voce of crime punishable by imprisonment,
votp. The governors of Rhode Island idiots or insane excluded from suffrage.
and Connecticut were the only ones elected Arkansas.-Citizen or alien who has
by the people, with the exception of Massa- declared intention; must have resided in
cllUsetts from 1620 to 1691. The CO
STI- State one year, county six months, pre-
TrTIO
OF TilE UXITED STATES (q. v.) pre- cinct thirty days; persons convicted of
scrihes the methods of electing the Presi- felony, until pardoned, failing to pay poll
dent, Vice-president, and mf'mhprs of each tax, idiots or insane excluded.
House of Congress. Local elections are California.-Citizen by nativity, nat-
regulated hy State laws. Tn all the uralization or treaty of Queretaro; must
States except \Vyoming and Colorado have resided in State one year, county
(where women are entitIf'd to full suf- ninety days, precinct thirty days; Chinese,
frage) the right to vote at general elec- insane, embezzlers of public moneys, con-
tions is restricted to males twenty-one victed of infamous crime excluded.
years of age or over. Colorado.-Citizen or alien who has
The registration of voters is required in declared intention four months previous
the following States and Territories: to offering to vote; must have resided in
Alabama, Arizona, California, Colorado, State six months, county ninety days,
Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, town or precinct ten days; persons under
Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, guardianship, in prison, insane or idiots
Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Mon- exeluded.
tana, Nevada, Xew Hampshire, New .Ter- Connccticut.-Citizen who can read
sPy. Xew :Mexico,
orth Carolina, Penn- constitution or statutes; must have re-
"ylvania, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, sided in State one year, town six months;
Yirginia and \Vyoming. In some counties persons canvicted of felony or theft ex-
in Oeorgia registration is rf'quired by cluded.
local law. In Kentucky }'egistration is Dclaware.-Citizen and paying county
required in cities; in Kansas in cities of tax after age of twenty-two; must have
the first and second class; in Nebraska rf'sided in State onf' year, county one
and Iowa in cities of 2,500 population month. precinct fifteen days: idiots, in-
Rnd over; in :North Dakota in cities of sane, paupcrs, felons excluded.
over 3,000; in Ohio in some cities; in Florida.-Citizen or alien who has de-
Mainf' in towns of 500 or more voters; in elared intention and paid capitation tax
South Dakota in cities and towns of over two years; must have r{'sided in State one
1,000 voters and in counties where regis- year, count
. six months; persons under
tration has been adopted by popular vote; guardiansh;p. insane, com'ictf'd of fclony
in Tennessee in all counties of 50,000 or or any infamous crime f'xcluded.
more inhabitants; in New York in an OC01'gia.-Citi7en who ha!'l paid all his
cities and vi11ages of over 5,000 popula- taxes since IH77; must have resided in
tion: in )Iissouri in cities of 100,000; in State one year. county six months; idiots.
Wi,ron5lin in ,orne cities. In 'Vashing- insane, convicted of crime punil'lhable b

01

ELECTIVE FRANCHISE

imprisonment until pardoned, tax delin-
qucnts excludcd.
Idaho.-Citizen; must have resided in
State six months, county thirty days; Chi-
n(:se, Indians, Mormons, felons, insane,
convicted of treason or election bribery
excluded.
Illinois.-Citizen; must have resided
in State one
'ear, county ninety days,
town or precinct thirty days; persons con-
\'icted of crime punishable in penitentiary
until pardoned and restored to rights ex-
cluded.
Indiana.-Citizen or alien who has de-
clared intention and resided one ycar in
United States and six months in State;
must have resided in State six months,
t own sixty days, precinct thirtJ' days;
l,ersons convicted of crime and disfran-
chised by judgment of court excluded.
IOlm.-Citizen; must have residcd in

tate six months, county sixty days ; idiots,
insane, convicted of infamous crime, non-
r(:sident United States soldiers and ma-
rines excluded.
Kansas.-Citizen or alien who has dc-
clared intention; must h:n'e residcd in
State six months. town or pn'cinct thirty
days; idiots, insane, convicts. rf'bels not
restored to citizcnship, pcrsons under
guardianship, public embezzlers, bribed,
excluded.
lfentucky.-Citizen; mu"t have resided
in State one year. county six months, town
or precinct sixty da:rs; idiots, insane,
per!:>ons convicted of trcaslln, felony, or
hribery at election excludcd.
I.Jouisiana.-Citiyen or alien who has de-
c
ared intention; must have resided in
State one year. county six months, pre-
c:nct thirty days; idiots. insane. persons
convicted of treason. embezzlement of pub-
lic funds, or any crime punishable hy im-
prisonment in ppnitf'ntiary excluded.
Maine.-Citizen; must have resided in
town three months; paupcrs, persons un-
der guardiansllip. Indians not taxed. and
in 18!);J al1 new voters who cannot read
C'Onstitution or write their own names in
English excluded.
Maryland.-Citi1en; must have residpd
in State one
'car. county six months; per-
sons oyer twenty-one years convicted of
larceny or other infamous crimf' unless
pardo
ed. undí'r guardianship as lunaties
or non compo,r; fl!rnfi,r; í"clud
d.

.Uassachw;ctts.-Citizen who can reaeI
constitution in English, and write; must
have resided in State one Yf'ar, town six
months; paupers (except United ::;tates
soldiers and sailors honorably discharged)
and persons under guardianship e),.cluded.
Michigall
-Citizen or inhabitant who
has declared intention under "Cnited Statc8
laws two ycars and sh months before elec-
tion and lived in State t\\O and a half
YNtrs; must have residf'd in State six
months, town or county twenty days;
Indians, duellists, and accessories ex-
cl uded.
.Minllf'sota.-Citizen or alien who has
declared intention and civilized Indians;
must have resided in rnited States one
year prior to election, State four months,
t(Jwn or precinct tf'n days; persons con-
victed of trf'a80n or felony unless pardon-
cd) under guardianship or insane excluded.
.Mi,r;sissippi.-Citizen who can read or
understand constitution after .Tan. I,
ISf)
; must have resided in State two
Yf'ars, to\\ n or precinct onE year (except
clergymen, who are qualified aftcr six
months in precinct); insane, idiots, Ind-
ians not taxed, felons, persons who have
p-ot paid taxes excluded.
.Mis.souri.-Citizen or alien who has de-
clared intention not less than one :rear nor
more than five before offering to vote;
must have residcd in State one year, town
sixty days; Pnited Statf's soldiers and
marinf's. paupers. criminals convictf'd oncc
until pardoned, fclons and violators of
suffrage laws convicted a second time
cxcluded.
Montana.-Citizen; must ha\e resided
ill State one ycar, count
' thirty days;
Indians, felons. and soldiers excludcd.
Kcbm,r;ka.-Citizen or alicn who has de-
c
ared intention thirtJ' da
's prior to elec-
tion; must havc residf'd in State six
months, county forty days. town or pre-
cinct ten days; idiots. insane, convicted
of treason or felony unless pardoned, 801.
diers and sailors excluded.
Y clmda.-Citizen: mu<;t have re!'ided in

tate six months, town or prf'cinct thirty
dflYs: idiots, insane. convieted of treason
or felony, unamnestií'd f'onfedf'fate.. who
bore arms against the ruited States ex-
cluded.
XCI(; Ilampshire.-Tnlmhitants. na.ti\"p or
paturalizcll: must have J"I.sid..d in town
202

ELECTIVE FRANCHISE-ELECTORAL COLLEGES

six months; paupers (except L""nited compos mentis, convicted of bribery or in-
States soldiers and sailors honorably dis- famous crime until restored to right to
charged), persons excused from paying vote, under guardianship excluded.
taxes at their own request excluded. South Carolina.-Citizen; must have
Sew Jersey.-Citizen; must have re- resided in State one year, town sixty days;
sided in State one year, county five persons convicted of treason, murder, or
months; idiots, insane, paupers, persons other infamous crime, duelling, paupers,
convicted of crimes (unless pardoned) insane, and idiots excluded.
which exclude them from being witnesses South Dakota.-Citizen or alien who
excluded. bas declared int('ntion; must have resided
"/I:('w York.-Citizen ninety days prevI- in United States one year. State six
eus to election; must have resided in n10nths, county thirty da,ys. precinct ten
State one
rear, county four months, town daJ's; persons under guardianship, idiots,
or precinct thirty daJ's; persons convicted insane, convicted of treason or felony un-
of bribeQ' or any infamous crime, unless less pard01wd e
dllded.
sentenced to reformatory or pardoned, bet- Tenncssce.-Citizen; must have resided
tors on result of a.ny election at which ill State one year, county six months, and
they otier to \"otp, bribers and bribed for be resident of precinct or district; persons
,'otes c,-chuled. convicted of bribery or other infamous of-
Xorth ('arolina.-Citizen; must have fence excluded.
resided in State one
rear, county ninety Tcxas.-Citizen; must have resided in
days; persons convictcl of felony or other State one year, town !"i'\: months, and be
infamous crime, idiots, and luna tics ex- actual resident of precinct or district;
cluded. idiots, lunatics, paupers, United States
North DaJ.:ota.-Citizen, alien who has soldiers and sailors, and persons convicted
declared intention one :rea.r, or civilized of felony excluded.
Indian who has severed tribal relations rf'r11l0nt. - Citizens must have resided
two J'ears prior to election; must ha\-e re- in State one year, town or precinct three
sided in State one year, county six months, months (if residing in State one year,
prccinct ninety da
s; Lnited States sol- l;ona fide resident in precinct at time of
dlers and sailors, persons non compos men- registration may vote); un pardoned con-
tis, and felons excluded. ,icts, deserters during Civil "-ar, and ex-
Ohio.-Citizen; must han resided in Confederates excluded.
State one year, county thirty days, pre- rirginia.-Citizen; must have resided
cÏnct twenty days; persons convicted of in State Olle yea.r, town three months,
fdony untill}ardoned and restored to citi- precinct thirty days; idiots, lunatics,
Zl nship, idiots, insane, Lnited States sol- persons convicted of bribery at election,
diers and sailors excluded. embezzlement of public funds, treason,
01'cgon.-Citizen or alien who has de- felony, and petty larceny. duellists and
dared intention one year; must ha \-e re- abettors. unl('ss pardoned by legislature.
sided in State six months; idiots, insane, excluded. See DISFRAXCIIISBIEXT.
convicted of felony, L""nited Rtates soldiers Electoral Colleges, TilE. The p('opl('
and sailors, and Chinese excludpd. do not vote directlv for President and
Pennsylvania.-Citizen one month. and Vice-President, but t}wy choose, for PHch
if twenty-two years or over lIIu,<t have congre!"sional district in the respcf'tivp
paid tax within two years; must have re- States. a repres('ntative in an electoral
...ided in f;tate one year, or six months if college, which consists of as many J)H'm-
after having been a qualified elector or bers as there ar(' congressional districts
native he shall have removed and return- in each State, hesides its two Senators.
ed; in precinct two months; non - tax- The theory of the framers of the Con.,ti-
payers and persons convicted of some of- tution was that by this means the be"t
f('nee whprehy right of suffrage is forfdt- men of the country would be chosen in the
('(} ('",eluded. st'\-eral districts. and t]wr would better
Nhode !.<;["nd.-Citizen: must han rp- ('''-press the wishes of thl' 1'('ople conCPTJI-
sided in :-itatp two
'ears, town si'\: iug a choice of Pn':-,idl'nt awl Yi('e.Pn'si-
months; paul'crs
lunatics, persons non dent than a vote dirl'etl
' by the people
203

ELECTORAL COMMISSION

for the!'\e officer!'. Th@ eeveral electors adopted, providing for the investiga.tion of
choeen in the different States meet at the action of returning boards in South
their respective Rtate capitals on the first Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. There
'Yednesda.v in Dí'cpmber, and name in was much excitement in Congress and anx-
their ballot" the pC'rsons for Presidmt and iety among the people. Thoughtful men
"ice-President. Then each eleC'toral col- saw much trouble at the final counting
lí'gf> makes thl"eí' lists of the nanws voted of the votes of the electoral colleges by
for these ofti('('s. ThC'",e Jists must be sent thc. president of the Sí'nate, according to
to the prf>sidl'nt of the Senate by the first the prescription of the Constitution, for
"-ednesday of January. Congress meets already his absolute power in the matter
in joint sí':-sion to count the votes on the was qUf'stioned. Proctor Knott, of Ken-
second 'Vednesdav of Februarv. See tucky, ofi"ered a resolution for the appoint-
PRESIDENT, VOTE I':OR. . ment of a committee of seven members, to
Electoral Commission. i\ Republican act in conjunction with a similar commit-
National Convention assembled at Cincin- tee that might be appointed by the Senate,
nati, June 16, 1876, and nominated to prepare and }"eport a plan for the crea-
Rutherford Birchard Hayes, of Ohio, for tion of a tribunal to count the electoral
President, and 'Villiam A. 'Vheeler, of 'Totes, whose authority no one could ques-
New York. for Vice-PresiJl'nt. On the tion, and whose decision all could accept
27th a Democratic :Kational Connntion as final. The resolution was adopted.
assembled at St. Louis and nominated The Senate appointed a committee; and on
Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, for Presi- Jan. 18, 1877, the joint committee, con-
dent, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indi- sisting of fourteen members. reported a
ana, for Vice-President. A very excited can- hill that prm-ided for the meeting of hoth
,ass sueceeded. and so vehemC'nt becamp Houses in the hall of the Housf> of Repre-
the lawlessness in some of the Southf'rn
í'ntati\"es on Feu. I. 1877, to there cOllnt
States that at times local civil war seemed the votes in accordance with a plan which
inevitable. The resuJt of the election was the committee pl'op08ed. In case of mOl'c
in doubt for some time, pach party daim- than one return from a State, all :-ouch re-
ing for its candidate a majority. In the turns, ha"ing heen made by appointed
electoral college 185 votes wpre necessary tí'llers. should be, upon objpctions being
to the success of a candidate. It was de- made, submitted to the judgment and de-
cided after the election that .Mr. Tilden ei!"ion. a.s to which was the lawful and true
had 184. Tllf'n ensued a long and bitter electoral vote of the State, of a C'olllmi,,-
contest in Routh Carolina, Florida, and sion of fifteen, to be compospd of five mem-
Louisiana over the oflìcial returns, each l'ers from each House, to he appnintí'd
party charging the other with fraud. viva 1'oce, .Tan. 30, with four associatp
There was intí'nse excitement in the Gulf justiees of the Rupreme Court of the
region. In order to Sf'cure fair play, rnited States, who should, on Jan. 30,
Presidí'nt Grant issued an order (Xov. 10,
elect another of the justices of the Su-
1876) to General Sherman to instruct preme Court, the entire commission to be
military ofTicers in the South to he vigi- presided over hy the associate justice long--
lant, to presen-e peace and g-ood ord"r, and
"t in commission. After much ddmtf',
Sf'e that legal hoards of can\"fissers of the the bill passed both Houses. ft hf'cnme
,-otes cast at the election were unmo- a Inw, by the signnture of the Presi-
lested. He also appointed distinguished dent, .Tan. 29, 1877. The next dav thf'
gf'ntIemen of both political parties to go two Houses each selected five
f its
tn Louisiana and Florida to be present at IIIc,mbers to sern' on the Electoral Com-
the rí'cf'ption of the returns and the count- mission, the Senate m
mbers being (;porge
ing of the ,'otes. The result was that it F. Edmunds (Yt.), Oliver P. !\forton
was decided, on the count by returning (Ind.). Frederick T. FreJingh\lyspn
hoards. that Hayes had a majority of the (X..f. \. Thomas F. nayard (Del.), and
elpctoral votes. The friends of 'Ir. Tildpn \\len n. Thurman (0.), and the Hou!'le
,\."('re not satisfied. There was a. Demo- tnf'mbf'TS. Henry B. Payne (0.), EpPil
<,ratic majority in the House of Reflre- lIunton (Va.), Josiah G. Abbott (Mass.).
t'entativeli, On Dec. 4 p r('solution was .TnmPii .-\. nflrfleld 10.), pncl Geor
e F.
20

ELECTRICITY-ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Hoar (Mass.). Senator Francis Kernan
(N. Y.) was afterwards substituted for
Senator Thurman, who had becomc ill.
Judges Clifford, :Miller, Field, and Strong,
of the Supreme Court, were named in the
Lill, and these chose as the fifth member
of associate justices .Toseph P. Br
dley.
The Electoral Commission assembled in
the hall of the House of Representatives,
Feb. 1, 1877. The legality of returns
from several States was questioned, and
was passed upon and decided by the com-
mission. The counting was completed on
:\Iarch 2, and the commission made t11p
final decision in all cases. The president
oÎ the Senate then announced that Hayes
and Wheeler were elected. The forty-
fourth Congress finally adjourned on Sat-
urday,
Iarch 3. :\farch 4, prescribed as
the day for the taking of the oath of office
by the President, falling on Sunday,
Ir.
Hayes, to prevent a.ny technical objectionR
that might be raised, privately took the
oath of office on that day, and on Monday,
thc 5th, he was publicly inaugurated, in
the presence of a vast multitude of his
fellow-citizens.
Electricity. The employment of elec-
tricity for illumination, and as a mover
of machinery, has added an interesting
chapter to the volume of our national
history; and the name of Edison as one
of the chief prùmoters of the use of the
m.ysterious agent for light-
ing, heating, and motive
powcr is coextensive with
the realm of civilization.
Ever since the discovery of
electro-magnetism, thought-
ful men haw' contemplated
the possibility of producing
a controllable electric il-
luminator and motor. In
184.) John W. Starr, of
Cincinnati, filed a caw.at in
the United Steltes Patent
OfIice for a "divisible elec-
tric light." He went to
ISC

:;
E
T England to complete and The latter half of the nineteenth cen-
prove thp utility of his in- tury must ever remain memorable, not
vention. There George Pea- only for the great advances in nearly aU
body, the American banker. offered him the useful arts, but for the peculiarly
all the money he might ne('d, in case his rapid electric progress, and the profound
experiment should bp successful. It effect which it has had upon the Jives and
proved 80 at an exhibition of it at Man- business of the people. In the preceding
chester befl)re scientific n1('n. Professor century we find no p\-ic1('nces of the ap-
Z05

Faraday pronounced it perfect. Starr
was so excited by his E!uccess that he died
that night, and nothing more was done
with the invention. In 1859 PROF.
IOSES
G. FAR)IER (q. v.) lighted a parlor at
Salem, Mass., by an
electric lamp, but the
cost of producing it,
by means of a gal-
vanic battery in the
ceUar. was so great
that the use of it was
abandoned. These
were the pioneers in
our country. Now the
generation of electric-
ity by dynamos, mag-
nets, etc., prod uce,.,
brilliant light at less
cost than by illumi-
nating gas. It is used
so extensively in cities
for various purposes
that it has creatpd a
new phrase in our
vocabulary -" Indus-
trial Electricity." For
the provision of light,
heat, and motive power, extensive plants
are established in almost every city,
town, and village in the country. For
light, two kinds of lamps are used-
the arc and the incandescent. Elec-
tricity moves sewing-machines, elevators,
street-railway cars, the machinery of fac-
tories, agricultural implements, and min-
ing drills; and. wi th all its marvellous
adaptations and achievements towards
the close of the nineteenth century, its
development was then considered still in
its infancy.
Electricity, FAR
[lXG BY. See FAR
[-
I.NO BY ELECTRICITY.
Electricity in the Nineteenth Cen-
tury. ELIHU THOMSO
(q. v.), the cele-
brated inventor and electrician, writes as
follows:

ARC LIGHT.

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

plication of ('I('ctrieity to any useful pur- enough to .-;top and :-;tart a ('uIT..nt ill :l
}lOb('. Few of thc more important }lrin- line of wire C'ol1lt('ctin:! two points, hut
ciples of the science were then kno\\n. f'olllcthing more than that was requi
itt'.
Franklin's invention of the lightning-rod A good re('ein'r, or Hwans for recognizing
was not intemled to utilize electric force, the presl'nce or ab!-.I'ncc of current in the
but to guard life and property from the wire or circuit, did not f'xist. The art
pedIs of the thunder-storm. Franklin's had to wait for the disco\'ery of the effects
kite e'\.pf'riment confirmed the long-sus- of electric current upon magnets and the
Iweted identity of lightning and electric production of magnetism by such currents.
sparks. ft was not, however, until the Curiously, even in 1802 the fact that a
diseonry by Alexander Volta, in 1799, wire conveying a current would deflect
of his pile, or battery, that electricity a compass needle was obsen-ed bJ'
could take its place as an agC'nt of prac- P.omagnosi, of Trente, but it was after-
tical value. 'Tolta, when he maJe this wards forgotten, and not until 18H) was
great discovery, was following the work any real advanC'e made.
of Galvani, begun in 1786. But Galvani It was then that Oersted, of Copenhagf'n,
in his e)..periments mistook the effect for showed that a magnet tends to set itself
the cause, and so missed making the at right angles to the wire conveying CUl'-
unique demonstration that two different rent and that the direction of turning
mf'tals immcrsC'd in a solution could set depends on the direction of the current.
np an electric current. Volta brought to The study of the magnetic ('ff('cts of eleC'-
the notice of the world the first means for tric currents by Arago, Ampère. and the
ohtaining a stcady flow of electricity. production of the electro-magnet bJ- Stur-
The simplest facts of electro-magnetism, geon, together with the very valuahle
upon which much of the later electrical work of Henry and others, madc possible
developments depend, remained f'ntirely the completion of the electric telegraph.
unknown until the first quarter of the This was done by )[orse and Vail in
ninete('nth century. Davy first showed America, and almost simultaneously by
the electric arc or "arch" on a small w01'kers ab1'oad, but. bf'fore )[ors(' ha(l
scale bt'tween pieces of carbon. He also entered the field, Prof. Joseph Henry
laid the foundation for future electro- had exemplified by experimeJlts the work-
chemical work by decomposing by the bat- ing of electric signalling by elC'ctro-
tery current potash and soda, and thus magnets over a short line. It was Henry.
isolating the alkali metals, potassium and in fact, who first made a practical1y use-
sodium, for the first time. A fund was ful electro-magnet of soft iron. The his-
soon subscribed by "a few zealous culti- tory of tIt(' electric telegraph teaches us
va tors and patrons of scienee," interested that to no single individual is the in-
in the discovery of Davy, and he had at vention due. The )lorsc system had been
his sen-ice no less than 2,000 cells of demonstrated in 1837, but not until 18H
voltaic battery. "-ith the intense cur- was the first telegraph line built. It con-
rf'nts obtained from it he again demon- n('cted Baltimore and 'Yashington. and
strated the wonderful amI hrilliant tl1f' funds for defraying its cost were only
phenomenon of the electric arc, by first obtainf'd from Congress after a severe
elo:-õing the circuit of the battery through strugglf'. The success of HIe )[orse tele-
t('rminals of hardwood charcoal amI tlH'n graph was soon fol1owed by the establish-
separating t]wm for a short distance. A nwnt of tel('graph lines as a means of
magnificent arch of flame was maintained communication b('tween a11 the large cities
')('tween the scparat('d ends, and the light and populous districts. Scarcely ten
from the charcoal pieces was of dazzling years elapsed bcfore the po!'-sibility of a
splendor. Thus was born into the world tran!"at1antic telegraph was mooted. The
the electric arc light. of which there are cable laid in 18.38 was a failure. .\ few
now many hundrC'ds of thousands burn- words passed, and then the ('able broke
ing night1:v in our own country alone. down completely. A rpnf'\nd effort to
As parly as 1 Îï4 attempts were made lay a cahle was made in IH(ifi, but disap-
by Le Sng-e. of G('ncva, to apply friC'tional pointmf'nt again fo11owed: the cable broke
plef'triC'ity to telf'g'rnpllY. It wno; easy in mid-ocean. The great task waq sue-
2{)(j

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

cebf'fully accomplislH'd in the following may he delivercd to the elech ic line as
Yf'ar. Even the lost cahle of lRß(ì was f'lectric enf'rgy. The electric motor, now
found. spliced to a new cable, and com-
o common, is a machine like the dynamo,
pleted soon after as a second working line. in which the principle of action is simply
The delicate instruments for the working reversed; electric energy delivered from
of these long cables were due to the genius the linf's becomes again mechanical motion
of Sir \Villiam Thomson, now Lord Kel- or power.
vin. The number of cables joining the The decade between 18ÜO and 1870 open-
Eastern and \Vestern hemispheres has ed a new era in the construction and work-
been increased from time to time, and the ing of dynamo machines and motors.
opening of a new cable is now an ordinary Gramme, in 1870, first succeeded in pro-
occurrence, calling for little or no especial ducing a highly efficient, compact, and
note. durable continuous-current dynamo. It
The introduction of the electric tele- was in a sense the culmination of many
graph was followed by the invention of years of development, beginning with the
various signalling systems, the most im- early attempts immediately following
portant being the fire-alarm telegraph, :Faraday's discovery, already referred to.
automatic clock systems, automatic ele('- In 1872 Von Hefner Alteneck, in Berlin,
tric fire signals, burglar alarms, telegraphs modified the ring winding of Gramme and
which print words and characters, as in produced the "drum winding," which
the stock "ticker," the telautograph. in avoided the necessity for threading wire
which writing is reproduced at the re- through the centre of the iron ring as in
ceiving end of the line, the duplex. quad- the Gramme construction.
ruplex, and multiplex systems of teleg- At the Centennial Exhibition, held at
raphy, automatic transmitting machines Philadelphia in I87fl, but two exhibits of
and rapid recorders. etc. electric-lighting apparatus were to be
The first example of a working type found. Of t11ese one was the Gmmme and
of an arc lamp was that of 'V. E. Staite, the other the \Vallace-Farmer exhibit. The
in 1847, and his description of the lamp \Vallace exhibit contained other examples
and the conditions under which it could reflecting great credit on this American
be worked is a remarkably exact and full pioneer in dynamo work. Some of these
statf'ment, considering the time of its ap- machines were very similar in construction
pearance. But it was a long time before to later forms which went into very ex-
the electric arc acquired any impnrtam'f' tensive use. The large search-lights oc-
as a practical illuminant; the expense was casionally used in night illumination dur-
too great, and the batteries soon became ing the exhibitions were operated by the
exhausted. :Michael Faraday, a most current from 'Vallace-Farmer machines.
worthy successor of Davy, made the ex- The Centennial Exhibition also marks
ceedingly important observation that a the beginning-the vcry birth, it may be
wire, if movcd in the field of a magnet, !';aid-of an electric invention destined to
would yield a current of electricity. become, before the close of the century, a
Simple as the discovery was, its effect has most potent factor in human affairs. The
been stupendous. The fundamental prin- speaking telephone of Alexander Graham
ciple of the future dynamo electric ma- Bf'll was there exhibited for the first time
chine was discovercd by him. This was in to the savants. among whom was the dis-
1 R31. Both the electric motor and the tinguished electrician and scientist Sir
dynamo generator were now potentially 'Yi1liam Thomson. For the first time in
present with us. IIf're, then, was the em- the history of the world a structure of
hryo dynamo. The century closed with copper wire and iron spoke to a listening
!'ingle dynamo machines of over 5,000 car. The instruments wcre, moreover, the
hon-e-power capacity, and with singlf' :1cme of simplicity. Within a year many
power stations in which the total electric a hoy had constructed a pair of telephones
gf'neratinn by such machines is 75,000 to at an expenditure for material of only a
100,000 horsp-power. So perfect is the few pennies. The transmitter was only
modern dynamo that out of 1,000 horse- suited for use on short lines. and was soon
powf'r f''Xp''l1 f lf'll in òrÍ\'ing it, !);jO or morf' aftf'rwardf'l ff'placf'd by various forms of
207

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

carbon microphone transmitters, to the idea of incandescent platinum strips or
production of which many inventors had wires, but without success. The announCe-
turned their attention, notably Edison. ment of his lamp caused a heavy drop
Hughes, Blake, and Hunnings. in gas shares, long before the problem
Few of those who talk between Boston was really solved by a masterly stroke in
and Chicago know that in doing so thl'Y his carbon filament lamp. Curiously, the
have for the exc1usive use of t1wir \'oicps nearest approach to the carbon filament
a total of over 1,000,000 Ibs. of copper lamp had been made in 1845, by Starr,
wire in the single line. There probably an American, who described in a British
now exist in the Vnited States alone be- patent specification a lamp in which elec-
tween 75,000 and 100,000 miles of hard- tric current passed through a thin strip
drawn copper wire for long-distance tele- of carbon kept it heated while surrounded
phone service, and over 150,000 miles of by a glass bulb in which a vacuum was
wire in underground conduits. There are maintained. Starr had exhibited his
upward of 750,000 telephones in the lamps to Faraday, in England, and was
United States, and, including both O\-er- preparing to construct dynamos to furnish
head and underground lines, a total of electric current for them in place of bat-
more than 500,000 miles of wire. teries, but sudden death put an end to his
The display of electric light during the labors.
Paris Exposition of 1878 was the first The Edison lamp differed from those
memorable use of the electric light on a which preceded it in the extremely small
large scale. The source of light was the section of the carbon strip rendered hot by
"electric candle" of Paul Jablochkoft', a the current, and in the perfection of the
Russian engineer. It was a strikingly vacuum in which it was mounted. Edison
original and simple arc lamp. Instead of first exhibited his lamp in his laboratory
placing the two carbons point to point, at Menlo Park, in December, 1879; but
as had been done in nearly all previous before it could be properly utilized an
lamps, he placed them side by side, with a enormous amount of work had to be done.
strip of baked kaolin between them. Owing His task was not merely the improvement
to unforeseen difficulties it was gradually of an art already existing; it was the
abandoned, after having served a great pur- creatiQn of a new art. The details of all
pose in directing the attention of the world parts of the system were made more per-
to the possibilities of the electric arc fect. and in the hands of Edison and others
in lighting. the incandescent lamps, originally of high
Inventors in America were not idle. cost. were much cheapened and the quality
By the close of 1878. Brush, of Cleve- of the production was greatly improved.
land, had brought out his series system In spite of the fact that it was well
of arc lights. including special dynamos. known that a good dynamo when reversed
lamps, etc., and by the middle of 1879 had could be made a source of power, few
in operation machines ('ach capable of electric motors were in use until a con-
maintaining sixteen arc lamps on one wire. sirlerable time after the establishment of
Weston, of Newark. had also in operation the first lighting stations. En>n in 1884.
circuits of arc lamps, and the Thomson- at the Philadelphia Electrical Exhibition.
Houston system had just started in com- only a few electric motors were shown.
mercial work with eight arc lamps in Twenty years ago an electric motor was
series from a single dynamo. Maxim and a curiosity; fifty years ago crud(' examples
Fuller, in New York. were working arc run by batteries werf' only to he oc-
lamps from their machines. casionally found in cabinets of scientific
Almost simultaneously with the begin- apparatus. 1\[achin('ry Hall, at the Cen-
ning of the commercial work of arc light- tennial Exhibition of 1876, typified the
ing, Edi!'!on, in a successful effort to mm of the past. newr again to be re-
provide a small electric lamp for general prorlllced. with it!'! huge engine and line:o>
distribution in plaC'e of gas, brought to of heavy shafting and belts conve
'ing
public notice his carbon filament incan- power. The wilderness of belts and pul-
descent lamp. Edison worked for nearly leys is gradually being cleared away, and
two years on a lamp based upon the old electric distribution of power fmhstituted.
208

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

:\Ioreover, the lighting of the modern mill lines in operation. About :10,000 horses
or factory is done from the same electric and mules were replaced by electric power
plant which distributes power. in the single year of 1891. In 1892 the
The electric motor has already partly Thomson-Houston interests and those of
revolutionized the distribution of power the Edison General Electric Company
for stationary machinery, but as appJied were merged in the General Electric Com-
to railways in place of animal power the pany, an event of unusual importance, a

revolution is complete. The period which it brought together the two great com-
has elapsed since the first introduction of petitors in electric traction at that date.
electric railways is barely a dozen years. Other electric manufacturers, chief among
It is true that a few tentative experiments which was the \Yestinghouse Company,
in electric traction were made some time also entered the field and became promi-
in advance of 1888, notably by Siemens, nent factors in railway extension. In a
in Berlin, in 1879 and 1880, by Stephen D. few years horse traction in the United
Field, by T. A. Edison, at Menlo Park, by States on tramway lines virtually diRap-
,1. C. Henry, by Charles A. Van Depoele, peared. While the United States and
and others. Farmer, in 1847, tried to pro- Canada have been and still are the theatre
pel railway cars by electric motors driven of the enormous advance in electric trac-
by currents from batteries carried on the tion, as in other electric work, many elec-
cars. These efforts were, of course, doom- tric car Jill(>s have in rccent years been
ed to failure, for economical reasons. The established in Great Britain and on the
plan survives, however, in the electric continent of Europe. Countries Jike
automobile, best adapted to cities, where Japan. Australia, South Africa. and
outh
facilities for charging and caring for the America have also in operation many elec-
batteries can be had. tric trolley lines, and the work is rapidly
The modern overhead troBey, or under- extending. Most of this work, even in
running trolley, as it is caIled, seems to Europe, has been carried out either by
have been first invented by Van Depoele, importation of equipment from America.
and used by him in practical electric rail- or by apparatus manufactured there. but
way work about 1886 and thereafter. The fol1owing American practice closely.
ycar 1888 may be said to mark the be- In Chicago the application of motor-
ginning of this work, and in that year cars in trains upon the elevated railway
Frank J. Sprague put into operation the fol1owed dircct l y upon the practical dem-
electric line at Richmond, Va., using onstration at the \Vorld's Fair of the
the under-running troIley. The Richmond capabilities of third-rail electric traction
line was the first large undertaking. It on the Intramural Elevated Railway, and
had about 13 miles of track, numer- the system is rapidly extending so as to
(.us curves, and grades of from 3 to 10 per include aB elevated city roads. A few
cent. The Richmond installation. kept years will doubtless see the great change
in operation as it was in spite of all diffi- accomplishcd.
culties, eonvincf'(l Mr. Hcnry
L \Yhitney The motor-car, or car propeIled h
' its
and the directors of the \Vest End Street own motors, has also bccn introduced upon
Hailway, of Boston, of the fcasibility of
tandard stcam roads to a limited (''(tent
equipping the entire railway system of as a supplement to steam traction. The
Boston eleetrical1y. earliest of thes(' installations are the one
The West End Company. with 200 miles at 1\antasket. Mass.. and that bptween
of track in and around Boston. began to Hartford and
ew Britain, in Con nec-
(.quip its lines in lRRR with the Thomson- ticut. A numher of special high-speed
Houston plant. The su('('ess of thi
great Jines, using similar plans. have gone into
undertaking left no douht of the future operation in recent years.
of electric traction. The difficulties which The three larg('st and most powerful
had scriously threat('ned future success el('etric locomotives ever put into service
were graduaIly removed. are those which are employed to take
The electric railway progress was so trains through the Baltimore & Ohio
great in the United States that about Railroad tunnel at Baltimore. They ha ,'e
Jan. I. 1891, there were more than 240 been in
ervice about seven or eight years,
111.-0 209

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Hnù are fullr l'qual in power to the large oùtained from residups in sulIicil'nt alllount
steam locomotives u
l'd on steam roads. to par well for the process.
There was upened, in Lundon, in InOU, At Xiagara also are \\urks for the
the Central Cndcrgruund, equipped with production of thc metal aluminum from
twenty-sh clcctric 10cumotiHs fur draw- its ures. This metal, which cuml'l't(.s in
ing its trains. The electric and power price with brass, bulk for bulk, was onlr
pquiplllent was m:l1lufactured in America obtainable before its electric J"l'duclion
to suit the npf'ds of the road. at $
.3 to $30 per pound. The nll'tal
The alternatin
('unent transformer not sodium is alsu extracted from sOlla.
\
only greatlr utpndpd the radius of supply large plant at
iagara also uses the elec-
from a single statiun. hut also enabled hic current for the manufacture of
the station to be conn>nil'ntly located chlorine for bleach, and caustic soda, both
\\here water and coal cuuld be had without from comlllon salt. Chlorine of potas-
difficulty. It also pcrmitted the distant sium is also made at Kiaf!ara by plel'-
watf'r-powers to become sources of electric trolysis. The field of electro-chemistr
energy for lighting, power, or for other is. indeed, full of great future pos-
!'.l.rvice. }<'or c\.ample, a watl'r-power sibilities. J
arge furnaces heatpd hy elpc-
lucated at a distance of .30 to IOO miles tricity, a single one of which will con-
or more from a city, or frum a large man- sume more than 1,000 horsf'-po\\"er. p:\ist
ufacturing centre whcre cust of fuel is at Niagara. In tlll'SP furnaces is manuf:ll'Ì-
high, mar be utili7l'd. ured from coke and sand. by the .\.dll'son
A gigantic pO\'l'r-station has lately been process, an abrasive material called ear-
establislJ('d at Xiagara. Ten water-wheels, borundum, which is almost as hard as
located in an immense wheel-pit about diamond, but quite low in cost. It is
200 feet d(>pp, each wheel of a capacity of made into slabs and into wheels for grind-
3,000 horse-power, drive large vertical ing hard 8ub8tanl'PS. TIIP electric furnace
shafts, at the upper end of which are furnishes also the mf'ans for producing
located the large two-phase ll.vnamos, each artificial plumbago, or graphite, almost
of 5.000 horsl'-power. The ell'ctric eller
y pcrfpptly pure, thc raw materia I bping
from these machinl's is in part raised in cokc powdf'r.
pressure by huge tran!-'formers for trans- A large amount of power from Niagara
mission to distant points, such as the city is also consumed for the production in
of Buffalo, and a large portion is delivered special electric arc furnaces of carbide
to the numerous manufacturing plants of calcium from coke and lime. This is
located at moderate distances from the the source of acet
'lpnp gas, the new il-
power-station. Bpsides the suppl
' of luminant, which is
enerated when water
energy for 1ightin
, and for motors, in- is hrought into contact with the carbide.
duding' railways. other reemt uses of While it is not likelr that electricity wiII
pJectricity to which we have not ypt al- 800n be uspd for gen(>raÌ heatin,
. special
lmled are splendidly (>xemplifipd at Niag- instances. such as tl)(' warming of electric
ara. The arts of electro-plating of ears in wintpr hy elL.('tric heaters. the oper-
metals. such as (>ll'ctro-:ðlding, sil\"f'r- at ion of eouking- applianll'" hy elpctric
platin
. nickel-plating. and copper IIp- ('urn'nt, tllP heating' of sad-irons and the
position as in elee1 rotyping'. are' now like,
i\"(
(>,'idNlce of the possibilities
practised on a \"Cry large scale. :l\Ioreover, should there e,'cr be found means for the
since the introduction of dynamu cUlTl'nt, generation of electric encr
y from fuel
P]ectrol
'sis has come to be employed in with
uch high l'fTiciplH'Y as 1'0 per emt.
huge plants. not only for separating or more. Present methods give, undl'r
metals from ('ach other, as in refining' most favorahle conditions, barely 10 ppr
them, but in addition for separating l'pnt., no per Cl'nt. of the enprg,' value of
them from thl'ir ores, for the manufacture tI)(' fuel being unavoidahlr wasted.
of ehemical compounds before unknown, The plectric current is used for welding'
and for the cheap production of numer- togl'ther the joints of stepl car-rails, for
ous substances of use in the various arts welding' teeth in saws, for making many
on a large scale. Vast quantities of cop- parts of bicycles, and in tool making. An
per are rf'flnf'(l, and siIYf'r nnd goM often instance of its ppc'nIiar adapt3hility to
210

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY -ELECTROCUTION

unusual conditions is the welding of the ,eloplllents are to come, who l'iln prt'dicl

il"On bands embcdded within the body of The eleelrical progress has been great-
a rubber vehicle tire for holding the tire ,'ery great-but after all only a part of
in place. For this purpose the electric that grander advance in so many other
weld has been found almo.;;t eS'iential. fields.
fan still spends his best effort.
Another branch of electric development and has alwa
's done so, in the construc-
concerns the storage of electricity. The tion and equipment of his engines of
storage battery is based upon principles destruction, and now exhausts the mine"
discO\'ered by Ga
ton Planté, and applied, of the world of valuable metals, for ships
since 18Hl, hy Brush, hy Faure, and of war, whose ultimate goal is the bottom
others. Some of the larger lighting sta- of the sea. Perhaps all this is necessary
tions employ as resen'oirs of plectric now, and, if so, well. But if a fraction
f'nergy large batteries charged by surplus of the vast expenditure entailed wen'
dvnamo current. This is afterwards turned to the encouraQ'f'ment of ad,'anf'f'
d;'awn upon when the consumer's load is in the arts and employ;nents of peace, can
hem'y. as during the evening. The storagf' it be doubted that, at the close of the
hattery is. however, a heavy, cumbl"Ous ap- twentieth century, the nineteenth century
paratus, of limited life, easily destro
'ed might come to b
regarùed, in spite of it's
11nle
s Q'uarded with skill. If a form not achievements, as a rather wasteful. semi-
possessing these faults be ever found, the barb3.l"Ous transition period?
fipld of possible application is almost Electrocution. The popu
ar nan1<' of a
limitll'sf' method of inflicting capital punishment
The wonderful X-rays, and the rich by electricity as ordered h.... tIll' leg"islature
"cientific harvest which has fo11owed the of Kew York in 1888 and alll'IHled in 18!)
.
discoveQ' by Röntgen of invisible radiation New York is the only State in the coun-
from a vacuum tube, was preceded by try where this method of capita] punish-
mnch investigation of the effects of e]ec- ment has been sanctioned. The first per-
tric dise-harges in vacuum tubes, and Hit- son executed by the new method was
torf, fo1Jowed by Crookes. has giycn special \\ïlliam Kemmler, a convicted murderer.
study to these effects in very high or on whom the death sentence was t1ms
nearly perfect ,'acua. It was as late as carried out in Auburn Prison, Aug. (I.
t 8!.J6 that Röntgen announced his dis- 18!)0. The apparatus used in the ewe-u-
cO\-ery. Since that time several other tion, as officia1Jy described, consisted of a
sources of invisible radiation ha"e been stationary engine, alternating-current
discovered, more or Jess similar in eff<,ct dynamo and exciter, a voltmeter with
to the radiations from a nlcuum tube, but extra resistance coil, ca1ibrat('d from a
emitted, singular as the fact is. from rare rangp of from 30 to 2.000 \"o]t-;. an am-
substaI1e('!'; e
tract('d from certain min- meter for alternating cUITents from 0.10
('ra]s. Lea\"ing out of consiùeration the to 3 amperes. it \Yheatstolle-hridgp 1 ht'ostat,
gr<,at value of the X-ray to physicians and be]] signals. and a numb('r of "witches.
sllrgeons. its eff<,ct in stimulating scientific The death-chair had an adjlli"tah'p head-
ilHluiry ]IaS almost been inca]culab]e. It rest, hinùing-straps, and two adju,.;tahle
i!" as unlikely that the mystery of the electrodes. one of ",hidl was plal"ed on
matprial uninrse will evcr be completely the top of the head anll the otllf'r at the
sol\"ell as it i
that we can gain an ](,wer part of th<, spine. The execution
adequate conception of infinite space or room contained only the death-chair, the
time. But we can at least extend tlle electrodl's, and the wires attached to them.
range of our menta] vision of the processes the remainder of the <,quipment being in
of nature as we do ollr rpa] vision into the adjoining room. At t11f> end of se,-en-
space rlepths by the tclei'cope and spf'ctro- t('en secoI1d
after the ('ontact was made
8COpP. the victim was pronounl'pd dead. The
The ninetepnth century closed with eurrent strength was believed to have been
many important problems in electrical at least 1,;")00 volts, although there was no
science unsolwd. \Vhat great or far- ofiicial record kcpt of many details, but
reaching disl'O\'eries are yet in store, who in later e'(ecutions the e]ectromoth-e pr{'ss-
can tell? What va]uable practical de- ure varied from 458 to 7lG volts, while
211

LECTRO-MAGNE'1'IC '.rELEGRAPH-ELIOT

at a time. Early in IS;I, through the in-
n'ntions of Edi
on and (lOwrs, messag('s
were fo.pnt 1I0th ways on'r the !':ame win'
at tll('
al1l(' in..tant (If time. Yery !':o(ln
four messages wpre sent the same way.
;"'O\\" multipleX tr.lnsllli
..ion I" a math"'r
of f',-pn'-dav lmsin<.,.,.;. See '-AIL,
\. II.
Eliot, .\
DUEW, clergyman; bom in
Roston. :\Iass., Dec. 28, 1 iI8; graduatf'd
at Harvard College in l73i; ordained
approprIated $30,000 for his use: and in fi!i"sociatc pastor of the
cw Korth Church
:\[ay, 1844. he transmitted from 'Vashing- in Boston, where he was sole pastor
ton to "Baltimor1'. fi di..t"\!lC1' of 40 mile!'!. aftpr I i:>O. \Yhf'n the Briti"h OC'l'IlIÚ.d
:!12

the ammeter has shown a ,'ariation in
current of from 2 to 7 amperes. After
the first execution there was l'ather a
wide<;pread protcst against this method of
carrJ'ing out capital punishment, and the
constitutionality of the legislative act was
taken to the Supn'me Court of the "Cnited
States, and was therc affirmed.
Electro-magnetic Telegraph. This
invcntion, concei,"ed more than a century
ago, \\as first brought to perfection as an
intelligent medium of communication be-

AIOHSE APPAHATI:S, Cll<CllT A
D IIATT/,;RY.

t ,\ pen points distant from each other by
PltoF. SA
Il:;EL F. H. :\IOUSE (q. v.), of Xew
York, and was first pre:,,('nted to public
notiee in 183S. In the autumn of 183i
he tiled a ca\'eat at the Patent Office; and
hf' ga'"c a pri,'atp exhibition of its mar-
vellous llowt'r in the Xcw York Univer-
sity in January, 1838, when intelligence
was instantly transmitted by an alphabet
composed of dots and linp". im'ented by
::\Iorse, through a circuit of 10 miles of
wire, and plainlJ' recurùed. )[urse ap-
plied to Congress for peeuniaQ' aid to
enahle him to eonstnlct an l':\.pl'rimental
lim> betwcen \\'ashington and Baltimore.
For four years he waited. for t II(> aet ion
of thc go
'ernment was tardy. in consc-
qll('nee of douht and pOhiti\"e oppo,.;it ion.
.-\t the b('
inning of ::\larch. IR-t2. ('on...?("(',,;s

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MORSE h.KY.

the first me::,s.1, gl' l"urni:"lll'd him bJ" a
J'oung lady-" What hath God wrought!"
The first public me,,;sage was the announc('-
ment of the nomination bv the Democratie
Xational Convention in j
altimore (::\Ia\".
I
H) of James K. Polk for Prf'sident
f
the Luited Stat
s. Professor :\[orse al!-o
originated submarine telegraphy. He puh-
licly sugge
ted its feasihility in a lette!"
to the Secretary of the Treasurv in 18 t:t
As early as 184
he laid a subma'rine call11'.
or insulated wire. in the harùor of Kew
York, for which achievement the American
Institute awarrled him a small gold medal.
In l8,'j8 he participated in the labors and
honors of laying a t:ahle unde!" the sea be-
tween Europe and .-\nwrica. (
1'e ATLA
-
'HC TELEGRAPH). :i\1onarchs gave him med-
al!: and orlle1'8. Yale College conferred
upon him the honorary degree of LL.D.,
anù in IS,IS, at the instance of tIle Emper-
or of the Fa'neh, 8(','eral European govern-
ments comhined in the act of giving Pro-
f( ssor ::\!O\ ";(' the sum of $Sn,OOO in gold a

a token of their appreeiation. Yast im-
pro,'ements ha \-e },('('n madc since in the
trnn!'omis,.;ion (Ji me
sages. For more than
a quartf'r of a century the messages were
each sent o,'er a single wire, only one way

)lOHSR REGl"n:H.

Boston he did much to ameliorate
the condition of the people. He also
saved valuable manuscnpts, among thêl11
the second volume of the History of
Massachusetts Bay, when the house of
Governor Hutchinson was invested by a
mob. He died in Boston, .:\Iass., SPpt.
13, HiS.
Eliot, CHARLES WILLIAM, educator;
horn in Bo!Õton,
Iass., March 20, 1834;
graduated at Harvard University in
1
.)3 ; was a tutor in mathematics at
lIan-ard and a student in chemistry with
Prof. Josiah P. Cooke, 18.)4-58; served as
AEsistant Professor of )IathematÏcs and
Chemistry, Lawrence Sdf'ntific School,
Harvard, in 1858-63; whcn he went
abroad, studied chemistr
. and investigated
European educational methods. In 1863-
(m he was Professor of Analytical Chem-
istry, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, and in 1869 became president of
Harvard University. He is a Fellow of

CHARLKS WILLIAM ELIOT

t he American Acadcmy of Arts and

ciences, the Amcrican Philosophical So-

'iety, etc. He has gi\'cll many notl'-
worthy addresses on educational and
s('ientific subjects. He is the author of
.1fmwal of Qualitative Chemical Analysis
( wi th Prof. I"rands H. Storer); ..1I anulIl
of Inorganic Ohemistry (with the same) ;
Five .A merican Oontributions to Civiliza-
tion, and othør Essays; Ðduoatio-nal Re-
{(lrm, etc.

ELIOT

Eliot, JARED, educator and clergyman;
born in Guilford, Conn., Kov. 7, 1685;
son of Joseph and grandson of John
Eliot; graduated at Yale College in 1706,
and from 170!.! until his death he was
minister of the first church at Killin
-
worth, Conn. He was a most practicãl
and useful man, and did much for the ad-
vancement of agriculture and manufa.ct-
ures in New England. He strongly
urged in essays the introduction into the
colonies of a better breed of sheep. In
17 4 7 he wrote: "A better breed of sheep
is what we want. The English breed of
Cotswold sheep cannot be obtained, or at
least not without great difficulty; for
wool and Ih'e sheep are contraband goods,
which all strangers are prohibited from
carrying out on pain of ha\'ing the right
hand cut off." In li61 the London So-
dety for the Encouragement of Arts.
Manufactures, and Commerce honored him
with its medal, for producing malleable
iron from American black sand, and he
was made a member of the Royal Societ,v
of J:ondon. He was the first to introdu{'f'
the whitf' mulberry into Connecticut, ann
with it silk-worms, and published a
treatise on silk-culture. Mr. Eliot was
also an able physician, and was pm'ticu-
larly successful in the treatment of in-
sanity and chronic complaints. He dicd
in Killingworth, Conn., April 22, 1763.
Eliot, JOIIS, the Apostle to the Indians;
horn either in Nasing, Essex, or \Vidforrl.
ITertfordshire, England, presumably in
Hi04, as he was baptized in \Vidford, AUg".
3, 1604. Educated at Cambridge. he re-
moved to Boston in 1ß31, anù the npxt
ycar was appointed minister
t Ro"bU1'
'.
Seized with a passionatp ]onging for the
conversion of the Indiau!ôl and for imprO\--
ing their condition. hc commenced hi:-;
labors among the twenty tribes within
the English domain in )[assachl!setts in
October, 1646. He acquired their lan-
guage through an Indian sernwt in his
family, made a grammar of it, and trans-
]ated the Bible into the Indian tongue.
It. is claimed that Eliot was the first
Protesta.nt minister who preached to tIlf'
Indians in their native tongue. An IIHI-
ian town called Natick was erectf'd on the
Charles River for the" praying Indians"
in 1657, and the first Indian church wa!i
e
tablished there in 16GO. During King
213

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Philip's War Eliot's efforts in behalf of
the pra
'ing Indians sa,'ed them from de-
struction by the white people. He tra,--
cUed eÜensively, visited many tribes,
plan ted severa I ch u rehes, a nd once
preached Ldore King Phi1ip. who treated
him with disdain. Hc l'enHlilded man
' to

ELIOT, JOHN

'" '

adopt the customs of cidlized life, and
lived to see twenty-four of them become
preachers of the (10:;1'<,1 to their own
tribes. His intluence among the Indians
was unbounded, and his gcnerosity in
IH'll'ill:! the !>ick and afflicted among them
was unsparing. Cotton )lather affirmed,
,. "'e had a tradition that the country
could never perish as long as Eliot was
alive:' He published many !'o.lIlan works
on rcligious subject::., sc,'eral of whieh
were in the Indian language. IIi:. gn'at-
(>st work was the translation of the Bihle
into the Indian language (HìGI-GH). and
was the first Bible e,'cr printcd in Amcr-
ica. It is much
ought after by col1ectors.
The language in whieh it \H1S written ha

perished. He died in Ro:\.bury, 1\1ass.,
)Jay
O, Hmo.
The Hrirf Yarratirc.-This was the
last of Eliot's publications relating to the
vrogre:ss of Christianity among the
.\merican Indians. Its fun title waA:

.. A TIrlef r-;"al'rative of the Progress or
the Gosppl amongst the JuditHIS In lI. ('IV };n!J-
lmltt. in the Year 1670, givpn in by the Rever-
pnd !\IR. .JoHX ELLIOT, :\I1ni!'ter of the Gosppl
therp, in a LF.Tn
R by_ him directed to thp
Uight \Yorshipfull the ('O:\DII
SII)NF.RS under
his :\Iajesties Grpat-Rpal for I'l"Opagation of
the Gospel amongst tl1(' poor blind !\atives in

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J"II:\ F.LlOT PRF.\CHI:\G TO THB I:\DlA:\8.

14

ELIOT-ELIZABETH

\, hich vested in the crown the supremacy
claimed by the pope; the mass was abol-
ished, and the liturgJ" of Edward VI. re-
stored. In one session the whole system
Eliot, JOliN, clergyman; born in Bos- of religion in England was altered by the
ton, Mass., May 31, 1754; son of Andrew wi]] of a single young woman. \Vhen
Eliot; graduated at Harvard Co)]ege in Francis II. of France assumed the anm,
1772; succeeded his father as minister and title of King of England in right
of the l\ew Xorth Church in Kovember, of his wife, :Mary Stuart, Elizaheth sent
1 Ii!.!; was one of the founders of the an army to Scotland which drove the
:Massachusetts Historical SocietJ'. lIe French
out of the kingdom. She sup-
published a Biographical Dictionary of ported the French Huguenots with m0J1{'Y
Eminent Oharacters in New England. and troops in their struggle with the
He died in Boston, Mass., Feb. 14, I 81
. Roman Catholics in 1.3()2. In 1563 the
Eliot, SAMUEL, historian; born in Bos- Parliament, in an address to the Queen,
ton, 1\lass., Dec. 22, 1821; graduated entreated her to <:ho08(' a hushand, so as
at Harvard Co)]ege in 1839; profeasor of to secure a Protestant succc:;sion to the
History and Political Science in Trinity crown. She returned an evasive answer.
College in 18,36-()4. His publications in- She ga ,'e encouragement to several suitors,
clude Passages f'rOm the History of Lib- after she rejf>cted Philip, among them
crty; History of Liberty (in five parts, ,\rchdukp Charles of Austria, the Duke of
the last of which is entitled the Amer- Anjou, and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leices-
ican Nation); and a _'Ilanual of United ter. The latter remained her favorite un-
States llistory between the Years 1792 ti1 his death in 1588. During the greater
and 1850. He died in Beverly, Mass., part of Elizabeth's reign, Cecil, Lord Bur-
Sept. 14, 1898. leigh, was her prime minister. For more
Elizabeth, QUEEN OF ENGLAXD; born in than twenty years from 1.364 England was
Greenwich, Sept. 7, 1533; daughter of at peace with foreign nations, and enjoycd
Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. Under the great prosperity. Because of the opposite
tuition of Roger Ascham she acquired interests in religion, and possibly because
much proficiency in classical learning, and of matrimonial affairs, Elizabeth and
before she was seventeen years of age Philip of Spain were mutually hostile,
she was mistress of the Latin, French, and and in 1588 the latter sent the" invincible
Italian languages, and had read several Armada" for the invasion of England.
works in Greek. By education she was It consisted of over 130 vessels and 30,000
aUached to the Protestant Church, and wen. It was defeated and dispersed (Aug.
"as persecuted by her half-sister, :\Iary, 8), and in a gale more than fifty of the
who was a Roman Catholic. Elizaheth Spanish ships were wrecked. On the dmth
ncver married. \Vhen quite J'oung her of Leicester the Queen showed decided
father negotiated for her nuptials with partiality for the Earl of Essex. lIer
th{' son of Francis I. of France, but it treatment and final consC'nt to the e"ecu-
failed. She flirted awhile with the am- tion, by bpheading, of :\[ary, Queen of
bitious Lord SeJ"mour. In 15.3R she de- Scots, has ]dt a stain on the memory of
elined an offer of marriage from Eric, Elizaheth. She assi
ted the Protestant
King of Sweden, and also from Philip of Henr
T IV. of France in his struggle with
Spain. Hcr sister Mary died Kov. Ii. thp French Roman Catholics, whom Philip
J,3 ,') 8, when Elizal)(>th was proclaimed of Spain subsidized. Her reign was vigor-
Quepn of England. \Vith caution she pro- ous. and is regarded as exceedinglJ' bpne-
ceeded to restore the Protestant religion ficial to the British nation. Literature
to ascendency in her kingdom. Upr re- was fostered. and it' was illustrated dur-
form began by ordering a large part of the ing her reign hy such men as Spf'I1Ser,
dmrch service to be read in English, and Shakespeare, Sidnpy, Bacon, and Raleigh.
forbade the plevation of the host in her Eli7abeth \Va8 possessed of emin{'nt ahility
prpgf'l1f'e. Of thf' Roman Catholic bishops. and courage. but her personal char:w-
onl
T 011C' C'onse!1ted to officiatf' :1t her coro- tN' was deformed by s{'lfisll1){,
s. il1f'OI1-
n:1tion. In 153!} Parliament passed a bill 8tancy, deceit, heartlessues8. and other un-

I;j

tIlOse United Colonies. LONDO)"", Printed
tor John Allen, formerly living in Little-
lJritain at the Rising-Sun, and now in n.cnt-
/l"orth St,'eet neal' Bcl-Lane, 1671."

ELIZABETHTOWN CLAIIdANTS

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QUEF.N ELlZAB.:TH.

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womaniy faults. She 8i
nified her will the 80il. The Elizabethtown settlers ob-
on her death-bed that James VI. of Scot- tained their land from the Indians. with
land, son of the beheaded :\Iary, should the consent of Governor Nicolls; but al-
he her S11('ep8sor, and he was
H'C'ordingly ready the Duke of York, without the
C'rowned as such. She dipd :\Iarch 24, knowledge of Xicolls or the settlers. harl
wo
. solrl the rlomain of New .Jersey to Bprke-
Elizabethtown Claimants. For more ley anrl CarteI'd. The new proprietors ig-
than a century the di
pute hptwpen the lIored the title of the settlers, and marlc
first bettlcni at Eli7.abethtown. X. J. (who demands as ahsolute proprietors of the
came from Long Islanrl anrl Xew Eng- poil. which the lattpr continually resistetl
land), and. first, the proprieton; of Xpw th('rn
pl\"{'
. ami so rlid their heirs. Frt>-
.Jersey, and. next, the crown, arose and qlle11t 11l\suc('pssful attempts at ejectment
eontimwrl poncerning the title to the lands \\"Pre made: the settlers rpsistprl by force.
on which thp;;;(' APttlers were seaterl. The 'I he Ass('mhly, ca.l1erl upon to interfere,
rlispute op('urrecl in consequence of con- u
unllv tlpclinprl. for that borly rather fn.-
ftieting claims to eminent domain, caused \"orcrl the Elizabethtown claimants. Final-
h
a di
!,lItl' "hout the original title of ly. in 1i.)7. (:O\'prnor nel('hpr proMlrerl .m

Hi

ELIZABBTHTOWN EXPEDITION-ELKSW ATA W A

act of assembly by which all past differ-
ences should be buried. It was not ac-
ceptable; and in 1751 the British govern-
ment ordered a commission of inquiry to
determine the law and equity in the ca
e.
Tllf' proprietors also began chancery Fuits
against the heirs of the Elizabethtown Ft't-
tlers, and these were pending when the
TIevolution broke out (I 775) and settied
the whole matter.
Elizahethtown, or Elizabeth, as the place
is now called, was settled in lGG3; wa;,; the
colonial capital from 1755 to li57, and
Ow State capital till 17DO, when Trenton
became the seat of government; and h('-
camf' a city in 18G". It contains an old
tavern wl\('re \Yashington stopped on hi"
way to :Kew York for his first inaugura-
tion, Gen. "'infield Scott's home, the Uou-
dinot House, and the old Livingston l\Ian-
sion. The College of New Jersey, now
Princeton Lni,'ersity, chartered in 1746.
was opf'ned here in :\[ay, 1747.
Elizabethtown Expedition, a military
mm-ement in the War of 1812-15, in if
which an L\merican foree undf'r Major

}
orsyth captured EIizabethto\yn (near f
Brockdlle), Canada, Feb. 7, 1813, released
the American pri
oners, scÏzed some of the
garrison and a quantity of stores, and re-
turned to the L'nited States without the
loss of a man.
Elk Creek, or HO
EY SPRIXGS, a local-
ity in the Inùian Territory, where, on July
17, 1863, Gen. .TanH's G. Blunt, with a
force of Kansas í'a\-alry, artillery, and
Indian home g-ua
'ds, defeated a Confeder-
ate force under Gen. S. H. Cooper, the
latter losing nearly 500 in killed and
wounded.
Elkhorn, BATTLE OF. See PEA RIDGE.
Elkins, STEPHEN BENTO
, legislator;
ùorn in Perry county, Ohio, Sept. 26,
18.U; graùuated at the Missouri L'niver-
sity in 18GO; admitted to the bar in 18G3;
('aptain in the 77th Missouri Regiment
1 8G2-G3 ; remond to New l\ff'xico in
1864, where he rngag('d in mining; elect-
f'd mf'mher of the Territorial legislaturp
in 1864; bf'came atto1"llry-general of the
Territory in lR6R; Lnitrd States district
attorney in 1870; memlJPr of CongTrss in
lR73-77; Secretary of War in 18DI-D4;
and elected Unit<>d States Senator from
West Virginia in 18!J5 and IDOL
Elkswatawa, Indian, known as

Prophet j brother of the famou
Teculliseh;
born in Piqua, the seat of the Piqua
clan of the Shawnees, about 4 miles
north of Springfield, 0., early in I ïï5. He
was a shrewd deceiver of his people by
Uleans of pretended yi:;iolls and powers of
di\"Ìnation. UJT harangues he excited the
superstition of the Indians; and such be-
('ilUle his fame as a ,. medicine-man," or
prophet, that large numbers of men, wom-
en, and children of tllf> forest came long

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t;LI\SWATA" \, 1 III': \'I:<JPIII':T.

di
h\JlCl'
to see this oracle of the Great
Rpirit, who thpy belirwc1 could work mir-
acl('s. His features \\"('re ugly. lIe had
lost one eye in his youth. and. nwin
to
dissipation, he apreared mueh older than
his brother Teeums('h. The latter was
really an able man, and used this brother
as his tool. The Prophet lost the con-
fidence of his people by the eyent:,! of the
battle of Tippecanoe. On tIlf> e\"pning b('-
fore the battle the drnug-o;!ue pre-
pared for treachery and murder. H<>
brou
ht out a mag-ic howl, a sacrrd
torch, a string' of holy h('ans. and hi"
fo]]owrrs were all required to toueh thes<>
talismans and be made inyulnrnth
e, an(l
then to take an oath to exterminate
the pale-faces. When this was R

om-
thp pI ish<>d the Prophet went through a
217

ELLERY-ELLET

long series of incantations and mystical
movements; then, turning to his highl,)"
ðcited band-about 700 in number-
he told them that the time to attack
the white men had come. "The
' are
in your power," he said, holding up
the holy bean:'! as a reminder of their
oath. "Thcy sleep now, and wil1 ne\-cr
awake. The Great Spirit will give light to
us and darkness to the white men. Their
hullets !'hall not harm us; :your weapons
shall he always fata1." Then followed
war songs and dances, until the Inùians.
wrought up to a perfect frenzy, rushed
forth to attack Harrison's camp, without
any leaders. Stealthily they crept through
the long grass of the prairie in the deep
gloom, intenùing to surround their en-
cmy's position, kill the sentinels. nlsh
into the camp. and mas::;acre all. The re-
sult of the battle of TIPPEC'A XOE (q. v.)
caused the Indians to douht his inspira-
tion by the Great Rpirit. Thcy covered
him with rcproaches, when he cunningly
told them that his preòictions concerning
the battle had failed bccause his wife had
touched the sacrcr! ycss(']s and hroken the
charm. Even Indian super!-tition and
credulity could not ace('pt that transparent
falsehood for an (>X('u
('. a n<l the Prophet
was deserted h
' his disappointed fol1owers
and comp('l1ed to scek r('fuge among the
Wyandottes.
Ellery, 'nU.Tnr, a sign('r of the
})cc1aration of I ndf'pcnclence; horn in
Xewport, R. r., l)f'c. 22, 1727: grad-
uatpd at Harvard in 1747; h("came
a mcrchant in Kcwport; and was
naval offic{'r of Rhode Island in
1770. TIe a ftf'rwa rds stud ied and
praeti!-pd law at Xcwport, and gain-
ed a high )'('putation. An actin
patriot, he was a mcmh{'r of Con-
gr{'ss from 177fì to 17R.), exe{'pting
two years. and was very useful in
mil tters pertaining to finance and
iliplomacy. He was especially sl'r-
vic('ahle as a member of the marinc
committee, and of the board of a(l-
miralty. During the occupation of
nhode l
laJl(l hy the British he fiuf-
fercd gr('at lo!"s of prop('rty. hut
bore it with quiet ehe{'rfulnf'ss as a
sacrifice for the public good. TIp was riVf'r
, and a plan proposed by him to
d.ief - justice of the Superior Court of thc Secretary of \\'ar (\lr.
taJlton) \'itS
Rhode Island, and in 1790 collector of the adopted, and he soon convcrted ten o{
218

revenue at 1\ewport. Mr. Ellery was a
strenuous advocate of the abolition of
slavery. He died in
ewport, Feh. 1';,
H
20.
Ellet, CHARLES, cngineer; horn in
Penn's Manor, Buck..; co., Pa., Jan. 1,

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uno; planned and Imilt the firsl wire
suspension hridge in the -enited Slates,
across the Schuylkill al Fainnount; and
planned and constructed t1w first fiU!>-
pension bridge oyer the
iagara Fiver
below the Fal1s, and other notahle
bridg{'s. 'Yhpn the Civil 'Yar hroke out
lie turned his attenti::m to thc eonst rue-
tion of steam "rams " for the 'Ye:;tern

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BLLET':I STERX-WHEEL RAM

ELLET-ELLIOTT

twelve powerful steamers on the Missis-
sippi into "rams," with which he ren-
dered great assistance in the capture of
Memphis. In the Lattle there he was
struck by a musket-ball in the knee, from
the effects of which he died, in CaiI 0, Ill.,
June 21, ISG2. :\1;'. Ellet propoRed to
General :McClellan a plan for cutting off
the Confederate arm
' at l\Ianassas, which
the latter rejected, and the engineer wrote
and published severe
trictures on
lc-
Clellan's mode of conducting the war.
Ellet, ELIZABETH FRIES, author; Lorn
in Sodus Point,
. Y., in 181S; was au-
thor of Domestir History of the American
Revolution
' WOlf/en of the
lmerican Rev-
olution
' Pioncc'r 'Wolllen of the 'Wcst; and
Queens of A.1nerican Socicty. She died
June 3, 1877.
Ellicott, A
DHEW, civil engineer; born
in Bucks county, Pa., .Tan. 24, 1754. His
father and uncle founded the town of
Ellicott's
Iills (now Ellicott City), :\Id.,
in 17DO. Andrew was much engaged in
public surveying for many J-ears after
sett1ing in Baltimore in 178;). In 17S!)
he made the first accurate measurement
of Xiagara River from lake to lake, and
in linn he was employed by the L
nited
States government in laying out the city
of \Vashington. In 17!J2 he was made
burnyor-gcneral of the L"nited States, allll
in li!Hj he was a comnÒ'sioner to de-
tcrminc OJ(' southern houndary between
the territory of the L"nitcd Statcs and
f'pain, in accordance with a trcaty.
From Sept. I, IRI3. until his death, Aug.
20, 18
0, he was professor of mathematic

and civil ('ngineering at West Point.
Elliott, CHARLES. clergyman; born in
Greenconwa
', Ireland, l\Iay 16, 17fJ2; be-
came a n1('mher of th(' \Yl'sle
'an Church;
came ÌI) tJ}(> rnited Rtates about ISI5:
joined Ow Ohio
[ethodist conference in
ISIS. He was the author of History of
the Great Rcccssion from the J[cthodist
Dpiscopal (,hurc1
: Southwestern J[ethod-
\pril, ISO.!: and rose tf) mastpr. July 24,
i.rnn; two puhlication
against slavery, etc. 1813. He was with Barron in tl1(' Tripoli-
Hc died in Mount Pleasant, la., .Jan. 6, tan \Var, anrl served on the Lak('s with
186fJ. Chauncey and T'('rry in the War of ISI2-
Elliott, CUARLE5 LORI
G, painter; IS. H(' captured two BritiRh ,'eRs('ls, Dr-
born in S('ipio, X. Y., in f)pf't'mber, IRI:!; troit and ealcr!onill, at Fort Erie. for
was the son of an architect, who 1'1'(>- which exploit h(\ wag present{'d hr Con-
p:ll"Nl him for that profe<;sion. He bp- gre8S with a sword. TIc was in command
{'allle a pupil of Trumbull, ill Kew York, of the Niagara in Perry's famous combat
and afterwards of Quidor, a painter of on Lake Erie, to which the Commodore
219

fancy-pieces. Having acquired the tech-
nicalities of the art, his chief employ-
ment for a time was cop
'ing ellgra vings
in oil, and afterwards he attempted por-
traits. He practi"ed portrait-painting in
the interior of Ke\\ York for about ten

'ears, when he went to the city (1845),
where he soon rose to t)le h{'ad of his pro-
fession as a portrait-painter. It is said
that he painted iOO portraitR, many of
them of distinguished men. His like-
nesses were alwa vs remarkable for fidel-
itr, and for beauty and vigor of coloring.
He died in Alhany, Aug, 2.3, 18GS.
Elliott, CUAI'LES "'YLLYS, author; born
in Guilford, Conn., 1\fa
. 27. 1817. His pub-
lications relating- to the L'"nit<>d States in-
clude "1\-e-zv England History, fl'om the
Discovery of the Continent by the "xorth-
men, A. D. 9G8, to lIì'6
' and The Book
of A.meT"ican Interiors, prrpared from ex-
istinp Houscs. lIe di('d Aug. 23. 188
.
Elliott, JESSE DUNC'AJ'i", naval officer;
born in Maryland, July 14, 1782; entered
the L"nitcd States navy as mi
!',hipman in

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ELLIOTT-ELLIS

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JNTER CLASS. AMEBI.
E'r BRIT. DIE x.. SEP.

MDCCCXIII.

-

THB BLLJOTT Jd.JUJAL

went from the Lwcrcncc .luring the ac-
tion. He succeed('d Perry in command on
Lake Erie in October, ISI
. Elliott was
"..ith Decatur in the l\h.ditcrranean in 1815,
and was promoted to captain in ::\Iareh,
IRIS. He command('d the \Y {"st India
squadron (I8:?!I-:3
); took cha rge of the
navY-)Tard at Charleston in IH:l:3: and af-
terwards crui!'ed several years in the ::\Ied-
ÏtelTam'an. On his return he was court-
martiall('d, and suspended from command
for four years. ..A part of the sentence
was remitted, and in 1844 he was ap-
pointed to the command of the navy-)-ard
at Philad('lphia. For the part which Elli-
ott took in the hatt1e of Lake Erie Con-
gr
:-;s aW3rded him the thanks of the na-
tion and a gold medal. He di{'d in
Philadelphia, Dpe. 10, 1845.
Elliott, ,TO
ATJlA
, author; born in
(arlisle, England. in 1;84; emigrated. to

W York III 1802: served in the United
States army in the War of 1812. .\mong
his writin,gs are A_l1u'rican Diplomatic
('odc
' Debnte on the
tdoption of the Con-
stitution; Th(' ('omparativc Tariffs, etc.
He diN] in Washington, D. C., ::\fareh 12,
] R.Hi.
Elliott, SURA:SXAll, heroine; born in

outh Carolina about 1750; made for
Colonel l\f oultrie's regiment two stand-
ards, which she embroidered; and assist-
I-II sev('ral American officers in escaping
h." 1'0ncea1ing tlwm in a hidden room in
JJ('r 1)on
f',

Ellis, (;EOHCE EDWAIW, c]{'rgyman; born
in Boston, 1\1ass., Aug. 8, 1814; grad-
uated at Harvard in 1833; ordaincd a
l"nitarian pastor in 1840; president of t1w
::\fassachusetts Historical Societ
T, and au-
thor of Hi8tory of the Battle of Bunker
lIill, and biographies of John ::\Iason, Will-
iam Penn, Anne Hutchinson, .Tared Sparks.
Count Rumford, etc. He died in nORtOn,
Mass., Dec. 20, 18!')4.
Ellis, HI
XRY. colonial governor; born
in England in 1721; studied law; appoint-
ed liN1Ìpnant - gm'ernor of Georgia, _\ug.
15, 17.3G; lwcame royal governor. ::\Iay 17,
17;)8. He proved himself a wise admin-
istrator, and sueee('d('d in ('
tahlishill

good-will between the ('olonists and th.,
Creeks. The climate proving bad. for hi",
h{'alth, he returned to England in Novem-
ber, 1760. HI' was author of Heat of th(
lVeath('r in (:Coryia, etc. He died ,Tan.
21, 1 ROO.
Ellis, JOIlX WILLI
, go\'ernor; born in
Row3J1 county, X. C., Xov. 2.3, 1820:
graduated at the University of N"orth
Carolin3 in H!41, and admitted to the bar
in 1842. III' wa" governor of North Caro-
lina in lR;)H-li1. In the name of his Statf'
he oecupi('(] 1"01't Macon. the works at
\Yilmin.!!ton. and the United States arHC-
nal at Farettp\'i11e. .Jan. 2, IRfi1. In
April of the sam(' Y(',lJ" he nrd('red th('
seizure of th(' t:"nited
tates mint Rt
Charlotte. III' died in Raleigh. K C.,
in 1861.
220

ELLIS-ELMIBA

graduated at the College of New Jer-
sey in 1766; was admitted to the bar
in 1771; practised in Hartford, Conn.;
and was made State attorney. ',"hen the
Revolutionary War was kindling he took
the. side of the patriots in the leg-
islature of Connecticut, and was a delp-
gate in Congress from 1777 to 1780. He
became a member of the State council,
and in ] 784 was appointed a judge of the
Supreme Court. Judge EIJ:-:worth was ont'
of the framers of the national Constitu-
tion, but, being called away before tht'
adjournment of the convention, his namp
was not attached to that instrument. fIt'
was the first "Cnited States /-;('l1l1tor from
('onn('cticut (1780-95), and drew up the
biB for organizing the Judiciary Depart-
ment. In 171)6 he was made chief-justice
of the Supreme Court of the rnited States.
and at the close of 1700 he was one of the
envoys to France. He died in Windsor,
had pulled down.
Jay 24. 1861. Hið body Nov. 26, 1807.
was taken to 'Vashington, and lay in state Elmira, BATTLE OF. See SUI.IIYA
,
in the East Room of the White House. JOHN.

l

Ellis, SETH H., politician; was can.
elate of the "Gnion Reform party for
President in 1000, with Samuel T.
icho-
las, of Pennsylvania, for Vice-President.
They received a popular vote of 5,6U8.
Ellison's Mill. See :1\IEclIA
IcsnLLE,
BATfLE OF.
Ellmaker, A
ws, jurist; born in New
Holland, Pa., Feb. 2, 1787; admitted to
the bar in 1808; elected to the State legis-
lature in 1812; appointed district judge
in 1815; attorney-general of the State in
1816; was candidate for Vice-President on
the Anti-:Masonic ticket in 1832. He
died in Lancaster, Pa., Nov. 28, 1851.
Ellsworth, EPHRAIM ELMER, military
officer; born in Mechanicsville, N. Y.,
April 23, 1837; was first engaged in mer-
cantile business in Troy, N. Y., and as a
patent solicitor in Chicago he acquired
3 good income. While studying law he
joined :1 Zouave corps at Chicago, and
in July, 1860, visited some of the Eastern
cities of the Union with them and at-
tracted great attention. On his return he
organized a Zouave regiment in Chicago;
and in April, 1861, he organized another
from the New York Fire Department.
These were among the earlier troops that
h
stened to Washington. Leading his
Zoua ves to Alexandria, Ellsworth was
shot dead by the proprietor of the Mar-
sha}] House, while he was descending the
stairs with a Confederate flag which he

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It was then taken to New York, where
it lay in state in the City Hall, and, after
t.eing carried in procession tht'ough the
streets of the city, it was com eyed to his
birthplace for b
rial. He was ÿoung and
handsome, and his death, being the first
of note that had occurred in the opening
war, produced a profound sensation
t.hroughout the count!")..
Ellsworth, OLI\-ER, LL.D., jurist;
bürn in WimJsor. ('onn., April 29, 1745;

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EL MOLINO DEL REY

EI Molino del Bey, CAPTURE OF. AI- hill was cro\\lled with a strong castle and
most within cannon-shot distance of the military college, supported by numerous
city of
Iexico is Chapultepec, a hill com- outworks, which, with the steepness of the
po!'ed of porphyritic rock, and known in ascent to it, seemed to make it impregna-
t he Aztec language as" Grasshoppers' Hill." hIe. Only the slope towarùs the city was
It rises from the ancient shore of Lake easily ascended, and that was co\'en'd with
T(-zcuco, and was the favorite resort of the a thick forest. At the foot of the hill
A7tec princes. It was also the site of the was a stone building, with thick high
ralace and gardens of
lontezuJlla.. That walls, and towers at the end, known as EI

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222

EL MOLINO DEL REY-ELY

Mo1ino del Rey-" The King's Mill." About the field. Their best leaders had been
400 yards from this was another massive slain, and 800 men had been made prison-
stone building, known as Casa de Ma.ta. ers. The strong buildings were blown up.
The former was used (1847) as a cannon Bnd none of the defences of Mexico out-
foundry by the Mexicans, and the latter side its gates remained to them, excepting
was a depository of gunpowder. Both the casUe of CHAPULTEPEC (q. v.) and
were armed and strongly garrisoned. Gen- its supports.
eral Scott, at Tacubaya, ascertained that Elwyn, ALFRED LA
GDON, philanthro-
Santa Ana, while negotiations for peace pist; born in Portsmouth, N. H., July
were going on, had sent church-bells out 9, 1804; graduated at Harvard College
of the city to be cast into cannon, and he in 1823; studied medicine, but never
determined to seize both of these strong practised; became known as a philanthro-
buildings and deprive the Mexicans of pist. He originated the Pennsylvania
those sources of strength. He proposed to .Agricultural Society and Farm-school, of
first attack EI Molino del Rey, which was which he was president in 1830; was .also
commanded by General Leon. The ::\fex- president of various philanthropic insti-
ican forces at these defences were about tutions. He was the author of Glossary
14,000 strong, their left wing resting on of Supposed Americanisms; and Letters
EI ::\Iolino del Rey, their centre fonnin
to the Hon. John Langdon, during and
a connecting line with Casa de
Iata. and aftcr the HeDolution. He died in Phila-
supported by a field-battery, and their delphia, Pa., :March 15, 188-1.
right wing resting on the latter. To the Ely, ALFnED, lawyer; born in I..yme,
division of General Worth was intrust- Conn., Feb. 18. 1813; settled in Rochester,
ed the task of assailing the workg X. Y., in 1833; admitted to the bar in
before them. At three o'clock on the IS41; mcmber of Congress in 1859-63.
morning of Sept. 8 (I8H) the assaulting He was taken prisoner by the Confedera te.5
columns moved to the attack, Garland'
while visiting the battle-field of Bull Run
brigade forming the rÍl!ht wing. The bat- in .Tuly, lRfil, and confined in Libby
tle began at dawn by Hugel"s 24-pounder prison for six months; was then e\:-
opening on EI ::\Iolino del Rey, when ::\Ia- changed for Charles J. Faulkner, the min-
jor Wright, of the 8th Infantry, fell upon ister to France, who had been arrested
the centre with 500 picked men. On the for disloyalty. While in Libby prison
left was the 2d Brigade, commanded by he kept a journal, which was later ,pub-
Colonel ::\[eIntosh, supported by Duncan's lished as the Journal of Alf1'ed Ely, a
battery. The assault of ::\[ajor Wright on Prisoner of War in Richmond. He died
the centre drove back infantry and artil- in Rochester, N. Y., May 18, 1892.
lery, and the Mexican field-battery was Ely, RICHARD THEODORE, political econ-
captured. The l\Iexicans soon rallied and omist; born in Ripley, K. Y., April 1:>.
regained their position, and a terrible 183-1; graduated at Columbia University
stnll!:.ðe ensued. EI :\Iolino del Rey was in 1876; became Professor of Politi-
soon assailed and carried by Garland's cal Economy in thc University of \\'is-
brigade. and at thc same time the battle consin in 1892. Among his works are
around Casa de ::\Iata was raging fiercely. Prench and German Rocialism; Taxation
For a moment the Americans reeled, but in A.merican Statcs,. Socialism and Social
soon recovered, when a large column of Neform
' The Rocial Lall; of Service; 'l'ke

Iexicans was seen filing around the right Labor J/ovcmcnt in .-t merica, etc.
of their intrenchments to fall upon the Ely, \YILLJA
I G.. military officer; born
Americans who had been driven back, about 183,); joined the Xational army 011
when Duncan's battery opened upon them the first call for volunteer!;. On June
so destructively that the l\Ie\:ican column 13, 186:J, he was captured in the engagc-
W3S scattered in confusion. Then Sum- ment at Fort Royal Pike. After spend-
ner's dragoons charged upon them, and iug eight months in Libby prison, he en-
their rout was complete. The slaughter deavored to make his escape with 108
had been dreadful. Nearly one-fourth of others through the famous underg-round
Worth's corps were either killed or wound- passage dug beneath Twentieth Street.
ed. The Mexican
had left 1.000 dead on FonT dny
later fifty of the nnmhPT. in.
223

ELZEY-EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS

eluding Colonel Ely, were retaken. He tifications, and when they brought their
was, however, soon afterwards exchanged, women and children with them he issued
and led his regiment, on June 4, ISla, rations to them and charged them to the
at the battle of Piedmont; received the
ervice of the men. Thc President sustain-
hrevet of brigadier-general of volunteers ed General Butler's action in this ease and
in the same year. the example was followed by other com-
Elzey, ARxoLD, military officer; born in manders. The government ordered strict
Somerset county, Md., Dec. IS, 1816; accounts to be kept of the labor thus per-
graduated at the "Cnited States ::\Iilibry formed, as it was not yet determined that
Academy in 1837; served with distinction these laborers should be regarded as free.
through the Florida, and )[exican wars. On Aug. 0, 18GI, the President signed an
When the Ci,'il War broke out he resigned act passed by Congress which declared that
from the National army and entered when any slave was employed in any mili-
that of the Confederates; was promoted tary or naval se1"\"ice against the govern-
on the field to the rank of brigadier-gen- ment the person b)" whom his labor was
eral by Jefferson Davis for gallant ser- claimed, that is, his owner, should forfeit
vice, and later attained to that of major- all claims to such labor. The intent at the
genera1. He died in Baltimore, 1\[d., Feb. time this bill was passed was that it shou1d
21. 18;1. be in force only tentatively, for iew were
Emancipation Proclamations. For then able to see what proportions the
man:y ycars there has been a fiction that war would assume and what other meas-
Gen. Benjamin F. Butler issued the first ures would be found necessary to end it.
proclamation freeing the sla,'cs. That General Frpmont, then in command of the
oflicer never issued such a proclamation, \Yestern Department of the army, chose
but he was the first to suggest to the gov- to assume that the confiscation act of
ernment a partial solution of the very Congress had unlimitcd scope, and Aug.
pí'rplexing question as to what was to bp 31, 180!. issupd a proclamation confis-
done with the slan
s during tl1<' Ci,-il \Var. eating the property and freeing the
It was held that the Constitution of the slaves of all citizens of :Missouri who had
{;nited States did not give to Congress, or taken, or should take, up arms against
to the non-slave-holding States. any right the government. This action of Fr(omont
to interfere with tl1(' institution of slavery. embarrassed President Lincoln greatly.
This was reafnrmed h
' Congress in a reso- For whatenr may have been his hope that
lution passed hy the House, Feb. 11, 18(il, the outcome of the war would be the final
,vithout a dis::.enting voice, to reassure the abolition of slavery, he could not fail to
South that. in spite of the election of
Ir. see that to permit the generals of the
Lincoln, the Xorth had no intention of army to take such a course then in this
uburping power not granted hy the Con- matter was rather premature. He ac-
stitution. But when, after the outbreak eordingly wrote to General Frémont re-
of the war, the army began to occup
r questing him to modify his proclamation.
pusts in the seceding and slave-holding The general f('plipd with a request that

tates, the m"gro('s came flocking into th,
the Presidí'nt himsdf would make tht>
Fnion lines. large numbers bf'ing set fref' necessary modifications. President Lin-
by the disorganized condition of affairs cc.ln t herefore i
sued a "pedal 01"11(',',
from the usual labor on the farms and Rept. 11, 1801, d('c1aring that the emanei-
plantations of the South. T}wII UI<' ques- pation clause of General Fr{>l11ont's proda-
tion arose, "-hat can he dOll(> with them? mation .. be 80 modified. held. and eon-
General Butler, whell UJ(>," came into his strued as to ('onform with and not to
camp at Fort 'Ton roe. detain('d them and transeend Uw provisions on the same f'iuh-
rehlsed to surrender them upon the appli- ject contained in Uw act of Congress ap-
cation of tllf'ir owners on the plea th
t proyed \ug'. fl," prec(.din!!.
thev WCTe ('ontraband of war, that is, Another instance of the kind occurred
pro.perty which could be used in military at the hands of General Huntpr, the fol.
operations, and therefore, by the laws of lowing year. That officer, being in com-
war, subject to seizure. He set the able- mand at Hilton Head,
. C., proclaimpd
bodied men to work upon goyernment for- the Statr.
of (iporgia. Florida. Ilnd South

24

EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS

Carolina, ill hi
dl'part1llent, untIer mar- tailled ill the act. FillalJ.y, in September,
tial law, and 11ay 9, 18ti
, issued an he issued the following warning prochl-
order in which occurred the:se words: ma tiun:
"Slavery and martial law in a free .. PROCLA:\IATION.
country are altogether incompatible. The .. I, Abraham Lint'oln, President of the
persons in these States-Georgia, Florida, enited States of America. and Commanuer-
and South Carolina-heretofore held as in-chief of the Army and Xavy thereof, do
sl
ns are therefore declared forever her'eby proclaim and declare that hereafter,
as her'etofore, the war will be prosecuted for
free." Though President Lincoln had the object of practically restOl'ing the con-
l-een bitterly censured by extremists for stitutional relation between the rnited
hi
aetion towards Genera.l Frémont, and States and each of the States, and the peo-
ple thereof, in which States that r'elation is
though he knew that to interfere with or' may be suspended or disturbed.
General Hunter would only bring upon .. That it is my purpose, upon the next
him eyen a worse storm of reproaches. meeting of Congress, to again recommend
he did not shrink from what he belieyed the adoption of a practical measure tender-
ing pecuniary aid to the frpe acceptance or
his duty in the matter. He immediately rejection of all slave States, so-called, the
iS8ued a proclamation sternly revoking people whereof may not then be in rebellion
General Hunter's order, saying that the against the Lnited States, and which States
may then have voluntal"ily adopted, or there-
government had not had any kno\"tledge after may vOluntarily adopt, immediate or
of the general's intention to issue an gradual abolishment of slavery within their
order, and dist;nctIy stating that "neither respective limits; and that the efforts to
G(>neral Hunter nor any other commander colonize persons of African descent, with
their consent, upon this continent or else-
or person has been authorized b)' the gov- where, with the previously obtained consent
ernment of the United States to makp of the governments existing there, will be
proclamation declaring the slaves of any continued.
.. That on the first day of January, In the
State free." "I further make known," YEar of our Lord one thousand eight hun-
he continued, "that whether it be com- dr'ed and sixty-three, all persons held as
petent for me, as commander-in-chief of slaves within any State, or designated part
h d t d I th I of a State, the people whereof shall then be
t c army an navy, 0 ec are e s aves in rebellion against the United States, shall
of any State or States free; and whether, be then, thenceforward, and forever free

at any time or in any case, it shall have and the Executive Government of the "Gnlted
bpcome a necessity indispensable to the States, including the military and naval
authority thereof, will recognize and maln-
maintenanC'e of the government to exer- taln the freedom of such persons, and will
cise such supposed power. are questions do no act or acts to repress such persons,
whi('h, under my responsibility, I reserve or any of them. In any efforts they may
f . . make for their actual freedom.
to myself, and which I cannot eel JustI- .. That the Ex
cutive will, on the first day
fied in leaving to commanders in the of January aforesaid, by proclamation, des-
field." Though mueh displeasure was ex- Ignate the States and parts of States, It
pressed h
' many at the time concerning any, In which the people thereof respectlvply
shall then be in rebellion against the TTnltPd
the position thus taken by the Presid('nt,
Hates, and the fact that any State. or the
it was generally admitted later that he people ther'eof, shall on tliat day be in gOlld
was justified in taking it, since it was faith represented in the ('ongress of t!IP
from no lack of s1.'m J Jath . Y with the cause Fnlted States, by membet.s chosen therpt'J
J at elections wherein a majority of the quall-
of emancipation that he withheld his fled voters of such State shall have partie
sanction from the premature attempts ipateil, shall, In the absence of str'ong coun-
to secure it. tervalIing testimony, be dpemed conclusive
evidence that such
Hate, and the people
On July 1û. 1862, Congr('ss paRsed an ther.eof. are not tlien in rl'belIion against
a('t for the suppression of slayery, one the Pnited States.
pro\"ii'lion of which d('c1ared thp absolute .. That attention Is h('l'eby called to an act
.. freedom of thc slaves of rphds" nnòer of Congress entltlpd . .\n Act to mal;:e an
additional Article of ''Oar.' approved :\Iar'('h
certain operations of war therein defined. 13, 18G
, and which act Is In the \Vor'ds and
This gave the President a \\ ide field for figures following:
th(' exercise of executÏ\'e powpr, but he .. . Be it enacted by tile Senatc and HOlll!e
Tl . of Rcpreset!tatires of tile United States of
used it with great prudence. I(> patIent .hllel'ica in ('fJt!g/"css aRl!cmblcd, That here-
Lineoln hoped the wise men among the after the following shall be promulgated a

C'onf('d('rates might heed the threat eon- an additional artlclp of war for the
OVPl"n,
llt,-,[' ::'25

EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS

wenl of llle &twy of the United States, and
tlhall be obe
ed and observed as such:
.. 0 Article _. .\11 (.fficers or persons In the
military Ot' na \'al service of tlle Cnlted
States are prohibited fmm emplo
'ing any
of the forces under tbeir respective com-
mands for the pm'pose of returning fugitives
from service or lallot' \\ ho may have escaped
from any pet'sons lO whom such service or
labor is claimed to be due; and any officer
who shall be found guilt
. by a court martial
of violating this article sball be dismissed
trom the service.
.. 0 Sec. :!. A.lld be it furtlier enactcd, That
this act shall lake effect from and after Its
passage:
.. Also, to the ninth and tenth sections
of an act entitled 0 An Act to Suppt'ess In-
surrection, to Punish Treason and Rebellion,
to Seize and Confiscate Propet.ty of Rebels,
Ilnd for other Purposes," approved July 17,
1862, and which sections are In the words
and figures following: .. Whereas, On the 2:!d day of September,
.. 0 Sec. 9. And be it furt1ter enactcd, That In the
'ear of om' Lord one thousand eight
all slaves of persons who shall bet'eafter be hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation was
t'ngaged In rebellion against the Government Issued by the President of the {;"nlted States,
of the United States, or who shall In any containing. among other things, the follow-
way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping lng, to wit:
from snch pen;ons and taking refuge within .. 0 That on the first day of .1anuat'y, In
the lines of the army; and all slaves captured the
'eat. of our Lord one thousand eight
from such persons, or deserted by tbem and hundred and sixty-tht'ee, all persons held
coming under the control of the Government as slaves within any State or designated
of the United States; and all slaves of such pat't of a State, the people whereof shall then
persons found on (or) being within any be In rebellion against the rnlted States,
place occupied by rebel forces and after- shall be then, thenceforward, and fot'ever
ward occupied by the forces of the United ft'ee; and the Executive Government of
States. shall be deemed captives of war, and the United States, Including the military
Khall be forever free of theIr servitude, and and naval authorities thereof, will recognize
not again held as slaves. nnd maintain the freedom of such persons.
.0' Hec. 10. And be it further enacted, That and will do no act or acts to repress such
no slave escaping Into any State, Territory, persons, or any of them, In any efforts they
or tlle IJlstrict of Columbia, fmm any other may make for their actual freedom.
state, shall be dellvel"(>d up, or In any way .. 'That the Executive will, on the first
Impeded or hindered of bls liberty, except day of January aCor'esald. hy pt'oc1amatlon,
for crime, or Rome offence against the laws, designate the States and pat.ts of State
.
uuless tbe person claiming salù fugitive shall If any, In which the people thet'eof, respec-
first make an oath that the person to whom tlvely, shall then he In rebellion against thp
the labor or service of such fugitive Is alleged United States: and the fact that any State.
to be due Is his lawful owner, and has not or the people thereof. shall on that day be
t.orne arms against the United States In the In good faith repr'e!<ented In the Congress
IH'esent rebellion, nor In any way given aid of the enlted
tRtes by membprs chosen
and comfort thet'eto; and no persons en- thereto at elections wherein a majority of the
gaged In the military or naval service of the qualified voters of such States shall have
Cnlted States shall, under any pt'etence participated. shall. In the absence of stmng
whatever, assume to declde on the validity countervailing testimony, be deemed con-
of the claim of any person to the service elusive evldpncp that such State, and thp
ht. labor of Ilny other person, or sUlTendpr people thereof, are not thpn In rebellion
up Rny Mwl1 pen;on to the claimant, on pain against the {Tnltert States.'
of being dismissed from the service.' .. Xow. ther'eCOI'e. I. Abt'Rham Lincoln.
.. And I do hereby enjoin up')n and order I't"psldent of the rnlted States. bv virtue of
tJll persons en
Rgpd In the mllltat.y anrt naval the pow(>r In me vested as Commander-In-
!>ervlce of the rnlt<>d States to observe, obey, chief of the Army and Xavy of the rnlted
and enfot'ce, within their respective spheres
tRtes In tlm<> of actual armed rebellion
of service, the act and sections above re- I'
alnst the authority and Government of the
dted. ruited Statp8, and as a fit and necessary
.. And the Executive will In dup time rec- war measure for suppressing said rebeIII ori.
ommend that all citizens of the rnlted do, on this fir'st day of Januar'y, In the year
::5tates who shall have remained loyal thereto of our LOl'd one thom:Rnd eight hundred and
throughout the rebellion shall (upon the sixty-three. and In ac(.ordan('e with my pur.
restoration of the constitutional relation be- pose so to do. pUblicly proclaimed for the
tween the United States and theh' respec- full period of one hl1ndrpd days from the day
tI\"e States and l)('ople, If that relation shall first above melltloned. o;.rter a!HI rt"!':ignate"

G

bave be8n l'Iuspended or cUsturbed) be cow.
pensated for all losses by acts of the United
::5tates, Including the loss of slaves.
.. In witness whet'
of I have het'eunto set
my hand and caused the seal of the United
::5tate8 to be affixed.
"Done at the city of Washington, this
twenty-second day of September. In the yeat"
of our Lord one thousand eight l1undred and
sixty-two, and of the Independence of tl1e
{'niteù ::5tates the eight
"-se\"enth.
.. ABR.\llA:\l Ln.coLN.

" By the President:
Ii \YILLIAl\I H. SEWARD, Seo'ctw"y of State."

This wat'ning was unheeded, and on the
day mentioned the President issued the
following proclamation:

.. PROCLAMATIO
.

FACSUULE OF THE l'ROCL.&.M.&.TIO
01' E
I.&.NCU'41'lu
.

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.. That on the first day of January, In the
year of our Lord one thousand eight hun-
dred and sixty-three, all persons held as
slaves within any State or designated part
uf a State, the people whereof shall then be
In rebellion against the United States, shall
be then, thenceforward, and forever free;
and the I
xecuti"e Government of the United

tates, Including the military and naval
authority then'of, will recognize and maintain
the freedom of such persons, and will do
no act 01' acts to repress such persons, or
any of them, In any efforts they may make
for their actual freedom.
.0 That the Executive will, on the first

day of January aforesaid, by proclamation.
designate the States and parts of States, If
any, in which the people thereof, respec-
tively, shall then be In rebellion against the
United States; and the fact that any State,
or the people thereof, shall on that day be
In good faith represented In the Congress of
the rnlted States, by members chosen thereto
at elections whel'eln a majority of the quali-
fied voters of such State shall have partic-
Ipated. shall, in the absence of strong coun-
tervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive
evidence that such State, and the people
thereof, are not then In rebellion against the
United States:'

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2:W

EM.A.NCIP ATION PROCLAMATIONS

,/ JJ ßt I.fi,.j'h(!/! Jd. fJr
kw
ck$ :r

:ð;Z
.

..Ú

'7 i

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vrJ

as the
tat{'f> aud parts of States wherein
the people thereof, respectively, al'e this day
in rebellion a
alnst the United States, the
following, to wit:
II Arkansas. Texas, Louisiana (except the
parishes of Ht. Bernard, Plaquemines. Jeffer-
son, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, As-
('enslon, Assumption, Terre Bonne, La-
fourche, Ste. Marie, St. :\Iartln, and Orleans,
inclurllng the city of r\ew Orleans), :\I1ssls-
sippl, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Caro-
lina, Xorth Carolina, and Ylrglnla (except
the forty-eight counties designated as West
\ïrglnia, and also the counties of Berkeley,
Accomac, Xorthampton, Elizabeth City, York,
I'l"Incess Anne and
orfolk, Including the
cities of
orfolk and Portsmouth), and
whleh excepted parts are, for the present,
It'ft precisely as If this proclamation were
not Issued.
"And by virtue of the power and for the
purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare
that all persons held as slaves within said
c]C'f;lgnated States and parts of States are.
and henceforward shall be, fl'ee: and that the
Executive Government of the Gnlted States,
including the mll!tary ëlnd naval authorities
t hereof, will recognize and maintain the free-
dom of sal
'ersons.
II And
.Jereby enjoin upon the people so
cleclared to be free to abstain from all
violence, unl<,ss In necessary self-defence: and
I recommend t.) them that. In all cases when
allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonablE'
wages.
"Anrl J further declare and make known

that such per
ons, of suitable condition, will
be re"elved Into the al'med sel"vlce of the
rnlted States, to garrison fm.ts. positions,
f.tatlons, and other pla('es, and to man ves-
sels of all sorts In said servlee.
"And upon this act. sincerely lwlleved to
be an act of justl('e, warranted by the Con-
stitution, upon military necesslt):, I Invoke
the considerate judgment of mankind, and
the gracious favor of Almighty God.
II In te"tlmony whereof I have hereunto
set my name, nnd caused the seal of th{'
Lnlted States to be affixed.
" I lone at the City of Washing-
ton, this first day of January, In
[L.S.] the )'ear of our Lord one thousand
eight hundl"ed and slxty-thl"ee, and
of the Independence of the {"nlted
States the eighty-seventh.
"AnnAHA
1 LDiCOL
..

II By the President:
II 'YILLIA'I II. SEWARD, Rcc,-ctary of State."
By the Emancipation Proclamat inn
3.0G3,392 slaves were set fret', as follows:
.Arl,ansns 111.10-l
.Alabama 43;),1:
:!
Florida . 61,7:-.:

Geor
la _ _ 4f;:!,
:
:!
:\I1sslsslppi 43G,G
G
Xorth Carollua. :!7:J,OR 1
South Cal'ollna. 40:!,:J41
Texn'i ........ HW.GR:!
Ylrglnla (pal'O.. 4:i0.4:n
Louisiana (pal.t).
47.7:
4

"'i1 .60",1111: "'''':-
.. -

'" The pen wllh which President Lincoln wrote his Proclamntion of F.manclpatlnn was l(;vl'n 10 "=f'nator
lImnt'r
hy the I'rr'''i.lent, Rt the requPRt of the formpr. Rnd by him prf'''f'lIlp'' to the late t;..orgf' 1.1\'prmon'. of Bn!'toll. It
i:! a
tPf'I.pf'n. of the kind caliI'd .. Th" \\"..
IIIIIIlIIIII," In Co com mOil ,....Iar hoMer-nil R-I 1'1 un all" Ollo!'tellbtlolllill
"AI 1.11" l'r,,
h' nt hlmlelf.

2:10

EMBARGO ACTS

Orders in Council, President .Jefferson,
who had called Congress together earlier
than usual (Oct. 25, 1807), sent a mes-
sage to that body communicating facts in
his possession and recommending the pas-
sage of an embargo act-" an inhibition
of the departure of our vessels from the
ports of the United States." The Senate,
after a session of four hours, passed a
bill-22 to 6-laying an embargo on all
shipping, foreign and domestic, in the
ports of the United States, with specified
The remainder were emancipated by the exceptions and ordering all vessels abroad
Thirteenth Amendment to the national to return home forthwith. This was done
Constitution, making the whole number in secret session. The House, also with
set free 3,89.'5,172. closed doors, debated the bill three days
On the preceding pages is given a fac- and nights, and it was passed by a vote
"imile of the Proclamation of Emandpa- (If 82 to 44, and bpcame a law Dec. 22,
tion. 1807.
Embargo Acts. The British Orders in Unlimited in its dmation and uni-
Council (Nov. 6, 1793) and a reported versal in its appJication, the embargo
speedl of Lord Dorchester (Guy Carleton) was an expe1"Îment never before tried by
tn a deputation of the \Yestern Indians, an
r nation-an attempt to compel two
produced much indignation against the belligerent powers to respect the rights
British government. Vnder the stimulus of neutrals by withholding intercour<;('
of this excitement Congress passed with aU the world. It accomplished noth-
(
Iarch 26. 1794) a joint resolution lay- il:g, or worse than nothing. It aroused
iug an embargo on commerce for thirty against the United States whatever spirit
days. The measure sppmed to have chief- cf honor and pride existed in both na-
ly in yiew the obstructing the supply of tions. Opposition to the measure, in and
provisions for the British fleet and army out of Congress, was violent and incessant,
in the West Indies. It operated quite and on
ItHch 1, 1809, it was repealed.
afo much against the French. Suùsc- At the same time Congress passed a law
quently (April 7) a resolution was intro- forbidding an commercial intercourse with
duced to discontinue all commercial inter- France and England until the Orders in
course with Great Britain and her sub- Council and the decrees should be re-
jects, as far as respectpd aU articles of pealed.
the growth or manufacture of Great Bonaparte's response to the Embargo
Britain or Ireland, until the surrender of Act of 1807 was issued from Rayonnf'.
the "
estern posts and ample compen- April 17, 1808. lIe was there to dethr01w
;;ation should be given for all losses and his Spanish ally to make place for OIle
damages growing out of British aggres- of his own fami]r. His decree authorized
slOn on the neutral rights of the Ameri- the seizure and confiscation of all Ameri-
cans. It was pvident from the course that can vessels in France, or whieh might
the debate assumf'd and from the temper arrive in Francp. It waS craftily an-
manifcstpd br the House that the resolu- s\\ ered, when Armstrong remonstratf'd,
tion would be adopted. This mpasure that, as no ÅIlwrican vessels could be
would han led directly to war. To anrt lawfully ahroad after the passage of
t his calamity, \Yashington was inclined HI<' Embargo Act, those pretending to
to sf'nd a spf'cial ministpr to Engbnd. be such must be British vessels in dis-
The appointment of JOHN JAY (q. v.) fol- guise.
lowed. Feeling the pressure of the opposition
On the receipt of despatches from
Iinis- to the embargo at home, Pinckney was
ter Armstrong, at Paris, containing infor- authorized to propo<;e to the British min-
mation about the new interpretation of istry a repeal of the Embargo Act, as to
the Berlin decree and also of the British Grent Britain, on condition of the ref'al1
231

The'institution was not disturbed by the
proclamation in eight States, which con-
tained 831,780 slaves, distributed as fol-
lows:

Delaware ...............
Kentucky.. ..... .......
:\Iaryland ...............
:\Iissoul"l ......... . . . . . . .
Tennessee ..... .
Louisiana (part).........
West Virginia . _ .
Yh'glnla (part)... ........

1,798
223,490
87,188
114,463
275,734
83,281
12,761
29,013

the least sign of yielding while the slight.
est doubt existed of its unequivocal fail-
ure, or the smallest link in the confed-
eracy again!"t her remained undissolved.
The disconcerted
American ambassador,
evidently piqued at
the result of his prop-
osition, advised his
government to perse-
vere in the embargo.
\. The embargo was far
I lpss effectual ahroad
than it was supposed
it would be, and the
.. . difficulty of maintain-
ing it strictly at home
caused its rppeal in
March, 1809. The de-
cided support of the
pmbargo given b)" both
Houses of Congress
was 8upplementpd by
resolutions of the leg-
islatures of Georgia,
minister into making a formal proposi- the Carolinas, Virginia, Ohio, Penns)-lva-
tion. To this Canning made a reply nia, and New Hampshire. An enforce-
(Sept. 28, 180R) in writing, unsurpassed ment act was passed (January. I80!)),
in diplomatic cunning- and partially con- and. to make it efficient, the employment
cealed sarcasm. It also contained sound of twelve additional revenue cutters was
views on the whole subject of the orders authorized: also the fitting out for ser-
and decrees. Canning insisted that, as vÌèe of all the ships-of-war and gunboats.
France was the original ag
ressor, by the This enforcement act was despotic, and
issuing of the Berlin decree, retaliation would not llave been tolerated except as a
(the claimed cause of the embargo) temporary expedient, for the Orders in
ought, in the first instance, to have heen Council were mild in their effects upon
directed against that power alone; and Anwrican trade and ('Ommeree compan>d
England could not consent to buy off a with that of this Embargo _\ct. It pretty
hostile procedure, of which she ought effectually supl'res
ed extensive smug-
never to have been made the object, at gling, which was carricd on between the
the expense of a concessio'l made, not to l:'nited Statf's and Canada and at many
the Unitcd F\tatps, upon whom the opera- sea-ports, pspecially in Kew England.
tion of the British orders was nwrely in- But the opposition clamon-d for its re-
cidental, hut to l<'rance, against which pcal. At the oppning of HH4 there were
country, in a spirit of just retaliation, pxpectations, 8pepdily reali7ed, of peacc
they had been originally aimed. The Ber- near; also of a gcncral pacification of
lin decree had been the bpginning- of an Europe. Thcse signs wcre pointed to by
attempt to overthrow the political power the opposition as cogent reasons for the
of Great Britain by destroying hcr com- repeal. These considerations had weight,
merce, and almost all Europe had bepn added to which was tIle necessity for in-
compelled to join in that attempt; and creasing the revenup. Finally, on Jan.
the Amerimn emhargo had. in fact, come In (18]4). the Pn-sid{'nt recommcndpd
in aiel of Napolpon's continental s
.
tcm. thp rpppal of the Emhargo .\et. and it wa

This attcmpt. Canning !"aid. was not like- done hy Congress on April ]4. TIH're
ly to suecped. )"('t it was important to the wcre gn>at rejoicings throughout the coun-
rf'}Hltation of Urcat Britain not to show try. anll the demisf' of tIw Tf'rrapin wa!"
2:;2

EMBARGO ACTS

of her Orders in Council. Not wishing
to encounter a refusal, Pinckney sounded
Canning, the secretary of foreign af-
fairs, who gradually led the American

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EM13AltGO ACTS

hailed as a good omen of commercial
prosperity. The Death of the Embargo
was celebrated in verses published in the
Pederal Republican newspaper of George-
town, in the District of Columbia. These
were reproduced in the New York Even-
ing Pust, with an illustration designed by
John Wesley Jarvis, the painter, and
drawn and engraved on wood by Dr. Alex-
ander Anderson. The picture was re-
drawn and engraved by Dr. Anderson, on
a reduced scale, in 18û4, after a lapse of
exactly fifty years. The lines which it
illustrates are as follows:

TERRAPIN'S ADDRESS.

.. Reflect, my friend, as you pass by,
As you are now, so once was I:
As I am now, so you may be-
Laid on your back to die like me!
I was, Indeed, true sailor born;
To quit my friend in death I scorn.
Once Jemmy seemed to be my friend,
But basely brought me to my end!
Of head bereft, and light, and breath,
I hold Pidelity In death:
For . Sailors' Hights' I still will tug;
And :\Iadison to death I'll hug,
For his perfidious zeal displayed
For' Hallors' Rights and for Free-trade.'
'.rhis small atonement I will have-
I'll lug down Jemmy to the grave.
Then trade and commerce shall be free,
And sailors have their liberty.
Of head bel'eft, and light, and breath,
'.rhe Terrapin, still tl"Ue in death,
Will punish Jemmy's perfldy-
Lea ve trade and brother sailors free."

Never mind thy head-thou' It live with-
out It;
Spunk will preserve thy IIfe-don't doubt
It.
Down to the grave, t' atone for sin,
Jemmy must go with Terrapin.
Beal' him but ore, and we shall see
Commerce restored and sailors free 1
Hug, Terrapin, with all thy might-
Now for' Free-trade and Sailors' Hight.'
Stick to him, Terrapin! to thee the nation
Now eager looks-then die for helP salva-
tion.
.. FLOREAT RESPUBLICA.
.. BA
KS OF GOOSE CREEK, CITY OF 'Y ASH-
IXGTO
, 15th Apt'il, 1814."

The continued aggressions of the British
upon American commerce created a power-
ful war party in the United States ill
1811, and a stirring report of the com-
mittee on foreign relations, submitted to
Congress in Kovember, intensified th
t
feeling. Bills were speedily passed for
augmenting the army, and other prepara

tions for war were made soon after the
opening of the J'ear 1812. The President
was averse to war, but his party urged
and threatened him so pertinaciously that
he consented to decla.re war against Great
Britain. As a preliminary measure he
sent a confidential message to Congress
(April 1, 1812) recommending the pas-
s:>.ge of an act laying an embargo for sixty
days. A bill was introduced to that effect
by 1\1r. Calhoun, of South Carolina, which
prohibited the sailing of
any vessel for any foreign
port, except foreign ships
with such cargoes as they
might have on board when
notified of the act. The
bill was passed (A pri I û),
and was speedily followed
by a supplementary act
(April 14) prohibiting ex-
portations by land,
whether of goods or specie'.
The latter measure was
called the land embargo.
It was vehemently de'-
Bounced, for it suddenly
suppressed an active and
lucrative trade hetween the'
United States and Canada.
PAHHEXGER'S REPLY. It was nscertained that the Briti
h
.. \"('s, Terrapin, b(,l'eft of breath. 1.I0ekading squadron in American watf'r'"
\yp see thee faithful still In death. was constantly f:uppJied with provision,.
StÌ<'k to't-' Frpe-trade and HalIol's' Rig-hts.'
lIug- ,lemmy-press hlm
hold him -hite. from .\nwri('an pOl.ts L
r unpatriotiC' men;

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EMBRY-EMMET

J80 that .British manufacture!!! were being
mtroduced on professedly neutral vessels.
Such tratlìc was extensively carripd on,
p!-pecially in :Kew England ports, where
magistrates were often leniently disposed
towards such violators of law. In a con-
fidential message (Dec. 9, 1813) the Presi-
dpnt recommended the passage of an em-
I.argo act to suppress the traffic, and one
pfissed both Houses on the 17th, to remain
ill force uhtil Jan. 1, 1815, unless the war
:;;hould sooner cease. It prohibited, under

e\"ere penalties, the exportation. or at-
Ì{'mpt at exportation, by land or water, of
any goods, produce, specie, or live-stock;
and to guard against evasions even th('
coast trade was entirely prohibited. This
bore hea vily on the business of some of
the Xew England sea-coast towns. Xo
transportation was allowed, e\"en on inland
waters. without special permission from
th(. President. While the act bore so
Ilf'avily on honest traders. it preUJ' efl'ect
ually stopped the illicit business of
,. "peculators, knaves, and traders. who en-
riehed themselves at the e
pense of the
c('mmunity." This act, like all similar
ones, was called a " terrapin policy"; and
illustrative of it was a caricature repre-

(Jlting a British vessel in the offing, some
men embarking goods in a boat on the
shore, and a stout man carr:ring a harrel rc!'idence at Concord, Mass.. and was a
of flour towards the boat, impeded by contributor to, and finally editor of, Th('
being seized by the seat of his pantaloons Diul, a quarterly magazine. and organ of
by an enormous terrapin, urged on by a the Kew England transcendentalists. He
man who cries out, " D-n it, how he nicks lin'd the quiet life of a literary man and
'em." The victim e""claims, "Oh! thL., philosoplwr for more than forty ypars.
cursed Ograbme! "-the lettprs of the last He published essays. popms, etc. Hp dipd
word, transposed, sppll embargo. This act in Concord. 1rass.. April 27. IRR2.
was rppealed in April, 1814. Emigrant Aid Company. f:;pp TIIA YElt.
Embry, JAMES CRAWFOIW. clergyman; Eu.
born of negro parents in Knox county, Emigration. See hnIIGRATIO
.
Ind., Xov. 2, lR:14; became a minister in Emmet, TllmlAs ADDIS, patriot; born
the African 11ethodist Episcopal Church in Cork, Jt-pland, April 24, liß:1; grad-
in 18û3; author of Condition and Pros- uated at Trinity College, Dublin: first
lìccts of the Colored .4.merican. studipd medicine, and then law. and wa:;;
Embury, PIIILTI'. clergyman: born in a(lmitted to the Dublin har in lifll. He
Ballygaran. Ireland.
ept. 21, 1729: eame bf.came a leadpr of the .\ssociation of rnit-
to Xew York in 17ÛO. and at the solicita- Pel Trishmpn. and was one of a general
tion of Barbara Hpck he began to hold c('mmittee whose ultimate obj('pt waR to
"'en-ices in his o\\"n house, and later on in secure the frppdom of Ireland from British
a rigging-loft. Thi!'! was the foundation rulp. \\ïth many of his associates. he was
of :\Iethodism in the United States. The arrested in 1798. a.nd for more than two
first :\Ipthodist church was built in .John ypars was eonfìnpd in Fort Georgp. Reot-
Street in 17G8. under the supf'Hision of land. His brotlwr Robert, afterward..
Embury. hp him!'lp]f working on thp build- e1lgagpd in thr !'amr eansp. \\"a
hangpd ill
2
-I

ing gratuitoufily. He died in Camden,
X. Y., in August, 1775.
Emerson, RALPH \YALDO, author;
lPaller of the transcendental school of
K. w England; born in Boston, 11ay 2:5,
IHO:3: graduated at Harvard in 1821;
taught school five vears. amI in 18:W was
lie('nsed to prea
h b)T the :Middlesex
(l'nitarian) AssociatIOn. In t}w wintpr
cf 18:3:3-34, after retuming from Europe.
he began the career of a lecturer and. es-
sayist. :\IarrJ"ing in 1:-\3:5, he fixed his

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EMMONS-EMUCFAU

Dublin in 1803. Thomas was liberated a.nd
banished to France after the treaty of
Amiens, the seyerest penalties being pro-
lIounced against him if he should return
to Great Britain. His wife was permitted
to join him, on condition that she should
never again set foot on British soil. He
eame to the Cnited States in 1804, and be-
eame yery eminent in his profession in the
city of Kew York. He was made attorney-
general of the State in 1812. A monu-
ment-an obelisk-was erected to his
memory in St. Paul's church-yard, Kew
York, on Broadway. He died in New
York, Koy. 14. ]82ï.
Emmons, GEORGE FO:-;TElt, na val officer;
born in Clarendon, Vt.. Aug. 23, 1811;
<:ntered the na,'y in 18

; took part in sey-
eral engagements during the
Iexican
War; serYed through the Civil \Var. and
in 1866 commanded the Ossipee, which
<'arried the "Cnited States commissioner:3
to Alaska for the purpose of hoisting the
American Hag over that region. He was
promoted rear-admiral in 1872; retired in
18ï3; author of The Nal/Y of the United
States from 1775 to 183.'1. He died in
Princeton, X. J., .July 2, 1884.
Emory, WILLIAM HEDISLEY, military
officer: born in Queen Anne's county,
'Id., Sept. D, 1S11; graduated at West
Point in 183]. He was appointed lien-
Ü.-nant of the topographical engineers July
7. 18:13; was aide to General Kearn)" in
California in 1 S-t6-47. and was made lieu-
tenant-cl)lon<>1.
ppt. 30, 1847. He was as-
trononwJ" to the commi"sion to determine
t he boundary hetween the enited Statps
and
lp'\.ieo. He was serving as captain
of ('andl)" in Mexico when the Civil \Var
hoke out, and hrought his command into
h:ansas in good order. In
Iay, 1861, he
was made lieutenant - colonel of the 6th
('a\alry; spn"ed in the campaign of 18fi2
in the Army of the Potomac, and wa.s made
hrigadier-general of volunteers in March
of that
"ear. He did good Rervice under
Banks in Louisiana, and under Sheridan
in the f;11Pnandoah Valle
". He was madp
('olonel of the 5th Cavalry in the fall of
18fi3; in 'Tench, ] R65, was brevetted brig-
adier-gení'ral and major-general of the
Cnited Sta te
arm.; and in ] 876 was rp-
tired with the f
Ii rank of hrigadier-
g-enera1. He died in \Yflqhington. D. ('.,
1)(11'. I, 1 flRi.

Emott, J4MES, jurist; born in Pough-
keepsie, N. Y., March 14, 1771; grad-
uated at Union College in 1800, and began
the practice of law at Ballston Centre, but
soon removed to Albany. He represented.
that district in the legislature in 1804. He
practised law a while in Kew York City,
and then returned t.o Poughkeepsie. He>
was in Congress from 180!) to 1813, and
was a leader of the Federal party therein.
He was again in the legislature (1814-17),
and was speaker of that body. From 1817
to 1823 he was first judge of Dutchess
county, and was judge of the second cir-
cuit from 1827 to 1831, when, in compli-
Il.nce with the then law of the State, that
plohibitf:d the holding of a judicial officp
by a citizen over sixty years of age, he re-
tired from public life with his intellect in
full vigor. He died in Poughkeepsie, April
10, 1850.
Empire State, a popular name given
to the State of Kew York, because it is
the most populous, wealthy, and politi-
cally powf'rful
tate in the Union. It
i" sometimes called the" Excelsior State;'
from the motto EXCELSIOR-" higher "-
OIl its seal and coat-of.arms. The cit
r of

ew York. its commercial metropolis.
pud the largpst city in the Union, is some-
times called the " Empire City."
Emucfau, BATTLE OF. On a bend in
the Tallapoosa River, in Alabama, was
a Creek village named Emucfau. Jack-
son. wit.h a considerable force, approaching
the place (Jan. 21, 1814). saw a \\."e11-
beaten trail and "OIlW prowling Indians.
and prppared his camp that night for an
attack. At six o'clock thp next morning
a party of Creek waHiors fell upou him
with great fury. !\.t dawn a vigorou,.;
cavalry charge was made upon the foe>
by General Coffee. Hlld they werp di,,-
pprsed. Coffee pur<,u..d the barharians
for 2 mileR with much "laughter. T}wn
R party was dpspatdlLd to destroy tll('
Indian encampment ct Emucfau. bllt it
\\ as found to be too strongly fortified to
he taken without artillery. When Cpffp('
ff'1l hack to guard approaching cannoll.
the Indians. thinking it was a retreat.
again fp1J upon Ja,
kf;,on. but, aftí'r a
Sf','ere Rtruggle. were rppulsed. Jackson
made no furthpr attempt to destro
thp
e>ncampment at Emucfau. He was a!"ton-
i!'hf'd at the prnweFl
of the Creek war-
2S

ENDICOTT-ENGINEERING

riors. In their retrograde movement
(J an. 24), the Tennesseeans were again
threa tened by the ! ndians, near Eno-
tochopco Creek. A 8evere engagement
soon ensued; but the Tennesseeans, hav-
ing plantcd a (;-pounder cannon on an
(.minence, poured a &torm of
rape-shot
on the Indians, which sent them J'elling
in all directions. The slaughter among
tÌle Indians was heavy, while that among
t]l(' white troops was comparatively
light. In the two engagements (Emucfau
and Enotochopco), J'ackson lost tv,;enty
killed and seventy-fivc wounded.
Endicott, Jo

, colonial governor;
born in Dorchpster, Eng]and, in 1.38!); was

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JOHS Jo;:\IJ/COT f.

sent hy the 1rassaehusptt8 Company to
superintend the plantation at K:unnkpag:
arriwd there
ept. ß (N. S.), and in
April ne'\.t year wa,; appointpd gon'rnor
of the colony, but wa
succeeded by John

Winthrop. Tn 1636 he was sent with
Captain l-llllerhill, with about ninety
mpn, on an expedition against Inllians
('n R]ock Island and. the Pequods. 1fr.
Endicott was deputy-governor of 1fassa-
chusetts se\ eral ycars, and also gO\ ern-
or, in which officc he died, March I:;.
](Hi.,. Bo]d, cnHg-dic, sincere, and
bigotf'd, he was the drongest of the Puri-
tans, and wa,., severe in the execution of
]a.w8 against those who dilfered from the
1'J"('vai]ing theology of the colony. He
was one of the most persistent persecut-
ors of the Quakers, and stood by unmo\'ed,
as go\'ernor, when they were hanged in
Boston; and so violent ,v
re his feelings
ag-ain!"t the Roman Catholics, and any-
thing that savored of ., popery," that he
caused the red cross ('f St. Gporge to he
cut out of the military standard. TIe
opposed long hair on mcn, and insisted
that the wonlf'n should use vei]s in public
assemblies. During his several adminis-
trations man
' were punished for the
slightest ofl"ences, and four Quakers were
hanged in Boston.
Endicott, \\'[LUA
[ C'HOWXIXSIIIELD,
jurist; horn in Salem, Ma.-s., Koy. ID,
IH
ï; graduatcd at Hanard in 1847; ad-
mitted to the har in I
.,O; appointed
judge of the
upreme Court of M,lssa-
ehusetts in IR73; hpcame Sperctary of
\Yar in 18R:;. .1udgp Endicott was a
])emocrat, and the unsuccessful candidate
(If his part.\' for gowrnor of 1fassachu-
sethi in IR84. His danghter. 1far
', mar-
ried .10scph Chamberlain. En)!lish colo-
nial Sf>Cl.ctary. He died in Boston, 11ay
G, 19UO.

ENGINEERING

Engineering. MR. TlHnJAS C. CLARKE
('1. "')' Past Presid('nt of the So('if't
r of
C'i\"il Enginef'rs. writp..; as foHows on the
!':uhject of pnginf'f'ring. with special rpfer-
cnc(' to AnlPri('nn pnginE'er!'! and tlll'ir
works in thf' ["nitpc1 Statf's.

Engineering is BomC'times divided into
cï,-il. military, a 1111 naval enginC'Pring.
Thf' lo
il'a] (']assifi('ation is: statical ('n-
ginel'ring' and dynamieal.
:-;tatica] cngineering can be again

divided into structural engineering, or
that of railways, bridges, tunnels, build-
ings, etc.; also, into hydraulic ('ngincer-
ing'. which governs tlH' app]ieation of wa-
tpr to ('ana]s, rivpr impro\'f'ments, harbor!'!,
t]w sIIPP]y of water to towns and for ir-
ri
ation, disposal of sf'wage, etc.
Dynamical enginet'ring ('an be c1ivid('d
into Jlwchanical eng-ineering, which cov-
ers the ('onst ruction of an prime motors,
Hlf' traw,mission of pow('r, and the use of
lII:u.hilJ('<': nnd IIHu.hinp tool!'!. C]m;p]y al-
sllll- lipd is deetril'a I l.nginl'('ring, the art of
236

ENGINEERING

the transformation and transmission of The swivelling-truck aud t'flualizing-ht'<uu
energy for traction, lighting, telegraphy, f'nahled our f'ngÏJws to run safely on tracks
telephoning, operating machinery, and where the rigid European engines would
many other uses, such as its electrolytic. soon ha"e been in the ditch.
application to ores and metals. Our cars were made longf'r, and by the
Then WE have the combined application use of longitudinal framing much stronger.
of statical, mechanical, and electrical en- A great cconomy came from the use of
gineering to what is now called indus- annealf'd cast-iron wheels. It was soon
trial engineering, or the production of sef'n that longer CaI'S would carry a great-
articles useful to man. This may be di- H proportion of paying load, and the
vided into agricultural, mining, metal- 1I101"f' cars that one engine could draw in
lurgical, and chemical engineering. a train. the less would be the cost. It
Structural Enginel'ring.-This is the was not until the invention by Bessemer
oldest of all. We have not been able to in lR()4 of a 8teel of quality and cost
surpass the works of the past in grandeur that made it available for rails that much
or durahilit
-. The pyramids of Egypt heavier cars and locomotives could be
still stand. and will stand for thousands u
ed. Then came a rapid increase. As
of yea}";;. Roman bridges. aquf'ducts, and soon as Bessemer rails were made in this
se\nrs stilI perform their duties. Joseph's country, the cost fell from $175 per ton to
canal stilI irrigate.;; lower Egypt. The $50, and now to $
6.
great wall of China, running for 1,500 Before that timE a wooden car wf'ighed
miles over mountains and plains, con- 16 tons, and could carry a paying load of
tains 150,000,000 cubic yards of ma te- 15 tons. The 30-ton engines of those days
daIs and is the greatest of artificial could not draw on a level over thirty cars
works. Ko modern building compares in weighing 900 tons.
grandeur with St. Peter's, and the me- The pressed steel car of to-day weighs
diæval cathedrals shame our puny imita- no more than the wooden car. but carries
tions. a paying load of fiO tons. The heaviest
Railu:oys. - The greatcst engineering engines have now drawn on a lenl fifty
wOl.k of the nineteenth centurv was the steel cars, weighing 3,750 tons. In the
df'vclopmcnt of the railway system which one case the paying load of an engine was
has changed the face of the world. Be- 4.'}0 tons; now it is 2.500 tons.
ginning in IS2f1 with the locomotive of Steep grades soon developed a better
George
t('phcnson, it has extended with brake systf'm. and thf'se heavier trains
such strides that, after seventy years, have led to the invention of the auto-
therc are 4fj(ì.000 milf's of railways in the matic brake workcd from the engine, and
world, of which If10.000 miles a;'e in the also automatic couplers-, saving time and
('nitecl Statf's. Their co
t is f'stimated at many lives. The capacity of our rail-
$40.000.000.000. of which
10.000.000,OOO ways has been greatly increased by the
hf'long to the Pnited States. use of electric block-signals.
The rapidity with which railways are The perfecting of both the railway and
huilt in the United States and Canada con- its rolling-stock has If'd to remarkable
trasts strongly with what has hecn done r('sults.
in other countries. \hwh has hef'n wdt- In ISfI!} Poor givcs the total height ton-
ten of the energy of Russia in building nage at 9ï5,iR!},fl41 tons, and the freight
3,000 miles of
iberian railway in five rf'eeipts at
fI
2.436.314, or an average
or six ycars. In the rnited Statf'S an ratf' ppr ton of 9.') ('pnt
. Had the rates
average of 6.147 miles was completf'd f'V- of 1867 prevailf'(l. the adllitional yearly
('ry year during ten successiYe
nars. and f'ost to the public would ha\"C hf'en $4.27!J,-
in lRR7 there were built 12.flH2 miles. 000.000, or sul1icient to replace the
Thf'v werc built economicallv. anll at first whole railway sy.,tem in two and a half
in
ot as solid a manner a
those of Eu- years. This much can surely be said:
rope. Stceper gradients. sharper curves, the reduction in cost of orerfitin
our
find lighter rails were used. This ren- railways, and the consequent fall in freight
dered nf'cessary a difl'erent kind of roll- rates, have been potf'nt factor!". in enabling
ing-!=Itock suitable to such construction. tlH' t:'nited Statf's 10 st'ud abroad last
237

ENGINEERING

."
r $l,
6,OUO,UOO worth uf cÀports and such it ii, i! 50 per cent. !tru1J,þ6lf tLa n
flood the world with our food and manu- iron, and can be tied in a knot when
factured products. cold.
Bridge Building. - In early da
's the The eUed of improved devices and the
building of a bridge was a matter lIse of stcel is shown by the weights of the
(If great ceremony, and it wa" <.-onse- <lOO-foot Ohio River iron bridge, built
(:ratcd to protcct it from evil spirits. Its in 1870, and a bridge at the same place,
<'-(lnstruction was controlled by priests, as Imilt in 1886. The bridge of 1870 was of
the titlc of the Pope of Rome, .. Pontifex iron, with a span of 400 feet. The bridgt'

Jaximus," indicates. of IS86 was of steel. Its span was 55U
Railwa
's changed all this. Instead of feet. The weight:; of the two were nearl
'
the picturesque stone bridge, whose long alike.
line of low ar<.-hes harmonized with the The cantilever dEsign, which i", a revi-
landscape, there came the straight girder val of a very andent type, came into
or high truss, ugly indeed, but quickly use. The great Forth Bridge, in Scot-
built, and costing much less. land, l,ûOO-foot f;pan, is of this style, as
Bridge construction has made greater are the 500-foot spans at Poughkeepsie,
progress in the "Cnited States than abroad. and now a new cne is being designed to
'::l'he heavy trains that we have described cross the St. Lawrence near Queb{'c, of
called for stronger bridges. The large I,SOO-foot span. This is probably near
American rolling-stock is not us{'d in Eng- the economic limit of cantilever con-
land, and but little on the continent of struction.
Europe, as the width of tunnels and other The suspension bridge can be extendcd
obstac1es will not allow of it. It is said much farther, as it carries no dead weight
that there is an average of one bridge for of compression mcmberf;.
{'V{'Q' 3 miles of railway in the United The 1\iagara Suspension Bridge, of 810-
States, making 63,000 bridges, most of foot span, built by Roebling. in 18.')2, and
which have been replaced by new and t he :Brooklyn Bridge, of I,GOO f{'ct, built
stronger ones during the last twenty by Roebling and his son, twenty years af-
years. This demand has brought into ex- ter, marked a wonderful advance in bridge
istence many bridge - building companies, design. The same lines of construction
some of whom make the whole bridge, will be followed in the 2.íOO-foot span.
from the ore to the finished product. d{'signed to cross the Korth I:.inr somc
Defore the advent of railways, highway time in the present century. The only
bridges in America were made of wood, radical advance is the usp of a better stc{'1
and ca))cd truss<,s. The coming of rail- than could bc had in earlier days.
ways J"('quired a stronger type of bridge Steel-arched bridgc.s are now scientifical-
to carry concentrated loads, and the Howe Iy designed. Such are the new Niagara
truss, 'with vertical iron rods, was in- Bridge, of 840-foot span, and the Alex-
vented, capable of ISO-foot spans. andra Bridgp at Paris.
About 1868 iron bridges began to take That which marks more clearly than
the placp of wooden bridges. One of anything else the great ad,-ance in Ame,'-
t he first long-span bridges was a single- ican bridge building, during the last
track railway bridge of 400 - foot span forty years. is the reconstruction of the
over the Ohio at Cincinnati, which was famous Victoria Bridg('. o\"('r the
t. Law-
("onsiùered to be a grcat achievement in rence, above Montreal. This brid
e was
1870. designed by Robert Stephenson, and Hit'
The Kinzua viaduct. 310 f('et high and stone piers are a monument to his engi-
over half a mile long. belongs to this neering skill. For forty winters they
era. It is the type of the numerous high have resistpd the grcat fiplds of ice borne
viaducts now so common. by a rapid current. Their dimensions
About 1885 a new material was given were so liberal that the new bridge was
to eng-ineers, having greater strength and put upon them, although four timel as
tenacity than iron, and commercially wide R! the old one.
avai1nble from ita low COlt. Thi. i. ba- The luperatructure was or1ginally made
sic'
teel. Thi!i1 new chemiral metal, for of plate-tron tub('s, reinforced by tees and
2
R

ENGINEERING

angles, bimilar to
tephenson'8 Menai petition. Miatak8f! mean ruin, and the
Straits Bridge. There are twenty - two fittest only survives.
spans of 240 feet each, and a central one The American system gives the great-
of 330 feet. Est possible rapidity of erection of the
It was decided to build a new bridge of bridge on its piers. A span of 518 feet,
open-work construction and of open-hearth weighing 1,000 tons, was erected at Cairo
steel. This was done, and the comparison on the Mississippi in six da,ys. The parts
is as follows: Old bridge, lû feet wide, were not assembled until they were put
:-oingle track, live load of one ton per foot; upon the false works. European engi-
new bridge, 67 feet wide, two railway neers have sometimes ordered a bridge to
tracks and two carriage-ways, liYe load be riveted together complete in the maker's
of 5 tons per foot. ,yard, and then taken apart.
The old iron tuLes weighed 10,000 tons, The adoption of American work in such
cost $2,713,000, and took two seasons to bridges as the Atbara in South Africa,
erect. The new truss bridge weighs 22,000 the Gokteik viaduct in Burmah, 320 feet
tons, has cost $1,400,000, and the time of high, and others, was due to low cost,
construction was one year. quick delivery and erection, as well as ex-
The modern high office building is an eellence of material and construction.
interesting ('xample of the evolution of a Poundations, etc. - Bridges must have
high-viaduct pier. Such a pier of the re- foundations for their piers. "Cp to the
qui red dimensions, strengthened by more middle of the nineteenth century engi-
columns strong enough to carry many neers knew no better way of making them
Hoors, is the skeleton frame. Enclose the than by laying bare the bed of the river
sides with brick, stone, or terra-cotta. add by a pumped-out cofferdam, or by driving
windows, and doors, and elevators, and it pilps into the sand, as Julius Cæsar did.
is complete. About the middle of the century, M.
Fortunately for the stability of these Triger, a French engineer, conceived the
high buildings, the effect of wind pressures first plan of a pneumatic foundation.
had been studied in this country in the which led to the present system of co 111-
designs of the Kinzua, Pecos, and other pressing air by pumping it into an in-
lligh viaducts. verted box, called a caisson, with air locks
The modern elevated railway of cities on top to enaLle men and ,materials to go
is simply a very long railwaJ- viaduct. in and out. After the soft materials were
Some idea may be gained of the life of removed, and the caisson sunk by its own
a modern rivetf'd-iron structure from the weight to the proper depth, it was filled
experience of the :l\Ianhattan Ele\"ated with concrete. The limit of depth is that
Railway of Xew York. These roads were in which men can work in compressed air
built in IS78-7B to carry uniform loads without injury, and this is not much
of 1,600 lhs. per lineal foot, except Second owr 100 feet.
_\venu('. which was made to carry 2,000. The foundations of the Brooklyn and
The stres!o,('s wcre below 10,000 lhs. per St. Louis bridges were put down in this
!'quare inch. mannf'r.
These viaducts have carried in twenty- In the construction of the Poughkeep-
two years over 25,000,000 trains, weighing sie bridge over the Hudson in 1887-88.
o\-er 3,000,000,000 tons, at a maximum it became neeessary to go down 135 fept
spef'd of 2.; miles an hour, and an' still below tide-level before hard hottom was
in good order. reached. Another process was invented
'Ye have now great bridge companies, to take the place of compressed air. Tim-
",hidl are so completely equipped with ap- ber caissons were built, having double
vliancf's for both shop drawings and con- sides, and the spaces between them filled
struction that the old joke becomes almost with stone to give weight. Their tops
true that they can make bridges and sell were left open and the American single-
them hy the mile. bucket dredge was used. This bucket was
All improvements of design are now pub- lcwered and lifted by a very long wire
He property. All that the bridge compa. rope worked by the engine, and with it
nics do is done in the fierce light of com- the 80ft material was removed. Th(' in.
23D

ENGINEERING

Ìf'rnal
pal'e \\as then tilled with concrete but the favorite type now is that of
Ilh-
laid under water by the same bucket, and wa,Ys. There are two kinds, those near
levelled by divers when necessary. the surface, like the District railways of
'Yhile this work was going on, the gov- London, the subways in Paris, Berlin. amI
('rnment of Kew South \Vales, in Austra- Boston, and that now building in Xew
lia, called for hoth designs and tenders for "\ urk. The South London and Central
a bridge over an estuary of the sea called London, and other London projects, art>
Hawkesbury. The conditions were the tubes sunk 50 to 80 feet helow the sur-
same as that at Poughkeepsie, except that face and requiring elevators for access.
the sott mud reached to a depth of 1 GO The C'onstruction of the Roston !'Iubway
feet below tide-level. was difficult on account of the F>mall
The designs of the engineers of the width of the streets, thf'ir great tramc.
}>oughkeepsie bridge were accepted, and and the necesbity of underpinning the
the same method of sinking open caissons foundations of buildings. All of this was
(in this case made of iron) was carried snccf'ssfu]]
' done without disturbing the
out with perfect succ('s:-;. traffic for a single day, and reflects great
The erection of this bridge involved an- credit on the engineer. Owing to the
other difficult problem. The mud was too great width of New York streets, the
soft and deep for piles and staging, and problem is
impler in that respect. AI-
the cantilever system in this site would though many timelii as long as the Boston
have increased the cost. f;ubway, it wiII be built in nearly the
The solution of the problems presented same time. The design, where in earth,
at Hawkesbury gave the !;econd introduc- may be compared to that of a steel office
tion of American engineers to bridge building 20 miles long, laid flat on one of
building outside of America. The first its sides.
was in 1786. when an _-\merican carpenter The construction of power-houses for
or shipwri
ht built a bridge over Charles developing energy from coal and from
Hiver at Boston, 1,470 feet long by 46 falling water requires much engineering
feet wide. This bridge was of wood sup- ability. The Kiagara power-house is in-
ported on piles. His work gained for t('nded to develop 100.000 horse - power;
him such reno\\n that he was called to that at the Sault Step )Iarie as much; that
Ireland and built a similar bridgc at on the St. T.Jawrence, at :\Jassena. 70.000
Belfast. horse-power. These are huge works, re-
Tunnelling by compressed air is a hori- qlliring tunnels. rock-cut chambers, Rnd
zontal application of compressed-air foun- masonry and concrete in walls and dams.
dations. The earth is supported by an The
T cover large extents of territor
T.
iron tube, which is added to in rings, - The contrast in size of the coal-using
which are pushed forward by h
'draulic power-hous('s is int('resting. The new
jacks. pow('r-house now huilding hy th(' :\[anllat-
A tunnel is now being made under an tan Elevated Railway, in N('w York, ,1('-
arm óf the sea between Boston and East velops in the small spac(' of 200 by 400
Boston, som(' 1,400 feet long and Gj feet fe('t 100.000 horse-power. or R!' nl11l'h pow-
helow tid('. The interior lining of iron er as that utilized fit Xiagara Fal!s.
tubing is not uscd. Th(' tunnel is built of One of the most useful materials which
('onen-te. reinfo)"('ed by stl'el rods. Rucc('
s modern engin('crs now make u!'c of i
con-
in modern ('nginef'l"ing means doing a crete, which can h(' put into ('onfined
thing in the most economical way consist- f:paces and laid 111111('r W:1 tf'r. It e'osts l('!'s
ent with safety. Had the North River than masonry. while' as !-.trong. This is
tunnel, at Kew York, been designed on tht' rc,'ival of the u!'e of a material used
('qual1y scif'ntific prineiples it would prob- h,\' th(' Homans. The writer \Va!; once al-
ahly have been finished, which now seems lowed to climb a ladder and look at the
problematical. construction of the dome of the Pantheon,
The construction of rapid - transit rail- at Rome. He found it a monolithic mass
ways in cities is another branch of engi- of cone'rete, and hence without thrust. It
neering. Some of these railways Rre ele- i:-; a bptter piece of engin{1pring <;on!'truc-
vated, and are merely railway viaducts. tion than the Jome of ::;t. Peter's, built

lJ

ENGINEERING

1,500 years later. The dome of Columbia to dig the sand with rude hoeiS, and carry
College Library, in New York, is built of it away in baskpts on their heads. They
concrete. died by thousands for want of water and
Hydraulic Engineering.-This is one of proper food. At last the French enginecrs
the o1dest branches of engineering, and persuaded the Khedive to let them in-
was developed he fore the last century. troduce steam dredging machinery. A
The irrigation works of Asia, Africa. li
ht railway was laid to supply pro-

pain, Italy, the Roman aqueducts, and visions, and a small ditch dug to bring-
the canals of Europe, are examples. Hy- pure water. The mnnher of men em-
(h aulic works mnnot be constructed in ployed fen to one-fourth.
Iachinery did
ignorance of the laws which govern the the rest. But for this the canal would
tiow of water. The action of water is re- npver have been finished.
l
ntle
s, as ruined canals, obiStructed The l'anama Canal now uses the l)('st
ri ,'ers, and wa
hed-out dams testi f.v. modern machinery, and the Nicaragua
The remoyal of sewage, after having Canal, if built, will apply still better
bcen done by the Etruscans before the methods, developed on the Chicago drain-
foundation of Home, became a 10Rt art age canal, where material was handled at
during tll(' dirty Dark A
es, when tilth a less cost than has ever been done be-
and piety were deemed to be connectpd in fore.
some my"terious way. It was rpspn'pd for The Erie Canal "as one of very small
good .John "'esley to point out that co
t. but its influence has been surpasspd
.. Clpanliness is next to g-odliness:' Xow by none. The" winning of the \\,pst" was
sewage works are as common as those hastened many
'ears by the construction
for water supply. Some of them have of this work in thp first quarter of the
been of great size and cost. Such are the century. Two horses were just able to
drainage works of London. Paris, Berlin, draw a ton of goods at the speed of 2
Boston, Chicago, and Kpw Orlpans.
\ miles an hour over the wrctphed roadg
wry difJicult work was the drainage of of those days. \\'hcn the canal was made
the City of l\Iexieo, whieh is in a ,'alley thesp two horses could draw a boat carr
T-
surrounded by mountains, and eleyated ing 1.')0 tons .{ miles an hour.
only 4 or i) feet above a lake haying no The Erie Canal ,,-as made by en
ineers,
outlet. Attempts to drain thp lake had but it had to make its own eJ).gineers first,
hpen made in vain for GOO years. It has as there were none available in this coun-
lately been accomplishpd by a tumwl (j try at that time. These self-taught men,
milps long through the mountains. anù a some of them land surveyors and others
canal of o\"pr 30 miles, the whole work lawycrs, showed themsel\'eS the equals of
co"ting some $20.000,000. the Englishnlf'n Brindley and Smeaton,
The drainage of Chicago by locks amI when they located a watcr route through
canal into the IlJinois River has cost Rome the wilderness. having a uniform dpseent
$3;').000.000, and is weIl worth its <,os1. from Lake Erie to the Hudson. and whieh
Scipntilìc research has been applif'd to would have been so built if Ul('re had b('..n
the dpsigning of high masonry and POI1- enough money.
crete dams, and we know now that no There should he a waterway from thf'
weIl-df'signl'd dam on a good foundation Hudson to Lake Erie large enough for Yf'S-
Sh011ld fail. Th(> dams now building sels able to navigate the lakes and tll('
across the Kile hy order of tJl(' British ocean. A ùraft of 21 fl'et can be had at
gowrnment will crpatp the largest arti- :t eost estimated at $200.000.000.
ficial lakes in tll(' world. The ùeepf'nin,!Z of the Chie:lgo drainage
The Sue7. Canal is onp of tJl(' largest h
T- ('anal to thc )[ississil'pi Hi,'p,". and the
draulic works of the last century, and is d(.epening of the Mississippi itsplf to the
a notable instanpe of HI(' llisplacement of <1ulf of l\Ipxico, is a logical spquence of
haml lahor by the use of machinery. Is- the first project. The Nicaragua Canal
maïl began by impressing a large part of would then form onp part of a great line
the pf'asant population of Egypt, just as of navigation, by which the products of
Rameses had done over :.LOOO vpars bp- the interior of the l'ontinpnt couId reach
fore. These unfortunate people' were set either the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean.
ITT.-Q 241

ENGINEERING

The co!--t \\ouId he small compared \\ ith ill
engines; a/:'o
t(-<lIll and water tur-
the resulting hCll('fits. and some day this hil1('S, wind-mills, and waxe-motors.
na\-igation wilJ be built by the goyernnwnt It comprises all means of transmitting
of the Cnited ::::;tat(s. 1'ower, as by shafting, rop('g, pneumatic
The deepening of the Southwest Pass of pressure. and comprt':-sed air. all of which
the !\Iis:,;issippi River from û to 30 feet seem likel:r to be superseòed b.v ('Iectrieity.
h,y Janu's H. Eads was a gr('at engineer- It cm'ers the construction of maehil\l'
ing aehiewnwnt. It was the first ap- tOOIR and machinery of all kinds. It en.
plication of the jetty system on a large t('rs into all the process('s of l'òtrueturaI.
(;('ale. This is merely confining the flow h
'draulic. el('ctrical, and industrial engi-
of a rin-r, and thus increaRing its yelocity lJeering. The special improw'ments are:
so that it secures a deeper channel for The almost universal use of rotar,y motion.
itself. and of the reduplication of parts.
The imprm'ement of harbors follows The steam-engine is a machine of r('-
closelj' the inereas('d size of ocean and lake cipro('ating. converted into rotary. motion
Yessels. The approach to Xew York Har- L,r the crank. The progress of lJ1('chanieal
bor is now being deepened to 40 feet, engineering during the ninetet-nth century
a thing im1'osRible to be done without the is measurf'd by the improvements of 01('
largest application of steam machinery steam-engine, principally in the direction
in a suction dredge boat. of saving fuel, by th(' invention of internal
The Croton Aqueduct of Kew York was combustion or gas-engines, the application
thought by its designers to be On a scale of electrical transmission, and, latest. the
large enough to last for aU time. It is practical development of steam turbines
now less than sixty years old, and the by Parsons. 'Yestinghouse, Delaval, Cur-
population of New York will soon be too tis, and others. In theRe a jet of steam
large to be supplied by it. It is able impinges upon buckets set upon the cÏr-
to supply 230,000.000 to 300,000.000 gal- cumf('rence of a \\"11('('1. Their adyantages
Ions daily, and its cost, wh('n the Cornell are that their motion is rotary and not
dam and .Jerome Park res<.'l"Voir are fin- reciprocal. They can dcnlop speed of
ished, will be a little oyer $02,000.000. from :5.000 to 30,000 revolutions per min-
It is now sugg<.'sted to store water in ute, while the highest ever attained by a
the Adirondack :!\Iountains, 203 miles r('ciprocating engine is not oyer 1.000.
away, by dams built at the outl('t of ten Thcir thermodynamic loss<.'s are l<.'ss, h<.'nce
or twelve lakes. This will equalize the they consume less "team and less fuel.
flow of the Hudson Riyer so as to give Duplication of parts has lowered the
3,000,000.000 to 4,000,000.000 gallons cost of aU products. Clothing is one of
daily. It is then proposed to pump these. The parts of ready-made garments
1,000,000.000 gallons daily from the and shoes are now cut into shape in num-
Hudson River at Poughkeepsie, GO miles bers at a time. hy sharp-edged templates,
away, to a height sufficient to supply and then fastened together by sewing-
New York City by grayity through an machines.
aqueduct. )f('ehanieal enginpering is a good exam-
If this scheme is carried out, the total pIe of ill('
urvival of the fittest. )Iillions
supply will be about 1,300.000,000 gallons of dollars are expended on machinery,
daily, or enough for a population of from \\ hen sudd<.'nly n new discovery or in-
12,000,000 to 13.000,000 ppr80ns. TIf put- wntion casts them all into the scrap heap,
ting in more pnmps, filt('r-beds, and con- to bp replaced by those of greater earning
duits, this supply can he incrPRs<.'d 40 capacit
r.
per cent., or to 1,
OO.OOO,OOO gallons daily. Prime motors deriye th('ir energy {'ither
'This is a fair nample of the scale of the from coal or otll('r eombinations of ear-
engineering works of the nineteenth and bon. such a.s petroleum. or from gravity.
twentieth centuries. This may come from falling water, anrl
l[cchaniral F:nainrerin!J. - This is em- the old - fashionpd water - wheels of thp
ployed in all dynamical engineering. It eighteenth c<.'ntury were supHspdpd in tht>
covers the designs of prime motors of all nineteenth by turbines. first inventpd in
sorts, steam, gas, and gasoline reciproeat- Franee and since greatly pprfpC'tf>d. 'fhe!õ\e
24

ENGINEERING

are used ill tilt' elcdrical transllli
sion of will ('ome from }lulnri/.ing ('oal anù using
water-power at Xiagara of .3,000 hors('- it in till' Shi'lw of a fine )Jmnlpr. Imcn-
power, and form a yerr important part of tiolls June III'('n mad(' trying to delin'l"
the plant. this 1'o\\'ùpr into the til"f'-hox as fast as
The other gravity motors are wind- made, for it is as expJosi,-e as gunpowder,
mills and wan-motors. '''ind-mills are
Ind as dangerous to store or handle. If
an old invention, but han been greatly this can bp done, tlwrl' will be a saving of
imprond in the "Unitpd f:;tates by the use coal due to perfect and smokeless combu,;;-
of the self-reefing wheel. The great plains tion. as the admission of air can be en-
of the 'Yest are subject to sudden, violent tirely r('gulated, the salll(' blast whiC'h
gales of wind. anù unless the wheel was throws in the powder furnishing oxygen.
automatically self-reefing it would often Some im'estigators han' pstimated that
he destroyed. the !'mving of coal will be as great V:-.
Thpre haye l)('en yast numlwrs of patents
o per epnt. This mpans 100,000,000 tons
taken out for \Va ,'e-motors. One was in- of coal è1llntullly.
H
ntt'd in Chile, South America, which _\notllPr pl'Ohlpm of mechanical engi-
furnislwd a constant power for four neering is to determine whether it will
month",. and was utilized in sawing planks. bp found more economical to transform
The action of waves is more constant on the energy of coal, at the mines, into
the Pacific coast of America than else- electric current and send it by wire to
where, and some auxiliary power, such as cities and other places where it is wanted.
a gasoline engine, which can be quickly or to carry the coal by rail and water, as
startcù anù stoppeù, must be provided for we now do, to such places, and convert it
use during calm da
's. The prime cost there by the steam or gas engine.
of such a machine need not exceed that Metallurgy and .Jlining.-All the proc-
of a steam plant, anù the cost of operat- esses of metallurgy and mining employ
ing is much less than that of any fuel- statical, hydraulic, mechanical, and elec-
burning engine. The saying of coal is a trical engineering. Coal, without rail-
\"Cry important problcm. In a wider sense, ways and canals, would be of little use,
we may say that the saying of all the great unless electrical engineering came to its
stores which nature has laid up for us aid.
during the past, and which han remained It was estimated by the late Lord Arm-
,llmost untouched until the ninetecnth c('n- strong that of the 450.000,000 to 500.000,-
tury. is the great prohlf'm of to-day. (100 tons of coal annually produced in the
Petroleum and natural gas may disap- world. one-third is used for stpam produc-
ppar. Thp or('s of gohl. sj1,'pr, and plat- tion. one-third in mptallurgical processes,
inmn will not last fOl"l""cr. Trpes will anù one-thinl for domestic consmul'tion.
grow. and iron orps !,;f'PTl1 to hI' practically Xc",t in importance comes the produc-
inpxhanstibl('. (,llPl1Ii,.;t r
' hn" add('d a tion of iroJl and !'itcpl.
t('el. on aeeount
ncw metal in aluminum. wh1('h r('pl
H'ps of its gn.at co",t and hrittleJl(''';'';. was only
('opppr for m[lny purpoH's. Onp of the ww,1 for too's and special purposes until
!:,rf'at('st prohlpms of thp twpnti('th ('('n- past HI(' middle of thc nilwtcpnth cen-
tury i,.; to disco\"pr somp ehemif'al process tury. This has Iwen all changed by the
for treating- iron. h.\" whieh oxidation will inwntion of his stepl hy Bessemer in lR04.
IIOt take place. and oppn-Iwarth sh'pl in tIw furnace of
('oal. ne'I..Ì to grain. is the most impor- Sif'ltIf'ns. Pf'rfpcÜ'" some Ì\nnty years
1 [lnt of nature's gifts: it can 1)(' e",ha ust- sin('p h\" Gilchrist & Thomas.
ed. or the cost of minin:r it h('cOille so TI1P 'United Stat('s ha,'p takpn the lead
g-reat that it cannot 11(' obtainp,1 in thp in st('el manufacture. In IH73 Great
('oulltries where it is most npedt.,,: watpr, Britain made thrce timps as much st('el
wind. and waYe power ma
' t[lke its placp as the rnitpd Stat('s. Xow the United
to a limited extpnt, and greatcr use may
tat('s makes twice as much as Great
be made of the waste gases eoming from Britain. or 40 per cent. of all the 8te('1
Þlast or smelter furnaces. but as nearly made in the world.
all ('n('rg-y comes from coal, its usP must 1\[r. Carnegie has explained the reaSOJl
be t'('onomiz('d. and thc greatest eeonomy why, in ('pig-rammatic phrase: U Three

43

ENGINEERING

lLs. of steel billets can be sold for 2 Without tracing the steps \, hich have led
cents." to it, we may say that the common type
This stimulates rail and water traffic is what is called "the LimIer," and is a
and other industries. as he tells us 1 lb. machine drawn chiefly by animals. and in
of steel requires 2 Ibs. of ore, PI. lbs. of bome cases by a field locomotive.
coal, and l/S lb. of limestone. It cuts, rakes, and binds shpans of
It is not surprising, therefore, that the grain at one operation. Sometimes
States bordering on the lakes haye created threshing and winno\\ ing machines an'
a traffic of 2;).000,000 tons :yearl
' through combined with it, and tilt:' gnlin is deli,'-
the
ault Step )Iarie Canal, while the Suez, ered into bags ready for the market.
which supplies the wants of half the pop- Different machines arf' IIst'd for cutting-
ulation of the world, has on1v ;.000,000, and binding corn, and for mowing and
or less than the tonnage of th
little lIar- raking hay, but the most important of all
lem Iti,'er at Xew York. i" the grain-bindpr. The pÜpnt of their
Industrial Enginecring.-This leads us llse may be known from the fa(.t that
to our last topic, for which too little ;;;,000 tons of twine are u,;ed b,\' these
room has been left. Industrial engineering machines annua lI
T.
('overs statical, hydraulic. mechanical, and It i
estimated t hat there an' in tl)('
electrical engineering, and adds a new l'nited
tah's 1.;";00.000 of tlwse maehilws,
hranch which we may call ch('mical engi- but as the hane,;t is earlipr in the South,
Jleering'. This is pn,-pminently a child of there arc prohably not o\"er 1.000,000 in
the ninf'tppnth cpntury. and is the C011\"er- use at on(' tim('. .\s e"eh machine takes

ion of one thing into another by a knowl- the plae(' of sixtc('n men, this J1leans that
(-dge of their chemi('al constituents. lû,OOO.Oon I11en are released from fanning
\\"hf'n Halton first applied mathematics for other pursuits.
to chemistry and mad(' it quantitative. he It is fair to assume that a larg(' part
gan tht' ker which I('d to the discoveries of these w.ono.ooo I11f'n han' gonp into
of {'an'ndish. Uay-Lu!-:-.ac, Berz('lius, Lie- manufacturing. the operating of railways.
Lig. and otlu.rs. This n('w knowl('dge wa.; and other pursuits. The use of agricult-
not loeked up, hut at onee rivpn to the ural maehil1f'r
', th('rpfor('. is one px:plana-
world. and made use of. Its :first appli- tion of why thp LTnited Rhltps prodtu"('s
("ation on a 1:"r
e spale was made by Na- eight - tenths of the WOl.I,!"S ('otton and
l,ol('on in encouraging the manufacture of corn. one-quart('r of its wlwat. one-third
sugar f]'OHl heets. of iÌ!
m('at and iron. two-fifths of itr-;
The np\\" prodl1('ti> \\"('re g'pn('rally made :-:;t('el, anel on('-thinl of its ('oa1. Rnd a larg p
from what \\"ere called" waste materiaL" part of the worhl's manufa('tur('d goods.
\Ye now have 01(' manufacture of soda, ('onc1w
ion. - It is a Yf'rV intHPsting
hleachin
powders. a])ilin(' dyes, and oth('r qupstion, why was th;s
r('a1 df>"f'lopllwnt
products of the distillation of coal, also of material pro<;T)prit
. df' l a'T('d so latf'?
coal-oil from petrol('um. acetylene gas, cel- \"hy did it wait until tlw nin('t('pnth
lu1oid, ruhhpr goo(ls in all t}wir numer- ('('ntury. amI thf'n all at once Ì1wrpa"e with
OllS ,'ari('ti('s, high ex:plosivps. epment, arti- 8udl rapid stridf'!"!
facial manurf's. artificial ice, lw('t-sugar, It was not until modf'rn times that th(.
and eyen bf'('r may now he indml('d. rpign of law was grf'atlv e:\.tend('d. Ilud
The yalt\(' of our n1('('\lanieal and chem- mf'n \\'f'r(' insurf'd th(' product of t1wir
ieal products iR ::rf'at. hnt it is surpass('d labors. Tlwn cam(' the union of f\ci('ntists,
hy that of food proeluets. If these did inn.ntors. and pn!rin('el"!'<.
110t k('pp pace with thf' in('rease of pop- So Ion!! as thp,;(' 1hr('f' cla
spq \\"orkpd
ulation. thp th('ories of ]\falthu<; would be sf'pnratf'l.\' hnt little was donp. Tlu'rl' was
tru('--bllt he nl'\'l'r saw a 111011('rn rf'appr. an '1.ntag-onisl11 l)('tw('('n th('m. .\n('i('nt
The stf'am-plol1
h was in\('ntl'ò ;n Eng- writ('rs ,nnt so far a8 to say that the in-
land some fift
.
Tpars "in('f', ,.ut t1w !!'r('at ,-pntion of tJl(' areh :111<1 of tJw pott('r's
URe of agri('ultural maehiuf'r
' dat('s from ,,11('('1 w('r(' hpn('ath the dignity of a I'hi-
our Civil '''ar. ",h('n !'o manr nwn were losoph('r.
t.aken from agriculture. It lweamf' upef'S- One of th(' fir!'lt gr('at mpn to take a dif-
sary to fill their places with machinery. ferent view was Francis Bacon.
faeau-
244

ENGINEERING

lay, in his famous essay, quotes him as
!;,ayiug: "Philosophy is the relief of man's
estate, and the endowment of the human
race with new powers; increasing their
pleasures and mitigating their sufferings."
These noble words seem to anticipate the
famous definition of civil engineering. em-
bodied by Telford in the charter of the
British Institution of Civil Engineers:
,. Engineering is the art of controlling
the great powers of nature for the use and
convcnience of man."
The seed sown by Bacon was long in
producing fruit. Lntil the laws of nature
were better known. then' could be no prac-
tical application of them. Towards the
end of the eighteenth century a gTeat in-
tellectual revival took place. In litera-
ture appeared Yoltaire. Rousscau, Kant,
Hume, and Goethe. In pure science there
came Lap]ace, Cavendish, Lavoisier. Lin-
næus, Herze] ius, Priestley, Count Rum-
ford, .James '''att, and Dr. Franklin. The
last three were Lmong the earliest to bring
about a union of pure and applied science.
Franklin immediately applied his discov-
C'ry that frictional electricity and light-
ning were the same to the protection of
Imildings by lightning-rods. Count Rum-
ford (whose experiments on the com'er-
sion of power into heat led to the dis-
cO\"ery of the conservatism of energy)
spent a long life in contriving useful in-
w'ntions.
James "-att. one of the few men who
han unit('d in themseh'es knowledge of
abstract science. great im'entin faculties.
and rare mechanical skill. changC'd the
steam-C'ngin(' from a worthless rattletrap
into the most l1"dul machine eVer im'C'nt-
ed by man. To ,10 this he first dis('()nred
the sciencf' (\f t}wrmod:,'namics, then in-
"ented the necessary appliances. and final-
I:,' constructed them with his own hands.
lIe was a nory exceptional man. At the
heginning of the nineteenth century there
\\.C're f('w engineers who had received any
scientific education. Now there is in the
I'rof('ssion a gTf>at army of young men.
most of them graduates of technical
schools. good mathematiC'ians. and well
nrs('d in the art of experimenting.
One of the present causes of progress is
t hat an discO\'eries are puhlished at on('('
in t('C'hnic
\1 journals and in the daily
press. The publication of descriptive in-
245

dexes of all scientific and engineering
articles as fast as they appear is another
modern contrivance.
Formerly scientific discoveries were con-
cealed by cryptograms, printed in a dead
language, and hidden in the archins of
l('arned societies. Even so late as lS
l
Oersted published his diseo\ery of the uni-
formity of el('ctricit,y and magnetism in
I.atin.
Engineering works could have been de-
signed and useful im'entions made, but
they could not h.He been carried out with-
out combination. Corporate organization
collects the small s.\vings of many into
great sums through savings-banks. life
insurance companies, etc.. and uses thii<
concentrated capital to construct tIll' vast
works of our days. This could not con-
tinue unless fair dividends were paid.
Enrything now has to he de&igned so as
to pay. Time, labor. and material must
be saved, and he ranks highest who can
best do this. Invention has hcC'n encour-
aged by liberal patent laws, which secure
to the inventor property in his ideas at
a modem te ('ost.
. Combination, organization, and scien-
tific discovery, inventive ability, and engi-
neering skill are now united.
It mav he said that we have rrathered
together. all the innntions of the nine-
teenth century and called them works of
engineering. This is not so. Engineering
co"prs much more than invention. It in-
dudes all works of sufficient size and in-
tricacy to require men trained in the
knowledge of the physieal conditions which
gO\"f'rn the mechanical application of the
laws of nature. First comes scientific dis-
cowry, thf>n invention, anrl lastly engi-
neC'ring. Faraday and Hf'nry discovered
the (']pctrical laws which l('d to the in-
,-ention of the dynamo, which was per-
fected by many minds. Engineering built
such works as those at Niagara Falls to
make it useful.
An ignorant man may invent a safety-
pin, but he cannot build the Brook]J'n
Bridge.
The engineer - in - chief commands an
army of experts, as without specialization
little can b(' don('. Hi"! is the comprehen-
sive design. for which he alone is rt'spon.
sihle.

u('h is the evolution of engineering,

ENGINEERS-ENGLISH REVOLUTION

which began as a craft and has endeù as a ticket with Gen. Winfield S. Hancock in
profession. 1880; published an historical and bio-
Thoughtful persons have asked, will this graphical work on the constitution of
llew civilization last, or will it go the way the law-maker" of Indiana; and bequeath-
of its predpcessors! Surely the answer ed to the Indiana Hist01'ical Societ
', of
is: all depends on good government, on the which he wa:. president for many
'ear:"
stability of law, order. and justict'. pro- t
e funds to complete and publi!'h his
tecting the rights of all dasses. It will History of Indiana. He died in I ndian-
continue to grow with the growth of good apolis. Ind.. Feb. 7, 18!Jü.
government, prosper with its prosperity, English Language, a hranch from till'
and perish with its decay. Low-German of the Teutonic or Germanic
Engineers,
O(,IETIES OF. American So- hraneh of the Indo-European family. It
ciety of Civil Engineers, organized 1852; is closely rplated to the dialects !'pokPn
American Institute of Mining Engineers. on the north shores of the German Ocean.
organized 1871; American Society of Me- e..pecially with the Frisian dialect.
chanical }
ngineers, organized 1880; English Revolution, TIlE. \Vlwn
American Institute of Electrical Engi- .Jamcs II. attempted to establish despot-
neers, organized 1884.. ism in England by destroying the consti-
English, EARL, naval officer; born in tution in Church and State, he arrayed
Crosswicks, N. J., Feb. 18, 18
4; enter('d against himself the united Church, the
the navy Feb. 25, 1840; was actin'ly ('n- ari8tocracy. and the intelligent people of
gaged during the Mexican \Var on the the realm. lie also resolved to make the
Pacific coast in Me),.ico and California; Roman Catholic the religious system of
also served throughout the Civil \\"ar. the kingdom, and sought to destroy all
In 1868, when the TJ'coon of Japan was forms of Protestantism. He prorogued
defeated by the )Iikado's party, he found Parliament, and ruled despotically as an
refuge on Commander English's ship /ro-
lItocrat without it. So unin'rsal wpre
'1 uois . He was promoted rear-admiral in the alarm and indignation caused by his
IR8.!; retired in 188G. He died in Wash- conduct that there was a general longing
ington, D. C., July 16, 18!J3. for relief; and the firps of revolution
English, TnO\IAS DCN"x. author; born burned inÌ(-'nsplv in the hearts of tlH'
in Philadelphia, Pa., June 29, 1819; people before the""y burst into a flame. TIH'
graduated at the rnin'r,.;it
' of Pf'nnsyl- King's daughter
Iary, who had nUlITipd
vania in H
:
fI; meml)f'r of the Xew .Tt'rsey her cousin \Yilliam, Prince of Orange. wa

It'
islature in lRG3-{j4; and of Congrp8s in heir to the throne of England in the ah-
18!11-!J.,; is the author of .ÍIIlf'rican Bal- sence of a male heir. \Yhen the ppoplt.
lad.';; Book of Battle Lyrics; Ikll Bolt, etc. were ripe for r('volution it was announcf'd
He died in
ewark, X. J.,
\.pril 1, 1902. that James's second wife had given birth
English, WII.LlA
( HAYDES, capitalist; to a son (June 10. lG88). The hopes of
horn in Lexington, Ind.,
\.ug. 27, 1822; the nation, which were centred on :\Iar
'.
received a collegiate education and studied were grievously disappointed. The opin-
law; was a Democratic Representative ion was general that the alleged ll{>ir
in Congress in 18:J2-Gl; and was con- just born was a supposititious Olle, a 1111
spicuous there because of his opposition not the child of the Queen. The volcaul)
to the policy of his own party in the con- was instantly uncapped. and 011 .June 3U
troversy over the admission of Kansas (lG88) leading men of the kingdom SPilt
into the "Cnion. He reported what was an invitation to \\'iIliam of Orange 1<J
kllown as the "English biH," which invade England alld place his wift' on
provided that the question of admission its throne. He wenl, landed at Torbay
und('r the Lecompton constitution be re- (Xo,'. 5) with li).oon IlIpn, and 11('1If'tratell
ferred hack to the people of Kansas. Hi
tIJ(' country. The people flockpd to hi;;
report was adopted. and Kansas vott'd standard. King .James tied to }<'rancp. 'lnd
against admission under that constitu- fill England was speedily in the handa of
tion. After his retirement from Congress the welcome im'ader.
he engaged in various financial CunCN"IIS: On Feh. 13, the Convention Parliament
walt candidate for Yice-President UII the confcrreù the crown of England 011 \ViIl-
246

ENTAIL OF ESTATE-ENTERPRISE

iam and :\Iary as joint sovereigns. Ban-
croft sa
's of the political theory of the
n'volution: "The old idea of a Christhn
monarchy resting on the law of God was
c:\.ploded, and political power sought its
origin in compact. Absolute monarchy
"as denied to be a form of ci,:il govern-
ment. Kothing, it was held, can bind
frecmen to obey any government sa ,'e their
own agreement. Political power is a
trust, and a breach of the trust dissol yes
the obligation to allegiance. The supreme
power is the legislature, to whose guar-
dianc;hip it has been sacredly and unalter-
v,bly delegated. By the fundamental law
(If property no taxes may be levied on the
people but by its own consent or that of
iÜ, authorized agents. These were the doc-
trines of the revolution, dangerous to
European institutions and dear to the
colonies; menacing the Old \Yor1d with
("onvulsi,-e struggles and reforms, and es-
tablishing for America the sanctity of its
OWn legislative bodies. Throughout the
English world the right to representation
could never again be separated from the
power of taxation. The theory gave to
vested rights in England a bulwark
against the monarch; it encouraged th('

tates to certain classes of descendants in
which the legal course of succession of
some descendants is cut oft'. The earliest
English law of entail is found in the
statute of Westminstf'r in I
R5. In the
United States this law came over with
the genf'ral hody of enactmf'nts known a,;
th(' "("ommon law of England:' f'outh
Carolina abolished entail in 1772. \Tir_
ginia in I77ü, Georgia in 1777.
Iar.dand
in 178
, Xorth Carolina in liR.t. In re-
cent years the purposes of entail are af'-
complished by other legal procedure. It
is belie, ed that Gardiner's Island, K. Y.,
is the only property in the United States
now ltelù entail hy direct descendants of
the gmnte('. See <';AHDIXER, LIOS.
Enterprise, TIlE. The Enterprise, four-
teen guns, was an American brig tha t ac-
quired the reputation of being "lucky."
She cruised for a long time off the
ew
England coast, the terror of British
provincial privateers, under Capt. John-
ston Blakeley, until he was promoted to
the command of the new sloop-of-war
l1'asp, when Lieut. \Yilliam Burrows be-
came her commander. On the morning of
Sept. 1, 1813, she sailed from Portsmouth,
K. H., in quest of British cruisf'rs. On

'.
'I >:'
," l\.
. " '" I _1:-,
- _L,t,_ , \
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/1 ,," r 1
... 't ,
VI.
\.{

,

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" IÑTEn ENTERPRIZE NAV. -
AMERI. ET BOXER NAV.
" :BRIT. DIE IV SEFT.

X Ill.

;;:;-

THE 'M'OALL 'MEDAL.

colonists to assert their privileg('s, as pos-
sessing a sanctity which tyranny only
could disregard, and which could Twrish
c.nly by destroying allegiance itself."
Entail of Estate. A disposition

the morning of the 5t h she discoHred a
Bl"Ìtish brig in a bay near Pemaquid Point.
which, observing tllf' J:ntapr;sc. bore
down upon hcr in lIlf'naC'ing attitude.
of ('s- Burro\\ s accepted the challf'ngf'. deared
2-t7

ENTERPRISE-ENVOYS TO FRANCE

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",' -^.... f.v1t. 'fr7'
:

of the Boxer
was delivered to
him, when he
grasped it and
!"aid, ":N ow I
am satisfied; I
die contented."
The command of
the Bntcrpl'ise
devolved upon
Lieut. E. R. Me-.
Call, of South
Carolina, who
eonducted his
part of the en-
gag-enll'nt to it;;
('108e with skill.
lIe took both
n
ssels into
Portland Har-
Lor on the
morning of the
ïth. The two

GHA\"J,;S OF BUHROWS, l!L\TH, A
D WAn:HS. you n g com-
manders werc
hi
ship for action, and, after getting a huried sidC' hy side in a cemetery at Port-
proper distance from land to have ample land. Congress presented a gold medal
sea-room for conflict, he f'dged towards to the nearest masculine representative
the stranger, which proved to Le the Brit- of Lieutenant Burrows; and another was
ish brig Boxer, fourteen guns, Capt. pre<;ented to Lieutenant McCall.
Samuel Blyth. At twenty minutes past Envoy. A diplomatic or political rank
three o'clock in the afternoon the brigs inferior to that of AMBASSADOR (q. v.).
closed within half pistol-shot of each In the diplomatic service in the United
other and hoth \"C'sscls opened fire at the States the official designation is envoy
same time. The wind was light, with extraordinary and minister plenipoten-
very little
ea, amI the cannnnading was tiary. The rC'prf'sentatives of the United
destructin. Ten minutes later the Entpr- States in the conn tries with which it has
1,rise ranged ahead of the Boxer, amI, mutuall,v raised its representative abm'e
taking advantage of her position, she the rank of envoy extraordinary and
!"teercd acro
!" the hows of her antn!;onist, minister plenipotentiary are officially
and delivered her fire with such precision known as ambassadors e
traordinaI)'
and dC'
trueti\.e f'nergy that, at four and plenipotentiary.
o'dock, thc British officC'r in command Envoys to France. :Monroe was re-
Shol1tf'tl through his trumpet that he had eallC'd from France in I i!)6, antI CIIARI.ES
!-urrendered; hut his flag being nailed to ('OTFSWORTII PIXCKJ"EY (q. 1'.). of South
the ma
t, it could not be lowererl until Carolina, waR appointed to fill his place.
thc .\nwrieans !'ohould cea<;e firing. rt On his arrival in France, late in thC' yC'ar,
was found that Capt. Blyth had bC'en cut \, ith the letter of rC'call amI his own ('rC'-
nearly in two hy an I8-pound cannon-ball. df'ntials, the Dirf'ctory refus<>d to n'c(.i\"C'
Almost at the same moment when Blyth him. Xot only so, but, aftC'r trc'ating
fC'II on the Boxer, Burrows, of the RIl(e,.- him with great discourtesy, the Dircetory
prisc, was mortall
' wounòed.
o al!'oo pC'remptorily ordered him to leave FraneC'.
was )[jd;;hipman Ken-in "'uter"-. Hl
-th He withdrew to Holland (Fehruarv, Ii!)ï),
was killecl inst.mtly; BurrowR li\'C'd eight amI t11Pre awaited furthf'r onlf'
s from
hour:-. T}l(' latter refused to hI' mrrit.tl humC'. \\1WIl \lr. Adams took the C'hail
helow until thC' sword of the commander of statC', the rnited State" Imù 110 dip}o-
248

EPISCOPACY IN AMERICA

matic agent in France. The" French spirit of the people kept episcopacy at bay.
party," or Republicans, having failed to for they remembered how much they had
elect Jeff
rson President, the DIRECTORY suffered at the hands of the Church of
(q. v.) determined to punish a people :England. On the accession of George III.
who dared to thwart their plans. In and the administration of the Earl of
:May, 1797, they issued a decree which TIute, among the reforms in the colonies
was tantamount to a declaration of war contemplated and proposed by the mini.,-
against the United States. At about the try was the curtailment or destruction of
same time President Adams, observing the Puritan and Dissenting influence in
the perilous relations between the Cnited the provinces, which seemed inimical to
States and France, called an extraordi- monarchy, and to make the ritual of tlH'
nary session of Congress to consider the
\nglican Church the state mode of wor-
matter. There had been a re:lction among ship. As early as 1748 Dr. Seckel', Arch-
the people, and man
r leading Democrats bishop of Canterbur,y, had proposed the
favored war with France. Á majority of establishment of episcopacy in America,
the cabinet advised further negotiations, and 0\ ertures were made to several emi-
and John :l\Iarshall, a Federalist, and nent Puritan divines to accept the leader-
Elbridge Gerry, a Democrat. were ap- ship, but they all declined it. A royalist
pointed envoys extraordinary to join churchman in Connecticut, in 17GO, in a
Pinckne
r and attempt to settle all mat- letter to Dr. Secker, and to the Earl of
tel'S in dispute. They reached France in Halifax, then at the head of the board of
Gdober (17!:17), and sought an audience trade ant! plantations, urged the necessity
with the Directory. Their request was n1f't of providing two or three bishops for the
hy a haughty refusal, unless the envoys cclonies, the support of the Church, and a
would first agree to pay into the ex- method for repressing the rampant repub-
hausted French treasury a large sum of licanism of the people. "The rights of
money, in the form of a loan, by the pur- the clergy and the authority of the King,"
chase of Dutch bonds wrung from that said the Bishop of London, "must stand
nation by the French, and a bribe to the or falI together."
amount of $
40,OOO for the private use of The Anglican Church then had ma-ny ad-
the five members of the Dirpctory. The herents in all the colonies, who naturallv
proposition came semi-officialIy from Tal- desired its ascendency; but the great mas

l('yrand, one of the most unscrupulous of the people looked upon that Church
politicians of the age. It was accompanied as an ally of the state in acts of opp1'es-
by a covert threat that if the proposition sion, and earnestly opposed it. They well
was not complied with the envoys might. knew that if Parlian1f'nt could create diu-
be order('d to leave France in twenty-four ce!òes and appoint hishops, they would es-
hours, and thc coasts of the United Statps tablish tithes and crush out disscnt as
lIe ravaged Ly French crui!'ers from San llcresy. For J'ears controversy in the
Domino. TIH'y peremptorily refused, c('Jonies on this topic was warm. and somc-
and Pim'kney uttered, in substance, the times acrimonious. Essays for and agains1
noble words, ":Millions for defence, but ('piscopacy appeared in abundance. The
l,Ot one cent for tribute!" The envoys Dishop of T
landafT. in a sermon preachf'd
asked for thf'ir passports. They were given before the Rociety for thp Propagation of
to the two Federalists under circumstances the Gospel in Foreig-n Parts, in which llf'
that amountf'd to their virtual expulsion, advocatcd the npcf'ssity of establishing
hut (ierry. the Democrat, was induced to episcopacy in Anlf'rif'll. heaped abuse with-
rf'main. He, too, was soon treated with out stint upon thf' colonists. "Upon the
contempt hy Talleyrand and his associates, aàventurers themsclvf's," he sa.id, "what
and he returned home in disgust. reproach could he cast heavier than they
Episcopacy in America. The Church deserve? who, with their native soil, aban-
and state in England worked in concprt doned their nati,-e manners and religion.
in forging fetters for the English-.\mf')"i- and ere lon
WP1"e found. in many parts,
can colonists. The Church of England wa
living without rplIH'mbrane(' or knowledgt'
('
,rly madp a state establishment in the of Gml. without a.n
' tlh ine worship. ill
colon
' of Virginia, but elsewhere the free di
solute wickedness antl the most br1ol.tal
2.10

EPISCOPACY IN AMERICA

plolligacy of manners." He charged them of New York and Xew .J
rsey, in no:!.
\\":th having become ., infidels and barba- even violcnt efforts were used to make the
rians "j amI the prelate concluded that the liturgy and ritual of the Church of Eng-
onl)' remedy for the great evil was to he land the state system of worship. lip
found in a. Church e
tablishment. His denied the right of preachers or school-
1 pcommendations were urged with zeal by masters to e
ercise their functions in the
churchmen in the colonies. The Dis- province without a bishop's licen:-.e j and
:-'l'nters were arou
ed. They observed in when the corporation of New York re-
the bishop's i'ermon the old persecuting solved to establi
h a grammar-school, the
spirit of the Church, and visions of Laurl Bishop of London was requcsted to send
alJù the Star Chamher disturbed them. over a teacher. In violation of his posi-
Eminent writers in
\merica entered tive instructions, the govcrnor bpgan a
the lists in opposition to him. Among systematic persecution of all religious de-
others. "-illiam Lidngston, whose fa- nominations di
senting from the practice",
mou
lett(,I' to the hishop, issued in of the Church of England. This conduct
pamphlct form, refuted the charge"" reacted disastrously to Trinity Church.
oi that dignitary so completely that which, until the province was rid of Corn-
they "cre not rep{'ated. The theo. bUQ', had a very feeble growth.
!ogic,tl COli t ro\"(' 1":-." el'aspd w}wn th{' vital Puritan austerity had extpndell to a
question of I'esistance to the oppn-':-si,'e large class of intelligen
free-thinkers
power of both Church and state was and doubters in Xew England, and they
hrought to a final issue. The first En
- felt inclined to turn towards the freer,
lish bishop within the domains of the more orderly. and dignified Church of
American republic was SA
IUEL SEAßFHY England. The rich and polite preferre(l
(q. v.), of Connecticut, who was conse- a mode of worship which <;epmed to bring
crated by three bishops of the Scottish them into
ympathy with the Engli
h
Episcopal Church, Nov. 14, lï84. aristocracy, and there were many who dc-
Efforts were early made by the English lighted in the modest ccremonies of t}w
to !iòupplant thf' Dutch Church as the pre- church. l'or were these influenccs con-
vailing religious organization in XewYork. fined to laymen. There were studious and
The act of the A,,;;embly procurcd by Gov- aspiring mf'n among the ministprs to
el nor 1.'letcher, though broad in its scope, whom the idea of apostolic Succí'ssion
was destined for that purpose. Lnder had charms j and they Yí'arned for
that act Trinity Church was organized, freedom from the obstinate turbulelH'p
and Flptcher tried to obtain authority to of "tiff - npcked church - members, who.
a ppoint all the ministers, but the As<;('m- in theory, were the "pi ritual equals of
hly succ('!-sful1y resisted his design!'. In the pastors. "hom. to manage, it was npc-
lti!).) Upv. John ::\lil1er, in a long letter to l.",.
ar." to humor and to suit. These id('as
tIw Bishop of London on the condition of fpund f'
pression in an unexpecte(l qua r-
religion and morals. drew a gloomy picl- tpl". Timothy Cutler, a minister of 11':1rn-
ure of the state of society in tllP city of in
and great ability. was rector of Yalp
Xew York. and earnestly rl'comlllPl1llpil as College in HI!). To tllP surpris p awl
a rpmedy for all these social p,'il" "to a!ann of the people of Xc\\' England, )Ir.
!-o('nd over a bi
hop to the pro\"Ïnl'P of Xew CutlPl", with the tutor of tJlP ('OI1P.

and
York dul.\' (]ualified as !o,uffragan" tn the two ministers in the Jleighborhood. took
Bi
hop of London. and fin
or si, young o('('a
ion. on Commencement Day. I j:!
. to
ministí'rs, with Bibles and pra.nr-hooks; avow their conwrslon to l-:piscopacy.
to unite
ew York. Xl'W .Tpr
ey. Con- Cutler was at once "e
euspd" from all
necticut. and Rhode Island into onl' prov- further service in the colegp. and provi-
iuce j and the bishop to he appointed gov- sion was made for all future rl'ctors to gin
ernor. at a salary of $ï.:Wn. his )Iajesty satisfactory evidcJl('e of "soundness of
to give him the King's Farm of 30 tI'eir faith in opposithn to Arminian and
acres, in :Kew York. as a spat for himself IH"clatical eorruptions." \Veaker oneR pn-
and his successors. \\'hen Sir Edward gf'ged in the revolt halted, but others per-
Hyde (afterwards Lord Cornbury) be- sip.ted. Cutler became rector of a ncw
came governor of the combined provinces Episcopal church in Boston. ami the dis-
2:;0

EFISCOF AL CHURCH-ERA OF GOOD }'EELING

missed ministers were maintained as AJa.; second vice-president, He\". \\. T.
missionaries by the Society for the Propa- McClure, Marshall, :Mo.; third vice-presi-
gation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. dent, Rev. J. 1\1. Ban'us, Cleburne, Tex.;
This secession from the Church resting tIeasurer,
[r. O. \V. Patton, Nashville,
on the SAYBROOK PLATFOR
f (q. v.), made Tenn.; secretaQY.
[r. G. \V. Thomasson,
the ministers of :MaRsachusetts keen-eyed
ashville, Tenn.
in the detection of signs of defection. Equal Rights Farty. In the city of
.Tolm Checkly (afterwards ordained an Kew York, in 183;5, there arose in the
Episcopal missionary) published Leslie's ranks of the Democratic party a combina-
:short and Easy Method with Deists, with tion of men opposed to all banking iu-

n appendix by himself, in which Episco- slitutions anù monopolies of every sort.
pal ordination was in
isted upon as neces- A .. \Vorkingl
wn's party" had been
sary to constitute a Christian minister. formed in 18
!), but had become defunct,
The authorities in Boston were offended. and the .. Equal Rights party" was its
Checkly was tried on a charge that the successor. They acted with much caution
{-ublication tended ., to bring into con- and secrec.\' in their opposition to the
tempt and infam.v the ministers of the powerful Democratic party, but uever
l.oly Gospel establish('d hy law within Hlse above the dignity of a faction. The
'
his l\Iaj
sty's province of
Iassachusetts." made their first decided demonstration at
For this offence Checl.:ly was found guilty Tammany Hall at the close of October,
and fined {50. See PROTESTAXT EPISCO- IS3;;, wl1f'n an event occurred which
I'AL ClIL"RCII. caused them afterwards to be known 3.S
Episcopal Church, UF.FOR
IEIJ. See LOCO-FOCOS (q. v.), a name applied by the
IlEFORl\IED EPISCOPAL ( JIURCII. Whigs to the whole Democratic part,)'.
Epworth League, a religious society The faction soon became formidable, and
eomposed of the young members anù the regulars endeavored to reconcile the
friends of the 1Icthoùist Episcopal irregulars by nominating their favorite
Church, founded in May, 188!). Its aim fm the Presidency, Richard 1\1. John
un.
is to promote intelligent and loyal piety for Vice-President with l\Iartin Yan
among its memberf'J. Its constih.tion Buren.
prm'ides for religion;;, intellectual, and Era of Good Feeling, in "Cnited States
s(Jcial dcvelopment. In IDOO it numbered history, the period of 1817-23. During
2'I".ïOo chapters, with a membershiI' of these years there was scarcely any anta
-
] .!l00.000. President, Bishop Isaac 'V. onism manifested bet ween the political
.Tnycf'. )[imwapolis, :;\Iinn.; vice-presi- parties, owing largely to tllf' decline of
dpnt!<: Department (If Spiritual 'York, the Federal party and to till' abandonment
\\". \\". Coop('r, Chicago, Ill.; Department of past issucs. The War of 181
had
(,f l\h'rcy and Help, fiey. \V. H. Jordan, practically settled e\'ery question whi(.h
D.D.,
ioux Falls, S. D.; Depal"tment of had disturbed the parties sinee 1800. Thp
Literar
' "York, Rey. R. J. Cook, D.D., inaugural speech of Pm;sIDE:\'T J.UIES
Chattanooga. Tenn.; Department of Social l\IO
ROE (q. 1'.) in 1817 was of such a
Work, F. W. Tunnell, Philadelphia, Pa.; nature as to quiet the Federal minority.
general sccretary, Hey. Joseph F. Berry, It treated the pf'culiar interests of that
D.D., .-'ï Washington Street, Chicago, Ill., party with magnanimity; congratulated
gf'neral treasurer, R. S. Copeland, J\f.D., the country upon its universal "har-
Ann .-\l'hor. Mich. The central offi"e is mony," and plwlicted an increase of this
located at 57 Washington Street, Chicago, harmony for the future. This good will
IlL There is also an Epworth I..eague was furtlwr augmented by a visit of
in the Methodist Episcopal Church, President
[onroe to the New England
f'outh; founded in Memphis. Tenn., in States. which had not seen a President
1
!H. It has fi.8
8 chapters, with a total since the days of Washington. Party feel-
membership of 30G,580. The central ing' was forgotten, and all joined in pro-
o/Jice is located at Naf;,hville. Tenn. The claiming that an "era of good f('eling"
(;fficers al'e: President. Bishop 'Y. A. had come. In 1824 this pra was unhappi-
Condler, Atlanta, Ga.: first vice-president, l
' terminated by the election of JOHN
Hev. J. W.
ewman, D.D., Birmingham, QUIl'\CY ADAMI!! (q. v.), during whose ad-
251

ERICSSON-ERIE CANAL

in mechanical "cience a ftpr he settled in
Kew York. JJe construe-ted the 110nifol"
which feught the Jlerrimac, using T. n:
TDIIW'S (q. v.) revoh'ing turret, thus
revolutionizing the entire science of naval
warfare. At the time of his death he was
perf('etin
an engine to be run by solar
rays. He died in Kew York City. )Ian'h
8, 1

fI. and his remains were se;lt to his
wltin' land in the Cnited States cruiser
Uf/lfiI/lOl'r.
Eric the Red, a Scandina,-ian navi-
gator, who emigrated to Ireland about
flS
. after which he discovered Ureenlaml.
where he planted a colony. IIp sent out
an exploring party under his son Lief,
ahout 1000, who seems to have di
("on'r('d
tll(' continent of
\merica. and landed
somewhere on the shores of )Ia,..,..adlU-
Sf'tts or the !"outhern portion of Kew En
-
land. See '?INLAND.
Erie Canal, TIlE. the greatest work of
internal improvement constructed in the
Cnited States previous to the Pa('ific
Hailway. It connects the watprs of Uw
(;reat Lakes with the
\tlantic Ocpan
by way of the Hudson Rivcr. It was
contemplated by General Sehu:rler and
Elhanah \Yat;;;on, but was first definitely
proposed by Gouvernf'ur Morris, at about
the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Yarious writers put forth cssays upon the
subject, among them De \Yitt Clinton.
who became its most notahlp champion.
The project took sueh shape that, in
IR I 0, canal commissioners were appointed.,
with GouvernNlr 'Torris at their head.
In lRl2 Clinton, with others. was appoint-
('f1 to lay the projeet he fore the national
Congrcss, and solicit the aid of tl1('
nrtional gc,-ernment. Fortunatply tlw
la tter declined. to extend i t8 patronag-p
to the grf'at Imdertaking. The \\'ar of
1812-15 put the matter at rest for a
while. That war made the transporta-
tion of merchandisp along our spa-coasts
perilous, amI Hlf' comll1preial intprcour--p
eHr huilt with the propelling machinery h{'Ìwpen spahoard ("it ips was e,tnip!] on in
undcr the water-line and out of rpach of It larger dpgree hy whf'plerl ,-phidps. For
shot. In 184-0 he received the gold medal thi!-. purpose Conl'stoga wagon.. wprp uspd
of the )[echanics' Institute of Xew York betwef'n Xf'W York ancl Philadelphia. and
for the hest moclel of a steam fire-engine. when 011(' of th(,8(, made tllP journey of
and constructed the first one seen in tht' no milps in threp days. with pass('ngers.
{'ni ted Rbl tes. King (hcar of Swedf'n it was eaIlt,,1 .. t II(' tlying-rnadaint'." T t
made h illt Knight of the Order of Vasa I:as he('11 e...t i mH tt.d that the amount of
in v,,)
, lie accompli:,hed IllHny thing!'; iJlcredsf'tl <'\.pense by this method of trans-
25

ministration questions arose which resur-
rected party antagonisms.
Ericsson, JOlIX, engineer; born in
\\"ermeland, Sweden, July 31, 1803. He
he(.ame an eminent engineer in his own
cllunh-,r, Hnd attained the rank of cap-
tain in the Swedish army. In 18
G he
visited England with a view to the in-
t rodud ion of his invention of a flame
t'lI
ine. He.' eJlgaged actively in mechani-
eal pursuit,... and made numerous inven-
t ions. notably that of artificial draft,
which is sti11 used in locomotive engines.
lIe won the prize olfered by the )Ian-
chester and LiHrpool Hailway for the
),est locomotive, making one that attained.
the then astoai:--hing "pepd of :iO mil(,:,;
an hour. He invented the screw propeller
for nadgation, but the British admiralty
being unwilling to helie,'e in its capacity
and !';uccef'S, El"icsson came to the Cnited
States in IH:J!I. and resided in the citv
üf Xew York or its immediate ,'icinity tiÌ1
his death. In] H4- 1 he was engagpd in the
construction of the l
nited
tates ship-of-
war Princetoll, to which he a I'plit'd his
propener.
he was the first steamship

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1 0
4

JIIH" .:IUCSSOS.

ERIE CANAL, THE

portation of merchandise for the coast
I l"gion alone would ba ve paid the cost of
a system of internal navigation from

laine to Georgia.
The want of such a s,ystem was made
clear to thf' public mind, especially to the

government would do nothing in the mat-
ter, and the State of Kew York resolved
to construct the canal alone. Clinton was
made governor in 18lG. and used all his
official and private influence in favor of
the enterprise. He saw it begun during

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/ÍX.!V

LOCKS ON THK ERIB CANAL.

povulation then gathering in the \Vestern his first administration. Thf' first exca-
:-:tates. Then
lr. Clinton, more vigor- vation was made July 4, 1R17, a.nd it was
c:usly than ever, pressed upon the puhlic completed and formally opened by him,
attention the importance of constructing as chief magistrate of the State, in 182.').
the projected canal. He devoted his won- wl1Pn a grand aquatic procession from AI-
derful energies to the subject, and in a bany proceeded to the sea, and the gov-
memorial of the citizens of Xew lork, ernor poured a keg of the water of Lake
prepared by him, he produced such a pow- Erie into the Atlantic Ocean. The canal
erful argument in its favor that not only was constructed at a cost of $ï.GO
.OOO.
the people of his native State, but of Untold wealth has been won for the State
other States, approved it. The national nnd the city of New York by its opera.
2,')3

ERIE

tiom:, di r('ctlf and indirectly. Up to I f)o-t their possession f'nsued. Th(' J)ell"oit waR
t he canal had <'tlst for construction, en- finally burned, hut the Caledonia wa:-
Jargf'ment, and maint('nancp $;)2.540,800. saved, and aftf'rwanls did good sf'rvicp ill
.-\ t thp State election in 1 f)03 the peoplp Perry's tleet on Lake Erie. In this brill"
"anctioned a IpgisJatin' bill to expend iant affair the Americans lost one killed
$101.000.000 for the improYempnt of the and five wounded. The loss of the Brit-
Erie. o sWl'go , and Champlain canals. ish is not known. A shot from Fort Edl'
Erie, FOIn, a small and weak forti- crossed the river and instantly kiJ)ed :i\Iaj.
fif'ation er(,f'ted on a plain 12 or 15 feet \\'il1iam Howe Cuvler. aidf' to General
pLoYe Ulf' watl'rs of Lake Erie, at its foot. Hull, of 'Vatertown: N. Y. The Calcdoni{l
I n the sumnH'r of 1812, Black Rock. 2 miles was a rich prize; her cargo was valued at
below Buffalo, was
elected as a place for $
OO,OOO.
a dock-yard for fitting out naval vessels On Aug. 4, 1814, the Bdtish. under
for Lake Erie. Lieut. Jesse D. Elliott, I.ieutenant-Colonel Drummond. hegan a
then only twenty - seven years of age. siege of Fort Erie, with about 5.000
while on duty there, was informed of the men. Drummond perceived the impor-
arrival at Fort Erie, opposite, of two ves- ta-n<
e of capturing the American batteries
sels from Detroit, both well manned and at Black Rock and seizing or destl"Oying
w(-I1 armed and laden with valuable car- the armed schooners in the lake. A force
gf1es úf peltry. They were the Calf'donia, a 1,200 strong, that went over to Black
H'sscl belonging to the Korthwestern Fur Rock, were repulsed by riflemen. militia,
('ompan
T. and the John Adams, taken at and voluntcers, under )Iajor )Iorgan.
the surrender of Hull, with the name Meanwhile Drummond had opened fire on
changed to Dctmit. They arrived on the Fort Erie with some 24-pounders. From
morning of Oct. 8 (1812), and Elliott Aug. 7 to Aug. 14 (1814) the cannonade
at onee conceived a plan for theÍT capture. and bombardment was almost incessant.
Timf'ly aid offered. The same day a de- General Gaines had arrived on the 5th,
tachment of unarmed seamen arrived from and taken the chief command as Brown's
Xew York. Elliott turned to the military lieutenant. On the morning of the 7th
for assistance. Lieutenant-Colonel Scott the British hurled a fearful "torm of
was then at Black Rock, and entered round-shot upon the American works
warmly into Elliott's plans. General from five of their heavy cannon. Day by
Smyth, the commanding officer, favored day the siege went steadily on. On the
them. Captain Towson, of the artillery, 13th Drummond, having completed the
was detailed. with fifty men, for the ser- mounting of all his heavy ordnance. hf'-
vice; and sailors under General 'Yindf'r, ;.!an a bombardment, which continupd
at Ruffalo, Wf're ordered out, wf'll through the day, and was renewed ou thf'
firmed. E'f'vf'ral citi7ens joined thf' f'xpe- morning of tJlP !-tth. 'YIlPn the atta('k
,lition, and the whole numl>pr. rank ('eased that night, nry little impres.;;ion
<'Iud filf', was ahout 124 men. Two large had bel'n made on the American works.
hoats were taken to the mouth of Buffalo
atisfied that Drummonll intl'ndf'd to
('reek, and in thf'se the expf'dition em- storm the works. Gaines made disposition
harked at millnight. At one o'clock in accordingly. At midni;.!ht an ominous
the morning (Oct. !)) they left thf' ('reek.
ilence prevailed in both camps. It was
while scores of people watcllf'd anxiously soon broken by a trf'mendous uproar. .\1
on the shore for the result. The sharp two o'clock in the morning ( \ U:,!. Ir,) thf'
('rack of a pistol, the roll of muskf'try. British. I..iO!) strong, undf'r Lieutf'nant-
followed hy silenee. and the mm"ing of Colonl'l Fiscllf'r. made a furious attal'k
two dark ohjf'cts down the riwr pro- upon Towson's hattf'ry and the abatis, on
elaimed that the enterprisA had hl'l'n I'UC- the extreme Jeft. hl'twl'f'n that work and
f'f'ssful. Joy was manifested on the the shore. Thf'.'" f'
pf'ctl'd to find thf'
shores b,T ShOl1ts and the wa\"in
of lan- Ameri('ans sluml){'ring. hut \.\"P1"e mistakf'n.
tf'rns. The vessels and their men had l>pen At a signal, Towson's artillerists "I'nt
made capti\"<'s in less than ten minutes. forth such a continuous stream of flalllP
The guns at 1"ort }
rie were brought to from his tall hatterv that the British
hp:u upon thf' \"essf'ls. _t struggle for called it thf' .. Ya
kf'f' Light - housf'."

:)4

ERIE, FORT

SIECE
& ÐEFEMCE
Qf
rORT tRtE

.

"'"

.,. . ...

YARDS

I

EXPI.ASATIOS OF THE ABOVF. 1rAP.-A, old Fort Erie; a, a, deml-hastions; b, a ravelin, and c, c, block-houses.
These were all built by the British previous to its capture at the heginning of .July. d, d, bastions built by the
Americans during the siege; e, e, n rednubt built for the security of the demi.bastions, a. a.
B, the Ameril'rlß ramp. secnred on the right hy the line g, the Douglass Battery, i, and Fort Erie; on the lert,
and in front. by the line
.f..f. .f. and batteries on the e'l:treme right and left of them. That on the right, immedi-
Iltely under the letter I. in thl' words U:VF.I. VI.AIS, Is Towson's; h, h, etc.. camp traverses; n, main traverse; 0,
magazine traverse. covering al!'o the hea<l'1nartl'rs of (
eneral Gaines; p, hospital tra\'erse; q. grand parade and
provost-guard traverRej T. Gf'neral Brown's hearl'luartf'rs; I, a drain; t, road from Chippewa up thf' lake.
C. the encampment of volunteers outside of the intrenchmentß, who joined the army a few days before the
sortie.
D, D. the Rrltil'h workA. I. 2, 3, their first, sel'ond, and third battery. v. the route of Porter, wlih the left
I'olnmn. to attack the British rlKht flank on the 17th; :1:, the ravine, and route of Miller's command.

Ir. l,osslnK was indebted to the late Cblf'f Engineer Gen. Joseph G. TottE'n for the manuscript map of whleh
tbls Is Reop)'.
255

ERIE, FORT

\\
hile one assailing column, by the use of more furious attack, the bastion blew up
ladders, was endea\oring to capture the with tremendous force. A column of
battery, the other, failing to penetrate flame, with fragments of timber, earth,
the abatis, because Miller and his brave stones, and the bodi
s of men, rose to the
men were behind it, attempted to gain the height of nearly 200 feet in the ah'. and
rear of the defenders. Both columns fell in a !';hower of ruins to a great dis-
failed. Five timc'" they made a gallant tance around. This nppal!ing exploRion

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attack, whf'n. aftpr fparfnl loss, they ahan- was followed by a galling cannonade.
doned the pntprprisp. 'Ipanwhile another when the British flpd to their intrench-
nritish column made a dèsperate attack ments. Ipaving on the field
21 killed. 1i4
on the fort, when the exasperated Drum- wounded. anù 18G prisoners. The 10!';H of
mond ordered his men to "give the Yan- the _\merieans was spventy killeù, fifty-
ke
s no qunrtpr" if the fort "hould be six wounded. and el{',"en missinO'.
takpn. anù had actual1y stationed some .\fter the tprrihlp e
plosion
nd the re-
Indians near to assist in thp p"pcution pulse of the Hriti!';h. both parties pre-
of the !'::lvagp order. He ohtain('(l partial pared for a rpnewed contest. Each was
posspssion of the weak fort, and on1ered strengtlwned hy reinforcements, but tll('
his nwn to attack the garriHon with pikp !';truggle was not again be:.run for a month.
and hayonpt. Most of the offif'prs and (ipnpral Brown had recovered from his
many of the men received ùeadly woundH. wound, and was again in command of his
Xo quarter was given; but very Foon the army. The fort was closely invested hy
offiepr \\ ho gave the order was killed by the British. but Drummond's forpe, Iv-
the Hide of Lieutenant Macdonough. who ing upon low ground. was greatly weak-
had askl'd him for quarter, but \:'as shot enpd b
' typhoid fe,"pr. Hearing of this.
dpad hy him. The battle raged furiously Brown determined to make a sortie from
a while longer. The BritiRh heM the the fort. The time appointed for its H-
main hastion of the fort in !':pite of all ecution was Sept. 17. He rpsolvpd. he
efforts to dislodge them. Finally. just said," to storm the batteries, destroy the
as the Americans were about to makE' a <':lnnon, and roughly handle the brigade
2;;(1

ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON

on duty, before those in reserve at the
camp could be brought into action."
Fortunately for the sallying troops, a
thick fog obscured their movements as
they went out, towards noon, in three di-
vi:;ions--one under General Proctor, an-
other under James :Miller (who had been
brevetted a brigadier-general) , and a
third under General Ripley. Porter
reached a point within a few rods of the
British right wing, at near three o'clock,
before the movement was suspected by
his antagonist. An assault was immedi-
ately begun. The startled British on
that flank fell back, and left the Ameri-
c
ns masters of the ground. Two bat-
tel ies were then stormed, and were ca r-
ried after a close struggle for thirty
minutes. This triumph was followed by
the capture of the block-house in the rear
of the batteries. The garrison were made
prisoners, cannon and carriages were de-
stroyed, and the magazine blown up.
Meanwhile, General Miller had carried
two other batteries and block-houses in
the rear. Within forty minutes after
Porter and Miller began the attack, four

saved, with Buffalo, and stores on the
Niagara frontier, by this successful sortie.
In the space of an hour the hopes of
Drummond were blasted, the fruits of the
labor of fifty days were destroyed, and
his force reduced by at least 1,000 men.
Public honors were awarded to Brown,
Perter, and Uipley. Congress presenterl
each with a gold medal. To the chief
commander (Brown), of whom it was
said, "no enterprisc which he undertook
ever failed," the corporation of New York
gave the freedom of the city in a gold box.
The governor of K ew York (D. D. Tomp-
kins) presented to him an elegant sword.
The States of New York, Massachusetts,
South Carolina, and Georgia each gave
Ripley tokens of their appreciation of his
senTi ces.
Erie, LAKE, BATTLE O
. Who should
be masters of Lake Erie was an important
question to be solved in 1813. The United
States government did not fulfil its prom-
il5c to Hull to provide means for securing
thc naval supremacy on Lake Erie. The
necessity for such an attainment was so
olJvious before the close of 1812 that the

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MI)UTH OF OASCADB CRBEK, WHERB PERRY'S FLRET WAS liP/LT.

batteries, two block-houses, and the whole government took vigorous action in the
line of British intrenchments were in the matter. Isaac Chauncey was in command
hands of the Americans. Fort Erie was of a little squadron on Lake Ontario late
III.-R 257

ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON

:!4th of t hc I:'ame mout h
two brig!' were put afloat.
The whole fleet was finished
011 .July 10. and consi:,;Ü'(l
of the brig LUlt,,'cnee, twenty
guns; brig S iagur_ll, twenty
guns; brig Caledonia, tlnt'p
guns: schooner Ariel, four
guu
; schooner Heorpioll,
t\\"o guns anù two swivels;
s I 0 0 P ']' rip p e, 0 n e gun;
schooner Tigress, one gun;
and schooner Porcupine. om'
gun. The command of the
tiPf't was gin'n to Perry.
and the LUlt'renee, so nanH'd
in honor of the slain com-
JIIalH!er of the (,hesapeake,
was his flag-ship. But men
and supplies were wanting.
A British squadron on the
lake seriously menaced the
,
fleet at Erie, and ]>prry
pleaded for materials to put
his vessels in proper onkr
in 1812, and Ca.pt. Oliver Hazard Perry, to mef't danger. "Think of my situa-
a zealous young na\'al oflicer, of Rhode Isl- tion," he wrote to Chauncey-" the enemy
and, who was in command of a flotilla of ill sight, the vessels under my comma!}(l
gunboats on tlle :Kewport station, offered more than 8ufficient and rpady to make
his sen'ices on the Lakes. Chauncey de- sail, and
Tet obliged to bit!' my fingprs
sired his serviccs, and on Feb. 17 Perry re- with vpxation for want of nWII:'
ceived ordcrs from the Secreta.ry of the Perry, anxiously waiting for men to
1\avy to report to Chauncey with all pos- man his little fleet at Erie, was partial-
sible despatch, and to take with him to ly gratified by the arrival there of 100
f::>ackett's Harbor all of the best men of men from Black Rock, under Captain EI-
the flotilJa at Newport. He sent them for- liott, and early in August, 1813. he went
ward, in companies of fifty, under Sailing- out on the lake before he was fairly pr('-

Iasters .\lmy, Champlin, and Taylor. He pared for vigorous combat. On Aug. 17,
met Chauncey at Albany, and thcy jour- when off Sandusky Bay. he fired a signal-
neyed together in a sleigh through the gun for General Harrison, according to
then wilderness to Sackett's Harbor. In agreement. Harrison was encamped at
)Iarch Perry went to Presque Isle (now Seneca, and late in the evening of tho
Erie, Pa.) to hasten the construction and l\)th he and his suite arri\'ed in boats
('(iuipment of a little navy there designed and went on board the flag-ship IJQI("rcllrr.
to co-operate with (;enera.J Harrison in at- where arrangements were made for the fall
tempts to recO\'er Michigan. Four vessel'i campaign in that quarter. Harrison had
were flpeedily built at Erie, and five others about 8,000 militia, regulars and Indians.
were taken to that well-fo,he!tered harbor at Camp f;eneca, a little more than :!O
from Rlack Rock, near Ruffalo, where miles from the lake. "-hile he was w:lit-
HENRY EC'KFORD (q. v.) had converted ing for Harrison to get his army ready
merchant-vc!>sels into war-ships. The yes- to he transported to Fort Malden, Perry
sels at Erie were constructed under the eruispd about th(' lake. On a bright
immediate superdsion of Sailing-)Iaster morning, Sept. 10, the sentinel watching
Daniel Dobbins, at the mouth of Cascatle in the main-top of the Lawrence cried,
Creek. Early in )Iay (1813) the three "Sail, ho!" It announced the appear-
smaller vessels were launched, and on the ance of the Rritish fleet. c1parh. !->('('n in

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ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON

the northwl,,,tf'rn hurizun. Yery soon
!)erry'/,> nine \"e
"eI8 were ready for the
enem,Y' .-\t the mast-head of the Lazc'rencc
was displayed a blue banner, with the
words of Lawrence, the dying captain. in
large white letters .. Do
''f GIVE UP THE

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into shreds, her spars hattered into splin-
ters, and her guns dismounted. One mast
remaineù, and from it streamed the na-
tional flag. The deck was a scene of
dreadful carnage, and most men would
have struck their flag. But Perry was

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SIIIP." The two !':quadrons slowly ap-
proadJed eaeh other. The British squad-
J on was commanded by Com. Robert
II. Barclay, who fought with Xelson at
Trafalgar. His vessels were the ship De-
f1'oit. nineteen guns, and one pivot and
two howitzers; ship Queen Charlotte,
seventeen, and one howitzer; brig Lady
Pn:rost, thirteen, and one howitzer: brig
HlInter, ten; sloop Little Belt, three;
and schooner (,lzippf'wa,
one, and two swivels.
The hattle began at noon,
a t long range, the Hcor-
pion, commanded by
young Sailing -
[aster
Stephen Champlin. then
It'ss than twenty-four
years of age, firing the
first shot on the Ameri-
can side. As tIle fleets
drew nearN and nearer.
hotter and hotter wa}"cd
the fight. For two hours the La'U,rence nant and the banner with the stirring
bore thp brunt of battle, until she lay words, entered his boat, and, with four
upon the waters almost a total wreck stout seamen at the oars, he started on
-her riggini aJI shot away, her sails cut his perilous voyage, anxiously watched by
259

(\;x A
kD)

4,*
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hopeful in gloom. His other vessels
had fought gallantly, excepting the
Niagara, Captain Elliott, the stanchest
ship in the fleet, which had kept out-
side, and was unhurt. As she drew near
the Lawrence, Perry resolved to fly to her,
and, renewing the fight. win the victory.
Putting on the uniform of his rank, that
he might properly receiYe Barclay as his
prisoner, he took down his broad pen-

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P08ITJO:-i OF THE TWO SQUADRONS JUST BEFORE THE BATTLE.

ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON

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PERRY'S DESPATCH.

P1W

those he had left on the Lawrence. Perry the Niagara in safety. Hoisting his pen-
stood upright in his boat, with the pen- nant over her, he dashed through the
nant and banner partly wrapped about British line, and eight minutes afterwards
him. Barclay, who had been badly the colors of the enemy's flag-ship were
wounded, informed of Perry's daring, and struck, all but two of the fleet surrender-
knowing the peril of the British fleet if iug: These attempted to escape, but were
the young commodore should reach the pursued and brought back, late in the
decks of the :.Y iagara, ordered big and evening, by the Scorpion, whose gallant

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MÐ(TTXffi.

TOB PERRY MEDAL

little guns to be brought to bear on the commander (Champlin) had fired the
little boat that held the hero. Thf' voy- first and last gun in the battle of Lake
age lasted fifteen minutes. Bullets tra- Erie. Assured of victory, Perry sat down,
versed the boat, grape-shot falling in the and, resting his naval cap on his knee,
water near covered the seamen with spray, wrote to Harrison, with a pencil, on the
and oars were shivered by cannon-bans, back of a letter, the famous despatch:
but not a man was hurt. Perry reached "\Ve have met the enemy, and they are
2GO

ERNST-ERSKINE

ours-two ships, two brigs, one schooner, also offered reparation for the insult and
and one sloop." The name of Perry was injury in the case of the CHESAPEAKE
made immortal. His government thanked (q. v.), and also assured the government
him, and gave him and Elliott each a of the United States that Great Britain
gold medal. The legislature of Pennsyl- \\"ould immediately send over an envoy
vania voted him thanks and a gold medal; extraordinary, vested with power to con-
and it gave thanks and a silver medal to elude a treaty that should settle all
each man who was engaged in the battle. points of dispute between the two gov-
The Americans lost twenty-seven kilJed ernments. This arrangement was com-
and ninety-six wounded. The British loss rleted April 18, 1809. The next day the
was about 200 killed and 600 made prison- Secretary of State received a note from
ers. At about nine o'clock in the evening Erskine, saying he was authorized to de-
of the day of the battle, the moon shin- clare that his l\Iajesty's Orders in Council
ing brightly, the two squadrons weighed of January and November, 1807, would
anchor and sailed into Put-in-Bay, not be withdrawn on June 10 next ensuing.
far from Sandusky, out of which the On the same day (April 19) the Presi-
American fleet had sailed that morning. dent issued a proclamation declaring that
The last survivor of the battle of Lake trade with Great Britain might be re-
Erie was .John Norris, who died at Peters- sHmed after June 10. This proclamation
burg, Va., in ,January, 1879. gave great joy in the United States.
Ernst, OSWALD HERBERT, military offi- Partisan strife was hushed, and the Presi-
eer; born in Cincinnati. 0., June 27, dent was toasted and feasted by leading
1842; graduated at West Point in Federalists, as a \Vashingtonian worthy
18û4, and entered the Engineer Corps; of all confidence. In the House of Repre-
superintendent of \Yest Point in 1803- sentatives, John Randolph, who lauded
flS; appointed a brigadier-general of vol- England for her magnanimity, offered
unteers in !\Iay, 1898, and served in (May 3, 1800) a resolution which declared
the war against Spain. He was sent to "that the promptitude and frankness with
]>01"to Rico, and had command of the which the President of the United States
troops in the action of Coamo. He is lIas met the overtures of the government
the author of Pmctical Militm'y Engi- of Great Britain towards a restoration of
nceTing. l1armony and freer commercial intercourse
Erskine, DAVID MOXTAGUE, BARO
, between the two nations meet the ap-
fliplomatist; born in England in 177û; proval of this House." The joy was of
soon after 1806 was sent to the United brief duration. Mr. Erskine was soon
F\tates as British envoy. He was On duty afterwards compelled to communicate to
in Washington at the time of :Madison's the President (July 31) that his govern-
accession to the Presidency. He found ment had refused to sanction his arrange-
the new President so exceedingly anxious ment, ostensibly because the minister had
for peace and good feeling between the exceeded his instructions, and was not
two countries that he had written to Can- authorized to make any such arrangement.
ning. the British minister, such letters Mr. Erskine was recalled. The true rea-
on the subject that he was instructed to son for the rejection by the British au-
propose to the Americans a reciprocal thorities of the arrangement made by
r('peal of a11 the prohibitory laws upon Erskine probably was, that, cOHnting upon
certain conditions. Those conditions were the fatal effects of sectional strife in
so partial towards Great Britain, requir- the Union, already so rampant in some
ing the Americans to submit to the rule places, the British government was en-
of 17M, that they were rejected. Very couraged to believe that the bond of union
soon, however, arrangements were made would he so weakened that a scheme then
by which, upon the Orders in Council be- lwrfpcting by the British ministry for
ing reppaled, the President should issue d{:stroying that Union would be successful.
a proclamation declaring a restoration of England having spurned the olive-branch
commprcial intercourse with Great Brit- so confidingly offered. the President of
Din, but leaving all restrictive laws as the enited States issued another proda-
ß&laÏJllilt France in full force. :Mr. Erskine mati on (Aug. 9, ISO!)), declaring the non-
261

ERSKINE-ESSEX

intercourse act to be again in full force 1799. On June 26, 181
, under command
in regard to Great Britain. of Capt. David Porter, she left Sandy
Erskine, f'm \YILLIAM, British soldier; Hook, N. J., on a cruisc, with a. tlag at her
born in 17
8; entered the English army masthead bearing the significant words.
in 1743; commanded one of the brigades "FREE-TRADE A:\'D SAILORS' RIGHTS." He
at the battle of Long Island in 177(i; and scon captured several English merchant
was second in command of Tryon's expe- vl'sels, making trophy bonfires of most of
dition to Danbury in April, 17ii. In the them on the ocean, and their crews his
next year be took command of the east- prisoners. After cruising southward sev-
ern district of Long Island. He died eral weeks in disguise, capturing a pri7c

larch U, 179:5. now and then, he turned northward, and
Esopus War, TIlE. There had been a chased a fleet of English transports bear-
massacre by the Indians of Dutch set- ing 1,000 troops to Halifax, convoyed by
tiers at Esopus (now Kingston,
. Y.) a frigate and a bomb-H'ssel. He capt-
in 1 û35. The settlers had tied to :\Ian- ured one of the transports, and a few
hattan for security, but had bcen per- days afterwards (Aug. 13) fell in with
suaded by Stuy\'esant to return to their the British armed ship .-t.lert, Capt. T.
farms, where they built a compact village L. P. Langhorne, mounting twenty 18-
for mutual protection. L'"nfortunately, pounder carronades and six smaller guns.
some Indians, who had been helping the The Esscx was disguised as a merchant-
Dutch in their han'ests in the summer man. The .Hert followed her for some
of 1658, became noisy in a drunken rout, time, and at length opened fire witÞ three
and were fired upon by the villagers. This cheers from her people. Porter caused
outrage caused fearful retaliation. The his ports to be knocked out in an instant,
Indians desolated the farms, and mur- when his guns responded with terrible
dered the people in isolated houses. The effect. It was a complete surprise. The
Dutch put forth their strength to oppose Alert was so badly injured and her people
the barbarians, and the "Esopus War" were so panic-stricken that the conflict
continued until lüû-! intermittingly. was short. In spite of the efforts of the
Some Indians, taken prisoners, wcre sent ofIieers, the men of the 1lert ran below
to Curaçoa and sold as slaves. The anger for safety. She was surrendcred in a
of the Esopus Indians was aroused, and, sinking condition. She w.tS the first
in 16û3, the village of \Viltwyck, as the British naval vessel captured in the \\ar.
Esopus village was called, was almost Kobody was killed on either vessel.
totall)' destroyed. Stu.Y"esant was there When Commodore Bainbridge was
at the time, holding a conference with the ahout to sail from Boston with the Con-
I ndians in the open fields, when the de- st :tution and H on
ct. orders were sent to

tructive blow fell. The houses were Captain Porter, of th(' Ess(':e, then lying
plundered and burned, and men, hurrying in the Delaware, to cruise in the tra('k
from the fields to protect their families of the "'est Indiamen, and at a specified
and property, WHe either .,J,ot down or time to rende7.\-ous at certain !J orfs ,
tarried away captive. The struggle was when, if he should not fall in with tIll'
desperate, but the white people WCre vie- flap--ship of the sqnadron, hp wouM he at
torious. \,"hen the assailants were driven Iibf'rty to follow the dictatps of hi" o\\"n
away, they carried off forty women and judgment. Having failed to find the ron-
children; and in the heap of ruins which stitution at any appointed rcndezvouH.
they left behind them were found the and haying provided him!'f'lf with funds
dlarred remains of twentv-OTIe murdered by taking
:í.),OOO from a nritish p'\ck('t,
villagers. It was the fin
l e\'Cnt of yio- Porter made
ail for t1w Pacific Ocean
}(.nce of that war. around Cape Horn. \,"hill' in the'3e
Esquemeling, .TOIIN, author of Bucca- watprs, Port('r sei7Pl! twplv(' armed Hrit-
n("'('1"S olld Ru('('once'i"Ïng in .tmcrica, which i"h whale-ships. with an aggreg-ate of
has bef'n frequently reprinted. :1{)
men and 107 guns. Thpse were w!J
t
Essex, TilE, a frigate of 8(j0 tons. he entered the Pacific O('pan for. TIe
rated at thirty-two guns, but actually armed some of them, and at one time h

('arried fort
'-six; built in Salem, :\Iass., in had a fleet of nin" ve
lIel". He tent

62

ESSEX, THE

pa.roled prisoners to Rio de Janeiro, and
cargoes of whale-oil to the United States.
On Sept. 15, 1813, while among the Gala-
pagos Islands, he fell in with a British
whaling-vessel armed with twelve gUll"!
and manned by thirty-nine men. He capt-
ured her, and found her laden with beef,
pork, bread, wood, and water, articles
which Porter stood greatly in need of at
tlJat time. The exploits of the Esse.r in
the Pacific produced great excitement in
the British navy, and the government
sent out the frigate Phæbe, with one or
two consorts, to attempt her capture.
:Porter heard of this from an officer who
was sent into the harbor of Valparaiso,
Chile, with prizes. He also learned that
the Chilean authorities were becoming
more friendly to the English than to the
.Americans. In consequence of this infor-
mation, Porter resolved to go to the
){arquesas Islands, rf'fit his vessel, and
return to the L'nited States. He had ca,pt-
ured almost e\'ery English whale-ship
J..nown to be off the coasts of Peru and
Chile, and had deprived the enePlY of
property to the amount of $2,500,000
Dnd 3fiO seamen. He had also released
the ..\mprican whalers from peril, anrl in-
spired the Perm'ians and Chileans with
the most profound respect for the Ameri-
can navy. Among the Marquesas Islands
(at
ooaheevah) Porter became involved
in hostilitie
with the warring natives.

He had allowed his men great indulgence
in port, and some of them formed strong
attachments to the native women. They
were so dissatisfied when he left that
they became almost mutinous. He haJ
hpt his men from going on shore for
three days before he weighed anchor.
"The girls," says Porter in his Journal,
"lined the beach from morning until
night, and every moment importuned me
to take the taboos off the men, and laugh-
ingly expressed their grief by dippinJ
their fingers into the sea anù touf'hing
their eyes, so as to let the salt-water
trickle down their cheeks."
When the Essex was thoroughly fitted
for her long \'oyage and for encountering
enemies, she sailed (Dec. 12) with her
prizes from Xooaheevah Island (which he
had named
[adison), and on Feb. 3, 1814,
entered the harbor of Valparaiso. One of
thf- captured vessels, which he had armeù
and named Essex Junior, cruised off the
harbor as a scout, to give warning of the
approach of any man-of-war. Very soon
two English men-of-war were reported in
the offing. They sailed into the harbor,
and proved to be the Phæbc, thirty-six
guns, Captain Hillyar, and her consort,
the Cherub, twenty-two guns, Captain
Tucker. The former mounted thirty long 18-
pounders, sixteen 32-pounder carronades,
and one howitzer; a.lso six 3-pounders in
her tops. Her crew consisted of 320 men

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KSSKX FIGHTI:\H 1'1I1Jo;HK A'iO CIIKIH II

263

ESSEX JUNTA

and bo
's. The Cherub mounted eighteen
32-pounder carronades below, with eight
24-pounder carronades Rnd two long nines
above, making a total of twenty - eight
guns. Her crew numbered 180. The E8-
sex at that time could muster only 22;5,
and the Esse.r Junior only sixty. The 1::s-
sex had forty 32-poundcr carronades and

were lavished upon him, and several State
legislatures and the national Congres

ga ve him thanks.
Essex Junta, TIlE. The course of Pres-
ident John Adams, who was am.ious for
a renomination and election, caused a
fatal schism in the Federal party. He
looked to the Southern States as his chief

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six long 12-pounders; and the Esspx Junior hope in the coming election; and believin

had only ten 18-pounder carronades and ten McHenry and Pickering, of his cabinet, 1:0
short sixes. The British vessels blockaded be unpopular there, he abruptly caHt>d
Porter's ships. At length he determined upon them to resign. McHenry instantly
to escape. The sails of his vessels were complied. but Pickering refused, when
spread for the purpose ()Iarch 28, 1814), .Adams dismis<;ed him with little ceremony.
and both vessels started for the open sea, This event produced much excitement.
when a squall partial1y disabled the flag- Bitter animosities were engendered, and
E.hip, and both took shelter in a bay. There crimi nations and recriminations ensuerl.
they were attacked by the Phæbp and The open war in the Federal party was
Lherllb, and One of the most desperate and waged by a few leaders, several of whom
sanguinary battles of the war ensued. li,-ed in the maritime county of Essex.
'Yhen at last the Bs,<wx was a helpless :Mass., the early home of Pickering, and
wreck and on fire, and his magazine was on that account the irritated President
threatened-when every officer but one was called his assailants and opposers the" Es-
slain or disabled; when, of the 22:> brave sex .Junta." He denounced them as sIan:>
men who went into the fight on board of to British influence-some lured hy mo-
her, only
eventy-fiYe efff'ctive ones re- narchical proclivities and others byRritish
mained-Porter haulpd down his flag. So gold. A pamphlet from the pen of Hamil-
ended the long and brilliant cruise of the ton, whom Adams, in conversation, had
E
'sex. Her gallant commander wrote to dcnounepd as a "British sympathizer,"
thl' Secretary of 'Var from Yalparaiso, damaged the President's political pros-
"'Ye have he en l1fortunate, but not dis- pects materially. The Republicans rejoiced
graced." He and his companions were sent at the charge of British influence. Adams's
home in the }<;S8('X .Junior, which was marlf' course caused a great diminution of the
a cartel-8hip. and Porter was honored as Federal vote, and Jefferson was elected.
the hero of the PaC'ifiC'. :\Iunicipal honors The opposition chanted:
264

"'ESSEX JUNTA-ESTAING

Early in 1809, John Quincy Adams, be-
ing in Washington attending the Suprf'me
Court, in a confidential interview with
President Jefferson, assured him that a
continuation of the embargo (see E
[-
flARGO ACTS) much longer would certainly
be met by forcible resistance in
Iassa-
chusetts, supported by the legislature, and
probably by the judiciary of the State;
that if force should be resorted to to quell
that resistance, it would produce a civil
war, and in that event he had no doubt
the leaders of the Pederal party (refer-
ring to those of the old Essex Junta)
would secure the co-operation of Great
Uritain. He declared that the object was,
and had been for several
'ears, a dissolu-
tion of the Union and the establishment
of a separate confederacy. He knew from
unequivocal evidence, not provable in a
court of law, that in a case of civil war
the aid of Grea t Britain to effect that
purpose would be as surely resorted to
a8 it would be indispensably necessary to
the design. A rumor of such a design
was alluded to, at about the same time,
by De Witt Clinton, in Xew York, and in
the Boston Patriot, a new administration
paper, to which the Adamses, father and
son, were contributors. Such a plot, if it
ever existed, was confined to a few Federal-
ist members of Congress, in consequence
of the purchase of Louisiana. They had
proposed to have a meeting in Boston. to
which Hamilton was invited, though it
was known that he was opposed to the
sC'heme. The meeting was prevented by
Hamilton's sudden Rnd violent death. A
series of articles signed" Falkland" had :-egiment in Ii 48; brigadier-general in
appeared in X ew England papers, in which 1756; and ser\'ed in the French fleet after
it was argued that if Virginia, finding her- li,H, joining the East India squadron
sr.lf no longer aL'e to control the national under Count Lally. l\Iadc lieutenant-
governmpnt. should secede and dissolve it, general in 1 iû3 and vice-admiral in 177H.
the
orthern States, though thus deserted, he was sent to America with a strong
Illight nevertheless be able to take care na,'al force to assist the patriots, arriving
of themselves. There seem to have been in Delaware Bay in July, li78. As soon
no more treasonable designs among the as his destination became known in Eng-
membeTB of the Ei!1sex Junta than in the land, a British fleet, under Admiral
2(jð

.. The Fedet'al18ts are down at last,
The Monarchists completely cast!
The Ari8toct'uts are stripped of power-
Storms o'er the Br'itish taction lower.
Soon we Repttblicu"'ts shall see
Columbia's sons from bondage free.
Lord, how the Federalists will stare-
A JEFFERSON In ADA'IS'S chair !"
-The Echo.

HARTFORD CONVENTION (q. v.), and the
designs of that body were known to have
been pa triotic.
Established Churches. Unlike for-
eign countries generally, neither the na-
tional nor State go"ernments of the Unit-
ed States recognize officially any form of
religious worship. There is neither a
State Church nor an Established Church.
Legislation, both national and State, ha"
steadily opposed any sectarian form. Thc
right of a citizen to worship according to
the dictates of his own conscience is guar-
anteed by the national Constitution; the
fullest toleration of forms of religious be-
lief exists everywlwre; and no legal dis-
crimination is anywhere permitted, every
reHgious denomination maintaining itself
without support or hinderance by any
legal authority.
Estaing, CHARLES HE
RY Tf!EODAT,
COUXT D', naval officer; born in Auvergne,
France, in 1729; guillotined in Paris,
April 28, 1794; was colonel of a French

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RV Tß
:OIlAT O'E,..TAIXG.

ETCHEMIN INDIANS-EULALIA

Byron, was sent to follow him across the remainder (Passamaquoddies) on the
Atlantic. It did not arrive at .Kew York western shore of Passamaquoddy Bay
until late in the season. Byron proceeded and on the Schoodic lakes. These rem-
to attack the French fleet in Boston Har- nants are mostly Roman Catholics, and
bor. His vesscls were dispersed by a have churches and schoo19. Their blood
storm, and D'Estaing, his ships perfectly remains pure, for the laws of :i\Iaine will
refitted, sailed (:Kov. 1, 1778) for the not allow them to intermarry with the
\Y est Indies, then, as between England white people, and they are declining in
and France, the principal seat of war. strength.
On the same day 5,000 British troops Ethan Allen, FORT, a garrisoned mili.
sailed from :!\ew York for the same des- tary post officially established 2 mile

tination, escorted by a strong squadron. from Essex Junction anù 5 miles from
The English fleet arrivcd first, and, join- Burlington, Yt., Sept. 28, 1894, and named
ing some other vessels already there. pro- in honor of Ethan Allen, the famous
ceeded to attack the island of St. Lucia. leader of the Grcen l\Iountain Boys in the
D'Estaing unsuecessfully tried to relieve Re,'olutionary \Yar. There are twenty-
it. Soon afterwards Byron's flcet, from eight buildings of brick and stone, with
the northeast coast, arri,'ed. whpn slated roofs, including four cavalry
D'Estaing took rpfuge at :1\Iartinique. stables, four double oflicers' quarters, four
l3yron tried in vain to draw him into F>ingle officers' quarters, two double bar-
action, and then started to convoy, a part racks, a hospital, guard-house, bakery,
of the way, the homeward-bound \Yest workshop, a water-tower 80 feet high
lndiamen of the mercantile marine. Dur- built of white Yermont marble, and sev-
ing his absence a detachment from l\Iar- eral storehouses. The parade - ground
tinique captured the English island of St. covers 50 acres, and there is an excel-
Yincent. Being largely reinforced soon lent rifle range of 1.000
-ards. :\Iore
afterwards, D'Estaing sailed with his than $GOO,OOO was expen<led in creating
whole fleet and conquered the island of the post. The land for the site, which
Grenada. Before the conquest was quite extends over GOO acres, was purchased by
completed Byron returned, when an in- Dr. \V. Seward "'ehb, Gov. U. A. 'Yood-
decisive engagemC'nt took place, and the bury, Co!. E. C. Smith, and other citizens
much-damaged British fleet put into St. of Vermont and presented to the govern-
Christopher's. D'Estaing then sailed ment.
L\ugust, 1770) to escort, part of the way, Etheridge, E
mRso
, statesman: born
the homeward-bound French \Yest India- in Carrituck county, N. C., Sept. 28, uno;
men; and, returning, engaged jointly admitted to the har in 1840; member of
with the American army in the siege of Congress in 18:>3-.37 and in 1859-61;

a'-annah, but abandoned the contest be- clerk of the national House of Representa-
fore a promised victory for the allies was th'es in 18(jl-ô:J. He puhlished SJI('('('J,(.J'I
won. He returned to Frane in 1780, and in Congress. He died in 1!)o2.
in 1783 he commanded the combined fleets Eulalia, IXFA
TA, fifth child of :\r. rh
of France and Spain, and was made a I..ouise Isabella, ex-Queen of Spain, horn

ranish grandee. He favored the French at )[adrid, Feb. 12, 18ô4; married to
J:evolution, and commanded the National Prince Antoine, son of Prince .-\ntoin('
Guards at Yersaillps, hut falling under d'Orléans, Due de ::\[ontpensier, )Iardl Ô.
the suspicion of the Terrorists, he was be- 188G. At the invitation of the Pnitpd
hC'aded. States government she, as a tepresenta-
Etchemin Indians. This Algonquin tive of the Spanish government, and the
family, occupying- the eastern part of Duke of Yeragua, as the lineal descpndallt
1laine, li,'el1. at an early pC'riod. on the of Christoplwr Columbus, bpcame gupsts
Penohscot Ri,"el", between the
\henakes of the nation dnrin<! the Columhian c('le-
proper and the )[icmacs. They are now hrations and \Yorld's Exposition in Hm:t
represented b:,' the remnants of the Penoh- Princess Eulalia arrived in the l"nitpd
<;cots and P[I<;samaqu(,dJies. Ahout onp- Rtatps May 20, IR03, and left .Tune 2:>.
half of them (the Penobs('ots) live(] on During her stay she was entertained in a
islands in the Penobscot Ri\"Cl", am] the manner hefitting her rank.

(Hi

EUROPE-EUTA W SPRINGS

Eustis, WILLIAM, physician; born in
Cambridge, 1\lass., June 10, 1753; died
in Boston, Feb. 6, 1825; was graduated
at Harvard in 1;;2, and studied medicine
under Dr. Joseph Warren. As a surgeon
he served throughout the Revolutiunary
War, and was a member of the Mas
a-
chusetts legislature from 1788 to nD4.
He was in the governor's council two
years, and was in Congress from 1800 tll
]
05, and from 1820 to 1823. Secretary
of War from 1809 until 1812, he tlu
!l
resigned, for there was much fault found
with his administration. In 1815 he was
sent as minister to Holland, and was
governor of l\Iassachusetts in 1824, dying
v:hile in office. Feb. ü, 1825.
Eutaw Springs, a place in South Caro-
lina, near Nelson's Ferry, on the Santee,
EO miles northwest of Charleston; the
Sl'ene of a notable battle in the Revolu-
tionary War. The principal spring, from
which the locality derived its name, first
bubbles up from a bed of rock marl, at
the foot of a hill 20 or 30 feet in height,
and, after flowing less than 60 yard..,
descends, rushing anù foaming, into a
cavern beneath a high ridge of mar],
covered with alluvium and forest trees.
After tra,"ersing its subterranean waJ
some 30 rods, it rea ppears on the other
side, where it is a broader stream, of
sufficient volume to turn a mill - wheel.
It flows over a smooth, rocky bed, shaded
hy cypress - trees, about 2 miles, w]1('n
it enters the Santee. It was near thi

spring that a severe battle was fought.
bept. 8, 1781. Ear]y in August, Gener
I
Greene, on the High Hills of Santee, ....'a

reinforccd by North Carolina tronps
under General Sumner; and at the dos..
mittee on foreign relations. He was ap- of that month he crossl'd the 'Vaterl'.'
pointed minister to France in l\Iarch, and C'ongaree and marched against ttl'
I
D3, and had charge of the negotiatio!1s British camp at Orangehurg, comman,I-
which final!y f;e('ured the release of Juhn ed by Lieutenant - Colonel Stuart. Raw-
T.. Waller, eX-Lnited States consul in don had left these troops in Stuart's
1htdagascar. who had been convicted .)f charge and returned to England. Stual"t.
i1legally communicating with the Hovas who had been joined hy the garrison ot
during the French campaign, and who had Fort Ninety-six. immediately retreaÌ<'ll.
heen sentenced to serve twenty-one years on the approach of Greene, to Eutaw
in prison. .After his return to t]U'
prings, 40 miles ('astward, and thprp
"United States. in lfm7, l\Ir. Eustis "p- (,T'l'amped. (:repne pursued 1'0 Htealthi'"
entered law practi('(' in 1\ew York. Hp that Rtllart was not fully aware that th,'
hans]ated lustitllt(.s of ,'w
tilliall. and Americans were after him until they wen'
Gl1izot's Histor!/ of the Unít('d Statc.'l. l'lose upon him, at dawn on the morning
II e died in N ('wport, R. I., Sept. 0, ] 8\)'). of Sept. 8, 1781.
267

Europe, PLA
FOR THE PEACE OF. See
PENN, 'Vn,LlAM.
Eustis, JAMES BIDDLE, diplomatist;
horn in 1\ew Orleans, La., Aug. 27, 1834;
"as educated in Brookline, 1\1ass., and
in the Harvard Law School; was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1856, and practised
in :Kew Orleans till the beginning of
the Civil 'Var, when he entered the Con-
federate army: served as judge-advocate
on the staff of General ::\Iagruder till
]
62, and then on the staff of Gen. Jo
eph
E. Johnston. 'Yhen the war clospd he
entered the State legislature, where he
He1 ved in each House. In 18ï6 he was
elected to the United States Senate to
1:il a vacancy, and after the expiration
of the term took a trip through Europe.
Returning to the United States, he was
made Professor of Civil Law in the Uni-
yersity of Louisiana. In 1884 he was
again elected to the United States Sen-
at
and became a member of the com-

J A \It;'" Blum.to: t:n'TI8.

EUTA W SPRINGS-EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE

ing (Sept. 9) bJ" pal ties who chased them
far towards the sea. Although the battle-
field remained with the Americans, neither
party could fairly claim a \ ictory. Dur-
ing the day and the pursuit the
Americans lost in killed and woundpd
about 550 men; the British loss,
including prisoners, was fully 800.
Lieutenant-Colonel 'Yashington was
severely woundcd in the second hattIe,
and was made prisoner. For his
good conduct on that occasion Con-
gress presented to Greene its thanks,
a gold medal, and a British standard
taken in the fight. A few days after
the hattIe, with a large number of
:,;' ek soldiers, he retirpd with his
þ;'" Þ oJ. -t troops to the Santee hills and en-
campptl. There his militia left him.
He remained until the middle of
Xo\"('mb<,r, when he marched his
-. arlllY into the 10\'" countr)
, \\,,}lere he
mi
ht obtain an abundance of food.
The necpssities of Greene's army had
compelled him to go to the hills. The
troops were too much exhausted
to continue active operations. They
respectively by )Jarion and Pickens. The were ha refooted and half naked. He had
second consisted of Xorth Carolina rcgu- no army hospital stores, very little salt,
lars, led hy ']-'
:l
ral Sumner, on the rh;ht; and his ammunition was very low.
an equal number of Virginians, under Evacuation Day, thf' anniversary of
Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell, in the the evaeuation of Kew York City by the
centre; and
[arylandprs, commandpd hy British, Kov. 2;;, lï83.
Co1. O. H. Williams, on the left. Lee's Evangelical Alliance, TIlE, an associ-
Lcgion covered tll<' right flank, and Lieu- ation of Christians belonging to the
Ì('nant-Colonel Henderson's troops covered Evangplical Churchf'S. It was f'stab-
the left. Washington's cavalry and Kirk- lished Aug. 1!)-23. 184ft, in London hy a
wood's Delaware troops formed a reserve, world's com'ention of ddegatf's from
and each line had artillery in front. Christian df'nominations. Its aim is to
Skirmishing ht-'gan at eight o'clock in the promote religious liherty, Christian union
morning, and ,"pry soon the conflict be- and co-operation, and it sprang from a
came general and severe. The British general desire for united efforts among
were defeated and drinn from the field Protestants. Its purpose is not towards
with much lo...s. The victory was com- organic union, nor church conff'deration.
p
ete, and the winnprs spread over the but simply towards a free Christian union
British ('amp. eating. drinking, and plun- of memhf'rs from chur<'hes who hold
dering. Suddenly and une"pectedly the fundamentally the same faith. It claims
fugitives ra1lip,1 and rpnewpd the hattle. no legislatin nor official authority that
and after a tplTihlf' conOict of about five could in any way affect the internal work-
hours, the .-\nl<'ricans. who had lost heav- ings of any denomination, but relies sole-
ily, were compclleù tù !rive way. But Iy on the moral power of love and truth.
Stuart, kno\\ ing that partisan l("gions were "
hen it was organi,wd thpre were 800
not far away. fplt inspcurf'. and that night, Christians prpc;pnt, including Episco-
after hreaking up 1.000 muskpts and df'- palians. Pr<,shytprians, Indeppndpnts.
stroying' storf's, he retreat("d towards l\[f'thodists, Baptists, Lutherans, Rp-
('har1í'!'ton, pursued early the nf'Ü morn- formed, l\foravians, etc., from Englan,l.
20R

Greene moved in two columns, the
centre of the first composed of North
Carolina militia, with a battalion of South
Carolina militia on each flank, commanded

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RrTA'W' !lPRIVr.R

EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE-EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION

the United States, Germany, France, ground, we solemnly reaffirm and profess
Switzerland, and other countries. At our faith in all the doctrines of the in-
that time the following articles were spired Word of God, and in the consensus
adopted: of doctrines as held by all true Christians
"1. The divine inspiration, authority, from the beginning. And we do more
and sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures. especiaHy affirm our belief in the divine-
"2. The right and duty of private judg- human person and atoning work of our
ment in the interpretation of the Holy Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, as the
Scriptures. only and sufficient source of salvation, as
"3. The unity of the Godhead, and the the heart and soul of Christianity, and as
Trinity of the persons therein. the centre of all true Christian union and
"4. The utter depravity of human feHowship.
nature in consequence of the FalL .. Resolved, That, with this explanation.
"5. The incarnation of the Son of God, and in the spirit of a just Christian liber-
his work of atonement for the sins of ality in regard to the minor differences
mankind, and his mediatorial intercession of theological schools and religious de-
and reign. nominations, we also adopt, as a sum-
"6. The justification of the sinner by mary of the consensus of the various Evan-
faith alone. gelical Confessions of Faith, the Articles
"7. The work of the Holy Spirit in the and Explanatory Statement set forth and
conversion and sanctification of the sin- agreed on by the Evangelical Alliance at
nero its formation in London, 1846, and ap-
"8. The immortality of the soul, the proved by the separate European organ-
resurrection of the body, the judgment izations; which articles are as follows,
of the world by our Lord Jesus Christ, etc."
with the eternal blessedness of the The Evangelical Alliance since its origin
righteous and the eternal punishment has extended its work throughout the
of the wicked. Protestant world. It has nO central au-
"9. The divine institution of the Chris- thority and appears in active operation
tian ministry, and the obligation and only from time to time, as it meets in
perpetuity of the ordinances of baptism general conference. The character of these
and the Lord's Supper." conferences are purely religious, lasting
In 1867 the American branch of the from ten to twelve days. The time is
Alliance was founded, and adopted the spent in prayer and praise, in discussions
ahove articles, with the following quaE- of the great religious questions of the
fying preamble: ðay, and in brotherly communion. Nine
"Rpsolved, That in forming an Evan- international meetings have thus far been
gelical Alliance for the "Cnited States in held. The first occurred in London, 1831;
co-operative union with other branches the second in Paris, 1835; the third in
of the Alliance, we have no intention to Berlin, 1857; the fourth in Geneva, 1861;
give rise to a new denomination; or to the fifth in Amsterdam, 1867; the sixth
effect an amalgamation of churches, ex- in Kew York, 1873; the seventh in Basel,
cept in the way of facilitating personal Switzerland, 1879; the eighth in Den-
Christian intercourse and a mutual good mark, 1884; and the ninth in Italy, 1891.
understanding; or to interfere in any The United States branch held a national
way whatever with the internal affairs of conference in Chicago, 1893, in connec-
the various denominations; but simply tion with thc Columbian \V orld's Expo-
to bring individual Christians into closer sition. The week of prayer, beginning
fc!lowship and co-operation, on the basiq with the first Sunday in each year, and
of the spiritual union which already ex- now gem'rally observed throughout Prot-
ists in the vital relations of Christ to the estant Christendom, is one of the most
members of his body in all ages and important results obtained by the Alli-
countries. ance.
"Resolved, That in the aame spirit we Evangelical Association, a religioul
propose no new creed; but, taking broad, m'ganization emtablished in the United
historical, amI evangelical catholic
tat(>s in 1800 by the Rev. Jaeob Albright.
2öU

This 1IJ0n'II)('nt was the outcome of a work
of reform begun in 1790 by Albright, who
held that the German church('s in the

astern part of Penns,ylvania were cor-
rupt. In IHlü the first general confer-
ence of the hody was held in Union county,
Pa. In doctrine the Evangelical Asso-
ciation is Anninian; in mode of worship
ilnd form of governmcnt it agrees with
the Methodist Episcopal Church, of which
.\lbright during his early life was a mem-
her. The ministers, who are itinerant, are
divided into deacons and elders;
the presiding elders and bishops are
elected for four years, the former
by individual conferences, the lat-
ter by the general conference, which
is the highest legislative body in
the church. In H)OO the Asso-
dation reported I,Ofi2 minist
rs,
I.HO(j church
s, and 118,86.3 nwUl-
bers.
Evans, CLE
IEXT AXSEL
[, law-
yer; born in Georgia; graduated at
the law
('hool of Augusta, Ga.; was
in the Georgia Senate in IS.')!);
served in the Confp(h'rate army
through the Civil "'ar, and was an
acting major-general in the Army
of Xorthern Virginia at the tinw
of Lee's surrender. He is the author
of Jlilitary History of Georgia; and
editor of Confederate Military JJ ;8-
tory (I2 volumes).
Evans, SIR GEORGE DE LACY,
military officer; born in Moig, Ire-
land, in 1787; entered the British
army at the age of twenty ;years;
served in the East Indies, and
early in 1814 came to the United
States with the rank of brevet-colonel. etc. He died in Baltimore, Md., July lü,
lIe was engaged in the BATTLE OF BLADEXS- ] RQR.
nURG (q. v.) in August, and led the troops Evans, OLI\'ER, inventor; born in New-
that entered \Vashington, D. C., and de- port, Del., in 1775; was of "'elsh descent,
stro;yed the public buildings there. He and was gralHI
on of Evan Evans, D.D.,
was with General Ross in the expedition the first Episcopal minister in Phi1adel-
against Baltimore in September, and was [lhia. Apprenticed to a wheelwright, he
near that general when he fel1. Evans early displa;yed his inventive genius. At
was also with Pakenham in the attempt the age of twenty-two Yt'ars he had in-
to capture Kew Orleans. He was wounded vented a most useful machine for making
in the battle that occurred below that card-teeth. In lï8ü-87 he obtained from
city. Returning to Europe, he served the legislatures of Maryland and Penn-
under "'ellington. Afterwards he was sylvania the exclusive right to use his
elected to Parliament, and was subse- improvements in flour-mille. lIe con-
quently promoted to lieutenant - genera1. structed a steam-carriage in 17!.)!), which
In the latter capacit;r he sernd in the led to the invention of the locomotive en-
2ïO

EVANS

war in the Crimea in 1834. He died in
London. ,Jan. 2, 18ïO.
Evans, 1-1 lj(aI J)A VEY, author; born in
Baltimore,
Jd., .-\pril 26, ] 7!J2; began
the practice of law in Baltimore in 1815;
and became widely kno\\ n as a constitu-
tional law.rer. His publications include
7'heopltilus A merieuILus (an American
adaptation. with additions, of Canon
"'ordsworth's Theophilus Anglieanu.'l);
b'ssay 011 the Episcopate of the Prote.<ilallt
Bp;"woJÞul ('lIul"rh in flip Unitrd .'\Ial('s,

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SIR G
;ORGE VI! LAn ':-".\:\'8.

EVANS-EVARTS

gine. His steam-engine was the first con-
struct<,d on the high-pressure principle.
1n 1803-4 he made the first steam dredg-
ing-machine used in America, to which
he gave the name of "Oracter Amphi-
bolis," arran 6 ed for propulsion pi ther on
land or water. This is believed to have
been the first instance in America of the
application of steam-power to the propel-
ling of a land carriage. .Evans foresaw
and prophesied the near era of railway
communication and travel. He proposed
the construction of a railway between
Philadelphia and Kew York, but his lim-
ited means would not allow him to con-
\ ince the sceptics bJ' a successful e"peri-

ment. He died in New York City, April
21, 1819.
Evans, ROBLEY DUNGLISO:N, naval offi-
cer; born in Virginia; graduated at
the United States Kaval Academy in
1863; took part in the attack on Fort
:Fisher, where he was severely wounded;
wa.s in command of the J'orktown in the
harbor of Valparaiso, Chile, in 1891, dur-
mg a period of strained relations between
the United States and Chile; commanded
the battle-ship lou:a and took an active
part in the destruction of Cervera's fleet;
was promoted rear-admiral in 1901. Hp
is author of A. l'Jailor's Log and many
magazine articles.

EV ARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

Evarts, WILLIAM MAXWELL, statesman; son in his impeachment before the Senate
born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 0, 1818; in 1808. President Hayes appointed
[r.
graduatEd at Yale College in 1837; stud- Emrts Secreta.ry of State in March, 1877,
ied law, and was admitted to the bar, in and in January, 1885, he was elected
the cit
. of Xew York, in 1840. where he United States Senator, holding the seat
till 1891. He died in Xew York City,
Feb. 28, 1901.
BimrJtallism.-In 1881, after the conclu-
sion of his term of service in the cabinet,
he went to Paris as delegate of the United
States to the Internationa.l
[onetary Con-
ference. He there made the following plea
for the emploJ'ment of both gold and sil-
\ er in the money of the world:

The question now put to us is-as is
obvious everywhere in the progress of this
conference--the question now put to us is,
,. Why is it that in your wealth, your
strength, your manifold and flexible ener-
gies and opportunities in the conflicts and
competitions of the sJ'stem of nations rep-
resented here, why is it that you feel con-
cern for mischiefs which carry no special
suffering or mena<,e to you or anxiety as
to the methods of their cure, when you are
so free-handed as to the methods and re-
sorts at your choice? ',"hy should these
evils that have grown out of a short-sight-
ed and uncircumspect policy, as you (the
afterwards resided and practised his pro- Vnited States) think; why should you so
fession. He was one of the ablest and persistently call upon all the nations to
most eloquent members of the bar, and unite, and put yourselves, a.s it were, on
held a foremost rank in his profession for the same footing of danger and solicitude
many years. He was the leading counsel with them?" The answer on our part is
emplo,yed for the defence of President ,Tohn- !'imple and honest. It needs no ingenuity
271

, /

// Â

>
; J

WILI.IAM MAXWELL EVARTS,

EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

to frame it, and it asks no special courtesy UE., and that we, so far as money is con-
or confidence on your part to believe it. cerned, should not be obstructed in selling
It is our interest in the commerce of tht> cur raw products to the skilled nations
world, and we consider no question of the cf Europe, or the products of our industry
money of the world alien from tha.t inter- to the consumers in less developed nations.
est. Why should we not feel an interest. :Besides this equilibrium of selfishness,
and an urgent interest, in the commerce \\ hich makes the general good our good,
of the world? 'Ve are seated on a conti- we are free from any biaB in the matter
lIe-nt, so to speak, of our own, as distin- of the production of the precious metals,
guished from Asia and Europe. 'Ve arc trivial as that is in comparison with the
nearer to Europe and to Asia than either immense and fervid march of commerce.
i
to the other, and if there is to be a gre3.t We produce the two metals equally. Out
bdtIe between the Eastern and 'Vestern of the same prolific silver mines even, the
commerce and a public and solemn war de- same ore gives us 55 per cent. of silver
elared between the silver of the East and and 43 of gold. How could you imagine a
the gold of the West, who so likely ta nation III regard to its production of the
make the profit of the interchange betweeu precious metals more indifferent as to
these moneys, and necessarily, therefore, which is made the master of the world Y
of the interchange between the commodi- It is a bad tyranny that we resist. It
ties that those moneys master? is the possession of freedom and of power
But there is another striking position in the commerce of the world by the
oí our country, not geographical. It i
service of both these metals, in place
that we more than all other nations, of the mastery of either, that we advo-
perhaps first of all nations, in the cater
history of the development of commerce, It is hardly necessary to recapitulate
that our nation holds, in either hand, the the principal duties of money, but they
great products of staples, of raw materiaL have always been of a nature that pre-
and the great, the manifold, the varied sented itself in a double aspect. From
products of skilled industry, which we the time that money needed to be used
have developed and organized, and in in any considerable volume, and for any
which we conte8t with Europe the markets com:iderable debts among the advancing
of the world. 'Ye propose to furnish the nations of the world, there never has
products of our agriculture, which feed in hf>en a time in which the money'for man's
so great share the laborers of Europe and use did not present itself in reff>rence to
the machinery of Europe, as inexorable in its service and duties in two aspects. One
its demands as the laborers; and we pro- i
to deal with the petty transactions of
pose also to deal with the world at large e\"Cry - day and neighborhood use, wherp
in the skilled products of industry in the smallness of transactions required
e\'ery form applied to those raw ma- money susceptible of easy division: the
terials, and prosecuted under the ad- other for a transfer in largC'r transactions
vantages of their home production. 'Ve r('quired money to be used in the ma
s
contemplate no possibility of taking place fmd with a collective force. money that
with the less civilized or poorer nations, was capable of easy multiplication and of
to sit at the feet of the more civilizf'd and easy management in aggregate values.
richer nations. 'Ye have no desire to place Rut, besides that, there soon came to be a
ourselves, on the side of skilled industry, use of money between the distant part

in the position of a superior nation to in- of one country and between di!'tant coun-
fuiors, though they may depend on us tries, and so an opportunity for disparity
for this supply. \Ve occupy, quite aB much ill the treatment of money in these op-
as in our geographical position, in this posing aspects. with no longer a common
aspect towards the different forms of soverf'ignty that could adjust them one
wealth, production. and industry, an en- to the other. In the progrb,.,. so rapid,
tirely catholic and free position, having so vast, so wide, of the interchang-e of the
no interest but the great interest that all products and industries of the world, there
nations, aø far as money is concerned. came to intrude itself more and more
should not be embarrassed in trading with necessarily and familiarly, the element.
2i2

EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

of distance in space and remoteness of them, together, are competent to supply
dates of beginning and closing transac- for its maintenance.
tions. These developments of COmmerce Now, there are but two logical methods
alone embarrassed both of these moneys in which this disorder betwepn gold and
in the discharge of their double duty, silver, this depreciation of their general
were there no exposure to discord between and combined functions, this struggle be-
themselves. But long ago this ceased to tween them, can be put an end to. One
be the limit of the trouble. The actual is to admit, as the intrinsic money of the
service of intrinsic money in the transac- world, only one metallic basis, and to
tion of the petty traffic and the great com- dri\"e out, extirpate, as a barbarism, as
merce of the world, in providing for its an anachronism, as a robber and a fraud,
own transfer from place to place, within the other metal, that, grown old in the
a nation, or from country to country, s<,rvice and feeble in its strength, is no
across the boundaries or across the sea-5, more a help, but a hinderance and a mar-
made it impossible for the volume of both plot. That is a task that might be pro-
the metals that the bounty of nature posed to the voluntary action of nations,
could yie1d to the urgent labor of man to and, if the monometallic proposition be
perform the task. Every form and device the true one, that is the logical course
of secondary money, of representative to which the nations we represent ought
money, which the wit of man could com- to resort, unless they take the only other
pass, and which could maintain its verity lcgical alternati\"e--that is, to make one
as money hy its relation to the intrinsic money out of the two metals, to have no
money of the world, was brought in to re- two standards or kinds of money. but one
lieve the precious metals from the burden money, adapted in its multiples and di-
under which, unaided, they must have visions to the united functions of the two
succumbed. All these forms, whether the precious metals.
bills of exchange to run between country I have said that these two are the
and country, or of notes or checks at home, only logieal methods. There is anotllPr
or of paper money-all are but forms of method, and that is, in despair of mak-
credit. 'Vhile, then, they relieve intrinsic ing one money out of the two metals.
money from the intolerable burden of to make two moneys out of them. This
actually carrying the transactions of the projpct is not to discard either from
world, they burdened it, so to speak. with the service of mankind, but to separate
moral obligations which it must discharge. them and so mark them as that they
All this vast expanse of credit in tlw de- shall not occupy the :"ame regions, but
vel oped commerce of the world rests divide the world between them. For
finally upon the intrinsic mon('y of the the working of this scheme it is propos<,d
world, and if you would have fixity. unity, that in some fashion a partition shall
and permanence in the credit operations be made among nations. or sets of na-
of the world there must be fixity. unity, tions, and a struggle for the metals be
and permanence in all the intrinsic money set on foot to r<,ach an equilibrium or
(If the world upon which that credit rests. alternating triumph. or undergo SU(>\I
This credit is. almost without a figure. a Ouctuatiom: or vicissitudes. or enjoy
vast globe, and this service of the preciou:; such a degree of p<,rnHlIlenct:' as fortm1<'.
metals to sustain it is that of an Atlas. out of the chaos, may offer to mankind.
upon whom the whole fabric rests. The This scheme might well be defined a,.;
slrength of both arms, nernd by a united harmonious discord and organized dis-
impulse of heart and will, is indispen- order. But this is nothing but a con-
sable; neither can be spared. Consequ<,ntly, clusion that although t}H're is an in-
if there should be any considerable failure tolerahle <,viI. it is not within the
in thpir force, or any waste of it by an- compass of human wisdom. or human
tagonism l){'tween the metals making up strength. or human courage, to attpmpt
the intrinsic money of the world, the to remedy. This conelusion would lean
credit of the world is depriyed of what thinrrs to take care of themselves. This
nature in supplying the two precious n(lti
n found expression in the sentiuwnts
metal!'! and human wisdom in regulating dc.dared b
' some of the powers at HI{'
III.-S
j:l

EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

cOllf('rencc of 187S. The hopeful e"p(>c- sl'eeeh for sa,ying that Wt' eannot hy
tation that was then indulged, that human ,,'ilI, boY the power or tlH' polity of
things would take care of themselves, has nations, n'dress the mi!'ehief, but that
not been realized. E'\.perÎcnce since has \\e must leu,"e the qu<,stion to work itself
8hown an aggravation of the mischief, a out in discord, in dishonor, in disorder,
contiml<'d and widcning e).teìlsion of' its in disaster.
pre
sure, and produced another appeal This brings us fairly to consider how
to the wisdom and courage of the nations great the task is which is proposed for
to redrt.ss it, under \\hich this conferenee rt'
son and for law to accomplish. How
has b<,en convened. much is there wanting in the propert it.s
But there is, confessedl
', a great dif- of these two metals, how much is mis:-illg
fìculty in arranging this partition of from the already existing state of f('('l-
llloney among the nations. I will not iug. of habit, of the wishes and tllf'
enlarge upon that difficult.)-; it has al- \\i!'dom of the world at large. and in the
ready been suOicientl,y pointed out. It is common - sense of mankind as ðhibitt>d
inherent and ineradicable. Its terms can- in history or shown to-day, that stand!'!
not be e'\.pre!'
ed by its champions. Some- in the wa,y of the common use of the two
times it is !'poken of as a division be- vrecious metals to vrovide the common
tween the Asiatic and European nations; neeessity of one mone
r for the commerep
sometimes as a division between the rich of the world? The quarrel with uaturt>
nations and the poor nations; sometimes seems to be with its perverse division of
as a division between the civilized and the necessary functions of mout>y ht>t\\ ecn
the le.,s civilized nations. There seems the two Pl'ecious metals. In their l"cgn.t
to have been an casy confidence that these that nature has furnishcd us ",iln'r and
groups could be satisfactorily arranged gold, with the excellent properties of each,
for a reasonable equality in this battle instead of one abundant, J'et not redun-
of the prpcious metals. But I have been dant, metal that would have sened all
puzzled to know, and no one has dis- purposes, the monometallists strive to cor-
tinctly stated, where the rnit<,d States rect this perversity of nature by u<;in:.!
were to be arrayed. 1'0 one has ventured only the not abundant gold and discard-
to determine whether they were to be ing the not redundant silver. "Tell, I do
counted as a rich nation or as a poor na- not know but one might imagine a nl<'tal.
tion; whether as an Asiatic or a Euro- a single metal, that would combine all
pean nation; whether as a civi1ized the advantages which these two metals
nation or an uncivilized nation. Yet, I in concert have hitherto offered to man-
think it would be no vain assumption kind. It may be within the range of im-
on the part of the L"nited states to feel agination to conceive of a m<,tal that
that any settlement of the money ques- would grow small in bulk when J'ou
tions of the world that leaH's us out, want('d it to aggregate values. and grow
and our interest in them, and our wi
dom large when
.ou wanted to divide it into
about them. will not be tlw decrt>e of an minute values. Yet. as I think. the mere
('eumenical council, or establish artit>l('s E'tatenwnt. to the common apprellPnsion
of faith that can he pnforc('d against thp of mankincl, describ('s what we should
who]e world. The notion seems to he call a pt'rpetual miracle. and not an onl('r
that the nations that sit above tht> salt of nature. Kow, if su('h a metal is a
arc to be served with gold. and tho:-.e m('re fignwnt of the imagination. if no
that sit below the salt are to he served such metal with these incompatible qua1i-
"ith silYer. Rut who is to keep us in ti<,s is found in rerum natura, how are
our seats? \Yho is to guard against an we going to dispense in our actual lllon<,y
interruption of the feast by a !,truggle with that fundamental, inðorable re-
on the part of those \\ ho sit below the quirt>ment of intrinsic money, a physical
salt to be served with gold, or of tho:,e capabilitv of multiplication and of cli-
ft hove the salt to be served with silver! yision to sen'e these opposite uses! Why
This project purports to 11ave neither not then accept the reason, accppt tha
wiEdom nor courage, neither reason nor duty of treating these two metals in
force, behind it. It is a mere fashion of which combined nature has done the ute
!?7" t

EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

most for this sl'eci!ll npt'd of man. b)T sup- tation, that at bottom the theory of a
plying the COItS('1I.'WS of pusiti\e law, that gold standard is the theory uf twu
single mxus hetwepn them, that fixity of moneYð. Jt is the theory of discord be-
ratio ùy which they two shall b(' one tween the mptals. It is the theory of us-
money at all times and everywherp; by ing one to buy the other, and robbing the
which silver, when its multiplication be- exchange of commodities of what it re-
comes burdensome and unmanageable, quires to the utmost, the double strength.
l(l
es itsclf in tlw greater value of gold; the double service of the two metals to
and gold, when its division becomes too buy and sell, not one another, but the cunl"-
minute and trivial, breaks into pieces of modi ties of the world.
sih-er. \Yhat nature, then, by every pos- But it is said that this pretence that

ihle concurreuce of utility has joined to- law can regulate the metals in their
gcther let no man put asunder. It is a uses as money involves a fundamental
foolish speculation whethpr in rerum error in this, that money is itself
natura a metal might have been contrived a commodity and that law cannot rcgu-
combining these two opposing qualities. late the ratio of the two metals as money
Let us accept the pious philosophy of the any more than apportion \!tlues between
Fr<,nch bishop, as to the great gift of the other commodities. Well, silver and gold
strawbprry-" Douhtle
s God Almighty as they come from the mine no douht are
might have made a better fruit than the commodities. There might be imagined
strawbcrr,Y, but, doubtless, He has not." a metal that, besides having all the quali-
This brings us to the essential idea ties which make it useful to men for
which lies at the bottom of this effort at money, might also miss all the qualities
tlnity of money for the nations, the ca- that would make it useful for anything
pacity of law to deal with the simple task else. You might have a metal suitable
of establishing a fixed ratio between the in all physical propertiea of gold and sil-
metals, so that their multiplication and ver that was neither splendid for orna-
di\"Ìsion should make but a single scale. ment, nor malleable, nor ductile for use;
This. Mr. Pirmez would have us under- you might have a gold that did not glitter
stand, would prove an ineffectual struggle to the eyps, and a silver that would not
of po..itive law ag-ainst tlw h.w of nature. sene to the use. In such case the confu-
It is thus he denounc('s the attempt at a sion hetwcen gold and silver money, and
practical m',1'/IS bet\\"(>pn th'-'se metals h.'T gold and silver in their marketable uses.
reason, which could not h(> suppli{',1 h.\T \\"ould be a\'oided. But, as matter of
the physical properties of matt('l". To IIW fact. (wsides the good qualities which be-
it spems to rpquire no more than I:lw allli nign naturp has infuscd into these metals
reason and thp wit of man can rp!Hlily for our spn'ice as 1II0npy, they have, as
supply, and han constantly supplip(1. in well, the pl"Opertiu"I which make them
innumerahle instanf'p<;. and it should not valuable in vulgar U:<P. Th(>sp latter uses.
lrl> wanting here. Tlu' rcason of man must no doubt, in the infancy of mankind,
either. in this instance, take the full directed attention to the recondite proper-
hountips of nature and Providpnce, or ties which fittcd them for the in
titution
IT.ust reject thpm. as the gross and ign'J- of money, which later ages were fully to
rant n<>g-lpct all the 01l1('r facultips that understand.
fire accordpd to human effort find to Although. t hpn, the prpcious metals, in
human progress hy thp henpficpnce of fiod. their qualitif's as n1('ta]s. may remain
TIring this mattpr to thp narrowest limits. commodities. wlwnf'\ PI" tl)(' act of the law.
IIl're is a gap to he fi II pd. Rhall \\"(> sup- finding in 1IH'ir propertie'l the necessary
ply it? "'ill you insist upon what is a ptitud<,s. dpcr{'(>s their cor.secm tion to
called one standard and have two monpys. the puh]ic sf'rvÏce as ItlOJI<'Y. it dpf'rees
(lr will you insist upon two standards \\"ilh that they shall Iw\-er after. in that qual-
tne result of onp monpy? nut onp money ity of monpy, hp commoditips. In the
i!'! the object. All question of standards. \"('ry conception of monpy it is distin-
one or two, is hut a form and mode hy guished from all exchang<,ahJe, barterab((>
which \V(> may rpach what we desire, one commodities in this, that the law has set
money. I insist, and challenge a refu- it apart, by the imprint of coinage, to be
275

EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

the servant of the state and of the world only diminishes the force and volume of
in its use as mone)', and to abstain from money, but adds to the weight and vol-
all commixture, as a commodity, with the ume of exchangeable cummodities. It is
other commodities of the world. 'Yher- as little a condition of health, and may
ever and howsoever this ideal of m01WY lead to as
reilt calamities, as if the
fails to be real, it is because the law i... fevered blood should burn the tissues of
('ither inefficient, within its jurisdiction, the vital channels through whieh it circu-
which is its disgra('e. or because its juris- lat('s, or as if the coats of the stomach
diction is limited territorially, and bc- should turn to digestin
thpmselns.
eause its vigor fails beyond the boun- To me it spems certain that the nation"
daries. In the latter case. I agree, silv('r must contemplate ('ither the emploYIIH'nt
or gold, in the shape of tllf! coinage of one of the two metals as intrinsic m01le\'
country or another, may become mer- of the world upon a fixed, efficipnt COl;-
ehandise to bL bought and sold, in other cord and co-operation betw('en them. or
<,ountries, as a mere money metal. ::\Iani- their surrender to perp<,htal strul!gle,
f('stly these exposureR to demonetization, aggravating itself at ever
' triumph of
beyond the houndaries, bet'ause the legal one owr the other. and finally <,nding
force, which has made the metal mone)'. in that ('alamity which owrtakes, sooner
stops with the huundaries. is the main or later. those who care not to u"e
cause of the mischiefs in the monetarv the bountics of nature accùnling to the
system of the world which need redres
. gift and responsibility of rmson. I can
'1 he cause understood, the cure is ohvi- see nothing valuahle in the treatment of
ous. It is to carry. by some form of con- this suhject which would lean! the brokcn
.
rnS1l8 among gOH'rnments. the 1 <,gal re- leash whi('h 80 long held th<,se metals to
la tions heÌ\v<,cn the two metals. in their he rppa i n.d by elJance, or the contest to
<,mployment as monpy, bcyond the boun- h<, kept up at the expense of that unity.
daries of separate s
'stems of coinage. concord. common ad,'antage. and g<,nera!
TIl<'se legal relations betwel'n the mctals Plogn'ss among nations whie-h is the ideal
once fi
<,d, no important evasions of it and the hope, the pride and the pnjoYIIlC'nt
would be possible. and no serious dis- of the a.
e in which we Un'.
turhance of it could arise from diversi- ::\11". Pirmez, however, would ha'"e us un-
ties of coinage. It is for this r<,su]t and derstand t hat this simple law of fixing the
by this means that \\e are striving. ratio bCÍ\n'<,n the metals, to be ohsened
But law, it is said, is inadequate in its among conpUlTing nations. although thi'ì
strength, in its capabilities, in its vigi- cunscnsuS should include all the nations
lance, in its authority, to accomplish so most engag<,d in thc interchanges of the
great. so benign a result. It was apcom- world. would bp powcrlcss h('f'ause it would
plished up to the
'ear 1870 hy even the l.e opposed to the law of nature. The law
informal concurrcnce among the nations of nature. no doubt. has ma{lc t\\"o 111<'tals.
which till then subsi"ted. The spirit of Lut, according to the b('st inspection of
the pn's<,nt age has led to manifold inter- them I,y seicnce and conullon-spnsc. the
national applications of positi,'e law on law of lIaturp has lI1ade 111<'111 as littlp ùi-
oOwr subjccts than 1I10ne
.. while there is verse as pn
<;ible f'ompatihl." with their
no suhject to which its a;1!,.:eation is so hest u,.e as 1I10n(')'. I agr<'<' that th('rp lI1ay
important. or, within limit!'!. >;0 ('asy as he fooli!"h laws. There may bp hlWS theo-
money. For want of this CUlIscnsW
, the I ('tie-ally wise. but \\ 1lÍch. h.'" tllP la\\"gi,'er
n<,cpssary conccption of mOJ}<'Y. tIH' in- )lot computing the diflieuIties to hp oyer-
stitution of mOJl('y, the cOII,,<,cration nf ('OIl\P, or the l"epug-nallces that will resist
JIIonpy, is defeated. !)ro tunto, wlwn any th{.ir (',\,:('cution. are unwis(' for the time
portion of the mOJ1PY losp!,! its prerogative
nd the cirCnmSÜlIl('PS to which th('v are
and incommunicahle fundion of buying al'plipd. I !lplie\"(>. as 'Ir. Pirmez' dop,!.
and selling all. anll hccolnPS purchasah!e that an ill-matched strngglp hptween arhi-
or yendih!c. "'hpn('vpr
InY portion of tml"Y 11('('ree and the finn principles of hu-
the mOJl('.'" which
hould bp n!"pd as the nann nature will result in the overthrow.
whent for the e
change of commoditips {'Ii the law. But that doctrine, at bottom.
turn!'! into a commodity, it thereby not if
'ou are to apply it without regard to

ir,

the very law and without measuring the
actual repugnance and resistance it has
to meet, is simply impugning civilization
fOl having fought with nature as it has
done from the beginning. \Y e had some
J ears ago a revenue law in the Cnited
States, called forth by the exigencies of
war expenditure, by which we undertook
to exact a tax of $2 a gallon on whiskey,
;yet whiskey was sold all over the United

tates, tax paid, at $1.60 a gallon. This
was a case of miscalculation of how far
authority could go against a natural ap-
petite and a national taste. 'Yhen we re-
duced the tax to GO cents on the gallon,
the law triumphed over this opposition of
appetite and cupidity and produced an im-
mense I'evenue to the treasury. It is the
old puzzle, how to reconcile the law of nat-
ure, that abhorred a vacuum, with its
ceasing to operate beJ'ond 33 feet in
height. This was solved by the wise a.c-
commodation between philosophy and fact,
tllat nature abhorred a vacuum, to he sun',
Lut only ahhorred it to a certain extent.
_\
I have said, the informal, the uncon-
scious, the merely historical a.nd tradi-

EVERETT

tionary conscnsus of mankind made and
maintained an equilibrium between the
metals among the nations up to 18ïO.
With more vigorous aid from positive law,
that "written reason," which, :Mr. Pirmez
says, is all the law there ever is or can
be, I cannot but anticipate the suppression
of the discord and struggle between the
moneJ's of the world which now troubl

ccmmerce.
Everett, ALEXA
DER HILL, diplomatist;
born in Boston, ::\larch IH, 1 ï92; grad-
uated at Han-ard in 1806; studied law
with John Q.
\.dams; and in 180!)
accompanied him to St. Petersburg as
attaché to the American legation, to which
he became secretary in 1815. He became
char9é d'affaires at Brussels in 1818; in
182;)-29 was minister to Spain; and from
18-15 until his death was American com-
missioner in China. His publications in-
chIde Europe, or a General Survey oí
thc Political Situation of the Principal
P01Ce,.s, 1.âth Conjectures on thpir Futurc
Prospects ( 1821 ); :-.
ew I deus on Pup It-
lation (1822); ,imerica, etc. (1827). He
died in Canton, China, June 2!), 1847.

EVERETT, EDWARD

Everett, EDWARD, statesman; born in
Dorchcster, )[a

., April 11, 17!)-!; brother
of the preceding; graduated at Har-
vard in 1811; and was ordained pastor
of the Brattle Str('et (Boston) Cnitarian
Church in February, 1814. He was
chosen Professor of Greek in Han'ard
Cniversity in 1815. and took the chair on
his rpturn from Europe in 181!). 1\Ir. Ev-
erett was in Congress from 182.3 to 18:l.3;
governor of l\Iassachusetts from 1836 to
18-10; minister to England from 18.tl to :-itanding beneath this serene sky, over-
1845; president of Harvard from 18-1G looking Uwse broad fields now reposing
to 184!J; and succeeded Daniel 'Veb- from the labors of the waning year, the
!'ter as Secretary of State in Novemher, mighty _\lle
hanif's dimly towering be-
18.>2. He was in the United Htates 8('n- fore us, the gra\"f's of our brethrpn be-
ate from 1\[arch, 1853, until )faYJ 18.34, 1 1 1'ath our f('ct, it is with hesitation that
wl\('n he rptired to private life on account I raisp my poor voice to break the elo-
oi feeble health. He took grcat interest qnent !'ileJlce of God and nature. nilt
in the efTorts of the women of the rnited t he duty to which you have called me
States to raise money to purchase 1\[ount must he perfornwd; grant me, I pray
'Ternon. He wrote and spoke much, and
ou, your indulgf'nc(' and your sympathy.
hy his efforts procured a large amount of It was appoint('d hy law in Athens
Ulonl'Y. atHl the ('state was purchased. He that thf' obspql1ies of the ('itizens who ft'll
was nominated for the Vice-Presidency of in battle should be performed at the pub-
277

the enited States in 181iO by the Consti-
tutional lTnion partJ'. ::\lr. Everett was a
rare scholar and finished orator, and was
one of the early editors of the "North
\I//cricfln Rericlt". He died in Boston,
Jan. 15, 186.3.
Oration at Gettysbu/"g.-The following
i
his oration at the dedication of the
Xational Cenwtery, on the Gettysburg
hattIe-field, on Kov. 19, 1863:

EVERETT, EDWARD

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lic e"-pense. and in the mo,.;t hono1"<\h 1 (' 1'('e');.!n, i/.t'.l hut not. tlH'rpforf'. lInhOIlOrf'(l.
Blanner. Their bones were carefullv dl'ad. and of thosf' whose rpmains could
;.!athcred up from the funeral pyre w})('r"{' pot he r('covered. (hI thp fourth da

their bodies were consumed, and hrought t!.e mournful IU"OC(',..,sioll \\as formed;
home to the city. There, for three days IIwthf'r... win',;. !'i!'-ters. daughters, led
before the interment, they lay in state, the way, ancl to them it was permitted.
hf'J1('ath tents of honor. to receive the l'y the simplicity of ancil'nt manners, to
vf1ti\"e offerings of friend
and relatÏ\es- uttcr aloud tlwir lamentations for the
flowers. wpa pons. preciou
ornanwnts. heloved and t he lost; the ma If' rf'lativp!'l
paintcd vases, wondprs of art, which. and friend,.., of tllf' .If'('('a..ed followf'd;
after 2.000 y('ars, adorn the museum" of C'it:æll,., and stran;.!er!. f'lo;;pd thf' train.
modern Enrope-the la,..,t trihutcs of sur- Thus mar
halll"l. tlu.y moved to the plaf'P
\"i\"Ïng affection. T{'n coffins of funpra} of intprmpnt ill that famous Ceramicu!'.
e
prf'
,.., recf'ived the honorahlt- d,'posit. thf' most heautiful suburb of Ath('II.;.
one for each of tl1f' triLl''''' of t hf' city. \
'hich had L{'en adorned Ly Cimon. thp
and an eleventh in memor
' of the un- !-oon of :\Iiltiades, with walks and foun-
278

EVERETT, EDWARD

that ilIustrious plain, ready to put off
the shoes from my feet, as one that stands
on holy ground-who have gazed with re-
spectful emotion on the mound which stiIJ
protects the dust of those who roHed back
the tide of Persian invasion, and resf'uf'd
the land of popular liberty, of lcUer:-i.
and of arts, from the ruthless fop-stand
unmoved over the graves of our dear
brethren, who so lately, on three of these
all important days which dpcidpd a na-
tion's history-days on whose i:-isue it de-
pended whether this august republican
Union, founded by some of the wisest
statesmen that ever lived. eemcnted with
the blood of some of the }Iurest patriots
that evpr òif'd, should perish or pndure-
rolled back the tide of an im-asion, not
less unpro\-oked, not less ruthless, than
that which came to plant the dark banner
of
-\siatic despotism and sla \-erv on tilt'
free soil of Greece? Heaven forbid! AmI
could I prove so insf'nsible to every
pwmpting of patriotic duty and affec-
tion, not only would you, feHow-citizens,
gathered many of you from distant States.
who ha H come to take part in these pious
offices of gratitude-you respected fathers.
brethren, matrons, sisters. who surround
me-cry out for shame, but the forms of
bra\'e and patriotic men who fiH these
honored graves would heave with indigna-
tion bpnf'uth the sod.
\Ye have assembled, friends, feHow-citi-
7f'ns. at the invitation of the ðecutive
of the central State of Pennsylvania,
secondpd hy the govf'rnors of seventpen
other loyal State,., of the C"nion. to pa
'
the last tribute of respect to the hra \'f'
T'Jen who, in the hard-fought battles of till'
first. second. and third days of July last.
laid down their li\"('s for the country 011
these hillsides and the plains before us.
and whos(' remains have been gathered
into the cemetery which we consecrate this
da
'. As m
' eye ranges over the fiplds
who,..:e sods were so lately moistened by tllP
blooò of ga]]ant and loyal men, I fp('J.
as nf'H'r hefore, how truly it was said of
"Tbat battle-field where Persia's victim-hol'de old that it is sweet and 'becoming to di..
First bowed beneath the brunt of Hell as'
sword." for on("s eountry. I fepI. as never be-
fore, how justly from the dawn of his-
And shall I. fellow-citizens, who. after tory to the prf'sf'nt time men haw paid
an interval of twenty-three f'enturies, a tllP homage of their gratitude and nd-
youthful pi
grim from the "\\'o1"1d unknown miration to the memory of those who
to ancient Greece, have wandered over nobly sacrificed their lins that their
2iD

tains and columns-whose groves were
filled with altars, shrines, and temples-
whose gardens were kept forever green
by the streams from the neighboring
hills, and shaded with the trees sacred
to ::\Iinena and coeval with the founda-
tions of the city-whose circuit enclosed

" the olh'e grove of Academe.
. . . Plato's retirement. where tbe Attic bh'd
Trilled bis tbick-warbled note tbe summer
long, ..

wJlOse pathwa,ys gleamed with the monu-
ments of the ilIustrious dead, the work of
the most consummate masters that pver
gave life to marble. There, beneath the
overarching plane - trees, upon a lofty
stage erectf'd for the purpose, it was or-
dained that a funeral oration should be
pronounced by some citizen of Athens,
ill the presence of the assembled multi-
tude.
Such were the tokens of respect re-
quired to be paid at Athens to the mem-
ory of those who had fallen in the cause
of their country. For those alone who
fell at :\Iarathon a peculiar honor was

'eserved. As the battle fought upon that
Immortal field was distinO'uished from
aH others in Grecian histon
for its influ-
ence over the fortunes of' Hellas-as it
depended upon the event of that day
whether Greece should live, a golor,\' and
a light to all coming time, or should ex-
pire, like the meteor of a moment-so
the honors awarded to its martyr-heroes
Wfore such as were bestowf'd hy Athens on
no other occasion. They alone, of all
her sons. were entombeò upon the spot
which they had rendered famous. Their
names were inscrihed upon ten pillars
erected upon the monumental tumulus
which cowred their ashes (where, after
fiOO years, they were read by the trave11er
Pausanias). and although the columns.
l)pneath the hand of time and barbaric
violence. ha \'e long since disappeared, the
,pnprahle mound sti1J marks the
pot
where they fought and fel1-

EVERETT, EDWARD

fellow-men may Ih-e in safety and in thousands must be encountered by the
honor. And if this tribute were ever due, firm breasts and valiant anus of oth('1"
to whom could it be more justly paid thousands, as wen organized and as skil-
than to those \,'hose last resting-place we fully led. It is no reproach, therefore, to
this day commend to the blessing of the unarmed population of the country
Heaven and of men? to say that we owe it to the brave men
For consider, my friends, what would who sleep in their beds of honor before
have been the consequences to the country, us, and to their gallant surviving as-
to ;yourselns, and to all ;you hold dear, scciatt:'s. not merelv that your fertile
if those who sleep b('neath our feet, and fields, my friends
f Penn:-i;'lvania and
tllPir gallant comrades whu survive to :Maryland, were redeemed from the pres-
serve their country on other fields of dan- ence Gf the invader, but that
'our beauti-
I-;er, had failed in their duty on those ful capitals "ere not given up to the
memorable days. Con::.ider what, at this threatened plunder, perhaps laid in
moment. wou
d be the condition of the ashes, \Yashington seized by the t-nemy,
l-nited
tat{'-; if that noble Army of the and a blow struck at the heart of the
I)otomac, instead of gallantly and for nation.
the second time beating back the tide of 'Yhu that hears me has forgotten the
in\'asion from
Iaryland and Pennsylva- thrill of jo
' that ran through the country
nia had been itsclf dri,'en from these well- on the 4th of July-auspicious day for
contested heights. thrown back in con- the glorious tidings. and r('ndered still
fusion on Ualtimore, or trampled down, more so by the simultaneous fall of Ylcks-
discomfited, scattpred to the four winds. burg-wlwn the telegraph flashed through
"-hat, in that sad C'vent, would have been the land the assurance from the Presi-
the fate of the .:\Ionumental ('it
., of Har- dent of the rnited States that the Army
rishurg, of }>hiladelphia, of \Yashington, of the Potomac. under GC'neral l\Ieade.
the capital of the Lnion, each and cvery had again smitten the invader? Sure I
une of which would have lain at the 11m that with the ascriptions of praisp
mercy of the en('m
-. accordingly as it that rose to II('avcn from twenty million
might have pleased him, spurred by of freC'men. with the acknowlC'dgnwn1s
passion, flushcd with "Victory, and confidC'nt that breatlH'd from patriotic lips through-
of continued success, to dir('ct his course? out the l('ngth and breadth of America.
}'or this we must bear in mind-it is to the 8un-i,'ing ofIicC'rs and men who had
one of the gl"eat le
sons of the war, indeed rcndered the country this inestimable
of (','{'ry war-that it is impossible for a service. thl're beat in every loyal bo
om
pC'ople without military organization, in- a throb of tcnder and sorrowful gratitude
habiting the cities, towns, and villages of to the martyrs who had fallen on the
an opf'n country. including, of course, the sternly contested field.
natural proportion of non-combatanb of Let a nation's fervent thanks make
every sC'x and of evpry age, to withstand some amends for the toils and sufferings
the inroads of a vpteran armv. 'Yhat of those who survive. \Vould that the
defC'nce can be made by the inilabitants lwartfelt tribute could penetrate these
uf villages mostly built of wood, of citiC's honored graves!
lInprotf'eted h.,' walls. nay, by a popula- In ordC'r that we may comprehend, to
tion of nH'n, however high-toned and reso- their full e"tent. our obligations to the
lute, who!o.e ag('d parents demand thC'ir martyrs and sun-iving heroes of the Army
care, whose wives and children are clus- of the Potomac. let us contemplate for a
tering about them, against the chargC' of few mOrtwnts the train of events which
the war-horse whose i.eck is cloUl<'d with (Ouhninat('d in the battlps of the first day

thundC'r-against flying artillery and bat- oj .Tul.v. Of this stupellllous rebellion.
teries of rifled cannon planh'd on e'"('Q plannC'd. as its originators boast, more than
commanding emin('nce-against thC' on!'et thirtr years ago. matured and prepared
of trained veterans led by skilful chicfH? for lluring an entire gpneration, finally
Ko, my friends. army lIlu...t he IIl<'t hy C'.omnH'Ilced bpcausC' for tll(' first timp
army. battery hy battC'ry, squadron b.,' :-111("1' the adoption of the Constitution.
!'(luadron; and the shock of organized aJ
election of President had been cffectf'll
280

without the votes of the South (which re-
tnined, however, the control of the two
<:-ther branches of the government), t.he
occupation of the national capital, with
the seizure of the public archives and of
thc treaties with foreign powers, was an
er-;sential feature. This was, in substance,
within my personal knowledge, admitted,
in the winter of 1860-61, by one of the
most influential leaders of the rebellion;
and it was fondly thought that this ob-
JCct could be effected by a bold and sudden
movement on the 4th of March,1861. There
is abundant proof, also, that a darker
project was contemplated, if not by the
responsible chiefs of the rebellion, ;yet
by nameless ruffians, willing to play a
subsidiary and murderous part in the
treasonable drama. It was accordingly
maintained by the rebel emissaries in
England, in the circles to which they found
access, that the new American minister
ought not, when he arrived, to be received
as the envoy of the United States, inas-
much as before that time 'Vashington
would be captured, and the capital of the
nation and the archives and muniments
of the government would be in the pos-
session of the Confederates. In full ac-
cOl'dance also with this threat, it was
declared by the rebel Secretary of 'Var,
at Montgomery, in the presence of his
chief and of his colleagues, and of
5,000 hearers, while the tidings of the as-
sault on Sumter were travelling over the
wires on that fatal 12th of April, 1861,
that before the end of
Iay "the flag
which then flaunted the breeze," as he
expressed it, "would float over the dome
oi the Capitol at Washington."
.\t the time this threat was made tpe
rebellion was confined to the cotton-grow-
ing States, and it was well understood by
th(cm that the only hope of drawing any
of the other slave-holding States into the
conspiracy was in bringing about a con-
flict of arms. and" firing the heart of the
South" by the effusion of blood. This was
declared by the Charleston press to be the
object for which Sumter was to be assault-
('d; and the emissaries sent from Rich-
mond, to urge on the unhallowed work,
g&n> the promise. that, with the first drop
of blood that should be shed, Virginia
would place herself by the side of Routh
Carolina.

EVERETT, EDWARD

In pursuance of this original plan of
the leaders of the rebellion, the capture
of \Vashington has been continually had
in view, not merely for the sake of its
public buildings, as the capital of the Con-
federacy, but as the necessary preliminary
to the absorption of the border States, and
for the moral effect in the eyes of Europe
of possessing the metropolis of the Union.
I allude to these facts. not perhaps
enough borne in mind, as a sufficient refu-
tation of the pretence, on the part of
the rebels, that the war is one of self-
defence, waged for the right of self-gov-
ernment. It is in reality a war originally
l('vied by ambitious men in the cotton-
growing States, for the purpose of draw-
ing the slave-holding border States into
the vortex of the conspiracy, first by sym-
pathy--,vhich in the case of southeastern
Virginia, North Carolina, part of Ten-
nessce, and Arkansas, succeeded--and
then by force. and for the purpose of
subjugation,
Iaryland, western Virginia.
Kentucky, eastern Tcnnessee. Missouri:
and it is a most extraordinary fact, con-
sidering the clamors of the rebel chiefs
on the subject of invasion, that not
a soldier of the United States has entered
the States last named, except to defend
their Cnion-loving inhabitants from the
armies and guerillas of the rebels.
In conformity with these designs on the
eity of 'Yashington. and notwithstal).ding
the disastrous results of the im-asion of
18G2, it was determin('d by the rel)('l
government last summer to resume the
offensin in that direction. L"nable to
fûrce the passage of the Rappahannock.
where General Hooker. notwithstanding
the r('verse at Chancellorsville, in
Iay.
was strongly pnsted, the Confederate gen-
eral r('sortf'd to strategy. He had two
ol'jects in view. The first was by a rapill
nlovement northward. and by mat1æuvring
with a portion of his army on the east
side of the RIue Ridge. to tempt Hooker
from his hase of operations. thus leading
him to 1mcovpr the approaches to "
ash-
ington. to throw it open to a raid by
Stuart's cavalry. and to enable Lee him-
s('1f to cross the Potomac in the neighbor-
:hood of Poolps\"ilJp and thus fall upon the
capital., This plan of operations was
wholly fru
tra t('<I. TIn> dC'sil-!n of the
rebel general was promptly disco,'ered
281

EVERETT, EDWARD

by General Hooker, and, moving with General Hooker's advance, was driven
great rapidity from Fredericksburg, he pre- himself away from his connection with
served unbroken the inner line, and sta- the army of Lee, and was cut off for a
tioned the various corps of his army at fortnight from all communications with
all the points protecting the approach to it-a circumstance to which General Lee
"ashington, from Centerville up to Lces- in his report alludes more than once with
burg. From this vantage ground the e\ ident displeasure. Let us now rapidly
rebel general in vain attempted to draw glance at the incidents of the eventful
him. In the mean time. by the vigorous campaign:
operation of Pleasonton's cavalry, the .\ detachment from Ewell's corps.
cavalry of Stnart, though greatly superior under Jenkins. had penetrated on June I.ï
in number"" wa;; so crippled as to be dis- as far as Chambersburg. This movement
abled from performing the part assigned was intended at first merely as a demon-
it in the campaign. In this manner Gen- stration, and as a marauding expedition
eral Lee's first objeet, namely, the defeat for supplies. It had. however, the salu-
of Hooker's army on the south of the Poto- tary ptrec! of alarming the country; and
mac, and a direct march on \Vashington, vigorous pn'parations were made not only
was bamed. hy thf' general gonrnment, but here in
The second part of the Confederate plan. Pennsylnlllia and in the sister States, to
which is supposed to have hepn under- repel the inroad. After two days passed
taken in opposition to the views of Gen- at Chambersburg. Jenkins, an'<ious for
eral Lee, was to turn the demonstration his communications with Ewell, felJ back
northward into a real invasion of Mary- with his plunder to Hagerstown. Here
land and Penns;ylvania, in the hope that. he remained for several days, and tlwn.
in this way, General Hooker would })(' having swept the reecsses of the Cumb..r-
drawn to a distance from the capital, and land Yalky. came down upon the eastf'rn
that some opportunity \\ould occur of flank of the South l\Iountain, and puslwrl
taking him at a disad\'antage, and, after his marauding parties as far as \Yaynf's-
df'feating his army, of making a descent boro. On the 22d the remainder of Ewell'..
upon Baltimore and \Yashington. This eorps crossed the river ani moved up the
part of General Lee's plan, which "as sub- vallf'Y. They were fol1owed on the 24th
stantially the repetition of that of 18G2, h
T Longstreet and Hill, who crossed at
was not less signally defeated, with what \Yilliamsport and Rheppardstown and.
Ilonor to the arms of the Vnion the height", pushing up the valley. encamped at
on which we are this day assemhled will C'hambersburg on the 27th. Tn this way
forf'\'er attf'st. the whole rebel army, estimated at !lO,-
)[uch time had been uselessly mn- 000 infantry, upward of 10,000 cavalry.
!o;Hmed by the rf'bel general in his un- and 4,000 or fi.OOO artillery, making a

Jvailing attempts to outmanæuvre Gen- total of 105.000 of all arms. was concen-
eral Hooker. Although General Lee broke hated in Pennsylvania.
np from Frpderick!':hurg on Jun(' 3. it was rp to this time no report of Hookf'r'

not till the 2.Hh that the main bodv of movements had hp('n recei,'ed bv Genpml
his army entprf'd )[aryland. Instead of J.ee, who. having been depriv
d of hi

crossing the Potomac, as he had intf'nded. ca,'a1ry. lwd no means of obtaining in-
east of the RJue Hidge, he was compelled formation. Rightly jndp-ing. howewr.
to do it at Sheppardstown and "'illiams- that no time would be lost hy the Fnion
port, thus materiall)' derang-ing his entire army in the pursuit, in order to detain
plan of campaign north of the river. it on the ea!'tern side of the mountains in
:-;tuart, who had hf'f'n smt with his ca,-. Mary:and and Pf'Ilnsylvar.ia. and thu!;
aIry to th(' f'ast elf the nlue Uidge to pre!'õerving his communications by the way
guard the pa:-.ses of thp mountains, to of "ïlliamsport, he had, before his 0\\ n
mask the mOVf'Hwnts of Lf'P. and to harass arrival at Chambershurg, dirf'ctecl Ewel1
the Union general in crossing the river, to send detachments from his corps to
having been very severely handled by Carlisle and York. The latter detach-
Pleasonton at Heverly Ford, Aldie, and ment, under Early. pas!;ed through thi

Upperville, instead of heing able to retard place on .June 26. You ne('d not. felloW'.
282

EVERETT, EDWARD

citizens of Gettysburg, that I should re- of so large a force on the e,-e of a gen-
call to you those moments of alarm and eial battIe--the various corps necessarily
distress, precursors as they were of the moving on lines somewhat divergent, and
more trying scenes which were so soon to a II in ignorance of the enemJ"s intended
follow. I,oint of concentration-and that not an
As soon as General Hooker perceived I.our's hesitation should ensue in the ad-
that the advance of the Confederates into Y.lnce of any portion of the entire armJ'.
the Cumberland "alley was not a mere Having assumed the chief command on
feint to draw him away from Washing- th(' 28th, General Meade directed his left
ton, he moved rapidly in pursuit. At- ,"ing, under Reynolds, upon Emmetts-
tempts, as we han- seen, were made to burg, and his right upon New \Yind!ò;or,
I.arass and retard his passage across the leaving General French, with 11,000 men,
Pütomac. These attempts were not only to protect the Baltimore and Ohio Rail-
altogether unsuccelò;sful, but were so un- road, and convoy the public propert
r
skiIfull
' madp as to place the entire from Harp('r's Ferry to \Yashington.
Federal army between the cavalry of Buford's ca"aIr." was then at this place,
Stuart and the arm." of Lee. "'hile the and Kilpatrick's at Hanm'er, where he
la tter was mas
ed in the Cumberland encountered and defeated the rear of
Yalley, Stuart wa" east of the mountains, StÙart's cavalry, who was roving the
with Hooker's army between, and Gregg's country in search of the main army of
cavalry in close pursuit. Stuart was, Lee. On the rphel side, Hill had reached
accordingly, compellcd to force a march F::l,\'etteville, on the Cashtown road, on
T:orthward, whiC'h was destitute of 8tra- tIle 28th, and was followed on the samc
Ü':-rical character. and which deprived his rflad by Longstreet, on the 20th. The
chief of all means of obtaining inteIli- eastern side of the mountain, as seen
g<'lIce. from Gettysburg, was lighted up at night
:Kot a müment had been lost by General hy the camp-fires of the pnem."'s advance,
Hooker in the pursuit of Lee. The day and the country
"vamped with his forag-
ailer the rehel army entered Maryland, in:: parties. It was now too evident to
the Lnion army crossed the Potomac. at bl' questioned that the thunder-C'loud. so
Edward's Ferr.,', and h." the 28th of .June Ion:! gathering in blackness, would soon
In:> hetwC'pn Haqwr's Ferry and Fred- burst on some part of the dpvoted vicinity
erick. The force of the enemy on that day of Gettysburg.
"a!' part 1." at Chamhershurg, and partly June 30 was a day of important
n1o,'ing flJI tit,... Ca"htown road in thp di- preparations. At half-past ('Ipven o'cIof'k
re('tion flf nf>ttysburg. while the detach- i.l the morning G('neral Buford passpd
IIlPnts from Ewell's corp,.:, of which men- through Gettyshurg upon a reconnois-
tion has hpen madp, had r('::\ehed the sanee in force, with his ('avalry, upon
Susquehanna. opposite Harrishurg and the Chambersburg road. The information
Columbia. That a great hattl(' must obtained by him was immediately com-
soon be fonght no one could doubt; hut munieatpd to Gpn('ral Rpynolds. who \Va...
in the apparent. and perhaps real, absence in conspqupnf'e, dirècted to occupy Gettys-
cf plan on thp part of Lpe. it was im- burg. That gallant officer
ccordillgl
'.
pn!';sib1e to foret(>11 the precise scene of with the 1st Corps, marched from Em-
the encounter. \Vhere,'er fought. conse- mettshurg to within G or 7 miles of this
quences the most momentous hung upon l'!ace. and encamped on the right bank
the result. of l\Iarsh's Creek. Our right wing,
In this critic3.1 and anxious !';tat(' of meantime. was moved to :Manchester. On
afl'airs. npn('ral Hookpr was re1i('ved, and the same dar the corps of Hill and Long'-
Gpneral 1fC'aòC' was !'ummoned to the street were pushed still farther forward
('hi('f ('ollJlIJand of t}w army. It appears on the C}utmhersburg road, and distrihut('cl
to my unmilitary judgnwnt to reflect the in the vicinitr of )Iarsh's Creek, \\'hile a
highe
t credit upon him, upon his prede- r(>connoissanee WPS made bv the Confeder-
C'essOl", and upon th(> eorps command(>rs of ate General Petigru up t
a very short
U.
Anny of the l
otomac, that a change distance from this place. Thus at night-
could take place in the chief command fall on June 30 the greater part of the
283

EVERETT, EDWARD

rebel force was concentrated in the im- The command of the 1st Corps devolved
mediate vicinity of two corps of the on General Doubleday, and that of the
L"nion army, the former refreshed by two fielù on General Howard, who arrived at
days passed in comparati,'e repose and 11.30 with Schurz's and Barlow's di,'isions
deliberate preparations for the encounter, of the 11th Corps, the latter of whom
the lattcr separated by a march of one or received a severe wound. Thus strength-
two days from their supporting corps, and ('ned, the advantage of the battle was for
110ubtful at what precise point they were some time on our side. The attacks of
to expect an attack. the rebels were vigorously r('pulsed bJ"
_-\nd now the momentous day, a day to \Yadsworth's division of the 1st Corps,
11(' forever remembpred in the annals of and a large number of prÎson('rs. includ-
the country, arrived. Early in the morn- ing General Archer, were captured. At
ing of July 1 the conflict began. J need length, however, the contimwd reinforcc-
not say that it would be impossible for ment of the Conf('derates from t1w main
me to comprise, within the limits of the body in the neighhorhood, and by the di-
llour, such a narrath'e as would do anv- visions of Rhoùes and Early, coming down
thing like full justice to the all-importa
t by separate lines from lIeidll'rsherg and
('vents of these three great days, or to the taking post on our extreme right, turned
merit of tIle brave officers and men of the fortunes on the day. Our army, after
e,'ery rank, of every arm of the s('rvice. cont('sting the ground for five hours, was
and of every loyal State, who bore their obliged to yield to the enemy, whose force
part in the tremendous struggle-alike Gutnumhered them two to one; and tow-
those who nobly sacrificed their liv('s for ards the close of the aftcrnoon GellPral
their country, and those who survive, Howard depmed it prudent to withdraw
many of them scarred with honorable the two corps to the heights where we are
wounds. th(' objects of our admiration and now assembled. The greater part of the
gratitude. The astonishingl:r minute, ac- ht Corps passed through the outskirts
curate, and graphic accounts contained in ci the town, and reached the hill without
the journal;;; of the day, prepared from serious loss or molestation. The 11th
personal ohscnation by reporters who CorP'S and portions of th
1st. not heing
witnes!"ed tIw scenes and often shared the aware that the enemy had already en-
I'('rils which they d('scribe, and the highly tered the town from the north. attempted
valuable" notcs" of Professor Jacobs, of to force their way through \Vashington
the university b this place, to which I and Baltimore streets, which. in the crowd
am greatly ind('bted, will abundantly and confusion of the SC('ll(', they did, "ith
supply the deficiency of my necessarily a heavy loso.; in prisoners.
too condens('d statement. General Howard was not unprepared
General Reynolds, on arriving at Get- for this turn in the fortunes of the day.
tyshurg in the morning of the 1st. found He had in the course of thp morning
Buford with his cavalry warmly engaged caused Cemetery Hill to be occupied by
with the enemy, whom he held most gal- G('ncral Rt('inwehr with the 2d Di,-ision
lantly in chf'ck. Hastening himself to the of the 11th Corps. About tlw time
front. Gen('ral Reynolds directed his men of the withdrawal of our troops to tlU'
to hc moved over the fields from the Em- hill General Hancock arrived. having hf'f'1I
IIwttsburg road, in front of )Ic)li11an's sent by Gf'n('ral )Jeade, on lwaring of the
and Dr. Schumucker's under cover of the death of Reynolds, to flSðunw tIw com-
Seminary Ridge. \Vithout a moment's mand of the fif'ld until }If' him
elf could
hesitation, he attacked the enemy. at the reach tlw front. In conjUllf'tion with

ame time sending orders to the 11th Gpnpral Howard. Gf'nf'ral Hancock im-
CorpR (General Howard's) to advance as mediatf'l." proeppdpd to post troops and
promptly as possiblp. Gpneral Reynolds to rppf'l an attack on our right flank.
immediately found himself pngaged with This attack was feebly made and prompt-
a force which greatly outnumhpr('d hi!; 1." rf'Jmlsecl. .\t nightfall our troop!; on
own. and had !';carcply mad(' hi" dispo- the hill, who had so gallantly sllOltailwd
<;ition
for the action when he fpll. mor- thl'lIlsel\"es during HI(' toil ancl pf'ril of thc'
tally wounded, ßt the head of his advance. day, were cheered by the arrival of Gen-
284

EVERETT, EDWARD

eral Slocum with the 12th Corps and of 3d, had reached the ground by 7 A.){.;
General Sickles with a part of the 3d. but it was not till two o'clock in the
Such was the fortune of the first day, afternoon that Sedgwick arrived with the
commencing with decided success to our 6th Corps. He had marched 34 miles since
arms, followed by a check, but ending in nine o'clock of the evening before. It was
the occupation of this all-important po- only on his arrival that the Union army
sition. To J'ou, fellow-citizens of Gettys- approached an equality of numbers with
burg, I need not attempt to portray the that of the rebels, who were posted
an
ieties of the ensuing night. 'Yitness- upon the opposite and parallel ridge, dis-
ing as you have done with sorrow the tant from a mile to a mile and a half,
withdrawal of our army through your overlapping our position on either wing,
streets, with a considerable loss of prison- and probably exceeding bJ' 10,000 the
ers-mourning as you did over the brave army of General
Ieade.
men who had fallen, shocked with the And here I cannot but remark on the
widespread desolation around ;you, of Providential inaction of the rebel army.
which the wanton burning of the Harman Had the contest been renewed by it
House had given the signal-ignorant of at daylight on July 2, with the 1st and
the near approach of General :Meade, you 11th Corps exhausted by the battle and
passed the weary hours of the night in the retreat, the 3d and 12th weary from
painful ðpeC'tation. their forced mareh, and the
d, 5th, and
Long before the dawn of July 2 (Jth not yet arrived, nothing but a miracle
the new commander-in-chief had reached could have saved the army from a great
the ever - memorable field of service and disaster. Instead of this, the day dawned,
glory. Having received intelligence of the sun rose, the cool hours of the morn-
the events in progress, and informed by ing passed, the forenoon and a mnsider-
the reports of Generals Hancock and able part of the afternoon wore away,
Howard of the favorable character of the without the slightest aggressive movement
position, he determined to give battle to on the part of the enemy. Thus time wac;
the enemy at this point. He accordingly given for half of our forces to arrive and
directed the remaining corps of the army take their place in the lines, while the
to concentrate at Gettysburg with all pos- rest of the army enjoyed a much-needed
sible expedition, and breaking up his head- half-day's repose.
quarters at Taney town at 10 P.M., "he ar- At length, between three and four o'clock
rived at the front at one o'clock in the in the afternoon, the work of death began.
morning of July 2. Few were the mo- A signal-gun from the hostile batteries
ments given to sleep during the rapid was followed by a tremendous cannonade
watches of that brief midsummer's night, aìong the rebel lines, and this by a heavy
by officers or men, though half of our advance of infantry, brigade after brigade.
troops were exhausted by the conflict of commencing on the enemy's right against
the day. and the rpsidue w{'aried by the the left of our army, and so onward to the
forced marches whieh had brought them left centre. A forward movement of Gen-
to the rescue. The full moon, veiled by eral Sickles, to gain a. commanding posi-
thin clouds, shone down that night on a tion from which to repel the rebel at-
strangely unwonted scene. The silence tack, drew upon him a destructive fire
of the graveyard was broken by the heavy from the enemy's batteries, and a furious
tramp of armed men, by the
igh of the assault from Longstreet's and Hill's ad-
war-horse, the harsh rattle of the wheels vancing troops.
\fter a brave resistance
of artillery hurrying to their stations, oa the part of his corps, he was forcf'd
and all the indescribable tumult of prep- Ì'ack, himself falling severely wounded.
at'ation. The various corps of the army, This was the critical monwnt of the sec-
as they arrived, were moved to their posi- ond day, but the 5th and a part of the
tions, on the spot where we are as- (Jth Corps, with portions of the 1st and
sembled and the ridges that extend south- 2d, were promptly brought to the support
east and southwest; batteries were of the 3d. The struggle was fierce and
planted and breastworks thrown up. The murderous, but by sunset our success was
2d and 5th Corps, with the rest of the decisive, and the enemy was driven back
28;")

EVERETT, EDWARD

ill confusion. The most important ser-
vice was rendered towards the close of the
day, in the memorable advance between
Round Top and Little Round Top, by Gen-
eral Crawford's division of the 5th Corps,
consisting of two brigades of the Pennsyl-
vania Re:òerves, of which one company
was from this town and neighborhood.
The rebel force was driven back with
great IOb3 in killed and prisoners. At
('ìght o'clock in the evening a desperate at-
tempt was made by the enemy to storm
the position of the 11th Corps on Cemetery
Hill; but here, too, after a terrible con-
flict, he was repulsed with immense loss.
Ewell, on our extreme right, which had
been weakened by the withdrawal of the
tlOOpS sent over to snpport our left, had
succeeded in gaining a foothold within a
portion of our lines, near Spangler's

pring. This was the only advantage ob-
tained by the rebels to compensate them
for the disasters of the day, and of this,
as we shall see, they were soon deprived.
Such was the result of the second
act of this eventful drama-a day hard
fought, and at one moment anxious, but,
with the exception of the slight reverse
ju!ot named, crowned with dearly earned
hut uniform success to our arms. auspi-
dous of a glorious termination of the final
stluggle. On these good omens the night
fell.
In the course of the night General Geary
returned to his position on the right, from
which he had hastened the day before to
strengthen the 3d Corps. He immediatel
'
pngag-ed the enemy, and, after a sharp and
dpcÏsive action, drove them out of our
1mb, recovering the ground which had
been lost on thp preceding day. A spirited
ecntest was kept up all the morning 011
this part of the line; but General Geary,
reinforced by Wheaton's brigade of thl'
(jth Corps, maintainl'd his position, and in-
flicted very SP\'ere losses on the r('bels.
Such was the cheering eommencelllPnt
of the third da
"s work. and with it end('d
all serious attempts of the ('npmy on our
right. As on thp prpC'pding day. his pfforts
were now mainly dirf>ct('d a
ainst our
I{-ft centre and left wing. From plp\'en
till half - past one o'C'lock all was still. a
solemn pause of pr('paration. as if both
armies were nerving tlH'ms('lvps for the
supreme pffort. At length the awful

silence, more tenible than the wildest
tumult of battle, was broken by the roar
of 250 pieces of artillery from the op-
posite ridges, joining in a cannonade of
unsurpassed violence - the rebel batter-
ies along two - thirds of their line pour-
ing their fire upon Cemetery Hill and
the centre and left wing of our army.
Having attempted in this wa
' for two
hours, but without success, to shake the
steadiness of our lines, the enemy rallied
hjs fon:t>::> for a last grand assault. Their
attaek \VaM principally directed against
the position of our 2d Corps. Successive
lines of rebel infantry moved forward
with equal spirit and steadiness from
their cover on the wooded crest of

eminary Rid 6 e, cro
"ing the int2rvening
plain, and, supported right and left by
their choicest brigades, charged furiously
up to our batteries. Our own brive troops
of the 2d Corps, supported by Doubleday's
division and Stannard's brigade of the
1st, received the shock with firmness; the
ground on both sides was long and fiercely
contested, and was covered with the killed
and the wounded; the tide of battle flowed
and ebbed across the plain. till, after "a
df'termined and gallant struggle," as it
is pronounced by General Lee, the rebel
advance, consisting of two - thirds of
Hill's corps and the whole of Long-
st reet's, including Piekett's division, the
élitc of his corps, which had not yet b('en
under fire. and was now depended upon
to dpcidp tIle fortune of this last eventful
day. was drivpn back with prodigious
slaughter. discomfited and broken. WhiJe
these events were in progress at our left
cpntre, the enemy was drÏ\-en, with con-
siderable loss of prisoners. from the strong
})osition on ollr extrpme Ipft. from whiC'}l
h(' was annoying our forces on Littlf>
Round Top. Tn OJ(' terrific assault on our
centre Gem-rals Haneock and Gibhon \\"l'r('
woundpd. Tn the reh('l flnn
', G(,Jwrals
Armist('ad. Kemper, PetigTu. and Trimhl('
were \Voundp(1. tll(, first named mortally.
the latter also madp prisoner; Generfll
Garnett was killed, and 3,500 officers and
men made prisoners.
These were the ('xpiring agonies of the
thrpe days' conflict, and with them tha
battle ceas('d. It was fought hy the Union
ann
' with courag(' and skill, from th('
first cavalry skirmish on \Vednesday morn-
if,

EVERETT, EDWARD

ing to the fearful rout of the enem;r on
Friday afternoon, by every arm and every
rank of the service, by officers and men
b;r cavalry, artillery, and infantry. The
superiority of numbers was with the
enemy, who were led by the ablest com-
manders in their service; and if the Union
force had the advantage of a strong posi-
tion, the Confederates had the advantages
of choosing the time and place, the prestige
of former victories over the Army of the
Potomac, and of the success of the first
day. Victory does not always fall to the
lot of those who deserve it, but that so de-
cisive a tI'iumph. under circumstances like
these, was gained by our troops I would
ascribe, unùer Providence, to that spirit of
exalted patriotism that animated them and
a consciousness that they were fighting in
a righteous cause.
All hope of defeating our army, and
securing what General Lee calls "the
valuable results" of such an achieve-
ment having vanished, he thought only of
rescuing from destruction the remains of
his shattered fOI'ces. In killed, wounded,
and misbing he had, as far as can be
ascertained. suffered a loss of about
37,000 men-rather more than one-third
of the army with which he is supposed to
have marched into Pennsvlvania. Per-
ceiving that hiR only safety
was in rapid
retI'eat, he commenced withdrawing his
troops at daybreak on the 4th, throwing
up field-works in front of our left, which,
assuming the appearance of a new posi-
tion. were intended probably to protect
the rear of his army in their retreat.
That day-sad celebration of the 4th of
,Tuly for the army of Americans-was
paRsed hy him in hurrying off his trains.
By nightfall the main army was in full
)"e:treat on the Cashtown and Fairfield
)"f'ads. and it moved with such precipita-
tion that, short as the nights were, by day-
light the following morning. notwithstand-
ing the heavy rain. the rear-g'Uard had left
its position. The struggle of the last two
days rcsemhled in many respects the bat-
tle of \Vaterloo: and if. on the evening of
the third day, General Meade. like the
Duke of Wellington, had had the assist-
ance of a powerful auxiliary army to
take up the pursuit, the rout of the rebels
would han hec>n as complete as that of
};' a poleon.

Owing to the circumstance just named,
the intentions of the enemy were not ap-
parent on the 4th. The moment his re-
treat was discovered, the following morn-
ing, he was pursued by our cavalry on
the Cashtown road and through the
Emmettsburg and
Ionterey passes, and by
Sedgwick's corps on the Fairfield road;
his rear-guard was briskly attacked at
Fairfield; a great number of wagons and
ambulances were captured in the passes
of the mountains; the country swarmed
with his stragglers, and his wounded were
literally emptied from the vehicles con-
taining them into the farm-houses on the
road. General Lee, in his report, makes
repeated mention of the Union prisoners
whom he conveyed into Virginia, some-
what overstating their number. He
states also that" such of his wounded as
were in a condi tion to be removed" were
forwarded to Williams port. He does not
mention that the number of his wounded
which were not removed. and left to the
Christian care of the victors, was 7,540, not
one of whom failed of any attention which
it was possible under the circumstances
of the case to afford them; not one of
whom, certainly, has been put upon Libby
prison fare, lingering death by starva-
tion. Heaven forbid, however. that we
should claim any merit for the exercise of
common humanity!
"Cnder the protection of the mountain
ridge, whose narrow passes are easily
hpld. even by a retreating army, General
T ce reached \Villiamsport in s
fety, and
took up a Rtrong position opposite to that
place. General Meade necessarily pur-
sued with the main army, by a flank
movement, through Middletown. Turner's
Pass having been secured by General
French. Passing through the South

[ountain, the Union anny came up with
that of the rebels On the 12th, and found
it securely posted on the heights of
:Marsh Run. The position was recon-
noitred, and preparation made for an
attack on the 13th. The depth of the
river, swollen by the recent rains, au-
tl
ori7.ed the expectation that the enemy
w('uld he brought to a general engagement
the following day. An advance was ac-
cordingly made by General :Meade on thE!
mt'rning of the 14th; but it was soon
fc-und that the rebels had escaped in the

q7

EVERETT, EDWARD

night with such haste that Ewell's nature of the case admits, at 23,000.
corps forded the river where the water General Meade also captured three can-
was breast high. The cavalry, which had non and forty-one standards, and 24,978
rendered the most important services small-arms were collected on the battle-
during the three da
's, and in harassing field.
the enemy's retreat, was now sent in pur- I must leave to others, who can do it
suit, and captured two guns and a large from personal observation, to describe the
number of prisoners. In an action which mournful spectacle presented by these hill-
Ü,ok place at Falling River, General Peti- s;des and plains at the close of the terri-
gru was mortally wounded. General He conflict. It was a saying of the Duke
Meade, in further pursuit of the rebels, of Wellington that, next to a defeat, thê
crossed the Potomac at Ber]in. Thus saddest thing is a victory. The horrors of
again covering the approaches to Wash- the battle-field after the contest is -over,
ington, he compelled the enemy to pass the sights and sounds of woe-let me
the Blue Ridge at one of the upper gaps; throw a pall over the scene, which no
nnd in about six weeks from the com- words can adequately depict to those who
mencement of the campaign General Lee have not witne8sed it, and on which
found himself again on the south side of no one who has a heart in his bosom
the Rappahannock, with the probable loss can bear to dwell. One drop of balm
of about a third part of his army. alone, one drop of heavenly, ]ife - giving
Such, most inadl'quately recounted, is balm, mingles in this bitter cup of misery.
the history of the ever-memorable three Scarcely had the cannon ceased to roar
days, and of the events immpdiately pre- when the brethren and sisters of Chris-
('('ding and fol1owing. It has been pre- tian benevolence, ministers of compas-
tended, in order to diminish the magni- sion, angels of pity, hasten to the field
tude of this disaster to the rebel cause, and the hospita.l to moisten the parched
that it was merely the repulse of an at- tongue, to bind the ghastly wounds, to
tack on a strongly defpnded position. The soothe the parting agony alike of frieJ1d
tremendous losses on both sides are a and foe, and to catch the last whispered
'i'lfficient answer to this misrepresenta- nJ('ssages of love from dying lips. "Carry
tion, and attest the courage and obstinacy thi8 miniature back to my dear wife, but
with which, in three days, battle was do not take it from my bosom till I am
waged. Few of the great conflicts of gone." "Tell my little sister not to grieve
nlodern times have cost victors and ,'an- for me; I am willing to die for my coun-
quished so great a sacrifice. On the try." "Oh that my mother were llere!"
Pnion side there f('lI, in the whole cam- \Yhen, since Aaron stood between the Jiv-
paign, of generals kil1ed, TIeynolds, \Veed, ing and the dead, were there e"er so gra-
and Zook, and wounded, Barlow, Barnes, cious a ministry as this! It has been sairl
Butterfield, Doubleday, Gibbon, Graham, that it is characteristic of Americans to
Hancock, Sickles, and \\"arren; while of treat women with a deference not paid to
officers below the rank of general, and them in any other country. I wm not un-
nlm, there were 2.834 kil1ed, 1
.709 dertake to say whether this is so; but I
,;-ounded, and G.G43 missing. On the Con- will say that, since this terrible war ha!"
f('derate side tl\(>re were killed on the heen waged. the women of the lo.val State...
fi('1d, or mortal1y wounded, Generals if ne"er before, have entitled themselves
.\rmistead, Barksdale, Garnett, Pender, to our highest admiration and gratitude.
]><::tigru. and Semmes, and wounded, And now, friends. fpl1ow-citizpns. as we
Hf'th, Hood, Johnson, Kemper, Kimball, stand among these honored gran's, the
and Trimble. Of officers below the rank momentous question presents itself, which
(If general, and men. there wpre taken of the two parties to the war is respon-
prisoners, including the wounded. 1
.G
l. sible for all this suffering. for the dr('ad-
a number ascertained oftìcially. Of the ful sacrifice of life-the lawful and eon-
wounded in a condition to be removed, of stituted government of the United States.
the killed, and of the missing, the enemy or the ambitious men who have rebelled
has made no return. They were esti- against it? I say" rebelled" against it,
m:
ted. from the best data which the ..,1tÞough 'Earl Russell. the British secre-
:!

EVJ:BE'tT, EDW AJ\:D

tary of Bta te for foreign affairs, in his l'e- ministry. had blought lU8 head to the
cent temperate and conciliatory speech in block and iln-oh ed the country in a
Scotland, seems to intimate that no prej- de::;olating war for the sake of dismember-
udice ought to attach to that word, in- ing it and establishing a new government
asmuch as our English forefathers re- south of the Trent? What would have
bdled against Charles I. and James II., bEen thought of the Whigs of lG88 if
and our Ameri('an fathers rebelled against they had themselves composed the cabinet
George III. These certainly are vener- of James II., and been the advisers of the
8 ble precepts, but they prove only that it measures and the promoters of the policy
i5 just and proper to rebel against op- which drove him into exile? The Puri-
pressive governments. They do not prove tans of 16-10
:nd the 'Vhigs of lGSR re-
that it was just and proper for the son belled against arbitrary power in order to
of James II. to rebel against George I.; establish constitutional liberty. If they
or his grandson, Charles Edward, to rebel had ris(>n ag::Jinst Charles and James be-
against George II.; nor, as it seems to me, cause those monarchs favored equal rights,
ought these dynastic struggles, little bet- and in order thcmseh'es " for the first time
ter than family quarrels, to be compared in the history of the world" to establish
with this monstrous conspiracy against an oligarchy "founded on the corner-
the American Union. These precedents do stone of slavery," they would truly have
not prove that it was just and proper for furnished a precedent for the rebels
the "disappointed great men" of the of the South, but their cause would not
cotton-growing States to rebel against" the have been sustained by the eloquence of
most beneficent government of which his- Pym or of Somers, nor sealed with the
tory gives us any account," as the Vice- blood of Hampden or Russell.
President of the Confederacy, in Novem- I call the war which the Confederates
ber, 1860, charged them with doing. They are waging against the rnion a "re-
cl,o not create a presumption even in favor bellion," because it is one, and in grave
of the disloyal slave-holders of the South, matters it is best to call things by their
who, living under a government of which right names. J speak of it as a crime,

Ir. Jefferson Davis, in the session of because the Constitution of the United
18GO-61, said that it was "the best gov- States so regards it, and puts" rebellion"
ernment ever instituted by man, unex- on a par with" inn1.sion." The constitu-
ceptionally administered, and under which tion and law, not only of England, but
the people have been prosperous be)'ond of every civilized country, regards them
comparison with any other people whose in the same light; or, rather, they con-
career has been recorded in history," re- sider the rebel in arms as far worse than
lwlled again!".t it because their aspiring the alien enemy. To levy war against
politicians, himself among the rest, were the l7nited States is the constitutional
in danger of losing their monopoly of its definition of treason, and that crime is
offices. What would have been thought by every civilized government regarded as
hy an impartial posterity of the Ameri- the highest which citizen or subject can
can rebellion against George III. if the commit. Not content with the sanction
colonists had at all times been more than of human justice, of all the ('rimes
equally represented in Parliament. and against the law of the land it is singled
.Tames Otis and Patrick Henry and Wash- out for the denunciation of religion. The
ington and Franklin and the Adamses litanies of every church in Christendom
and_ Haneock and Jefferson, and men of whose ritual embnlc(>s that office, as far
their stamp, had for two generations en- as J am aware, from the metropolitan
joyed the confidence of the sovereign and cathedrals of Europe to the humblest mis-
administered the government of the em- sion chapels in the i:;lands of the sea,
pire? What would have been thought of concur with the Church of England in
the rebellion against Charles r. if Crom- imploring the Sm'ereign of the universe,
well and the men of his school had heen by the most awful adjurations which the
the responsible advisers of that prin('e heart of man can conceiYe or his tongue
from his accession to the throne, and then, utter, to " deliver us from sedition. privy
on account of a partial change in the conspiracy, and rebellion." And reason
III.--T 2S!)

EVERETT, EDWARD

good; for while a rebellion against unions at the foot of foreign thrones, to
tyranny - a rebellion designed, aft('r bring on civil and foreign war, anarchy
prostrating arbitrary power, to establish at home, dictation abroad, desolation,
free government on the basis of justice ruin-by equal reason, I saY-J'es, a thou-
and truth-is an enterprise on which sand-fold stronger-shall they inherit the
good men and angels may look with com- execrations of the ages.
placency, an unprovoked rebellion of am- But to hide the deformity of the crime
bitious men against a beneficial govern- under the cloak of that sophistry which
ment, for the purpose-the avowed pur- strives to make the worse appear the het-
pose--of establishing, extending, and per- ter reason, we are told by the leaders of
petuating any form of injustice and the rebellion that in our complex system
wrong, is an imitation on earth of that of government the separate States are
foul revolt of "the infernal serpent" "sovereign," and that the central power
against which the Supreme Majesty of is only an "agency" established by those
heaven sent forth the armed myriads of sovereigns to manage certain little af-
His angels, and clothed the right arm of fairs, such, forsooth, as pe:lce, war, army,
His Son with the three-bolted thunders of navy, finance, territory, and relations
omnipotence. with the native tribes, which they could
Lord Bacon, in the "true marshaIling not so conveniently administer themselves.
of the sovereign decrees of honor," assigns It happens, unfortunately for this theory,
the first place to the conditores impe- that the federal Constitution (which has
riorum - founders of states and common- been adopted by the people of every State
wealths: and, truly, to build up from of the Union as much as their own State
the discordant elements of our nature- constitutions have been adopted, and is
the passions. the interests, and the opin- declared to be paramount to them) no-
ions of the individual man, the rivalries where recognizes the States as "so\'er-
of family. clan, and tribe, the influence of eigns "-in fact, that by their names it
climate and geographical position, the ac- does not recogni7c th('m at all; while the
cidents of peace and war accumulated for authority established by that instrument
ages-to build up from these oftentimes is recognized. in its text, not as an
warring elements a well-compacted, pros- "aaencv" but as "the C'fovcrnment of the
perous, and powerful state, if it were to United. 'States." By that Constitution,
be accomplished by one effort or in one moreover, which purports in its preamble
generation would require a more than to be ordained and established by "the
mortal skill. To contribute in some noh- people of the rnited States," it is ex-
ble degree to this, the greatest work of pressly provided that "the members of
man. by wise and patriotic counsel in the State lef!'islatures, and all executive
peace and loyal heroism in war, is as high and judicial officers, shall be bound by
as human merit can well rise; and far oath or affirmation to support the Con-
more than to any of those to whom Bacon stitution." Kow it is a common thing,
a!'\!".igns this highest place of honor, whose under all governments, for an agent to he
names can hardly be repeated without bound by oath to b(' faithful to his so\'er-
u wondering !'\mile - Romulus, Cyrus, eign; but [ never heard before of so\'er-
Cæsar, Gothman, Ismael-it is due to our eigns being bound hy oath to be faithful
\Va!'\hington as the founder of the Ameri- to their agency.
can rnion. Rut if to achieve, or help to Certainly I do not deny that the sepa-
achieve. this grcatest work of man's wis- rate States are clothed with sovereign
dolO and virtue gives title to a place powers for the administration of local
among the chi('f henefactors. rightful heiro;a affairs; it io one of the most beautiful
of the heDediC'tioDs of mankind. by equal features of (Jur mixed system of govern-
reason shall the hold, bad men who seek ment. But it is equally true that, in
to undo the nnble work-eversores imperi-
dopting the fcderal Constitution, the
Orton, df'stroYf'rs of states, who for base Rtates ahdicated by express renunciation
and selfish ends rebel against beneficent all the most important functions of na-
governments, seek to overturn wise con- tional sovereignty, and, by one compre-
stitntions. to lay powerful republican hensive, self-denying clause, gave up all
290

EVERETT, EDWARD

right to cOlltra.\"ene the Constitution of thc States in forming the Conl!ltitution
the United Statcs. Specifically, and by delegated to the United States, and pro-
enumeration, they renounced all the most hibited to themselves, the power of declar-
important prerogatives of independent ing war, there was by implication reserved
States for peace and for war-the right to each State the right of seceding and
to keep troops or ships - of - war in time of tlJen declaring war; that, though they ex-
peace, or to engage in war unless actu- pressly prohibited to the States and dele-
ally invaded; to enter into compact with gated to the United States the entire
another State or a foreign power; to lay bE-aty-making power, they reserved by im-
any duty on tonnage or any impost on ex- plication (for an express reservation i'3
ports or imports without the consent of nd pretended) to the individual States-
Congress; to enter into any treaty, aUi- to Florida, for instance-the right to se-
ance, or confederation, to grant letters of cede, and then to make a treaty with
marque 01' reprisal, and to emit bills of Spain retroceding that Spanish colony, and
credit; while all these powers and many thus surrendering to a foreign power the
others are expressly vested in the general key to the Gulf of Mexico-to maintaiq
government. To ascribe to political com- propositions like these, with whatever af-
munities, thus limited in their jurisdic- fected scriousness it is done, appears to
tion, who cannot even establish a post- mc egregious trifling.
office on their own soil, the character of Pardon me, my friends, for dwelling on
independent sovereignty, and to reduce a these wretched sophistries. But it is these
national organization, clothed with all which conducted the armed hosts of re-
the transcendent powers of government, belJion to
Tour doors on the terrible and
to the name and condition of an "agency" glorious days of July, and which have
oi the States, proves nothing but that brought upon the whole land the scourge
the logic of secession is on a par with its of an aggressive and wicked war-a war
loyalty and patriotism. which can have no other termination com-
Oh, but the "reserved rights"! And patible with the permanent safety and
what of the reserved rights? The Tenth welfare of the country but the complete
Amendment of the Constitution, supposed destruction of the military power of the
to provide for "reserved rights," is con- enemy. I have, on other occasions, at-
stantlJ' misquoted. By that amendment tempted to show that to yield to his de-
"the powers not delegated to the United mands and acknowledge his independence,
States by the Constitution, nor prohibited thus resolving the "Cnion at once into two
by it to the States, are reserved to thp. hostile governments, with a certainty of
State!'! respectively, or to the people." The further disintegration, would annihilate
" powers" reserved must of course be such the strength and the influence of the coun-
as could have hcen, but were not, delegated try as a member of the family of nations;
to the ünited States-could have been, but afford to foreign powers the opportunity
were not. p.'ohibited to the States; but to and the temptation for humiliating and
s}lpak of the right of an individual State disastrous interference in our affairs;
to secede, as a power that could have been. wrest from the Middle and \Vestern Sta-teg
though it was not, delegated to the Unit- some of their great natural outlets to the
ed States. is simply nonsense. sea and of their most important lines of
But, waiving this obvious absurdity, can internal communication; deprive the com-
it need a serious argument to prove that merce and navigation of the country of
there can be no State right to enter into two-thirds of our sea-coast and of the
a new confederation reserved under a con- f()rtresses which protect it; not only so,
stitution which expressly prohibits a State but would cnable each individual State-
to " enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- some of them with a white population
federation," or any" agreement or com- equal to a good-sized northern county; or
pact with another State or a foreign rather the dominant party in each State,
power"? To say that the State may, by to cede its territory, its ha.rbors, its fort-
enacting the preliminary farce of secession, resses, the mouths of its rivers, to any
acquire the right to do the prohibited foreign power. It cannot be that the peo.
things-to ....y, for instance, that thoug'h pIe of the Joyal States-that 22,000,000 of
291

EVERETT, EDW AE.D

braye and IH'osperous freemen-will, for Gadsdens, the Rutledges, and the Cotc
.
the temptations of a brief truce in an worth Pinckneys, of the Hevolutionary
eternal border war, consent to this hideow; and constitutional age, to follow the agi-
national suicide. tators of the present day.
Do not think that I e:o..aggerate the .Kor must we be deterred from the
conscquences of yielding to the dcmands vigorous prosecution of the war by the
of the leadcrs of the rcbellion. I under- su;!gestion continually thrown out by the
state them. They require of us, not only rebels, and those who sympathize with
all the E"lcrifices I have named, not only them, that, however it might have been
the cession to them, a foreign and hostile at an earlier stage, there has been en-
pcwer, of all the tenitory of the Lnited gmdered by the operations of the war a

tates at present occupied by the rebel state of exasperation and bitterne!'\s
forces, but the abandonment to tllem which, independent of all reference to the
of the ,'ast regions we have re
cued from original nature of the matters in coñ-
their grasp-of }'Iarylaml, of a part of troversy, will forever prevent the restora-
eastern Virginia, and the whole of west- tion of the "Lnion and the return of har-
un Virginia; the !'\ea-coast of Xorth and mony between the two great sections of
South Carolina, Georgia, amI Florida; thc c01mtQ-. This opinion I take to be
Kentucky, Tenneb:,ee, and
lissouri; Ar- entirely without foundation.
....ansas and the larger port ion of
Iis- No man can deplore more tItan I do
!;i
sippi, Louisiana, and Tcxas-in most the miseries of every kind unavoidably in-
oì which, with the exception of lawless cident to the war. \Vho could !'\tand on
guerillas, there is not a reùel in arms; this spot and call to mind the scenes of
in all of which the great majority of the th(' first days of July without any feeling'?
p(.ople are loyal to the Lnion. A sad foreùoding of what "ould ensue, if
\Ye must give back, too, the helpless war should break out between Korth and
colored population, thousands of whom
outh, has haunted me through lifc, and
nre perilling their lives in the ranks of led me, perhaps too long, to tread in the
our armies, to a bondage rendered t('nfold path of hopeless compromise, in the fond
more bitter by the momentary enjoynwnt endeavor to conciliate those who were pre-
of freedom. FinaJIy, we must surren- determined not to be conciliated.
der every man in the southern country, But it is not true, as it is pretendcd by
white or black, who has moved a finger the rebels and their s)'mpathizers, that
or spoken a word for the restoration of the war has been carried on by th('
the Lnion, to a reign of terror as re- rnited States without entire rcgard to
morseless as tllat of Robespierre, which those temperaments which are enjoyed by
has been the chief instrument by which the law of nations, by our modern civ-
the rebellion has been organi7ed and sus- i1i7ation. and by the !'pirit of Christianity.
tained, and which has already filled the It would be quite easy to point out. in the
pI'isons of the South with noble men, recent military history of the leading
whose only crime is that they are not European powers, acb
of violcnce and
the worst of criminals. The South is cruelty in the prosecution of their wars
full of such men. to which no parallel can be found among
I do not believe there has been a day us. In fact, when we consid('r the pccul-
since the election of President Lincoln inr bitterness with which civil war
are
when, if an ordinance of sece!'
ion could f\lmost invariably wa
cd, we must justly
have been fairly suhmitted, after a free boast of th(' manner in which the Unit('d
discus!-ion, to Uw mas!- of the people in Sta t('s have carried on the contcst.
any single Southern
tate, a majority of It is, of course, impos:-õihle to pr(',-ent
ballots would have b(,l'n given in its favor. the lawless acts of stra}!glers and desert-

o; not in South Carolina. It is not ers, or the occa
ional unwarrantable pro-
possible that the majority of the p('ople, ceedings of subordinat('s on distant sÌ'l-
e,'en of that State, if permitted, without tions: but I do not believe there is in all
fear or favor. to give a ballot on the ques- history the record of a civil war of such
tion, would have abandoned a leader likt' p:igantic dimensions where so little has
Petigru, and an the lUcmorie,., of the bt't'n done in thp spirit of vindiC'tiveness
2U2

EVERETT, EDWARD

as in this war, by the government and ring with his neighbor. But it is not eo;
commanders of the enited States; and all history teaches a different lesson.
this notwithstanding the provocation given The Wars of the Roses in England la.sted
by the rebel government by assum- an entire generation, from the battle of
ing the responsibility of wretches like Sl. Albans, in 145.3, to that of Bosworth
Quantrell, refusing quarter to colored Field, in 1485. Speaking of the former,
troops, and scourging and selling into Hume says: "This was the first blood
slavery free colored men from the Korth spilt in that fatal quarrel, which was not
who fell into their hands, hy covering the finished in less than a course of thirty
sea with pirates, refusing a just exchange ;rears; which was signalized by twelve
of prisoners, while they crowded their pitched battles; which opened a scene of
armies with paroled prisoners not ex- extraordinary fierceness and cruelty; is
changed, and starving prisoners of war to computed to have cost the lives of eighty
death. princes of the blood; and almost entirely
In the next place, if there are any pres- annihilated the ancient nobility of Eng-
ent who believe that, in addition to the land. The strong attachments which, at
effect of the military operations of the that time, men of the same kindred bore
war, the confiscation acts and emanci- to each other, and the vindictive spirit
pat ion proclamations have embittered the which was considered a point of honor,
}"(.be] beyond the possibilit
, of reeoncilia- rendered the great families implacable in
tion, I would request them to reflect that their resentments, and widened every mo-
the tone of the rebel leaders and rebel ment of the breach between the parties."
press was just as bitter in the first f;uch was the state of things in England
months of the war, nay, before a gun was under which an entire generation grew
fired, as it is now. There were speeches up; but when Henry VII., in whom the
IP..ade in Congress, in the very last session titles of the two houses were united. went
before the outbreak of the rebellion, so up to London after the battle of Bosworth
ferocious as to show that their authors Field, to mount the throne, he was every-
were under the influence of a rea] frenzy. where received with joyous acclamations,
At the present day, if there is any dis- "as one ordained and sent from heaven
crimination made by the Confederate press to put an end to the dissensions" which
in the affected scorn. hatred, and contume- had so long afflicted the country.
l;r with which every shade of opinion and The great rebellion in "England of the
sentiment in the Joyal States is treated, seventeenth century, after long and angry
the bitterest contempt is he stowed upon premonitions, may be said to have begun
those at the North who still !>'peak the "ith the calling of the Long Parliament.
language of compromise, and who con- in Hî40, and to have ended with the re-
dt'mn those measures of the administration turn of Charles II., in lGGO; twenty years
which are alleged to have rendered the oi discord, conflict, and civil war; of con-
return of peace hopeless. fi5eation, plunder, havoc; a proud heredi-
Xo, my friends, that gracious Provi- tary peerage trampled in the dust; a na-
dence which overrules all things for the tional Church overturned, its clergy
best. "from seeming evil still educing hpggared. its most eminent prelate put
good," has so constituted our natures tll death; a military despotism estab-
that the violcnt excitement of the passions lished on the ruins of a monarchy which
in one direction is generally followed by Þ.ad subsisted iOn
7ears, and the legiti-
a. reaction in an opposite direction, and mate Rovereign brought to the b]ock; the
the sooner for the violence. If it were great familips which adhered to the King
not so, if injuries inflicted and retaliated proscribed, impoverished, ruined; prison-
of necessity ]ed to new retalhtions, with ers of war-a fate worse than stan'ation
forever accumulating compound interest in Lihb
'-solù to slavery in the 'Yest
of revenge, then the world. thousands of Indies; in a word, everything that can
years ago, would have been turned into embitter and madden contending factions.
an earthly hell, and the nations of the SII(']1 was the state of things for twenty
earth would have heen resolved into clans years; and yet, hy no gentle transition,
of furies and demons, each forever war- hut fluddenly, and .. when the restoration
203

EVERETT, EDWARD

of affairs appeared hopeless," the son of troversies in that country at the present
the beheaded sovereign was brought back day, but they grow mainly out of the
to his father's blood-stained throne, with rivalry of the two leading powers. There
such "unexpressible and univcrsal joy" is no country in the world in which the
as led the merry monarch to exclaim, sC'ntiment of national brotherhood is
"He doubted it had been his own fault stronger.
he had becn absent !'\o long, for he saw In Italy, on the breaking up of the
nobod
' who did not protest he had ever Roman Empire, socicty might be said
wished for his return." "Ill this won- tù be resolnd into its original elements-
derful manner," sa
's Clarendon. "and into hostile atoms, whose onl
' movement
with this incredible expedition, did God was that of mutual repulsion. Ruthless
put an end to a rebellion that had raged barbarians had destl"O
'ed the old organi-
for twenty years, and had been carried zntions, and covered the land with a mer-
on with all the horrible circumstances of ciless feudalism. As the new cÍ\'ilization
murder, devastation, and parricide that grew up, under the wing of the Church.
fire and sword in the hands of the most the noble families and the walled towns
witked men in the world [it is a royalist fell madly into conflict with each other j
that is speaking] could be instruments the secular fcud of pope and emperor
of, almost to the devastation of two king- scourged the land; province again::;t pro\'-
doms, and the exceeding defacing and de- ince, city against city, street against
forming of the third. . . . By these street, waged remorseless war with eaeh
remarkable steps did the merciful hand other from father to son, till Dante was
of God, in this short space of time, not able to fill his imaginary hcll with the
only bind up and heal all those wounds, r('al demons of Italian history. So fero-
but even made the scar as indiscernible cious had the factions become that the
as, in respect of the deepness, was pos- great poet-exile himself, thc glory of his
sible. which was a glorious addition to native city and of his native language,
the deliverance." was. by a dccree of the municipality, con-
In Germany the wars of the Reforma- demned to be burned alive if found in the>
tion and of Charles Y., in the sixteenth city of Florence. But these deadlv feuds
century, the Thirty Years' War in the and hatreds yielded to political influence!'\,
seventeenth century, the Seven Years' as the hostile cities were grouped into
\\'ar in t,he eighteenth century, not to states under stable governmpnt!'\: the Jin-
speak of other less celebrated contests, gforing traditions of the ancient animosities
entailed upon that country all the mis- gradually dipd away, and now Tu!'\can and
e!"Íes of intestine strife for more than Lombard, Sardinian and Neapolitan, as
three centuries. At the close of the last- if to shame the degenerate sons of Amer-
named war-which was the shortest of ica, are joining in one cry for a unitcd
all, and waged in the most civilized age- Italy.
.. an officer," says Archenholz, "rode In France, not to go ha.ck to tlle civil
through seven villages in Hesse, and wars of the League in the !'\Ìxteenth cpn-
found in them but one human being." tury and of the Fronde in the sew'ntpenth :

fore than 300 principalities, compre- not to speak of the dreadful !òC'enp!'\
hended in the empire, fermented with the throughout the kingdom which followed
fierce passions of proud and petty states; th2 revocation of the edict of Xantes; we
at the commencement of this period the }Iave, in the gn.at revolution which com-
castles of robber-counts frowned upon lTIenced at the ('lo!'\e of the last century.
en'ry hill-top j a dreadful secret tribunal seen the hlood-hounds of eivil strife let
whose seat no one knew, whose power loose as rarely before in the hi!'tor
' of the
none could escape, froze the heart!'\ of world. The reign of tprror estahli!'\hed at
men with terror through the land; relig. Paris stretched its hloody Hriarpan arm"
ious hatrcd mingled its bitter poison in to e\"Cry city and village in the land: and
the seething caldron of provincial ani- if the mo!'\t deadlyfeud!'\ which e\"pr dividf'd
n:osity; but of all these deadly enmities S) peopl(' had the power to muse permanf'ut
hctwccn the states of Germany sC'arC'ely ali('nation and hatred, thi!'\ !'\urelv wa!'\ the
the mcmory remains. There are con- occasion. Hut far otherwise the' fact. In
2!14

EVERETT, EDWARD

se,'en years from the fall of Robespierre. ical features of the country; the mighty
the strong arm of the youthful conqueror rivers that cross the lines of climate, and
brought order out of this chaos of crime thus facilitate the interchange of natural
and woe; Jacobins whose hands were and industrial products. while the won-
scarcely cleansed from the best blood of der-working arm of the engineer has
France met the returning emigrants, levelled the mountain-walls which sepa-
whose estates they had confiscated and rate the East and the West, compelling
whose kindred they had dragged to the your own Alleghanies, my ::\Iaryland and
guillotine in the imperial ante-chambers; Pennsylvania friends, to open wide their
and when, after another turn of the wheel- everlasting doors to the chariot-wheels of
of. fortune, Louis XVIII. was restored to traffic and tra'-el-these bonds of union
his throne, he took the regicide Fouché, are of perennial force and energy, while
who had voted for his brother's death, to the causes of alienation are factitious
his cabinet and confidence. and transient. The heart of the people,
The people of loyal America will never North and South, is for union. Indica-
ask you, sir, to take to your confidence or tions, too plain to be mistaken, announce
admit again to share in the government the fact, both in the east and the west
the hard-hearted men whose cruel lust of of the States in rebeJJion. In North
power has brought this desolating war Carolina and Arkansas the fatal charm
upon the land, but there is no personal at length is broken. At Raleigh and Lit-
bitterness felt even again
t them. They tle Rock the lips of honest and brave men
may live, if they can bear to live after are unsealed, and an independent press is
wantonly causing the death of so many unlimbering its artillery. "'hen its rifled
of their fellow-men; they may live in safe cannon shall begin to roar, the hosts of
obscurity beneath the shelter of the gov- treasonable sophistry. the mad delusions
ernment they have sought to overthrow, of the day, will fly like the rebel army
or they may fly to the protection of the through the pas!'\es of yonder moun-
governments of Europe-some of them are tain. The weary masses of the people are
already there seeking, happily in vain, to yearning to see the dear old flat:{ again
obtain the aid of foreign power in fur- floating upon their capitols, and they sigh
therance of their own treHson. There let for the return of the peace, prosperity,
them stay. The humblest dead soldier and happiness which they enjoyed under
that lies cold and stiff in his grave before a government whose power was felt only
us is an object of envy beneath the clods ill its blessing!'\.
that co,-er him in comparison with the And now, friends, fellow-citizens of
living man-I care not with what trump- Gettysburg and Pennsylvania, and you
ery credentials he may be furnished-who from remote States, let me again, as we
is willing to grovel at the foot of a for- part, invoke your benediction on these
eign throne for assistance in compassing honored gra,-es. You feel, though the oc-
the ruin of his country. ca!'\ion i!'\ mournful, that it is good to hc
Rut the hour is coming, and now is, here. You feel that it was greatly au-
when the powers of the leaders of the re- spicious for the cause of the country that
belli on to delude and inflame must cease. the men of the East and the men of the
There is no bitterness on the part of the \Vest, the men of nineteen sister States,
masses. The people of the South are not stood side by side on the perilous riùges
going to wage an eternal war for the of the hattle. You now feel it is a new
wretched pretexts by which this rebellion hond of union that they shall lie side
is sought to be justified. The bonds that hy !'\ide till a clarion. louder than that
unite us as one people, a substantial com- which marshalled them to the combat,
munity of origin, language, belief, and shall awake their slumbers. God bless
law (the four great ties that hold the the Cnion; it is dearer to us for the blood
societies of men together); common na- of the brave men which has been shed in
tional and political interests; a common itq defence. The spot!'\ on which they
hi!'\tory: a common pride in a glorious stood and fen; the!'\c plea sant lwights;
ancestry; a eommon interest in this great the fertile plains henea th them: th(' thriv-
heritage of blessings; the very geograph- ing village whose streets so lately rang
295

EVERTSEN-EWING

with the strange din of war; the fields
beyond the ridge,' where the noble
Re)'nolds held the advancing foe at bay,
and. while he gave up his own life, as-
sured by his forethought and self-sacri-
fice the triumph of the two succeeding
da
's; the little Rtream which winds
through the hills, on whose b1.nkR in after
time the wondering ploughman will turn
up the fearful missiles of modern artil-
lery; Seminary Ridge, the Peach Orchard,
Cemetery, Culp and "'oU Hill, Round
Top, Little Round Top-humble names,
henceforward dear and famous, no la pse
of time, no distance of Rpace, shall cause
you to be forgotten. "The whole earth,"
said Pericles, as he stood over the remains
of his fellow-citizens who had fallen in
the first year of the Peloponnesian War,
"the whole earth is the sepuI('hre of il-
lustriou!'! men." All time, he might have
added, is the millennium of their glory.
Surely I would do no injustice to the
other noble achievements of the war,
which have reflected such honor on both
arms of the service, and have entitled
the armies and the navy of the rnit('d

tates, their officers and men, to the
warmest thanks and the richest rewards
which a grateful people can pay. Rut
they, I am sure, will join us in saying,
as we bid farewell to the dust of thpse
martyr heroes, that whcresoever through-
out the civilized world the accounts of
this great warfare are read, and down to
the latest period of recorded time, in the
p:lorious annals of our common country
there will be no brightpr page than that
which rclates the battlcs of {iettysburg. moted to major-general in HHì2; and was
Evertsen, COR"i'ELlS, naval officer; born eonRpicuous in the Shenandoah Yallpy. in
in Zealand. In lGj3 he was dcspatched the hattles near Richmond. :\[alwm Hill,
against thp "English colonies in America. Ccdar Mountain, Gettysburg, th(' Wildf'r-
He capturcd or destro
'ed a large number neRS. SpottRylnmia C'ourt-hou!'p. and dur-
of ships from Yirginia to Staten IRland. ing the sipge of PeterRburg. In the nATTJ.

where he arrived on Aug. 7. He demand- OF (jROVETO
(q. "'.) he IORt a leg, and
ed the surrender of K('w York Cit
., and in )Ia
'. 1863. was made lieutenant-gen-
the next day, Aug. 8, he landed GOO men. eral. He was engaged in Rtock-raising in
to whom the fort was surrendered. tll(' Spring Hill. Tenn., at the time of his
nritish garriRon heing allowed to march death, Jan. 21). lR72.
out with the honors of war. He renamed Ewing, Hnm ROYLE, military officer;
the city l\"pw Orange and reorganized the horn in Lan('aRt('r, 0., 0('1. :n, lR2(ì; son
government upon the old Dutch lines, and of Thomas Ewing; studied in the rnited
after proclaiming Captain Colve governor Statf's :\filitary Academy; wpnt to ('ali-
hp sailed for Holland. fomia in lR4!); returned to T
ancaster in
Ewell, nEX.TA'[I
STODDFRT, educator; 18!i2; :md h('
an the pra('tif"(, of law. In
horn in \Vashington, D. C., .Tune 10. 1810; ISGI hI' ('nt,'n.,1 tJlI' Kational army as
2f1fi

graduated at the 'L"nited States Mili-
tary Academy in 1832; Professor of
:Mathematics at Hampden-Sidney College
in 1840-4G; profesbor of the same and act-
ing president of William and
lary College
in 1848-54. He opposed sccession until
the Civil \\'ar opened, when he hecame a
colonel in the Confederate army. After
the war he used all his influence to
promote reconstruction. He died in Jaul<'s
City, Ya., June 21, 18B4.
Ewell, RICHARD STODDERT, military
officer; born in Georgetown, D. C., Feb.
8, 1817; graduated at West Point in
18-10; served in the 1\Ie:\.ican \Yar, and
received the brevet of captain. He joined
the Confederate army in 18G1; was pro-

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RJCHARD
TODDERT EWELL.

EWING-EXCISE

brigadier-inspector of Ohio volunteers; nia soon after its enactment, and when
promoted brigadier-general Kov. 29, 1862; steps were taken for its enforcement.
brevetted major-general in 1865. His pub- The law was disregarded, indictments
lications include 'l'he Grand Ladron: A were found against a number of distillers,
Tale of Early ('alifornia. etc. and thirty warrants were issued, which
Ewing, JAMES, military officer; born the marshal of the district undertook to
in Lancaster, Pa., Aug. 3, 1736; was serve. He had served twenty-nine of
chosen a brigadier-general of Pennsylvania them, when he and the inspector of the
troops, July 4, 1776. After the war he district were fired upon by some armed
was vice-president of Pennsylvania for men and compelled to fly for their lives.
two years; then a member of the As- They assailed the inspector's house, and
sembly and State Senator. He died in an appeal to the militia was in vain. A
Hellam, Pa.,
'[arch 1, 1806. small detachment of soldiers was obtained
Ewing, THOJ',IAS, statesman; born near from the neigh boring garrison of Fort
West Liberty, Va., Dec. 28, 1789. While Pitt (Pittsburg). The next morning
still a child his father removed to Ohio, ( July 17, 1794) 500 assailants appeared.
where he settled on the Muskingum River. One man was kiJIed, the buildings were
Thomas was educated at the Ohio Uni- burned, and the officers of the law were
versity; admitted to the bar in 1816; and driven out of Pittsburg and compelled to
elected United States Senàtor from Ohio liee for their lives down the Ohio River.
as a Whig and a follower of Henry Clay in The mob were led by .John Holcroft, who
1831. In 1841 he was appointed Secretary af'sumed the name of Tom the Tinker.
of the Treasury; in 1849 Secretary of the Leading politicianI'! took part in a pub-
Interior; and in 1850 was again elected lic meeting at Mingo Creek Meeting-house
to the United States Senate, succeeding (July 23), who were disposed to make com-
Thomas Corwin. During this term he op- mon cause with the rioters. They fina1ly
posed the Fugitive Slave Law bill and also agreed to caU a convention of delegates
advocated the abolition of slavery in the from all the townships west of the moun-
District of Columbia. In 1851 he resumed tains, and from the adjoining counties of
law practice in Lancaster, 0., where he Maryland and Virginia, to meet in three
died Oct. 2ft, lR71. weeks at Parkinson's Ferry, on the
Exchange, BILLS OF. See BILLS OF Monongahela. A few days afterwards the
EXCHAXGE. mail from Pittslmrg to Philadelphia was
Excise, FIRST. The first bill to impose intercepted and robbed. Two leading poli-
a tax on liquors was introduced into the ticians - Bradford and Marsha1l - con...
Congress at the beginning of 1791, .on the cerned in this rohhery forthwith addresseò.
n.commendation of Alexander Hamilton, a circular letter to the officers of the
then Secretary of the Treasury. As finally militia of the western counties, stating
pasi'ed, it imposed upon all imported that letters in the rifled mail revealed im-
spirits a duty varying from 25 to 40 cents portant secrets, which made it necessary
per ga1lon. according to strength. The for the military to act, and ca1led upon
('
cise to be collected on domestic spirits the militia to muster, on Aug. 1, at Brad-
vnried with their strength from 9 to 25 dock's Field, with arms and accoutre-
c('uts per gallon on those distilled from ments and provisions for four days. Fu1ly
grain, and from 11 to 30 cents when the 7,000 men appeared at the appointed ren-
material was molasses or other imported dezvous. The leaders in the insurref'tion
product: thus allowing, especially when were elated. The meeting at Parkinson'"
t.he duty on molasses was taken into ac- Ferry was an armed convention. Colonf'1
count, a considerahle discrimination in Cook. one of the judges of Fayette county.
favor of the exclusively home product. presided, and Alhert Gallatin (afterwards
There was much opposition to this law Secretary of the Navy) actf'd as secretary.
in fmd out of Congress. The details of Bradford assumed the office of major-
t]w working of the law for securing a general and reviewed the troops. It was
1"('Vf'nue from this source were very strin- his design to get possf'ssion of Fort Pitt
gent. Yf't veQ' just. The most violf'nt op- and the arms and ammunition therein. hut
]>nsit ion appeared in wefltern Penns;ylva- finding most of the militia officer<; uuwill.
2f17

EXEMPTIONS FROM TAXATION

ing to co-operate, he abandoned the proj-
ect. The e
cise officers were expel1ed
from the district, and many outrages were
committed. The insurrectionary spirit
spread into the neighboring counties of
Virginia. The reign of terror was ex-
tended and complete, when President
Washington, acting with energy, sent
an armed force and quelled the insur-
rection.
Exemptions from Taxation. The
property of the United States and of a
State or Territory, county and municipal-
ity is exempt from taxation in nearly ev-
ery State and Territory. Othf'r properties
that are exempted in local tax laws are
summarized as follows:
Alabmna.-Household furniture up to
$150, books, maps, charts, <>tc., except pro-
fessional libraries, tools of trade up to
jj;25, certain farm products, all school and
church property.
Alaska.-Same as Oregon.
Arizona.-Churches, cemeteries, chari-
table institutions, schools, and libraries j
properties of ,vidows and orphans up to
$] ,000 for a family, where total assess-
ment does not exceed $2.000.
A.rkansas.-School and church property
in actual use, property used exclusively
for public or cha.ritable purposes.
Califo1"nia.-Growillg crops, school and
church property.
Colorado.-Real estate of schools and
-churclH's in actual use, public libraries.
Connecticut.-Household furniture up
to $500, property of honorably discharged
soldiers and sailors up to $1,000, tools of
trade up to $200, school and church prop-
erty, parsonages up to $;')00, public li-
braries, private libraries up to $200, cer-
tain farm products.
Delmcare.-Household furniture, books,
maps, charts, etc., belonging to churches
or charitable institutions, and all profes-
!'.ional books, tools of mechanics or manu-
facturers in actual use, stock of manufac.
tories on hand and imported merchandise,
products of farms, vessels trading from
ports of the State, all school and c1mrc11
property.
Florida.-IIousehold property of widows
with dependent families and cripples un-
ahle to perform manual labor up to $400,
1111 public libraries, church and school
property.

Georg'ia.-Public libraries, church and
6chool property.
Idaho.-HousellOld property up to $200,
tools of trade. growing crops, books, school
property, church property in actual U'
e
and not rented.
lllinois.-Church pruperty in actual u
e,
property of agricultural societies, Lnited
States public buildings, cemeteries, and
certain other public propert
J.
Indiana.-Pub1ic libraries, school prop-
erty (with land not to exceed 3
0 acres),
church property in actual use.
100ea.-Kitchen furniture and bedding,
I,ublic libraries, private libraries up to
$300, tools of trade up to $300, certain
farm products, school property includ-
ing residences of teachers and land up
to 640 acres, church property in actual
use.
Kansas.-Household furniture up to
$200 for each family, private libraries up
to $30 and all public libra.ries, sugar man-
ufactories, school buildings including land
not to exceed 5 acres, church property
in actual use including land not exceeding
10 acres.
Ken.tucky.-Articles manufactured in
family for family use, public libraries. Cf'r-
tain farm products, all church and school
property.
Loutsiana.-Hou!'ehold furniture up to
$500, public libraries, school and church
propert)'. and until 1890 certain specific
manufaduring property.
.Main e.-Household furniture up to

200 for each family. libraries for be-
nevolent or educational institutions, a me-
C'hanic's tools necessary for his business,
certain farm products. vf'ssf'ls being con-
structed or repaÏrt'd, school property,
church propprty in use and parsonages up
to
(j.000 each.
M01"yland.-Libraries of charitable or
educational institutions, tools of mechan-
ics or manufacturers' use by hand. n.ll
unsold fa.rm products, school and church
property.
Jlassachusetts.-JIousehold furniture up
to $1.000, all farming tools, mechanics'
tools up to $300, public libraries, vessels
e]lgaged in foreign trade. school property,
church propC'rty in actual use.
.11ichi!lan.-Housf'11Old furniture. public
librarif's. private libraries up to $1 fiO.
$
OO of personal property hf'sidf'!'I spf'C'ia 1
2!>8

EXEMPTIONS FROM TAXATION

exemptions, church property in actual use
and school property.
Minnesota.-Each taxpayer entitled to
exemption on $100 personal property se-
lected by himself, public libraries, church
and school property.
.Mississippi.-Household furniture up to
$
50, certain farm products, tools of trade,
cemeteries, school and church property, and
until 1900 certain specified manufactories.
AI issouri.:--Cemeteries, church property,
school property including land not to ex-
ceed 1 acre in the city and 5 acres in the
ccuntry.
Montana.-Books of educational institu-
tions, school property and church property
ill actual use.
N ebraska.-Libraries of schools anel
charitable institutions, school and church
property in adual use.
i\'eIJada.-Household furniture of widow!!!
and orphans, property of educational in-
stitutions established by State laws,
church property up to $5,000.
New Halnpshire.-Certain farm prod-
ucts, school and church property.
New Jersey.-Household furniture of
firemen, soldiers and sailors up to $500,
Hbraries of educational institutions, school
and church property.
New .1lexico.-Public libraries, school
and church property, mines and mining
claims for ten years from date of location,
irrigating ditches, canals and flumes, cem-
eteries.
New York.-Buildings erected for use of
college, incorporated academy or other
seminary of learning; buildings for public
worship, school-houses, real and personal
property of public libraries; a.Jl stocks
owned by State, or literary or charitable
institutions; personal estate of incorporate
company not made liable to taxation; per-
sonal property and real estate of clergy-
men up to $1,500; also many special ex-
emptions.
Xorth f'arolina.-Eaeh taxpa
'er en-
titled to $25 exemption on personal prop-
erty of his own selection, public libra,ries,
propf'rty used exclusiwly for educational
purposes, church property in actual use.
North Dakota.-TIooks, maps, etc.,
church and school propert
..
Ohio.-Personal property up to $;)0,
lihraries of puhlic institutions, church awl
school property, cemeteries.

Oregon.-Household furniture up to
$:.t00, books, maps, etc., ch urch and school
property.
Pennsylvania. - Household furniture,
books, maps, etc., tools of trade, products
of manufactories, all products of farms ex-
cept horses and cattle oyer four years old,
water craft, property of all free schools,
chun:h property in actual use.
Rhode [sland.-School property and en-
dowments, buildings and personal estates
of incorporated charitable institutions,
church buildings in use, and ground not
to exceed 1 acre.
South Carolina.-Iiousehold furniture
up to $100, all necessary school and church
bdldings and grounds not leased.
South Dakota.-Household furniture up
to $25; all books, etc., belonging to chari-
table, religious, or educational societies,
school property. church buildings in ac-
tual use, and parsonages.
Tennessee.-Personal property to the
value of $1,000, articles manufactured
from the products of the State in the
hands of the manufacturers, all growing
creps and unsold faTm products, school
and church property.
Texas.-Household furniture up to
$250, books, maps, etc., school and church
property.
Vermont.-Household furniture up to
$f.OO, libraries, tools of mechanics and
farmers, machinery of manufactories, hay
and grain sufficient to winter stock, school
and church property.
Yirginia.-Public libraries and libra-
ries of ministers, all farm products in
hand of producer, church and school prop-
erty.
n
ashington.-Each taxable entitled to
$
OO exemption from total valuation, free
and school libraries, church property up
to $5,000, public schools, cemeteries, fire
engines.
West Virginia.-Public and family
libraries, unsold products of preceding
year of manufadories and farms, colleges,
ac-ademies, free schools, church property in
Uf,e, parsonages and furniture.
lri.w'onsin.-Kitchen fumiture, all Ii-
I)} arÍ('s, growing crops, school property
with land not exceeding 40 acres, church
property in actual use.
lryoming.-Public libraries, church and
.,c1l001 property.
209

EXHIBITIONS-EXPLOSIVES FOR LARGE GUNS

The naval and military engineers at
Shoeburyness were among the first to con-
duct experiments, and it was found that
when sullicient collodion cotton was em-
ployed to make the compound about the
consistency of soft rubber, it could be fired
with a ('omparatin degree of safety from
ordinary guns. pro,'iding, of course, that
the powd{>r charge used as a propellant
was not too violent. Large numbers of
rcund:-. ,vere fired under apparently iden-
tical conditions. with the result that per-
haps DB per cent. passed harmlessly out of
the gun, while about I per cent. exploded
in the bore of the gun, completely de-
molishing it.
Another source of danger, especially
when ('ompreb8ed gun-cotton is employed
in dfled cannon, arises from the quick
and violent twist ginn to the projectile,
which rotates the casc or shell, without
rptating the bursting charge. This I ob-
viated by di,'iding the interior of the shell
into numerous compartments. Rtill no one
c,mld b{> persuaded to use my torpedo-gun.
The lH'xt step was the Zalinski gun.
This had been made and tested in the
L'nit(>d States, wh(>n it was found that
large charges of high explosi,"(>s could be
thrown considerable distances from an air-
gun. One of thpse ;:"l1ns was brought to
England and fired at Shoeburyness. It
was saill at the time that three shots fired
with the gun firmly locked in a station-
ary position landed in the same hole ip
the mud. The accuracy was admitted t(l
he r{>marknhle, but the velociti(>s were sc
low. the range so short. and the trajectorJ
so high. that it was almost impossible t(!
The properties of nitro-glycerine were hit the target wh(>n the gun was fir('d frolll
inr man
r y(>ars but imperfectly undcr- a ship. It was enn said that if th{> gut"
!"tood. It was said of it that if you wish- were propprly aim(>d from a ship and thts
rei it to explodl' it was impossible to make trigger pulled, the barrel, on account of it"
it do so; if you handled it with great care great I(>ngth. would mm'{> suffici('ntly after
and did not wish it to e
plode it was al- the trigger was pulled and hefore the shot
most sure to go off; <;ometimes it could ldt the gun. to throw the sllot complet(>lv
be set on fire, and would burn very off the targ{>t. Still. it was believed that
much lil;:e a slow fuse. while again t11{> under ('('rtnin conditions the gun mi{.!'ht
If:ast jar would caus(' the mo:'.t frightful h2 useful for fortifications. In any com-
11etonation. E,'idl'utIy such an ag(>nt was pHssed
tir-gun of the Zalinski t
'pe, It
not suitahle for use in fire-arms. and it will b(> (>\"id(>nt that an increase in the
was only aftpr "'\oh(>l's discovery that aÌlno!"plwric pressure is not attcnd('d hy a
nitro-glycerint> could b{> gelatinized with corresponding increase in the velocity of
mllodion cotton (dl-nitro-cellulosp) that the proj(>('tile" hcca\lse the higher the pr('ss-
(>ngin(>crs lwgnn to e
pcriment with a vi(>w 11)"(> of 0)(> air the gr{>ater it.. weight anll
of using t11i.. high e'l:plosive in projectiles. density. so that wh('n th(> prCSS\l1"<'8 are in-
:JOO

Exhibitions. See EXPOSITIONS, IN-
DUSTRIAL.
Exmouth, EDWARD PELLEW, YIS(,OL
T,
naval oflicer; born in Dover, England,
.April H). ]ï5ï; entered the navy at the
age of thirteen
'ears; first distinguished
himself in th{> battle on Lake Champlain,
in I ïïG: and rendered great assistance to
Burgoyne in his invasion of New York.
He b(>came a post-ea ptain in I ï8
. For
the first capture of a vessel of the French
na vy ( lï!)
), in the war wi th France,
Pellew was knighted and employed in
blockading the French coast. For bra-
very in saving the people of a wrecked
ship at PI,ymouth, in I ï!lG, he was made
a baronet. Pellew was in Parliament in
1802, but in 1804 was again in the naval
service; was promoted to rear-admiral,
and made commander-in-chief in the East
Indies, when he annihilated the Dutch
naval force there. He was created l
aron
E...mouth in 1814; made a full admiral
of the blue, and allO\H.d a pension of
$10,000 a year. With a fleet of nineteen
ships, he brought the Dey of Algiers to
h.rms in ]816, and liberated about 1,200
prisoners. He died in Teignmouth, Jan.
2:t ]8
:
.
Expansion. F:ee ACQ{TISITIO
OF TER-
RITOUY; AXXF.XEJ) TF.RRlTORY.
T.-\TUS OF.
Expenditures of the United States.
S(>e AI'PROPRlATIOXS. COXGHESSIOXAL.
Explosives for Large Guns. We pre-
s(>nt some extracts from an article in the
');orth Amen'can R('l";n/' by Hiram 8te'"e11S

ra
im, the high(>st authority on the sub-
ject:

EXPLOSIVES :ron LA1tGE GUNS

creased, we "ill say from 2,000 to 3,000
Ibs. per square inch, the actual velocity
cf the projectile is only slightly increased.
It occurred to me at that time that if the
pressure could be increased without in-
creasing the weight or density of the air
a great improvement would result. I
therefore constructed a gun in which I
used only 1,000 lbs. pressure per square
inch. The gun being loaded, in order to
fire the trigger was pulled, which acted
upon a large balance-valve which suddenly
sprang open; the projectile was then
driven forward. ,Vhen it had moved
from 2 to 3 calibres, the charge of
gasoline and air was ignited, and while
the projectile was still moving forward,
the fire ran back into the chamber, con-
stantly raising the pressure, so that by
the time the projectile had reached the
muzzle of the gun the pressure had
mounted from 1,000 to 6,000 Ibs. per
square inch, and the result was a com-
]Jaratively high velocity with a short bar-
rd. This gun was fired a great number
of rounds in 1888, and found to be quite
reI iable.
The first smokeless powder that t made
in England was made in exactly the same
manner as the French. I had ohtained
a quantity of true gun-cotton-that is,
tri-nitro-cel1ulose (known sometimes as
in
oluble gun-cotton because it cannot he
dissolved in alcohol and ether like collo-
(lion cotton, di-nitro-cel1ulose). Some of
this powder, when freshly made, produced
fairly good results. quite as good as those
produced hy the !<'rench powder, but upon
keeping it for a few months the grains
lost their tmnsparency, became quite
opaque and fibrous, and it then burned
with great violence. Investigation showed
that about I to 2 per cent. of the solvent
was still in the powder when the first
tests were made, whereas the drying out
of this last trace of solvent had completely
changed the character of the powùer. I
then added to this pmnlpr ahout 2 ppr
cent. of castor oil, with the rpsult that
the castor oil remained after the soh-ent
had been completely removed, so that the
powder would keep any length of timp-
indeed, powder made at that time (18S!I)
is quite good to-day.
But I wished to produce 8til1
results. I believed that if the

glycerine and the gUll-C.,t ton were in-
timately combined an explosi\'e wave
would not pass through the mixture, and
experiments revealed that I was quite cor-
rect. All mixtures of from I per cent. to
75 per cent. of nitro-glycerine were ex-
perimented with, the result being that
from 10 to 15 per cent. was found to be
the best, everything considered.
The greater part of the smokeless pow-
ders employed to-day consist of a mix-
ture of nitro-glycerine and gun-cottOl
.
The mixing is brought about by the
agency of acetone, a species of alcohol
which dissolves both gun - cotton and
nitro-glycerine. \Yhen a small quantity
of this spirit is prpsent, the mass is of
a semi-plastic consistency, and may be
&quirted or spun through a die by press-
ure, in the same waJ' that lead pipe is
made. The first powder experim('nted
with was drawn into threaùs and called
by the British government "cordite."
This was found to work admirably in
small-bore ammunition, but when it came
to a question of larger guns it was found
ad \'antageous to form the powder into
tubes with one or more holes.
By increasing the numher of perfora-
tions, it was found that a powder could
he made which, instead of burning slow-
er and slower as the projectile mo\'ed
fnrward in the gun, would cause the de-
velopment of gas to increase as the pro-
jectile moved forward with accelerated
V<'locit
r in the bore. This was exactly
what was required, and led to my patent
on progressi\'e smokeless powder.
In the olden time, when guns were not
rifted, and spherical shots were employed
with a powder charge of about one-eighth
of the weight of the projectile, the erosion
caused by the gases passing the projectile
was so small as to be considered a negli-
gihle quantity-in fact, its e-.;:istence was
practically unknown to the majority of
artillerists at that time, but upon the
introduction of rifled guns with elongated
projectiles and heavy powder charges ero-
sion became a serious obstac1(', which in-
creased as the powder and range of the
gun increased. Large guns made in Eng-
land from ten to fift('en
'f'ars ago, using
black or cocoa powder with projectiles of
higher 3 or 4 calibres, and having a veloc-
nitro- ity rather less than 2,000 feet per sec-
301

EXPORT EXPOSITION-EXPOSITIONS

onù. were ùpstro.\"('d a fter firing from 300
to 400 rounùs. Whm the velocities wcre
increased to about 2,
00 feet it \Va!'; found
that the wear was about four times as
great, while some verJT powerful guns
made in France were completely worn out
after firing sixty rounds. With smoke-
less powder, which gives a still higher
velocity to the projectile, the erosion is
still further increased, so that in some
cases I have known guns to be destroyed
after firing only a few rounds.
In order to obviate this trouble we have
provided the projectiles with what might
be termed an obturating band; that is,
just behind the copper driving band we
have placed a semi-plastic gas check. Be-
hind it is placed what might be termed a
junk ring, arranged in such a manner
that when the gun is fired the junk ring 1790 .......................
moves forward and subjects the gas ring

:::::::::::::::::::::::
to a pressure
o per cent. greater than 18
0 .......................
the pressure in the gun-that is, if the 1830 .......................
pressure in the gun amounts to 14 tons

g .......................
per square inch the pressure on tIle gaH 18GO :::::::::::::::::::::::
ring is about 17 tons to the square inch. 1870 .......................
This is found to completely stop the pas- 1880 .......................
sage of gas between the projectile and the
ggg :::::::::::::::::::::::
bore of the gun; so we are now able to fire
large guns many hundn>ds of rounds with See ('mUrERcE.
full charges before any perceptible ,vear Exports of the United States. See
takes place in the barrel. This will en- C(I
nIERcE.
able our naval authorities to practise Expositions, I
DUSTRIAL. The first
gunnery to almost any extent without the industrial exposition in the United States
danger of wearing thpir guns out, and it was held in Philadelphia in 1824 under
is bplieved by many that in the near fut- the auspices of the Franklin Institute.
ure no large guns will be fired on ship- In 1828 the American Institute in Xew
board without the employment of the ob. York City was chartered, and after this
huating gas check. came the founding of the Massachusetts
Export Exposition, :KATIONAL, R. Charitable :\Iechanics' Association in Bos-
unique exposition held in Philadelphia, ton, and the Maryland Institute in Bal-
Pa., between Sept. 14 and Dec. 2, 18!)9, timore. These four organizations early
under the auspices of the Philadelphia hegan holding annual expositions. or
Commercial Museum and the Franklin In- ,. fairs," as they were then callpd, and
stitute. It had the distinction of being ha"e since continued to do so. Kumer-
tlw first national exposition of manufact- ous other mechanics' institutes were soon
ures adaptpd for export trade that was afterwards organized in various cities, and
ever held. Its aim was to show that the these for various periods imitated the ex-
L'nited Statps could manufacture any arti- position features of the older organiza-
cle which might be needed in any forpign tions. The American agricultural" fair"
market. The construction of the build- dates from IRIO. when Elkanah 'Vatson
ings and the preparation of the grounds, F\ucceeded in gathering, in Pittsfield,
covering 9 acre!';. cost about $1,000,000. :\Iass.. an exposition. or "fair," of arti-
Nearly 1,000 exhibits, consisting of the eles allied to agricultural life. Xow near-
most complete collection of strictly do- l,v every State and Territory in the coun-
mpstic manufactures ever brought to- try has its agricultural society, whirh
302

gcther and representing mure than $:Jon,-
000,000 of innsted capital, Wl're shown.
{"nder a special appropriation b
T Congress
there was also exhibited a collection of
samples of foreign goods to enable Ameri-
can manufacturers to become acquaintpù
with the style of goods required in for-
pign markets. The ðposition was hand-
sOllwly promoted by the Lnited States
government; representatives of foreign
go\'ernments and industrial life were nu-
merous in attendance, and the affair was
fruitful in beneficial results. The presi-
d('nt was Peter A. B. \Videner, and the
director-general. Dr. 'Yilliam P. 'Vilson.
Exports. The following table shows
the exports of American merchandise in
decade years:

$19,G66,OOO
31,840.903
42,3G6,6ï5
51,683,640
58.524,878
111.G60,561
134,900,233
3:iG,242,423
4:i3.
08.341
H
3,946,3!"i3
845,
93.8
8
l,477,949.GGG

EXPOSITIONS-EZRA'S CHURCH

gives annual expositions of the product/:!
of the farm and dairy, with a variety
of other features deemed nec(>ssary to pop-
ularize the undertaking. Some of the most
noteworthy State agricultural fairs be-
gan to diminish in interest about the
time of the first International or "'orId's
Fair held in London in 1851, and to this
form of exposition succeeded expositions
of special articles possessing features of
State, national, and international combi-
nations. Among such that have been held
in the United States, or to which Ameri-
can artisans have contributed when held
in other countries, are the international
expositions of fishery and fishery meth-
ods; life-sa \"Ïng apparatus and methods;
forestry products and methods of forest
preservation; railroad appliances; elec-
trical apparatus; food preparations; and
wood-working and labor-saving machin-
ery. Then, too, in the Lnited States, there
have been the special expositions of art
associations and leagues in the principal
cities, and horse, dog, and sportsmen's
shows, the latter a notable feature of the
year in Xew York City. The Lnited
States stands alune in maintaining four
permanent expositions: one in the fonner
Art Palace of the World's Columbian Ex-
position in Chicago, now known as the
Field Columbian Museum; another in the
former
Iemorial Hall of the Centennial
Exposition in Philadelphia; and two,
known as Commercial Museums. in Phil-
adelphia. The following is a list of the
principal industrial expositions of the
world, to nearly al1 of which the "Gnited
Sta tes has been a large contributor: Lon-
don, lft'51; Cork, 18.")2; Xew York, Xew
Brunswick, Madras, and Dublin, each
I s.")
: Munich, 1854; Paris, 1853; Edin-
'.urgh and )Ianchester, each 1857; Lon-
don, lR62; Paris, 1867; Vienna, 1873;
I
hiladelphia., 1876; Paris, 1878; Atlanta,
1
81; Louisville, 1883; New Orleans,
IH84-8;j; Paris, 188!); Chicago, IS!)3;
Atlanta, IS!);J; N.1SI1\'il1e. IS!17; Omaha,
180S: Omaha and Philadelphia, each 1899;
Paris, 1000; BufTalo and Gla!'g.)w, each
1901; St. Louis, I!J04; Portland, Or., la03.

For details of the most notewortlw of these
expositions, see their respective titles.
Expunging Resolution. President
Jackson was censured hy the
enate in
June, 1834, but Jan. 16, 1837, the censure
was repealed, and in the .Journal of the
Rpnate a black line was drawn around the
entry of the original resolution, and the
words" Expunged by order of the Senate,
Jan. 16, 1837," inserted.
Extradition. Treaties on the subject
of criminals arise from the universal prac-
ticp of nations to surrender criminals only
under special treaty with the country
which claims them. Treaties of this char-
acter have been made between the Cnited
Statr-s and the principal nations of the
world. The crimes for which extradition
is usual1y granted are forgery, burglary,
emhezzlement, counterfeiting, grand lar-
cpn
', manslaughter, munIer, perjury. rape,
and other felonies. In modern states,
particularly in England and the Cnited
States, political offences have always been
C"Xcepted from extradition. In the Cnited
States, persons committing certain crimes
in one State and fleeing to another are
generally extraditable on application of
the go\-ernor of the State in which the
crime was committed to the governor
of the Rtate wherein the fugitive has
sought refuge. In the case of States,
as well as of nations, it is now gener-
all)' held that e"tradition can he effpf't-
ed only for the specific crime charged in
the papers accompanying the official de-
mand.
Eyma, LOUIS XAVIER. author; born in
Martiniqup, \Y. I., Oct. 16, ISI6; was sent
b
' the French government on several mis-
sions to the United States and the \\,pst
Indips; spent a number of years in !'Itudy-
ing thp in;;:titutions of America; and pub-
lislwd a numhpr of books on the subject,
among them The 'Women of the New
'World; The Tv::o Amcl'ica8; Thr Indiun.<l
and the Y egroes,o The A. mprican Repub-
lic, its Institutions, etc. He died in Paris,
Franc{>, March 2!), 1876.
Ezra's Church (Ga.), BATTLE OF. See
ATLAXTA (July 28, 1864).

F.

Fabian Policy, a military policy of ing chairman of the United States com-
avoiding dedsi\Te contests and harassing missioners, in 18!)8; was a delegate from
the enemy by marches, counter-marches, Indiana to the Repllb1ican Kational Con-
ambuscades. and orderly retreats. vention at Philadelphia in HJOO, and, as
Fairbank, CALnx, clergyman; born in chairman of the committee on resolutions
Pike, N. Y., Kov. 3, 1816,; graduated reported the platform; and was re-elected
at Oberlin College in 1844. He was an rnited States Senator in 1!I03. In I!)04
ardent abolitionist, and during 1837-30 he was chairman of the Committee on Puh-
aided twenty-three slaves to escape by lic Buildings and Grounds, and a member
ferr
'ing them across the Ohio River. of other important committees. The same
Later he freed others, bringing the number )"ear he became the Republican candidate
of those whom he had helped to escape for Yice-President.
up to forty-senn. In 1843 he heard of a Fairbanks, GEORGE R., historian: born
nearl
' white slave-girl at Lexington who in Watertown, N. Y., July;). lR20;
was to he sold at auction. He secured her graduated at Union College in lR3!); ad-
liberty for $1.485. and took hcr to Cincin- miUed to the bar in 1842; removed to
nati, where she was educated. In 1844. Florida in 1842; commissioned major in
with Miss D. A. Webster, he opened the the Confederate army in 1862. He is
\\ ay for the escape of the Hayden family. the author of History and 1.ntifJuitics
For this ofl"enre he was sentenced to fifteen of Fit. A ll!Justine; History of Florida:

Tears' imprisonment. and
Iiss \Y('h"'t('r etc.
to two years. He was pardoned in lR4!). Fairchild, CHARLES STEßßIXR. lawyer:
Later he was agnin det('eted in the viola- horn in Cazenovia, K. Y., April 30. 1842:
tion of the FU,rritive Slave Law, and s('n- graduated at Harvard in 18ß3; all-
tenced a second time to fifteen years in mitted to the Xew York har in 186:5: ap-
prison at Franldort. Tn 1864 he was set pointed Rccretary of th(' l"nitE'Ù Statps
at libert
y. He publi"'hed Ho1V the Way Treasury in 1887; was afliliated with th('
1ms Prepared. He died in Angelica, N. Y., Democratic party. but adpd with the
Opt. 12, 18!)8. Gold Democrats in IS!)7. taking a promi-
Fairbanks, CHARLES "7 ARRE
, lawyer; nent part in the Indianapolis Monetary
born near rnionville Centre. Union county. Conference.
0., May II. 1852; was graduated at Ohio Fairchild, LrcTrR, military officer:
',esleyan L1niversity in 1872: admitted to born in Kent, 0., D('c. 27, lR:n: remond
the bar in Columbus, 0.. in 1874; and with his father to \Yi
('On
in in HUG.
practised in Indianapolis till I8!)7. when hut returned in 18;;5. At the hf'ginning
he was el('('ted to the Vnited States Renate. of the Ci\"il \Yar he en1istNl. and in Au-
In 18f12 he was chairman of the Indiana gust, 18ßI, was commi
",ionf'{l ('nptain in
State Conyention nnd arrain in 1808: was the regular army and major in tllf' ,'ohm-
chosen by the Republican mucus in thp teers. He took part in the hattl!' of nun
State IA'gislature as candidate for United Run, and at Antietam ,wnt to tIle front
States S('nnte in lR
3, but was dpfeated: from the ho
pital: 11e led thf' charge up
waR a d('lf'rratf'-at-Iarge to the Renublican Se>ninarv Hill at the battle of r.-ett
shurg.
convf'ntion at St. I.ouis in IR!)6: ap- and wa
badly wounded. lo
ing his left
pointf'd a memhpr of the Vnited
tates arm. He was. promoted to brigadier-gen-
and Briti..h .Joint High Commission to eral in 1863, but left the servi('(' to sPr\'e
settle the differences with Canada, becom- ßS Secretnry of State of Wi,;l'ousiu. He
304

FAIRFAX

was afterwards elected governor, anù
served six consecutive terms. In 1886 he
was elected commander - in - chief of the
Grand Army of the Republic. He died in
Madison, Wis., May 23, IS!)().
Fairfax, DOXALD McNEILL, naval offi-
cer; born in Virginia, Aug. 10, 1822; join-
ed the navy in 1837; and served with the
Pacific tleet during the war with Mexico.
In 1862-63 he was with Farragut; was
then given command successively of the
Nantucket and the Montauk, with which
he took part in a number of attaeks upon
the defences of Charleston Harbor; and in
1804-G5 was superintendent of the Naval
Academy. He was promoted rear-admiral
in July, 1880; retired in 1881. He died in
IIagerstown, '!\Id., Jan. II, 18!J-1.
Fairfax, THmfAs, sixth Baron of Cam-
eron; born in England in 10D 1; edu-
cated at Oxford; was a contributor to
Addison's Spectator, and finally, soured
by disappointments, quitted England for-
c\er, and settled on the vast landed
estate in Virginia which he had inherited
from his mother, daughter of Lord Culpep-
er. He built a lodge in the midst of 10,-
000 acres of land, SOme of it arable and ex-
cellent for grazing, where he resolved to
build a fine mansion and live a sort of

THOMAS FAIRFAX.

hermit lord of a vast domain. He was at
middle age when he came to America. He
never built the great mansion, but lived
a solitary life in the lodge he had built,
which he called Greenway Court. There
Washington first met him and became a
frequent visitor, for Fairfax found him
a bright young man, a good hunter, in

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III.-U

GREJ.:SWAY COURT.
305

FAIRFAX COURT-HOUSE-FAIR OAKS

oners and horses. He lost one man killed,
fú1H wounded, and one mis!-ing. He also
lost twelve horses and their equipments.
_\ bout twenty of the Confederates were
killed or wounded.
Fair Oaks
or Seven Pines, BA TTl e
A1. In
Iay, 1862, Gen. Fitz-John Porter
was sent by General McClellan with a
considerable force to keep the way OIH'!1
for McDowell's army to join him, which
he persistent1y demanded, in order to \eIlt-
ure on a battle for Richmond. Porter
had some sharp skirmishes near Hanover
Court-house, and cut all railway COI1111'l'-
tions with Richmond, excepting that from
I,'redericksburg.
Ieanwhile Ueneral 1\1('-
Clellan telegraphed to the Secretary of
'Var that \\-ashington was in no danger,
and ihat it was the duty and policy of
the government to send him" all the well-
drilled troops a mi1able." 'Yhen the!"e
raids on tll(' Confederate communications
had been effected. Porter rcjoined the
JlUtilI army on the Chickahominv. and
lc-
name, Clellan tclegra plH'd again to 'the Secre-
tary, " I will do all that quick movements
can accomplish, but you must send me all
the troops J'ou can, and leave me full lati-
He died at his lodge, Greenway Court, tude as to choice of commanders." Three
in Frederick county. Ya., Dec. 12, I iSl. days afterwards General Johnston. pel'-
The eleventh Lord Fairfax and Baron ceiying
lcClellan's apparent timidity, and
of Cameron. John Coutée Fairfax, wa.. the real peril of the :Kational armJ', then
born in Vaucluse, Ya.,
ept. 13, IS30; was di.\"ided by the Chiclmhominy, marclw<!
a physician; succeNled his brother in the bûldly out of his intrenchments and fell
title in ISO!); and died in Korthampton, \\ ith great vigor upon the National ad-
:!\Id., Sept. 2R. 1900. Yance, under Gen. Silas Casey, lying upon
Fairfax Court-house, SKIRl\IISH AT. each side of the road to \\ illiamsburg, half
Rumors pre\ailing early in
Iay, ISGI, a mile beyond a point kncwn as the Seven
that a Confederate force was at Fairfax Pines. and G miles from Richmond. Gen-
Court-house, Lieut. C. H. Tompldns. with eral Couch's di,'ision was at Seven Pine...
s(,Yenty-fiye ca\'alry, was sent from ArIing- his right re
ting at F.lir Oaks Station.
ton Heights on a Rcout in that direction. l\:earnJ"s di,"ision of H('intzdman's corpo;;
lie left late in th{> evening of
lay 31. was near Savage's Rtation, and Hooker'="
and reached the village of Fairfax Court- di,'ision of the latter corps was guarding-
house at three o'clock the next morning. thc approaches to the White Oak Swamp.
where Colonel Ewell, late of the United General Longstre('t led the Confederate
f.\tates army, was stationed with sever3.1 aåyance, and fell suddenly upon CascJ' at
hundred Confederates. Tompkins capt- a little past noon, :\Iay 31, when a most
ured the pickets and da!'hed into the sanguinary battle ensued.
town, driving the Conf('dcrates hefore him. Yery soon the Confederates gained a
There they were reinforcí'd, and a severe position on Casey's flanks. when they were
I3ldrmish occurred in the strect!'!. Rhots dl iven back to the woods hy a spirited
were fired upon the rnion troops from bayonet charge by Pennsylvania, Kew
"indows. Finding himself greatly out- Ycrk, and \laine troops, led hy Gcneral
numbered by the Confederates, Tompkins !\aglee. Out of the wood" immediately
ntreated, taking with him several pris- the Confederates swarmed in great num.
306

whidl sport hc himself loved to engage,
and useful to him as a suneJ.or of his
lands. lie became \ ery fond of the ;young
surveyor. who was a loved companion of
Gwrge \Villiam Fairfax, a kinsman of
Lord Fairfax.
Iany visitors went to
Greenway Court, and the hospitable owner
a hvaJ s treated e,'erybody kindly. Ther{>
Lord Fairfax Ih'ed during the storms of
the Frem'h and Indian \\'ar, and of the
l:evolution, taking no part in public af.
"airs, but always a stanch loyalist. 'Vhen
the news eame that his young friend
"'nshington had captured Cornwallis, h{>
was ninety years of age. He was over-
come with emotion, and he called to his
body-servant to carry him to his bed,
"for I am sure," he said, "it is time for
m
to die." A ba.Ilad gives the sequel IS
follows:

.. Tben up rose Joe. all at the word,
And took his master's arm,
And to bls bed be softly led
Tbe lord of GI'eenway far m,
Tben tbrlce be called on Britain's
And tbrice be wept full sore,
Tben sigbed. . 0 Lord, tby will be done!'
And word spoke never more."

FAIR OAKS-FALKLAND ISLANDS

bers, and the battle raged more fiercely
than ever. The Kationa.Is fell back to the
st'cond line, with a loss of six guns and
many men; yet, notwithstanding the over-
whelming numbers of the Confederates,
and exposed to sharp enfilading fires.
Casey's men brought off fully three-
f(lUrth!'! of their artillery. Keyes sent
b uops to aid Casey, but they could not
withstand the pressure, and the whole
bl'ùy of Kationals were pushed back to
Fair Oaks Station. on the Richmond and
York Railway. Reinforcements were sent
by Heintzelman and Kearny, but these
were met by fresh Confeùf>rates, and the
victory seemed a-bout to be given to the
latter, when General Smuner appeared
with the divisions of Sedgwick and Rich-
anIson. Sumner had seen the peril, and.
without waiting for orders from
IcClel-
lan, had moved rapidly to the scene of
action in time to check the Confederatp
advance. The battle continued to rage
fiercely. General Johnston was severely
,"olmded, and borne from the field; and
early in the evening a bayonet charge by
the Nation

s broke the Confederate line
find it fell back in confusion. The fight-
ing then ceased for the nig-ht, but wa-s re-
sumed in the morning, .Tune 1, when Gen-

tiollals remained masters of the field uf
Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines. The losse"
it} this battle were about the same on both
sides-i ,000 men each. It was nearly
one-half of both combatants, for not more
than 1:>,OOU men on each side were en-
gaged. In this battle Gen. O. O. Howard
lost his right arm. Ca.sey's division, that
withstood the first shock of the battle.
kst one-third of its number.
Falkland Islands, TIlE. In 1831 the
policy of President Jackson towards for-
eign nations was intimated in his instruc-
tir,ns to Louis
IcLane, his first minister
to England, in which he said, " Ask noth-
ing but what is right; submit to nothing
that is wrong." In this spirit he dealt
with the lessee of the .Falkland Islands,
lying east of Patagonia, South America.
These islands were unùer the protection
of Buenos Ayres, and had been leased to
Don Louis Vernet, who undertook to com-
pel sailing vessels to take out license to
catch seals under his authority. He
captured three American vessels, and
when the news of this and other out-
rages reached the United States, the
President, always prompt in the vindi-
cation of the rights of his countrymen
against foreign aggressors, sent Captain

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erat Hooker and his troops took a con- Duncan. in the ship-of-war Lexington. to
spicuous part in the struggle, which lasted protect American sealers in that region.
several hours. Finally the Confederates, In December, 1831, he broke up Vernet's
10iled, withdrew to Richmond. and the Ka- í'stablishment. restored the captured prop-
:J07

FALLEN TIMBERS-FALLING WATERS

crty to the owncrs, anù scnt
even of the
most prominent actors to Buenos Ayres
for trial. The authorities of that repub-
lic were indignant at this trcatment of
Yernet, as he was under the protection

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cover. In one hour the victory was com-
plete. The fugitives left forty of their
number dead in the pathway of their
flight. By the side of each dead body Jay
a musket and ba
'onet from British arrno-
ries. Wayne lost in
ki:Ied and wounded
133 men; the loss of
his foes wa:-; not as-
certained. 0 Jl the
battle-ground, at the
foot of the
[aumee
Rapids, is a lime-
btone rock, on which
are numerous carv-
ings of Lird's feet. It
is a :.tone upon which
)[e-sa-sa, or Turkey-
foot, a renowned
chief, leaped when he
saw hi" line of dusky
warriors giving way,
and bJ' voice and
gesture endeayorcd to
make them stand
tinn. He fen, pierced
b.y a musket-ball, and
died by the side of
nil' rock. ::\Iem}wrs
of his tribe can-cd turkcJ"s' feet upon the
stone in commemoration of him, and for
many years men. women, and childr('n,
passing there, would ling('r at the stone,
place d.ri('d beef, parched corn, and pease,
or some cheap trinket upon it, and, call-
ing upon the name of ::\It>-sa-sa, weep
I'iteou:".,\. lhis lIa ttle ended the InJian
\\'ar in thp Yorthwp!,:t.
Falling Waters, SKIIUfISIl NEAR. Em-
b.lrt"flssing- tplpgraphic despatches were re-
ceivpd lI.\" Gpn. Hobert PaU('rson, n('ar
Harper's Ferr
'. late in Junp, HHil. He
was eager to allvance, though .Tohnston
had a greatly superior foree. Ht' made a
reeomlOissanep on .Jul
' 1. and on the 2d.
with thp p<,rmi!':sion of S<,ott, he put the
whole ann\" aeross the rinr at \\ïlliams-
port, anù 'pus}wd on in 111{' direction of
the camp of the Confellnatps. Sear Fall-
ing 'Vaters. 3 mil('s from the ford th('y
had cross('d, the all\'anced guard, uml('T
Col. .Tohn J. Abercrombie, which had ar-
rived at 4 A. Jol., fell in with Johnston's
advance, consisting of 3,500 infantry, with
rendleton's hattery of field-artillery, and a
larg<, force of cavalry, under Col. J. E. B.
S

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of their flag, but they did not think it
proper to pursue the an'air be
'ond a Yigor-
ous protest.
Fallen Timbers, BATTLE OF. On the
morning of Aug. 20, I ï!)4, Genera) \Yayne,
on his campaign in the Indian wiMer-
m'ss, advanced with his whole army from
his camp at Roche de Bout, at the hcad
of the )[aumee Rapids, according to a
plan of march prepared hy his young
aidc-de-camp, Lieut. William Henry Har-
rison. Ill' had proceeùed about 5 miles,
\\ hen they were smitten with a ter-
rible volley of bullets from a concealed
foe, and C0111p
lled to fall back. They
were on the borders of a vast prairie, at
a tknse wood, in whieh a tornado had
prostrated many trees, making th(' mo\'e-
lIH'nh of mounted men very ùitlicult, and
f()rmin
an ð.cellent conr for the foe,
who \\"ere composed of Canadians and Ind-
iaBs.
.O()() in numbpl", posted on tJl{'ir
lim's within supporting distanee of each
other. Rut 'Ya
ne's troops fell upon
t IH'm with fearful enprgy, and made them
flet' towards the British Fort
Iiami, hp-
low, like a herd of frighteu<,d deer for
;

FALMOUTH-FANNING

Stuart, the whole commanded bv "Stone- tain Bowie; at the head of ninety men he
wan ., Jacksoll. Abercrombie advanc(.(l to defeated a much greater force of Mexicans
attack with mushtr,". A severe conflict at San Antonio. On March 19. 1836, he
ensued. In less tha; ha]f an hour, when was attacked by a .Mexican force under
Cot George H. Thomas was hastening to General Urrea. He succeeded in driving
support Abercrombie. .Jackson fled, and off the Mexicans, but they returned the
wa
pursued for ahout five miles, when, next da.}' with a reinforcement of 500 men,
tllP Confederates being reinforced, the pur- together with artillery. Resistance being

uit ceased. practically useless, they surrendered upon
Falmouth, TREATIES AT. The Penob- condition that they be treated as prisoners
s<'Ot and Xorridgewock Indians sent dele- of war. After being disarmed they were
gates to a conference in Boston. June 2:3, sent to Goliad, Tex., where by order of
1,4U, and there proposed to treat for General Santa Ana all American prison-
peace and friendship with the people of ers, 337 in number, were marched out in
Kew England. A treaty was soon after- squads under various pretexts, and were
wards made at Falmouth, X. H.. between fired upon by the :Mexicans. All of the
them and the St. Francis Indians, by prisoners were killed with the exception of
which peace was established. At a confer. twenty-seven, who escaped, and four ph
'-
ence held at St. George's, in York county, sicians, whose professional services were
)1e., Sept. 20, 1,33, the treaty at Fal- required hy Santa Ana.
mouth was ratified by more than thirty Fanning, ÐAYID, freebooter; born in
of the Penobscot chiefs; but the next \Vake county, :N. C., about I i56; was a
year, when hostilities between France and carpenter by trade, and led a vagabond
England began anew, these Eastern Ind- life, sometimes trading with Indians.
ians showed signs of enmity to the Eng- Late in the Re\'olution he joined the
lish. \Vith 300 men, the governor of Tories, for the purpose of rp\-enge for
)1assachusetts, accompanied by Colonel injurif's inflicted upon him. He gathered
:l\fascarene, a commissioner from Koya a small band of desperadoes like himself,
Scotia, ::\1ajor-General \Yinslow, com- and laid waste whole settlements and
mandpr of the (orpes, IlPlrl another con- committed fearful atrocities. For these
ference with these Indians at Falmouth. sf'rvices he received the commission of
There, at the last of ,June, I i.J.!, former lieutenant from the British commander
treaties were ratified. at \Vilmington. So encouraged, he capt-
Famine, COTTO
, in England. See COT- ure(l many leading- "'higs, and hang-ed
TO::.-i FA
IIXE. t}'ose against whom he held personal re-
Faneuil, PETER, merchant; born in sf'ntment. At one tinlP he captured a
Xew Rochelle,
. Y., in 1700: went, with \' hole court in session, and carried ofT
his parents, to Boston in 1701; succeeded judges, lawyers, clients, offi('prs. and some
to his father's business; and in 1740 of the eiti7ens. Tl
ree weeks later he capt-
offered to build and present to the city a ured Colon('1 Alston and thirty men in
public market-house. He died in Boston, his own honsp, and soon afterwards, dash-
)[ass., )Iarch 3, li43. ing into Hillsboro, he captured Governor
Faneuil Hall, the "Cradle of Lib- Burke and his suite, and some of tlw
erty "; built by Peter Faneuil; completed principal inhabitants. The name of Fan-
in 1742; burned out in 17Gl: rebuilt in J1ing became a terror to the country. amI
1763; used by the Briti!"h as a theatre in lip was outlawf'd. At tlw dose of tll('
1 i7:>; and enlarged ill 180;). The lower war he fleò. to New Brunswick. wllPre he
story was uSf'd as a market. It was bf'came a lI\eml}f'r of the lC'gislaturp.
a meeting-place of the people during- t}1(' Ahout IHOO he was sentenced to hp
disputes with Grpat Britain which led to hanged for rape, but escaped, and dipd
the Revolutionarv \Var, henf'f' the name in Oigh.v. Xoya Reotia, in 18
.).
" Cradle of Liberty." See Bmno:v. Fanning, Emlrl'm, jurist: horn on
Fannin, .JAMES \V.. miJitarv (,tlìcpr: Long r
lanrl. X. Y., in 1 i:3i: gradn-
horn in North Carolina in IHOO: 'took part ait-d at Yale ('oJleg-e in 1757, and settled
in the gtruggle hetween Te
aR and
[l'xipo. a
a luw,rer in TIilJshoro.
. C., where ht"
sen'ing as captain; associate(l with CfI 1'- hecame popular, and wag made colon('l of
309

FARGO-FARMER

Fargo, K. D., was named after him. He
died in Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 3, 18tH. See
PONY EXPRESS.
Faribault, Jonx BAPTIST, pioneer; born
in Berthier, Quebec, about 17Gt); entered
the service of the American Company, of
which John Jacob Astor was president,
in 1796, and was assigned to the Xorth-
west. After traversing the country he
located at Des
[oines, Ia., and later 011
removed to Saint Peter, )[jnn.
-\fter tell
years' service with the AmeriC'an CompanJ'
he went into business on his own at'cmwt.
and soon accumulated a fortune, but
lost it all in the War of 1812 through the
f:lCt of his having taken the American side
during the contest. The English seized
him at Mackinac as a trader and kept him
confined for a short period. He died in
Faribau1t, :\Iinn. - (which city had been
founded by his son Alexander), in lR60.
Farman, ELRERT ELI, jurist; born in
Xe\V Haven, Oswego co., K. Y., April 2
.
1831; graduated at Amherst College in
IS35, and studied in Warsaw, N. Y.,
"here he was admitted to the ba.r in lR.")H.
He studied in Europe in 186.')-67, and on
returning to the enited States was made
district attorney of Wyoming county,
K. Y. In ::\[arch, 1876, he was appointed
United 8tat('s consul-general at Cairo,
Egypt, and there h('came a member of the
commi
sion to revise the international
codes. Later President Garfield avpoint-
ed him a judge of the international
court of Egypt. He was also a member
1783, and from 1786 to 1805 was governor of the international committee appointed
of Prince Edward's Island. He rose to thE' to investigate the claims of citizens of
rank of general in the British army in Alexandria for damages caus('d hy the
1808. Fanning was an able jurist, and bombardment of that city by the British
always regretted his later career in Xorth in 1882. It was principally through his
Carolina. He was greatly influenced by efforts that the obelisk known as "Cleo-
his father-in-law. He died in London, patra's necdle," which stands near the
Feb. 28, 1818. ::\[etropolitan Art ::\Iuseum in Central
Fargo, \YILLIAM GEORGE, expressman; Park, Kew York City, was secured. \Yhen
born in Pompey, N. Y., May 20, 1818; be- he left Egypt, Mr. Farman received from
came the Buffalo agent of the Pomeroy the Khedive the decoration of Grand om-
Express Company in 18-13; established the cer of the Imperial Order of the Med-
first express company west of Buffalo in iidi, an honor rarely bestowed upon a
partnership with Henry \Yells and Daniel foreigner.
Dunning in 18-1-1. The line was extended Farmer, JOHX, historian; born in
until it reachE'd San Francisco, Ca1. In Chelmsford, Mass., June 12. 1789: hf'canlC'
ISr,8
Ir. Fargo became president of the a !'chool-master, but abandoned this pro-
corporation. which by the time of his death fpssion to enter trade; was one of Hw
had 2.700 officps, over 5.000 employees, and found('rs and corresponding secretary of
a capital of $18,000,000. The city of the Xew Hampshire Historical Societ
..
310

Orange county (1763) and clerk of the
Supreme Court (17t35). He was also a
member of the legislature. and married
the daughter of Governor Tryon. He be-
came rapacious, and by his exorbitant
legal fees made himself very obnoxious
to the people. Their hatred was increased
by his energetic exertions in suppress-
ing the Regulator movement (see REGU-
LATORS). He fled to New York with Gov-
ernor Tryon to a void the consequences of
popular indignation. lIe was appointed
slU"ve
'or-general of Korth Carolina in
1774. In 1776 he raised and led a force
called "the King's American Regiment of
Foot." After the Revolution he went to
Kova Scotia, where he became a council-
lor and lieutenant-governor in September,

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EDMl'ND FAXNIXG.

F ARMER-FARMERS' INSTITUTES

had spread into neighboring States, was
amalgamated with the Southern AIIiance,
and the name of Fanners' Alliance and
Industrial Union was adopted. The found-
ers of the alliance held that the party
was formed along political lines because
the parties already e-..:isting failed to
undertake to soh-e the problems covered
by the demands of the alliance. In 18fJO
the alIiance elected senral governors,
other State officers, and a few Congress-
men. On )Iay 19, IS!} 1, delegates from
the Farmers' Alliance, the Knights of
Labor, and sf'veral other organizations
met in a national connntion in Cincin-
n:1ti, adopted a platform, and formed a
new political party under the name of the
People's Party of the United States of
America, which became contracted to
Populist party. Another convention was
held in Rt. Louis, Feb. 22, 1892, at which
the Farmers' Alliance had 246 delegates
out of the 6:)6 present. It was not, how-
ever, until 1897 that the alliauce dropped
its old name, its interests having been by
tha t time merged with those of the PEO-
PLE'S PARTY (q. v.).
Farmers' Institutes. The Secretary
of the American A::;sociation of Farmer::;'
Institute Managers, Mr. Frederick ,,,.
Taylor, who has been identified with the
prominent horticultural business of the
\Yest for many years, writes as folIows:

Among his works are Belknap's History of
Xew Hampshire; Genealogical Register of
the First Settlers of New England; His-
tories of Billerica and Amherst, etc., and,
in connection with J. B.
IoOl'e, the Col-
lfctions of Kew Hampshire. He died in
Concord, N. H., Aug. 13, 1838.
Farmer, MOSES GERRISH, electrician;
Lorn in Boscawen, K. H., Feb. 9, 1820:
graduated at Dartmouth College in
1844; taught in Elliot, :Me., and in Doyel',
X. H., for two )rears. During his leisure
hours while in Dover he invented several
forms of electro-motors, one of which he
used in his experimental workshop to
drive a vertical lathe, and the other was
used on a miniature railway. Both
motors were originally designed to illus-
trate his lectures. He demonstrated that
the electrical current could be used for
discharging torpedoes and in submarine
blasting. On his miniature railway he
transported by electricity the first passen-
gers ever so carried in the United States.
In 1847 he moved to Framingham, ::\Iass.,
and invented the telegraph fire-alarm. In
186.3 he invented a thermo-electric bat-
tery and also built the first dynamo
machine. In 1880 he patented an' auto-
matic electric-Jight system. Besides these
inventions he brought to light and per-
f(cted many others. He is considered
one of the pioneers in electricity. He
died in Chicago, Ill., l\Iay 23, 1803.
Farmer, SILAS, historian; born in \Yithin recent years the idea has gone
Detroit, Mich., June 6, 1839. In 1882 he abroad that education may be takcn to a
was elee1ed historiographer of Detroit, and larger constituency than it is possible to
in 1884 published a History of Detroit and reach by the schools of higher grade
Michigan. through the ordinary channels. This idf'R
Farmers' Alliance, a political organ- has received the name of U
IYERSITY Ex-
ization that originated soon after the close TE
SIO:-i (q. v.), and in onc form or au-
of the Civil \Var. The main purpose of other the work has been attcmpted along
this movement was the mutual protection various lines "ith varying results.
of farmers against the encroachment of The University Extension idea contem-
capital. The first body was organized in plates the facilitating the study by the
Texas to prevent the wholesale purchase people of certain higher brandws by means
of public land by private individuals. In of lectures. which are lI:"uaIly gin
n by
188J the Farmers' l:nion of Louisiana university proff'ssors in the same way as
united with the Texas organization under are their class-room lectures. )Ieetings of
the name of the Farmers' Alliance and the local centres, as they are sometimes
Co-operative rnion of _l\merica. The calI ed, are held as frequently as possible,
movement soon spread into :l\Iissouri, Ken- p('rhaps weekly, and a regular amount of
tucky, Tennessee, North and South Caro- heme preparation is e}..pected of those in
ìina, Florida, Georgia, and l\Iississippi. attendance. In many cases this work ha

J n 188D a similar organization, which }Jad been very successful, making possible tlu'
hl'('n formed in 1877 in Illinois, and which HfJuirement of s)rstematic training by
311

FARMERS' INSTITUTES

tho
e who might otherwise never have which was referred alI correspondencc on
been able to make any addition to the that subject. The university, soon finding
puhaps slight education which they ac- itself unable to supply all the speakers re-
quired in the public
chools. quired, would call on the various State
But there has been developed. more or societies to suppl
' speakers on subjects
It'sS directly from University EÜension, coming within the scope of their work.
a work among farmers and others en- This is the actual record of the growth
gaged in rural occupations which has out- ûf institute work in one State, and it is
stripped, in far-reaching effects and in only a type of what is going on in nearly
point of numbers touched, all the other all the States.
forms of extension work. This has taken After the various organizations and so-
to itself the name of "Fanners' Insti- cieties in a State for promotin
the spread
tutes," and has made it:5elf felt all over ùf education through this means have
the "Cnited States. Kearly every State in llnited their forces, it has usually been
the Union now has some sort of an ar- only a short time until the expansion has
rangement under which Farmers' Insti- been so great ?S to make it necessary to
tutes are held. ask the legislature for a direct appropria-
A study of the manner of growth in a tion for the Farmers' Institutes, and th('n
single State may serve to indicate pretty the work may be said to be really estab-
clearly what has been the e'Xperiellce in lished. As a rule, the results actually ac-
aJmost eyery State in which the institutes complished require only to be brought
haye gained a sh on
foothold. dearly before the lawmakers to secure
Rome of the progressi,'e fanners in the needed funds.
cl'rtain communities gathered togetlJer a One of the first States to reach such
number of their neighbors, about a dozen a financial basis as made the doing of
yeårs a
o, with the thought that an in- good work possible was \Yisconsin, anll
terchange of ideas might be beneficial, that State may be taken as a type of olle
and that if some of those who had been form of institute management. There thp
successful in certain lines, as in stock- money appropriated by the State is put
growing, for instance. could be persuaded into the hands of the State university.
to describe their methods, their brethrcn and is expended und('r the direction of
might adopt such as seemed fitted to their that institution.
sI,ecial needs, thus making possible mm'e A superintendent i
employed, who con-
satisfactory results in that particular ducts all the ('orrespondence. appoints
branch of agriculture. After a fe\\ such dates. employs spcakers, and in general
gatherings, speakers of training and repu- exercises supen-ision. Localities desirin(1'
tat ion were sought for, who could com- meetings must make their arrangementf
mand the confidence of their hearers and with him, agreeing to supply a hall fOJ
attract to the meetings the most intelIi- the gathering and to attend to advertis.
gent and successful farmers. It seemed ing. A conductor is assigned to each meet
natural to turn to the State university ing. who takes entire charge, seeing thaf
for trained men to fill this place on the the programme is presented as advertised
pI f'gramme. and that intl'rest in the proeeedings i

Roon. howevcr, the calIs bccame so frp- kept up. Three or four 8peakers are
que:nt that a loss of time a1l(1 money usuallv sent to each institute. local talent
resulted from the fact that thp points heing' called upon to complete the pro-
,\!-king assistance were locate(l in widcly J:ramme. Fun discussion is not only per-
I"eparated and distant parts of thp Statp. mittel!. but encouraged. the questions and
Then arose Ow npce!'lsity of int rust ing the their answ('rs often consuming half thl"
arrangl'ments for spnding out slwakprs time or eyen more.
to one rprson, who shou1d make the ap- Practical demonstrations are gÍ\'en of
pointmpnts in series. so that a speakpr go- improved methods wherever possible. For
ing to a distant part of the Statp might instance. a machine for showing the but-
reach several points ill t hp ('0111'Se of olle ter content of milk is uspd in the preH-
trip. Thprp wa!'! 1I('\"('10pt'd a blln'all for pnce of thp audience, and its value ex-
C'01Hlllcting the work of the in!'titl1tes. to plained and demonstraterl hy mean
of
312

F ABMERS' INSTITUTES

samples of milk brought in, upon request, there, asked him to tell how he had 8UC-
by farmers of the vicinity. The necessity cceded in getting it to grow and flourish.
of knowing exactly what is the value of The man was German, writing and speak-
each individual in the dairy herd is thus ing English indifferently, but he finaIly
clearly shown. Charts are exhibited and consented to do his best to explain his
used as the basis of talks showing the cor- methods, some of which weI'e unusual, the
reel t,ypes of the different breeds of ani- result of his own experience and pains-
mals. (;nder this system a number of taking investigation. l\Iuch interest was
institutes are kept going in various parts manifested in the subject, and a perfect
of the State during the greater part of volley of questions asked and answered.
tile winter season. relating to every detail as to the prepa-
In ::\Iinnesota a different method pre- ration of the soil, sowing the seed, care
mils. The institutes are, practically, of the crop for the first and subsequent
schools. the superintendent and his corps years, and other similar practical mat-
of assistants going in one body, and re- ters. A year later, at the next annual
maining at each institute during the entire meeting of the institute, careful inquiQ-
session. Under this arrangement a smaller brought out the fact that at least 1,000
number of institutes can be held with a acres of this particular forage plant had
given amount of assistance, but the work been sown, with almost uniform succe:ss,
is undoubtedly more thorough. as a result of the information gained
The work in all the States may be said from this single discussion.
to be based on one or the other of these When the desirability of enlarging the
two plans, or on some modification of them. work has become apparent, no force has
If the sessions described, usually of been so ready to co-operate in doing so
two or three days' duration, represented as the railroads, which have, in most
all of the institute work, there might be States, supplied transportation for speak-
good ground for the criticism that the ers.
service is insufficient, in that in so short There is no occupation in which sharp
a time little of lasting benefit could be competition and improved methods havc
accomplished. But the result of a start made it so necessary to keep abreast or
in institute work at any point is almost even ahead of the times as fanning.
invariably the organization of a local When it is discovered that certain seC-
body for holding more or less frequent tions are specially adapted to dairying,
meetings for regular discussions. Thus grazing, the growth of certain grain or
there is a constant exchange of ideas go- fruit crops, or any other specialty, the
ing on between the most progressive per- sooner accurate and improved practical
sons engaged in agricultural and horti- methods are introduced the sooner will
cultural pursuits. wealth flow towards that community. Thf'
A single illustration may indicate the present condition of the dairy interest in
good that may come from such meetings the State of \Yisconsin may be pointed
as this movement brings about. out as well illustrating this proposition.
In a certain county in one of the \Yest- Xo State in the Union to-day has a
ern States there had been long search after higher standing as to the product of its

ome forage plant which should prove dairies. As regards the volume of the in-
thoroughly adapted to the needs of the dustry, it is only necessary to state that
locality. The country was new, and the a single county has nearly 200 creameries
grasses which were common in other parts in successful op..:>ration, the important
of the State did not seem to succeed there, fact, as reganls the subject, being that
while the fencing in of the wild pasturage no small amount of the credit for the
caused the indigenous grasses to disappear condition mentioned is frankly admitted
rapidly. Some of the most progressive by those most able to judge to be due
farmers organized an institute, a.nd to the educational work of the Farmers'
knowing of a man who had been success- Institutes.
ful in the growth of a certain specie<; Tn disseminating accurate information
which was not generally suppos('d to h(' regarding the growth of the sugar hppt. H!'!
lHlaptecl to the conditions prevailing in many other direction!'!, there is work
313

F ARMERS' INSTITUTES-FARMING BY ELECTRICITY

on the various economic subjects relating
to the farm, are given on the estates, in
order that the working people themselves
may be reached and taught.
His Excellenc
' No A. Hamakoff, Direct-
or of the Department of Agriculture in
Russia, e
pressed himself as particularly
interested in that line of work, and the
interest in the dissemination of !iu('h
knowledge in other European countric'S is
well known bv those who have made anv
study of the' question. C
mnt Leo ToÌ-
stoi, in the course of a conversation on the
economic questions of the day as related
to rural life, showed the dpepest interest
in this particular method of spreading
knowledge among the masses, and said
that he thought it an eminently practical
way of giving such training as is sorely
required to those needing it.
The great interest that is everpvherp
manifested in the improveulPnt of methods
in agricultural WOl"k, not only in the
United States, but in Europe, should sure-
ly indicate what is necessary to be done
if we are to retain our position at tllP
head of agricultural countries. To assist
in maintaining that place is the mi!:>sion
of the Farmers' Institute movement.
Farmer's Letters, TIlE, a series of let-
ters, the first of which appeared in the
Pcnnsyhania Ohronicle, D<.>c. 2, 176;, fol-
lowed b)' thirteen others in qnick snccps-
sion, all of which were written bv .John
Dickinson, who had formulated a' bill of
rights in the Stamp Act Congress. This
f;cries of letters resulted in the circular
letter of the general court of
Iassachu-
setts, sent out Feb. 11, 1 HiS, in which co-
operation was asked in resistance to the
English ministerial m('asures.
Farming by Electricity. Gcorge Eth-
elbprt ,"Valsh, who has given special atten-
tion to the practical applieation of recent
s('ientific discO\'eries, writes as follows:

enough to keep a corps of speakers active-
I) engaged in e\ery State in the Lnion
which is at all adapted to that or any
other of the industries that .ue to take
place among the practical and wealth-
making efforts of agriculture. _\.nd be-
sides the new industries to be introduced,
thcre are ah\"a
'8 the improved methods
with which thp successful farmer must
constantly familiarize himself.
The largest amount given by anyone
State for Farmers' Institutes is appro-
priated by \\ïscoll:-\in, the sum being
$15,000. Oth('r
tates give liberally, no-
tably Minnesota, K ew York. and Ohio,
while yarious sums are gi7en by Pennsyl-
vania,
Iichigan, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,

ebraska, Kew Jen,ey, and a few others.
.:\Iore or less organized worK has also bcen
done in
Iissouri, Arizona, California,

outh Dakota, KanRas, Colorado, Florida,
and, indeed, could the facts all be got to-

ether, in almost every State in the Union.
The prminces of Ontario and l\Ianitoba
have done some of the best work on the
continent, both in volume and in quality.
In a number of States the funds are not
appropriated in a lump sum, but each
county may, by vote, levy a tax for the
purpose of raising a sufficient sum to
carryon one or more institutes, a portion
úi the amount going towards the payment
of the local expenses, and the rest going
to the central organization, sometimes
under the control of the State Board of
Agriculture, for the payment of the speak-
ers and other necessary expenses con-
nected with the general work of the State.
So far as known the Farmers' Institutes
have been kept, in every State, entirely
out of politics. One of the fundamental
principles always insisted upon is that no
question of rcligion or politics must be
permitted to be discussed on any consid-
eration.
In Europe something is done along the
same lines by means of lectures delivered In the light of the recent discoveries al-
by men sent out by the governments. most anything seems possible, if not prob-
In Russia, through some of the imperial ahle, in the application of this fluid.
80cieties, considerable progr('ss ha!'l been EI('ctric ploughs have been patpnted in
made in the way of bringing this f;ort of Vienna, and electric hay-rakes, reapers,
instruction directly to the people. In St. carts. and threshing machines have been
Petershurg is maintained a great agri- placed upon exhihition in the United
cultural mus('um, in which lectures are States, and their utility tested favorably.
given during the winter season; and at Experimental farms have been established
other times regular courses of lectur('s. where nearly all the work has been :per..
314

FARMING BY ELECTRICITY

formed by means of this powerful agent- than those not thus supplied with the arti-
fields ploughed, harrowed, fertilized, and ficial stimulant. Lettuce, spinach, radishelil,
rolled, seeds planted and covered with soil, and similar vegetables were brought to
plants fertilized and weeds killed, and maturity in almost half the time ordinarily
crops harvested and threshed. The power required. By applying the arc light direct
has been generated by erecting a large tur- to the plants their growth was so acceler-
bine-wheel on some stream where the cur- ated that many ran to seed before edihle
H'nt could be depended upon to turn it. leaves were formed. Plants placed within
The cost of manufacturing the electricity 5 feet of the lamp died and wilted shortlv
has been reduced to a comparatively small after being taken out of the soil. .
sum in this way, and the prospects of con- The effect upon flowering plants waoS
ducting large farms in the future on an almost as startling. The plants were
e;(.ctric basis seem alluring and attractive. made to shoot up rapidly, and under forced
But the most noticeable application I)f stimulation the "talks grew up tall, slen-
electricity to farming methods is that of der, and weak. The blooms were hastened
employing the current to stimulate the in their growth, and in the case of the
growth of the plants. While nothing very petunias they produced more flowers than
practical has yet been accomplished in by the old system. Verbenas, on the
this field. the reports of the experiment other hand, were uniformly injured when
farms and stations warrant one in be- placed near the elcctric lamp. Both the
li{'ving that something definite may yet leaves and the flowers were hastened in
come out of all the labor and trouble ex- their growth, but they were small and in-
pended. The electric garden may be a significant, while many of the lower
future novelty that will have for its chief clusters died before they had reached their
recommendation a real practical utility. full expansion. The effect of the electric
:Man,r years ago several European scien- light upon colors was even more inter-
tists made experimcnts with electricity esting than upon the growth of the plants.
uf.on plant life. Lemstrom in )<'inland, The colors of the tulips were dcepened
f;pechneff in southern Russia., and Celi iu and made more brilliant, while most of
France, worked indepcndently along the the scarlet, dark red, blue, and pink flow-
same line, applying the electric current to en; were turned to a grayish white.
ear-
the secds and the soil in which the plants ly all of the flowers artificially stimulated
were growing. and to the air immediatply into beauty by the electric light soon lost
above the surface of the soil. Spechneff, by their brilliancy and faded much more quick-
applying the electric current to the seeds ly than those raised by nature's methods.
and afterwards to the soil, raised radishes An important part of the experiments
17 inches long and 5 % inches in diameter. that have been made along this line is
The colors of flowers were also intensified that the
rops that were not injured by
or changed according to the power and the electric lights were nearly twice as
distancp of the current, and the maturity large a-s those not exposed to the influ-
of the plants was greatly hastened. ence of the current. Lemstrom, in try-
The first attempts to experiment along ing to measure the influence of the current
the lines of Lemstrom in the United State"! upon growing wheat and vegetables. pro-
were made at Cornell Uni,-ersity about cured 50 per cent. more grains from a
Hmo. Agricultural scientists h;d long smaIl tract of ground that was plantf'd
recognized the va.luable part that atmos- with a small network of wires than from a
p}'eric electricity pla.yed in the life of similar plot of soil not thus stimulated.
vegetable growths. but the artificial ap- E'\:periments han> been continued with
plication of it had never before heen at- J
ore or less regularity at Cornell since
tpmpted. In addition to the application these first discoveries, and it: probable
of electricity to the seeds of the plants. that we will yet he ahle to attain th('
and to the soil, the experimenters at Cor- results long anticipatpd by agricultural
nell used the arc light at night. The scientists. Some plants have been found
plants receiving the bright electric rays to have such a fondne!'ls for the electric
at night. amI the sunshine in the day light that they not only grow faster under
time, were found to grow much faster its influence, but incline their heads tow-
315

FARMING BY ELECTRICITY

Hls the lamp. Others are injured rath- tained some results that are promlsmg.
l'l" than benetìted, and they lose all of The French electric garden is more suc-
their mluahle qua.Iities after being ex- cessful than any established in the United
posed to the arc light for a few nights. States. _\n instrument is used to bring
The question of !'Ioftening the light of the into play the electricity in the air, cl1Pap-
lamps to suit the different plants has been ening the process of supplying the current
in the course of investigation, and now to the plants. At the present cost of
globes of " opal" glass are used to reduce generating electricity, it is doubtful if its
tl\(' power of the rays. An amber-colorpd use could be made more profitable upon
globe is usnall
- employed at Cornell, many farms, even though it should great-
for the orange rays are supposed to be ly stimulate the growth and quality of
the most favorable to the growth of vege- fruits and vegetables. The French instru-
tation. The various effect of the differ- ul<'nt is supposed to reduce the cost ('f
ent colored rays of light upon the vegeta- generation so that every fanner could
tion is strange and interesting to those avail himself of it.
(." perimentin;.! with the electric light. The system consists of laying a net-
It is doubted by many whether the arc work of wires in the garden where the
light can be made as efficacious as the plants are growing, and connecting them
electric current supplied through wires with a copper wire that runs to the top
to the soil. TÆmstrom obtained his most of a pole some 40 or 50 feet high. This
wonderful Tesults by this latter method, pole is surmounted b
- a collector, insu-
and the plants Wl're injured less by it lated by a porcelain knob. The height of
than many that have been subjected to the pole enables the collector to gather
the electric light
. the electricity in the atmo
pherp from a
In 18!J2 it was reported that a market wide area, and when transmitted to the
gardener named Raws,HI, living in the ;.!arden through the wires it produces bl't-
to" n of .\rlington,
[a!"
., had used the ter results than the electricity gencratcd
eleeìri{' light
to profìtah!e adnllltage. His from a dynamo. The atmospheric electric-
attention was <-aIled to the effect of elec- ity is not by any means as strong as that
hic light upon plants ill 1 HS'). when U>f' from a dynamo, but Its action is to stimu-
town of .-\rlington be;.!an to !(.:-ht the stret"'ts late the plants without injuring them.
with eJcchicity. One of the powerful Gardens that ha,-e been stimulated b,-
lights was located ncar his gardcn so that the atmospheric elcctricity, gathered allJ
its ra,rs fell directly upon a bl'd of flowers. distributed by the gcomagnetifcre, have
These plants. situated within the circuit increased their growth and products fiO
of the light, imnH'diatf'ly hcgan to grow per cent. Yine
-ards have hepn experi-
rapidly and vigorously, outstripping all mented upon. and the grapps produce , l
others in the ganlpn.
atisfying himst'lf have not only hecn larger in size and quan-
that the cause of this was the electric Hty, but richer in sugar and alcohol. Thn
light, the gardener had sel up in his large flowers have attained a richer perfunw.
hothouse a lamp of the same kind. After and more bril]iant colors. The effect on
('lie or two Sf'asons' trial he found that the whole has been verv satisfactorv, and
he c0111d raise more winter lettu('c and it I!'; hopefully expect
d by thc French
radishes in a giwn !';pace in much shorter 8cienti!'lts that the new method nf appI
.-
time by using the arc lights, the incan- ing atmospheric electri('ity to plants wi11
descent burners not proving 80 suitable, greatly facilitate Ol1r plants in their fut-
whilc the q\lalit
. wa" much superior. His llre growth. Xearly an of the garden
profits were f.stima.ted to haw been in- vegetables grew with astoni!<hing rapidity
creased 2.') to 40 per cent. by introducin!! when stimulated bv Uw eleetric C'urrent,
the an lights into his greenhou<.;e. applif'd first to the" !'Ieells. nnd subsequent-
This was but another confirmation of ly to the soil in whi('h they germinated.
the tests made hefore that in Europf', and It i!'; difficult to explain the reason why
later on at Cornell. Now it "ppms that the f'Iectric light Or current !';o marw]lolls-
the l"n.neh s<,it'ntists have been workin u Iy affects the growth of plant!';, hut the
n"glllarl
- and systematically on the que;' faet that s\lch stimulation doe
o('cur eau-
t:on also, iHHI the
' have recentl
' ob- not he denied. One theory is that the
316 "

FARMING BY ELECTRICITY-FARQUHAR

clectricit
. helps the plants to take up some of the large farms are cagerly
and assimilate certain valuable salts in watching the development of electric loco-
the earth, and another that it aids them motion, and, as soon as experimcnts jus-
in appropriating more nitrogen of the air. tify their actions, the steam plough, reap-
Atmospheric electricity supplied natural- er, thresher, and rakes will be supplanted
ly pla
's an important part in the economy by those run by electricity.
of plant growth, and it has been simply Farms. See AGRICULTURE.
through a desire to test its further effect Farnham, ELIZA WOODSOX, philan-
that scientists have been induced to make tbropist; born in Ren<;selaerville, X. Y.,
the experiments. Now, however, it is pos- Kov. 17, 1815; wife of Thomas Jeffen;on
sible that a practical utility may be J!'arnham; was matron of the New York
derived from the tests conducted in the State Prison (female department), at Sing
l."nited States and other countries. Sing, in 1844-48, where she proved that
It would be difficult to conceive the the inmates could be controlled by kind-
ultimate effect upon our industrial and ness. Afterwards she was engaged in
economic life if electric gardens could be various philanthropic movements. Her
su(.cessfully established by farmers, and publications include California, Indoor3
the yield increased 50 per cent. The and Out; Woman and Her Era, etc. She
product of our farms and gardens would died in New York City, Dec. 15, 1864.
thus be doubled, and the world's supply Farnham, THo1\uS JEFFERSON, au-
of food-stuff be increased beyond the thor; born in Vermont in 1804; forsook
point of consumption, or the acreage the legal profession in 1839 and went
would rapidly decrease. The profits to a.('ross the continent to Oregon and later
the farmers would not by any means be to California, where he was influential in
doubled. The cost of installing an elec- obtaining the release of some American
tric garden "ould form an item of ex- and English prisoners who had been held
pense that they do not calculate with by the
Iexican government. He is the
to-day. The cost of a dynamo or battery author of Travels in Oregon; Travels in
would be beyond their reach, but if the California; A 11 cmoir of the Northwest
electricity of the atmosphere could be col- Boundary Line, etc. He died in California,
lected and distributed in the garden, there in September, 1848.
would be some hope of their securing the Farnum, JOHN EGßERT, militarv officer;
current necessary for all purposes. born in New Jersey, April I, 1824; served
The use of electricity on the future in the war with Mexico; later was com-
model farm will be far greater than it is mander of the slaver 'Wanderer, which
to-day, and it is not impossible that the fact he ever after regretted. During the
horse will be crowded out of his legiti- Civil War he served in the Xational army,
mate work in this field, as he has been participating in the actions at Fredericks-
on the city car-lines. An experimental burg, Chancellorsville, Gettyshurg, etc.;
farm to show the use of this power in and receiving the brevet of brigadier-gen-
cultivating the fields has been established eral of volunteers in recognition of his
in the West. The electricity is generated gallantry. He died in Xew York City.
hy a turbine-wheel, which is turned by l\Iay 16, 1870.
the current of a small stream dammed up Farquhar, J\ORMAX vox HELDREICII.
fer the purpose, and the cost of the power naval officer; born in Pottsville, Pa., April
is reduced to a minimum. Sufficient ] I, 1840; graduated at the Cnited States
p0wer is generated by the wheel to light Naval Academy in ]85!); served tbrough-
the whole plaee. and to run the threshing out the Civil \Var, and was present
n!achines, plough the fields, harvest the at both attacks on Fort Fisher; was pro-
crops. and run motor bicycles or wagons moted rear-admiral, Dec. 25, 18D8; ap-
anywhere within the limits of the farm. pointed commander of the Xorth Atlantic
A lar
e \Vestern farm, consisting of thou- Station, Oct. 14, 18!)!). In 188fJ he was in
sands of acres. with a good stream of command of the frigate Tf'('1I1oll, flag-ship
water flowing through it, could prohably of the Pacific Station, which had been sud-
be conducted on a cheaper scale to-day denly ordered to SA
IOA (q. v.). On
than by steam. In fact, the owners of March 16, a terrible hurricane 9wept
317

FARRAGUT

o'\"er the harbor of Apia., where war-ships
of the United States, Great Britain, and
Germany were at anchor. Several Amer-
ican and German ships were wrecked at
Uw beginning of the hurricane. The Brit-
ish corvette Calliope succeeded in steam-
ing out of danger. As the Calliope pass-
ed the Trenton a great shout went up from
0\ er 400 men aboard the American flag-
ship, and three cheers were given for the
('alliope. Immediately three cheers for
the Tren ton and the .\merican flag were
wafted across the angry waters from the
Calliope. A few moments later the
'l'renton herself was wrecked, but Captain
Farquhar succeeded in saving all his crew
of 4'50 men and officers excepting one.
Farragut, DAVID GLASGOW, naval offi-
CH; born Ilear Knoxville, Tenn., July 5,
1801; son of George Farragut, who was
a native of l\Iinorca; came to America in
1776; entered the Continental army; was
a bugler, it is supposed, at the age of
seventeen, in the battle of the Cow pens ;
attained the rank of .-aajor; settled in
Tennessee; and was master in the United
States navy, serving under Patterson in
the defence of New Orleans. David en-

/

#'

I,

'I
,:.-
'I
1

: ..<

tered the navy as midshipman when be-
tween nine and ten years of age, first
8erving under Porter, and was with him
ill the terrible fight at Valparaiso. He
v.-as promoted to commander in 1841,
having served faithfuHy up to that time.
Still persevering in duty, he was placed in
\"('ry responsible positions afloat and
ashore, and when the Civil \Var broke
out he was in command of the Brooklyn,
steam sloop-of-war. He commanded the
naval expedition against NC'w Orleans in
the spring of 1862, having the Hartford
as his flag-ship. Organizing the West
Gulf blockading squadron, on his arriv9.1
in the Gulf of Mexico, by bo1ùne
s and
skill, with admirable assistants, he went
up to New Orleans triumphantly. He
operated with great vigor on the :\Iissis-
sippi River, afterwards, between New
Orleans and Vicksburg; and on July Hi,
1862, was placed first on the list of pro-
posed admirals. In 18ü3 he co-operated
i!l the capture of Port Hudson, and in
August, 1864, defeated the Confederate
forces in Mobile Bay. His exploits in the
Gulf region gave him great fame, and in
December, 1864, he receÍ\ed the thanks

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AD:\lIH.-\.L DA\ ID G. F-\.HHAGl T

FARRAR-.FEATHERSTONHAUGH

01 Congress, and the rank of vice-admiral tion sent out by Massachusetts in 1765
was created expressly for him. In July, for co-operation. He died March 3, 1768.
18üü, he was promoted to admiral. Hp. Fay, JO:KAS, patriot; born in Hardwick,
visited Europe in 18Hi - ü8, and was 1\1ass., Jan. 17, 1737; received a good Eng-
TPceived with the highest honors. He died lish education, and was with a Massachu-
in Portsmouth, N. H., Aug. 14, 1870. See setts regiment at Fort Edward in 175ü.
MOBILE, NEW ORLEANS. He settled at Bennington in 176ü, and be-
Farrar, TIMOTHY, jurist; bmn in Kew came prominent in the disputes between
Ipswich, N. H.. March 17, 1788; was as- Kew York and the New Hampshire grants.
sociated in law practice with Daniel \Veb- He was the agent of the" grants" sent to
ster in 1813-16; vice-president of the Kew York in 1772 to inform Governor
New England Historico-Genealogical So- Tryon of the grounds of their complaint.
ciety in 1853-58. His publications in- :Mr. Fay was clerk to the convention
elude Report of the Dartmouth College (1774) that resolved to defend Ethan
Case; Review of the Dred Scott Decision; Allen and other leaders who were out-
and Manual of the Constitution of the lawed by the Kew York Assembly, by force
United States. He died in 1874. if necpssary. Being a physician, he was
Fasts, DAYS OF, observed by many made surgeon of the expedition against
nations from remote antiquity: by the Ticonderoga in May, 1775, and was after-
Jews (2 Chron. xx. 3); by the Ninevites wards in Colonel \Yarner's regiment. He
(Jonah iii.). Da;ys of humiliation, fast- was also a member of the convention in
ing. and prayer appointed by the presi- 1 iii that declared the independence of
dents of the United States: \Vednesday, Vermont, and was the author of the
May 9, 1798, by President John Adams; declaration then adopted, and of the
Thursday, Jan. 12, 1815, by President communication announcing the fact to
Madison; last Thursday of September, Congress. Dr. Fay was secretary of the
18ü], by President Lincoln; Thursday, convention that formed the new State con-
April 30, 18ü3, by President Lincoln; stitution in ] iii, and one of the council
first Thursday in August, 18ü4, by Pres i- of safety that first administered the gov-
dent Lincoln; Thursday, June I, 18ü5, ernment. In 1782 he was judge of the
by President Johnson; :Monday, Sept. 26, Supreme Court of the State; agent of the
1881, by President Arthur. State to Congress at difl'erent times; and,
Father of Waters. See :MISSISSIPPI in conjunction with Ethan Allen, he pub-
RIVER. lished an account of the New York and
Fauntleroy, THOMAS TUR
ER; born in New Hampshire controverf'Y. He died in
Richmond county, Va., Oct. 6, 1796; Bennington, Vt., March Ü. 1818.
served in the \Yar of 1812, and in the Fearing, nE
JA
IIN ÐAXA, military
Seminole \Var; and in 1845 was gh'en a officer; born in Harmar, 0., Oct. 10, 1837;
command on the frontier of Texas to pnlisted in the 2d Ohio Regiment at the
restrain the Indians. He joined the Con- outbreak of the Civil War; took part in
federate army in l\Iay, 18ül; was com- the battles of Bull Run, Shiloh, Hoover's
missioned bribradier-general by the Vir- Gap, and at Chickamauga, where he was
ginia convention and given command of severely wounded. During Sherman's
Richmond, but the Confedcrate govern- march to the sea he commanded a brigadp
ment refused to ratify his appointment. and was again wounded at Bentonvi11e.
He died in Leesburg, Va., Sept. 12, 1883. Gencral Shcrman spoke of him as "t]\('
Fauquier, FRANCIS, colonial governor; bravest man that fought on Shiloh's field."
born in Virginia about 1720. When Din- He died in Harmar, 0., Dec. 9, 1881.
widdie was recalled in 17fiR Fauquier suc- Featherstonhaugh, GEORGE \VILLIA
I,
ceedí'd as lieutenant-governor; and when traveller; born in 1780; made geological
th(> Assembly in liü4 adopted Patrick surveys in the \Vest for the United States
Henry's resolution declaring that the sole \Yar Department in 1834-3:'5. Owing to
right of taxation was in the colonial his knowledge of North America he wa

legislature, he dissoh'ed the Assembly and appointed a commissioner by Great
also refused to summon the House of Britain to determine the northwestern
Burgesses to take action upon the invita- boundary between the United States and

1!}

FEBIGER-FEDERAL CONVENTION

Canada, under the Ashburton-Webster lin, past eighty-one years of age, who had
treaty. His publications include Gf'Ologi- sat in a similar convention at Al.BAXY
cal Report of the Elevated Country be- (q. p.) in 1754. John Dickinson, of Penn-
tween the Missouri and Red Rivers; sylvania; W. S. Johnson, of Connecticut;
Observations on the Åshburton Treaty; and John Rutledge, of South Carolina,
Excursion through the Slave States, etc. had been members of the STA
IP ACT Co
-
He died in Havre, France, Sept. 28, 18G6. GUESS (q. v.) at Kew York in 17G3.
Febiger, CIIUISTIAN, military officer; Washington, Dickinson, and Rutledge had
born on Fünen Island, Denmark, in 1747; been members of the Continental Congre"",
rendered military sC'rvice before entering of 1774. From that body also were Hoger
the American army in April, 1775; was in Sherman, of Connecticut; William Living-
the battle of Bunker Hill, where he led a sten, governor of Kew Jersey; George Read,
portion of a regiment of which he was of Delaware, and George \y,),the, of Vir-
adjutant; accompanied Arnold to Quebec ginia. From among the signers of the Dec-
a few months afterwards, where he was laration of Independence, besides Frank-
made a prisoner; and served with great lin, Head, \Vythe, and Sherman, had come
fidelity throughout the war He was con- Elbridge Gerry, of :\Iassachusetts, and

picuous in the assault on Stony Point Robert Morris, George CI)'mer, and James
(J uly, 1779), leading one of the attack- Wilson, of Pennsylvania. Eighteen mem-
ing columns; also at Yorktown, where he bers had, at the same time, been dele-
C'Ol.lmanded the 2d Virginia Regiment, gates to the Continental Congress; and
with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. From among the whole number there were only
1789 till his death, in Philadelphia, Sept. twelve who had not at some time sat in
20, 179G, Colonel Febiger was treasurer that body. The officers of the Revolu-
of the State of Pennsylvania. tion were reprcsented by \Vashington,
Febiger, JOlIN CARSO:K, naval officer; Mifflin, Hamilton, and C. C. Pinckney.
born in Pittsburg, Pa., Feb. 14, 1821; was Of the members who had taken conspicu-
a grandson of Col. Christian Febiger, of ous posts since the Declaration of Ind('-
t he Revolutionary army; was appointed pendence, the most prominent were Ham-
midshipman in the navy in 1838; was pro- ilton, Madison, and Edmund Handolph,
moted to rear-admiral, Feb. 4, 1882; and then the successor of Patrick Hpnry as
was retired July 1 of the same year. governor of Virginia. The members who
During the Civil \Var he served on the took the leading part in the dcbates were
Wel!!tern Gulf blockading and North At- Gerry, Gorham, and King, of Massachu-
lantic squadrons; and after the war served setts; Johnson. Sherman, and Ellsworth,
on the Asiatic squadron and as command- of Connecticut; Hamilton and Lansing,
ant of the Washington navy-yard. He of New York; Paterson, of XC'w .T('rspy;
died in Londonderry, Md., Oct. 9, 1898. \Vilson, Gouverneur Morris, and Franklin,
Federal City, TIlE. See W ASIII
GTO
of Pennsylvania; Dickinson, of Delaware;
CITY. Martin, of ::\Iaryland; Williamson. of
Federal Constitution. See COXSTlTU- North Carolina; and Charles Cotesworth
11O
AND GOVER
1\IEN1' OF TilE LXITED Pinckney and Charles Pinckney, of South
STATES. Carolina. Rhode Island refuseù to elect
Federal Control of Elections. See delegates to the conwntion.
ELECTIOXS, FEDERAL COXTROL OF. The following is a full list of the mem-
Federal Convention, TIlE. The rep- bers of the national convention: From
resentatives of twelve States assembled New Hampshire--John Langùon, John
in convention at Philadelphia in the sum- Pickering. Nicholas Gilman, Rnd Ren-
mer of 1787 to prepare a constitution of jamin \\est; Massachusetts-Francis
government for the United StatC's of a Dana, Elbridge Gerry, Nathaniel Gorham,
national character. Gmrge \Yashington, Rufus King. and Calpb Strong; Connecti-
n delegate from Virginia, was chosen cut-\\ïlliam Samuel Johnson, Roger
president, and William Jackson, ",ecre- Sherman, and Oliver Ellsworth; New
tary. The convention was composed of York-Robert Yates, John Lansing. Jr.,
sùme of the most illustrious citizens of the and Alexander Hamilton; New Jersey-
nEW republic. There was the aged Frank- David Brearley, William Churchill Hous-
320

FEDElt.A.L CONVENTION, THE

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IIIGYATURBS TO TUB COYSTJTUTJOlf.
III.-X 321

FEDERAL CONVENTION. THE

[

SIGN.A.Tt:REB TO THE OOSSTITUTIOJf.
3
2

FEDERAL CONVENTION, THE

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SIGYATUREB TO THE COYBTITUTIOY.

ton, \Villiam Paterson, John KeiIson, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris, and
\Vi1Iiam Livingston, Abraham Clark, and Benjamin Franklin; Delaware-George
Jonathan Dayton; Pennsylvania-Thomas Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickin-
MifHin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, son, Richard Bassett, and Jacob Broom;
Jared Ingersoll, Thomas Fitzsimons, Maryland-James McHenry, Daniel of St.
323

FEDERAL ELECTION BILL-FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

fhollas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll, John
Francie Mercer, and Luther )Iartin; Vir-
ginia - George Washington, Patrick
Henry, Edmund Randolph, John Blair,
James 1\Iadison, Jr., l
eorge :Mason, and
Geurge \Yythe. Patrick Henry having de-
clinpd the appointment, George .\lcClure
was nominated to supply his place; Xorth
Carolina - Richard Caswell, Alexander
1\Iartin, William Richardson Da.vie, Rich-
ard Dobbs Spaight, and Willie Jones.
Hichard Caswell having resignpd, William
Blount was appointed a deputy in his
place. Willie Jones having also declined
his appointment, his place was supplied
by Hugh Williamson; South Carolina-
,John Rutledge, Charles Pinckney, Charles
Cotesworth Pinckney, and Pierce nutlpr;
Georgia-\\ïlliam Few, Abraham Bald-
win. William Pierce, George Walton, Will-
iam Houston, and Nathaniel Pendleton.
Fac-similcs of the signatures of the sign-
ers of the Constitution, copied from the
original in the archives of the national
government, are given on preceding pages.
\\"imam ,Jackson \Vas secretary.
A committee was appointed to report
rules of proceeding by the eonnntion.
They copied them chiefly from those of
Congress, and their report was adopted.

I:::ach
tate wile to have one vote; se\ en
Statee were to conl!!titute n quorum; all
committees were to be appointed by bal-
lot; the doors were to be closed, and an
injunction of secrecy was placed on the dp-
bates. The members \, ere not even al-
lowed to take copies ot the cntries on the
journa1. The injunction of secrecy as to
the proceedings of the conventiun was
never removed. At the final adjournulPnt
the journal, in accordance with a previous
,'ote, was intrusted to the eustodv of
\\'ashington, by whom it was aftpJ"\,:ards
deposited in the Department of State. It
was first printed, by order of Congress, in
1818. Robert Yates, one of the members
from New York. took brief notes of the
earlier debates. These were published in
1821, after 1\Ir. Yates's death. 1\Ir.
Iadi-
son took more perfect notes of the whole
convention. which were published in IR-lO;
and a reprpsentation to the legislature of
)[aryland, by Luther )Iartin, furnished
nearl." all the material for the history of
the KATI()
AL ('OXSTITrTIO
(q. '1'.).
Federal Election Bill. R('e ELECTION
RII I., FEUEHA L.
Federal Government. See Co
sTrru-
TI()
A
U Gon:n

rE
T OF THE rNITED

T.\TES.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Federal Government in 1902.-The
following is a eomplpte list of the hi
her
Lnited States federal government officials
in the e),.ecutive, judiciary, and legislative
departments.

EXECTTIVE.
President-Theodore Roosevelt, of Xew York,
salary $jO,OOO.
lïce-P,"esident-Vacant, salary $R,OOO.

TlIg CAßIXET.
Arranged In the order of suceesslon for the
Presidency declared by Chapter 4. Acts
of Forty-ninth Congress, first 8t'ssion.
Recretary of State-John I1ay. of Ohio.
.<':(,("1"ctary of Trea.owry-LesIlp :\1. Hhaw. of
Iowa.
Recretary of lrar-EIIhu Root. of Xt'w York.
-\. ttm'tley-Ornenll - Philander C Knox, of
Pennsylvania.
Po81l11ostt'1'-Genn'at . - Henry C. Payne, of
Wisconsin.
Secretary of Na?::' -Wlmam H. :\Ioody, of
Massachusetts.

N('('t'rtm'lI of Itl tr,.ior-Ethan A. II itchcock. of

lisS(1l1l'i.
Recrctary of _-\.{lrÎ<"llltllrc - .James \\ïlson of
Iowa.

The salaries of the eah\Jwt officers J.re
$8,000 paell.

TIlE DEP.\RT
n:
TS.

STATE DEl'AHT:\tEXT.

A8sil/tant .<.:ecretary-Davld J. H\1l,
Xew YOI"k".."................... $4,:'íno
Se('o.,,1 .tllll;lItant
('C,.ct(lI'll - A. A.
Aile(', DIstrict of COlumbia. . . . . . .. 4,UUU
Thil"'l .tR.'1;lItfltlt .<':('('rrtm'!I- H. II.
I'c\J'ee.
Iassnehust'tts............ 4.000
('ldef C1crk- Wm. II. :\lkhapl,
e-
IH"aska. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.:inn
('IIit'f of Pirlo",rrt;r HIll"rflll -
ydney
Y. Hmith. Tlistrid of Columbin. . _ . 2,100
("hirf of ('(11111111",. RllI'('(/ll-R. H. Chil-
ton. Jr., III<;tJ"id of Columbia..... 2,100
('hief of 11111r.l:e8 ond 1rr1Ih'rs-
l'('ndlcto!1 King-. Xnrth C'at"oIlT!fi. . .. 2,100
Cllief of nun'au of Accounts-Thos.
:\Iorrlson, roiew York. . . . . . . . . . . . ., 2,100

3
-t

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Chief of Bureau of Rolls and Library
-A. H. Allen, North Carolina. .. .,
Chief oj Burcau of Foreign Commerce
-Frederic Emory, )laryland......
Chicf of Bureau of A.ppointments-
R. B. )fosher, Kentucky. . . . . . . . . . .

TRF.ASCRY DEPAItT:\IEXT.
.tssista/lt ''''('cr('tary-Oliver L. Spaul-
ding, :\Ikhigan..................
,L'?si.'?trl/lt N,'cretary-I1orace A. Tay-
101', "ïsconsln...................
_lssistall t .s'('cr('tary-
1ilton Eo Ailes,
Obio ...........................
ClIief Clerk-Wallace H. Hills, New
York ..........................
Chief of Appointment Division-Chas.
Lyman, Connecticut... _. .. . . .. . . .
CMcf of Bookkpepiny Dirision-W. F.
MacLennan, Xew York. . . . . . _ . . . . .
(,llief of P'11J1ic Moneys Didsion-
Eo B. Daskam, Connectlcut....... .
Chief of CWltOnlS Didsion-Andrew
Johnson, Virginia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ClIipf of Loans and Currency Dit"ision
-A. T. Huntington.
fassachusetts.
rllief of Statiollery a /1(1 Prill tin!}
Di1'isi01/-G. Simmons. Histrkt of
Columbia . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . .
('lIief of .1fai1s alld Piles Dirision-
S. :\1. Gaines, Kpntucky...........
('hief of Jli.'?cellalleous IJi,.ision-
Lewis Jordan, Indiana...........
SllpefTisill!) 1 n.'?pector-Gpneral Steam
rc....'1('ls-J. A. Dumont, :Kew York. .
Di,.('('tor of Mint-Geo. Eo Roberts,
Iowa ..........................
G01"cn/J/u'ut Actuary-Joseph S. Mc-
Coy, Xf'W Jersey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cll-i('f of RUl"cnu of Statistics-Oscar
P. Austin, District of Columbia. . . .
RU/Jaint,'1H1Cllt of Life-Sarin!) Serrice
--So I. Kimhall, Maine. .. .. .. .. . . .
Nnral Srcre("r!l of Ligllt-llOuse Board
-\Y. :\faynard...................
.
llpcr1' isin 9 ''''"rger}11 -Gen cra l- "" al ter
Wyman.
nssourl...,............
('lIic( of Rllrcou of Engm,.illfl nnd
T'rÏ1/tin!l-W.
1. )leredlth, Illinois.
NII/,pn'i.'?infl -t rcllit('ct-James K. Tay-
101'. Pennsylvania.. _............
N 1l/lf'l"ill tendell t of ('oast S11T1.'ey-Otto
Ir. Tlttman, )flssourl..... _ . . . . . .
('olllll'i.'?siot!cr of Nal"Ïyntion-E. T.
Chamhel'lail1. !IIew York........._
{'oJ/lptmll,'/' of Treas1l1'y- Robt. .T.
1'1'a('e\\"ell. Indiana........ _. . . . . .
A utlitflr ffi1' TreaRury--"'m. E. An-
d rf'WS, 1" ebraska. . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .
A.lldit01' for 11'nr Departmcnt-F. Eo
Rittmann, Ohio..................
A.lIrlitor for TII t('r';01' f)('partment-
R. S, Person, South nakota.......
A.uditor for Knl"Y f)f'l)(lrt11lcnt-"", "'.
Brown, Pennsylvania...,.........
AtulitfJr for ."'t(Tte Dcpnrtment-Frnest
n. Timme, Wisconsin.............
A tulitf/r for Post-Offle(' fl('partment-
I1pnry A Castle, Minnesota.......
Trca.'?urrr of Fnft('d RtateR-EllIs II.
TIohprt!ò;, Xpw york...............

Assistant Tf'easul'er-James F. Meline,
Ohio .................... . . . . .. $3,600
Registcr of Treasury - Judson "'.
L.rons, HeOl.gia.................. 4,000
Dcputy Register - Cyrus F. Adams,
Illinois ........................ 2,250
Comptroller of Currency - ""m. B.
Ridgely, Illinois........... . . . . . .. 5.000
COIll mis.e:ioncr of Internal Rercnue-
John W. Yerkes, Kentucky........ 6,000
Deputy ('ommissiollcr of Illternal
Rel'cnuc-R. Williams, Jr., Louis-
iana ......................... 4,000
Depltty Commissiollf'r of Internal
Revenue-J. C. Wheeler,
1icblgan. 3,600
RoUeitor of Tntcnzal Ren'nuc-Geo.
l\I. Thomas...................... 4,500
."olicitm' of Tf'('(lSury-
I. D. O'Con-
nell, Iowa....................... 4,300
Cllic; of 8('cret Rcn:ice - John E. .
Wilkie, IlIinois.................. 3.500
SUpu'illtell!lcllt of Till 111 igl"fltioll-T. Y.
Powderly, Penns,rlva.lia........... 4,(1'10

$2,100

2,100
2,100

4,300
4,500

4,500
3,000

2,750

3,500

2,500

2,7:i0

2,500

WAR DEPART)[ENT.

2,300

Ass!Ma/lt 8ec1'pta1"!/-\Y. Cary Xan
er,
Xew york........ '_' _._.......
('llief Vlcf'k-Jobll C. S!'ofield, GeOl'gia
A.tlj1Itallt-Gcncral- )Iaj. - (;Pll. II. C.
COI'bln .........................
Chief (,I''1"k- R. P. 'rhian, 1\ew York. .
COlllmissal"J/-Gcllel'a1- Brlg.-Hen. .J. I".
'" eston .......................
Chief ('lerk-W. A. DeCalndl'y,
Ial'.r-
land ...........................
RUt"!Jeoll-GellO"ul - Brig.-Gen. G.
r.
Sternberg- ......................
Cllief Clel'k-Gf'orge A. Jones, Xew
York ..........................
JudfJc-,1(h'orote-Gellc1'nl - Brig.-Gen.
Geo. B. Davis..... _ . .. . . . " .. .. .
(,hi('f (,l('rk- L. W. Call, Kansas.. . . .
1Iz.<11Jeet01'-(Jen( ral-Brig.-Hen. J. C.
Drecklnridge ............,......_
(,hi('f C1n'k--Otls B. Goodall, New
Hampshire .....................
Q1wrtcrma'?tcf'-Gencral - Drlg.-Gen.

1. r. Ludington.................
(,hief Cicrk-llenry D. Saxton, )lassa-
ehusetts ........................
Pa.ll mn8ter-Gcncral-- Drlg.-G en. Alfred
E. Dates........................
(,hirf Clet"k-Thomas 1\1. Exley, Massa-
chusetts .......................
CMcf oí Enyill('ers-Brlg.-Gen. G. L.
Gillespie .......................
(,hirf ('lef'" - Phineas J. Dempsey,
Vh'glnia _......................
Officer ill ('Izarqe of Publie Buildillgs-
T. A. Rlngham..................
Chif'! (,lcrk -- E. I". ConckIln. 1\ew
York ...... .... ..... _........
I.andsen/Je Gnnlf'lIpr - George II.
HI'own, District of Columbia. ..'.
Clticf of Ordnance-llrlg.-Gen. A. R.
Buffington ......................
Chief (,l('1'k-John J. Cook, District
of Columbia.....................
('Mef SifllZUl O@eer-Brlg.-Gen. A. W.
Greely ......,....,......,......

2,300

2,500

3,500

4,500

1,800
3.000
4,000
5,000
4,000

4,500

4,500

5,000

3,600
5,500
4,000

4.000

4.000

4,000

4,000
4,000

r.,OOO
32.')

4,300
3.000

7,:>00
2.000

:;,:>00

2.000

3.;)00

2.000

:i.:JOO
2,000

ri,:iOO

1 ,40n

:i.:i00

2,000

i),:iOO

2.000

:í.:iOO

2.000

4,::JOO

2,400

2,000

5,;;00

2,400

5,iíOO

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Cllfef Clerk-George A. Warren, New
York ..........................
Chief of Records and Pension Officc
-Erl
.-Gen. }<'. C. Ainsworth......

NAVY DErART
lE:ST.
Assil!tan t ,I:,'eeretary-Charles II. Dar-
ling, Vermont. ., .' .. .. .... ., .... .
('hi('f C1Cl"k-Denj. F. Peters, Penn-
sylyallia .......................
ellief of rards alld Docks-Civil Engi-
neer
1. T. Endicott..............
(,lli('f of Ordllance - Capt. Cbarles
O'Xf'1l .........................
Chief of ,'-:/lI)plie.'1 alld .4.ecOll1l ts -l'ay-
mastel'-Gen. Albert K Kenuy......
Cllief of jff'flici/le-Sur.-Gen. W. K.
Van He,rpen............... - .,..
(,lIief of Bfjuil'lI/{'lIt--Capt. H. ß. Brad-
ford.............,......,...... .
Chief of C011sh'uction -
aval Con-
structor 1". T. Bowles.., - . ' . . . . . .
Chief of Xal"igation - Capt. A. S.
Crownlnshleld ..,...............
Engineer-ill-(,hicf-George W. l\lelvllle.
Judgc-.-1flroeate-General-Capt. H. C.
Lemly .........................
lllspn.tor of Pall Corps-F. C. Cosby.
PresÏfl{ nt of X(l!'al BJ'amining nom.a
--Rear-.\dmiral .John C. Watson...
Presid('" t of Sa /"al RctirÍllg Board-
Hear-Admiral .T. A. lIowel1.......
Chicf of Int('lligcnce Office - Capt.
C. D. Sig-sbee....................
/'IlI/lel'in f('lId(,lI t of X a ral ObsC1Tatory
-Capt. ('has. II. Davis...........
IH,'('rtor of Xalltkal -llmanac-l'rof.
W. K Harshman.................
111/fll'of1I"O,,1r ('r-LiNJt-('O m. W. II. II.
Houtherland ....................
MOI'hlc Corps-llrlg.-(;en. ('has. Hey-
wood.......................... .

rOST-OFFICE DErART
lE:ST.
('II if'f CI('rJ.'-Blaln ,Yo Taylor, West
Virginia .......................
Firl<t ,4.1ISiRtallt PORtmfTstcr-Oeneral-
W.
1. .Johnson, Xew .Jersey. . . . . . .
Second A sSifltfill t POlltmal<t('r-Oen('ral
-W. S. Shallenbel'gcr, Pennsyl-
vania ..........................
Third .-lll
Rtmlt Po!!tmast('r-OCll('ral-
E. C. :\Iadden,
fichlgan..........
Fourth A.'1si.'l/allt Posfmast('r-Ocneral
-J. L. Hrlstow, Kansas.........
.tP1loin t nu'n t Clcrk- J obn II. Hobln-
son, 'Ii
slssil)pl..................
SII/I('rin "'lI. 1 t'1I t flf Fm'rlf}'l 11 ai1s-
!Ii.
r. Brooks. \'lr
lnla.,.....,...
.'-11111(''';IIte1/flcllt of ""'/('1/- Ol'der D('-
7JU rt III ell t-J ames T. :\Ietcalf. Iowa.
Gf'II ('rfl1 ,c.; IIpfTin fNUlcII t of Raillray
]fail RCiTicc- Jas. E. ""bite. Illi-
nois ......................." - .
:" Ilt/"Ín t(,fld('11 t of n('a(l-I,ctter Officc-
II. H. Ll'lhhardt. Indiana.,...... . .
('hk( Po8t, Offl('c In.'11JCctor - W. E-
('o{'hran. ColOl'ado.., - ..........
SlIl)(')'illt('tlffrnt all" IHsbursinf] Clcrk
-H. B.
Iercbant. Vlr
lnla. .. . . , . .

$2,000

5,500

4,500

3,000

5,500

5,500

INTERIOR DErART
IE:-IT.
I'irst .-1ssistant Secretary - Thomas
H
'an, Kansas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AS8i."Itallt Secretary-Frank L. Camp-
bell, District of Columbia. . . . . . .
Clliff Clerk - Edward )1. Dawson
l\Iaryland .".............., - '
Assistant A,ttorney - (}cneral- Willis
Van Devanter, Wyoming..........
Commissioner of Lall(l O/lìcc-llinger
Hermann, Oregon.,..............
Assistant Commi,'1.
ionel'-Wllliam A.
Richards, W).oming..............
Commissioller of Pel/sions-I1. Clay
Evans, Tennessee................
First D('puty Commi.'1siollcr of Pelt-
sions - Jas. L. Davenport, New
IIampshlre ...........,.........
Second DC/wty Com III iHsion< r of Pen-
siolls--Leverett )1. Kelly, Illinois..
Commissioller of Education-Wm. T.
Harris, )Iassacbusetts.............
Commissioncr of Illdian Atrairs-Wm.
A. Jones, Wisconsin..............
.4,ssi8t((IIt Commissioner - A. Clarke
'ronnel', Ohio....................
Commissioner of Patcnts-}'rederlck 1.
Allen, New york........... . . . . . .
Assistant ("om1llissiollcr-Edward B.
)1001'1', Michigan.................
Commissioner of Raillcays - James
T.ongstreet, Georgia..............
IHrector of Geolol/kat Rllrl'ey - -l'has.
D. "'olcott, Xew York. . . . . . . . . -
Chicf Clerk of O('o1of/Îf'al SIII.,.f-Y-
II. C. Hizer, Kansas........ - -" . .
Dil"Cctor of Ct'n"lus-\\1l1iam It.
Ier-
dam, l\Ilnnpsota......., ...,....
Assistall t Dil'cctor of CCIISUll- Fred-
erick II. Wines, Illinois...........

5,000

5,000

0.500

5,500

5.500
5,500

3,500
4,400

6,3í;)

6,3í5
3,:;00
3,:;00

2,400

2,600

DEPART
IE:ST OF Jl'STICE.
So1icit(Jr-Oeneral--Jobn K. Richards,
Ohio.......................... .
Assistant .4.ttorn('1I-G(,IIcm1-James )1.
Beck, l'ennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

,:;OO .ttssistallt .tttm'Iu'II-(J{'II{Tal-John (;.
Thompson. Illinois...............
4.000 .,hsisfan t _4. ttm'II('.II-Oclleml-Louis A.
Pradt. Wls('onsin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . , - -
.tSlli.'itmlt A fiorll('y-Gulf.,." 1 Henry:\1.
Hoyt, Pennsylvania.........,.."
Assistant .-1 ttornelj - G('IIf'l"a1 for ,"-
taior D('partment-Willis Yan Dc-
vauter, '\"yomin
................
4,000 Ãs!!ibtant A ttornfll-0('II ('ra1 for Po.'1f-
Of1ìC{' IJcllm.tm('lIt-Jam p s X. T
'ner,
Indiana ........ - - . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
Soli('itor of Rtate nf'1wrtlll(,IIt-WIIl-
lam T,. Penfield. Indiana..........
e/!i('f Cle,'k-Cecil ('lay, West Ylr-

Inla ............., ............
Ro1idtor of Trca8ury-'U. D. 0'( 'on-
nf'I1. Iowa,......................
3.::;00 AR.'1iRtant ,';:o1iejfor of Treasury - I". A.
Ib-eve, Tcnnpssec. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
:!,:íOO [o;o1idto,. I)f In If'l"IlOl R(,1."('II!1C - A. 'V.
WI!<hard. Indiana........... ....
3.()01l af'lH'I"al .4.!lent-Frank
trong. AI'kan-
sas .................... -.......
2,100 '1llJOintmcllt Clerk-Orin J, Flcld. . . .
826

:::i,:::iOO

4,000

4,000

1,ROO

:J.OOO

3,000

$4,:>00

4,ono

::,000

:::i. 01111

:::1.000

3.;)00

:::i,OOO

3.600

3,600

3,0UO

4,000
3,000

5,000

3,000

4,:;00
6,000

:.!,:!:::IO

7.;)00

4,000

í,lIOO

5,000

5.000

[.,000

;),001)

5,00 0

4,;'(11\

4,000

.í:;O

4,;;00

3,000

4.:í00

4.0011
1.1;00

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902
..
.lttorney for Pardon8-Jas. S. Easby-
Smith, Alabama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $2,400
DislJl1rsillfj Clerk - Henry Rechtln,
Ohio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,300

DEPART:\IE:'olT OF AGRICrLTI:RE.
Assi.
tant Sccretary-Joseph H. BrIg-
ham, Ohio... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P,'Ü"ate Secretary to the SecretaJ'Y-
Jasper Wilson, Iowa. . . .. .. . . .. .. .
Chit'f ('lcrk-Andrew Geddes, Iowa..
A1J]JOintment Clerk-Joseph B. Ben-
nett, "ïsconsin..................
Chief of lr"eaHLer B"rcau-Willis L.

Ioore, Illinois...................
Chief of Bureau of Animal I1Idustry-
D. E. Salmon, North Carolina. . . . . .
Director oj Experiment Stations-A.
C. True, Connecticut. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chief of Virixion of Publicatiolls-
Geo. Wm. 11111. l\Iinnpsota. . . . . . . . .
Chief of Diri.
i01t of Accounts-F. L.
Evans. Pennsylvania.............
()hi('f of Burcau of Soils -l\Iilton
Whitney. :\Iaryland.. ............
Stati.'Itidan-John Hyde, Xebmska...
Chief of Httreau of FOI'estry-Gifford
I'lnchot, Xew york...............
Ent(JlIIolo(list - L. O. Howard, New
york.......................... .
(,helllist-H. W. Wiley, Indiana. .... .
Chif'f of lìirision of Biological Sun-ey
-C. H.
Ierrlam, Xew YOl.k.......
S/Jccinl Agent of Road Inqlliry-l\I.
Do(lge, I)hlo.....................
Libm1'ian-Josephlne A. Clark, Massa-
chuset ts .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chi(f of ''''"pplll DiI'i.'1ion-Cyrus B.
Lower, Penusylvanla. ........ .. ...
Bm'mu of Plan t Indu-'ltry-
()hipf-H. T. Galloway,
Iissourl...
Patholoflist and Physiologist - AI-
hert F. Woods. Xebraska. _ _ _ ..
Botu/li8t-Frederlck V. Coville, Xew
York ........................
Pomologi-'lt-Gustavus n. Brackett,
Iowa ........................
Agro8fol(J(}ist-F. Lamson Scribner,
Tennessee ....................

Ciril Rtrl.'ic(' Commissio1lcr-John R.
I'ro('ter, Kentucky........... . . . . .
Ciril Rerrfc6 Commissioner - W. D.
Foulke, Indiana.................
Ch-U Sprric6 C0111mis.'1io/lC1' - W. A.
Rodenberg. Illinois...............
Chief Examiner of CiI:il Scnkc-A. R.
Serven .........................
SecT( tw'y of ('it'il Rcrricc-John T.
Doyle. New York. .. .. .. .. . ., .. . . .
Commi.'1siotipr of Labor-C. D. Wright,
}Iassachusetts ...................
Chicf Clerk of LallOr - G. W. W.
IIanger ........................
Gournment Pri1lter-Frank ,Yo Pal-
mer, Illinois.....................
Commissio1ler of Fi.'1h and Fi8herirs-
G.
L Bowprs. . . .... ... . .. . _ .... .
TA1Jrarif/n of ('ong1'ps8-lIerbert Put-
nam, Massachusetts. ....,.......
Assi.'1tant Librarian-A. R. Spofford.
Ohio ...........................

4,500

Dfrertor of Bureau of Ame1'icall Rc-
publicR-Wm. W. Rockhill, District
of Columbia. _ . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .
Clllef Clprk of Bureau of American Re-
publies-"ïlliams C. Fox, District
of Columbia.....................
Secretflry of Smitllsonian Instifllte-
S. 1'. Langley, District of Colum-
bia ........................ ...
Director oj Bureau of .-1meriean Etll-
lIology-J. W. Powell.... _.... ...
Secretary of Indllstrial Comlllission-
K Dana Durand.................
Reciprocity Commissioner - John A.
Kasson ................ . . . . . . . . .
Director of National Bureau of Stand-
aI"{1s-S. W. Stratton, Illinois. .. . . .

$5,000

2,230
2,500

2.000

5,000

4,000
3,000

IXT}
R-STATE CO:\L\IERCE cO:\L\nSSIO:'ol.
Clwi1'man--
Iartin A. Knapp, New
York .. ......................
Judson C. Clements, Georgia........
James D. Yeomans, Iowa. .. . . . . .. .. .
Charles A. Prouty, Yermont. .. . . .. . .
Joseph W. Fifer, Illinois... . . . . . . . . .
Secretary-Edward A.
Ioseley, :\Iassa-
chusetts ........................
lssisttmt Scef'etan) - )Iartln S.
Decker, New york...............

2,500

7,500
7.:500
Î.;:){IO
7.:-;UU
7,500

2,500
3.000
3,000
3,000

3,500

2.:5UO
3.000

3,000

2,300

r:'olITED STATES PEXSIO:'ol AGEXTS.
Augu::;ta,
Ie..... _ . Splden Connor.
Boston,
Iass....... Augustus J. Boltt.
Buffalo, X. Y....... Chades A. Orr.
Chicago. III........ .Jonathan
Ierrlam.
Columbus. Ohio..... .Joseph W. Jones.
Concord.
. II...... Hugh [Jpnry.
Des
Ioines. Iowa... Empry F. Hperry.
Detroit.
Iich... . Oscar A. Janes.
Indianapolis. Ind.... Jat'ob D. Lpighty.
Knoxville, Tpnn _ . . . . .John T. Wilder.
Louisville. Ky...... Lpslie Combs.
l\IilwaukPe, Wis..... Edwin D. Coer
Xew Yo\'k City. X. Y. :\Iil'hael Kerwin.
I'hiladelphia. Pa.... Ht. Clair A. 1\Iulholland.
Pittsburg. Pa _ . _ . _ . John W. Xesbit.
Han Franciseo. Cal. . JeslìJe H. Fuller.
'ropeka. Kan. . . . . . . . Cyrus Lelanrl. Jr.
Washington, D. C.. Sidney L. Willson.

2,:;00

1,800

2,000

3,0 0 0

2,300

2,;)00

2.300

2,;:;00

3,;)00

U
HTED STATES ASSIST.\XT TREASURERS.
Ru 1 J-7'1'casw'irs. AssiRt""t 7'rca.'1Il1'('rR.
Baltimore. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Tamp::; :\1. Hloan.
Boston. . . . . . . . . . . nPOl'ge A. :\Iardpn.
Chicago. .. . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . W. 1'. Williams.
Cincinnati. . . . . . . . . . . . Charles A. Bo!;wort h.
Xew Orleans.............. .Charlp::; .T. Bpi\.
Xpw Yo\.k.......... .... .Conrad X. .Tordan.
Philadelphia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..John F. Finnpy.
Ht. Loui::;............... Barnard G. Farrar.
San Francisco.... _ ....... . Julius Jacobs.

3,500

3,300

3.000

2.00n

3,000

2,500

COLLECTORS OF crSTO
IS.

4.;'00 Houlton, -:\Ie., Thoma::; II. Phair.
BangoJ:. -:\Ip.. Albprt n. nay.
5.000 Bath, 1\IP.. neol"l
e
Ioulton. .Tr.
Bplfast. :\Ip.. .Tamps H. Harriman.
6.000 f'astinp. :\Ip.. George
1. Warren.
Ellsworth.
re.. Hem'y Whiting.
4,000 'Iachlas,
Ie., 1i'rank L. Shaw.
327

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Kennebunk, Me., George E. Cousens.
Fastport,
Je., George E. Curran.
Portland, Me., Charlps M. Moses.
Saco, Me., Willlam I.. Gerrish.
Waldoboro,
Ie., Frederick W. Wight.
Wlscasset,
Ie., Vanlel H. l\Ioody.
York, Me., "
dward H. Banks.
Portsmouth, N. II., Rufus N. Elwell.
Bristol. R. I., Charles D. I
ddy.
Xewport, R. I., vacant.
Provldencp. H. I.. Ellery II. Wilson.
Burlington. Yt.. Olin
Ierrlll.
Newport. Vt., Zophar
I. l\Iansur.
Brldgepol.t, Conn., Frank J. Xaramore.
Hartford, Conn., Ezra B. Bailey.
New Haven, Conn., John W.
lIx.
New London. Conn., Thomas O. Thompson.
Stonlngton, Conn., Charles T. Stanton.
Barnstable, Mass., Thacher T. IIallet.
Boston, Mass., George H. Lyman.
Edgartown, 1\Iass., Charles H. Marchant.
Fall River, Mass., James Brady.
Gloucester, Mass., William H. Jordan.
Marble:bead, Mass., Stuart F.
JcClearn.
Nantucket, Mass., Obed G. Smith.
New Bedford, Mass., George F. Bartlett.
Newburyport, Mass., Hiram P.
Iacklntosb.
Plymouth, 1\Iass., Herbert Morlssey.
Salem, Mass., John Daland.
Buft'alo, N. Y., Henry W. Brendel.
Cape Vincent, N. Y.. William J. Grant.
Plattsburg, N. Y., Walter C. Wltberbee.
Dunkirk, KY., Jobn Bourne.
Rochester, N. Y., Henry Harrison.
Xew York,.N. Y., George R. Bidwell.
Niagara Falls, N. Y., James Low.
Ogdensburg, N. Y., Charles A. Kellogg.
Oswego, N. Y.. James H. Cooper.
Sag Harbor, N. Y., Peter Dippel.
Jersey City, N. J.. S. D. Dickinson. Asst. Col.
Brldgeton, N. J.. George W. McCowan.
Trenton, N. J.. Roland Billingham.
Somers Point, N. J.. Walter I<'!field.
Newark, 1'J. J., George I.. Smith.
Perth Ambo
', K J.. Robert Carson.
Tuckerton, N. J., Samuel P. Bartlett.
Camden, N. J.. F. F. Patterson, Asst. Col.
Philadelphia. Pa.. C. Wesley Thomas.
Erie, Pa.. Benjamin ß. Brown.
Wilmington, Del.. Robert G. Houston.
Washington. H. C.. William ß. Todd.
Annapolis. !\Id.. .John K. Gladden.
Baltimore,
Id.. Wllllam F. Stone.
Crlsfield.
Id.. James C. TaweR.
Alexandria. Ya.. )Iarshall I.. King.
Cape Charles City, \"a.. C. G. Smltber8.
Xorfolk. Va.. Richard G. Banks.
Petersburg. Va.. William )Iahone.
Tappahannock, Ya., Thomas C. ',"alker.
!'\ewport News, \"a.. JesRe W. Elliott.
Richmond. Va.. Joseph II. Stewart.
Beaufort, N. C., Christopher D. Jones.
Newbern, N. C.,
Iayer lIahn.
Edenton, K ('., GeOl'g-e W. ('obb.
Wilmington, N. ('.. Joh.1 ('. Dancy.
Beaufort, S. C.. Robert Smalls.
Cbarleston, S. C.. R.)bert )1. Wallace.
GeorgE:town, S. C.. Isaiah J. )Ic('attrle.
Brunswick, Ga., lIenry T. Dunn.
!':avannab. Ga., John II. DevNlUx.
St. Mary's. {;8.. Budd ('olTee.
'lobUe, AlA.., WllllflID F. TIÞbettfl,

Shleldsboro, Miss., Henry C. Turley.
Natchez. 1\IIss.. Louis J. Winston.
Vicksburg, 1\IIss., Joseph H. Sbort.
Apalachlcola, Fla., William B. Sheppard.
Cedar Keys, Fla., SamuelI'. Anthony.
Fernanlllna, Fla., John \Y. Howell.
JacksoLvllle. Fla., William H. Lucas.
Key West, Fla., George W. Allen.
St. Augustine. Fla., Thomas B. George.
Tampa, Fla.. Matthew B. )Iacfarlane.
Pensacola. Fla.. .John E. Stillman.
New Orleans, La., Augustus T. \Vlmberly.
- Brasher, La., John A. Thornton.
Brownsvllle, T
x., Cbarles H. 1\Iarls.
Corpus Christi, Tex., James J. Haynes.
Eagle Pass, Tex., Claremont C. Drake.
EI Paso, Tex., vacant.
Galveston, Tex.. FI'ank L. Lee.
Cleveland, 0., Charles I". Leach.
Sandusky, 0.. Edmund H. Zurhorst.
Toledo, 0., Joseph C. Bonner.
Detroit, Mlcb., John T. Rich.
Grand Haven, 1\IIch., George A. Farr.
MarQur-tte,
Jlch., John Quincy Adams.
Port Huron,
I1ch.. Lincoln Avery.
Chicago, Ill., William Penn
ixon.
St. Paul, !\lInn.. .John Peterson.
Duluth, l\Ilnn.. I evl 1\1. \\111cuts.
Milwaukee, Wis., (,harles ß. Roberts.
Great Falls, 1\Iont., Charles
1. Webster.
San Francisco, Cal.. Predel'lck S. Stratton.
San Diego, Cal., William W. Bowers.
Los Angeles, Cat., John C. ('line.
Eureka, ('aI., Sterling- A. Campbell.
Astoria, Ol'e., John Fox.
Coos Bay, Ore., John !\Iorp;an.
Portland, Ore., I!'aac L. Patterson.
Ya!]ulna, Ore.. Charles R. ('rosno.
Port Townsend. Wash.. F. D. lIuestis.
Sitka. Alaska. Joseph W. hey.
Nogales, Ariz.. Frank L. Doan.
Pembina, N. D., Nelson E. !'\elson.
Honolulu, n. I., E. H. Stackable.
San Juan, P. R., George W. Whltebead.
'f'HF: Jl'DlCIARY.

SUPRF.MB CO(;RT OF THF. USITED BTATF.8.
('ld,f-Jwtice of the Unif,d Stafe.
-1felville W. Fuller,
of IIIino's, born i833. appointed 1888.
Bnrn. AT''''
,AllOciaû Justice_Tohn M. Hnrlan. Ky... ..181
lRí7
II II Horace Gra,'. JlJas!l......IK28 l
jo\t
David J. Brewer. Kan.. .IR17 ] MM!I
II Henrv n. Brown. JlJirh..1R16 JR!!O
u Gpor
(' RhjrR
. .Jr.. Pa.... .1
t
2 1
9.J
F.dwartJ n. Whitp. La.... 1fWj JK!l-l
Rl1fl1s W. Pf'rkham.
. Y.lS
7 JM!!5
Joseph t.lrK{'nna. Cn!... .18-13 ]K9R
R'pnrf,r_J. f'. RRncroft nn\"ls.
. Y. rT,rk-J. H
McKennpy. n. C.
1(lrI!'lal-.John
I Wrij;(ht. Ky.
The s.,larv of the Chief-Justire of tbe (Tnlled
tatec: Is
$10.500: i!lsociate JI1!1tÍ!'ps. $10.000 earb: of the Re.
porter.
-I.!i()(); Marshal, $3,500 ; Clerk of the Sl1preme
Court. $6,000.
CIRCeIT COURTS OF THE UNITED
TATES.
ct.. JnMH App.
1. Lp Raron R Colt. R. r. .. . .... . . . .. . . . . .. . . ... lR84
William L. Pl1tnam. \Ie....................... 1892
2. William J. Wallare. N. Y..................... lRR2
F.. Hpnrv I.acombe. N. Y..................... 18R7
XRlhnnip!
hlpm:m. Conn.................... 1892
3. "lIrrl18 \V. ArhP80n. Pa............... ....... lR91
Geol'l/:p \1. nallaA. Pa. ........................ lRII2
GeoraÐ Gray, nel..... . '" . .. .. . .... . . . . . . . .,. 189"

328

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

CIRCUIT COURTS OF THE UNITED S1'ATES-Con-
tinued.
Cir. Judges. .A PI'-
,. Natbau GolI, W. Va.......................... 1892
Charles H. Simouton, S. C.................... 1893
6. non A. Pardee, I.a............................ 1881
A. P. :\I<-Cormick.Tex........................ 1892
na\'id n. Shelby, Ala. . ., . ..... .............. 1899
6. Hf'lIry F. Severens,
Iidl..................... 1900
Horace H. Lurtoll. Tenn...................... 1893
Wilham R nay. Ohio........... .............. Ilj99
7. .fames H. Jenkins. Wis....................... 1
93
Peter S. Grosscup, III. ..... ....... ...... ...... 1
99

'rallcj,; E. Haker. Ind........................ 1901
8. HenryC. Calùwell, Ark....................... 11:!90
Walter H. Sanborn. Minn..................... 1892
Amoli! \1. Thayer,
[o..................... ... 189'
9. William W. \forrow. Cal........... ..........1897
WiIIi:lm B. Gilbert, Ore....................... 1892
Erskine
1. Ross. Cal. .... .... .. ............. IM95
Salaries. !6.000 each. The ju,lges of each ('ircuit Rnd
the justice of the Supreme Court for the circuit consti-
tute a Circuit Court of Appeals. The First Circuit con-
sists of )[aine,
[assachusetts. Sew Halllpshire, Rhode
Island Se,'ond -Connecticut. Sew York. "errnont.
Third- Delaware. New .Jersey. Pennsylvania. Fourth
-\Iaryland. North Carolina. South Carulina. Virginia,
West Virginia. FIfth-Alabama. Florida, Georg:a. Lou-
isiana, Mississippi, Texas. Si'(th -Kentucky.
[jchigan,
Ohio. Tennessee. Sevellth-III;nois. Indiana. Wisconsin.
Eighth-Arkansas. Colorado. Indian and Oklahoma Ter.
ritories. Iowa, Kansas,
Iinnesota.
Iisi'ouri, :Xebraska,
New Mexico. North ()akota, :5outh Dakota. I"tah. Wro-
ming. Ninth-Alaska, Arizona. California, Idaho,
Ion-
tana, Nevada, Oregon, Wa.<;hington.

1!
ITED STATES COURT OF CI.AI:!IS.
Chiif-JwticP-Charles C. Nott. N. Y. Associate Jlldgps
-Lawrence Weldon, III. j St.'1nton .J. Peelle, Ind. j .Jol..m
Davis, D. C. ; Ch'lfles B. Howry, Miss. Salaries, !t:;OO
each. Chief Clerk-Archibald Hopkins. )Iass., !3,OOO.

U
ITED STATES COURT OF PRJVATR LA
D CLAIMS.
Chiif-Ju.
ti
--Joseph R. Ret-d. Iowa. Ju.
ticl!S-Wil-
bur F. Stone, Col.; Henry C. SluBS, Kan.; Fr;LDk I. Os-
borne, N. C. j William W.
lurr,lY, Tenn. United Stales
.AUorney-\latthew G. Reynolds, Mo.

COURT OF APPIULS OF TnR DISTRICT OF COLU:!IBIA.
(,hie.rJltSti
-Richard H. Alvey, !t[d.. !6.500. J,u-
tices-\[artin F. Morris, n. C., !H.OOOj Seth Shepard,
Tex., !6,OOO. Clerk-Robert Willett, D. C., $.1,000.
DISTRICT COURrS OF THE UNITED STATE:5.
Di.trieu. Jodlre.. Addr........ S......leo.
Ala.: N. &. )1... Thomas G. Jones. .!tfonrgomery. .$'í.000
.. S. D......H. T. Toulmin ...\[obile........ 5,000
Ala<;ka...... .... \1. C. Brown.... ...Juneau ....... :J,OOO
,. ..... ....A. H. Noyps......'it. }Iichael.... :J,OOO
.. ... ..-... .J. Wickersham... Eagle City..... 3000
Arizona........ Webstpr Street.... Phænix. ...... 3.000
Ark : K n.... ...Jacob Trieber. .... Little Rock. . " Ii.OOO
W. D.......John H. Rogprs...FortSmith.... 5.000
Cal.: N. [) ....../ohn.l. [)eHaven.
an !<'ranl'isco. 5,000
" S. [). ....Olin WplihorD.....Los Angples... Ii,OOO
Colorado ...... \lose" Hallett...., [)enver ...... Ii,OOO
Conne,.ticut .... W. K. rownsend.. New H:1\'en... 5,000
Delaware.......Ed. G. Bradford...Wilmington... 5,000

THE AR)IY.

DI.trlcta. JudgeL Addreuøl. Salarlea.
Fla..: N. D... ... .Charles Swayne... Pensacola.... .$5,000
" S. D.. .... ..James W. Locke. .Jacksonville .. 5.000
Ga.: N. D...... .. Wm. T. Newman.. Atlanta....... 5,000
" S. D..... '" Emory Speer...... Macon........ 5,1100
Hawaii.........M.
. Estee.......Honolulu ..... 5.0(lU
Idaho......... .James H. Beatty.. Boisé......... 5.1100
111.: X. D..... ..C. C. Kohlsaat....1 .hlcago....... 5,t,lI(}
.. S. D..... ..J. O. Humphrey.. Sprmgfield.... 5,1I(/(J
Ind.T.:N. D....Jos. A. Gill.......Vmita........ 5,IJUIJ
" C. D....W. H.H.Clayton..S. McAlester.. 5,IJOU
S. D..... Hosea Townsend.. Ardmore.. .... 5,OUO
N.C.S.D..JohuR TllOmas...\"inita........ 5.000
Indianp ....... .Jol1n H. Baker.... Indianapolis.. 5.00U
Iowa: K n.....OliverP. :5lJiras...Dubuque...... 5,OUII
" S. D.... .S. )IcPherson.... . Red Oak...... 5,OUO
Kansas......... Wm. C. Hook.... .I.eavenworth.. 5,000
Ky.: W. D...... Walter E\-ans.... . Louisville. .... 5,000
.. E. D...... A. M. .1. Cocl1ran.. Maysville. .... 5,000
La.: E. D...... Charles Parlange. .
ew Orle:lUs.. :>,000
.. W. D.... ..Aleck Boarman.. .Shreveport.... 5,000
Maine.... ... '" Nathan Webb..... Portland.. . ... 5.000
Maryland.... ...ThomasJ. Morris. . Baltimore .... 5,000
Mass..... ...... Francis C. Lo\\ell.. Boston........ 6,000
Mich.: E. D.....Henry H.l:ìwan...Hetl'Oit .......5,000
.. W. D.. ..Geo. P. Wanty... .Grand Rapids. 5.000
}Iinnesota.. .... Wm. Lochren..... Minneapolis... 5,000
MiBS.: N. & S... Henry C. Xiles... .Kosciusko.... 5,000
Montana........Hiram Knowles... Helena ....... 5,000
1.10.: E. D...... Elmer B. Adams.. . St. Louis..... 5.0UO
" W. n......John F.l'hilips...Kansas City.. 5.000
Nebraska. .... .. Wm. II.
/unger.. . Omaha. .... .. :>,000
Nevada.........Thos. P. Hawley...Carson City... 5.000
New Hamp..... Edgar Aldricl1.... Littleton.. .... 5,000
New Jersey.....:\. Kirkpatrick....
ewark....oo. 5,000
New 'Iexlco....Wm. J. 'liIls.....Las Vegas.... 3,000
N. Y.: N. D....Alfred C. Coxe....(;tica......... 5,000
" W. D... .John R. HazeL... Buffalo....... 5,000
S. D... Geo. B. Adams. . . . N. Y. City.... 5,000
E. D.... Edw. B. Thomas... Brooklyn.... _ 5,000
N. C.: F.. D.... Thos. R Purnell... Raleigh....... 5,000
" \V. D... .James E. Boyd... .Greeusboro.... 5.000
Nortb Dakota.. .Chas F. Amidon. ..Fargo......... 5,000
Ohio: No D.....A. J. Ricks.......Cle\.eland.... 5.000
.. N. D..........J. Wing........Clevelal1d..... 5.000
S. n.....A. C. Thompson...Cincinnati.... 5.000
Oklahoma.... . ..John H. Burford.. G1)thrie.. .. ... 3.000
Oregon. . ... ... . C. II. Bell ingpr. . . . Portland. ..... 5.000
Pa.: F.. D...... ..J. B. Mcl'lwrson. .1'11i1adelphia.. 5.000
" ,I. D.......R. W. Archbald...ScrHnton...... 5,000
" W. n........Jos. BuffinglOn....Pittsburg..... 5.000
Porto Ri,.o...... '-acam ......... .San .Juan..... Ii.OOO
Rhode Island. .k L. Brnwn......Providence.... 5,DOO
South Carolina.. W. H. Rrawley... .Charleston.... 5.000
South Dakota.. .John K Carland.. .Sioux "'alls... 5.000
Tenn.: Eo &: \I.('has. [). Clark....Chattanooga.. 5.000
.. W. n.... K S. Hammond. .. \[emphis . . . .. 5.(1)0
Texas: Eo [).... [). E. Bryant..... .Sherman...... Ii.OUO
" W. n....Thos. S. ;\[axey...Anstin........ 5,onO
" N. [).... Edw. R.
Ie('k..... Fnrt Worth... 5,000
nah...... .....J. A. \Iarshall.....
aH[akeCity. 5,OfIO
Vermont..... ..H. H. Whl'eler.... BralIleboro... 5.1100
Va.: E. n....... K Waddill. .Jr.... . Richmond .... 5.000
" W". D.......H. C. \lc[)owell...BIJ(Stol1eGap. 5.0110
'Washington .. .C. H. Hanford... ..Seattle........ 5.0110
\V. \-a.: N. D.. ..J. .J. Jackson..... PRrker!'lmrg.. 5.000
" S. n... R. F. Keller...... Bramwell. . ... 1\.000
Wls.: F.. n.... . W. H. Seaman... .
hphorgan.... 5.000
.. \V. D...... Romanzo Bunn...
Iadison.... .. 5,000
Wyoming. ..... .John A. Riner... .Cheyenne..... 5,000

GR
RRAL IIFFIC'RltS OF Till! LI
F;.
Rallk. .v'lnl
. Clllllmand. IIpariquarfers.
Lleutenant-Gener,ll 'lpJ;.;on A. \lIles .......... United ;;:tates Army.................. Wasbin
ton. n. C.
MaJor-Goneral.... ...Juhn R Brooke........... nep:lrtrnl'nt of the East.............. Kew York. N. Y.
. ... . . F.lwell S. Otis.. . . . . .... .. { [)ppartment of the Lakes. .... . .., . .. .Chlrago. III.
nepartment of [)akota. ............. . .
t. I'aul. Minn.
..... .S'unuel B \1 Young .... [)epartment of California.,.......... .San Franf"lsco Cnl.
&I ......Adna R.f'haffpp.... .. Division ofthel>>hllippines...........Mani1a. 1).1 I
II ...... Arlhur \lacArthur ........ Una
sil!lIcd .........................
.. ......Lord WheaLoD............DepartrnpntofXnr\h Ph.1ipvll1"'1.....MaIJil"J ",I.
:HO

II

..
'I

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

GEYERAL OFFICERS OF THE LI:SE-Continued..
Rank. Name. Command. lIpadquarttrs.
Brigadier-General.. . James F. Wade........... Department of South I'hihppines..... .Cebu, P. I.
.. ". . .John C. Bates. . ... ..... .. .Iu the I'hilippmes.... ...... . . .. . . . .. . Mauila, P. I.
:::
::::;
:I
" J:;
i

;:::::::::::: ;; ..::.:::::::......... .. ..
.. . Leouard Wuod............ Departmeut of Cuba........::::::::: Havana, Cuba..
...Robert P. Hughes.........In tbe l'hilippilles....................
lanila, P. I.
.. .G
o
ge !II. R.auda}!........ Departmeut. of.tbe Columbia..... ..... \'ancouver Barracks, "ash
.,. \\ Ilham A. Kubbe. .., '" .In the PLllhpIJlnes................... Manila, 1'. 1.
...Frederick n. (;rant....... ",.. .. ..................... ..
.. . Franklin J. Bell............. ..
.. .Jacob H. Smith. .......... "' .1
.. . "'rederick "'U nston. . . . . ..... ..
. . . William H Hi::ìbee........" "

..
II

CHIEFS OF STAFF CORPS AYD BCREAl'S OF THE WAR DEPARnn::\T.
Ma;Jor-
en
ral ,..... Henry C. Corbin.... ...... Adjutant-General.................... Wasbiugton, O. C.
Brlgadler-henem!. . .)1. I. Ludmgton.........., Quartermaster.General ... ...... ... . .. .. ..
.. .,. Alfred E. Bates..... ...... Paymaster-General...... _........ ....
.. .John .... Weston.......... .Commissary-General.................
.. . George M. Steruberg...... Surgeon.Genera!.....................
. ..Adolphus W. (ireely...... .Chief Signal Officer.............. ....
" .(;eorge L. Gillespie........ Chief of Engineers......... ..........
... William Crozier. .......... Chief of Ordnance...................
.. . Joseph C. Breckinridge... .Inspector-Geuera!............ ...... ..
. . ,(;eorge B. navis....... . .. . ,Judge-AdnJCate-Gl'neraI. . . . .... . . ... . II
.. . Frederick C. Ainswonh. . . Cbief Recurd and Pension Officer... .. . II

TIlE K.A VY.
FLAG OFFICERS.

AV.vIRAL.
Name. Duty. IVllere Stationed.
George Hewey................. . .Senior Alember General Buard............................ \\"ashington, D. C.
HEAR'AV"IRALS.
John A. Howell ................ . President S'a\'al Retiring Buard......................... . Washing(on, n. C.
(;eorge C. Remey.............. . .Commander-iu.Chief Asiatic :"tation........... ............ Flag-ship Brooklyn.

ormanH. Farquhar......._....l'hairmauLightholl!;e Buard..... ........ ... ..........Washmgtun, D.C.
.John C. Watson. . .. .... . ... .... . .l'rm,ideut Na\'al Examiniug Buard .... . . .. .... .. ... .... .. ..

ilas Casey....... ... _........ .('ommander. in-Chief I'acilic
tatiun............. .. ....... Flag.ship Wisconsin.
Bartlett J. Crom\\ell. .......... . .('ommander.in Chief European Station........... ........ Flag ship (,Mcago.
Francis J. Higginsun. .......... . .Cummander in Cillef r\orLh Atlautic :-tation............... FJag-8hip Kears"/"ge.
Frederick Hullgers.............. .Senior Squad run ('olllmauder, Afdut.c :-'tation.... ...... ... .Flag'Fhip lYew j"",.k.
Louis Kempft:................. .. Juniur Squadron Cummander, Asiatic :-<tatl<<l11........ ...... Flag-t;hlp IÚntucl.y.
George \V. Sumner.... . . . . .... . . Com matl<<lant
a\'al Station, League 1"lund..... . . .. . . . . .. . I.eltglle 1
land, I'a.
Albert S. Barker ........... .... .Cummandant
avJ",)'ard. ]\;ew Yurk ........... _......... .XC\\ Yurk. K Y.
Charles S. Cotton....... ........ .Cummandant
a\"y.yard. Xorfolk.. ....... ...... .... ......I'ort!'month. "a.
Rubley D. Evans........... _... . . President Buanl of Inspection and
un'e}"........... ...... \\"ashiugton, D. C.
:-:ilas W. Terry............. ..... .Commandant Navy-yard. Wa;ohington............ ........ .. ..

Ierrlll )Iiller.......... ......... .Commandant r\avy.yard, Mare Island. .. .......... ......
Iltrc Island, Ca1.
John.J. Reatl.................... Commandant roiavy-yard, I'urtsmouth. .. .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . ., .I'ortsmouth, N. H.
Henry C. T;lylor. .... .... ..... ,Member General Board................. ... ......... .... W.lshington, D. C.
\Iortimer L. John!'on ...... ..... .Cllmmandant Navy-}"ard, Bo!'tun .... ..................... Boston, Mass.
Edwin M. !'hepard............... Cum mandant Naval
tation. I'ort Ro)al . '" ............. . Port Ro)'al. S. C.
Frank Wildes.................. . . Cum mandant Xavy- )'ard. l'en8<'lf'ola. . . . . . . . . . ... .... . .. _ .I'ensacu!;l, Fla.
Henry Glass.................... .Commandlllg Traming Ship and Statiun, San ...rancisco..... .&n I'rancisco, Cai.

RETIRE!) LIST.
Rank. Xame. Residence. Rflnk. .Yarne. ll",id"nce.
Rear-Admiral Thos. O.
elrridgc, Sr... Wa!'hingtun. n. C. Rear-Admiral Thos o.
{')rl idge, .Jr... Wa
hing(un, n. C.
.. George R. Bakh.......Rallimore.
I. H. .. .JO!'I')lh K Miller.......roif'\\ Yor1.. N. Y.
Aaron K. Hlighes ..... Washmgton, D. C. F.. O.
'althe\\s........ r\1'\\ port. R. I.
John H l'p!'hur....... .. II Charles S. roiurtun.... Hrohkl)"n. X. Y.
FrancisA. Rop........ Henry L. Ho\\isun.....Yonken,. X. Y.
Ramuel R. Franklin... Albert Kautz..........Aml\(
rst.
'ass.
II !5tl'phl'n R. Luce....... Newport. R. I. Winfield S. St'hley.... .roil'w \ ork, N. Y
" James F.. JOUl'tt....... Washington, n. C. William G. Buehler... .l'hiladl'l,.hia. I'a.
," Lewis A. Kimberly.... W. r-;"e\\ton, Mass. Henry B. Rohl'son..... Walpole, K H.
Bancroft Gherardi..... F.a!'t Orange, K J. Benjamin F. nay..... Gla!'gow, "a.
George F.. Belknap.. . Brookline. Mas!!. Alex. H. MeI'orrllick. ..Annapolis. Md.
D. B. Harmony. ... ... :-<anta Barhara. Cal. r-;"icoll Ludlow... ..... O.tko'ale. L. I.
A. E. K. Benham...... Washington, n. C. James Ent\\ i!'tIl'...... .I'a(crsun. N. J.
,James A. (;rper........ I... roiehemiah
1. nyer.... Melro!'e. Maes.
Aarun W. Wea\.er..... .Josl'ph Trrlle}"........ .!'.In Franei!<co. CaL
Gporgl' Brown..... ..lndianapoli!!.lnrl. .John Lowe ........r\or(on. COIIII
John (;. Walkpr....... Washington. n. C. .John !'choulpr..... . . . . Annapoli!'. Mil.
Frand!'
r. Rum!lay ... .,.. ('iprJ:lno Andr.lde..... .l'hilatlell,hia. I'a.
O!'car Jo'. Rtantoll..... XI'W Londoll. ronn. ].pwis W. RuhilU;un.... II ..
" Henrv Jo:rben .........Xew York. S. Y. EtI\\in Whitl'..........Princcton. X. ,J.
" L. A. "Beardslee.. ..... .I
ittle Falls, S. \r. John }(cGowau........ 'VashiugtoD, D. C.
330

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

NAVAL EXAliUNING AND RETIRING BOARDS.

RETIRED LIST-Continued.
Rank. Na7M. Residence.
Rear-Admiral James G. Green....... Washington, 0, C.
" James M. f'orsyth.... . Philadelphia, I'll..
George E. Ide....... _. Kcw York, t-.. Y.
George
I. Book.... .., Brooklyn, N. Y.
Uscar W. FarenbolL. .. .
I:llden, Mass.
William C. Gibson..... Brookl}'n,
. Y.
Ed\\ard T.
trong.... .Aluany,
. Y.
f'rank' Courtis. ... . .... Berkeley, Cai.
CmnWUORES.
RETIRED LIST. *
Rank. Xame. Residence.
Commodore Albert G. Clary ...... .Springfield,
Iass.
" S. Nicholson.......... Washington. U. C.
" W. P. McCann......... Xcw Rochelle,
. Y.
James H. Gillis........ Delhi,
. Y.
E. E. Potter........... Bel\'idere, Ill.
u R. L. pbythian....... .Annapolls, Md.
" Rush R. \\- allace. . . . . . . \\'" ash j ngtoD, D. C.
. The grade of Commodore on the active list has been abolished.

The Naval Examining Board consists of Rear-Admi-
ral John C. \\"atson, President; Captains Theodore F.
Je\\ell and Asa Walker, and Commander Charles W. Rae.
memuers.
The
a"'lI.l Rdiring Board is composed of Rear-Ad-
miral John A. Howell, President; Captains FrancIs A.
Cook and James H.
ands, and Medical Directors John
C. Wise and W. .... Dixon, members.

NAYAL UB:5ER\'ATORY.

Superintendent, Captain Charles H. Davis; Assistants,
Lieulenant - Commander Charles E. Fox and Profess-
ors A. N. Skinner. 1'. J. J. 8ee. III ilton l-pdegralf, \\. 8.
Eid1Clberger, W. S. Harshman, and Frank B. Littcll,
members.

Director-Prof. Walter S. Harshman.

NAUTICAL AUIAKAC.

BEGI
XING A
D EXPIRÅTIO
OF THE TERMS OF SERVICE OF SENATORS.

Name.

CLASS I.-SEXATORS wnOSE TERMS OF SRR\"ICF: EXI'IR.: MARCH 3, 1903.

Beginning of present
service.

Residence.

Allison, "'illiam B. (R.).........
Cia}", Alexander S. (D.)..........
Deboe. William J. (N.)...........
Dillingham, William P. (R.)......
Fall'banks, Charles W. (N.)......
Foraker, ,Jo!ieph B. (R.)... _. .....
(jalli nge I', Jacob II. (R.).........
Hansbrough, Henry C. (R.).......
BalTis, William A. (P.)..........
lIeitfeld, Henry (/).). ............
Jones, James K. (V.)............
Jones, John 1'. (N.).............
* Kittredge, Alfrpd B. (fl.).......
:\IcEnery, Samuel D. (D.)........

lrLaurln, John L. (/).).........

lallOl'y, Htephen R. (V.)........
!lInson, William E. (N.)..........
Penrose, Boies (N.)..............
Perkins, George ('. (fl.)..........
Pettus, Edmund W. (D.).........
Platt, Orville H. (N.)...........
Platt, Thomas C. (N.)..........
Pritchard, Jetpr C. (R.)..........
HawIlns, Joseph L. (D.).........
Hlmon, Joseph (R.).............

pooner. John C. (R.)...........
Teller, Henry M. (S. R.).........
Tnrner, George (F.).............
"eRt. George G. (D.).............
Wellington, George L. (R.).......

Dubuque, Ia...................
:\Iarietta, Ga...................
:\larlon, Ky..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:\lontpelier, \"t................
Indianapolis, Ind...............
Cincinnati. 0...................
('oncOl'd. :\. II..................
Pevils Lake, X. V..............
Linwood, Kan.................,
Lewiston, Idaho.......,........
Washington. Ark...............
Gold IIlll. Nev. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sioux Falls, S. D........... _.
Xew OI'leans, La. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bennettsvilip. S. C. . . . . . . . . _ . . _ .
Pensacola. Ina.................
Chi('ago. Ill....................
Philadelphia. I'a................
Oakland. ('al......... . . . . . . . . . .
Helma, Ala.....................

lerlden, Conn.................
OswPgo, X. y...................

Iadison.
. C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ralt Lake, rtah... . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Portland. Ore..................
:\Iarlison, Wis...................
CentI'al City, Col...............
Hpokane, Wash.................
Kanms City,
Io...............
Curnlwr1anrl, :\1<1................

:\larcb
?\Iarch
April
Oct.
March
'lal'ch
:\larch
:\[arch
:\1 aIT h
:\Iarch

Iarch
:\Iarch
.July
:\Iarch
.'une

Iay
:\Iarch

Iarch
.June
:\Iarch
:\[arch
:\[arch
,Jan.
:\Iarch
nec.
:\Iarch
:\[arch
:\Iardl

Iarch

18 rch

4. 1873
4, 18m
28. 1897
In, HIOO
4. 1/'-!lï
4. IS!lï
4. 1H!}}
4, 1S!11
4. 1S!lï
4, 1
!!ï
4, 11;1':;
4, 1Rï:

11, 10111
4, 1R!17
1. Hi!lï
14, IS!lï
4, lR!lï
4, l
!lï
2:!, lR!I:

4. ls!l7
4, IRï!}
4. 1k!l7

4, 1 k!l:;
4. 1X!17
5. 1
!1"
4. 11",)7
4, 1R":;
4, 1X!lï
4, 1R.n
4, 1
!li

· Appointed to fill tbe vacancy caused by the death of Hon. James H. Kyle.

CLASS 1I.-8F:
ATORS WHOSF: n:urs OF SERnCE EXPIRE MARC" 3, 1905.

Aldrkh. Xplson W. (N.).........
nal'II, Thomas P.. (R.)...........
I'atp. William B. (D.)............
Bp"Hi<lg-e, Alhert J. (R.).........
HIlITOWS. .Jullns ('. (fl.)..........
CldllP, )Ioses E. (R.)............

P.'o\"ldpn('e, R. I....... . . . . . . _ . .
lIueneme, Cal.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Xashvilip. '!'pnn.................
In<l18n8polis. Ind...............
Kalamazoo. :\lich...............
Ht. Paul, :\Iinn.................
331

Oct.
FI'h.
:\181'('11
:\181"('h
Jan.
Jan.

5, 1
k1
Ii. 1!JOO
4. 1 sS7
4. 1 S!I!I

:
. 1 sn:;
23, 1901

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Name.

CLASS II.-BEYATOJtI!I W1IOI!IB TERXI!I OF I!IBRVICE EXPIRE lURCH 3, 1905-Continued.

Clark, Clarence D. (R.)..........
Cockrell, Francis 1\1. (D.)........
l'ulberson, ('bat'les A. (/).).......
Haniel, John W. (II.)............
I)epew, Chauncey
I. (R.)........
Hietl"ich. Charles II. (N.).........
Foster, Addisun G. (R.,. ........
(.:[)sun, I'at'is (LJ.)..............
lIale, Eugene (R.)........ _......
Hanna,
Iarcus A. (R.'... .. .. . . ..
Hawle
'. Joseph R. (R.)..........
Kean, John (R.)................
Keams. Tùomas (N.)............
Lodge, Henry Cabot (N.)........
:\IcComas, Louis I
. (N.)...,.....
:\IcCurnbet., Porter J. (It.)........
:\Ioney. IIprnando D. (LJ.)... . . . . . .
I'l"OctOt., ltedtie Id (If.).....
Quarle!", Joseph Y. (N.)..........
Quay, :\Iatthew :-;. (ll.)..........
Scott,
athan D. (R.)...........
:-;tewart, William
I. (R.)........
Taliaferro, James 1'. (D.)........

NOTE.-A vacancy exists in Delaware lJy 1.lilure 01 the legislature to elect.

Residence.

Evanston, Wyo..... . . . . . . . . . .
WaJ"l"f:nsbul'g, :\10...............
Dallas, Tpx.............. .....
Lynchbl1l'g. \"a.................
Xe\\" YOl'k {'ity.................
Hastings, Xeb..................
Tacoma, ".ash..................
Great Fulls, :\Iont........ . . . . . . .
EllsWOl th, :\Ie..................
Cleveland, ()...................
lIat'Hord, ('onn.................
Elizabeth. X. J.......... ....
Salt Lake ('ity, ('tab............
Xahant, :\Iass..............
H aget.!'tnwn, :\Id................
Wahpeton,
. D...............
CatTo" ton, :\1Iss................
Proctor, ,.t.....................
:\IiIwaukee, Wis... .........
f:pa "er, I'a.....................
Whpeling. W. \'a.......
Virginia City, Xev.............
.Ja('ksonville. Fla..........

Bcgmning of preseut
serVico.
Feb. G, l
n;)
:\Iat.c h 4, 18.3
2\Iarf h 4. 1
!I!I
:\Ial'l'h 4, l!oil'i.
:\Ial'l'h -I. II--!ltI
!\Iarch :!S, 1 !)(II
:\1 al'l'h 4. IMI!!
:\Ia n'h ., HIli I
:\Iat'ch -I, 11-,81
:\lat'ch tip IS!I.

Iarch 4, 1
81
:\lat'ch 4. I
U9
Jan. .,.) I !IOI
-..,
:\Iarch 4, l1-i!13
:\Iarch 4. I "'!HI
March IR!J9
Dec. 7, Ik!l.
lIìov. 1, 18!1l
l\Iarch 4, I foI!I!1
.Tan. n, I !IOI
:\Ia rch 4, I S!I!I
ì\lal'l'h 4, IRS.
March 4. I
!I!I

CLASS 1Il.-SRNATOltS WIlOSt: Tlr.II\lS OF !'t:RVIClr. FXPIRE MARCil 3, 1907.
(Thirty S('natl)r
jn Ihi
cla;<R-s('e note.)

Ha('on, A ngustus O. (lJ.).
Ballt-y, .Tospph W. (D.).........
B('J"l'Y. ,Jamps H. (D.)......... .,
Rlackhul"ll. J. C. S. (D.).......
Bnrnham. II{>m'
' E. (N.)..........
I:urton. Joseph n. (ft.)......... . . .
f'arma('k. Fdwan) 'Yo (0.).........
Clark. \\ïlliam .-\. (n.)............
('ullom.
helh
' ,I. (R.).
* [101 Ii vet'. .Topathan 1'. (R.)..
Hnbols. Ftwlf'J'kk T. (n.). ._
Flkins.
tpplH'n D. (fl.)...........
Fostpt.. :\JUl'ph
' .T. (n.)...........
rt.vp. "lIl1am P. (If.)............
na'mhle. HohpJ.t .T. (f(.)...........
Honr. Gl'orgp F. (R.).............
:\kLanrin. Ansplm .T. (D.).........

1(':\rlllan. .Tamps (N.)...
'Iarlin. Thomas ::;. (D.)...........
:\[illard. .Joseph H. (R.)...........
:\lft('hplI, .John II. (N)............

'ot'gan. .John T. (fn.............
::\,plson, Knutp (f(.)...............
Patter!'.on, Thomas :\I. (D.)........
:-:Immons. J.'. :\I. (D.)... ..
Tillman, npn,Jamln R. (D.)........
Warren, Francis Eo (R.)....... .
Wetmore. George P. (R.)..........

Iacon. 1.11.....................
(;aines"IIII', Tex. . . . . . . . . .
)'enton\"iIIe. At.le............ . . . .
\"('t'sailles. Ky............. ....
:\Ian('hpstel'. X. II...............
.\hilene. Kan...................
.\Iemphis. Tenn.................
Bnttp. :\Iont....................
f.: IW I ngfi p I d. I II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fot.t nodgl'. Iowa........... . . . .
Blal'kfoot. J claho . " . . . . . . .
1:I1<1ns. \\". \'a..................
Ft'anklln. La.
L(>wiston. :\11'..................
Yankton. S. It.................
\\"orc('ster. :\Iass................
nt'andon. :\lIs8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jh'tl"Oit. :\Ikh. .............
S('ottsvlll ø . Ya..................
Omaha. Xf b ........
1'01't1anr1. Ore..................
Selma. Ala. .. .. .. . ... .. .... .. ..
Alp},andt'lfi. :\lfnn...............
])pnver. ('01...................
H:1lplgh. I'\ ('... .. . . . . . . . . .
Tt'enton, S. ('.. . . .. ... . .. .. .. .. .
('he,renne. \Yyo....

('wport. R. r..................

:\Iarch
:\Iarch
:\Iat'ch
:\1 arch
:\Ial'ch
:\Iat.( h
:\larch
:\1 a r(')

:\Iat'ch
Ang.
:\Iat'ch
;\1:1rch
1'lat.c h
'larch
:\Iar('h
:\Iarct
:\ 1:11"(' h
"an'h
:\Iar('h
:\Iarch
'Ia1"('h
:\Iat'('h
:\Iarl'h
:\Ianh
:\la1"('h
:\Iat'ch
ì\lar('h
:\Iar('h

4,
4,
ç;,-
_J.
4,
4,
4.
4,
4,
4.
2ð,
4,
4,
4.
8.
4.
4,
4,
4.
4,
2
,
4.
4.
4.
4,
4.
4.
4,
4.

I
!I

In01
IR
j
InOI
1!101
HUll
l!ltll
It101
1 s.,:

IflOO
Hit)}
IR!I;)
I!lOI
IRS1
1!I01
ISj.
I !lOt
ISR!I
IS!!;)
1001
1 !IOI
IS..
I
!I:-,
] !HI1
I !IO t
I S!I:;
IS!);)
11-'!I:;

'" Appointed to fill the vac IDCY ca11!
pd by the dpath of Hon. John H. Gear.

NOTR.-A vacancy exists In J)e1.lware hy flllllrp "f the Ipgisl.llllrp to plp!'t. allli in :\"1'\\ .Jpr
f'\. hy dpatb.

:

2

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

LIST OF ME
IBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, SHOWING THE CONGRESSES IN WHICH
THEY HArE SERVED AND THE BEGINNING OF THEIR PRE
E:\1' :SER\'ICE.

Beginning of present
service.

District.

Congresses.

Name.

St.lte.

4, 1895
4, lR93
4, 1897
4, 18\17
4, 18!.)\)
4, 1
99
1, lUUl

54th, 53th, 56th, 57th. March
53d, 54tb, 55tb 56th,
57th .............
55th, 56th, G7th. . . . . .
53th, 56tb, 57th. . . . . .
.56th, 57th... .... ...
56th, 57th... .......
.57th ..............
53d, 34th, 53th, 56tb,
57tb ............. March
57th. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. :\Iarch
55th, 56th, 57th. . . . .. lIarch
50th, 51st, 5:.!d, 53d,
54th, 3Gth, 56th,
iJ7th ............. l\Iarch
54th, 5:>th, 56tb, :>7th. :\larch
53d. 34th, 5:>th, 50th,
57th ... _ .......
54th, 5:>tb, G6th, 57th.
57th ...............
57th ...............
53d, 54th, 3:>th, 56th,
57th............. .
:>Oth, 57th... .... ....
57th ...............
55th, 50th, 57th. . . . . .
46th, 47th, 48th. 49th,
50th, :>lst, 5
d, 53d,
54th,:>Gth, 56th, 57tb
54th, :>3th, 56th, 57th.
57th ...............
57th ...............
56th. 57th...........
.5:>th, G6tb, 57tb. . . . .
:10th, 57th...........
57th . _ _. _ _ _.......
fi3th, ;;6th, 37th. . . . . .
:>Oth, 57th. ..... ....
36th. 37th...........
fl7th ...............
53d, 54th, G:'íth, 56th,
57th............. .
fi5th, 56th, 57th. . . . . .
fi7th ...............
:>jth, GOth, :i7th. . . . . .
55th, 56th, :17th. . . . . .
54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
57th ...............
G7th ...............
56th, 57th..... ......
56th, 57th...........
.:;:itb. 50th, 57th. .. . .
!íGth, 57th...........
!íGth, fi7th. _. _ . . . . . .
51 st. 54tb, r;:;th. :íGth.
:;7th __. __ .
fi7th ...............
5:;th. :ifith, :;7th. . . . . .
:;4th. !ítHh. 57th... . . .
:ißth. 57th...........
57th _........
43d. 44th, 45th, 46th,
47th, 48th, 49th,
50th, 51st, !)3d,
54th,

th, 56th, 57th :\Iarch
(a) At large.

Acheson, E. F. (N.).... Pennsylvania... 24
Adams, Robert, Jr. (R.) ..... .do. .. .. .. 2

l\Ia.rc h
:\larch
l\huch
:5ept.
March
May

Adamson, W. C. (D.)... Georgia........ 4
Alexander, D. S. (R.)..
ew York. .. . . . 33
Allen, A. L. (R.)...... .\Iaine.......... 1
Allen, H. D. (D.)...... Kentucky....... 2
Aplin, 11.11. (R.)...... :\1ichigan....... 10
I:aucock, J. W. (R.).... Wisconsin...... 3

4, 1
U3
4, !fIOI
4, 1897

Ball, L. II. (R.)....... Delaware....... (a)
Ball, T. H. (D.)....... Texas.......... 1
Bankhead, J. H. (D.)... Alabama........ 6

4, 1887
4, 1895
4, 18U3
4, 18U:>
4, 1901
4, 1901
4, 1893
4, 18UD
4, lUOl
4, 1897

Barney, S. S. (R.)..... Wisconsin...... 5
Bartholdt, Richard (R.) }1issourl........ 10
Bartlett, C. L. (D.).... Georgia........ 6
Hates, A. L. (R.)...... Pennsylvania.... 26
Heidler, J. A. (fl.)..... Ohio........... 20
Bell, J. C. (D.)........ Colorado....... 2

l\Iarch
March
:\Iarch
:\Iarch

!\Iarch

Iarch
March
}Iarch

Bellamy, J. D. (D.).... North Carolina. 6
Belmont, O. H. P. (D.) New York. . . . . . 13
Benton,
I. F (D.).... l\Ilssourl........ 15
BIngham, II. H. (R.)... Pennsylvania.... 1

March
:\Iarch
March
March
:\Iarch
June

Iarch
l\Iarch
lIarch
:\Iarch
:\Iarch
l\Iarch

4, 1879
4, 18!):>
4, 1901
4, 1901
4. 1899
25, 18U7
4, 1899
4, 1901
4, 18U7
4. 18!)9
4, 18U9
4, 1901
4, 1803
4, 1897
4, 1001
4, 18U7
4. 18U;
4. 189;)
4, 190L
4. 1O01
4. 18n9
4. 18!)!)
10, 18U7
4, 18\.)

4, 18U9

Bishop, R. P. (R.)..... Michigan....... {)
Blackburn, Spencer (R.) North Carolina. . 8
Dlakeney, A. A. (R.).... Maryland....... 2
Boreing, Vincent (R.).. Kentucky....... 11
Boutell, H. S. (R.).... Illinois......... 6
Bowersock. J. D. (R.).. Kansas......... 2
Bowie, S. J. (D.)...... Alabama........ 4
Brantley, W. G. (D.)... Georgia......... 11
Breazeale, Phanor (D.). Louisiana....... 4
Brick, A. L. (R.)...... Indiana......... 13
Bristow, Henry (R.)... New york...... 3
Bromwell, J. H. (R.)... OhIo........... 2

'larch
:\Iarch
March
}Iarch
:\Iarch
'larch
:\[arch
March
'[arch

Iar('h
April
:\[arch
:\Iarch

Broussard, R. F. (D.).. Louisiana....... 3
Brown, W. F' (R.).... Wisconsin....... 0
Brownlow, W. P. (R.).. Tennessee....... 1
Brundidge, S., Jr. (D.). At.kansas....... 6
Bull, l\IelviIle (R.)..... Rbode Island. . . . 1
Burgess, G. F. (D.).... Texas.......... 10
Burk, Henry (R.)...... Pennsylvania.... 3
Burke, C. H. (R.)...... South Dakota. ., (a)
Burkett, E. J. (R.).... I\ebraska....... 1
Burleigh, 1':. f'. (R.).... :\Ialne.......... 3
Burleson, A. S. (D.).... Texas.......... \.)
Bm'nett, J. L. (D.).... Alabama........ 7
Burton, T. E. (Il.)..... Ohio...........
1

:\Iarch
l\Iat'ch
J\lar('h
:\Iarch
:\Iarc'h
Marcb

4, lRO:;
4. lfi01
4. 1897
4. 1809
4, 1899
4, 1901

Butler, J. J. (D.)...... l\Iissol1r1........ 12
Butlet., T. S. (R.)...... Pennsylvania... 6
Calderhead. W. A. (R.). Kansas..... ... 5
Caldwell. n. F. (D.).... Illinois......... 17
('andler, E. S., Jr. (D.). Mississippi...... 1
Cannon, J. G. (R.)..... Illinois......... 12

4, 1893

· Vacancy.

833

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

awc.

:State.

LIST OF
IE
IBERS OF THE HOUSE OF RErRESE
TATI\-ES-('f1tllinlt/..tl.

Beginning or prescnt
service.

('apl"On, A. n. (U.).....
('assel, 11. B. (N.).....
('assingham, J. W. (D.).
('Ial'k. Champ (D.).....
('la)'toll, II. D. (V.)....
('whl"fin. C. F. (D.)....
Coullell, William (fl.)..
('ouuet', J. 1'. (1l.).....
Con1')', J. A. (D.)......
('oombs, F. L. (N.).....
('oouey, James (Ð.)...
Cooper, II. A. (R.).....

Rhode Island...
I"ennsylvanla. . . .
Ohio.......... .
:\I1ssourl. . . . . . . .
Alabama...... .
:\I1ssourl. . . . . . . .
I'enns)'lvanla. . . .
Iowa.......... .
:\Iassachusetts. ..
California. . . . . .
l\Iissourl. . . . . . . .
Wisconsin. . . . . .

Cooper, S. n. (D.)..... Texas.......... 2
Corliss, J. B. (R.)..... :\I1chlgan....... 1
Cousins, It. G. (R.).... Iowa........... 5
Cowherd, W. S. (D.)... :\I1ssourl........ 5
('reamer, T. J. (D.).... New York. .. . .. 8
('romer, G. W. (N.).... Indiana........ 8
('rowley, .J. ll. (D.).... Illinois......... HI
Crumpacket., E. D. (R.) Indiana........ 10
Cummings, A. J. (D.).. Sew YÙl'k...... 10

Currier, F. D. (R.).... Sew Hampshire. 2
Curtis, Charles (N.).... Kansas......... 1
Cushman. F. W. (R.)... Washington..... (a)
I)able, II. I
. (Il.)...... 'Yïsconsin...... :!
l)alzell, John (R.)..... I'ennsylvanla.... 2

Dfi1'ragh, A. n. (R.)....
liehlg-an....... 11
flavey. It. C. (D.)...... Louisiana....... 2
Da,'ldson. J. II. (f(.)... Wisconsin...... 6
Havis, It. W. (D.)..... Florida......... 2
Da3'ton, A. G. (If.).... West Virginia. . . 2
De Armond, D. A. (D,). :\I1ssourl........ 6
De Graffenreld, n. C.(D.) Texas.......... 3
Deemer. Elias <<R.).... Pennsylvania.... 16
Dick. Charles (N.)..... Ohio........... 19
Dinsmore, H. A. (D.)... Arkansas....... 5
Douglas, W. H. (U.).... Xew york....... 14
Houg-herty, John (D.).. J\(issotl rl. . . . . . . . 3
Hovener, B. B. (1(.).... West Virginia. . . 1
[,rarlPr. W. II. (R.)....
ew york....... HI
III'iseoll, :\[, F.. (R.).... '" .ðo......... 27
Edwards, Caldwell (8.).
Iontana........ (u)
Edd
'. F.
[, (R.'...... :\[)nnesota. .... 7
Elliott, William (D.)... Routh Carolina.. 1
Emerson, I... W. (R.)... New york...... 23
Esch, J. J. (N.)....... Wisconsin...... 7
Evans, Alvin (R.)..... Penns)lvanla.... 20
Fef'ly, J. J. (D.)....... Illinois......... 2
Finley, D. F.. (n.)...... South Carolina.. 5
Fitzgerald. J. .T. (n.)... Xew york...... 2
Fleming, W. H. (n.)... Georgia......... ]0
Fletcher, I.oren (R.)... :\I1nnesota...... 5

Flood, II. D. (D.)...... Virginia........
. Vacancy.

:J:Jth. 3Gth, 57th. . . . . .
*37th. .......... ....
:J7th ...............
:J3d, 5jth, 5Gth, 57th.
:J:Jth, 5Gth, 57th. . . . . .
53th, 56th, 57th. . . . . .
j3th, 5tith. 57th. . . . . .
*jGth, 37th. .........
57th ...............
G7th ...............
53th, 56th, 57th.. . . . .
53d, :J4th, 5
th, 56th,
j 7 th ............. March
53d, 54th, 5jth, 50th,
57th ............. March
54th, 5jth, jGth. 57th. }Iarch
53d,
4th, jjth, 58th,
57th .............
55th, 5Gth, 57th. . . . . .
43d, 57th............
56th, 57th...........
56th, 57th... ........

5th, 5Gth, 57th. . . . . .
50th, *jlst, 52d, 53d,
54th, 5:Jth, 56th,
57th ............. March
57th ...............
Iarch
j3d, 54th, 53th, :J6th,
57th ............. March
:íGth, 57th........... :\Iarch
5r.th, 57th........... :March
50th. 51st, 5:!d, 53d.
54th, 5:ith, 5Gth,
57th .............
57th ...............
54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
55th, 56th, 57th. . . . . .
55th, 5Gth, 57th. . . . . .
54th, 55th, 5Gth, 57th.
52d, 53d, 54th, 55th,
5Gth, 57th.........
55th, 56th. 57th......
57th ...............
*5:Jth, 56th, 57th. ....
53d, 54th, 5:Jth, 56th,
57th ............. :\Iarch
57th . . . . . . . . . . . .. March
56th, 57th...........
Iarch
53d, 54th, 53th, 56th,
57th .............
57th ...............
5Gth, 57th. ..........
:í7th ...............
54th, 55th. 56th. 57th.
:íOth, ã] st, 5:!d. 54th,
5
th, 5Gth, 57th. . . .
:íOth, 57th.. .........
:ít>th, 57th...........
57th............... .
:í7th. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:ifah, 57th..
:ifHh. 57th...........
5:ith, 56th, 57th. . . . . .
53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th. . . . . . . . . . . . ., March
G7th. . ... .. .. . . ..... March
(a) At large.

lIistrict.

l'ongre"ses.

2
10
17
9
3
4
11
10
9
1
7
1

10

:1:
-t

March
March
March
March

Iarch

Iarch
:\Iarch
Dec.
l\Iarch
March
March

:\Iarch
March
:\Iarch
March
:\Iarch
March

:\Iarch

Iarch
March
March
March
March

March

Iarch
.March
Sept.

:\Iarch
"arch
March
March
March

Iarch
March
'larch
March
March
:\Iarch
March
:\Iarch

4, 1897
17, 1901
4, HUH
4, Um7
4, 18!17
4, ]8t17
4, 18!'7
3, WIIO
4, 1901
4, HleH
4, 18!!;

4, 18u3

4, 1
03
4, Hmj

4, 18tì3
4,18:17
4, H'UI
4, 18H!)
4, 18t)!)
4, 18117

4, 1887
4, UJOI

4, 18f13
4. 18!.W
4, 18tm

4, 1887
4, HIUt
4, ISH:J
4, ] 8\17
4, 18!17
4, ISH:J

4, 18û1
4, 18!17
4, lûul
10, 1808
4, 18f13
4, ] till!
4,18ml

4, ]lm3
4. 1!J0]
4, ] 811!1
4, ]!IIII
4, 1"'!I:i

4. ]
m:í
4, 1
!'!1
4, ]k!1!1
4, HIOI
4, ] Illn
4, ]k!1!}
4, ]
tm
4. 18!17

4, ]8H3
4, If101

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

LIST OF
1EMBERS OF THE HOeSE OF REPRESE
TATIVES-Contmued.

Kame. State. District. Congresses. Beginning of present
service.
Foerderer, It. II. (R.) ... Penns)"Ivania. ... la) ;:;7th..."........... .
Iarch 4, 1901
Fordney, J. W. (R.)... . :\Iichigan. . . . . . . 8 ;:;6th, 37th.......... . :\Iarch 4, 1899
Foss, G. E. (R.)...... Illinois. . . . . . . . . 7 54th, 55th, {)6th, 57th. :\Ial'ch 4, um;:;
Foster, D. J. (R.) ... .. Vermont. . . . . . . . 1 57th............... .
Iarch 4, 1U01
Foster, G. P. (D.)...... Illinois. . . . . . . . . 3 ;:;6th, 57th. . _ .. . . . . . .
Iarch 4, 189U
Fowler, C.
. (N.)..... :\"ew Jersey. . . . . 8 54th, 53th, 56th, 37th. :\1 aI'C h 4, l
m3
Fox. A. F. (D.) .. . . . . . . :\lississippi. . . . . . 4 55th, 56th, 57th. . . . . . :\Iarch 4, Um7
Gaines, J. H. (R.)..... \\" est Virginia. . . 3 57th............... . :\Iarch 4, 1901
Gaines, J. W. (D.).... . .fennessee. . . . . . . 6 5;:;th, 56th, 57th. .. ., . March 4, 1897
Gardner, J. J. (R.).....
ew Jersey..... 2 53d, 34th, 33th, 56th,
57th............. .
Iarch 4, 1893
Gardner, Wash. (R.) .. . :\I1chigan. . . . . . . 3 36th, 37th... ........ .March 4, umu
Gibson, H. R. (R.). .... Tennessee. . . . . " 2 54th, 5;:;th, 56th, 57th.
Iarch 4, 18!)3
Gilbert, G. G. (D.)..... Kentucky...... . 8 36th, ;:;7th... .. .. .. ..
Ial'ch 4, 18!)!)
Gill, J. J. (R.). .. .. .. . Uhio......... .. 16 *36th, 57th......... . June 20, 18m)
Gillet, C. W. (R.). .. .. .
ew york..... . :!9 ;)3d, 54th, ;J3th, 56th,
57th............. . :\Iarch 4, 18f1:i
Gillett, F. H. (D.) .. . . .
Iassachusetts. . . 2 53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th............. . March 4, 18!J3
Glenn, T. L. (P.). .. ... Idaho. . . . . . . . . . (a) 37th............... . March 4, 1901
Goldfogle, II. :\1. (D.). . :\"ew YOl'k. .. '" 9 37th............... . March 4, 1901
Gooch, U. L. (D.)...... Kentucky...... . 6 ::;7th. . . .... . ... .. .. .
Iarch 4, I!!Ol
Gordon, R.B. (D.).... . Ohio.......... . 4 :í6th, 57th.......... .
Iarch 4, umu
Grall', J. V. (N.)....... Illinois. . . . . . . . . H :í4th, 3;)th, 36th, 37th. March 4, 18!)3
Graham, W. H. (R.).... Pennsylvania. . . :!3 *5;:;th, 5()th, 57th. .. .. Dec. 4, 18!J8
Green, II. D. (D.)...... ..... .do....... 9 *::i6th, 57th......... . Sept. 18, 18!)!,
Greene, W. S. (R.). .. . :\Iassachusetts. 13 *;;;:;th, 56th, 57th. . . . .
larch 27, 1
!J8
Griffith, F.
1. (D.) ..... Indiana. . . . . . . . 4 *;:;3th, 56th, 57th. . . . . April 23. 18n7
Griggs, J. :\1. (D.)..... Geol'gia. . . . . . . . . 2 ;;;;th, 5fHh. 57th...... :\Ial'ch 4, 18!.H
GI'osvenor, C. H. (R.) . .. Ohio.......... . 11 49th, 50th, 51st. :i2d.
53d, 54th, ;:;::ith,
56th, ;:;7th .. . .. . . .
Iarch 4, 188;)
t Grow, G. A. (R.)..... Pennsylvania. . . . (a) 3:!d, 33d, 34th, 3:íth,
36th, 37th. *;;3d,
54th. ;;:íth. ;;Uth. :í7th Feb. 20, 1Rfl4
Hall, J. K. P. (D.)..... ..... .do....... 28 :í6th, 57th. . . . . . . . . . .
Ial'ch 4. 18!!9
Hamilton, Eo L. (R.). ..
I1chlgan. .. .... 4 :í:ith, 5Uth, 57th. . . . . .
farch 4, 18!17
Hanbury, II. A. (R.).... Xew york..... . 4 fi7th. oo...oo.......oo.... ..
Iarch 4. 1\.101
Haskins, Kittredge (R.) Vermont. .. . . . . . 2 57th. ............... :\Iarch 4. 1901
Haugen, G. N. (N.)... . Iowa.......... . 4 ;)6th, 57th......
Iarch 4, 1899
lIay, James (n.)....... Virginia. . . .. .. . 7 :>:>th, 1)Gth, 57th. . . . . .
Iarch 4, 18f17
Heatwole, J. 1'. (R.). " :\Iinnesota. . . . . . 3 54th, 5fith, 56th, ;-}7th. )Iarch 4, 189:)
Hedge, Thomas (R.) . .. . Iowa.......... . 1 :;Gth, 37th. . . . . . . . . . . 'larch 4, 1899
Hemenwa)', J. A. (R.). . Indiana. . . . . . . . 1 54th, 5:>th. 56th. 57th. )Iarch 4, 1895
t Henderson, D. B. (R.) Iowa.......... . 3 48th, 4!!th. 50th, 31st.
:í2d, :i3d. 54th. 53th,
56th, 57th....... .
Iarch 4, 18f<3
Henry, Eo S. (R.)..... Connecticut. . . . . 1 54th, 5;)th, 56th, 57th. March 4, IFm;;
Henry, I'atrkk (D.). .. .
Iisslsslppl. . . . . . 3 57th........ . March 4, H)01
Hem'y. R. L. (n.) . .. . . . Texas. . . . . . . . . . 7 G:íth. 5Gth, 57th. . . . . . March 4, 18!)7
I1epbUl'n, W. 1'. (R.)... Iowa.......... . 8 47th, 48th, 4!)th, !'í3d,
!'í4th, 53th, :íGth,
57th............. . March 4. lR!ì3
IIildebrant, C. Q. (R.). . Ohio.......... . 6 :í7th. _.............. March 4, IHOl
II ill, E. J. (R.). .... .. . Connecticut. . . . . 4 54th. :í;;th. :íGth. :í7th.
farch 4, 1R!I:í
1IItt, R. R. (R.). .. .... Illinois. . . . . . . . . 9 *47th, 48th. 4f1th,
50th. 51st. 5
d. ;;3d.
54th, 55th, 50th,
57th............. . July 28, 1882
Holliday, E. S. (R.).... Indiana........ 5 37th............... . Marc h 4, 1901
Hooker, C. Eo (D.).... .
fisslsslppl. . . . . . 7 44th. 45th, 46th. 47th,
50th, 51st, :i:!d, 53d, IDOl
57th............. .
Iarch 4,
Hopkins, A. J. (R.).. .. Illinois. . . . . . . . . 8 49th. 50th, 51st, 52d,
53d, ã4th, :;3th.
56th, 57th....... . :\Iarch 4, 1885
. Vaeaney. a At large. t Speaker of the 37th Congress. 1:
peaker of the 56th and 57th Congresses.
"J')-
ù..J.J

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

?\ame.

State

LIST OF )IE
IBERS OF THE HOt.:'SE OF REPRESEl'ò'T.ATIVES_Conlinutd.

Beginning of present
service.

IlO\\an], W. :\1. (D.). ... Georgia......... 8
Howell, B. F. (N.).....
ew Jersey..... 3
Hughes, J. A. (ll.).... West Virginia... 4
Hull, J. A. '1'. (ll.)..... Iowa........... 7

Irwin, II. :::\. (R.)...... Kentucky....... 5
Jack, :::\.1\1. (N.)....... I'ennaylvanla.... 21
Jackson, A.
1. (D.).... Kansas......... 3
Jackson, W. 11. (ll.)....
larJ'lúnd....... 1
Jenkins, J. J. (R.)..... Wisconsin...... 10
Jett, T. M. (D.)....... Illinois......... 18
Johnson, J. T. (D.).... South Carolina. . 4
Jones, W. A. (D.)..... Virginia........ 1
Jones, W. L. (R.)...... Washington..... (a)
Joy, C. F. (ll.)........ :\lis80uri........ 11
Kahn, Julius (R.)..... Call fOl"ll la . . . . . . 4
Kehoe, J. X. (D.)...... Kentucky....... 9
Kel"ll, F. J. (D.)....... Illinois......... 21
Ketcham, J. H. (R.) 0 ... New York. .. ., . 18

Kitchin, Claude (D.)... North Carolina.. 2
Kitchin, W. W. (D.)... ......do....... 5
Kleberg, Rudolph (D.).. Texas.......... 11
Kluttz, T. F (D.)..... North Carolina. . 7
Knapp, C. L. (R.)..... New york....... 24
Knox, W. S. (R.)......
laRsachusetts... 5
KJ"le, T. S. (R.)....... Ohio........... 7
Lacey, J. F. (R.)...... Iowa........... 6
Lamb, John (D.)...... Virginia........ 3
Landis, C. B. (R.)..... Indiana......... 9
Lanham, S. W. T. (D.). Texas.......... 8

Lassiter, F. R. (D.).... Virginia........ 4
Latimer, A. C. (D.).... South Carolina. . 3
I,awrence, G. P. (R.)... Massachusetts... 1
Lessler, Montague (R.). Xew York... . . . 7
Lester,R.E. (D.)...... Georgia........ 1
Lever, A. F. (D.)...... South Carolina. . 7
Lpwls, E. B. (D.)...... Georgia......... 3
Lewis, R. J. (R.)...... Pennsylvania... 19
Lindsay, G. H. (D.)....
ew York......o 6
I
lttauer, L.
. (R.).... ....do.............. 2:!
Little, J. S. (D.)...... Arkansas....... :!

Littlefield, C. E. (R.)...
Ialne..........
Livingston, L. F. (D.).. Georgia.........
Lloyd, J. T. (D.)......
lIssourl........
Long, C. I. (R.)....... Kamms.........
Loud, E. F. (R.)....... California......

Loudenslager, Il. C. (R.) Xew Jersey. . . ..

Lovering, W. C. (R.)... UaÐsachusetts... 12
McAndrewB, James (D.) Illinois......... 4
McCall, S. W. (R.)..... :\Iassachusetts... 8

. Vacancy.

District.

Congresses.

5

;;:tth, 56th, 57th. . . . . .
54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
57th............... .
5
d, 53d, 54th, ;)5th,
56th, 57th........
;;7th. . _ ............
;;6th, 57th...........
57th......... 0......
;:í7th. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
5:tth, 56th, 57th. .. . . .
57th............... .
52d, 53d, 54th, 55th,
56th, 57th........
56th, 57th... ........
53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th. ..........0.
;;6th, 57th...........
;;7th. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57th............... .
39th, 40th, 41st, 42d,
4;:íth, 46th, 47th,
48th, 49th, 50th,
51 st, 52d, 55th,
56th, 57th........
57th............... .
,55th. 56th, 57th. . . . . .
55th. 56th, 57th. . . . . .
:iGth. 57th...........
*;;7th ..............
j4th, j;)th, 56th, 5ith.
;:í7th. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51st. ;)3d. 54th. 55th,
36th, 57th........
;;3th, 56th, 57th. . . . . .
5:tth, 5ftth, 57th. . . . . .
48th. 49th, 50th. 51st,
5:!d, 5;;th, 56th,
57th....... .......
*56th. 57th.........
53d, 54th, 53th, ;;6th,
57th.... _.........
*55th, 56th, 57th....
*57th ..............
51st, 52d. 53d. 54th.
55th, 56th, 57th. . . .
*57th ..............
;,):ith, 56th, 5ïth. . . . . .
57th......... _"
57th... ............
fi:>th. 56th. 57th. , . . . .
*fj3d. 54th, 5;;th,
56th, 57th........
*5Gth, 57th.........
;;2d. 53d. 54th. 5jth.
56th, 57th........
*:t5th, !i6th. 57th....
54th, jGth. 57th... o.

d.
3d. 54th, 5:tth.
56th. 57th.........
:t3d. 54th, 5;;th, 56th.
::i7th. .. ... . . .. . ...

:tth. 56th. 57th. . . . . .
57th.... _...........
53d. 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th............. .

;
5

(a) At large.

33(;

March
:\Iarch
Mal'ch

March
:.\larc h
:\Iarch
:\Ial'cb
:\Iarch

Ial'cb
:\Iarch
:\Iarcb

Marc h
:March

March
:\Iarch
March
March

:\larch
:.\[al'ch
March
:.\[arch
:\Iarch
Feb.
!\larch
:\Ial'cb

:\[arch
March
March

Iarch
:\[al'ch

:\Iarch
Aug-.
Dec.

)[arch
July
:\Ial'ch
:\Ial'ch
:\Ia.'ch
:\[al'ch

Aug-.
:\Iare h

Ial'('h

Ial'('h
:\[al'eh

:\Ial'ch

Iar('h
March
Mareh

Iarch

4, 1897
4, 183;;
4, 19tn

4, 1891
4. HIIIl
4, 18
1!I
4, HUn
4, 1901
4. 189:;
4. 1Mtl7
4, 11.101

4, 1891
4, 1899

4, 18
)3
4, 18t1t1
4, 1901
4, 1901

4, 1897
4, 1901
4, 181.17
4, 18
);
4, 1891.1
8. 1901
4, 1M):}
4, 1901
4, 18t13
4, 1897
4, 1897

4, 18\.17
4, 1900

4, 18f13
14, 1897
2, 1901

4. 18
!)
7. 1901
4. 18!!7
4, 11101
4. 19111
4, 18!)7

1;;, 18!)4
4, 18t1!1

4. 1 R!H
4. 1M!!;
4, 18!)!)

4. 1891
4, 18n3
4, 18f1i
4, 1901

4, 1893

FEDERAL GOV:b.RNMENT IN 1902

Name.

State.

LIST OF l.[E}[ßERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESE
TATIVES-Continued.

Beginning of present
sen' ice.

:\IcCleary, J. T. (R.).... :\Iinnesota......
:\IcClellan, G. B. (D.)..
ew York... ....
McCulloch, P. D. (D.).. Arkansas.......
:\IcDermott, A. L. (D.). Xew Jersey.....
'IcLachlan, James (R.). California......
:\IcLain, F. A. (D.).... :\Iississippi......
McRae, T. C. (D.)..... Arkansas.......

:\Iaddox, J. W. (D.).... Georgia.........
:\Iahon, T. 1\1. (R.)..... Pennsylvania...
:\Iahoney, W. F. (D.)... Illinois.........
:\Iann, J. R. (R.)...... ....do.........
:\Ial'shall, T. F. (R.).... Xorth Dakota...
:\Iartin, E. W. (R.)..... South Dakota...
:\Iaynard, H. L. (D.)... Virginia........
:\Iercer, D. H. (R.)..... Nebraska.......
:\IetcaIf, V. H. (R.).... C'alifornia......
:\Ieyer, AdollJh (D.).... Louisiana.. ....

Iickey, J. R. (D.)..... Illinois.........

liel's, R. W. (D.)...... Indiana........
:\liller, J.:\1. (R.)...... Kansas.........
:\IinOl', E. S. (R.)...... Wisconsin.......
:\Iondell, F. W. (R.).... Wyoming.......
.\rootly, J. :\1. (R.)..... North Carolina. .

Ioody, l\1. A. (R.)..... Oregon.........

Ioon. J. A. (D.)...... Tennessee.......

Iorgan, Stephen (R.).. Ohio...........

Iorrell, Edward (R.)... Pennsylvania....
:\Iorrls, Page (R.)...... :\1inDf'sota......
:\Judd, S. E. (R.)....... :\Iaryland.......

Iutchler, Howard (D.). Pennsylyania....
Xaphen, H. F. (lJ.).... :\Iassachusptts...
Xeetlham, .T. ('. (N.).... California......
Xeville, William (P.)... Xebraska.......
Xevin, R.:\1. (R.)...... Ohio...........
Xewlantls, F. G. (D.)... Xevada.........
Norton, J. A. (D.)..... Ohio...........
Olmsted, :\L Eo (R.).... Pennsylvania. . . .
Otey, I'. J. (fl.)...... Virginia........
Otjen, Theobold (R.)... Wisconsin......
Overstreet, Jesse (R.).. Indiana........
Padgett, L. P. (D.).... Tennessee.......
Palmer, II. W. (R.).... Pennsylvania....
Parker, R. W. (R.)..... New Jersey.....
Patterson, G. R. (R.).. Pennsylvania....
Patterson, :\1. R. (D.)... Tennessee.......
Payne, S. E. (R.)...... NewYork.......

Pearre, n. A. (R.).....
IarylaDd.......
Perkins, J. n. (R.)..... Xew york......
Pierce, R. A. (D.)...... Tennessee.......

Polk, R. K. (D.)...... Pennsylvania....
POUr E. W. (D.)....... Xorth Carolina..
Powers, Llewllyn (R.).. :\Ialne.".........
Powers, S. L. (R.)..... :\Iassachusetts...
· "aeaney.

53d, 54th, 5
th, 56th,
57th.............. :\Iarch
54 th, 55th, 56th, 5ith. l\Iarch
53d, 54th, 5
th, 56th.
I:i 7 th. . . . . . . . . . . .
*56th, 57th.........
54 th, ;) 7 th . . . .. . .. . .
*5;Jth, 56th, 5ith. . . . .
*4!)th, 30th,
lst, ;j::?d,
53d, 54th, 33th,
5üth, 5ith........ :\Iarch
53d.
4th, 53th, 56th,

7th. . . .. . . . . . . ... March

3d,
4th. 53th, fiRth,
57th............. .
57th............... .
55th, 56th, 57th. . . . . .
57th............... .

7th. ...............
;j7th............... .

3d, 54th, 5
th, 56th,
57th. . . . . . . . . . . . " :\Iarch
56th,
7th.......... .March

::?d, 53d, 34th, 53th,
36th, 57th........
57th............... .
;j3th, 56th, 57th. . . . . .
:>6th, 57th...........
54th, 5:íth,
6th, 57th.
54th, 56th. 57th. . . . . .
57th............... .
:í6th, :57th...........
;;:;th, 56th,
7th. .. .. .

6th. 57th....... ....
*
6th, 57th _ .......
;);)th,
6th. ;j7th. . . . . .

lst, 5fith, 5Gth, !í7th. .
*;j
d. :í7th..........
ãGth, :ï7th...........
;jlith, :í7th...........
*;;Rth. 57th. ...... ...
:17th............... .
;;
d.
4th, ;);jth. 5Rth,
57th. _ _...........
:i:ith. :í6th. á7th. . . . . .
:í:íth, GGth. :í7th.
f'í4th, :í:íth. :í6th, 57th.
:ï4th. :í:ith. :iRth, :íith.
!í4th.
;;th,
6th, 57th.
;jïth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
;;ith. . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . .
!í3d. 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th. .. .... ....... 1\h\Tf'h
l:i7th. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. :\Iarch
57th. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mal'ch
48th. 49th. 51st, 5
d,
5
d, ;;4th,
;;th,
56th, 37th......... :\Iarch
:iRth. :í7th........... "a"C'h
:í7th........ ..... :\Ian'h
48th, 51st, 52d, 5
th.
56th, 57th......... :\IarC'h
:)(jth, 57th........... :\Iarch
37th. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. )farch
43th, *57th .. . . . . . . .. :\Iareh
57th. . . . . . . . . . . . . . " :\Iarch
(a) At large.

District.

Congresses.

2

12
1

7
6
6
3

7

18

1
(a)
(a)
:!
2

3
1

1

2
4
8
(a)
9
2
3
10
5
6

5

8
10
7
6
3
(a)
13
14
6
4
7
7
12
G
13
]()
:!8

6
31
9

1ï
4
4
11

17

'larch
AUK.
March
June

March
March
:\Iarch
:\Iarch
March
:\Iarch

:\Iarc h
:\Iarch
:\Iarch
:\Iarch
:\Iarch
:\Iarch
:\Iarcb
:\Iarch
)Iarch
:\larch
:\Iarch
:\Iarch

Iarch

Iarch

Iarch
March
:\Iarch
'Ia.'tOh

:\Iarch
:\Iarch
:\Iarch
March
March
March
March
Mareh

4, 1893
4, Uí9;>

4, 1893
1, HIUO
4, 1901
1, 18U8

4, 188:>
4. 1893
4, 1893
4, l!)Ol
4, 189ï
4, 1901
4, 19U1
4, HI01

4, 1893
4, 1899
4, 1R!I1
4. IBm
4, 18!J7
4, 18!19
4, lR!J

4. 1899
4, 1!)01
4, 189H
4. 18!1;
4, umn
7, 1HOU
4. 18!17
4. 189;
4. 1!10l
4, 1899
4. 18HfI
12, 1899
4. ] !IOI

4. 18f1

4. 1 RH7
4. lX!li
4. 1
9:)
4. lR!I:í
4. 1 S!I:)
4. 1 flot
4, HI01

4. 1 X9

4. 1901
4, 1901

4. IRS!)
4. 1 R9f1
4, 1901

4. 189;
4. 1899
4. 1901
4, 1901
4, 1901

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

LIST OF \lE\IBERS OF THE HOI"SE OF REI>RF.8EXTATIVES-Conlinued.

Begiouiug or present
service.

Congresses.

District.

State.

XallIc.

\Iarch
\larch
Ma,'c'h
April

.rí4th, 5:)th, 56th. :)7th
;J7th. .. . . . . . . .. .. . . .
::>7th. .. .. . ....... .. .
.
Oth,
7tb... .... ...
48th, G:!d. :>
d, G4th,
;,;jtb, ::iOtb,
7tb....
::i7th. . . . . . . . . . . . . , . .

Gtb. :>7th...........
.::i4th, ::i::itb, fl6th, ::i7th
;)
tb, G6tb, :)7tb. . . . . .
GGtb, G7th...........
40tb, ::iOth, ::ilst,
:!d,
G3d, G4tb,

th,
56tb, ::i7tb.........
.::i6 tho G 7 th. . . . . . . . . .

::ith, ::i6(h, ::i7th. . . . . .
;j;)th, GGth, ::i7th. . . . . .
:)Oth, 57th.........
*::iOth, 51st, ::i
d, ;:;:\d,
::i4th.;j::itIL
Utb,n7tb
:-,::ith, ::iOtb, ::i7th. .. . . .
:)Gtb, ::i7tb..........

r.th, 57th...........
::i7th ...............
56tb, ::i7th..........
5Uth, 51st, 5
d, 3
d,
54tb,::i3tb, ::i6th,::i7th
:)6th, ::i7th..........
56tb, 57th..........
:)7tb ...............
ri7th ...............
;)7th ...............

7th ...............
.::i6th, 57th.. ......
34th, 5::ith, G6th, 57tb.
::i7th ...............
;j:ïth, úlHh, 57th. . . . . .
:):ïth, :)Oth, ú7th......
::iOth, 51st, G3d, 54th,
5
tb, 50th, G7th...
56th, 57(b... - . . . . . .
.;j;jth, ::iGth. :t7th....
53d, ;jlith, 57th. . . . . . .
5:Jth, 56th, :)7tb. . . . . .
;;7th ...............
5:ïth, nOth. :J7tb. . . . . .
fiGth,
7th..........
;j;jth, ::i6th, :t7th.
51st. fi:!cl. :i:
d, fi4th,
fi:ith,
6th, 57th...
56tb, 57th..........
5::ith. fi6th, :J7tb. . . . . .
.;;6tb.57th.........
54th, 5:tth, fl6th. 57th.
fiOth, 57th.. ....,..
;, 7 th ...............
:t4th, 55th, 56th, fi7th.
54th, 53th, 57th.....
54th, ;j5th.
6th, fi7th.
:i4th, 5;;th. :t6th,
ïth.
.:t5th. 56th. 57th....
;j:ith, 56th. 57th. . . . . .
47th. 4Rth, 49th, :iOth,
54th,
;jth.
r.th, fi7th
Iareh
1
:i:ith, 5Gth, 57th. .. .,. :\Iarch
4
::i:)th, ::iOth, 57th. . . . ., March
(a) At large.

4, IS!I:t
4. 1!UIl
4, 1!101

3, IS!'!I

10
16

IIIInols. . . , . .. ..
Sew YOI.k......,
Texas. . . . . . . . . .
Louisiana. . . . . . .
l'\ew YOl.k......

I','inee, G. W. (H.'.....
Pugsley. C. A. (II.'....
Handell, ('. B. (II.)
Hansdell, J. Eo (LJ.)....
l:a.r, U. W. (R.).......

;;

5

26

Ian' b
'Ial"{'h
.\Ian'h
.\huc h
\Ial"{'h
\Iarc'h

4, IS!11
4, lU1l1
4, 18!1!I
4, 1 S!I:)
4. IH!17
4, IS!I!I

4
G
11
3
U
5

Arkansas. . . .. ..
Kansas.
I lIh
ois. . . . . . . . .
Kentucky. . . . . . .
Vh'glola... .....
Tennessee. . . . . . .

Held. C. ('. (D.).......
l{l'l'de.', W. A. (It.)....
I{ppvps, Waite.' (N.)....
Hhl'a, J. S. (/).,...,..
Hllea. W. F. (II.).,....
Hkba.'ùsun, J. II. (D.)..

I. ISS:i
:! 1. 1 !IOO
4. I"'!17
4. IH!17
4, 1 R!I!I

Ia,'('h
Apl'll

Ian'b

Iarch

Iarcb

8
t;
1

Alabama. . . . . . . .
\ïrginia. . . . . . . .

Iissourl. . . . . . . .

Iassacbusetts. . .
Louisiana. .. " ..

Hichardson, Wm. (D.)..
Hixey, J. I.'. (LJ.)......
Hobb, Edward (D.)....
Hoberts. Eo W. (Ii.)....
Robertson, S.
1. (D.).
Hobinson, J.
I. (D.) . .. .
Hobinson, J. H. (D.)....
Hucker, W. W (lJ.)....
Humple, J. K W. (R.)..
Huppert, Jacob, J... (D.)
Russell, C. A. (R.).....

7
G

Aug.

Iarch

Ian'h
:\Ia,'ch

Ia"ch

Iarch

:\, 1 sS7
4, 1 b!l7
4. tH!I!1
4, 11-\!I!1
4, 1!IOI
4, Hm!l

Indiana. .. '" . .
Sebraska... . . ..
:\I1ssourl. . . . . . , .
Iowa.......... .
Sew york.......
Connecticut. . . . .

1

3

2

I:>
3

Iarcb
:\Iarch
March
:\Iarch

Ia,'('h
March
}Ial'cll
June

Ial'cb

Ia"ch
Mal'ch
Mal'ch

4, I'-R7
4, ll'o.HtJ
4, lX!'!1
4, IHOI
4, 1Hot
4, 1!IOI
4, 1!IOI
1 H. IS!I!)
4, t ,.,tþ;j
4, IHOI
4, lRH7
4, 18Uï

3

4
(j
4
(u)
It)
!;
1
5

Sew york.......
Xew Jersey.....
Suuth Cal'olina..

Ianland".... .
Kan"sas. . . . . . . . .
illinois. "

1is&ouri. .......
Colorado. .. .. ...
ro;-pbmska. . . . . . .
Ohio.......... .

Ikhigan...... .
Sew YOI k. . . . . .'

Ryan, W. II. (D. I. ... -.

almon, J. S. (D.)..,..
Sl'al'bol'Ough. R. ll. (I).)

chÌl'm. C, R. (R.).....
Scott, C. F. (R.).......
Hplby, 'r. J. (lJ.). .. .. . .
Hhackleford, D. \\'. (D.)
Shafroth, J. F. (R)....
Shallenberger, A. C. (D.)
Sbattuc, \\'. B. (R.)....
Shelden, C. D. (R.)..
Sherman, J. S. (R.)....
Rheppard, J. L. (D.)....
Showalter, J. B. (R.)...
Sibley, J. C. (R.).,....
Sims. T. W. (D.)......
Skiles, W. "'. (R.).....

la)"den. J. L. (D.)....
Hmall, J. II. (D.)......

rnith. D. II. (D.).....
Smith. G. W. (ll.). .....

1
I:!

:!;j

4. IS!I

4, lX!I!1
4, 18!17
4, 1 S!IH
4, I8!17
4, I!HI1
4, IS!17
4, 1 H!I!I
4. I!;!17

March
:\Iarch
:\Im'ch
March
Marcb
March
March

laI'ch
'laI'ch

..

Texas. . . . . . . . . .
l'ennsyh aula. . . .
,.... .ùo.....,.
Tennessee. .. .. ..
Ohio........., .
Tpxas. . . . . . . . , .
Sorth ('m'olina..
Keutu('ky...... .
Illinois. . .

:t

7

8
14
I:!
1
4

:!

4, I HSH
4. lR!I!1
4. I Hn
7, I!HIO
4. 1 SH

4. Hi!I!1
4, 1!IOI
4, I"'!I:í
4, HUll
4, 1 X! 1:-,
4, 1 X!I:í
17, 1 R!lS
4, IS!17

March
March
Marcb
June
March
\larch
March
\hu'cb
\larch
\larch

Iareh
Oct.

Iarcb

:\Ikhigan...... .
. . . . elo. . . . . . . . .
10\\ a. . . . . . . . . . .
:\1iehlgan...... .
fennessee. . . . . , .
Obio....... '"
Ohio. .. .. . . .. ..
Xew YOI'k. . . . . .
Florida. . . . . . . . .
C'onnpcticut. . . . .
:\1ississlppl. . . . . .
Xcbraska...... .
Indiana. . . .

Hmith, II. C. (R.)......

mltb. R. W. (R.) . . . . . .
Hmlth, W. 1. (R.)......

mlth. W. A. (R.)......

nodg'rass, C. E. (D.)..
Snook, .J. R. (D.)......
Houthard. J. II. (R.)...
Southwkk. G. X. (R.)..
Hparkman, H.
r. (D.)..
Sperry, X. n. (R.).....

plght, Thomas (D.)...
Htark, W. L. (P.).." ..
Steele, G. W. (Ii.).....

6
!)
5
4

5

9

O
1
2

2

4
11

4, um:-,
4, I8!17
4, 18U7

Stephens. J. ß. (D.)... Texas..........
Stevens, F. C. (R.)..... ..I1noesota......
. Vacancy.

:tU

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Name. State. District. Congresses. Beginoing of present
sen'Ïl"e.
Stewart, J. F. (R.).... . Sew Jersey..... á :;4th, rí:ith. 56th, G7th. March 4, 189:i
Stewal.t, J. K. (R.)... . Xew york..... .
1 :iGth, 37th. . . . . . . . . . :\Ial'ch 4, 18H9
Storm. I,'rederick (R.) . . .. .do.......... 1 37th ............................ .. :\Iareh 4, 1901
Sulloway, C. A. (N.). . . Xew IIampshh'p. 1 34th, 33th, 56th, 37th. :\Ian'h 4, Um3
Sulzer, William (lJ.) . . . Xew york...... . 11 34th, 53th, 56th, 37th. :\Iarch 4, 1893
Huthel"laud, George (R.) l-tah... . '" " .. (a) 37th ............................ .. :\Iareh 4, 1901
Swanson, C. A. (LJ.).... Virginia. . . . . . . . [j 33d. 54th, 33th. 5Gth,
57th ........................ .. :\Iarch 4, 1893
Talbert, W. J. (D.).... .
outh Carolina. . 2 33d, :>4 th, 33 tho 56th.
57th ........................ .. :\Iarch 4, 1893
Tate,
'. C. (D.)....... Georgia. . . . . . . . . 9 53d, 54th, 53th, 36 tho
57th ........................ .. :\Ial'ch 4, 18!13
Tayler, R. W. (R.) . . .. Ohio.......... . 18 54th, 33th. 56th, 37th. :\Ian'h 4, 110m3
Taylor, G. W. (D.). .. . Alabama. . . . . . . . 1 55th, 56th, 57th..... . :\Ial'ch 4, 18!.!7
Ta wney, J. A. (R.).... :\Iinnl'sota. . . . . . 1 53d. 54th, 53th. 5ßth,
57th ........................ .. :\Iarch 4, 18 fI:;
Thayer, J. R. (D.)..... Massachusetts. . . 3 36th, 57th......... . March 4, 1899
Thomas, C. R. (D.).... Xorth Carolina. . 3 56th, 57th......... . l\Iarch 4, 189n
Thomas, Lot (R.). .. .. . Iowa.......... . 11 56th, 57th......... . Mal'ch 4, 18
W
Thompson, C. W. (D.) . Alabama. . . . . . . . 5 57th ........................... .. March 4, 1901
Tirrell, C. Q. (R.). .. .. . :\Iassa<. husetts. . . 4 57th ............................ .. Mal'eh 4, 1901
Tompkins, A. S. (Il.J... Xl'w york..... .. 17 56th, 57th......... . Ma I'e h 4, 1899
Tompkins, Emmett (R.) . Ohio.......... . 12 57th ............................ .. :\[arch 4, If101
Tongue, T. II. (fl.) . . . . Ol'egon. . . . . . . . . 1 55th, 56th, 57th..... . March 4, 1897
TI'imble, Sou th (D.).. . Kentucky...... . 7 57th ............................ .. :\Iarch 4. 1901
rnderwood, O. W. (D.) . Alabama. . . . . . . . 9 54th, 53th, 36th, 57th. l\Iarch 4, 1893
Vandiver, W. D. (I).). . . :\!issouri. . . . . . . . 14 55th, [i6th, ;,7th. . . . . . March 4, 1887
Van \"ool'hIS, H. C. ( N.) Ohio.......... . 13 53d, 54th, á5th, 56th,
57th ........................ .. :\Iarch 4, 189

'.,'eeland, E. B. (R.) . . . Xew york..... . 34 .56th, 37th........ . Mal'ch 4, 189f1
Wachter. F. ('. (fl.) . .. . :\Ial'yland. . . . . . . 3 56th, 37th......... . March 4, I89!.!
"'adsworth, J. W. (R.) . Xew york..... . 30 47th, 48th, 5:!d, 53d,
54th, 53th,56th, 57th March 4, 1891
'Yanger, I. P. (R.). .. . . I'enns,rlvania. . . . ï 53d. ;)4 th, 55th, 56th,
57th oo...................... ..
[arch 4, lR93
'Yarner, Yf'spasian (P.. ) illinois. . . . . . . . . 13 54th, 3;;th, ;,flth, 57th. March 4, 1895
"-arnock. W. U. (R.) . . . Ohio.......... . 8 57th ............................ .. March 4. IDOl
Watson, .J. F.. (R.) . . . . . Indiana. . . . . . . . 6 54th, :i6th 57th......
Iarch 4, lR!)9
Weeks. Edgar (J(.).....
[jchigan. . .. . 7 f>()th. ;; 7th. . . . . . . . . . :\[arch -t, 18!1tI
Wheeler. ('. K. <n.).... Kentucky. . . . . . . 1 :J:ith, 36th, 57th..... . :\Iarch 4, 1R!l7
White, John n. (D.)... . .. .do.......... HI 57th . . .. -...............
Iarch 4, 1!.!01
Wiley, A. A. (D.) . .. . . . Alabama. ....... :! ã;th ............................ .. :\Ial'ch 4, 1!.!01
Williams, J. H. (n.).... illinois, . . . . . . . ,
O 51st, 5:!d, 53d, 56th,
57th ........................ .. :\Iarch 4, 1899
Williams, J. S. (n.) . . . .
[Ississlppi. . . . . . 5 iJ3d. :i4th, 5::;th. 36th.
5;th ....................... ..
[al'('h 4, 1Rn3
Wilson. F. F.. (n.). . . .. Xew york..... .. [) 56th. 57th. .. .. .. .. . :\Iarch 4, 18!)!}
\\"oo(1s. S. D. (fl.)...... f'allfornia. . . . . . :! .56th, 57th........ . Aug. :!o. 1900
"'oMf'n. D. G. <n.).... Texas. . . . . . . . . . 6 .37th .......................... .. June :t, IBm
Wright. f'. }.'. (R.)..... I'ennsylvanla. . . . l:i :i(jth, 57th...... .. . :\[ar('h 4, I8Dn
Young, .T. H. (R.)...... ..... .ùo....... 4 :i:ith. :Jfìth, ;,;th. . . . . :\Iarch 4, I8!17
7.f'nor, W. T. (D.). .. .. . Indiana....... . 3 ;;3th, 56th, ;)7th.....
Iarch 4, 18tl7
TJELEG.\ TES. TEllRITOUIES.
Flynn, D. T. (R.) . . . . . . Oklahoma. ....,. ...... .. :i
d, 54th, ;,(j t h. 57th.
[arch 4, 18Dn
Hodey, n. S. (R.) . . . . . . New
[pxko. . . . . ...... .. :i7th .......................... ..
Ial'ch 4, 1901
Smith, M. A. (n.) . . . . . .\ rizona . . . . . . . . . ...... .. :íOth. ;; 1 st. :i:!ù, :i3d,
5:í tho 57th. . . . . .. .
[arch 4. l!}ol
Wilcox. H. W. (Ind.).. . lIawail. . . . . . . . . ...... .. :iflth, :í7th. . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1 !IOO

LI:S'f OF J\IE
IHJo:HH OF THE HOeSE OF REPHE:SEN"TATI\'E8-Cvncluded.

· Val'ancy

(a) At large.

Senate:
Republicans ..................... 54
Democrats ...................... 30
All others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Total ........................ 87
(Three vacancies.)

CL:\SSIFIC.\TIn
.
Ilom'p of Uppresentatlves :
Hepuhlkans .................... :!OO
Df'mof'rats ..................... 15:!
All others. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . :i
Total .........,.............. 3;;7

339

FEDERAL HALL-FEDERAL UNION

-

,I

,
,;" " 'r<-..
...;" ;':'-.
..\" .-;:

Ilil
' .

:.
)[ 'I ;.' t:::'. ..

! I I
"l t C

_ r
.

.:;;:: - " , ) __ I' .I,': ,f.-
-,. \ t -- 1
.....-. -

þ ."' "

"'" -
I:
II
II,
_. 1 ,
if . 'ftllt{

.

.. -- -1
. . ... .. -

__

}

-.. /i-A-<C

--_

--..;: ----

----

t'tï):-:HAL HAI.I..

Federal Hall. The Continental Con-
gress, when sitting in Kew York, had
been accommodated in the old City Hall,

on the norUleast CO)'ller of \Yal] and
Na!'8au streets. This building
had fallen into decay when the
first national Congress was ahout
to meet there. ]}t'sirous of per-
manently retaining the seat of
the national government at Xew
York, and to provide the national
legislature with suitable accom-
modations, senral wealth)' cit-
izens advanced to the ('ity tn'as-
ury (then empty) $;J
,;;()O, with
which the old building was rp-
modplled and c:Üt.nsi,'ely repair.
ed. The name" Federal Hall" was
gi\"pJI to it, ala! the eity councils
phtcf'd it at the di!'po!'al of the
Congress. 1\ew York retained the nation-
al capitol on1y a short tiulf'. aH it was
removed to Philadelphia in 17t10.

FEDERAL UNION, THE

the world grows, the more varied our cx-
pericnee of praf'tical pol itics. the more
compn'l\('nsivc o\lr slllTe)" of universal
history, thc strongpr o\lr grasp upon the
comparati,'e nlPthod of iIHJ11iry, the morp
The great history of Thuc)'dides, which brj])iant is thp light thrown upon that
after twent
.-three centuries stilI ranks Lricf day oJ Athenian grpatJless, and the
(in spite of )lr. Cobden) among our chief more wonderful and admirable does it all
text-books of political wisdom, has often seem. To see this gloriou
community
seemed to me olle of the most mournful overthro\\ n, shorn of half its virtue (to
books in the world. At no other spot on use the Homeric phrase), and thrust down
the earth's surface, and at no other time in into an inferior position in the world. is
the career of mankind, has the human in- a mournful spf'ctac1e indeed. .And the
tellect flowered with such luxuriance as at book which sets before us, so impartia 11y
Atllf'ns dnrin
thp eighty-five
'ears which
et so eloquently, the innumerablf' pf'tty
iltter\"ened het\\"f'en the victory of 1\lara- misunderstandings and eontt'lIIptihle .if'lll-
thon amI the defeat of .A('gospotamos. In ousies which brought ahout this direful
no other like interval of time. and in no result, is one of the most mournful of
other community of like dimensions, ha'3 books.
foO much work hecn Ilccomplishpd of whidl \Ye may console oursplv('!'I. ho\\e\"er. for
we can !'lay with truth that it iSICTÎj}'aÈf; áfi thp premature o\'crthrow of the pO\\"t'I' of
--an et('rnal posscssion. It is impos
iLle Athens, hy the reflection that that ]>O\\"('r
to concei\e of a day so distant. or an era "f'stcd upon political conditions \\"hic.h
of culture !"o exaltpd. that the le!'sons could not in any case ha\"(' h('('n pt'l'IIHl-
trrught hy Athens shall cpasc to he of Ilent or eyen lon::r-endurillg'. The entire
value, or that the \\"ritin
" of her ::rr('at political s)'!'tP1J1 of Ilneif'nt (;reecp, haspd
thinkers shall cease to be read \\ ith fn.sh ag it was upon the i<l('a of the sovereign
profit and delight. \Ye undf'rstand th('se illflep('llf}pnce of each singJp city, was one
things far better to-day than did tho:->e "hieh could not fail !'ooner or later to f'X
mon<:tprs of f'rtHlition in the sixtf'enth }mu:.t itseJf througll ehronic anarchy. The
c('ntmT who studied thp cla
si('s for p,,;1 0 _ Oll1V renH"lh' la\' pithf'r in !'ome kind of
logicai purposes mainly. Indeed, the olùer p('r'manent fede;'ation, combined with rpp-
:)40

Federal Union, TIlE. JOliN FISKE
(q. v.), the eminent historian. contributes
the following e
say. originaìly deli,'ered
as a lecture in London, England:

FEDERAL UNION, THE

ll'!;entati,'e gO\-ernment; or else ill what
we might ('all " incorporation and assimi-
lation," after the Roman fashion. But the
incorporation of one town with another,
though cffected with brilJiant results in
the early history of Attica, involnd such
a disturbance of all the associations which
in the Greek mind clustered about the
conception of a cit)' that it was quite im-
practicable on an," large or general scale.
Schemes of federal union were put into
operation, though too late to be of avail
against the assaults of Macedonia and
home. But as for the principle of repre-
sentation, that seems to have been an in-
nntion of the Teutonic mind; no states-
nlan of antiquit.'., either in Greece or at
Home, seems to have conceived the idea
of a city
ending delegates armed with
plenary powers to represent its interests
in a general legislative assembly. To the
Creek statesmen, no doubt, this too would
have seemed derogatory to the dignity of
the sonreign city.
This feeling with which the ancient
Greek statesmen, and to some extent the
Romans also, regarded the city, has be-
come almost incomprehensible to the
modern mind, so far removed are we from
the political cirmcumstances which made
r,uch a feeling possible. Teutonic ciyiliza-
tion, indeed, has never passcd through a
Htage in which the ion-most position has
been held by ci,'ic comnumitips. Teutonic
civilization pa
sed dircctly from the stage
of tribal into that of national organiza-
tion, before any Teutonic city had ae-
(Juired sufficient importance to have claim-
('11 autonomv for it<;p]f; and at the time
when Tcut
nic nationalities were form-
ing, morpowr. all the cities in Europe had
so long })('en accustomed to recognize a
master outside of them in the person of
the Roman ('mperor that the very tradi-
tion of ci,'ic autono:l1v. as it existed in
a nc]('nt n rf'(,(,p, had hc
ome pxtinct. TI1Ïs
didcrPlwe beÌ\\"pcn the political basis of
Tf'utnnic and of Gra-co-Roman ci,'ilization
is one of which it would be difficult to ex-
aggerate thf' importance; and when thor-
oughly understood it goes further, pcrhaps,
Ulan anything elsp towards accounting for
the Succf'ssi,'e failures of the Greek and
T:oman politieal s
'st('ms. and towards in-

piring \]S with \'onfillpnct' in the fUÌ\nf'
stahility of the political s."stem which has
3-H

been wrought out by the genius of the
English race.
We have seen how the most prim-
itive form of political association known
to have existed is that of the clan,
or group of families held togethpr by
ties of descent from a common an-
cestor. \Ye saw how the change from a
nomadic to a stationary modp of life, at-
tendant upon the adoption of agricultural
pursuits, conyerteù the clan into a mark
01' YilJage-communit)" something like
those which exist to-da)' in Ru:"sia. The
political progress of primitive society
seems to have consisted largely in the
coalescence of these small groups into
larger groups. The fir:st series of com-
pound groups resulting from the coales-
cence of adjacent marks is that which wa

known in nearl
' all Teutonic lands as the
hundred, in Athens as the f>parpí.a or
b1'Otherhood. in Rome as the curia. Yet
alongside of the Roman group called the
curia there is a group whose name, the
ccntw'y, exactly translates the name of
the Teutonic group; and, as
[r. Free-
man sars, it is difficult to belien that the
Roman centur.'! did not at the outset in
some way correspond to the Teutonic
hundred as a stage in political organiza-
tion. But both these tenns, al; \\ e know
them in histol".", are survivals from some
la'ehistoric state of things; and whether
they were originall." applied to a hun-
thed of hou
cs, or of families, or of war-
rim's, we do not know. - )I. Geffroy, in
his interesting es..ay on the Oermania of
Tacitus, suggests that the term canton
may ha,'e a similar origin.-- The out-
lines of ther,e primitive group" arí', hO\;'
e,-er, more obscure than those of the more
primitive mark, b('cau
e in most ca,.;C',.;
they have been either crossed and effa('('(l
or at any rate diminished in importunef'
by the more highly compounded group'"
\\ hich came next in order of formation.
X e:Ü above the hllndred, in order of com-
position, comes the group known in an-
eicnt Italy as the paglls, in Attica per-
haps as the deme, in GC'rmany and at first
in ]
ngland as the gait or flU, at a later
date in England al; the shir,.. \Yhate\"pr
its name, this group answers to the tribc

· Freeman, Compamtil'e Po1itiCR, llR.
.. Geffroy, Rome ct les BorbU1'C8,
o:}.

FEDERAL UNION, THE

T<'garded as settled upon a certain deter-
minate territory. Just as in the earlier
nomadic life the aggreg-ation of clans
makes ultimately the tribe, so in the
more advanced
gricultural life of our
Ar)yan ancestors the aggregation of marks
or village-communities make
ultimately
the gau or shire. Properly speaking, the
name shire is descriptive of clh'ision and
not of aggregation; but this term came
into use in England after the historic
order of formation had heen forgotten,
and when the shire was looked upon as
a picce of some larger whole, such as the
kingdom of :\fprcia or \Vessex. Histori-
cally, however, the shire was not madp,
like the departments of modern France,
hy the division of the kingdom for admin-
istrative purposes, but the kingdom wat!
llIade by the union of shires that were
pre\"iously autonomous. In the primitive
process of aggregation, the shire or gau,
governed by its -witenagemote or "meet-
ing of wise mpn:' and by its chief magis-
trate who was called ealdorman in time of
peace and hl'retoga. "army-leader," dux,
or duke, in time of war,-the shirl', I say,
in this form, is the largest and most com-
I,lex political body we find previous to
the formation of kingdoms and nations.
But in sa
vinp' this. we have already passed
}K'yond the point at which we can include
in the same general formula the process
of political denlopnwnt in Teutonic coun-
trips on tlH' one hand and in Greece and
Home on the other. rp as far as the
formation of the tribe. territorial1y re-
garded, the parailplism is preserved; but
at this point there begins an al1-important
din.rgence. In the looser and more dif-
fll
pd society of the rural Teutons, the
tribe is 8pread over a shire, and the aggre-
g"ation of f;hires makes a kingdom. em-
hracing cities. towns. and rural districts
l,eM together by similar bonds of rela-
tionship to the central governing power.
Hut in the society of the old Greeks and
Italians. the aggregation of trib<>s, crowd-
ed together on fortified hill-tops, makes
the Ancient City-a very different thing,
indeed, from the modern city of later
Homan or Teutonic foundation. l..et \IS
consider, for a mon1f'nt. the difference.
Sir Henrv Maine te))s us that in Hindu-
!'tan nearlyal1 the weat towns and ('itips
IlRve arisen either from the simple expan-
342

sion or from the expansion and coales-
cence of primiti,ye village-communities j
and such as ha,'e not arisen in this wa)',
including some of the greatest of Indian
dties, have grown up about the intrenched
camps of the Mogul emperors.. The case
has been just the same in modern Europe.
Some famous cities of England and Ger-
manJy-such as CheRter and Lincoln, Stras-
hurg and
Iaintz-grew up ahout the
camps of the Roman legions. But in
general the Teutonic cit), has been formed
by the expansion and coalescence of
thickly peopled townships and hundreò'i.
In the Fnitpd States nearly all eitie!'!
laave come from the growth and expansion
of villages, with such occasional casps of
coalescence as that of Boston with Rox-
lJUry and Charlestown. Now and then a
city has been laid out as a city nb initio,
with full consciousness of its purpose, as
a man would build a house; and this was
the case not merely with Mart in ('huz-
zlewit's "Eden," but with the city of
\Vashington, the seat of our federal go\"-
C'rnment. But, to go back to the carly age
of England-the potmtry which bC'st ex-
hibits the normal developnwnt of Teu-
tonic institutions-thp point which T wish
eFpecialJy to emphasize is this: ill no case
ducs the city appear as cquimlent to the
d-u:elling-place of a tribe or of a confedrTfl-
tion of h'ibcs. In no ('aRC' doC's citi7en!'h:n.
or burghership. appenr to rpst upon tlw
basis of a real or n8sumro communit
. of
descent from a sin
le real or mythical pro-
gpnitor. In the primith'p mark, as we have
seen, the bond which kept thp community
together and constituted it a political unit
was the hond of IJI0od-relationship. real or
al"snmed; hut this was not thp ('a1"C' with
the cit), or horough. Thp C'ity did not
correspond with the trihe, as the mark
corref;pomled with tltp C'lan. Tlw aggrC'ga-
tion of clans into trihes ('orrC'spondpd with
the aggregation of marks, not into citics
but into 8hirl'.
. The multitude of com-
pound politicn 1 units, hy the furtlwr ('om-
r,ounding of \,,'hich a nation was to be
formpd, did not con"if;t of citief; but of
shires. The cit.,. was simply a point in
thp shire distingui..hed hy grpatf'r density
of population. The 1"plations sustained b
'
thC' thinly pC'opl('(1 rurnl townships :\lul

·
[alne, rillage CommunftieB. 118.

FEDERAL UNION, THE

hundreds to the general government of
the shire were co-ordinate with the rela-
tions sustained to the same government
by those thickly peopled townships anù
hundreds which upon their coalescence
were known as cities or boroughs. Of
course I am speaking now in a broad and
general way, and without reference to such
special prÏ\-ileges or immunities as cities
and boroughs frequently obtained by ro
'al
charter in feudal times. Such special
privileges-as for instance the exemption
of boroughs from the ordinary sessions of
the county court, under Henry I".-were
in their nature grants from an external
source, and were in nowise inherent in the
position or mode of origin of the Teutonic
city. And they were, moreover, posterior
in date to that embryonic period of na-
tional growth of which I am now speak-
ing. They do not affect in any way the cor-
rectness of my general statement, which
is sufficiently illustrated by the fact that
the oldest shire - motes, or county assem-
blies, were attended by representatives
from all the townships and hundreds in
the shire, whether such townships and
llliIJdreds formed parts of horoughs or not.
y er
. different from this was the em-
bryonic growth of political societ." in
ancient Greece and Italy. There the ag-
gregation of clans into tribes and con-
federations of tribes resulted directly, as
we have seen, in the cit.y. There hurgher-
ship, with its political and f'ocial rights
and duties, had its theoretical basis in
descent from a common ancegtor, or from
a small group of closely related common
ancestors. The group of fellow-citizens
was associated through its related groups
of ancestral household-deities, nnd through
}"C'ligious rites performed in common to
which it would have been sacrilege to have
admitted a stranger. Thus the ancient
city was a religious as well as a political
body, and in either character it was com-
plete in itself and it was sovereign. Thus
in ancient Greece and Haly the primitive
clan assembly or township-meeting did not
grow by aggregation into the assembly of
the shire, but it den'lopcd into the co-
mitia or ecclesia of the city. The chief
magistrate was not the ealdorman of early
F.ngIish history, but the rex or hasiTru8

· HtlllJbs, Constitutional HistOl"Y, i., G:!:J.

who combined in himself the functions of
king, general, and priest. Thus, too, there
\\as a severance, politically, between city
and country such as the Teutonic world
has never known. The rural districts sur-
rounding a city might be subject to it,
but could neither share its franchise nor
claim a co-ordinate franchise with it.
A thens, indeed, at an early period, went
so far as to incorporate with itself Eleu-
sis and Marathon and the other rural
towns of Attica. Tn this one respect
Athens transgreased the bounds of an-
cient civic organization, and no doubt it
gained greatly in power thereby. But
I!enerally in the Hellenic world the rural
population in the neighborhood of a great
city were mere 7rfpíOtICOt, or "dwellers in
the vicinity"; tllf' inhabitants of the city
who had moved thither from some other
city, both they and their descendants, were
mere pÉTOIKOI, or "dwellers in the
place"; and neither the one class nor the
other could acquire the rights and priv-
ileges of citizen
hip. A revolution, in-
deed, went on at Athens, from the time of
Solon to the time of Kleisthenes, which
e,",sentially modified the old tribal divi-
sions and admitted to the franchise all
such families resident from time imme

morial as did not belong to the tribes of
eupadrids by whom the city was founded.
But this change once accomplished, the
civic exclusivenel"S of .\thens r{'mained
very mueh what it was before. The popu-
lar assembly was enlarged, and public
harmony was secured; but \thenian
burghership still remained a priyilege
which could not be acquired by the nati"e
of any other city. Similar revolutions,
with a similarly limited purpose and re-
sult, occurrC'd at Sparta, Elis, and other
Greek cities. At Rome, by a like revolu-
tion, the plebeians of thc Capitoline awl
Aventine acquired parallel rights of citi-
zenship with the patricians of the original
city on tlle Palatine; but this revolution,
as we shall presently !"ee, had different re-
sults, leading ultimately to the overthrow
of t1.e city system throughout the ancient
world.
The deep-seated difference between the
TC'utonic political system based on the shin'
and tlw Græco-Roman sY8tem based on the
city ig now, I think. sufTìcif'ntl.,. app:\l"ent.
Now from this fundamental difference
313

FEDERAL UNION, THE

bave come two consequences of enormous
importance-consequences of which it is
Imrdly too much to say that, taken to-
gethcr, they furnish the key to the whole
history of European civilization as regard-
HI purely from a political point of view.
The first of these consequences had no
doubt a wry humble origin in the mere
difference between the shire and the city
in territorial extent and in density of
population. 'Yhen people live near to-
gether it is easy for them to attend a
town-meeting, and the assembly b
' which
public business is transacted is likely to
remain a primary assembly, in the true
sense of the term. Rut when people are
dispersed owr a wide tract of country, the
primary assembly inevitably shrinks up
into an assembly of !'.uch persons as can
hest afford the time and trouble of at-
tending it, or who ha \'e the strongest in-
terest in going. or are most likely to he
listened to after they get there. Dis-
tance and difficulty, and in early times
danger too, keep many ppople away. And
though a shire is not a wide tract of coun-
try for most purposcs, and according to
modern ideas, it was nevertheless quite
wide enough in former times to bring
about the result I han mentioned. In
the times before the
orman conquest, if
not before the completed union of Eng-
land under Edgar, the shire-mote or
county assembly, though in theory stiJ)
a folk-mote or primary assemhly, had
f;hrunk into what was virtua))
' a witen-
agemote or assembly of the most important
persons in the count
.. But the several
townships, in order to keep their fair
!'hare of control O\'er county affairs, and
not wishing to lean. the matter to chance,
sent to the meetings eaeh its representa-
tives in the pprslln of the town-rpeve al1fl
four "discrpet 1IIcn." I beli('n
it has
1I0t been determined at what precise time
this step was taken, but it no douht long
antpdates the Norman conquest. It is
mentioned by l>rofessor Rtuhh!'! as bping al-
rpady, in the reign of Henry HI.. a custom
of immemorial antiquity.. It was one
of the greatest steps ever taken in the
political history of mankind. In these
four discreet men we have the forerun-
nC'rs of the two burghers from earh town

· Stubbs. Select ClwrtcrB, 401.

who were summoned by Earl Simon to
the famous Parliament of 1265, as wc)) as
of the two knights from each shire "hom
the King had summoned elewn years be-
fore. In these four discrect men scnt to
speak for their township in the old county
assembly, we have the germ of institu-
tions that have ripened into the House of
Commons and into the legislatures of mod
ern kingdoms and repuhlics. In the sys-
tem of representation thus inaugurated
lay the future possibility of such gigantic
political aggregates as the United Stah's
of America.
In the ancient city, 011 the other hand.
the extreme compactness of the political
structure made rporesentation unneces-
sary and prevented it from being thought
ot in circumstances where it might have
proved of immense value. In an aristo-
cratic Greek city, like
parta. aU the
members of the ruling class met together
and voted in the assembly; in a democratic
city, like .\thens. all the free citi7e11s met
and voted; in each case the assembl
' was
primary and not reprpsentatin'. The only
exception, in a11 Greek antiquity, is onp
which emphatica))
' prO\-es the rule. The
Þ. mphict
'onic Council, an institution of
prehistoric origin, concprned mainly with
religious affairs pertaining to the worship
of the Delphic Apollo, furnished a In'pcP-
dent for a representative, and indecd for
a fedpral, as!,-pmhly. Delegates from
various Greek trihcs and cities atten,lpd
it. The fact that with surh a sug-gestivp
precedent before their eyes the Greeks
I1c\-er once hit upon the device of repre-
sentation. e\"en in their attempts at fram-
ing federal union,.,. shows how thoronghly
their whole political training had op('ratcd
to eXl'lml(' such a conception from their
minds.
Th(' s(,POJlII great consequence of the
r. 1',('('0- nOllla n ('it.v system was linked in
lIlallY ways with this ab:..,euee of thc rcp-
J"('s{,lItatin prim'iple. Tn Greece tilt-'
formation of political aggn'gat('s hig-hpr
and more cxt('usiye than the city was,
until a lat(' date. r('ndered impos
ibl('.
The good and had sides of this peculiar
phasc of ('i\ i1i7.ation haw been often
('nough COHlIll('lIt('d on by historians. On
thp one hallll till' dpmol'rntic assl'mhly of
buch an illll'Nial ,.ity as .-\th('n
fllrni"h('tJ
a
chool of political training superior to
344

FEDERAL UNION, THE

anything else that the world has ever seen. oi the quantity of warfare and in the
It was something like what the New Eng- narrowing of its sphere. For within the
land town-meeting would be if it were con- territorial limits of any great and penna-
tinually required to adjust complicated nent state the tpnden(T is for warfare to
questions of international polity, if it were become the exception and peace the rule.
carried on in the very centre or point of In this direction the political careers of
confluence of all contemporary streams of the Greek cities a
sisted the progress of
culture, and if it were in the habit every civilization but little.
few da
's of listening to statesmen and Under the conditions of Græco-H
an
orators like Hamilton or \Vebster, jurists civic life thpre were hut two praeticab!e
like Marshall, generals like Sherman, poets methods of forming a great state and di-
like Lowell, historians like Parkman. minishing the quantity of warfare. The
Nothing in all history has approached the one method was conquest Icith il/corpora-
high-wrought intpnsity and brilliancy of tion, the othpr method was fedcration.
the political life of Ath('ns. Either one city might conqner all the
On the other hand, the smallness of the others and ('ndow their citizens with its
independent city, as a political aggregate, own franchise, or all the cities might give
made it of little or no use in diminishing up part of their sovereignty to a federal
the liability to perpetual warfare which is body which should have power to keep the
the curse of all primitive communities. I.eace, and should represent the civilized
In a group of independent cities, such as world of the time in its relations with out-
made up the Hellenic world, the tendency lying barbaric peoples. Of these two
to warfare is almost as strong, and the methods, obviously the latter is much the
occasions for warfare are almost as fre- more effective, but it presupposes for its
quent, as in a congpries of mutually hostile successful adoption a higher general state
tribes of barbarians. There is something of civilization than the former. Neither
a Imost lurid in the sharpnpss of contrast JI:ethod was adopted by the Greeks in their
with which the wonderful height of hn- day of gr('atness. The Spartan method of
manity attained by Hellas is ðPt off extending its power was conquest without
a.gainst the fierce barbarism which charac- incorporation: wben
parta conquered an-
terized the relations of its cities to one an- other Greek . city, she sent a hannost to
other. It may be laid down as a general govern it like a tyrant; in other words she
rule that in an early state of society, virtually enslaved the subject city. The
where the political aggregations are small, efforts of Athens temlpd more in the direc-
warfare is universal and cruel. From the tion of a peacpful federalism. In the great
intensity of the jealousies and rivalries Delian confederacy which developed into
between adjacpnt self-governing- gronps of the maritime empire of Ath('ns, the Aegean
men, nothing short of chronic warfare can cities were treated as allies rather than
rpsnIt, until some principle of union is subjects. As re
ards their local affairs
{xolved by which di5putes can be settled theJ' were in no way interfered with, and
in accordance with general principles ad- cf>uld t1lf'Y haw heen rppn'sented in some
mitted h.\' all. Among peoples that have kind of a federal conn('il at Athens, the
n('ver risen above thp tribal stage of ag-gre- course of nrecian histor,y might have been
gation, such as the American Indians, war \\onderfull
' altered. _\.s it was, they were
is the normal condition of things, and all dpprived of one ('s"'t'ntial element of
there is nothing fit to be called pcace-
overeignty, the power of controlling
there are only truces of brief and uncer- t};('ir own militar
' forc('s. Some of them,
tain duration. \\"pr(' it not for this there fir Chios and l\rïtylenp. furnished troops at
would be somewhat l('ss to b(' said in the demand of At1wns; others maintained
favor of great states and kingdoms. As nf> troops, but raid a fixed tribute to
modern life growi't more and more compli- .-\thens in return for her protection. In
cated and interdppendent, the great state either ease they felt shorn of part of their
subserns innumerable useful purposps: dignity, though ot1wrwise they had nothing
hut iu t1te history of <,ivilizat.ion it:'! first to complain of: and during the Pelopon-
SI n'i('(', hoth in onl{'J' of timp anll in onlt-r I){'sian war Athf>Jls had to r('ckon with
of importanc(', consists in the diminution their tendency to re,'olt as well as with
345

FEDERAL UNION, THE

her Dorian enemies. Such a confederation
was naturally doomed to speedy over-
throw.
In the century following the death of
Alexander, in the c10sing age of Hellenic
imlependence, the federal idea appears in
a much more advanced stage of elabora-
tion, though in a piut of Greece which
had been held of little account in the

reat days of 'Athens and Sparta. Be-
tween the _\chaian federation, framed in
2j 4 D.C., and the rnited Rtates of Amer-
ica, there are some interesting points of
I esemblance which have been elaborate-
ly discuss('d by
lr. Freeman, in hi!' Hi.

tory of Federal Government. About the
same time the Aetolian IÆague came into
prominence in the north. Roth these
l('agues were instances of true federal gm--
PTnment, and were not mere confedera-
tions; that is, the ('entral government acted
directly upon all the ('itizens and not mere-
ly upon tlw local gon>rnments. Each of
tlwse leagups had for its chief executive
officpr a gen('ra l elected for one year, with
powers similar to thost' oj an American
}'resident. In pach thp supreme a
sembly
was a primary a<;sembly at which e,'ery
c:tizen from ('very city of the league had a
1 ight to be pre!'ient, to "peak, and to ,'ote;
Imt as a natural con<;:pqucnce these a!'sem-
hI ips shrank into comparativcly aristo-
cratic bodies. In _\etolia, whic11 was a
J!I'OUp of mountain cantons similar to
f'witzerland, the fed('ral union was more
completp than in A('haia, whi('h was a
group of cities. Tn Achaia casp!;1. occurred
in which a sing-Ie city was al10wpd to deal
f,("parately with forei:m powers. H('re, as
in earlier Greek history, the instinct of
autonomy was too powerful to admit of
complete fpdpration. Y pt the career of tlw
.Åphaian League was not an inglorious
Olle. For Ilf'arly a century and a ha 1f it
ga ,'e the Peloponnesos a largpr mpac;ure
of orderly I!ovprnment than the country
had ever known before, without infrin
ing
u]'on local libprties. It defied !'ouccp.:;"ful1v
the threats and assaults of :!\[acpclonia. amI
yi('lded at last only to the alI-('onqupring
might of Rom('.
Thus in so far as Greece contribut('d
am-thinO' tf"Jwards the formation of g-r(':!. t
:1nd pacific political ag-greg-atps, SlIP did it
through att('mpts at fed(ration. But in so
low a state of political development as
346

that which premiled throughout the :Med-
iterranean world in pre-Christian times,
the more barbarous method of conquest
'Leith incorporation was more likely to be
successful on a great scale. This was wcll
iIlustratpd in the history of Rome-a ci,'ic
cûmmunit,r of the same generic type with

rarta and Athens, but presenting spe-
cific differences of the higlwst importance.
The beginnings of Rome, unfortunately.

H' prehistoric. I have often thought that
if some beneficent fairy could grant us the
power of <;omewhere raising the veil of
c,blivion which enshrouds the earliest ages
of Ar,yan dominion in Europe, there is no
p1ace from which the historian should he
more glad to see it lifted than from HOllie
in the centurif's which
aw the formation
of the city. and which preceded the expul-
F-Îon of the kings. Even the If'gends,
which were uncriti('an
' acccpted from the
days of Livy to those of our grandfathers,
:HC provokingly silent upon the very points
as to which we would fain get at least a
hint. This much is plain, however, that
in the embr
-onic stage of the Roman COHl-
monwealth some obs('ure proC'Psses of
fllsion or comminglinl! went on. The
tribal population of nome \\a
more h('t('-
IOgeneous than that of the great cities of
Greece, and its earliest municipal religion
!'o('ems to have been an assemblage of va-
rious tribal rpligions that had points of
contact with other tribal religions through-
out large portions of the Græco- Ttalic
world. As 1\1. de Coulanges ohserv('s,*
Uome was almost the only city of an-
tiquity which was not kept apart from
other cities by its rpligion. Therp was
hardly a p('ople in Greece or Haly whidl
it was restrained from admitting to PH-
ticipation in its muniC'ipal ritp".
Howpv('r this may have bppn. it i!' Cf'r-
tain that Romp ('arly Succ
('dprl in frf>('in

itl"(']f from that insupf'rahlp prf'judice
wllich elspwhere prf'wntf'd the anci('nt city
from admittin}! nlipns to a sharp in its
franchise. Al1d in this victory O\'er primf'-
"a 1 political ideas lay thp wh()l(' spcret of
TIonw'<; mighty car('pr. The victory w:\<\
not ind('('d completf'd nntil after the t('r-
riblf' I"ocial war of R.C. riO, but it WHS
bf'g-un at Ipast fonr centurips ('ar]i('r with
t lIP admission of thp pleb('ians. At t h(>

· La Cilt Antique, 441.

FEDERAL UNION, THE

consummation of the conquest of Italy in tion of the primitive tribal and municipal
B.C. 270 Roman burghership already ex- }"eligions, thus clearing the way for Chris-
tended, in varying degrees of complete- tianity-a step which, regarded from a
ness, through the greater part of Etruria purely political point of view, was of im-
und Campania, from the coast to the mense importance for the further consoli-
mountains; while all the rest of Italy was dation of societJ' in Europe. The third
admitted to privileges for which ancient b('nefit was the development of the Roman
history had elsewhere furnished no prece- law into a great body of legal precepts
ù('nt. Hence the invaRion of Hannibal half and principles leavened throughout with
a century later, even with its stupendous ethical principles of univer!'al applica-
victories of ThrasynH'ne and Cannæ, effect- bility, and the gradual substitution of this
cd nothing towards detaching the Italian Roman law for the innumerable local
subjects from their allegiance to Rome; usages of ancient communities. "Thus
and herein we have a most instructive moose the idea of a common Christendom,
contrast to the conduct of the communities of a broUH'rhood of peoples associated both
subject to Athens at several critical mo- Lr common beliefs regarding the unseen
ments of the Peloponnpsian War. With this world and by common principles of action
consolidation of HaIr, thus triumphantly in the daily affairs of life. The common
demonstrated, the whole problem of ethical and traditional basis thus estab-
the conqnering career of Romp was solved. Iished for the future development of the
.A II that camp afterwards was simply a great nationalities of Europe is the most
coroIJary from this. The concentration of fundamental characteristic distinguishing
all the fighting power of the peninsula into modern from ancient history.
the hanùs of the ruling city formed a "'hile, however, it secured these benefits
I'honger political aggregate than anything fN mankind for all time to come, the
the world had as yet sepn. It was not Roman political system in itself was one
only proof against the efforts of the great- which could not possibly endure. That ex-
pst military genius of antiquity, but when- tt"nsion of the franchise which made
('ver it was brought into conflict with the Rome's conqupsts possible, was, after all,
looser organizations of Greece, Africa, aud the extension of a franchise which could
Asia, or with the semi-barbarous tribes of only be practically enjoyed within the
Spain and Gaul, the result of the struggle walls of the imperial city itself. From
,vas virtually predetermined. The univer- fi,"st to last the dpviee of representation
f'al dominion of Rome was inevitahle, so was never thought of, and from first to
Roon as the po1itieal union of Ita!)' had last the Roman comitia rpmained a pri-
}leen accompli!'hf'd. Amon
the Romans mary assembly. The result was that. as the
themselves there were those who thorough- burgherhood enlarged, the assembly be-
Iy understood this point. as we may see ca.me a huge mob as little fitted for the
from the interesting speech of the Em- transaction of public business as a town-
peror Claudius in favor of admitting Gauls meeting of all the inhabitants of Kpw
to the !'enatp. York would be. The functions which in
The benefits conferred upon the world
A. thens were performed by the assemhly
by the unin'rsal dominion of Rome were of wpre accordingly in Rome performed lar
e-
quite inestimable value. First of these ly by the aristocratic senate; and for the
hpnefits, and (as it were) the material conflicts conseqllPntly arising between the
hasis of the others, wag the prolong(>d sf'natorÌal and the popular parties it was
peace that was enforcpd throughout large difficult to find any adequate eonstitu-
r,)Ttions of thp world where chronic war- tional check. Outside of Italy, moreover,
fare had hitherto prevailed. The 1JOX ro- in the absence of a representative system.
nwna has pprhap" been sonU'times depict- the Roman government was a despotis;n
ed in exaggerated colors; hnt as comparpd which. whether more or less oppr('ssin'.
with al1 that had precpd(>d. and with al1 ('ouM in the nature of things he nothing
t11at fol1ow('d. down to tllP bpginning of else than a de!'potism. Rut nothing i"
thp ninpteenth ('pntl1ry. it de!,p1'vpd thp pn- morp dang-N'ons for a free IwopIp th1111 tl1('
comiums it has received. The second bpne- attempt to gO"ern a dep(>ndpnt pf'ople des-
fit was the mingling and mutual destruc- potiealJ;r. The bad goyernmcnt kills out
347

FEDERAL UNION, THE

the good government as surely as sla\'e-
labor destroys free-labor, or as a debased
currency drives out a sound currency. The
e
istence of proconsuls in the provinces,
with great armies at their beck and call,
brought about such results as might have
been predicted, as soon as the growing
anarchy at home furnished a valid excuse
for armed interference. In the case of the
Homan world. however, the result is not
to be deplored, for it simply substituted a
guvernment that was practicable under the
eircumstances for one that had become
demonstrabl
' impracticable.
As regards the provinces the change
from senatorial to imperial government at
Home was a great gain. inasmuch as it
slIh:"tituted an orderly and responsible
administration for irregular and irrespon-
sihl(' extortion. For a long time, too, it
was no part of the imperial policy to
interfC're with local customs and privi-
I ('ges. But, in the absence of a represent-
a tive system, the centralizing tendeuey
ill!-leparahle from thC' position of such a
government proved to be irresistible. And
1 he stren7th of this centralizing- tendency
was further enhanccd by the military char-
acter of the government which was neces-
sita ted hy perpetual fronticr warfare
ngainst the harharians. As year after

'ear w('nt hy, the provineial to\\ ns and
citif's were go\'erllcd If'sS and less by their
local magistrates. more amI more by
I'refpcts re:,;ponsible to the emperor only.
There were other co-operating causes,
('conomieal a nl! social. for the decline of
the empir(': hut this change alone, which
was eOIl
lmlmatpd bv the time of Dio-
(,l('tian. was (Iuitp en
ugh to burn out the
('audle of Homan strength at both ends.
\\ïth thp df>crease in the power of the local
gO\ermlu'nb ("amp an increase in the bur-
(kn<; of hn.ation and conscription that
\H're laid UPOIl tl1e111.* And as "the dis-
lo('atio'l of comllu>re(' and industry caus('d
h,v t1w harhariall inrm\lIs. and' the in-
ereasing- denHIIH!,.. of the eentral adminis-
tration for the payment of its countless
officials and the maint<.nance of its troops,
all \\('nt tog('ther." the load at last became
gr('atpr "than human nature could en-
dure:' ny tlH' time of the great im'a-

· AI'noltl. 1,'omon Prnl"illdaI -t11111 ill istra-
fiori,
3ï.

sions of the fifth century, local political
life had gone far towards extinction
throughout Roman Europe, and the tribal
organization of the Teutons prevailed in
the struggle simpl
' bccause it had come
to be politically stronger than any or-
ganization that was left to oppose it.
\Ye have now seen how the two great
political s
stems that were founded upon
the ancient city both ended in failure.
though both acÌlieved enormous and last-
ing results. And we have seen how large-
ly hoth thcse political failures were due
to tll<' absence of the principle of repre-
s('ntation from the public lif(' of Gn'('ce
and Rome. The chief problem of civiliJ:a-
tion, from the political point of view, has
always been how to secure con('crted ac"
tion among men on a great scale without
sacrificing local independenee. The an-
cipnt history of Europe shows that it is
not pos
ible to solve this problem without
the aid of the principle of representation.
Greec(', until overcome by external force,
sacredly maintained local self-government,
but in securing permanent concert of ac-
tion it was conspicuously unsuccessful.
Home secured concert of action on a gigan-
tic scale, and transformed the thousand
unconnected tribps and cities it conqu('r('d
into an organized European world, but
in doing this it went far towards c"tin-
guishing local self-government. The ad-
vent of the Tcutons upon the scene seems
therefore to have been necessary, if nnlv
to supply the indispensahle elen;ent witl;.
out which the dilemma of civilization
could not have bf'pn surmounted. The tur-
bulence of Europe during the Teutonic mi-
gratiom- were so great and so long cnn-
tinued that on a superficial view on('
might be e
cused for regarding the good
work of Rome as largely undone. And in
the feudal isolation of ('fTort and appar('nt
incapacity for comhined action \\ hidl
characterized the different parts of Eu-
rope after th(' downfall of the Carolin-
gian empir('. it might well han seemed
that po1itieal soei('t
. had r(',"erted towards
a primitiy(' type of structure. Tn truth.
however. the r('trograda tion was much
fo\1ighter than a pp('ar('d on the surface.
Feudalism itSf'1f. with its ('urinus net-work
of f('altip
and (}hli
ations nmnin f ' thr011"h
OIP fahric of
oeif't,\' in p,'pry
lir('eti

.
was hy no means purel
' di
int('gra tive in

348

FEDERAL UNION, THE

its tendencies. The mutual relations of of Savoy were seized by the canton of :Frei-
ri \"<11 baronies were by no means like those burg; and after a while all these subjects
of rival dans or tribes in pre-Roman days. and aJIies were admitted on equal terms
The cpntral power of Home, though no into the confederation. The result is that
longer cxerted politically through cura- modern Switzerland is made up of what
tors and prefects, was no less effective in might seem to be most discordant and un-
t he potent hands of the clergy and in the manageable elements. Four languages-.
traditions of the imperial jurisprudence German, French, Italian, and Rhætian-
hy which the legal ideas of mediæval so- are spoken within the limits of the con-
dety were so strongly colored. So power- federacy; and in point of reJigion the can-
iul, indeed, was this twofold influence of tons are sharply divided as Catholic and
Home that in the later Middle Ages, when Protestant. Yet in spite of all this,
the modern nationalities had fairly taken Switzerland is as thoroughly united in
shaJ>e, it was the capacity for local self- feeling as any nation in Europe. To the
government-in spite of all the Teutonic German-speaking Catholic of Altdorf the
reinforcements it had had-that had suf- German Catholics of Bavaria are foreign-
fered much more than the capacity for ers, while the French-speaking Protestants
national consolidation. Among the great of Genpva are fellow-countrymen. Deeper
modern nations it was only England- down even than these deep-seated differ-
which in its political development had ences of speech and creed lies the feeling
remained more independent of the Roman that comf'S from the common possession of
law and the Roman church than even the a political freedom that is greater than
Teutonic fatherland itself-it was only that possessed by surrounding peoples.
England that came out of the mediæval Such has been the happy outcome of the
crucible with its Teutonic self-government first attempt at federal union made by men
substantially intact. On the mainland of Teutonic descent. Complete indepen-
only two little spots, at the two extremi- dence in local affairs, when combined with
tif's of the old Teutonic world, had fared adequate representation in the federal
equally well. At the mouth of the Rhine council, has affected such an intense co-
the little Dutch communities were pre- hesion of interests throughout the nation
pared to lead the attack in the terrible as no centralized government, however
battle for freedom with which the drama cunningly devised, could evêr have secured.
of modern history was ushered in. In the Until the nineteenth century, however,
impregnable mountain fastnesses of upper the fcderal form of government had given
Germany the Swiss cantons had bid de- no c]('ar indication of its capacity for hold-
1Ìance alike to
\ ustrian tyrant and to ing together great bodies of men, spread
I
urgundian invader, and had preserved in over vast territorial areas, in orderly and
its purest form the rustic democracy of peaceful relations with one another. The
their Aryan forefathers. By a curious empire of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius
coincidence, both these free peoples, in still remained the greatest known example
their efforts towards national unity, were of political aggregation; and men who
lcd to frame federal unions, and one of argued from simple historic precedent
thcse political achievements is, from the without that power of analyzing prece-
stand-point of universal history, of very dents which the comparative method has
great significance. The old League of supplied, came not unnaturally to the con-
High Germany, which earned immortal elusions that great political aggregates
renown at l\forgarten and Sempach, con- have an inherent tendency towards break-
sisted of German-speaking cantons only. ing up, and that great political aggregates
But in the fifteenth century the League cannot be maintained except by a strongly
won by force of arms a small bit of Ital- centrali7.ed administration and at the
ian territory about T_ake Lugano, and in sacrifice of local self-government. A cen-
the sixteenth the powerful city of Bern tury ago the very idea of a stable federa-
annexed the Burgundian bishopric of tion of forty powerful states, covering a
I.ausanne and re'icued the free city of territory nearly equal in area to the \\"1101('
Geneva from the clutches of the Duke of Europe, carried on by a republican gOY-
of
a'.oy. Ot1wr Burgundian possessions ernnwnt elpcted by universal sufir:\
f'. and
349

FEDERAL UNION, THE

guaranteeing to every tiniest village its fu'll able to found durable and self-supporting
meed of local independence-the very idea colonies. I have now to add that it was
of all this would have been scouted as a only England, among the great nation'3 of
thoroughly impracticable, Utopian dream. Europe, that could send forth colonists
And such scepticism would have been capable of dealing successfully with the
quite justifiable, for European history did difficult problem of forming such a politi-
Hot seem to afford any precedents upon cal aggregate as the United States have
which such a forecast of the future could become. For obviously the preservation of
he logically based. Between the various local self-government is essential to the
nations of Europe there has certainly very idea of a fpderal union. lVithout the
(>xisted an element of political community, town - meeting, or its equivalent in somc
bequeathed by the Roman Empire, man i- form or other, the federal union would
fested during the Middle Ages in a com- become ipso facto COllvel.ted into a cen-
mon relationship to the Church, and in tralizing imperial government. Should
modern times in a common adherence to anything of this sort ever happen-should
certain uncodified rules of international American towns ever come to be ruled
law, more or less imperfectly defined and by prefects appointed at 'Yashington, and
enforced. Between England and Spain, bhould American States ever become like
for example, or between France and the administrative departments of France,
Austria, there has never been such utter or even like the counties of England at
political severance as existed normally the present day-then the time will have
between Greece and Persia, or Rome and come when men may safely predict the
Carthage. But this community of political break-up of the American political system
inheritance in Europe, it is needless to say, by reason of its overgrown dimensions and
falls very far short of the degree of com- the diversity of interests between its parts.
munity implied in a federal union; and States so unlike one another as Maine
so great is the diversity of language and and Louisiana and California cannot be
of creed, and of local historic development held together by the stiff bonds of a cen-
with the deep-seated prejudices attendant tralizing government. The durablmess of
thereupon, that the formation of a Eu- the federal union lies in its flexibility, and
ropean federation could hardly be looked it is this flexibility which makes it the
for except as the result of mighty though only kind of government, according to
quiet and subtle influences operating for modern ideas, that is permanently applica-
a long time from without. From what hIe to a whole continent. If the Unitpd
direction, and in what manner, such an States were to-day a consolidated republic
irresistible though perfectly pacific press- like France, recent events in Califurnia
ure is likely to be exerted in the future, might have disturbed the peace of the
I shall endcavor to show elsewherc. r'ountry. But in the federal union, if Cali-
At present we have to observe that the fornia, as a f;tate sovereign within its own
experiment of federal union on a grand sphere, adopts a grotesque constitution
scale required as its conditions. first, a that aims at infringing on the rights of
vast extent of unoccupied country which capitalists, the other Statps are not di-
('ould be settled without much warfare rectly affectcd. They may disapprove, but
hy men of the same race and 8peech, and they have neitllf>r the right nor the desire
sccondly, on the part of settlers, a rich to interfere. ::\ff'anwhile the laws of
inheritance of political training such as nature quietly op<,rate to repair the
is afl'orded by long ages of self-government. "lunder. Capital flows away from Cal-
The Atlantic coast of Korth America, ifornia, and the husinC'ss of the State is
easily accessihle to }:urope, yet remote damaged, until prb,('ntly the ignorant
enough to be freed from the political com- demagog-ues lose fa,.or, the silly constitu-
rlications of the Old 'YorId, furnished the tion becomes a dead-letter, and its formal
first of these conditions: the history of the repeal begins to be talhd of. Not the
English people through fifty generations smallest ripple of <,xcitenwnt disturbs the
furnished the s('com!. It was through Eng- profound lwace of the country at large. It
lish self-governnwnt that England alone, is in this complete independence that is
among the great nations of Europe, was preserved by every State, in all matters
350

FEDERAL UNION, THE

save those in which the federal principle received at that time in Bngland with a
itself is concerned, that we find the surest derision like that which a proposal for
guarantee of the permanence of the Ameri- a permanent federation of European
can political system. Obviously no race of states would excite in many minds to-
men, save the race to which habits of self- day. It was confidently predicted that if
government and the skilful use of political the common allegiance to the British crown
representation had come to be as second were once withdrawn, the colonies would
nature, could ever have succeeded in found- forthwith proceed to destroy themselves
ing such a system. with internecine war. In fact, however,
Yet even by men of English race, work- it was the shaking off of allegiance to the
ing without let or hinderance from any British crown, and the common trials and
foreign source, and with the better part sufferings of the war of independence,
of a continent at their disposal for a field that at last welded the colonies together
to work in, so great a political problem and made a federal union possible. As
as tl1at of the American Union has not it was, the union was consummated only
been solved without much toil and trouble. by degrees. By the Articles of Con feder-
The great puzzle of civilization-how to ation, agreed on by Congress in 1777, but
secure permanent concert of action with- not adopted by all the States until 1781,
out sacrificing independence of action-is the federal government acted only upon
a puzzle which has taxed the ingenuity of the several State governments, and not
Americans as well as of older Aryan peo- directly upon individuals; there was no
pIes. In the year 1788 when our federal federal judiciary for the decision of con-
union was completed, the problem had al- stitutional questions arising out of the
ready occupied the minds of American relations between the States; and the Con-
statesmen for a century and a half-that gress was not provided with any efficient
is to say, ever since the English settle- means of raising a revenue or of enforcing
ment of Massachusetts. In 1643 a New its legislative decrees. Under such a gov-
England confederation was formed between ernment the difficulty of insuring concert-
Massachusetts and Connecticut, together ed action was so great that, but for the
with Plymouth, since merged in :Massa- transcendent personal qualities of \Vash-
chusetts, and New Haven, since merged ington, the bungling mismanagement of
in Connecticut. The confederation was the British ministry, and the timely aid
formed for defence against the French in of the French fleet, the war of indepen-
Canada, the Dutch on the Hudson River, dence would most likely ha \Te ended in
and the Indians. But owing simply to the failure. After the independence of the
inequality in the sizes of these colonÎe8- c
onies was acknowledged, the formation

rassachusetts more than outweighing the of a more perfect union was seen to be
other three combined-the practical work- the only method of securing peace and
ing of this confederacy was never very making a natiaß which should be respect-
successful. In 1754, just before the out- cd by foreign powers; and so in 1788, after
hreak of the great \Var which drove the much discussion, the present Constitution
French from America, a general Congress of the United States was adopted-a Con-
of the colonies was held at Albany, and stitution which satisfied very few people
a comprehensive scheme of union was pro- at the time, and which was from beginning
posed by Bf'njamin Franklin, but nothing to end a series of compromises, yet which
came of the project at that time. The has proved in its working a masterpiece
eomnwrcial rivalry between the colonies, of political wisdom.
and their disputes over boundary - lines, The first great compromise answered to
were thpn quite like the similar phenom- the initial difficulty of securing approxi-
ena with which Europe had so long been mate equality of weight in the federal
familiar. In 1756 Georgia and South councils between States of unequal size.
Carolina actual1y came to blows over the The simple device by which this difficulty
navigation of the Savannah River. The was at last surmounted has proved effect-
idea that the thirteen colonies could ever ual, although the inequalities between the
overcome their mutual jealousies so far States have greatly increased. To-day the
as to unite in a single political body was population of New York is more than
3:11

FEDERAL UNION, THE

eighty times that of Nevada. In area
the
tate of Rhode Island is :>maller than
Montenegro, while the State of Texas is
larger than the Austrian Empire, with
Uavaria and \\ïirtemherg thrown ill. Yet
Xew York and Nevada, Rhode Island and
Texas each send Ì\'O Senators to \Vashing-
ton, while on the other hand in the lower
House each State has a number of repre-
sentatives proportionpd to its population.
The upper House of Congress is therefore
a federal, while the lower House is a na-
tional body, and the go\'ernment is brought
into direct contact with the people with-
out endangering the equal rights of the
several States.
The second great compromise of the
American Constitution consists in the
series of arrangements by which sover-
eignty is divided between the States and
the federal government. In all domestic
legislation and jurisdiction, civil and crim-
inal, in all matters relating to tenure of
property, marriage and divorce, the ful-
filment of contracts and the punishment
of malefactors, each separate State is as
completely a sovereign state as France
or Great Britain. A concrete illustration
may not be superfluous. If a criminal is
condemned to death in Pennsylvania, the
royal prerogative of pardon resides in the
governor of Penns,ylvania: the President
of the Unitf'd States has no more authori-
ty in the case than the Czar of Russia. X or
in civil cases can an appeal lie from the
State courts to the Supreme Court of the
enited States, save where express pro-
vision has been made in the Constitution.
Within itH own sphere the State is su-
preme. The chief attributes of sovereignty
with which the several States have part-
ed are the coining of money, the carrying
of mails, the imposition of tariff dues, the
granting of patcnts and copyrights, the
d('claration of war, and the maintenance
of a navy. The regular army is supported
and eontrol1ed by the federal government,
hut each
tate maintains its own militia,
which it is bound to use in ease of inter-
nal disturbance beforf' calling upon the
central government for aid. In time of
war, however, these militias come under
the control of the central government.
Thus every American (.itizen lives under
two governmpnts. the functions of which
aTf' df'arly and intelligibly distinct.

To insure the stability of the federal
uuion thus formed, the Constitution cre-
ated a "
,)'stem of L"nited States courts
extending throughout the States, empow-
ered to define the boundaries of federal
authority, and to enforce its decisions by
federal power." This omnipresent federal
Judiciary was undoubtedly the most impor.
tant creatiun of the statf'smen who framed
the Constitution. The closely knit rela-
tions which it established between the
States contributed powerfully to the
growth of a feeling of national solidarity
throughout the whole country. The United
States to-day cling together with a cohe-
rency far greater than the coherency of any
ordinary federation or league. Yet the
primary aspect of the federal Constitu-
tion was undoubtedly that of a perma-
nent league, in which each State, while
retaining its domestic sovereignty intact,
renounced forever its right to make war
upon its neighbors, and relegated its in-
ternational interests to the care of a cen-
tral council in which all the States were
alike represented and a central tribunal
endowed with purely judicial functions
of interpretation. It was the first attempt
in the history of the world to apply on
a grand scale to the relations betwpen
States the saIne Ipgal methods of proced-
ure which, as long applied in an civilized
countries to the relations between indi-
viduals, have rendered private warfare
obsolete. And it was so far succPHsful
that, during a pcriod of seventy-two ypars
in which the rnited
tatps increased four-
fold in extent, tenfold in population, and
more than tenfold in ,walth aud power.
the federal union maintained a state of
pf'ace more profound than the pax "0-
mana.
Forty years ap-o this uncxampled Hta1e
of peace was suddenly intpTTuptf'c1 by a
tremendous war, which in its r('sults.
however, has sprved only to bring out
with fresh emphasis the pacific implica-
tions of federalism. With the eleven
revolted States at first completely con-
quer('d and then reinstated with full right,.
and privilf'ges in the fpderal Union. with
their pf'ople accepting in good faith thf'
results of the contest, with their If'aders
not executed as traitors, but admitted
again to seats in Congress and in the
eahinC't, and with an this accomo1iHhpd

2 .

J'E1:)!:1\ALIST-:5'ELTOl'i

without any violent con!'!titutional changes
-I think we may fairly claim that the
strength of the pacific implications of
federalism has been more strikingly de.
monstIated than if there had been no war
at all. Certainly the world never beheld
such a spectacle before.
Federalist, THE. a series of remarkable
e!':says in favor of the national Consti-
tution which were written by Alexander
Hamilton with the assistance of Madison,
Jay, and others. Hamilton wrote the
larger half of these essa
Ts, which were
probably the determining cause resulting
in the adoption of the Constitution of the
United States. They were subsequently
published in book form under the above
title.
Federalists. While the national Con-
stitution was under discussion through-
out the Union, in 1788, and it was pass-
ing the ordeal of State conventions, its
advocates were caUed Federalists, becau<;e
the effect of the Constitution would be to
bind the several States more closely as
a so-called confederation. They formed a
distinct party that year, and held su-
preme political power in the republic
until the close of the century. The lead-
ing members of the party were '"\Tashing-
ton, Hamilton, Adams, Jay, and many of
the less distinguished patriots of the Revo-
lution. Their opponents were caUed Anti-
Federalists. In the contests of the French
Revolution, which had influence upon puh-
lie opinion in the Pnited States. the Fed-
eralists leaned towards England, and the
Anti-Fpderalists or Republicans towards
France. In the Presidential election I)f
1800, the Fedf>ralists were defeated and
Jefferson was elected. The party became
unpopular because of its opposition to
the War of 1812; and it fpII into fatal
disrepute because of the Hartford Con-
vf'ntion, whose procf'edings, done in secret.
were supposed to he treasonable. Thp
pa.rty had bf>come so weak in 18Hi t1lat
Monroe, thf> Hepuh1iclln candidate for
President, receÌ\-ed tl1(' elf'etoral ,'otes of
all the States hut two. \t his re-elf>f'tion.
in 1820. the vote of the
tat('s was unani-
IIIOUS for him. Then the party was dis-
banded. F:f'e A
TI-FEDERALIST PARTY.
Feds and Confeds, nicknames used dur-
ing the Civil War for the Union and Con-
federate soldiers respectively.
III.--Z

Feeble-minded, SCIIOOLS FOR THE. At
the close of the schuol year, 1898, the
number of these schools which reported
to the bureau of education was twenty-
nine, which had 259 instructors in the
regular school department, 180 in thé
industrial department, and 610 in caring
for inmates. The total number of pupils
rpported was 9,232, and of these 1,749
were receiving instruction in music and
943 were taking the kindergarten course.
There were nineteen State public schools
for this class of defectives, which report-
ed 904 instructors in an the branches, and
8:8GG pupils. The State institutions had
grounds and buildings valued at $4,922,-
537, and the expenditures of the year
were $1,414,451. There were ten private
institutions with 161 instructors in all
departments and 3GB pupils.
Fellows, .JOHN, military officer; born
in Porn fret, Conn., in 1733; was in the
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (q. v.); was
a member of the Massachusetts Provincial
Congress in 1775; led a company of min-
ute-men to Cambridge after the skirmish
at Lexington, and was made brigadier-
g(.nera.l of militia in June, 177G. He com-
manded a brigade in the battles of Long
Island, White Plains, and Bemis's Height8,
and was very active in the capture of
Durgoyne, October, 1777. After the war
he was high sheriff of Berkshire county.
He died in Sllf'ffield, Mass., Aug. 1, 1808.
Felt, JOSEPH BARLOW, historian; born
in Salem. Mass., Dec. 2
, 1789; grad-
uated at Dartmouth in 1813, and entered
the ministry. In 183G he was asked to
arrange the state papers of :Massachu-
setts, which at that time were in confu-
sion. He was librarian of the )1assaehu-
setts Historical Society in 18-t
-.t8. a nil
president of the New England Historico-
Genealogical Society ill 18.iO-.i:1. lIe was
the author of t nll"[8 of Rall'1II .. lli.'lffJ,.y 0;'
1 psu;irh, B.çsr.L', and }J a III ilton; }J isfo,.ical
.lcrouut of ][as,'wclw8dt.
eU/"1'Cney: .Ue-
1/I0irs of Rog!:'r f'ommt. II ugh Pf>tprs, and
\YiI1iam S.
haw: aJ!'\o of 1'he ellstoms of
X (lC Bnflla 1HZ. He died in
1l1('m, 2\1ass.,
F:f>pt. 8. ISG!).
Felton, f'OR
F.UUS CO
WAY, educator;
horn in 'Vest Ken-bury, 2\1ass., Nov. 6,
1807; graduated at Harvard in 1827; ap-
pointed Latin tutor thpre in 1829, and
Professor of Oreek Literature in 1839;
3.;3

FELTON-FENTON

and was president of Han-ard from 1800 Civil War. the latter \Val'! ever faithful
t ill his death in Chester, Pa., Feb. 21i, tp its treaty stipulations. The large num-
IS02. He is the author of Life of William b
rs of Irish soldiers disbanded in 186;)
Eaton in Sparks's .American Biographics, were greatly excitpà by the Fenian trou-
and many books on general literature. bles at that time prevalent in Ireland.
Felton, SA
IUEL MORSE, engineer; born In October, 1865, at a convention of
in "'est Newbury, Mass., July 17, 1809; Fenians in New York, the invasion of
graduated at Harvard in 1834; connect- Canada was determined upon. In thp
f>d with the Fitchburg Railroad until following }"ebruary another convention
lS51, when he became president of the was held, at which there was a strong
Philadelphia, \Vihnington, and Baltimore sentiment in favor of the invasion. Short-
Ra.ïIroad. It was he who successfully l
' after this, the former head-centre of the
planned the secret passage of l\Ir. Lincoln organization was displaced from office by
from Harrisburg to Washington, and the election of Co!. \Villiam R. Roberts,
thereby defeated a deep-laid plot to capt- and this change interfered seriously with
me the President-elect. When commu- the unanimity of action in the body.
nication through Baltimore was impossi- Early in April an attempt was made to
ble (in April, 1861), he devised a plan for gather arms and men for an advance
transporting troops via Annapolis. He upon Kew Brunswick, and 500 Fenians
died in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 24, 1889. a
!"emhled at Eastport, Me. The United
Fendall, .TOSIAS, colonial go,.ernor. In States authorities interfered, hO\VPver;
Iü55 Governor Stone ordered him to seize aid which was exppcted from New York
the public stores at Patuxent, but he was and Boston did not arrive; and thp mpn
captured in the fight which followed. Af- diEbanded. On l\Iay 19, 1,200 stands of
terwards he started another insurrectiou, anns, which had been sent to Rouse's
8nd was made governor, July 10, 1050, as Point, were seized by the United States
a reward for his alleged services in behalf g(overnment, and on :May 30 a similar
of the proprietary government. In Decem- seizure was made at S1. Albans. June l.
bel', !GOO, he was deposed, for having op- about 1,500 men crossed into Canada at
posed his patron, and in December, lGûJ J Ruffalo. The Dominion militia had hef'n
was found guilty of treason and sentenced called out, and on June 2 a severe skir-
to be exiled, but later was pardoned mish occurred, in which tIle Fenians lost
and compeUed to pay a small fine. In ÞeaviJy in prisoners and wounded men,
1681 he was banished for participating in though not many were killed. Attempt-
seditious practices, and a fine of 140 Ibs. ing to get back over the border into thi!'\
of tobacco was imposed on him. country, 700 of them were captured by
Fénelon, FRAXÇOlS DE SALlGXAC DE LA the United States authorities. OtllPr
MOTIIE-FÊNELON, French prelate; born in hands had by this time reached the fron-
Dordogne, France, Aug. 6, lG51; was sent tier, but as a conlon of Luited :-;tat(,8
to Canada while yet inferior in orders, troops, under General Meade, guarded the
and. during his missionary sen'iee there, line, they made no attempt to cross.
he so boldly attacked the public authori- Though large sums of monpy were raisf>d
tips for their shortcomings that Fronte- to aid a further invasion, and consider-
Jlac had him arr('sted, while sC'Tving in able excitement pn.vailed, the resol11tp
t he Seminary of St. SuI pice, and put in action of the United States authoritif's
}II ison. It is believed that this noted preventf>d it. Ko punishment was a
-
al chbishop, orator, and author received corded the actors in this affair beyond a
many hints, while engaged in mh.sionary brief term of imprisonment for ,"ueh a!"
work iu Canaùa, which were subsequently wpre takeu.
put into telling form in his noted Fenian Invasion of Canada. Hee
Aventures de Télémaque (lG99). He dieà }'El'\IAl'\ UnoTIIElwOOH.
in Cambria, France, Jan. 7, 1715. Fenton, REroEN EATO
, statesman;
Fenian Brotherhood, TilE. Kotwith- born in Carroll. Chautauqua co., N. Y.,
standing the unfriendliness and positive July 4, 1819; was pducated at Pleasant
enmity of the gowrnment of Great Hill and Fredonia academies, in his na-
Britain to the Vnited States during the tive county; and was admitted to the bar
3.')4

FENWICK-FERNOW

ill 18.41. Finding the practice of law un- ing with the Congress. employed :\lrs.
rongenial, he entered business, and ac- FergusoIl to sound Gen. Joseph Reed a

quired a moderate fortune. Meanwhile, to his disposition to aid the royal goverIl-
he became interested in politics, and in ment in bringing about a reconciliation
1843-51 serveù as supervisor of Carroll. between it and the revolted colonies. She
In 1852 he was elected to Congress by was patriotic and judicious. Johnstone
the Democrats, and there opposed the instructed her as to what she should say
further extension of slavery. This action to Reed, and she performed the errand
n'''mlted in his defeat, in 1854, for a sec- without losing the esteem of anyone.
(llld term, and he united with the Re- Her husband ne"er joined her after the
}'Ilhliean party, by whom, in 1856, he war. His estate was confiscated, but the
was elected to Congress, where he re- State of Pennsylvania returned a part
maineù till 1864, when he resigned to of it to her in 1781. After the war she
b'eome governor of Xew York, in which applied herself to literature and philan-
office he served two terms. In 1869-75 thropy. She died in Montgomery countF,
he was in the United States Senate, and Pa., Feb. 23, 1801.
in 18ï8 was chairman of the United Ferguson, PATRICK, military officer;
States commission to the International born in England; son of Judge James
:Monetarv Conference in Paris. He died Ferguson and a nephew of Lord Elibank;
in Jame
town, N. Y., Aug. 25, 1885. entered the British army at the age of
Fenwick, GEORGE, colonist; came to eighteen, and came to America in the
America in 1636 to take charge of tbe spring of 1777, serving under Cornwallis,
infant colony of SA YBROOK (q. v.), in Con- first in the North and then in the South.
necticut. Hc returned to England, and After the siege of Charleston in 1780 he
came hack in 1639, and from that time was promoted to major, and was df'tached
gO\ erned ::-;ayhrook till December, 1644, by Cornwallis to embody the Tories in
when its jurisdiction and territory were South Carolina. He was killed in the
sold to the Connecticut colony at Hart- battle of KING'S MOUNTAIN (q. v.), Oct
ford. Fenwick was one of the judges who 7. 1780.
tried and condemned Charles 1. He died Fergusson, ARTHUR 'V., translator;
in England in 1657. born about 1855; has been for many years
Fenwick, JOlIN, Quaker colonist; a connected with the State Department in
founder of the colony of 'Vest Jersey; Washington, D. C.; accompanied the melll-
born in l''':ngland in 1618; obtained a grant bers of the Pan-American Congress 011
of land in the western part of New their trip through the United States dur-
Jersey in 1673; emigrated thither in 1675; ing Secretary Blaine's tenure of office; was
and settled in Salem. His claim was chief translator of the bureau of the
fI'sisted by Governor Andros, of New American republics; Spanish interpreter
York, and 'he was arrested and cast into for the American peace commissioners in
jail, where he remained about two years. Paris in 1898; appointed Spanish secre-
Hp. subsequently conveyed his claim to tary to the Philippine commission in
\\'e!'t .Jersey to William Penn. He died 1900; and secretary to the chief civil
iH England in 1683. executive (Governor Taft) of the Philip-
Ferguson, "ELIZAßETH, patriot; born in pines, July 10, 1901.
Philadelphia. Pa., in 1739; daughter of Fernow, BERTHOLD, historian; born in
Dr. Gm'me. of Græme Park, near Phila- Prussian Poland, 1\ov. 28, 1837; came to
delphia; became famous during the Revo- the "Cnited States in 1860; served in the
lution hy a futile mission which she good- National army in 18ß2-64; was New York
naturf'dlv undertook. She was a culti- Rtate archivist in 1876-8!J; and was also
vated w
man, and enjoyed the personal one of the editors and translators of Doc-
friendship of man)' eminent persons. Her uments Relating to thr Colonial History
husband was in the British army,
'et of z"Y ew York; Record.<i of '
{etc A.msterdam;
"he possb!';ed the esteem and confidence of and Yew York in the Revolution. He has
both Whigs and Tories. Johnstone, one a]so published A.lhany, and its Place in the
of the peace commissioners sent over History of the United States; The Ohio
here in 1778, finding they could do noth- ralley in 001l">1Iia1 Days; and contributions
355

FERRERO-FEW

to the Narrative and Critical History of
A. merica.
Ferrero, EDWARD, militarY officer.
born of Italian parents in Gran
da, Spain',
.Jan. 18, 18
1; was brought to the United
States while an infant. His parents
taught dancing, and that became his pro-
fession, which he taught at the United
States Military
\cademy. \Vhen the
Civil War broke out he raised a regiment
(Shepard Rifles), and as its colonel ac-
companied Burnside in his expedition to
the coast of Korth Carolina early in 18(j
.
He commanded a brigade under General
Reno, and sen-ed in the Army of Virginia,
under General Pope, in the summer of
1862. He was promoted to brigadier-gen-
eral of voluntpers in September, and. was
in the battles of South
Iountain, Antie-
tam, and Fredericksburg. He served in
the siege of Yieksburg (1863), and com-
manded a division at the siege of Knox-
ville, in defence of Fort Sanders. In the
operations against Petersburg he led a
division of colored troops, and, Dec. 2,
IB64, was brevetted. major-general of yol-
unteers. He died in New York City, Dec.
11, 1899.
Ferris, BE
JA]\n:v, historian; for many
,rears a resident of Philadelphia, Pa., from
which place he removed. to Wilmington.
He is the author of History of the Early
},ettlements on the f)rlau:are, from ii..

Discovery to its Colonization under Will-
iam Penn. He died in Wilmington, Del.,
in 1867.
Ferro, 1\IEIUDIA:V OF. A line drawn due
north and south through the poles, from
which longitudes are reckoned, is a me-
ridian. Ferro, the most western Canary
isle, known to the ancients and rediscover-
ed in 1402. was taken as the prime me-
rid.ian hy the geographers of Columbus's
1 illlf'. :-:('(' C()IX
lm's, CIIRI:-;TOPIIER.
Ferry, Omus RANFOlm, f;tah'sman;
Lorn in Bpthel, Conn., Au
. l:í. 1823;
gIaùuated at Yale in 18H; l\('ld many

tate oflie('
; colonel of the ;;th ('onnccti-
('ut U. S. Y., .July, l
lil;
l r\"('d through
the war; L'"nited. Statps :--"nator, IHli7-75.
He died. in Xorwalk, Conn.,
()v. 21, 1875.
Ferry, Tn01(AS \\'II1TE, stah'sman;
Lorn in
Iackinac,
1idl., June I, IH
7;
member of Congress, 1865-71; L'"nited
States Spnator, 1871-83. IIp died in
Grand Hayen, ::\J:cll., Oct. l-t, IH!lfi.

Fersen, AXEl., ("OUNT, military of1i('('r;
born in Stockhol m. Rwpden, in 17,');): ea me
to America on the staff of Rochambeau;
fought under l..afayette. Returnin
to
France, he became a favorite at ('ourt.

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AXEL FERSEN.

After the Revolution he returned to
Swedpn. and in 1801 was made graDil
marshal of Swedpn. On suspicion of com-
plicity in the death of Prince Christian of
Sweden, he was seized by a mob. while
mar!'lhalling the funeral proces!'lion, and
tortured to death, June 20, 1810.
Fessenden, Tn01(AS GREEN, author j
born in "'alpole, N. H., April 22, 1771;
graduated a.t Dartmouth College in 1796;
began the practice of law in Bellows Falls,
Vt., in 1812. His publications include
Democracy Unveiled; Lates of Patents for
:Yew Inventions, etc. He died in Boston,
1\1ass., :Nov. 11, 1837.
Fessenden, \YILLlA:M PITT, legislator;
horn in Boseawen, N. H., Oct. 16, I
06;
graduated at Bowdoin College in H\

;
admittpcl to the har in 1827; memher of
the :\Iain<> Ipgisla ture two terms; and
was elp('Ì('d to Con
ress in I H41. From
Fph. 24. lR.ï4, till his cleath he was
Uniteù Stat('s Renatnr, ('x('eptin
w}\("n
Secrptar,y of Hie Trpasury from Jnly, 18H.t.
to
Ial'('h. HW;j. He was one of the fonnt!-
ers of the Hp]mbli<>an party in 18:>li, ancl
throughout the Civil War did eminpnt
servi('e as chairman of the finan('e com-
mittee of the Senate. He died in Port-
land. Me., Rept. 8, 1869.
Few, WILLlA11, jurist; born in HaIti-

350

..

F. F. V.-FIELD

more county, :Md., June 8, 1748. His an.
cestors came to America with William
Penn. His family went to Korth Caro-
lina in 1758, and in 1776 settled in
Georgia, where he assi
ted in framing the
State constitution. He was in the military
service, and in 1778 was made State
surveyor-general. In 1780-83 and 1786
he was in Congress, and in 1787 assisted in
framing the national Constitution. He was
United States Senator in 178fHJ3; and a
judge on the bench of Georgia three years.
He died in Fishkill, N. Y., July 16, 1828.
F. F. V. A term of NorHtern invention
applied to the leading Southern families.
It is an abbreviation of "First Families
()f Virginia."
Fiat Money, a colloquial term applied
especially to paper money, issued by a gov-
ernment, marked as legal tender for a cer-
tain value, but without a guarantee that
it will be redeemed by the government for
metallic money or its equivalent. Irre-
deemable and inconvertible money are
other terms applied to such issues. In a
particular sense the phrac;e was applied
to the" greenback" certificates authorized
by the United States government in 1862.
An aggregate of $450,000,000 of such
money was put into circu!ation between
1862 and 1865, to which Congress gave
the quality of legal tender for all debt".
The first issue of such inconvertible paper
money in this country wac; made by the
colony of Massachusetts to pay soldiers
in 1690. About twenty year!': later the oth-
er New England colonies and Kew York
and New Jersey also made use of the expe-
dient. Between 17ï5 and 1779 the Con-
tinental Congress authorized the issue of quently he became acth"ely identified with
at-out $200,0()0.OOO of such scrip. which the construction and management of ele-
the States individually mad.e legal tender. vated railroads in New York City. He
After the Revolution many of the States died in New York, July 12, lRD2.
issued paper money on their own account. Field, DAYID DUDLEY, lawyer; born in
See CURRENCY. Haddam, Conn., Feb. 13, 1805; brother of
Field, CYRUS WEST, benefactor; born Cyrus \Vest Field; graduated at Will-
in Stockbridge, Mass., Nov. 30, 1819; was iams College in 1825; studied law :Jnrl
educated in his native town, and went to was admitted to the bar in lR
.3 in
ew
work when fifteen years old. In 1840 he York, where he began practice. In 1836
began the manufacture and sale of paper he went to Europe and studif'd English
on his own account, and in fifteen years and French court methods, codes, and civil
became so pro!'perous that he was able laws. Returning to the United States he
t.o partially retire. About this time he became strongly impressed with the con-
bpcame interested in ocean telegraphy, and viction that New York State needed a
for some time pondered the question codification of its common law. To pro-
whether a cable could not be stretched mote this reform he sought an election to
351

across the Atlantic. In 1854 he obtained
from the Newfoundland legislature the ex-
clusive right for fifty years to land cables
on that island to be continued to the
United States. He next formed a cor-
poration consisting of Peter Cooper, Moses
Taylor, Marshall O. Roberts, and Chandler
\Vhite, and known as the New York, New-
foundland, and London Telegraph Com-
pany, to procure and lay a cable. After
many failures and disappointments a
cable was successfully laid across the At-
lantic in 1866 (see ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH).
For his achievement he received a medal
from Congress and the thanks of the na-
tion. In 1867 the Paris Exposition be-
stowed upon him the grand medal, its
highest honor. He also was the recipient
of many other medals and honors. Subse-

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CYRUS "EST FIELD.

he prepared Thp Dm.{f Ollflinrs of nil
International Codc, He> died in Kew York
City,
-\pril 13. 18H4.
Field, DAVID ÐrDLEY. e!er,!!yman. son of
Timothy :Field, a captain in the "-ar of
the RC'\"olution; born in Ea,;t Guilford,
Conn.,
Iay 20, 1781. He wrote histories
of Berkshire and l\firIdlesex counties;
Gencalogy of the Brainerd Family, etc.
He rli('d in Stockbridg('.
Iass., April 15,
1St;;.
Field, EUGEXE, poet; horn in St. Louis,
Mo..
1'Pt. 2, 18.')0; was educated at Will-
iams and Knox colkges, and at the Cni-
\.>rsity of Missouri. lIe was on the edi-
torial staff of several newspapers in Kan-
sas City and St. Louis, and on the Denver
'j'rilHlllr. Later he moved to Chicago, and
in ISS:3 became a member of the editorial
staff' of the Chicago Daily Yews. His
poems for children are admirable for their
simplicity. His works comprise Lo'ul
&)/.g8 of Childhood; .-t Mttle Book of
""cstern 1'ersc 7 ' The lIoly ('ross; With
'frumpet and Drum; The LOI.'e Affair of
It Bibliomaniac, etc. He died in Chicago,
Xov. 4, 1895.
as a candidate to the Constitutional Con- Field, JA
JES GAVEN, lawyer; born in
vention, but kept up his agitation by Walnut, Va., Feh. 24, 182G; went to
iEsuing a number of articles on 'j'hc Re- California as paymaster "Cnited Statps
organization of the Judiciary. In Janu- army in 1848; was a secletary of the con-
ary, 1847, prior to the meeting of the n-ntion that framed the first eonstitu-
legislature, he published an essay on tion of California; returued to Yirginia
What Shall be Done 1cith the Practice in 1850; countJ' attorney for C'ulpep('l"
oí the Courts'! and foJlowed it by request- county in 18IiO-t;,;: enlisted in the Con-
ing the appointment of a commission to fed('rate army in HWI; amI lost a l('g
T,rovide for the abolition of existing plead- at thE' battle of ('mAR CHEEK (q. v.). IIp
ings and forms of action at common law, was attorne
"-gf'nC'ral of Yirginia in lRï'j-
and for a uniform conrse of procedure. In 8
; and the (':uHlidatE' of the P('oplC",.
ill(' foJlowing .-\ pri I hueh a commission party for Yice-Presiùent in 18!)2. lIe died
"as a ppointed, and later :Mr. Field became in 1901.
a lllPlllber of it. In February, 1848, the Field, RICHAJW
TO(,KTO:X. stat('sman:
fil!o>t instalment of the Code of Civil Pro- born in White Hill.
. .1.. Df'c. :J1. ISO:I:
culurc was presented to the legislature a grandson of Riehanl RtO(.kton. 01lC' of
and soon adopted. Other reports were the signers of the Dpc1aration of InllC'-
made until Jan. I, 18,30, when the last pendence; graduated at Prinef'ton ill
('ollifieation of civil and criminal laws was 1821. and admitted to the har in 18
5.
,;"hrnitted. In 1857 the legislature passed In 1862 he was appointed to the L"niteil
all act making
Ir. Field chairman of the
tates Senate for tllC' unl'xpired term of
comll1is5ion to codify a]] the laws of the .John n. Thompson; amI in 1 RG3 became
State not :yet so treated. In 1
1i;) this work (ìistrict judgf' of the rnitC'd Rtatl's Court
was finished, but only the penal code was for the Distrif't of XI'W .Tpr!':ey. For many
adopted. \\ïthin a few :years twenty-four
'mrs .Judge Field was prC'sident of the
States and Territories adopted his ('ode of Xew .Ters('y Historical
o('if'ty. He was
(,ivil Procedure, and eighteen his Code of the author of The P,'oeineial r'ourt.ç of
(',.;I11;",tl J>rocrdure. ß('sides tJ1Pse workR .\"('U' ./prseJI.. 'j'hp ('Qll..Stitutiou not a Com.
3.3R

the legislature in 1841, and when he was
defeated sent drafts of three bilIs to the
Assembly, where they were referred to
the judiciary committee, but no further
adion was taken. He was also defeated

DA'lD DUDua YIKLD.

FIELD

FIELD-FIELDS

bar in 1841. lIe went to
an Francisc

in 1849 and opened a law office, but got
no clients. In 1850 he setPed in Yuba-
ville (afterwards J\Iarysville), which in
January of that year had been founded
at Kye's Ranch. He was soon made jus-
tice of the peace, and for a time was the
entire government. In the autumn of
1
;)0 he was elected a member of the first
lcgislature under the State constitution.
As a member of the judiciary committee
he (Irew up a code for the government of
the State courts, and prepared civil, crim-
illal, and mining laws, which were later
generally adopted in the new 'Vestern
States. In 18;)7 he was elected a justiee
of the Supreme Court of California. for
the term of six years, but before his term
bfgan a vacancy occurred in the court and
he was appointed for the unexpired term.
In September, 1859, David S. Terry, chief-
justice of the court, resigned and .Tustiee D(jors LeÎth Ulwr/l's Dickens. He was ed-
Field took his place. He remained in thi'\ itor of the ,ltlantic .llonthly in 18(j
-ïO,
office till 1863, when President Lincoln and afterwards (with Ed,,'in P. Whipple)
appointed him an a.ssociate justice of the edited the Family Library of English
Cnited States Supreme Court. After 1'o('try. He died in Boston, April 24, 1881.
3,j!)

lJUct betteeen Sovereign States; An Ora-
tion on the Life and Character of Abraham
[Jincoln, etc. He died in Princeton, N. J.,
l\Iay 25, 1870.
Field, STEPHE:V JOHNSON, jurist; born
in Haddam, Conn., Kov. 4, 1816; brother
of Cyrus West and David Dudley Field;
graduated at Williams College, in 1837;
studied law and was admitted to the

STF.PHEX JOHX80:\' FU:I.D.

holding this office for more than thirty-
four years he resigned in April, 1897.
During his experience in this court he
wrote 620 opinions, which, with fifty-
seven in the Circuit Court, and 365 in the
Supreme Court of California, made an
aggregate of 1,042 cases decided by him.
H(' died in Washington, D. C., April 9,
1899.
Field, TnmrAs W., historian; born in
Onondaga Hill, N. Y., in 1820; was the
author of a History of the Battle of Long
Island
' Historic and A.ntiquarian Scenes
in Brooklyn and 1ïcinity
' A.n Essay Tow-
ards an Indian Bibliogmphy, etc. He was
well known for his extremely valuable col-
lection of books on American history, which
was sold at auction shortly after his
death, in Brookl,yn, KY., NoVo 25, ] 881.
Fields, JA)[ES THOMAS, publisher; born
in Portsmouth, N. H., Dec. 31, 1817; was
educated in his native place; went to
Roston and became a clerk in a book-store
in 1834. Soon after he reached his ma-
jority he became a partner in the pub-
li!'hing firm of Ticknor, Reed & Fields, of
which he remained a member till 1870.
After retiring from the publishing busi-
ness 1\[r. Fielùs became a lecturer on
literary subjects. His published works
include a volume of Poems
' A Few Verses
for a Few Friends
' Yestprdnys 'with :1. u-
t1LOrs
' Hmet/wnw; and In and Out of

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JAMt:
TH")I \S FIELOS.

FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION-FILLMORE

Fifteenth Amendment to the Consti-
tution. Sce COXSTITUTION AND GOVERN-
ME
T OF THE r:\"ITED STATES.
Fifty-four Forty or Fight. M O 40'
was the accepted southern limit of Alaska
in the possession of Russia. The forty-
ninth parallel was held by the rnited
States to be the northern limit of the
United States against which there could
be no claim by England, and, further, that
the territory between 49 0 and 54 0 40' on
the Pacific coast was as much the property
of the United States as that of England.
In 1818 a treaty provided for the joint
occupation of the disputed territory by
Great Britain and the United States. In
1844 the watch-word of the Democratic
party was "Fifty-four forty or fight."
Consequently when Polk was elected he
claimed this as the boundary of the United
States, thus shutting out Great Britain
from access to the Pacific Ocean. On June
15, 1846, a compromise was made by which
the northern limit of the United States
was fixed at 49 0 .
Filibuster, originally a freebooter; sub-
sequently applied to one who delayed
legislation by dilatory motions or similar
artifices. Narcisco Lopez with an expedi-
tion of armed men sailed from 1\ew
Orleans, Aug. 3, 1851, and landed near
Havana on the 11th. "Cnable to bring
about a rise of the people he was obliged
to surrpnder and on Sept. 1, 1851, was
garroted at Havana. Colonel Crittenùen,
who was associated with Lopez, was also
captured anù with fifty others was shot
at Havana, Aug. 16, 1851. William
'\Yalker led a filibustering expedition into
Lower California in 1853, but was
obli
ed to retreat and surrendered to the
Pnited States authorities of Santia
o. He
was tried under the neutrality laws and

acquitted May 15, 1854. The ne
t year
Walker was invited to Nicaragua by one
of the local factions. He lanù('d on the
Pacific coast of Kicaragua, l\Iay -1, lRS3,
and defeated the Nicaraguans in a battle
at Virgin Bay, Sept. 1, lR;);). Walker
forccd his election as President of Kica-
ragua, but on May ], 1857, he surrenùereù
to the United States sloop-of-war Jlary
and was taken to 1\ew Orleans. In Novem-
ber of that year be again invad{'d Nica-
ragua, but was compeJJed to surrender to
the United States frigate Wabash. On
Aug. 5, 1860, Walker again landed at
Truxillo, Honduras, but after short suc-
cesses was e,-entually defeated, captured,
tried, and shot Oct. 12, 1860.
For many years prior to the American-
Spanish 'Var quite a number of filibuster-
ing expeditions were fitted out in the
"United States for the purpose of operating
on Cuba. The United States government
invariably if;sued official warning against
such hostile actions against Spain, anù
in a majority of cases intercepted or other-
wise prevented the landing of the parties.
The most notable of these actions was that
of a party which left in the Cuban war-

hip Virginills, Oct. 8, ISi3, for Cuba.
'l'he vessel, under command of Capt. .Tames
Fry, was captured by a Spanish war
steamer on the 31st, and the officers and
},;5 volunteers were taken to Santiago,
where in the following month Captain Fry
and IO!) of his associates were shot for
piracy. Through the action of the United
States government in organizing a. strong
naval force Spain agrepd to surrpncler the
Firginius and the remainder of her crew.
This was done Dec. 16. and while the
rirginiwJ was being convoyed to Kew
York it mysteriously sunk off North Car.
olina.

FILLMORE, MILLARD

Fillmore, MILLARD, thirteenth Pres i- was apprenticed to a fuller. He h(>came
dent of the "Cnited States; born in lJOcke fond of reading. and at the age of nine-
(now Summerhill), Cayuga co., K. Y., teen years desired to study law. He
June 7, 1800. At the time of his birth made an aTrangement with his master to
Cayuga county was a wilc1erness, with few pay him !j;:
O for the two ypars of the un-
!,<pttlements, the nparest house to that of p
pired tpTm of hi!'! appTPntiepship. and
the FillmoTPs being 4 milps distant. !':tl1rlipd law with \\Ta1tpr "'0(111. who gaw
Mr. Fillmore's early education was limit- him hi!'! board fOT hif; sPr\"iepf; in hif; officp.
ed, and at the age of fourteen years he In 1821 he went on foot to Buffalo, wJIl'Te
360

!'ILLMOBE, MILLARD

he arrived, an entire stranger, with
$4 in his pocket. There he continued
to study law, paying his expenses by
teaching school and assisting in the post-
office. In 1823, although he hail not com-
pleted the requisite period of study to be
admitted to the bar, he was admitted,
and began practice at Aurora, Cayuga
co., where his father then resided. In
a few years he stood in the rank of the
foremost lawyers in the State. He was
admitted to practice in the highest courts
of the State in 1829; and the next year
he moved to Bufl"alo, where he practised
until 1847, when he was chosen comptroll-
er of the State. Then he retired from the
profession. His political life began in
1828, when he was elected to the legis-
lature by the ANTI-MASO!'\IC PARTY
(q. v.). He served three successive
terms, retiring in the spring of 1831.
Mr. Fillmore was particularly active in
procuring the passage of a law abolishing
imprisonment for debt. It was mostly
drafted by himself, and passed in 1831.
In 1832 he was elected to Congress as
an opponent of Jackson's administration.
He was re-elected as a 'Vhig in 1836, and
retained his seat, by successive re-elec-
tions, until 1842, when he declined a re-
nomination. His career in Congress was
marked by ability, integrity, and indus-
try. He acted in Congress with Mr.
Adams in favor of receiving petitions for
the abolition of slavery. He was opposed
to the annexation of Texas, and in favor
of the abolition of the interstate slave-
trade. In September, 1844, Mr. Fillmore
was nominated by the \Yhigs for gov- \YA&HING'WlV, Aug. 6, 18.50.
ernor of the State of New York, but was To the Senatp and House of Representa-
defeated by Silas Wright, the Democratie tives,-I
Icrewith transmit to the two
candidate. Elected comptroller of his Houses of Congress a letter from his ex-
State in 1847, Mr. Fillmore filled that re- cellency the governor of Te'\':as. dated on
sponsible office with rare ability and fidel- June 14 last, addressed to the late Presi-
ity. In June, 1848, he was nominated dent of the rnited States, which, not
by the Whig National Convention for the having been answered by him, eame into
office of Viee-President of the United mv hands on his death; and I also trans-
States, and was elected, with General Tay- mit a eopy of the answer whieh I have felt
lor for President. He resigned the office it to bp my duty to cause to b(' made to
of comptroller in February following; and that communieation.
on the death of the President (July, f'ongress will perceive that the gov('rn-
18.>0), Mr. Fillmore was inducted into or of Texas officially states that by au-
that high office. thority of the Ipgislature of that Rtate
During his administration the slavery he despatched a special commissioner with
question was vehpment1y discussed, and f>oIll pO\\er and instructions to e'\':teml the
was finaJJy set at rest, it was hoped, by civil jurisdidion of the State over the
361

the passage of various acts which were
parts of compromises proposed in the
OMNIBUS BIU. (q. v.) of Mr. Clay in the
summer of 1850. It was during his
administration that difficulties with Cuba
occurred, diplomatic communications with
Japan were opened, measures were adoptp,j
looking towards the construction of a rail-
way from the Mississippi to the Pacifië
Ocean, and other measures of great public
interest occurred. Mr. Fillmore retired
from office l\Iarch 4, 1833, leaving the coun-
try in a state of peace within and without,
find every department of industry flour-
ishing. In 1832 he was a candidate of
the Whig convention for President of
the Lnited States, but did not get the
ncmination. During the spring and ßum-
mer of 1854 he made an extensive tour
through the Southern and \Vestern
States; and, in the spring of 1835, after
an excursion in New England, he sailed
for Europe, where he remained until
June, 1836. While at Rome he received
the news of his nomination for the Presi-
dency by the NATIVE A
IERICAN PARTY
(q. v.). He accepted it, but :i\Iaryland
alone gave him its electoral vote. The
remainder of his life was spent in 13utìalo,
where he indulged his taste far histori-
cal studies, and where he åiea, March 8,
1874.
Texas Boundary Controversy.-On Aug.
6. 1850, President Fillmore transmitted
the following spedal message to the
Congress cnnceming the ciaims of Texas
to territnry in dispute:

FILLMORE, MILLARD

unorganized counties of El Paso, \Vorth, been passed as wen for providing for caIl-
Presidio, and Santa FC>, situated on its ing forth the militia as for placing other
northwestern limits. !'lUitable and enicient means in the hands
He proceeds to say that the commissioner of the President to enable him to dis-
had reported to him in an official form charge the constitutional functions of his
that the military officers employed in the oflice.
service of the Pnited States stationed at The second section of the act of Feb.
Santa Fé interposed adYersely with the 28, 17!)3, declares that whenever the laws
inhabitants to the fulfilment of his ob- oi the "Cnited Statf''3 shall be opposed. or
ject in favor of the establishment of a their execution obstructed in any State
separate State gOYernment east of the b;y combinations too powerful to be sup-
Rio Grande, and within the rightful limits pressed by the ordinary course of judicial
of the State of Texas. These four coun- proceedings or the power vested in mar-
ties. which THas tllUs proposes to estab- shals. the President may call forth the
Hsh and organize as being within hH militia, as far as may be necessary, to
own jurisdiction, extend over the whole snppress such c(lInbinatiolls and. to cause
of the territory east of the Rio Grande, the laws to he (July executed.
which has heretofore been regarded as an Ity the act of :\Iarch 3, 1807, it is pro-
essential and integral part of the depart- ddcd that in aU cases of obstnlction to
ment of Xew
Iexico. and actually govern- the laws, either of the United States or
ed and possessed by her people until con- any individual State or Territory, when>
quered and severed from the republic of it is la wfu I for the President to call
)[exieo by the American arms. forth the militia for the purpose 'of caUR-
The legislature cf Texas has been called ing the laws to bt> d.uly executed. it shall
together by her governor for the pur- be lawful for him to emplo
. for the same
pose, as is under
tood, of maintaining her purposes such part of the land or naval
claim to the territory east of the Rio force of the United States as shall be
Grand('. and of estab
ishing over it her judged necessary.
own jurisdiction and her own laws by These several enactment
are now in
force. full force, so that if the laws of th('
These proceeòings of Texas may well United States are opposed or obstructed
'lrrest the attention of an branches of in any State or Territory hy combinations
the government of the "Cnited States, and too powerful to be suppressed by the ju-
T rejoice that they occur while the Con- dicial or civil authorities it becomes a cas(>
gress is yet in session. It is. I fear, far in which it is thf' duty of thf' President
from being impo!;,,;ihle that, in conseqaence either to ('all out the militia or to em-
of these proceedings of Texas. a crisis ploy the military anò na"al force of the
may be brought on which shall summon Fnited States, or to do both if in his
the two Houses of Congress. and still judgment the exigency of the occasion
more emphatically the executh.e gOYern- shall so require, for the purpose of sup-
me nt, to an immediate readiness for the pressing such comhinations. The constitu-
performance of their respective duties. tional duty of the PreRidpnt is plain and
By the Constitution of the United Stat('s !1eremptory, and the authority vestpd in
He President is constituted commander- him by law for its performance clear and
in-chief of the army and navy, and of ample.
the militia of the several states when Texas is a State, authorized to main-
called into the actual sC'1"vice of the "Cnited tain her own laws so far as they are not
States. The Constitution declares also repugnant to the Con!'-titution. laws, and
that he shall take care that the laws he trpaties of the United States; to sup-
faithfuJly executed. and that he sha]]. prf'ss insurrections against hpr authority.
from time to time, give to the Congress rond. to punish Hlose who may commit
information of the state of the Union. trpason again"t the State acC'ording to
Congress has power by the Constitution the forms provided by 11('r eonstitntion
to provide for calling forth the mi1itia anc1 her own laws.
to executf' the law
of the rnion. and suit- But all this power i<l local and confÌ1wc1
ahle atHl appropriate acts of Congress have entirelr within the limit'! of TE'xas her.
362

FILLMORE, MILLARD

self. She can possibly confer no authority
which can be lawfully exercised beyond
her own boundaries.
All this is plain, and hardly needs ar-
gument or elucidation. If Texas militia,
therefore, march into anyone of the
other States or into any Territory of the
l1nited States, there to execute or enforce
any law of Texas, they become at that
moment trespassers; they are no longer
under the protection of any lawful au-
thority; and are to be regarded merely
as intruders; and if within such State
or Territory they obstruct any law of the
enited States, either by power of arms or
mere power of numbers, constituting such
a combination as is too powerful to be
guppressed by the civil authority, the
President of the Cnited States has no
cption left to him, but is bound to obey
the solemn injunction of the Constitution
and exercise the high powers vested in
him by that instrument and by the acts
of Congress.
Or if any civil po!-'se. armed or unarm-
f:d, enter into any Territory of the United
States, under the protection of the laws
thereof, with intent to seize individuals,
to he carried elsewhere for trial for al-
leged offences. and this posse be too pow-
erful to be resisted by the local civil au-
thorities, such seizure or attempt to seÍí';e
is to be prevented or resisted by the au-
thority of the Cnited States.
The grave and important question now
uises whether there be in the Territory
of New Mexico any existing law of the
United States opposition to whid, or the
obstruction of which would constitute
a case calling for the interposition of the
authority vested in the President.
The Constitution of the United States
declares that =
"This Constitution. and the laws of
the Pnited States which shall he made in
pursuance thereof, and all treatips made,
or which shall be made. under the au-
thority of the l.Tnited States. shall be the
snpreme law of the land."
If, therefore. Ne\\ )Ipxico be a Terri-
torv of the Fnited States. and if any
tre;ty Rtipl1lation he in force then.in. snell
treaty stipulation is the Rupreme law of
1111"' land. and is to be maintained amI up-
11l'1d accordingly.
Tn the letter to the governor of

my reasons are given for belie,'ing that
1\ ew Mexico is now a Territory of the
United States, with the same extent and
the same boundaries which belonged to it
while in the actual possession of the re-
public of l\Iexico, and before the late war.
In the early part of that war both Cali-
fornia and New l\Iexico were conquered by
the arms of the United States, and were
in the military pos""ession of the enited
States at the date of the treaty of peace.
By that treaty the title by conquest was
confirmed and these territories, provinces,
or departments separated from Mexico
forever; and b,y the Rame treaty certain
important rights and securities were
solemnly guaranteed to the inhabitants
residing therein.
By the fifth article of the treaty it is
declared that-
"The boundary-line between the two
republics shall commence in the Gulf
of Mexico 3 leagues from land, opposite
the mouth of the Rio Grande, otherwi8

called Rio Bravo del Norte, or opposite the
mouth of its deepest branch if it should
have more than one branch emptying di-
rectly into the sea; from thence up th

middle of that river, following the deepe!'=t
channel where it has more than one, to
the point where it strikes the southern
boundary of N ew
Iexico, thence west-
wardly along the whole southern boun-
dary of Npw l\Iexico (which runs north of
the town called Paso) to its western ter-
mination; thence northward along the
western line of New l\Iexico until it inter-
sects the first branch of the Ri vel' Gila
(or, if it should not intersect any branch
of that river, then to the point on the
said line nearest to such branch, and
thence in a direct line to the Rame), theJH'f'
down the middle of the Raid branch and
of the Raid river until it empties into the
Rio Colorado; thpnce across the nio
Colorado; fol1owing the division line he-
tween Upper and Lower California, to the
Pacific Ocean."
The eighth article of the treaty is in
the following terms:
" )re
icans now estahlished in territoriPR
previously hplonging to l\Iexico. and whieh
remain for the future within the limit..
of the rnited Rtatl's as defined by th..
pre..;ent treaty. shal1 be frel' to eontiJ1lH'
Te
as where they now reside or to rf'mo\"e at any
363

FILLMORE, MILLARD

time to the Mexican republic, retaining to them perfect security in the free enjoy-
the property which they possess in the ment of their liberty and property, as
said territories, Or di
posing thereof and well as in the free e
ercise of their relig-
removing the proceeds wherever tlwy ion; and this supreme law of the land, be-
please, without their being !';ubjPctcd on ing tllUs in adual force over thi!'\ terri-
this account to any contribution, ta'\., or tory. is to he maintainerl until it shall
charge whatenr. b" di
l'laccd or superscdcd. hy other legal
"Those who shall prefer to remain in pl"O,'isions; and if it be obstructed or re-
the said territories may either retain the sistcd hy combinations too powerful to be
title and rights of .:\Iexican citizens or suppressed by the civil authority, the
acquire tJlOse of citizens of the rnite,l c<,se is one which comes within the pro-
States; but they shall be under the \.'isiom: of law, and which obliges the Pres-
obligation to make their election within ident to enforce those provisions. Xeither
one )'ear from the date of the e:xchan;!e of the Constitution nor the laws nor my d.uty
ratifications of this treaty; and those who nor my oath of office leave me an.y alter-
shall remain in the said territories after ra tive or any choice in my mode of action.
the expiration of that )'ear without having The executive government of the United
declared their intention to retain the char- States has no power or authority to dpter-
acter of l\Icxicans shall be considered to mine what was the true line of boundary
have elected to bpcome citizens of the between ::\Iexico and the United Statcs be-
United States. fore the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, nor
" In the said territorips property of every has it any such powcr now, since the
kind now belonging to ::\Iðicans not estab- question has bemme a qupstion between
Ii shed there shall be inviolably respected. the State of Texas and the Cnited States.
The prescnt owners, the heirs of these, anrl
o far as this bouwlary is Iloubtful,
all Mexicans who may hereafter acquire that doubt can only be removed by some
said property by contract shall enjoy with aet of Congress. to which the assent of the
respect to it guarantees equall)' ample as State of Texas may be necessary. or hy
if the same belonged to citizens of the sCrme appropriate mode of legal adjudica-
l'nited States," tion; but in the mean time, if disturb-
The ninth article of the treaty is in ances or collisions arise or should hp
these words: threatened, it is absolutely incumbent on
"The ::\Ipxicans who, in the territorips the executh'e government, however pain-
aforpsaid. shall not preserve the character ful the duty, to take care that the laws
of citizens of the ::\Iexican republic, con- be faithfully maintained; and he can re-
formably with what is stipulated in the gard only the actual state of things as it
preceding article, shall be incorporated existed at the date of the treaty, and. is
into the Lnion of the rnited States and hound to protect all inhahitants who were
he arlmiUed at the proper time (to he then estahlished and who now remain
judged of hy the Congress of the rnitt.d north and east of the line of demarea-
States) to the enjoyment of all the right
tion in the fu]] enjoyment of their liberty
of citizens of the rnited States accord- and propert)', according to the pro,'isions
ing to the principles of the Constitution, of the ninth article of the treaty. In oth-
and in the mmn time shall be maintained er word!". a]] must be now rpgan]pd as New
and proteptec1 in the free enjoyment of l\fpxico which wa-s possesspd and oceupipd
their liherty and property, and secured in as New ::\fexieo by citi7Pns of ::\fexico at
the frpe exercise of their relip-ion without the date of the treaty until a rlpfinite line
rPstriction." of boundary 8hall be established by com-
It is plain, therefore. on the fa('e of petent authority.
the8e trpaty stipulations that an l\fpxieans This a8sprtion of duty to protpct the
efootabli8hed in territories north or f'ast of ppo]>le of Kew ::\fp'\.ico from th.reatened vio-
the line of demarcation already mpntion- l('nce, or from seizure to hp earripd into
(>d cOllie within the protection of the ninth Tpxas for trial for allpgpd ofTpn('es against
alticlp. and thaJ
the treaty, being a part Texan laws, does not at all inplndp any
(If thp suprpmp Jaw of the land. dops ex- claim of power on the part of the exp('u-
tend (lnr all such ::\fe:xicans, and assurps ti"e to establi<lh any civil or military gov-
3G.t

:FILLMORE, MILLARD

ernment within that Territory. That prompt mode of proceeding by which
power belongs exclusively to the legisla- the end can be accomplished. [f judicial
tive department, and Congress is the sole proceedings were resorted to, such pro-
judge of the time and manner of creating ceedings would necessarily be slow, and
or authorizing any such government. years would pass by, in all probability,
The duty of the executive extends only before the controversy could be ended.
to the execution of laws and the main- So great a delay in this case is to be
tenance of treaties already in force, and the avoided if possible. Such delay would be
protection of all the people of the United every way inconvenient, and might be the
f:5tates in the enjoyment of the rights occasion of disturbances and collisions.
which those treaties and laws guarantee. :For the same reason I would, with the
It is exceedingly desirable that no occa- utmost deference to the wisdom of Con-
sion should arise for the exercise of the gress, express a doubt of the expediency
powers thus Yf'sted in the President by the of the appointment of commissioners, and
Constitution and the laws. \Vith what- of an examination, estimate, and an award
ever mildness those powers might be ex- of indemnity to be made by them. This
ecuted, or however clear the case of neces- would be but a species of arbitration.
sity, yet eonsequences might, nevertheless, which might last as long as a suit at law.
follow of which no human sagacity can So far as I am able to comprehend the
foresee either the evils or the end. case, the general facts are now all known,
Having thus laid before Congress the and Congress is as capable of deciding
communication of his excellency the gov- on it justly and properly now as it prob-
ernor of Texas and the answer thereto, ably would be after the report of the com-
and having made such observations as [ missioners. If the claim of title on tIle
have thought the occasion called for re- part of Texas appears to Congress to be
speeting constitutional obligations which well founded in whole or in part, it is
may arise in the further progress of things in the competency of Congress to offer
and may devolve on me to be performed, I her an indenmity for the surrender of that
hope I shall not be regarded as stepping claim. In a case like this, surrounded as
aside from the line of my duty, notwith- it is by many cogent considerations, all
standing that I am aware that the subject calling for amicable adjustment and im-
is now before both Houses, if I e),.pres"I mediate settlement, the government of th('
my deep and earnest conviction of the im- United States would be justified, in my
portance of an immediate decision or ar- opinion, in allowing an indemnity to
rangenwnt or settlement of the question "f Texas, not unreascnable or extravagant,
boundary between Texas and the Territory but fair, liberal, and awarded in a just
of Kew ::\[exico. All considerations of f'pirit of accommodation.
justice, general ðpediency, and domestic I think no event would- be hailed with
tranquillity call for this. It seems to be more gratification by the people of the
in its character and by position the first, United States than the amicable adjust-
or one of the first, of the questions grow- ment of questions of difficulty which have
ing out of the acquisition of California and now for a long time agitated the country
Kew l\Ie),.ico, and now requiring decision. and occupied, to the exclusion of otlwr sub-
No government can bp pstablished for jects, the time and attention of Congress.
New l\[pxico, ('it her Statp or Territorial. Having tlms freely communicated the
until it shall be first asccrtainpd what results of mv own refte(.tions on the most
Npw l\Ipxieo is, and what arc Ill')" limits ad\"Ïsable m
de of adjusting the boundary
and boundarips. These cannot he fi),.ed question, T sha11 lw\'erthclps!'l cheerfully
or known tin tIle line of division lw- aequipsce in any otllPr modp which the Wid-
t\\,pen her awl Texa
shall be aseprl ailwd dom of Congress may dpvisp. And in con-
and established: and nunwrous and elusion I n'ppat my convi,.tion that evpry
weighty reasons conspirp. in lilY judgmpnt. consideration of tll<' public interest mani-
to show that this divisional line should fests the necessity of a provision by Con-
be estahlisllPd by Cong)"Pss with the as- gress for the settlement of this boundary
sent of the government of Texas. In thp question before the present session be
first place, this seems by far the most brought to a clos('. The settlement of
3G:>

FILSON-FINANCES

other questions cOllll<'ctell with tll<' same England and the ::\1 hId I t:' States, anti
!-ubject "ithin the ",ame period ib greatl>' btock" suf1"ered. \\ïthin tlw tir
t pight
to be desired, but the adjustnwnt of this months of the year, ;)liO State and prin\t('
appears to me to be in the highest degree banks and 133 national banks (lllustl
'
important. In thc train of :;uch an ad- of slllall dimcnsions) failed. Thc gr('at
justment we lllay well hope that there majority of these bank failures werc in
will follow a return of harmony and good the r('gion west of the
Iissi:,sippi Hinr.
will. an increased attachment to the Union, This section, ('specially the :-;tates inti-
and the general satisfaction of the co un- mately connected with the mining and
t r."-
IILLAlm FILL
IORE. smelting of silyer, felt the" bard times"
Filson, JOlIN, pioneer; born in Chester keenly. The general closing of silve,'-
county, Pa., in 1747; purchased a one- mines in Colorado "as attended with
third interest in the site of Cincinnati, much suffering, and eonsiderable hitter-
whieh he called Losantiville. 'Yhile ex- nt.ss was displayed. At least 1.>,000
ploring the country in the neighborhood of miners became idle, and many men out of
J.osantiville he disappeared and it is sup- work came ea
tward, in some cases taking
posed was killed by hostile Indians, about forcible p()bses
iun of freight-trains.
I iSH. He was the author of The Dis- Meanwhile in the East in midsummcr
COV('1'Y, Settlement, and Present State of an extraordinary stringency of money
Kentucky; .-I. Topographical Description was de,'eloped. At one time in Kew York
of the Western Territ01'y of North .4.meri- the premium on $1,000 in small bilh

C(l; Diar!! of a JOIl1"lley f1'om Philadelphia reached $
.); many business establish-
to l'incel1ncs, Ind., in liS.;, etc. ments were hard pressed to meet the pa
'-
Finances, UXITED STATES. Financial ments of their employees; checks and clear-
topics were uppermost in interest during ing-house certificates play('d for a short
the years immediately succeeding 18!)0. time a remarkable part. The premium on
The demand for the free and unlimited currency disappeared, however, in Sel)tem-
coinage of silver increased in the South- ber, although money continued to he
(:rn and \Vestern portions of the country. scarce. One of the features of the com-
Rt'tween 18!.H and lR!)2 the expenditures mereial trouble of 18!)3 was the number
increased and the receipts decreased. Part of large railroad systems forced into the
of the silver was coined, and the rest ac- hands of receivers. In this numb('r were
cumulated in the trcasury vaults. The included the Erie; Reading-; Korth(,1"11
silver question, and, with it, the whole Pacific; Atchison, Topeka. and Santa Fé;
fiuancial problem, was suddenly brought and Xew York and
ew England.
prominently to the front in 1893. On As the foreed purchase of silver was
June 26 of that year the British govern- genera II)" recogniz('d as one cause of the
ment closed the Indian mints to the free disturbances, attention was called to the
coinage of silver. As this important sil- repeal of the silver purchase act of lR!)O,
ver market was thus barred, the effect and President Cleveland summoncd a spe-
was to accelerate the fall in the price ot cial session of the Fifty-third Congres," to
that metal. At this date the value of consider the matter. Congress assemblefl
thp silver dollar was about 60 cents, and Aug. 7; on Aug. 28 the House passed tliP
it fell below that point. The ratio of Wilson hill. which weut to the Senate; in
gold to sil\"er, which in 1873 was 15+, the form of the \Toorhep
r<,pcal bill the
was in 1886 20, and in 1893 25Y2' The measure passed tbe Senate by a vote of
amount of gold in the country was greatly 4:1 to 32, Oct. 30: nearly all the" repeal-
de('reased during the same period. The ers" were from the Ea
t and Korth. On
gold rebene in the treasury, which had Kov. 1 it passed the House b) a vote of
been aho\"e the $100.000.000 limit, fell in H)3 to !l4, and was promptly sig-ned bv
August, lR!l3, to $!)(j,000.000; stood Sept. the Pr<,sident. Aft<,r passing this act.
30 at $!.J3,nOO.Ooo. and Jan. 13, lR!I-l, haå which repealed the purchasing clause of
fallen to $7-1.000,000.
[any business what was known as the Sherman bill of
failures occurred during the summer. 1
90, Congress adjourned.
The iron traùe was depressed, various The actual ('ondition of the national
('otton and woollen mills closed in New treasury on JaD. 12, 18!)4. was thll

(t
3lìlì

FINANCES, UNITED STATES

forth in a letter of Secreta.ry Carlisle:
A8f'ets-Gold, $74,108,149; silver dollars
and bullion, $8,092,287; fractional silver
coin, $12,133,903; United States notes,
$5,031,:
27; treasury notes of 1890, $2,-
476,000; national bank notes, $14,02ü,735;
minor coin, $988,625; deposits in banks,
$15,470.863; total cash assets, $132,327,-
889. Liabilities-Dank-note 5 per cent.
fund, $7,198,219; outstanding checks and
drafts, $5,653,917; disbursing officers'
balances, $28,176,149; post-office depart-
ment account, $3,897,741; undistributed
aEsets of failed national banks, $1,927,727;
District of Columbia account, $142,613;
total agency account, $46,996,3G6; gold
reEerve, $74,108,149; net balance. $ll,-
223,374. Total liabilities, $132,327.889.
The average monthly deficiency in the
l&st half of 1893 was shown to be about
$7,000,000. The estimated falling-off in
revenue with other causes swelled the ex-
pected deficien<,y to a formidable amount.
To meet the rapid fall in the gold re'iprve,
Secretary Carlisle, on Jan. li, 18!)-t, is-
sued a ('ircular, offering for public sub-
scription an issue of $50,000.000 of bondE!,
"redeemable in coin at the pleasure of
the gO\'ernment after ten years .
and hearing interest . . at the rate
of 5 per cent." The minimum premium
was fixed at 11 7.223, thus making the is-
sue equin\lent to a 3 per cent. bond. The
Secretary issued the call by virtue of an
act of 1875; but his authority was chal-
lenged by the House judiciary committee
Jan. 2G, 1894.
In spite of this issue of bonds the
treasury reserve soon fell below the mark
again, and on Xov. 13 of the same year a
sl'cond issue of $50,000,000 worth of bonds
was made. They were all given to a syn-
dif'ate of hankers at a bid of 117.077. So
rapid was the drain on the treasury,
however. that on Feb. 8, 1895, the govern-
ment signed a contract with the Belmont-
Morgan s.vndicate of Kew York to provide
for HI<' treasury 3,500,000 ounces of
standard gold coin, amounting to $62,-
315,000. Payment was made to the syn-
dicate in -t per cent. bonds. The syndi-
cate was also pledged to help retain all the
gold in the treasury. The business de-
pression sti1l continued, however. and on
Jan. 6. 18!)fi. the government adverti!Sed
a sale of $1U(),()()().ono in bonds. It was
:
61

at first planned to sell the entire iSl!5ue to
the Belmont-
Iorgan syndicate, but the
proposition caused such a popular outcry
that the public was allowed to bid for the
bonds, and the $100,000,000 was sub-
s<:ribed more than five times over. The
treasury received over $6,000,000 more
than if the sale had been made to the
sJ'ndicate. This successful sale seemed to
restore the confidence of the nation, and
the gold reserve in the treasury soon
passed the $100,000,000 limit.
In striking contrast with the special re-
port of Secretary Carlisle in 1894 was the
annual report of Secretary Gage for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1900. In com-
paring these reports it should be borne in
mind that a period of remarkable pros-
perity set in soon after the Presidential
election in 1896; that the war with Spain
placed on the national treasury an unex-
pected burden; that the revenues of the
government were increased by a special
bill (1898) to meet the extraordinary dis-
bursements; and that the foreign trade
of the country advanced to an unprece-
dented volume. The main features of the
treasury report for June 30, 1900, were as
follows:

RECEIPTS AND EXPEXDITrRES.

The revenues of the government from all
sources for the fiscal year ended June 30,
1900, were:
Internal revenue .......... $295.327.926.76

Customs ..................
Profits on coinage, bullion de-
posits, etc. .............
District of Columbia.......
Fees---consular, letters pat-
ent and land...........

ales of public lands......
Tax on national banks....
N"avy pension, navy hospi-
tal, clothing, and deposit
funds ........... _ . . . .
Sales of Indian lands......
Payment of Interest b,r Pa-
cific raIlways ..........

JlsceIlaneous ....... ..... .
Sales of government prop-
erty ...................
C'ustoms fees, fines, penalties,
etc ....................
Immigrant fund ...........
Deposits for surveying pUblic
lands............ _. . _.

alps of ordnance material.
Soldiers' Home, permanent
fund.......... ..........
Tax on seal skins and rent
of seal Islands..........

233,164,871.16
9.992,374.09
4,008,722.27
3.291,716.68
2,836,882.98
1,998,554.00

1,621,558.52
1,:184,663.49
1.173,466.43
997,375,68

779,522.78

675,706.95
537,404.81
273,247.19
257,26;).56
247,926.62

225,676.41

FINANC
S-J'INJD AB'1'1

Gold ..................... $101,981,110.00

Ilver dollars ............ 18,244,984.00
Subsidiary silver......... . 1
.8ï6,849.1;:)
$157,234.94 Minor ....................
,
43,017.21

For further details of national finances
Total expenditure ..... $590,068,371.00 see BANKS, NATIONAL; CmCULATIO:'l;
COMMERCE; CURRENCY; DEBT, NATIOXAL.
Fine Arts, TilE. The earlier settlers
in our country were compe1}ed to battle
with privations of every kind, and for
long years were strug
ling to overeome
the wilderness and to procure food and
clothing. This conllition did not admit
of the cultivation of æsthetie tastc
. Their
arehitecture was at first little superior in
form to the log-hut, and painting amI
!"culpture were stJ'angers to most of the
inhabitants. Music, for use in public wor-

hip only, was cultivated to the extent of
the ability of the common singing-master,
and only occasionally poetry was at-
The colnag
executed durin" the fiscal tempted. Engraving was wholly unknown
year was: he fore the middle of the eighteenth cen-
3GB

kECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES. - Con-
tinmd.
License fees, Territory of
Alaska .................
Trust funds, Department
of State ................
Depredations on public
lands ..................
Spanish Indemnity ........
Sales of lands and build-
Ings ...................
Part payment Central Pa-
dfic nail road Indebtedness.
DIvidend received for ac-
count of Kansas Pacific
Railway ................ 821,897.70
Postal servIce ............ 102,354,579.29

152,794.56

76,307.58
57,000.00

3,842,737.68

3,338,016.49

Total receipts ......... $669,595,431.18

The expenditures for the
were:
Civil establishment, includ-
Ing foreign Intercourse,
public buildings, collect-
ing the revenues, District
of Coiumbia, and other
miscellaneous expenses '"
Military establishment, In-
cluding rivers and har-
bors, forts, arsenais, sea-
coast defences, and ex-
penses of the war wi th
Spain and In the Philip-
pines ..................
Xaval establishment, Includ-
ing construction of new
vessels, machinery, arma-
ment, equipment, Improve-
ment at navy-yards, and
expenses of the war with
Spain and in the Philip-
pines ..................
Indian service ............
Pensions .................
Interest on the public debt. .
Deficlency In postai revenues.
Postal service ............

same period

$98,542,411.37

134,774,767.78

55,953,077.72
10,175,106.76
140,877,316.02
40,160,333.27
7 ,
30, 778.79
102,354,579.29

Showing a surplus of......

$79,527,060.18

Other receipts of the Treasury, Including
amounts receIved from the Pacific railways
fl'om subscription to the 3 per cent. bonds
authorized In June, UmS, and other bonds,
were $115,410. 'l'l1e totai amount of securi-
ties redeemed under the operatIons of the
sinking fund were $;:)6,544.5;)6. The most
Important Items in the redemptions were the
bonds purchased to the amount of $19.300,-
G:iO, and the premium In converted bonds
amounting In all to $3U,773,552. Total re-
ceipts for the fiscai year exceeded those of
the preceding year by $58,613,426, while
expenditures showed a decrease of $117,-
358,388.

Total ................ $141,301,960.36
The revenues of the government for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, were thus
estimated upon the basis of existing laws:
Customs......... ......... $245,000,000.00
Internal revenue .......... 300,000,000.00
Miscellaneous sources ...... 3;:),000,000.00
Postal service ............ 107,773,253.9

Total estimated revenues. $687,773,253.92

The expenditures for the same period were
estimated as follows:
Civil establishment ........
Military establishment ....
Naval establishment ......
Indian service ............
Pensions .................
Interest on the public debt. .
I"ostal service ............

$115,000,000.00
140,000,000.00
60,000,000.00
11,000,000.00
142,000,000.00
32,000,000.00
107,773,253.92

Total estimated expendi-
tures................ $607,773,253.92

Or a surplus of. . . . . . . . . . . .

$80,000,000.00

Secretary Gage further estimated that,
upon the basis of existing laws, the revenues
of the government for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1902, would be:
From customs ............
From Internal revenue....
From miscellaneous sources.
From postal service ......

$

5,000,OOO.00
310,000,000.00
3;:).uOO,000.00
116,633,042.00

Total estimated revenues. $716,633,042.00
The estimates of appropriations required
for the same period, as submitted by the
several executive departments and offices,
were $f;!)O,374,804.24, showing an estimated
E'urplus of $26,258,237.ï6.

FINE ARTS, THE

tury. At about that time Horace Walpole
wrote, " As our disputes and polities have
travelled to America, it is probable that
poetry and painting, too, will revive
amidst those extensive tracts, as they in-
crease in opulence and empire, and where
the stores of nature are so various, so
magnifieent, and so new." That was writ-
ten fourteen years before the Declaration
of Independence. Little could he compre-
hend the value of freedom, such the Amer-
icans were then about to struggle for, in
the development of every department of
the fine arts, of which Dean Berkeley had
a prophetic glimpse when he wrote:

churches, other than the ordinary build-
ings, were procured from abroad. The
,. meeting-house" of that day was only
the shell of a dwelling-house, with very
little decoration, and with a small bell-
tower rising a few feet above the roof.
The dwelling-houses were extremely plain,
generally. 'Yhen a fine one was to be
built, plans, and even materials some-
times, were procured from Europe. But
from the beginning" of the nineteenth
century there have been many highly ac-
complished American architects, who have
carried the people through the various
styles-the Greek, Gothic, and .M:ansard-
of architecture.
Sculpture waited long for a practitioner
in America, and very little of the sculp-
tor's art was known in this country.

ow the increasing demand for statuary
The first painter who found his way to promisf>s a brilliant future for the sculp-
America professionally was John 'Vatson, tor. .Among the earlier of American
a Seotchman, who was born in 1685. He sculptors were HORATIO GREE
OUGH (q.
began the practice of his art at Perth .\m- v.) and HIRAM POWERS (q. v.). They may
boy, then the capital of New Jersey, in he said to have introduced the art. Green-
171.3, where he purchased land and built ough was the first American who produced
houses. He died at an old age. JOlIN fl marble group, The Chanting Chentbs,

IYßERT (q. t"v.) came with Dean Berkeley for J. Fenimore Cooper. For many years
in I7
8, and began portrait-painting in there was a prudish feeling that made
Kewport, R. 1. Nathan Smybprt, "an nude figures an abomination. So sensi-
amiable youth," began the practice of tive were the h\dies of Philadelphia con-
painting, but died young in 1757. During cerning the antique figures displayed at
John Smybert's time there were Black- the exhibitions of the Academy of Fine
burn in Boston and Williams of Philadel- Arts, that one day in the week was set
phia who painted portraits These were apart for the visits of the gentler sex.
all Englishmen. The first American The multiplication of art schools, art
painter was DENJX\n:v 'VERT (q. v.), who museums, and art e"Xhibitions has quite
spent a greater part of his lif(' in Eng- generally dissipated prudery. Crawford
:and, where he attained to a Iligh reputa- gave to American sculpture a fame that
t
on. JOlIN SINGLETON COPLEY (q. v.) widened that of Greenough and Pow('rs.
was his contemporary, and painted por- Music has had a habitation here, first
traits as carly as 1760. At the same in the form of psalm-singing, from thl'
t illle 'Yoollaston had established himself, earliest settlements. Now its t'\.cellell t
and painted the portraits of Mrs. Custis professors and practitioners are l('gion in
(afterwards
[rs. Washington) and her number. The graphic art in our country
husband, about 17.')(i. lIe was an Eng- is only a little more than a century old.
lishman. At the period of thc Revolu- K athaniel Hurd, of Boston. engraved on
tion, Charlcs Wilson Peale, who had copper portraits and caricatures as early
lcarned the art from Hesselius, a portrait- as I7G2. Paul Revere, also, engraved at
painter, was the only American. if we ex- the period of the Re,"olution. He en-
cept young Trumbull, who might be called graved the plates for t
lC Continental
a good artist, for Copley had gone to Eng- money. Amos Doolittle was one of the
1and. So it was that the fine art of paint- earliest of our better engravers on copper.
ing was introduced. DR. ALEXANDER A
DERRO:V (q. v.) was th(>
At that time there were no professional first man who engraved on wood in this
architects in the country. Plans for country-an art no,,' h)"('I1:
ht to the high-
nJ.-2 A 3m)

.. There shall be sung another Golden Age,
The rise of empires and of arts,
The good and great, Inspiring epic mge,
The wisest heads and noblest hearts. II

FINE ARTS, THE

est pcrfedion here. The earliest allli 1I('8t HI(' saìd hdlOlars shall or lIIay learn tlH'
ellgra,'er on steel was ASHER B. DnL<\XD art of painting; and further, illY will and
(q. t'.), who became one of the first Hne- mind is that two grinders, the one for oil-
engravers in the world, but abandoned the colors and the other for water-colors. and
profession for the art of painting. The also oil and gum-waters,
hall be fur-
art of lithography was introduced into nished, from time to time, at the (,\1l't
the United States in Ht
l, b
' Messrs. and charges of tlw said college." Mr.
Burnet and Doolittle. and stcadiI
' gained Palmer purch:lspd a picturcsque island
fa,'or as a cheap method of producing in the Susquehanna, opposite Havre df'
pictures. It is now e'\.tellsinly employed Grace, 1\Id., which was originally called
in producing chromo-lithographic pi
t- Palmer's Island. There he e
pected tlw
Ul es. Photography, the child of the university and school of fine arts to 1)('
daguerreotype. was first produced in Eng- established. The family of Edward
land by Mr. Talbot, and was introduced Palmer had been identified with \\'ar-
here chiefly by the labors in science of wickshire from the time of William the
])r. J. ,Yo Draper. of Kew York. Indeed, Conqueror. During the later
'ears of hi

the discovery of the process of making life Palmer resided in London, and his
pictures by employing sunlight as the collection of rarities and ancient Greek
artist was the rPsult of the previous ex- and Roman coins was well known among
periments and writings coneerning the Hterary men. This school of fine arts
chemical action of light by Dr. Draper. in America was projected years before
The American Academy of Fine Arts was Dean Berkeley projected his college in the
incorporated in 1808, and the first public Bermudas (see BERKELEY, GEORGE) and
exhibition of works of art followed. At the brought JOHN S
IYBERT (q. v.) with him
suggestion of PROF. SA
IUEL F. B. MonSE to cultivate art therein.
(q. v.)
'ounger painters associated, and In 1;91 Archibald Robertson, a Scotch-
in 1826 organized the Kational Academy man and a portrait-painter, estabJished a
of the Arts of Design in the United States. s
minary in the city of New York which
In 1622 Edward Palmer, a native of he called the Columbian Aeademy of
Gloucestershire, England, obtained from Painting. He succeeded well, and his
the London Company a grant of land in pupils did honor to the institution. In
Virginia, and from the Plymouth Com- ISOI Robert R. I.ivingston, then Ameri-
pany a tract in Kew England.
Ir. can minister in France, proposed the es-
Palmer died late in 1624. Just before his tablishment of an academy of fine arts in
dpath he made provision in his will for Kew York. He wrote to friends, suggest-
the establishment, conditionally, of a ing the rai8ing of funds by subscription
" university" in Virginia, with which was for the purpose of purchasing copies of
to be connected a school of fine arts. His antique statuary and paintings for the
will, dated Kov. 22 (0. S.), Iü
-l, pro- instruction of
'oung artists. An associa-
vided for the deseent of his lands in Vir- tion for the purpose was formed late in
ginia and Kew England to his sons and 1802, hut it was not incorporated until
lIephews, saying: "But if all is:-.ue fails, IROR. :\feanwhile 1\Ir. Livingston had ob-
th('n all said land is to remain for the tained fine plaster copies of ancient
founding and maintpnance of a univcrsity statues and sent them over. In the board
and such schools in Yirginia as shall of managcrs were distinguished citizen!',
there be ef<'cted, and the university shall but there was only one artist-Colonpl
lie called 'Academia Virginiensis Ox on- Trumhull. It hore the corporate title of
iensis.' " Aftpr prm'iding for !'>cholar- Aeadpmy of Fine Arts. It had a fe{'blp

hips in the university for the male de- e'Xistf'nce, though it numbered amon
it"
seendants of his grandfather, 1\Ir. Palm- honorary members King George IV. of
f'r's will pro,'ided "that the scholars of England, and the Emperor Napoleon, who
the said university, for the a ,'oiding of contributed liberally to its establishment.
Hl1ene
8, shall have two painters, the one De Witt Clinton was its president in 18Hi.
for oil-eolors and the other for water-col- when its first public exhibition \Va!'!
or!'!, who shall be admitted fellows of the opened. In 1805 seventy gentlem(,ll,
same eollpgp, to t1u' pml amI intf'lIt that moqtl
'
awypr!'!, mpt in Tndpppndenee Hall,
3j()

FINLEY -FIR:ES

Philadelphia, for the purposc of consider-
ing the subject of founding an academy of
fine arts in that city. They formed an
association for the purpose, and estab-
lished the Philadelphia Academy of
Fine Arts. with George Clymer as presi-
dent. Their first exhihition was held in
1806, when more than fifty casts of antique
statues in the Louvre were displayed, and
two paintings by Benjamin 'Vest. By pur-
chases and gifts the collection of the acad-
emy was unsurpassed in this country in
1845, when the building and most of its
contents were destroyed by fire. The as-

came a
lethodist minister in 1809; was
a mis!;ionary among the "'yandotte Ind-
ians in IH21-
ï. His publications include
JI istory of the IF yandotte Jlission;
,\(kptchcs of n'esten
Jlet1wdism; Personal
Rcminiscenc('s lllustratil'e of lndian Lif(',
etc. He died in Cincinnati, 0., Sept. 6, IR.j(i.
Fire-arms, a term originaJly applied to
cannon; afterwards to cannon requiring
two men to carry it; and now to what are
known as ritJes and small arms. The fol-
lowing table gives details of the rifles
used by the principal nations of the world
in 1901:

RIFLES USED BY THE PRINCIPAL NATIOKS.

WeiJ1:ht. Calibre No. 01
N"'TJON, Gun. Round..
Ponnd.. OunceJ. Inch.
Austria. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mannlicher. . . ... . _ . . .... .. 9 14 0.315 ð
Belgium... ...... ...........
Iauser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 9 0.301 ð
China....................... Lee. .. . . . _ . . . . . . .... .... .. 9 0 0.433 5
Denmark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Krag-Jorgenseu........... . 9 8 0.315 5
England. .... ................ Lee-
Ietford .. ........ .... 9 4 0.303 8
France..................... . Lebel. . .. . . . 9 4 0.315 8
Germany. . . ....-............ Mannlichpr _.. :::::: ::::::: 9 0 0.315 5
Haly........................ Parm\'icino Carcano........ 8 6 0.256 ð
Japan. .. . . ..... . . . .... . . . ... Murata. . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . 9 0 0.315 8
Portugal. . .. . . . . . . .... . . . . .. Kropatschek . . . . . . . ..... . . . 10 4 0.315 8
Russia.. .... . . . ..' .. .... . . .. . Mouzin.... . . .... ...... . ... 8 13 0.30 ð

pain......................
Iau8pr . . . . 8 13 0.276 5
Sweden and Korway......... I<rag-Jorgen
en'.:::::::::: : 9 8 030 5
Switzerland. ....... . . ., " . . . Seh III jilt. . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9 8 0.296 12
Turkev............... . ..... 1IIauscr................ . 8 9 0.301 5
l'nited Stales army. . . . . .. . Krag-Jorgensen ............ 9 8 0.30 5
u " navy....... .' Lee ........... ............ - - 0.236 ð

sociation now liaR a !"up('rb bui1ding 011
Broad Street, which was first opened to
the publil' in April, 18ïti. rnwise man-
agement and a:leged injustice to the
younger artists who were studying in the
New York Acad('my caused great dissat-
isfaction, and in the autumn of 182;) they
held a meeting and organized a Society
f(lr Improvement in Drawing. This move-
ment was maùe at the instigation of
f'amuel F. B. Morse, who was made presi-
tlc'nt of the association. At a meeting
of the association in .January, 18
ß,
[r.
Morsc ðuhmitted a plan for the forma-
tion of what was called a National Acad-
emy of I>eHign in the Lnited States. The
proposition was adopted, and the new
academy was organi7ed on Jan. 15, with
l\1r.
(orse as pr('
ident. and fourteen a !'I-
sociate officers. The academy then found-
ed fiouri:'>hed from the Iwginning. and is
now one of the most cheri!'llwd institu-
tions of New York City.
Finley, JAl\fES BRADLEY,
horn in North Carolina, July

Fires, GREAT. The following is a list
of the most notable fires in the United
States:
Theatre at Richmond. Va.; the
governor and many leading
citizens perished. . . . . _ . . . Dec. 26, 1811
New York City, GOO ware-
houses, etc.; loss,
:!O,OOO,-
000 ...................... Dec. 16, 1835
Washington. D. ('., de!':troying
general post-office and pat-
ent-ofike, with 10,nOO valu-
ahle models, drawings, etC'. . nec. 15, 1836
Chal'leston. S. ('., 1,1:;8 build-
ings, ("overing 14;:) a("res. . . _ April 27, 1838
New York City. 46 buildings;
loss. :lil0,nOO,ooo. . . .. . . . . _ . Sept. 6, 1839
Plttsbul"l
. I'a.. 1.tlOO buildings:
loss about
6.000.0oo...... . April 10, 184:1
Xew YOl.k City, 1,:WU d\\ell-
Ings destl"Oyed. . . . . . . . . . . . . June 28, 184:1
New YOI.k City, :
O:! stOl'es and
dwellings. 4 lives, and $().-
OUO,ooo of property.... _'" .July IH, 1
45
Albany, X. Y.. liOO huildlngs,
besides st{'amboats. piers,
etc.; 24 acres burned over;
loss, $3,000,000. . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 9, lR4S
I St. Louis, Mo., 15 blocks of
c ergyman; houses and 23 steamboats;
I, 1781; be- lo!':!': e!':tlmated at $3,OOO,Ot)0.
ray ]7, l
.m
:1',1

FIRST REPUBLIC IN AMERICA-FISH

an Francisco. Cal., nearly

.riOO builðings burned; loss
about $3.úOO,OOO _ ........ . May 3-5, 1831
San Francisco, Cal., 500 build-
ings; loss, $3,000,000. . .. . . .June 22, 1851
Congressional Library, Wash-
Ington, D. C., :
5,OOO volumes. Dec. 24, 18:)1

yracuse, N. Y., 12 acres of
ground burned over; loss,
$1,OOO,OOO.................Nov. 8,1836
:Kew York Cr
'stal Palace de-
stroyed.. . . . . . . . ., .. . . . .. Oct. 5, 1838
Portland, Me., nearly destroy-
ed; 10,000 people homeless;
loss, $15,000,000........... July 4, 1866
Great Chicago fire, burning
over about 3 % square miles,
destroying 17,4:;0 buildings,
killing 200 persons: loss over
$
OO.OOO,uOO.. . _ _ . . . . .. ., Oct. 8-9. ] 871
Great fire In Boston; over 800
buildings bm-ned; loss,
8n,-
000,000........ ........ . .Xov. 9, ]872
Brooklyn (
. Y.) Theatre burn-
ed;
W:; lives lost... . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1876
Jacksonville, Fla.; ]4R hloeks
burned over: loss, $10.000.o00
lay 3, 1901
Chicago, Ill.; Iroquois Theatre:
573 liv('s lost............. . Dec. 30, 1903
Baltimore, Md.; area of 1:! by
{) city blocks In business sec-
tion burned over; Insurance
loss, $30,riOO.ooO........... Feb. 7-8, 1904
New York; s(eamb.Jat (11 n('/"(/I
Slocum. b{'uring
unday-
Rchool e'(cursion. burned: !1:ïH
lives lost................. .June 15. 1904
First Republic in America, 1718-1 i üH.
See NEW ORLEANS.
Fish, HAMILTON, statesman; son of
Col. Kicholas Fish; horn in New York

---

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l/r
J "

BA1IILTOS FISH.

City, Aug. 3, 1808; graduated at Co-
lumbia College in 1827; admitted to the
bar in 1830; and "as elected to Congl ess
in 1842. In 1848 he was chosen governor

-,,\
- "

NICHOLAS FISH.

of the State of New 101"k, and in 18;)1
became a member of the Uuited :-;tates
Senate, acting with the Republican party
after its formation in 183ü. He was a
firm supporter of the govemment during
the Ci\"ÏI \Var, and in
Iarch, 18G9, was
called to the cabinet of l>resident Grant
as Secretary of State, and remained in
that post eight years, during which time
he assisted materially in settling various
disputes with Great Britain, of whidl
the "A.labama claims" controversy was
the most important. He was president-
general of the Society of the Cincinnati.
and for many ycars presiù('nt of the New
York Historical Ho('iety. He dipd in Kew
York City, Sept. 7, 1
!I:t
Fish, NIl;IIOLAR, military ofli('pr; born
ill Xf'W York City, Aug.
.
, li.)
; stuùied
law in the oflice of ,John
lorin Scott, and
'
'as on his staff a-s aide in the 8prin
of
li7G. In ,Tune he was made brigaùe-
major, and in Xm'emhpr major of the 2d
}\pw York Uegiment.
Iajor Fisll was in
the battles at Saratoga in I7ii; was di-
,ision inspector in 17i8; and commanded
a corps of light infantry in the battle of
l\Ionmouth. lIe served in Su11ivan's ex-
3 _<>
1-

FISH DAM FORD-FISBER, FORT

pedition in 1770; under Lafayette, in Vir-
ginia, in 1781; and was at the sur-
render of Cornwallis, behadng gallantly
during the siege. For many years after
1786, Fish, who had become lieutenant-
colonel during the war, was adjutant-
general of the State of New York, and
was appointed supervisor of the United
States revenue in I ï94. In 1797 he be-
came president of the Xew York State
Cincinnati Society. He died in New
York City, .Tune 20, 1833.
Fish Dam Ford, S. C., BATTLE AT. An
engagement between the ..\.mericans under
General Sumter, and the British under Gen-
eral \Vemyss, which was fought Nov. 12,
1780, and resulted in an American victory.
Fisher, FORT, an extensive earthwork on
a point of sandy land between the Cape
Fear Rh;er at its mouth and the ocean,

The powder-ship was the Louisiana, a pro-
peller of 29,j tons, having an iron hull.
She was disguised as a blockade-runner.
To have the powder above the water-line,
a light deck was built for the purpose.
On this was first placed a row of barrels
of powder, standing on end, the upper
one open. The remainder of the pow-
der was in canvas bags, holding about
60 lbs. each, the whole being stored
as represented in the engraving, in which
the form of the vessel is also delineated.
The whole weight of the powder was 215
tons. To communicate fire to the whole
mass simultaneously, four separate threads
of the Gomez fuse were woven through it,
passing through each separate barrel and
bag. At the stern and under the cabin
was a heap of pine wood (H) and other
combustibles, which were to be fired by

THE POWDER-SHIP.

the land-face occupying the whole width the crew when thq should leR\'e the ves.
of the capp known as Fpderal Point, and sel. Three de\-iccs were usprl for com.
armed with twenty heavy guns. All municating fire to the fuses, namcly
along the land-front (1864) was a stock- clock-work hy which a percussion-cap was
ade, and on the sea-front were the wrecks exploded;
h()rt Rpermaceti candle!'!, which
of several blockade-runners. It was late burnpd down and ignited the fusps at the
in 1864 when a.n attempt was made to same tinw: and a slow match that
close the port of Wilmington against Eng- worked in tiuw with the candles and the
lish blockade-runners by capturing this clock-work. The powder-\-es!'('l followed
fort and its dependencies. The expedition a blockadc-runnpr and was anchored with-
spnt against the fort consisted of a power- in 300 yards of the fort, according to the
ful fleet under Admiral Porter and a land report of Commamkr Rhind. When the
ff.rce under the immediate command of combustihles were fin>d and the apparatus
Om. Godfrey Weitzel, of the Army of the for igniting the fuses were put in mo.
James, accompanied by Gen. B. F. Rutler tion, the crew (',.;eap('(\ in a swift little
as commander of that army. The whole steamer employpd for the purpose. The
force was gathered in Hampton Roads explosion took place in one hour and fift,v-
early in Decernher. The troops consisted two minutes after the crew left. Xotwith-
of r.eneral Ames's division of the 24th standing the concussion of the explosion
Army Corps and General Paine's division broke window-glassps in a nsspl 12 rnil('!'!
of the 25th (colored) Corps. The war- distant, and the whole flppt, at that dis-
vessels were wooden ships. iron-cIad
. tancp. felt it, :lIld it was al!"o f{'It on land.
monitors. gunboats, and a powder-ship, at Bpilllfort and N('whprn, from (i() to RO
destinpd to be hlown up ahr('ast of the miles di!'tant, tlll're was no perceptible
fort with a hope of destructive effect. effect upon the fort.
373

FISHER, FORT

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LASDl
G TROOI'S AT FOkT }'ISlIt:R.

The appointed rendeZ\ous of the ex- the command of GE
. ALFRED H. TERRY
pcdition was 25 miles off the coast, fac- (q. v.), with the addition of a brigade of
ing Fort Fisher, so as not to be discov- 1,400 men. Lieutenant-Colonel Comstock,
ered by the Confederates until read;)' for of General Grant's staff', who accompanied
action. There was a delay in the arrival the first expedition, was made the chief-
of the war vessels, and the transports, cngineer of this. The expedition left
coaled and watered for only ten days, Hampton Roads, Jan. 6, 18(1:), and rendez-
were compelled to run up to Beaufort \"01l8ed off Beaufort, N. C., where Porter
Harbor, N. C., for both, the fleet remain- ,'as taking in supplies of coal and ammu-
ing off Fort Fisher. The transports re- nition. The
T were all detained by rough
turned on Christmas evening; the next weather, and did not appear off Fort
morning the war vessels opened a bom- F
8her until the enning of the 12th. The
hardment, and at 3 P.M. the troops be- nav
', taught by e:\'pericnce, took a posi-
gan their debarkation two miles abo,'e tion where it could better affect the land
the fort. Only a part of the troops front of th<> fort than hefore. Und('r
had been landed when the surf ran too cover of the fire of the fleet. S,OOO troops
high to permit more to go ashore. These were landed (.Tan. 13). T<>rry wisely pro-
marched down to attack the fort. Not a vided against an attack in the rear by
gun had been di;;mounted, and, as they casting up intrenchments across the
were read)' to rake the narrow peninsula penin!'ula alld securing the frce use of
on which the troops stood the moment l\Iasollhoro Inlet. where, if nec('ssary,
the fleet S110Uld withhold its fire. pm- troops and fmpplies might be landed in
dence seemed to require the troops to with- 8tiJI water. On the eH'nin:! of the 14th
draw. They did so, and were ordered to thp light gun
were landed. and before
the James River to assist in the siege morning were in hatter.". \\Ï
ely p1anned
of PETERSBI:'RH (q. v.), and the expedition b
Terr
, a grand assault was made on
oÌ the land force against Fort Fisher was the morning of the l;)th.
temporari1y abandoned. It was re
UJned The war-ships opened the battle on the
ten dav
afterwards. The war v('ssels had 14th. The.'" kept up a hombardment all
remai";ed off Fort Fish('r. The snmf' dRY. !'If'wrpl,\' rlamaging t1u> g\IIlR of the
troops, led by \Yeitzel, were placed umler fort and
ilencing most of them. The
374

iron-clads fired slowly throughout the
night, worrying and fatiguing the garri-
s('n, and at eight o'clock in the morning
(.fan. 15) the entire naval force moved
up to the attack. Meanwhile, 1,400 ma-
rines and 600 sailors, armed with re-
volvers, cutlasses, and carbines, were sent
from the ships to aid the troops in the
assault. Ames's division led in the as-
sault, which began at half-past three
P.M. The advance carried shovels and dug
rifle-pits for shelter. A heavy storm of
musketry and cannon opened upon the
assailants. The fleet had effectually de-
stroyed the palisades on the land front.
Sailors and marines assailed the north-
east bastion, and with
this assault began the
fierce struggle. The gar-
rison used the huge tra-
verses that had shielded
their cannon as breast-
works, and over these
the combatants fired in
each other's faces. The
struggle was desperate
anrl continued until nine
o'c]ock, when the Na-
tiona]s, fighting their
way into the fort, gain-
ed full possession of it.
All the other works
near it were rendered un-
tenab]e; and during the
night (Jan. 16-17) the
Confederates blew up
Fort Caswell, on the
right bank of Cape Fear
River. They abandoned
the other works and fled
towards Wi] mington.
The Nationa] loss in this
last attack was 681 men,
of whom eigh ty-eigh t
were killed. On the
morning succeeding the
victory. when the Nation-
a]s were pouring into
the fort, its principal
magazine exploded, kill-
ing 200 men and wound-
ing 100. The fleet lost
about 300 men during
the action and by the ex-
plosion. The loss of the
Confederates was report-

'7

FISHER

ed by Genera] Terry as over 2,000 prison-
ers, 16D pieces of artillery, over 2,000
small-arms, and commissary stores. The
port of Wilmington was then effectively
clo!"ed to blockade-runners.
Fisher, JOSHUA FRA
(,IS, author; born
in Philade]phia, Pa., Feb. 1 i, 1807; grad-
uated at Harvard Collegc in lR25; studied
law but never practised. His publication,.;
include An Account of the Early Ports and
Poetry of Pennsylvania
' Private Life awl
Domestic Habits of William Penn; Tltr
Degradation of our Reprcsentatiæ System
and Its R('form
' Reform of J[ unicip(7l
Elections; and Nomination of ('undid"t".s.
He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 21, 1873.

w

n. Bu.....anan

(

FORI' FJSBf:R

--I

MAP OF FOUT FISRF:R AND VICI'-ITY.
375

FISHER-FISHER'S HILL

Fisher, REDWOOD S., statistician; born
in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1782. Edited a
:Kew York daily newspaper. He wrote The
Progress of the United States of .4.merica
from the Earliest Periods, Geographical,
Statistical, and Historical, and was editor
of a Gazetteer of the United States. He
died in Philadelphia, Pa., :hIa
' 17,
1856.
Fisher, SYDXEY GEORGE, author; born
in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 11, 1856; grad-
uated at Trinit
, College in lf
iD; is the

have just sent the enemy whirling through
\\închester, and are after them to-mor-
row." He kept his word, and appeared in
front of Fisher's Hill on the 22d. There
Eurly was strongly intrenched. Sheridan
Sf'nt Crook's corps to gain the left and
rear of the position. and advanced to thc
attack of thc left and front, with Wright's
and Emory's corps. The assault began at
four o'clock. The Confederate line was
Soon brokcn, and the entire force retreat-
ed in disorder up the Yalle
', If'aYing he-

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SHERIDA:II'S CAVALRY AT FISln:R'8 RILL.

author of The .1/aJ.-ing of Pennsylrallia; hind them sixtecn guns and over 1,000
'l'he True Benjamin Pranklin; The Evo- men as prisoners. EarIJ"S army was saved
lution of the Constitution of the United from total df'struction hy thc holding in
States, etc. cllf'ck of Torhf'rt's cavalry in the Luray
Fisher's Hill, ACTIOX AT. '''hen Valle)", and the detention of Wilson's cav-
driven from 'Vinchester (RPe 'YIXCIILSTFR, airy. who fought at Front Royal the day
DATfLE OF) Early did not halt until he hdore (Sept. 21). Sheridan cha
f'd Early
reached Fisher's Hill, be)"ond Strashurg. to POUT REPT:"llLIC (q. v.), where hc de-
and 20 miles from the battle-fip]d. It was Rtrorpd the Confcdf'I"ate train of se\-enty-
"trongly fortifif'll. anll was considered the five wagons. Thence his cavalry pm'suerl
n10st impr('gnahlc po
ition in the valley. as far as Staunton. \\ here the remnant of
In his (If'spatch to the :-:f'cretarr of "'ar Earl,v's armJ' sought and found sh('ltf'r in
(Sept. 19, I8ü-t) Sheridan "rotc: .. "-e the pa
sf's of the DIne Ridgf'. The Ka-
3i6

tional cavalry destroyed a vast amount
of supplies at Staunton, passed on to
Waynesboro, and laid waste the Virginia
C e n tr a I R a i I way. Then
Sheridan's whole army

'ent down the Shenandoah
Valley, making his march
a track of desolation. He
had been instructed to leave
nothing "to invite the
enemy to return." He
placed his forces behind
Cedar Creek, halfway be-
tween Strasburg and Mid-
dletown. Early's cavalry
had rallied, under Rosser,
and hung upon Sheridan's
rear as he moved down the
valley. Torbert and his
cavalry turned upon them
( Oct. 9) and charged the
Confederates, who fled, leav-
ing behind them 300 prison-
ers, a dozen guns, and
nearly fifty wagons. They
were chased 26 miles. Three
days later Early attempted
to surprise Sheridan, while
resting at Fisher's HiJJ,
\\"h('n the Confederates were
senre]y ehastised.
Fisheries, TIlE. The in-
terruption of the fisheries
formed one of the elements
of the Revolutionary War
and promisf'd to be a mark-
ed consideration in any
treaty of peace with Great
Britain. Public law on the
suhjf'ct had not hef'n set-
tIed. By the treaty of
Ctrecht France had agreed
not to fish within 30
leagues of the coast of
Kova Scotia; and by thut of Paris not morial usage. New Eng]and, at the begin-
tu fish within 15 leagues of Cape Breton. ning of the war, had, by act of Parlia-
Yergennes, in a, letter to Luzerne, the ment, been debarred from fishing on the
French minister at Philadelphia, had said: banks of Newfoundland, and they claimed
"The fishing On the high seas is as free that, in any treaty of peace, these fish-
as the sea itself, but the coast fisheries eries ought to he considered as a. perpetual
bElong, of right, to the proprietors of the joint property. Indeed, :Kew England had
coast; therefore, the fisheries on the coasts planned, and furnished the forces for. the
of Kewfoundland, of Kova Scotia, and of first reduction of Cape Breton, and had
Canada helong exclusively to the English, rendered conspicuous assistance in the
:lllli th(' Americans have no pretension acquisition of Nova Scotia and Canada. hr
whatever to share in them." But the tIle English. The Congress, On ::\larch 23,
377

FISHERIES

Americans had almost alone enjoyed these
fisheries, and deemed that they had gained
a right to them by exclusive and imme-

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PLAN OF ACTION AT FISHER'S HILL.

FISHERIES-FISHING BOUNTIES

17i9, in committee of the whole, agreed fish and fisheries for the fiscal year end.
that the right to fish on the coasts of ing June 30, lUOO, but principaIly coyer-
Noya Scotia, the banks of Kewfoundland, ing the calendar Yl'ar IS!)!}, shows that the
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the national government distributed I,Hi-1,-
straits of Labrador and Belle Isle, should 33G,754 fish, an increase, principally of
in no case be given up. In the final treaty shad, cod, flat-fish, white-fish, and lake
of peace (1783) the fishery question was trout, of about 100,000,000 over the pre-
s<1tisfactorily settled. yious year. The stocking of suitable
In the summer of 18-1.) some iIl-feelin
streams with various species of trout was
was engendered between the "Cnited Statcs continued, special attention heing paid to
and Great Britain concermng the fisher- the distribution of hrook. rainbow, awl
ies on the coasts of Briti<;h America in the hlack-spotted trout. The amount of capi-
East. American fishernH'n were charg('d tal invested in the fisheries of the
e'"
with a violation of the treaty of HIl8 Fngland States was $1!Ui37,03ü. There
with Great Britain. which stipulated that were 33,.H3 persons emplo.yed in the in-
they should not ca
t their lines or neb in dustry and 1,427 ves",els, \ alued with their
the bays of the British provinces, except equipment at $-1,22-1.330. The total prod-
at the distance of 3 miles or more uct, chiefly in cod. cusk. haddock, and
from shore. Kow the llritish Government pollock, aggregated 3!13,3,í5,570 Ibs., valued
i'laimed the right to lhaw a line from at $!I,G72,70
. The oyster fisheries of
headland to headland of these bays, and Rhode lslaml and ConnectIcut yielded
to exclude the Americans from the waters catches ,'alued at $1,01O,G84. The lobster
within that line. It had been the common fisheries
'ielded $1,27G.900. On the Great
practice, without interference, before, for Lakes 3,728 person
and 104- vessels were
.\merican fishermen to catch cod within engaged, representing an investment of
large hays, where the
' could easily carry

,71!),{ì00, and in the calcudar year IH!I!I
on their vocation at a greater distance the catches amounted to 58,303,000 Ibs.,
than 3 miles from the shore; no\\ this ,'alued at $1,150,R90. About 13.000,000
new interpretation would exclude them lake-trout eggs were collected on the
from all ba.vs. The British government spawning grounds of Lake Michigan, and
sent an armed naval force to sustain this more than 12,000,000 on those of Lake
claim, and American vessels were threat- Superior, and at the Lake Erie station
f'Iled with seizure if they did not comply. more than 337,S:J8,000 white-fish eggs
The government of the United States, re- were hatched and the fry liberated, a gain
:!al ding the assumption as iI1egal, sent two of 2,000,000 over the previous year. For
war steamers, Princeton and Fulton, to the Pacific coast fishpries more than
the coast of Noya Scotia to protect the 10,000,000 sockeye and bluehack salmon
rights of American fishermen. For a fry were hatclH'd and ph1nted in Baker
time \\ar between the two governnH'ntR Lake, \Vashington, and in Skagit Hiver.
seemed inevitable, but the dispute was During the calendar year HIOO the yield
amicably settled by mutual concessions in of Falmon was 2.R43,132 cases. ,-alued at
October. IS;):t Sce ALASKA: AXGIO- $2.348,1-12. The American fur -
('al herd
rhIERICA
CO!lC\U:::'SIOX; TIEIUXO
EA in the wa t('r8 of Alaska continued to de-
Qn:STIOx: HALIFAX FISUIXG AWARf). ('reasp in numbers through the mainte-
The fisheri('s industries of the rnitf'1l n:l nce of Iwlagic sealing.

tates in HIOO were chiefly carri{'d on in Fishing Bounties. Tn 17f12 an aet of
three sections known as the Xew England, ('ongrpss re-f'stahli!'hed the old system of
the Pacific coast. and tlw Great Lakl'''' hounties to which t'\P .\merican fisherman
fisheries. The Cnited States O'ü\'ernment harl bf>en a('custOJnpd undpr the British
for several Yf'ars has been lib
rany pro- government. All vesspls employed for the
moting the fishery industry. and several of term of fOil I' months. at least, in each
the States, ha"ing large capital invested year, on the KpwfO\lIldland hanks. and
therein, have been rendering independent other cod-fisheries, were entitled to a
assistance, both the national and 8tat(' bounty varying from $1 to $2.:i0 per ton,
gm'prnments maintaining large hatcher- acconling to their si7p. th1"pe-pighths to
ies. The report of the commissioner of go to the 0\\ ners and fi,'e-eighths to the
37M

FISHING CREEK-FITCH

fishermen. The national benefit of the
fisheries as a nursery for seamen in case
of war was urged as the chief argu-
ment in favor of the uounties. That
benefit was very conspicuous when the
war with Great Britain occurred in
1812-]5.
Fishing Creek, ACTION AT. When
General Gates was approaching Camden
in 1780 he sent General Sumter with a
detachment to intercept a convoy of stores
passing from Kinety-six to Rawdon's
('amp at Camden. Sumter was successful.
He captured forty-four wagons loaded with
clothing and made a numuer of prisoners.
On hearing of the defeat of Gates. Sumter
continued his march up the Catawba
Hiver and encamped (Aug. 18) near the
mouth of Fishing Creek. There he was
surprised by Tarleton. and his troops were
routed with great slaughter. l\Iore than
fifty were killed and 300 were made
prisoners. Tarleton recaptured the Brit-
ish prisoners and all the wagons and their
contents. Sumter escaped, and in such
haste that he rode into Charlotte, N. C.,
without hat or saddle.
Fisk, CLIXTON BOWEN, lawyer; born
in Gl'iggsville, N. Y., Dec. 8, 1828; re-
JIIon>d with his parents to :Michigan while his father died and thrE'e years later
a child, where he became a successful his mother married Edwin \V. Stoughton,
mf'rchant; removed to St. Louis in 1830. of New York. The same year the boy,
In 1
(il he was commissioned colonel of whose name was Edmund Fiske Green,
the
2d 1Ii
i"oouri Regiment; in 1862 was assumed the name of John Fiske, which
promoted brigadier-general; and in 1865 was that of his maternal grandfather.
was bre,-eUed major-general. He was Professor Fiske's works fall under two
deeply interested in educational and tem- heads: philosophical, including the Cosmic
pf'rance n.form; was a founder of Fisk Philosophy,. Idea of ODd, etc.; and his-
Uni,'ersity, Nashville, Tenn.; and was torical, including The f'ritical Period of
the Prohibition candidate for govE'rnor _t rncrican History,. Civil Government ill
of New .Jersey in lR86, and for Pl'eRi- the United States,. The War of Indepclld-
dent of the United States in 1888. enee; The .1mcriean llevolution
' The Re-
lIe died in New York City, July 0, ginnings of J,Teu; England: The Discovery
18nO. uf A 1IIerica
' Old 1 ïrginia and her); eigh-
Fiske, A:\[os KIDDER. author; born in bors. His three essays, The Pcdcral Union
Whitefield, N. II., 11ay 12, 1842; gradu- (q. v.); The Towll-.1/erting; and Manifest
ated at Harvard in 18fi6; admitted to the nf'stin!l, were published in one volume
har in New York in 186H; and engaged in undE'r the title of American Political Ideas
journalism. He is the author of Story from the Stand-point of Uni,'('/"sal History.
of the Philippines; The 1V est Indies, With James Grant Wilson he edited A.p-
('{('. picton's r'yclopa'dia of A.1ncriean Biog-
Fiske, .rOlIX, historian; horn in Hart- 1"0 phy. He died at Gloucester, 'lass.,
font. Conn.. March 31, 1842; graduatE'd Jul:v 4. IH01.
at HalTard in lRG3 and at its J.aw Fitch, .JOIIN, im'E'ntor; born in East
:-'("hool in lR6,J, but newr practised: has \\ïndsor, ('onn.. .Tan. 21. 1743: W:U'I nn
since been identified with that institu- armorer in the military sen-ice during the
379

tion as instructor, lecturer, assistant
librarian, and overseer. Ill' has also been
Professor of American History in \Vash-
ington University, St. Louis, and is a weIl-
known lecturer on historical themes.
He was the son of Edmund Brewster
Green, of Smyrna, De1., and Mary Fiske
Bound, of Middletown, Conn. In 18:)2

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as governor of the colony. He died in
Korwalk. in July. 1777.
Five Forks, BATTLE OF. Sht'ridan had
crossed the A ppomattox from Bermuda
Hundred, and. passing in the rear of the
al my before Petersburg, on the morning
cf l\Iarch
!), 18ü5, had haltcd at Din-
widdie Court-house. A forward mo\-e-
ment of the Kational army had just
begun. 'Yanen and Humphre)'s, with
their corps, had moved at an early hour
that morning against the flanks of the
Confederates, and they bi,-ouacked in
front of the works of their antagoni::.ts,
only ü miles from Dinwiddie Court-housc.
\Vanen had lost 300 men in a fight on
the way. On the next day Plareh :30),
Sheridan sent a party
of cavalry to thc Fivc
Forks, but thc Con fed-
('Tate works there wcre
too strongly armcd anrl
manned to 1)(' rid(len
over, and thc Nat ion-
als wcre driven hack
to the Court - housc.
There was ROllI(' sevpre
fighting that day, with-
out a decisive rc"ult.

heridan was engag('d in
thc struggle, hut at mid-
night h(' wa,,> Ratisfì('d
that Lec was wi tJ\(1ra\\"-
ing his troops, and felt
quite at ('ase. It wao;
kno\\ n at headquartf'rs
that his troops had Ilf'cn
driwn hack from Fi,'c
he diecl in Banlstown, Ky., .July 2, 1798, Forks, and that it was uncertain
leaving behind him a history of his ad- whether he could holel his position.
ventures in thc steamhoat entprprise, in a \\'arren was s('nt to his aid with a
"caled envelope, direeted to "::\Iy children portion of his corps. Ranking 'Vanen,
and future generations," from which Sheridan became commandpr of the whole
Thompson 'Ycstcott, of Philadplphia, pre- force. J
eayjng 'Yanen half-way bctwPf'n
pared a bioe-raphy of Fitch. pnhli!"h('d in Dinwiddie Court-hou!"(' and Five Forks.
lR1i7. Re('
TF.AM ,AVIr.ATIOX. Sh('ridan pre!"
ed holrlly on towa1"lls tlle
Fitch, TlJo
IAs, colonial governor; latter place, with cavalry alone, and
born in Xorwalk. ('onn.. in June, lü!l!); drove the Conf('df'rates into thpir works
graduated at Yale in 1721; elected gov- and em'eloped them with hi.. 0\ prwhelm-
ernor of Connecticut in 1754; and was ing numllf'r of horFcmpn. He then or-
in office twelve years. In 176.3 he took dpred 'Vanen forward to a po!"ition on
the oath as prpscribed in the Stamp .-\ct, J,i
right, !"o as to he fully on the Con-
although his action was oppos('d to the f((lpl":1te left. Hp drove some Con fed-
sentiuH'nt of almost the entire conlTl1nnitv. eratps towards P('tprshnrg. and returned
In 17(if; h(' }"ptired to primte life in cons
- l)(>fore 'Yarren was preparpd to chargl'.
quence of the election of William Pitkin In the afternoon of March 31 Ws.r-
380

FITCH-FIVE FORKS

Re\>olution, and at Trenton, N. J., manu-
faetured slee,'e-bl1ttons. For a while,
near the close of the war, he was a sur-
veyor in Virginia, during which time he
prepal"('(l, engraved on copper, and printed
on a pn'ss of his own manufacture, a map
of the Xorthw('st country. He construct-
pd a stpamhoat in 17Sß. and a year
latPf built anotlwr propelled by six
paddles on each side. A company was
fnr:1wd ( 1788) in Philadelphia, which
cau
ed a steam-packct to ply on the DeJa-
\\are Hi vcr. and it ran for about two
year,,> when the company failed. In 1793
he unsuccessfully tried his steam naviga-
tion projects in France. Disf'Ouragcd, he
went to the '''estern country again, where

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FIVE FORKS, BATTLE OF

MOVEHio:NT TOWARDS FIVE FORKS_

ren moved to the attack. Ayres charged tion of Lee's lines, struck them in the
upon the Confederate right, carried a rear, and captured four guns. liard
portion of the line, and captured more rressed, the Confederates fought gallantly
than 1.000 men and several battle-flags. and with great fortitude. At length the
:Merritt charged the front, and Griffin fell cavalry charged over the works simul-
upon the left with such force that he car- taneously with the turning of their flanks
I"ied the intrenchments and seized 1,500 by Ayres and Griffin, antl, bearing down
men. Crawford, meanwhile, had come for- upon the Confederates with great fury,
wartl, cut off their retreat in the direc- caused a large portion of them to throw

I

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BATTLB OF FI\'I!: FORKS.

381

FIVE NATIONS-FLAG

down their anllS, while the remainder the opposite side is the motto 'Appeal
made a disorderly flight westward, pur- to Hea\-en.''' The Culpeper men, who
sued many miles by Merritt and .:\[cKen- marched with Patrick Henry towards
zie. The Confeùerates lost a large number
of men, killed and wounded, and oyer
5000 were made prisoners. The Nation-
als lost about 1.000, of whom 634 were
kil1ed and wOImdf'ù.
Five Nations, TIlE, the five Algonquian
Indian nations-.:\lohawks, Oneidas, Onon-
dagas, CaJ'ugas, and Henecas-who orig-
inally formed the IRoQroIs CO
FEDERACY
(q. v.). The Five Xations were joined
by the Tuscaroras, from North Carolina,
in 1713, and then the confederacy was
(ailed the SIX NATIONS (q. v.).
Flag, NATIO
AL. Every colony had
its peculiar ensign, and the army and navy
of the united colonies, at first, displayed
various flags, some colonial, others regi-
mental, and others, like the flag at Fort
Sullivan, Charleston Harbor, a blue field
with a silver crescent, for special oc-
casions. The American flag used at the
ùa ttle on Bunker (Breed's) Hill, was
called the "X ew England flag." It was
a blue ground, with the red cross of St.
George in a corner, quartering a white
field, and in the upper dexter quartering
was the figure of a pine-tree. The New
Englanders had also a " pine-tree flag" as
well as a "pine - tree shill ing." The en-
graving below is a reduced copy of
a vignette on a map of Boston, pub-
lished in Paris in 1776. The London
Chronicle, an anti-ministerial paper, in its
issue for January, 1776, gives the follow-
ing descri-ption of the flag of an _-\merican
crniser that had been captured: "In the

Williamsburg to demand instant restora-
tion of powder to the old magazine, or
payment for it by Governor Dunmore,
bore a flag with a rattlesnake upon it.
coiled ready to strike, with Patrick
Henry's words and the words "Don't
tread on me." It is believed that the
first American flag bearing thirteen rE'd
and white stripes was a Union flag prf'-
sented to the Philadelphia Light Horse hy
Capt. Ahraham :)[arkoe. a Dane, probabl
'
early in 1775. A" Cnion flag" is nwn-
tionf'd as ha\'ing been displayed at a gath-
ering of Whigs at f:;avannah in .Tune, 177."),
plobahly thirtf'pT.. f-tripes. The earlif'st
naval flags exhibitpd thirteen alternate
red and white stripes, some with a pinp-
tree upon them, and others with a rattlp-
snake stretched across the field of strip('s.
and hf'neath it the words, either implor-
Admiralty Office is the flag of a provincial ingly or as a warning. "Don't tre:ld on
privateer. The field is white bunting; on me." The new rnion Hag raisf'd at Cmn-
tllP middlp i,öl :I
rf'en pinf'-trep. and upon hritlge, Jan. I, 1776, was f'Omposf'.l d tlti r-

2

\

IØI,

I.J:,
{

THR 'KW .'XGr.A!\oV FLAG.

Jf'Y
(I I
\.

.......v'

II ,

, I

1i 'í i
"
.A\
'
J . ',',
-t
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:\

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- /.

THE PINE-TRKE FLAG.

FLAG, NATIONAL

teen alternate red and white stripes. with
the English union in one corner.
Finally, the necessity of a national
flag was felt, especially for the marine
service, and the Continental Congress
adopted the following resolution, June 14,
1777: "Nesolved, that the flag of the
rnited States be thirteen stripes, alter-
nate red and white; that the union be
thirteen stars, white, on a blue field, repre-
senting a new constellation." There was
a dilatoriness in displaying this flag. The
resolution was not officially promulgated
over the signature of the secretary of the
Congress until Sept. 3, though it was
previously printed in the newspapers. This
was more than a year after the colonies
had been declared free and independent.
Probably the first display of the national
flag at a military post was at Fort Schuy-
ler, on the site of the present city of Rome,
N. Y. The fort was besieged early in Au-
gust, 1777. The gar-
rison were without a
flag, so they made
one according to the
prescription of Con-
gress by cutting up
sheets to form the
white stripes, bits of
scarlet cloth for the
red stripes, and the blue ground for the
stars was composed of portions of a cloth
cloak belonging to Capt. Abraham Swart-
wout, of Dutchess county, N. Y. This flag
was unfurled over the fort on Aug. 3.
1777. Paul .Tones was appointed to the
Ranger on June 14, 1777, and he claimed
that he was the first to display the stars
\tnd stripe
on a naval vessel. The Ranger
flailed from Portsmouth, N. H., on Nov. playing the national Hag in a port of
1, 1 i77. It is probable that the na- Great Britain. He arrived in the Downs,
tional flag was first unfurled in battle with it flying at the fore, .Feb. 3, 1783.
on the banks of the Brandywine, F;ept. That flag was first carried to the East
11, 1777, the first battle after its adop- Indian seas in the Enterprise (an Albany-
tion. built vessel), Capt. Stewart Dean, in 178;).
It first appeared over a foreign strong- "'hen Vermont and Kentucky were added
hold, June 28, 1778, when Captain Rath- tú the union of States the flag was alterE'd.
bone, of the American sloop-of-war Provi- By an act of Congress ( Jan. 13, 17D4) the
denr(>, with his crew and some esca,pE'd number of the stripE'S and stars in the
prisoners, captured Fort Nassau, New flag was increased from thirteen to fifteen.
Pl"Ovidence, Bahama Islands. The captors The act went into effect May 1, 179.3.
wel'e meJHH'ed by the people, when the From that time until 1818, when therE'
stan; and stripes were nailed to the flag- were twenty States, the number of the
Rtaff in defiance. John Singleton Copley, stars and stripes remained the samE'. .\
the Ameri(':m-horn painter, in London. ('olllll1it t('t' appointed to revise 11le !-.t:lwl.
:Is:!

THE CULPEPER FLAG.

claimed to be the first to display the
tars
and stripes in Great Britain. On the day
when George III. acknowlE'dged the inde-
pendence of the Cnited States, Dec. 5,
} ï82, he painted the flag of the United
States in the background of a portrait of
Elkanah Watson. To Captain Mooers, of
the whaling-ship Bedford, of Kantucket,
is doubtless due the honor of first dis-

THE NATIOXAL FLAG.

FLAGG-FLETCHER

ard indted Capt. Samuel C. Reid, the in Montana, on a reservation comprising
brave defender of the privateer Armstrong, nearly 1,500,000 acres, and numbered
to devise a new flag. He retained the 1,998.
original thirteen stripes, but added a star Fleet, THOMAS, printer; born in Eng-
for every State. That has been the device land, Sept. 8, 1685; became a printer in
of the flag of the United States ever since. Bristol, England, but emigrated to Boston,
III 1901 the field of the flag contained Mass., in 1712, where he established a
forty-five stars. printing-office. He married Elizabeth
Flagg, \VILSON, naturalist; born in Goose, June 8, 1715. In 1719 he conceived
Beverly, Mass., Nov. 5, 180.3; \Vas edu- the idea of publishing the songs which
cated at Phillips Andover Academy; en- his mother-in-law had been singing to his
b::red Harvard in 1823 and three months infant son. The book was issued under
later left that college to study medicine, the title of Songs for the Nursery
' or,
which he never practised. '''hen a young Mother Goose's Melodies for Children.
man he lectured on natural science, and Printed by']'. Fleet, at his Printing-House,
made a pedeE'trian tour from Tennessee P1tdding Lane, 1719. Price, tu;o coppers.
to Virginia and then home. Later he be- In connection with his printing-office he
came interested in political discussions established the n' eekly Rehearsal, which
and contributed articles to the Boston was afterwards changed in title to Boston
Weekly Magazine and the Boston Post. Evening Post. He continued as pro-
He was employed in the Boston custom- prietor and editor of this paper until his
house from 1844 to 1848, and removed to death, July 21, 1758.
Cambridge, Mass., in 1856. Among his Fleetwood, BATTLE AT. See BRANDY
publications are l:;tudies in the Field and STATION.
1'or('st; Woods and Ry-lVays in Kew Eng- Fleming, THOMAS, military officer;
land, etc. He died in Cambridge, Mass., born in Botetourt county, Va., in 1727;
1\la.,- 6, IRS4. took part in the great battle of Point
Flanagan, \fEllSTER, politician; born Pleasant in 1774 between 1,000 Indians,
in Chn erpurt, Ky., Jan. 9, 18:
2; removed lImler Cornstalk, and 400 whites, under
to Texas in 1844; held many State offices. Gen. Andrew Lewis. DurinO' the fiaht
He was in the Cunft-derate army as Colonel Fleming was severply ,;oUlllled,
ne
brigadier-genf'raL \Ir-. Flanagan was one ball passing through his breast and anoth-
of the historic 304 " Grant (juard " at the er through his arm. At the outbreak of
Chicago convention in 1880, who voted for the Revolutionary 'Yar he was made colo-
Grant's renomination from the first to the nd of the 9th Virginia Regiment, but in
last ballot. He dpnounced civil-service re- consequence of dispase and wounds, died
form, and became famous by his question, in camp in August, 1776.
"'''hat are we here for?" Fletcher, BEXJA
.nX, colunial governor;
Flanders, HE:'olRY, lawyer; born in \\-as a soldier of fortune; receÏwd the ap-
I;lainfield, N. H., Fpb. 13, lR
6; prae- pointment of governor of Rew York from
tiscd law in Philadelphia Eince 18.30. He "'iJJiam amI
Iarv in IG!}2. anù arrin'd
is the author of IJives of the Chief-Jus- at l\ew York City on Aug. 2!) of that
tices of the United States; 11emoirs of ;year; later in the J'p:lr was :t1!òo ('olUmi
-
('zl1nberland " EJ'!lOsition of the United f,iüned to assume tIt(' gonrnmpnt of Penn-
Htates Constitution, ptc. syh'ania and the annp
('d tprritories; and
Flathead Indians, a division of the made his first visit to Philadplphia in
CHOCTAW (q. v.) tribp; named hpcam!(' of April. 16!)3. Fletcher was a colond in
their habit of compressing thp heads of the llritish army. Possesspd of violent
their male infants; also the namp of a paf,sions, he was w('ak in judgment,
hrandl of the Sa1ishan stock. The former greedy, dishonest. and cowanH
'. He fpH
di,'ision were (.ngaged on hoth sides in the natumJJy into the hands of the aristo-
French and Indian eont('sts enùing in 1763. cratic party, and his council was com-
The second branch li,-ed in llritish Colum- posed of the enemies of Leisler. The reck-
bia,
Iontana, "'ashington, and Oregon. lessnes
of his administration, his avarice,
In IDOO five branches of the Choctaw cli- his e,-ident prostitution of Ilis office to
vision were located at the Flathead a
cn('y personal gain, disgusted all parties. He
384

I'LE'l'OBER-FLEt1:a Y

continual]y quarrelled with the l,opular
Assembly, and his whole administration
was unsatisfactory. The Quaker-governed
Assembly of Pennsylvania thwarted his
schemes for obtaining money for making
war on the French; and he was fort-
unately led by Co!. Peter Schuyler in all
his military undertakings. The Assembly
of Connecticut denied his right to control
their militia; and late in the autumn of
l693 he went to Hartford with Colonel
Bayard and others from New York, and
in the presence of the train-bands of that
city, commanded by Captain Wadsworth,
he directed (so saJ's tradition) his com-
mission to be read. Bayard began to read,
when \Yadsworth ordered the drums to be
beaten. "Silence!" said Fletcher, angrily.
\"hen the reading was again begun,
" Drum! drum!" cried \Yadsworth. "Si-
lence!" again shouted Fletcher, and
threatened the captain with punishment.
\Vadsworth stepped in front of the gov-
ernor, and, with his hand on the hilt of
his sword, he said: "If my drummers are
again interrupted, I'll make sunlight shine
tlJrough you. We deny and defy J'our
authority." The cowed governor sullenly
folded the paper, and with his retinue re-
turned to Kew York.
With a pretended zeal for the cause of
religion, Fletcher procured the passage of
an act by the Assembly for building
churches in various places, and under it
the English Church and preaching in Eng-

was erected. During Fletcher's admlnll!l-
tration, pirates infested American waters;
and he was accused not onlJ' of winking
at violations of the navigation laws, but
of favoring the pirates, for private gain.
They sometimes found welcome in the
harbor of New York, instead of being
seized and punished. \Vhen Bellomont,
after the treaty of Ryswick, came over
as governor of :1\Iassachusetts, he was
commissioned to investigate the conduct
of Fletcher and to succeed him as gov-
ernor, and he sent him to England under
arrest. The colony felt a relief when he
was gone, for his career had been marked
by misrule and profligacy.
Fletcher, \VILLIA],[ ISAAC, librarian;
born in Burlington, Vt., April 28, 1844;
became librarian of Amherst College; is
the author of Public Libraries in Amer-
ira, and joint editor of Poole's Index to
Periodical Literature, and editor of the
A. L. A. Index to General Literature.
Fleury, LOUIS, CHEVALIER AND VIS-
COUNT DE, military officer; born in
Limoges, France, about 1740; was edu-
cated for an engineer, and, coming to
America, received a captain's commission
from \Yashington. For his good conduct
in the campaign of 1777, Congress gave
him a horse and commission of lieutenant-
colonel, Nov. 26, 1777; and in the winter
of 1778 he was inspector under Steuben.
He was adjutant-general of Lee's division
in June, 1779, anù was so distinguished

MF.DAL AWARDED TO LlEUTENANT-COLOYF.L DE FI.F.I'RY.

Hsh were introduced into New York. at the assault on :-;tony Point, July, 1779,
Trinity Church was organized under the that Congress gave him thanks and a
act, and its present church edifice stands silver medal. De Fleury returned to
upon the ground where the first structurp France soon after the affair at Stony
111.-2 B 38.3

FLINT-FLOATING BATTERIES

Point, befure the medal was struck; and
it was probably ne\'er in his possession,
for it Sf'ems to ha\"e been lost, probably
while Congress was in session at Prince-
ton. In April, IH;)B, a boy found it while
digging in a garden at Princetun. Dc
}'leury, on his return to France, joined
the French troops under Rochambeau
sent to America in I i
O. Bubsequently
he became a field marshal of France, and
\\ as e
ecuted in Paris, in I i94-.
Flint, HE:\'nY
IARTY:\', author; born in
Philadelphia, Pa., l\Iarch 24, 182fJ; studied
law and settled in Chicago, where he edited
the Times in 18,);)-61. He was the author
of a Life of fojtephcn L Douglas
' The
History and :statistics of the Nailroads of
the United Statc8: and Mexico undcr Jlaæ-
imilian. lIe died in Camden, X. J., Dec.
12, 18G8.
Flint, TaWTHY, clergyman; born in
Reading, Mass., July II, Iï80; grad-
uated at Harvard in 1880: became minis-
ter of the Congregational Church at Lu-
nenburg, l\Iass.. in 1802, but resigned in
1814. He went 'Vest as a missionary, but
was obliged to givc up in consequence of
ill health. He tlwn de\ oted himself to lit-
erature, and edited the 1rcst-
ern Review in Cincinnati,
and, for a short time, the
Knickerbocker Magazine in

ew York. Among his publi-
cations are Recollections 0;
Ten Years Passed in the r al-
Icy of the J1 ississippi
' Biog-
raphy and History of the
1Vestern States in the JIissis-
sippi r alley ( 2 volumes);
Indian Wars of the West;
Jlemoir of LJanirl Boone, etc. He died in floating battery submitted by Robcrt Ful.
Salem, :Mass., Aug. lG, 18tO. ton was appro\t'd by naval officers. It
Floating Batteries. The first Ameri- was in the form of a steamship of pecul-
can floating battery was seen in the iar construction, that mi
ht movc at the
Charles. River, at Boston, in October, 1775. rate of 4 miles an hour, and furnished, in
\Vashington had ordered the construction addition to its regular armament, with
of two, to assist in the siege of the Kew suhmarine guns. Her construction was
England capital. They "ere armed amI ordered by Congress, amI she was built at
manned. and on Oct. 21i opened fire on the the !>hip-yard of Adam and Xoah Brown..
town, producing much constcrnation. at Corlear's Hook, Kew ). ork, under the
They appear to have been madc of strong
upel"\"ision of Fulton. f'he was launched
planks, pierc('d near the water-line for Oct. 2!1. 1814. Her machir,ery was tested
oars, and further up were port-holes for in ::\Iay following, and on July 4, 1815,
musketry and the admission of light. A she made a trial-trip of 53 miles to the
heavy gun was placed in each end. and ocmn and back, going at the rate of 6
upon the top were four swivels. The en- miles an hour. This vessel was caned
3RG

8ign was the pine-tree flag. Colonel Reed,
writing to Colonel )Ioylan, on Oct. 20,
Iii,), said: "Please to fix some particu-
lar culor for a flag and a signal, oy which
our vessels may know each other. '''hat
do you think of a flag with a white ground,
a tree in the middle, and the motto · An
Appeal to Heaven?' This is the !lag of
our floating batteries." When the ""ar of
1812-15 broke out, the subject of harbor
defences occupied much of the attention
of citizens of the American coast towns,
('speciany in the city of New York.
Among the scientific men of the day, John
Stevf>ns and Robert Fulton appear con-

picuous in proposing plans for that pur-
pose. Earlier than this (in 1807), Abra-
ham llIoodgood, of Albany, suggested th

construction of a floating revolving bat-
tery not unlike, in its essential character,
the revolving turret built by Captain
Ericsson in the winter of 18ül-(J
. In

Iarch, 1814, Thomas Gregg, of Pl'nnsyh"a-
nia, obtaincd a pa tent for a proposed iron-
clad steam vessel-of-war, resembling in
figure the gunboats and rams used during
the Civil War.
At about the same time a plan of a

---

rd

..
,

II

_c

THE FIRST A
ERICA
FL(}ATIXG HATTERY.

Pulton tll" First. Rhe IIIpasured 145 feel
on deck and .).') f('et breadth of heam: drew
only R fppf of \\ a tel': mounted t hirty :l
-
pounder earronadps. and two l'olulllbiads of
100 ]hs. each. She was to
be commanded by ('
ll,í.ain
Porter. It was a struct-
ure resting upon two
boats on keels, separated
from end to end by a
channel 15 feet wide and
üO feet long. One boat
contained the boiler for
gcnerating steam, which --
was made of copper. The
c- _

machinery occupied the -:

other boat. The water-
wheel (A) revolved in the
space between them. The
main or gun deck sup-
ported the armament. and
was protected by a parapet 4 fcet 10 inches charge 100 gallons of boiling- "atcr in a
thick. of solid timber, pierced by embras- few minutes, and by mechanism bran-
ures. dishes 300 cutlasses with the utmost regu-
Through twentJ--fh-e port-holes were as larity over her gunwales; works, also, an
many 3
-pounders. intended to fire red- equal number of pikes of great length,
hot shot, which could be heated with great darting them from her sides with prodi-
safety and com'enience. Her upper or gious force, and withdrawing them every
"'par deek. upon which many hundred men quarter of a minute."
might parade, was encompassed with a The Confederates of South Carolina con-
bulwark for safety. She was rigged with structed a floating battery in Charleston
two I:>tout masts, each of which supported harbor in the winter of ISü!. It was a
a large lateen-yard and sails. She had curious monster, made of heavy pine
two bowsprits and jibs. and four rud- timber, filled in with palmetto-logs, and
ders, one at each extremity of each boat, covered with a double layer of railroad
so that she might be iron. It appeared like an immense shed,
steered with
ither 2;, feet in width. and, with its appendage,
end forcmost. Her about 100 feet in length. It mounted in
machinery was eal- its front (which s]opcd inwards from its
culated for an aJdi- iron-clad roof) four enormous siege-guns.
tional engine. whieh The powder magazine was in the rear, be-
might discharge :1Il lúw thp water-line, and at its extremity
immcnse volume of was a platform cow'red with sand-bags,
water which it W.1S to protect its men and balance the heavy
intended to thro'w guns. Attached to it was a. floating h08-
upon the d('Cks and pita!. rt was intended to tow this
through the port- monster to a position so as to bring ibl
holl.s of an enemy, guns to bear on Fort Sumter.
and thereby deluge Ste\-ens's floating hatter) was a more
her armament and formidable structure. This battery had
ammunition. The most e
tra\-aO'[lnt heen in proce
s of construction by
stories concerning this monster of <"' the ::\fessrs. f'tevens, of Hoboken. N. J., for
deep went forth at about the time of her several years before the CÏ\-i] 'Var. It
being ]aunehed. In a treatise on steam was intended solely for harbor defence.
vessels, published in Scotland soon after- A]ready there had bpen about $1,000.000
wards, the author said: .. Her length spent upon it, chit'flJ' bJ- the L"nited States
38;

lJ\
. _I. ïl
,... --.,
:t'!IY
c

/,æ:;\.-
AIL..

!<F:f'TION OF TilE
FLOATI..H HATTERY
Fl LTON.

FLOATING BATTERIES

is :JOu feet: breadth. 200 feet; thil'knesF: of
her sides. 13 feet, of alternate oak plank
and cork-\\ooò: earries forty-four guns,
four of whieh are 100-pounders; can dis-

,ij

,II

, - \ .....'

-

.-=

-""""-=-

==- -- --
=- --=....=

L"..lw '.; II'U
-CLA/J VE:sSKL IN UH,!.

War ended. Thf'
following is a
portion of the
specific a tion:
.. The boat is
framed on an
anglp of about
eighteen degrees
all round the VèS-
sel, where the tup
timhers elevate
the balls, and
the lower oues
direct them un-
der her. The
top deck, which
glances the ball.
may be hun
011
a mass of hinges
near the ports.

aid deck is sup-
port(',1 by knees
and cross-timbers
on the lower

ides, so that it
may be 8prung
with powder, if
required (w}wn
boarded by the l'nemy), to a perpendicular,
when the said deck will be checked by
stays, while the )>o\\er of powder will be
e,,-hausted in the open air, and then fall or
"pring to the centre of the deck again.
The afores:1.id deck will run up and down
with the angle, whid. may be coppered or
laid with iron. The gun - deck may be
hored at pleasure. to give room, if re-
quired, as the men and guns are under
said deck. The power is applied between
her keels, where there is a concave formed
to receive them from the bow to the stern.
except a small distance in each end. form-

FLOATING BATTERIES

C'

.

.... ---

-----..

-=-----==-

-

FI.O\TIS(; 1\ ,Tlt.It'\" n l.l'O!\ TIU; nK
I'.

government. and yet it was not com-
pleted. L'ntil just before the war it had
been shut in from the pub1ic eye. It was
to be íOO feet in length, covered with
iron plates, so as to be proof against shot
and shell of e\'ery kind. It was to be
moved by steam-engines of sufficient
strength to give it a momentum that
would cause it. as a "ram." to cut in
two any ship-of-war thpn known when it
!-hould strike her at the waist. It was
intended for a battery of si':tC'en heavy
rilled cannon in bomh-proof casemates,
and two heavy columbiads for throwing
...hells. The latter were
tn be on dcck, fore and
aft. The smoke-stack
"as to be constructed
in sliding sections, like
a telC'!',('ope, for oh\"Ï-
OilS purposes; and the
\'('ssel was so con-
structed that it might
he !'mnk to the level of
t he water. It
bunlen
was rated at ü,OOO
tons. It was not com-
p
eted when the Cidl

--;
-
-'

t ..

I '
't
:;;i i _
- at
2
!Ì

_
'

.&

-
:;

1

- --
...

FLO
TJ;\G B.TTERY .T ("H.RL
STOS.
388

t

- .-
--.

,

-,.. r
==.=:

r.

"

--

in Florida, where they were soon rein-
forced by several hundred Huguenots with
their families. They erected a fort which
they named Fort Carolina. Philip Melen-
dez with 2,500 men reached the coast of
Florida on St. Augustine's day, and march-
ed against the Huguenot settlement.
Ribault's vessels were wrecked, and Melen-
dez attacked the fort, captured it and
massacred 900 men. women, and children.
Upon the ruin" of the fort Melendez rear-
ed a cros'5 with this inscription: "Not
as to Frenchmen, Lut as Lutherans."
\Vhen the news of the massacre reached
France, Dominic de Gourges determined
to avenge the same, and with 150 men sail-
ed for Florida, captured the fort on the St.
John's River, and hanged the entire gar-
rison, having affixed this inscription above
them: "Not as to Spaniards, but as
murdprers." Being too weak to attack
Rt. Augustine, Gourges returned to
France.
The city of St. Augustine was founded
in 1565, and was captured by Sir Francis
Drake in 1.')86. The domain of Florida,
in those times. extC'ncled indpfinitely west-
ward, and includpd Loui
iana. La Salle
visited the western portion in lG82, and
in lG96 Pensacola was settled by Span-
ia rds.
At the beginning of the eighteenth

\pril 14, 1528, taking possession of the century the English in the Carolinas at-
country for the King of Spain. In August tacked the Spaniards at St. Augustine;
they had reached St. Mark's at Appopodree and. suhsequently, thp
eorgians, undpr
Bay, hut the ships they expected had not OJ!lethorpe, made war upon them. By
yet arrind. They metde boats by Septem- the treaty of Paris. in 1763, Florida was
ber 2, on which they em harked and sailed exchangpd hy the Spaniards. with Gr<>at
along shore to the :\Iississippi. A11 the Britain, for Cuba, which had then re-
company pxcepting Cabe7a de Vaea and cent1y bppn conqllPrf'd by England. Soon
three others peris}wd. In 1.')40, Louis Can- afterwards, they divid{'d the territory
ce11a endpavored to pstahlish a mission in into east and west Florida, the Ap-
:Florida but was driven away hy the Ind- T,alachicola River being the boundary
ians, who killed most of the priests. line. NativPH of Greece, Italy, and Mi-
Twpnty-six Huguenots under .John Ribault norea wpre induced to setUp therf', at a
llad madp a s(>ttlellwnt at Pod Royal. but plaee ca11pd Npw Smyrna, ahout iiI) mile

r{'moved to the mouth of St. John's River south of St. Augustinf', to the nnmber of
3H!)

ing an eddy. The power may be reversed
to propel her either way. Said power is
connected to upright levers, to make hori-
zontal strokes alternately." This proj-
ect was abandoned, and the battery was

Florida, the twenty-seventh State ad-
mitted into the Union; received its name
from its disco,'erer in 1512 (see PONCE DE
LEON). Ii was visited by Vasquez, anoth-
er Spaniard, in ] 520. It is believed by
some that VelTazani saw its coasts in
lfi24; and the same year a Spaniard named
De Geray visited it. Its conquest was un-
dertaken by Narvaez, in 1528, and by De
Soto in 1539. PAMPHILIO NARVAEZ,
CAßEZA DE V ACA (q. v.), with several
hundred young men from rich and noble
families of Spain landed at Tampa Bay,

STATE SEAL OF FLORID".

FLORIDA

sold at auction in 1880. See STEVENS,
JOHN.
Floods. See INUNDATIONS.
Flores, the westernmost island of the
Azores; discovered in 1439.

FLORIDA

1,500, where they engaged in the cultiva-
tion of indigo and the sugar-cane; but,
becoming dissatisfied with their employ-
ers, they renlOved to S1. Augustine. Dur-
ing the Revolutionary War the trade of
the Southern colonies was seriously in-
terfered with by pirates fitted out in
Florida, and the British incited the Ind-
ians in that region to make war on the
Americans. The Sp<mianls invaded west
Florida, and captured the garrison at
Baton Rouge. in Hi!}; and in .:\Ia
., li81,
they seized Pensacola. By the treaty of
1ï83, Florida was retroceded to Spain, and
the western boundary was defined, when a
greater part of the inhabitants emigrated
to the enited States. When, in 1803,
Louisiana was ceded to the enited States
by France, it was declared to be ceded
with the same extf'nt that it had in the
hands of Spain, and as it had been ceded
by
pain to }
rance. This 1!1lYe the

FLORIDA

United States a claim to the country west
of the Perdido Ri,'er, and the government
took possession of it in 1811. Some irri-
tation ensued. In the war with Great
Britain (1812), the Spanish authorities
at Pensacola favored the English. An
e:xpedition against the Americans having
be{"n fitted out there, Gen{"ral J ack:-\on
captured that town. Again, in ISIS, it
"as captured by Jackson, hut subsequent-
l
' retul"nC'd to
pain.
Florida was purchased from Spain
bv the United States in Un!). and was
s
lTendered to the latter in .July,
1821. Emigration then hqran to flow
into the Territory, in Rpite of many
ol'stacIes. In lR;
.) a distressing warfare
broke out between the fierce SE:\lI-
lXOLE I:'IDIAè\S (q. '1.'.), who inhabitf'd
ome
of the better portions of F1orilh\, and
thp. government of the United f.:tates,
and continued until 1842, \\"11<'n th(> Tnll-

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seDB OF TUB Ml'RDKR OF TIIR IIl'Ul'K'iOTS BY IIBLR
mRjI.
300

FLORIDA

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EARLY INDrAY LIPE IN FLORIDA. (From an old print.)

ians were subdued, though not thoroughly (If the Fourteenth Amendment to the na-
conquered. tional Constitution, on June 14, Florida
Florida was admitted into the L"nion was recognized as a rcorgLmized State of
as a State on :March 8, 184;). [nhahitants the Union. The go\"(
rnment was trans-
of the State joined in the war against ferred to the State officers on July 4. In
the gm'crnment, a secession ordinance IS!)!) the asscsRed (fu II ca
h n\lue) valu-
having been passed .Tan. 10, 18Gl, by a ation of taxable property was $0:l,;;
7,3.,)3,
convention assemb]('d on the 3d. Forts and in l!JOO the total bonded d('ht was
and ars(>nals and the navy-yard at Pcnsa-
1 ,275,000, of which all excepting
cola were seized by the Confederates. $322,500 was held in various State
The State authorities continued hostili- funds. Thc population in IS00 was
ties until the close of the war. On July 301,422; in 1000, 528,542.
13, 18G;}, William Marvin was appointed Don Tristan d(' Luna sailed from Vera
provisional governor of the f;tate, and on f'rmr., :\[exico, .Aug. 14. l.').)!J. with 1,;;00
Oct. 28 a Statf' convention, held. at Talla- soldiers, many zealous friars who wished
hassce, rep(>alcd the ordinance of s('('('s- to com'ert the h('at1l('n. and mauy women
sion. TIlE' C'ivil authority was transferred and children, families of the soldiers. He
by the national gm'ernment to the pro- landed nmr the site of Pensacola, and a
Üsional State officers in January, 1866, wcek afterwards a terrible storm de-
and, under the reorganization measures stroyed all his ve<;se]s and strewed the
of Congress, F]orida was madC' a part shoreR with their fragments. lIe sent an
oi the 3d ::\[i1itary District, in HW7. A exploring party into the interior. They
new ('onstitution was ratifipd hy th(' peo- tl'avell(>d fort,)' da
's through a barren nUtl
pIp in :May, 18GB, and, aftcr the adoption a]must uninhahited COUlltl-y, and found a.
3tH

resist it. He penetrated Florida. with a
small force and captured some outposts
early in 1740; and in l\fay he marched
towards St. Augustine with liOO regular
troops, 400 Carolina militia. and a large
body of friendly Indians. With these he
stood before St. Augustine in June, after
capturing two forts, and demanded the
instant surrender of the post. It was re-
fU!'ìed, and Oglethorpe determined to
stan'e the garrison by a close investment.
The to" n was surrendered, and a small
squadron blockaded the harbor. Swift-
sailing gaIle) s ran the weak blockade and
supplied the fort. Oglethorpe had no can-
non and could not breach the walls. In
the heats of summer malaria invadeù his
camp, the siege was raised, and he re-
turned to Savannah. Hostilities were
then suspen .r1 for about two years.
In the 8Uml1
r of Ii7G a citizen of
Georgia Yisitcd General Charles Lee at
Charlcston and persuaded him that 8t.
.\ugustine could easily be taken. Tllf>
man was a stranger, but, without further
inquiry, Lee an-
nounced to the Con-
tinental troops
under his command
that he had planned
for them a sa fe,
:,oure, and remunera-
t i ve e),. pedi tion. of
which the very largc
booty wouM hC' aU
í hpir own. Calling
it a Recret. he let
('\"(>ryhody know its
destination. Wi th-
put adf'quate prep-
anttion. without a
fipld-pieee or a medi-
ei lie-chest. he hast ily
JwtrC'lwd ofT the Yir-
ginia and Xorth
('a rol i na troops, in
t hp H 'l"O 1\(1 week in
August, to the ma-
larious rf'giolls of
Gporgia. By his
order, Howe. of
vigilant, and e,'eJl threatf'JI war; and North Carolina. and ).[oultrie of South
when. in 1739, there was war bC'twef'n Eng- Carolina. soon foHowP(l. Abot;t HìO Jll<'n
land and Spain. h(' determined to strike from
outh Carolina Wf're Rent to
avannah
the Spaniards at St. Augustinf' a heavy h.v watf'r. with two fleld-piC'C'Ps: and on
b10w hl'fore the
' Wel'e fully prepared to the 18th, J ee, afte,' 1"Pvicwing the col1ectp<l
3Q2

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deserted Indian village, but not a trace
of the wealth with which it was supposed
Florida abounded. Constructing a vessel
suflicient to bear messengers to the viceroy
of :Me:xico, De Luna sent them to ask for
aid to return. Two vessels were sent
by the viceroy, and, two years after
his departure, De Luna returned to
Mexico.
When Oglethorpe returned to Georgia
from England (173G) he discovered a hos-
tile feeling among the Spaniards at St.
Augustine. They had tried to incite the
Indians against the new settlements, and
also to procure the assassination of Ogle-
thorpe. The latter, not fairly prepared
to resist an invasion, sent a messenger to
St. Augustine to invite the Spanish com-
mandant to a friendly conference. He ex-
plored some of the coast islands and pre-
pared for fortification. His messenger did
not return, and he proceeded to secure
possession of the country so far as its
defined boundary permitted him. His
hostile preparations made the Spaniards

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S OF AN OLD SPA
ISU FORT IS FLORIDA.

FLORIDA

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troops, sent the Virginians and a portion
of the South Carolinians to Sunbury.
The fever made sad havoc among them,
and fourteen or fifteen men were buried
daily. Then Lee
sought to shift
from himself to
:Moultrie the fur-
ther conduct of
the expedition, for
he saw it must be
disastrous. Moul-
trie warned him
that no a,'ailahle
resou rces which
would render SHC-
cess possible had
been provided, and
the wretched ex-
pedition was then
abandoned. For-
tunately for his
reputation Lee was
ordered
0 I' t h
early in Septem-
ber and joined Washington on Harlem repulsed by Genera,} Elbert with 200 Con-
Heights. See LEE, CHARLES. tin ental soldiers. Hearing of the repulse
Tory refugees from Georgia acquired at Sunbury, they also retreated.
considerable influence over the Creek Ind- Galvez, the Spanish governor of New
ians, and from east Florida, especially Orleans, took measures in I77D to estab-
from St. Augustine, made predatory ex- lish the claim of Spain to the territory
cursions among their former neighbors. east of the :Mississippi. He invaded west
Gen. Robert Howe, commanding the South- Florida with 1.400 men, Spanish regula.rs,
ern Department, in 1778, was ordered from .American volunteers, and colored people.
Char1e"ton to Savannah to protect the He took Fort Bute, at Pass )Ianshac
Georgians and aUack St. Augustine. A (September, Iï79), and then went against
cünsiderable body of troops led by Howe, Baton Rouge, where the British had 400
al1d accompanied by General Houstoun, of regulars and 100 militia. The post speed-
Gf'orgia, penetrated as far as the St. ily surrendered, aoS did also Fort Pan-
)[ary's Rh-er, where sickness, loss of mure, recently built at Katcllf'z. A few
(haught-horses, and disputes about com- months later he captured )[ohi1e. leavin,!?
Uland checked the expedition and caused Pensacola the only port of west Floridã
it to be abandoned. The refugees in Flor- in posscs!'>ion of the British. On May D.
ida retaliated by an inmsion in their turn. in the folIo" ing )'ear, Don Galvez took
In the summer of that year two bodies possession of Pensacola, capturing or driv-
of armed men. composed of regulars and lUg away the British there, and soon af-
rdugees. made a rapid incursion into tC'rwanls completed the conquest of the
Georgia from east Florida--one in boats whole of west Florida.
through the inland navigation, the other The success of Kapoleon's arms in
overland hy way of the Altamaha River. Spain and the impending peril to the
The first party a(h-anC'ed to Sunbury and Spanish monarchy gave occasion for revo-
summoneò the fort to sHrrender. Colonel lutionary movements in the Spanish prov-
:l\Ielntosh. its commander, replied, "('omf> ince of west Florida bordering on the
and takf' it." The enterprise wa.s aban-
[jssissippi ea.rly in lRIO. That regie)))
d{>J}('(l. The other corps pushed on toward
undouhtedly belollgC'd to the rnitC'd States
Siwannah, but was met by about 100 mi1- as a part of Louisiana honght from the
393

FLORIDA

itia, with whom they skirmished. In one
of these General Scriven, who commanded
the Americans, was mortally wounded.
At near Ogeechee Ferry the invaders were

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AY EAHLY HEW OF ST. At"Gl'STISE, FLORIDA.

FLORIDA

French, but Spain had refused to relin- session of Congress in 1810-11, to secure
quish it. The inhabitants were mostly that province should it be otrered to the
of British or American birth. Early in United States, 8tirred up an insurrection
the autumn of 1810 they seized the fort there. AMELIA ISLA;SD (q. v.), lying a
at Baton Rouge, met in convention, and little below the dividin cr line between
proclaimed themselves independent, adopt- Georgia and Florida. wa
chosen for a
ing a single star for their flag, as the base of operations. The fine harbor of its
Texans did in 183G. There were some con- capital, Fernandina, was a place of great
tliets between the revolutionists and ad- resort for smugglers during the days of
hcrents of the Spanish connection, and the embargo, and, as neutral ground,
an atta
k upon the insurgents seemed im- might be madp a dangerous place. The
minent from the Spanish garrison at
Io- possession of the island and harbor was
bile. Through Holmes, governor of the therefore important to the Americans, and
::\1Ü.sissippi Territory, the revolutionists a. sought-for prete:\.t for seizing it was
applied to the Cnited States for recogni- soon found. The Florida insurg-ents
tion and aid. TIIPY claimed all the un- planted the standard of revolt, ::\Iarch,
Jocat(>d Jands in the domain. pardon for 1812, on the bluff opposite ihe town of St.
aJ) deserters from the Vnited States army ::\Iary, on the bonIer line. Some enited
(of whom there wpre many among them), States gunboats under Commodore Camp-
and an immediate loa.n of $100.000. ben were in the S1. Mary's Ri,-er, and
Instead of complying with these require- ::\Iathews had some United States troops
ments, the President issued a proclama- at his command near. The insurgents.
tion for taking possession of the east bank 2:20 in numbcr, sent a flag ot truce, l\Iarch
of the 1\Iississippi, an act which had been 17, to Fernandina, demanding the sur-
delaved because of conciliatqry views tow- render of the town and island. About
ard;,;' Spain. Claihorne, governor of the the same time the American gunhoats ap-
Or'eans TerritoQ'. then in \Vashington, }wared there. The authoritics howpd in
was sent in haste to take possession, submission, and r.eneral Mathews, assum-
authorized, in case of re.sistanc(>, to can ing the charader of a protector, took
upon the regular troops stationed on the po:-:session of the place in the name of the

Iississippi, and upon the militia of the -cnited States. At the same time the com-
two adjoining Territories. It was not modore assured the Spanish governor that
necessary. Soon after this movement at 1he gunboats wcre t}lC're only for aid and
Baton Rouge a man named Kemper, who protection.. to a large portion of the poru-
purported to act under the Floriùa in- !ation. who thought proper to declare
surgents, approached 1\Iohile, with some themselves independent.
followers, to attempt the capture of the On the Hlth the to"n was formany
garrison. He was repulsf'd; but the giwn up to the Lnited States authorities;
alarmed Spanish governor wrote to the a custom-house was C'stablished; the float-
.\merican authorities that if he were not mg property in the harbor was ('on,.;idered
speeùily reinforeC'tl he shonIa be disposed nnder the protection of the rnitC'd States
to treat for the transfer of the entire flag, and smuggling ceased. The insur-
province. Congress passed an act author- gent band, swelled to ROO hy rC'inforce-
izing the President to take possession of ments from O!'orgia, and aecompanied by
both east and west Florida to prevent troops furnished by General 1\latll<'ws, he-
its falling into the hands of another for- !"ieged the Spanish garrison at Ht. Augll s -
eign power. Tlms it might he held sub- tine, for it was fC'arC'd the British might
jC'ct to future peaceful nC'gotiations with help the Spaniards in recoYCrÏng what
Spain. Florida, it will be remembered, thC'y }Iad lost in the tC'rritory. The rnitNI
was divided into two provinC'es. C'ast aOlI f'ta tes governmC'nt would not C'ountenanC'e
west. The boundary-line wa
tlw Penlido this kind of filibnstC'ring, and Mathews
Rinr. east of 'Iobile Bay. The Cieorgians was !mpersed(>d a!'; commission(>r. April 10,
eoveted east Florida, and in the spring of 1812, h.,- lionrnor
litehpl1, of Georgia.
ISJ2 Hrig.-OC'n. Gt'orge ::\Iathe\\'s, of 1he Mitehd1. profC'ssing to IwliC','e Congn's'l
Of'orgia militia. W}IO had 1)('(>u appoint!',} woull1
aJl(-tion :\Iatlll'ws's pro('C'C'diu:!f'.
a C'onHllissionC'r, unller an a('t of a s(>('rC't madC' no change in policy. The TTousC' of
3f14

FLORIDA

Representatives did actualJy pass a bill,
in secret sesc;ion, June 21, authorizing the
President to take possession of east Flor-
ida. The f-;enate rejected it, for it would
have been um, ise to quarrel with Spain at
the moment when war was about to be de-
clared against Great Britain.
Jackson's invasion of Florida and his
capture of Pensacola caused much politi-
cal dehatf' in and out of Congress. By
some he was much censured, by others
praised. The l:nited State<; government

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the affairs of a foreign nation, must take
the consequences. Secretary Adams and
the Spanish minister, Don Onis, had been
in correspondence for some time concern-
ing the settlement of the Florida question
and the western boundary of the l:nited
States next to the Spanish possessions.
Finally, pending discw"sion in Congress on
Jackson's vigorous proceedings in Florida,
the Spanish minister, under new instruc-
tions from hOlÍl'
' signed a treaty, Feb.
22, ISH), for the cession of Florida, on the

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1:'1 A FLORIDA SWAMP.

l
pheld him, and the Secretary of State, extinction of the various American claims
John Q. Adams, made an able plea of for spoliation. for the !<atisfaction of
justification, on the ground of the weIl- which the rnited :-\tat('s agr('ed. to pay to
known inÜ'rference of the Rpanish au- the claimants ii':J,ono,ooo. The Louisiana
thorities in Florida in AUlf'rican affairs, hnundary, as fb..f'd hy the treaty. was a
and the giving of sheIt('r tu .British sub- ('('lIIpromi:-;p ll('tw('en the n>speeti,'e offers
jt.cts inciting the Indians to make war. l,pJ"('1ofore IWIIIl'. though Ipaning a good
Il was thou
ht the British govern- dt.al toward
the .\nH'ril"an !<idf'. It W.IS
ment would take notice uf the sumlll.u'y agreed that tlw Sahine to lat.

o N..
execution of _ \ rllll11l11ot and Alllhrist('r 1 hf'n('(' a north nlf'ridian lillf' to the R('(l
(!<f'f' f'EMl:-'OLE \\'AH): hut it took the l:i'.f'r. 1h(' f'OII1"Sf' of that ri"f'r to long.
gl'oUJl(1 that Bri1i:-;h suhjf'ets, nlf'ddling in 100 0 \\.. thf'nf'f' north hy that nlf'rirlian to
:mr.

FLORIDA

tbe Arkansas River to its head and to vote of 62 against 7. In its preamble
lat. 42 0 :N., and along that degree to the it was declared that "all hopes of pre-
Pacific Ocean. should be the boundary be- serving the Union upon terms consistent
tween the possessions of the United States "ith the f;afety and honor of the slave-
and Spain. The Florida treaty was im- holding States" had been "fully dissi-
mediatel
' ratified by the rnited Statf's pated." [t was further declared that by
Senate, and, in e
pe('tation of a slwedy the ordinance Florida had withdrawn
ratification b,y Spain, an act was pa
"ed from thp Union allll bef'ome "a sovereign
to authorize the President to take pos- and illllependf'llt nation." On the follow-
s('

ion of thc newly ceded territory. But inp- day the ordinance was siglH'd, while
ther(' was great delay in the Spanish rati- bp]]s rang and eatlllon thunder('d to sig-
fieation. It did not take place until early Ilify the popular joy. The nf'\\"s was re-
in 1H21. The ratified trf'aty was received cpin>d by the Florida represf'IÜatives in
by the President in February. Congress at "'ashington; hut, notwith-
Hpfore the Florida ordinance of se- !'tanding the State had withdrawn from
('ession was passed Florida troops seized, the Lnion, they remauwd in their seats,
Jan. {i. lS{il, the Chattahood\f'e arsenal, for reasons gin.n in a letter to .Joseph
with 500,000 rounds of musket cartridges, Finnegan, writtf>n hy SPllator Da,'id L.
300,000 rifle cartridges. and 50,000 Ibs. Yulee from his desk in the
(,Ilatf' eham-
of gunpowder. They al,.;o took PO,..,.,ession I;er. "It <;eemed to be thp opinion," he
of Fort 1farion. at S1. Augustine, formf'rly said, "that if we left here, foree, loan,
the Castlc of S1. Mark, which was built and volunteer bills lHight be passf'd,
by the
panianls more than 100 Yf'ars "hich would put
[r. Lincoln in imme-
before. It eO'lÌained a n ar
f'nal. On the diate condition for hostil i ties; whereas,
15th they seized the Gnited States coast by remaining in our plaf'f's until, the 1th
sun'ey schoonf'r F. 1r. Dana, and appro- of 1farch, it is thought we can kf'f'p the
priated it to their own use. The Chat- hands of :\f1'. BUl'hanan tif'lI. and disablf'
tahoochee arsenal was in charge of thf' the Repuhlieans from effeeting
lH
' Ipg-is-
courageous :-;ergeaut Powell and three lation whidl will strengthC'n thf' hands
men. He said, "Five minutf's ago I was ot the incOllling a(lministration." Sf>n-
in command of this arsf'nal, but in eonse- a10rs from other StatC's wrote similar
quenee of the weakness of my command. letters undC'r their offic'ial franks. The
I am obliged to surrender. . . . If I c(JIl\-('ntion was addrf's,.;ed by L. 'V.
had fOT('e equal to, or half the strpngth of Spratt, of Routh Carolina, an eminf'nt
yours, I'll be d--d if
'ou would have advocate for reop('ning the African slave-
entered that gatf' until YOll had passf'd trade. Delegates were appointed to a
over my dead bod
'. You see that [ ha,'e gf>neral conn'ntion to assemble at Mont-
hut thref' men. J now consid('r myself a

omery, Ala., and other measurf'!'! were
prisoner of war. Take my sword, Captain taken to secllre tIle sO\"f'rC'ignty of Flor-
JoneR." ilìa. The legislature authori7ed the
An
ious to estahlish an independent emission of treasury notf'S to the amount
f'mpire on thf' borders of the Gulf of of $.ïOO,OOO, and defined the crime of
::\ff',ieo. Florida politicians met in Con- heason against the State to he, in one
vention early in .January, 1861, at Talla- form, thp holding of office under the na-
ha,..,.,f'f'. the :-;tate capital. Colonel Petit tional go,-ernment in case of actual col-
was ehosf'n chairman of the eOIl\'C'ntion, Hf-ion between the State and govermnf'nt
and Bi!-hop Rutledge invoked the blf'ssing troops, punishable with death. Thl' go\'-
of thf' .\Imighty upon the acts they wpre ernor of the State (Perry) had previously
about to pf'rform. The members num- made arrangements to seize the lJnitf'd
hf'rf'd
ixty-nine, and ahout one-third of :-;tatf'S fort
, nm'y-yard, and othf'r govern-
th('m Wf'rp "f'o-opprationists" (Fope :!\fIs- nwnt 1)J'opf'rty in Florida.
sn:sIPI'I). The le
islature of Florida, Tn the early part of the Civil War the
full
prf'parf'd to co-operatf' with thf' C'on- national military and na\"al forces undf'r
,"f'ntion. lmcl C'oll\'f'lwcI at thp Foame pla('p G('neral "'right and Commodore Dupon1
pn the ;)1h. On tllP lOth thp eom'f'ntion madf' ('asy conquf'sts on th{' I'oa...t of
ac1opt{'cI an onlinane(' of Sf'('('s"ion. hy a Florida. Tn I"phntar.". 1 s(ì
. Ow." <,apt-
;
!)()

FLOWER-FLOYD

.1 be, the "Wisconsin War Raylr: Lift' of
Matthew H. Cm'penter; and a History of
the Republican Party.
Flower, GEORGE, colonist; born in Hert-
fordshire, England, about 1,80; came to
the United Stat{'s with Monis Birkbeck
in 1817; and established an English col-
ont in Albion, Ill. He was the author
of a History of the English Settlement
in Edwards County, Illinois, founded ill
1811 and 1818 by .11orris Birkbcck and
Geor.Qe FlolI;cr. He died in GrayviIle, IlL,
Jan 15, 1862.
Flower, ROSWELL PETTIBONE, banker
and philanthropist; bora in Jefferson
('ounty, N. Y., Aug. 7, 1835; removed to
New York City in 1869, where he was
ver
' successful in business. Elected to
Congress, 1881; re-f'lected, 1888 and 1890;
elected governor of New York in 1891.
He died suddenly in Eastport, N. Y., May
12, 18!)9.
Floyd, ,JOH:\' , statesman; born in Jef-
ferson county, Va., in 1770; member of
Congress in 1817-29; governor of Vir-
ginia in 1829-34; received the electoral
vote of South Carolina in the Presiden-
tial election of 1832. He died in Sweet
Springs, Ya., Aug. 16, 1837.
Floyd, JOliN BUCHANAN, statesman;
born in Blacksbllrg. Va., June I, 1807;
was admitted to tllf' bar {n 1828; practised
law in Helena, Ark.; and in 1839 settled
in 'Vashington county, in his native State.
He f'erved in the Yirginia legislature sev-
('ral terms, and was governor of the State
in 18.")1)-53. His father, John, had been
governor of Yirginia. In 18;')7 President
Buchanan appointed him Secretary of
War.
\s early as Dec. 2!). I85!). accord-
ing to the report of a Congref'sional com-
mittee, he had ordered the transff'r of
G."),OOO percussion muskets, 40.000 muskets
altpred to percussion, and 10.000 percus-
sion rifles from the armories at Spring-
fif'ld. )Iaf's.. and the arsf'nals at 'Vater-
vliet, N. Y.. and 'Vatf'rtown.
Ias!'!.. to the
arsenals at Fayette,'ill(', X. C., Charles-
ton, S. C., _\ug:usta. Ga., 1\Iount Yernon,
A1:\., and Baton Rong-p. La., and these
,wre distrihut('d in the spring of 1860,
before thf' meeting of the Df'mocratic Con-
vention at Charlr'ston. Eleven davs after
Flower, FRANK AmAL, author; born in the issuing of thp above order. ',Tan. 9,
Cottage. N. Y., }'Iay II, 1854; remove(l to 1860, Jf'fferson Davis introdu(>(>d into the
Wiseonsin. IIis publications include Old national Rf'natf' a h
11 "to fil1thori7.(, tlu>
3f)7

ured Fort Clinch, on Amelia Island, which
the Confederates had seized, and dro,'e the
Confederates from Fernandina. Other
posts were spf'edily abandoned, and a flotil-
la of gunboats, under Lieut. T. H. Stevens,
went up the St. John's River, and capt-
ured JacksonviIle, March II. St. Au-
gustine was taken possession of about the
same time by Commander C. R. P. Rogers,
and the alarmed Confederates abandoned
Pensacola and the fortifications opposite
Fort Pif'kens. Before the middle of April
t1lf' whole Atlantic coast from Cape Hat-
teras to Perdido Bay, west of Fort Pickens
(f'xcepting Charleston and its vicinity),
had been abandoned by the Confederates.
fo:ee U:\'ITED STATES. FLOP-IDA, vol. ix.
TERRITORIAL
OVERNORS.

Name.

Term.

Andrew .Jarkson. .......................
William P. Duval.......................
John H. Eaton.........................
Richard K. Call.........................
Robert R. Reid.........................
Richard K. Call .............. .........
.John Smnch......... ..............

1821 to 1822
1822 .. 1ft'!4
1834 " lA36
It!36 " 18:19
18:19 " 18U
1841 .. I8H
1844 " 11<45

STATE GOVER
OR
.

Name.

Term.

William D. '[oseley..................... 18!;; t.

Thomas Brown................... ..... Is49
James E. Broome....................... 1
53 " IH57

Iadison S. Perry....................... IH;;7 ::

.John Milton............................ 1861
William Marvin......................... l:-'ü5 .. lAlifi
David S. Walker........................ 1866 u 11-\1;8
Harrison Reed............................ IHG8 " l
';:!
Ossian B. Hart............... . .. . .. . . . .. IH72 " 1874

[arcellus L. Stearns.................... IH74 " IH77
George F. Drew......................... 1877 ::

William D Bloxham............ ....... 18Hl
Edward A Perry........................ 18H5 " IH:--9
Francis P. Fleming..................... 1889 " IH93
Henry L. },Iitl'hell............... ...... IH!I3 ::

i
Willhm D. Blo-,:ham.................... lA97
William S. Jennings................... 1 1901 .. 1905
Napoleon B. Broward................... 1905 II 1909

UNITED STATES SEXATOR
.

No. of Conl\Tes..

Date.

Name.

James D. Westcott, Jr.... 2!Jth to 30th 1 S!5 to 1849
David L. Ynlee................. 29th u 31
t IH.J:5" lR51
.Jackson }'fonon.. ........ 31st "33d IH!9 u 1855
Stephen R. Mallory...... 32d "3lith Is51 " 1861
Davifl r.. Yulel'.......... 34th "31ith IH55 " IHGI
[:17th. 38th, and 39th Congresses. seats vacant.]
Thomas W. Of'horn...... 40th to 42d lRGR to IH73
A,lnnijah R Welch...... 40th 18fi8 ..
Ahij:th GiII)('rt........... 4If't to 43,1 V'Ui9" I
75
RinlOlI B. ('onover... .... 4:id .. 45th 18,:1 " 1879
Charles W. .Jones........ 44th "4!Hh 1>;7:; " 1887
Wilkinf'o!l ('all.... ...... 46th" 54th IR:!I" lR97

amuel Paspo............ 50th .. ólilh I tSS7 .. 1899

tl'phen R. },[allory...... Mth .. - IH97 "
James P. Taliaferro...... 61ith .. - IAII!J"

FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN

t,;ale of pulllie anns to the I-evend
tah'ð
and Tel ritories, and to regulate the ap-
pointment of superintend.'nts of the na-
tional a rlllories:' ])a ,'is ]'eport(>d the
hill from th(> lIIilitary conunittt'e of the
Senate, amI, in calling it up on }'eh. 21,
said: "I should like the Senate to take
up [I little bill which I hope will excite
no discussion. It is the bill to authorize
t he States to purchase anns from the

a{.t of ('ongreb!S (IS=!5), 1.'luJd I-ohl to the

tatl.!S ami indi,'iduals in the
outh o"er
:H .01lU 11ll1
kC'ts, altered from flint to p{'r-
eussion, for $2.';0 f'ach. Un Nov. 2-1, ISliO,
hl' bold ]0,11011 muskets to G. H. Lamar, of
l]C'orgia; ami on the Hah he had soM
5,000 to Virginia. The Mobile A.dvcrtis(r
said, "During thp past
'ear 133,430
muskets hm e bf'en quietly transferred
from the Xorthern arsenal at Spring-
field alone to those of the Southern
States. \Ve are much obliged to Sec-
retary Floyd for the foresight he has
thus displa
'ed in disarming the :Korth
and equipping the South for this emer-
genc
'. There ið no telling the qUan-
tity of arllls and munitions which were
sent South frolll other arsenals. There
is no doubt but that every man in the
South who can carry a gun can now he
supplied from pri,'ate or public sourel's'"
.A \ïrginia historian of the \\ ar (Pol1ard)
said, "It was safely estimated that the
South entered upon the war with 130,000
small-arms of the most approved modern
pattern and the best in the world." Only
a few days before Flonl left his oOice as
S('cretaryof \Yar and . fled to Yirginia IlC
attempted to supply the Southerners with
heavy ordnan("f' also. On Dec. 20, ISGO,
hp ordered forty columbiads and four 32-
pounders to be sent from the arsenal at
Pittsburg to an unfinished fort on
hip
Island, in the Gulf of )If'...ieo; and seven-
ty-one eol umbiads and sc"(>n 32-poundprs
to be sent from the same anwnal to an
embryo fort at Gah'(>8ton, Tex., which
would not he ready for armament in five
:rears. \Yhen Quartermastpr Taliafpl"J"o
(a Virginia.n) was a bout to send off tl\('
e
heavy guns, an immensl' puhlic nweting
of citizens. called by the mayor. was lipId.
find the guns wpre rC'tainell. \Yhcn Floyd
fled from \Yashington his !'uccessor, .To-
seph Holt, of Kentucky, eountprmanded
thp order.
Indictl'd b
' the granù jury of the Dis-
trict of Columhia as lwing prh-y to the
ahstracting of $S70.000 in honds from the
Dppartmpnt of the Tntl'rior, at the cJo"p
of lSOO he f1f'd to Yirginia. wI)('n he was
commis:ò:ioned a g'pneral in the ConfC'dprate
army. In that f'apacity he waR dri"f'Jl
from Wpst Virginia by General Rosecran!'!.
The nig1Jt III-fore the surrender of FOI:T
stretch of authority under an old DOXELso:v (q. v.) he stole away in the
3f1S

r

JOHN BUCBA:'iA:'i FLOYD.

national armories. There are a number of
volunteer companies wanting to purchase
arms, but the States han not a sufficient
suppl
'." Senator Fessenden, of Maine,
ao;ked, Feb. 23, for an explanation of t
le
reasons for such action. Davis replied
that the Sl'cretary of \Var had recom-
mended an incrpase of appropriations for
arming the militia, and as "the militia
of the
tatl's were not militia of the
Pnited State!'!," he thought it best for the
volunteer companies of States to have
arms that wC're uniform in Caí3e of war.
Fessendf'n otfprpd an amcndment, )Iareh
20, that would llt-priYC it of mischil'f, hut
it was lost, and the bill was passed by
a strict party vote--twenty-nine Demo-
crats against eighteen Rl'publicanR. [t
was smothered in the House of Represent-
a tivl's.
BJ' a

FLOYD-FOOD ADULTERATION

and in 1880 became chief-justice. In
o-
"ember of the latter J'ear he was re-elected
to the Court of Appeals, but resigned in
lR81 to accept the office of Secretary of
the United States Treasury. In 1882 he
was the Uepublican candidate for governor
of Kew York, but was defeated by Grover
Cleveland. He died in Geneva, N. Y.,
Sept. 4, 1884.
Folger, PETER, pioneer; born in Eng-
land in 1617; emigrated to America with
his father in 1635; settled in :Martha's
Vineyard in 1641; became a Baptist
minister and was one of the commissioners
to layout Kantueket. In his poem en-
titled A Looking-glass of the Times; or,
The Former Spirit of New England Re-
'eit'ed in this Genemtion, he pleaded for
liberty of conscience and toleration of all
sects. He died in Kantucket. :Mass., in
Hmo.
Folk, JOSEPH \VIXGATE, lawyer; born in
BrownsvilIe, Tenn., Oct. 28, 186ü; son of
Judge Henry B. Folk; was graduated at
Yanderbilt rnh-ersity; admitted to the
bar in 18!)0; practised in BrownsvilIe till
1892; removed to St. Louis; was conspicu-
ous in the settlement of the g-reat street-
car strike in 1!)00; became district attor-
nf'Y: made himself widely known by his
successful proseeution of bribery cases
against members of the municipal assem-
bly in 190
--o3; and was the Democratic
c;ndidate for governor of :Missouri in
1004.
Folsom, GEORGE, historian; born in
Kennebunk, Me., :May 23, 1802; gradu-
ated at Harvard in 1822; practised
law in Massac1H1setts until 1837, when he
rf'moved to New York. where he hemme an
active member of the Historical Rociety.
He' was chargé d'affaires at The Hague in
] 8.jO-fi4. He was the author of Sketches
of Saco and Biddeford; Dufch Annals of
Nf'lI' York; A.ddress on the Discol'ery of
][aine. He died in Rome, Italy, :!\farch 27,
18G!).
Food Adulteration. The United
States of Amt"rica, the greatest food-
producing- country in the world, is suf-
fering- from the adulteration of food prod-
ucts to an e'{tent which it is difficult
to comprehC'nd. There is hardly an article
rnitetl States as:-.istant treasul"f'1" in New of food that has not been adulterated-
York City; in ]871 was elected associate flour, butter, cheese, tea and cofft"e,
judge of the Kew York Court of Appeals; syrups,
pic{'s of all kinds, extracts, bak-
:m!)

darkness, and, being censured by llie Con-
federate government, he never served in
the army afterwards. He died near Ab-
ingdon, Va., Aug. 26, 1863.
Floyd, WILLIAM, signer of the Declara-
tion of Independence; born in Brookhaven,
Suffolk county, N. Y., Dec. 17, 1734; took
an early and vigorous part in the Revolu-
tion; was a member of the New York
committee of correspondence; and a
member of the first Continental Congress
in 1774, and until 1777. He was again a
member after October, 1778. He was a
State Senator in 1777. During the occu-
pation of Long Island by the British, for
nearly seven years, his family were in
exile. He held the commission of briga-
dier-general, and commanded the Suffolk
county militia in repelling an inyasion of
Long Island by the British. General
Floyd was a member of the first national
Congress, and as Presidential elector ga ,'e
his ,'ote for .Jefferson in 1801. He died
in \Yeston, Oneida co., N. Y., Aug. 4, 1821.
Folger, CHARLES JA
IES, jurist; born
in Xantueket, )lass., Lpril 16, 1818;
graduated at Geneva (now Hobart) Col-
lege in 1836; studied law in Canandaigua,
K Y.; was admitted to the bar in Albany
in 1839; and returned to Geneva to prac-
tise in ]840. He was judge of the Court
of Common Pleas in Ontario county in
]843-4ß; county judge in 18
2-
ß; State
Sf'llatol" in IRGI-ß!); in 1869-70 was

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CHARLF.!'I .JUIFS FOLGRR.

I'OOD AD'tTLTE:B.A TION -I'OOTE

Ing powders; nnd
.('t, notwithstanding It is beliew'd b
' those who have given
this great adulteration of food, e,'ery the matter l"areful attention that then we
manufacturer will testify that he is per- will encourage the honest manufacturer
fectJy willing to stop the adulteration if and protect him from dishonest competi-
Ids competitors will stop, so that he can tion, we shall protect the consumer, who
honestly compete with them. will know in eaeh instance what he is
This was especially true in the case l;uying; we shall, by establ ishing a repu-
of flour, and investigation in Congress' tation for a high standard of food prod-
showed that very dangerous and abso- ucts, increase the demand for our goods
lutely insoluble substances were being all over the world, and also, what is more
used to adulterate flour, and it became important to aU, we shall raise the stand-
nr,r well known that this fact impaired ard of the purity of goods that go into
tIJ(' credit of American flour in foreign the human stomach, and, by the use of
countries. The adulteration became so better foods, make a better citizen. "The
extensive that the manufacturers who destiny of the nations depends upon how
would not use adulteration appealed to they feed themselves."
Congress for protection, and the law as Foote, Al\"DREW HULL, naval officer;
applied to oleomargarine and filled cheese born in
ew Haven, Conn., Sept. 12, 1806;
was made applicable to mixed flour. At entered the na"
' as midshipman in 1822;
the present time it is believed that the was flag-Jieutenant of the :\Icditerranean
mixing of flour has practically stopped in
thE' United States. This not only assists
the honest manufacturer of flour, but it
protects the consumer, and at the same
time gives us a reputation for manu-
facturing honest goods, and its influence
has already been felt in our export trade
to all the countries that buy our flour.
The committee on manufactures of the
United States Senate has had presented
to it letters that come from at least
twelve or fifteen of the large cities of
the world, all of the same tenor and gen-
eral effect as the foJIowing:

.. LmmoN, October 12, 1899.
.. DEAR SIRS,-Replylng to yours of the 1Gth
ultimo, with regal"d to the pure food law
now In operation In your country, since this
act was passed by Congress It has certainly
restored confidence on this side, and In my
opinion wIll materially assist your export
trade.

.. Yours faithfully,
.. "y.
I. :\IEESOY,
.. Per JUII:-I STAN
IORE.
II Tile Modern Miller, St. Louis."

It is a well-known fact that our m{'at
products ha,'e had
gnater demand and
better sale sinee the go,'ernnwnt under-
took their im;peetion, and it is safe to say
that nothing will more encourage Our
{'xport trade than for the gm'ernment of
the United States to have some standard
fixed, to which the food products of the
tJnited States must rise before they can
be sold to our own people or our
customers abroad.

I"

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4 ,.

A.'lJKII:W IH.'LL FOOTE.

squadron in 1833; and in IR38, as first
lieutenant of the sh i p .J olm . Lda Ill.'!, undpr
Commodore Rl'ad, he cin'umnavigatpd the
globe, and took part in an attaek on the
piratpR of Sumatra. He was one of the
first to introdll"<:e (I R-1 I) the principle of
total ahstinf'n("e from intm.icnting drinks
into the Cnitpd Stnh's n:n-y: and on the
('umbcrlalUl (IR43--1:)) he delivered, on
Sllmla
"s, e
h'mporary f'ermons to his
crew. He suC'ce!'sfull.r engagC'd in the sup-
pr{'ssion of the slave-trade on the coast of
Africa in 1R4f)-:>
. In eommand of the
China stntinn in lR:>ß, when the Chinese
and English "'
re at "'al", Foote e

rted
400

FOOTE-FORBES

himself to protect American property,
and was fired upon by the Celestials. His
demand for an apology was rdu:wd, and
hc stornH'd and capturcd four Chinese
forts, composed of granite walls 7 feet
thick and mounting 176 guns, with a loss
of forty men. The Chinese garrison of
5,000 men lost 400 of their number kilkd
and wounded. In the summer of 18bl
Foote was made captain, and in September
was appointed flag-officer of a flotilla of
gunboats fitted out chiefly at Cairo, and
commanded the naval expedition against
FORTS HENRY and DO:VELSON (qq. v.) on

he Tennessee and Cumberland rivers,
early in 18G2, in co-operation with Gen-
cral Grant. In the attack pn the latter he
was se,'erely wounded in the ankle by a
fragment of a shell. Though suffering,
he commanded the naval attack on ISLA:VD
Nm.IBER TEN (q. v.). After its reduction
he returned to his home at New Haven.
He was promoted to rear-admiral in .July,
1862; and in May, 18fì3, was ordered to
take command of the South Atlantic
squadron, but died while preparing in
New York to leave for Charleston, June
26.
Foote, HENRY STUART, statesman; born
in Fauquier county, Va., Sept. 20-, 1800;
graduated at Washington College in
1819, and admitted to the bar in 1822;
removed to :Mississippi in 1826, where he
entered into active politics while prac-
tising his profession. In 1841 he was
elected to the United States Senate, and in
18'>2 was elected governor of the fitate,
his opponent being Jefferson Davis. Mr.
Foote was a gtrong opponent of secession
at the Southern Convention held at Knox-
ville, Tenn., in May, 1859, but when seces-
sion was an assured fact he accepted an
election to the Confederate Congress,
where he was active in his opposition to
most of President Davis's measures. He
wrote Texas and the Texans (2 volumes) ;
The IT'ar of the Rebellion, or Scylla and
r'harybdis; Personal Reminiscenccs, etc.
In his day he was a noted duellist. He
died in Xashdlle, Tenn., :May 20, 1880.
Foote, SAMUEL AUGUSTUS, legislator;
born in CIH'shire, Conn., Nov. 8, 1780;
graduated at Yale College in 17f17; en-
gaged in mercantile business in 1\ ew
Haven; was for several years a member
of tIle State legislature; was a Represcnt-
III.-2 C 401

ative in Congress in 1819-21, 1823-2.3,
and 1833-34; and was rnit
d States Sena-
tor in 1827-33. He resigned his seat in
Congress in his last term on being elected
gowrnor of Connecticut. ]n 1844 he was
a Presidential elector On the Clay and
Frelinghuysen ticket. In 1829 he intro-
duced a resolution in the Senate which was
the occasion of the great dcbate betweeu
Robert Young Hayne, of South Carolina
and Daniel \Vebster, of Massachusetts.
The resolution, which seemed a simple af-
fair to elicit such a notable debate, wa

as follows:
"Rcsolved, that the committee on pub-
lic lands be instructed to inquire and re-
port the quantity of the public lands re-
maining unsold 'within each State and
Territory, a.nd whether it be expedient to
Hmit, for a certain period, the sales of the
public lands to such lands only as have
heretofore been offered for sale, and are
now subject to entry at the minimum
price. And, also, whether the office of
sm'veyor-general, and some of the land
offices, may not be abolished without detri-
ment to the public interest; or whether it
be expedient to adopt measures to hasten
the sales, and e'{tend more ra pidly the
surveys of the public land'S." For the de-
bate in full see HAYXE, ROBERT YOL'"NG,
and \YEBSTER. ÐAXIEL. Senator Foote
died in Cheshire, Dec. 15, J 846.
Foote, \YILLIA}[ HE:VRY, clergyman;
born in Colchestf'l", Conn., Dec. 20, 17f1-1:;
graduated at Yale College in 18W; and
became chaplain in the Confederate
army. He was aut1lOr of Sketchcs, Hit
-
torical and Biographical, of the Prcsby-
terian Church in Yirginia; and Hkctches in
Korth Oarolina. He died in Romney, \".
Va., Nov. 18, 18G9.
Foraker, JOSEPH BENSON, statesman;
born near Rainsboro, 0., July 5, 18-1:G;
graduated at Cornell in J8G9 and admitt{'d
to the bar t11e same year. He enlisted in
the 89th Ohio Regiment on July 14, 1862;
was mad
sergeant August, 18ti2; recei,'ed
the commission of first lieutenant March
14, 1864; elected gO\'ernor of Ohio in 1885
and 1887. and United States Renator for
the term 1897-1903. In 1900 he was clwir-
man of the committee on Pacific islands
and Porto Rico, and a member of the
cOll1mitt
e on foreign relations.
Forbes, JOlIN, military offi<>er; horn in

FORCE-FOREIGN AFFAIRS

Fifl'
hire,
cotIaml, in 1710; was a physi- Xational Calcndar, an annual ,'olu111e of
cian, but, preferring military life, entered national stati
til:s, which was puhlished
the British army, and was lieutenant- from 18
0 to Ht
l3. He died in Wa!'hinO'-
colonel of the St.ots GreJ's in 1745. He ton. D. C..
Jan. 2:J. HHi8. ð
was acting quartermaster-general umif'r Force Bill, TIlE.
ee Ku-KLUX KLA:'i'.
the Duke ot Cumber]and; arod late in 17;)7 Ford, l'Al'L LEICESTER, author; born in
he came to America, with the rank of BrooklJ'n, K. Y., in UHi.); has published
hrigadier-g('neral. He
umU1anded the The True George l\"ashington; Thc Jlony-
troops, 8,000 in number, against Fort Du- Sided Franklin, etc.; and has edited the
quesne, which he named l'ittsburg. He writings of Christup]wr ('olumhus, Thomas
died in Philadelphia, .:\Iarch 11, Ii59. See Jl.fl'{'r!'un, amI .John Dickim;on; Bibli-
130UQl:"ET; DUQL"Es
E, FOIn. ogruJlhy of lrorks Writtcn by and RI'-
Force, .:\L\.XXIXG FEIwrsox, author; lating to tlc.I'alldcr Jlamilton, and Essays
horn in "'ashington. D. C., Dee. 17, on the C01l.'
titlltion of the l"nitcd Ntatcs.
182-1:; graduated at Harvard in IR-I:5: ap- He was killl'd by his hrother Mal cohn in
pointed major of the :Wth Ohio Regiment Xew York City, .:\Jay 8, l!)U
.
in 18Gl; took part in the hattles at Fort Foreign Affairs. On S<,pt. 18, Ii7:>,
])on('lsoll and :-)hiloh. and in the sit'ge at the Continental Congn'''
' appointed
Yiekshnrg. ]1(' \\as with Sherman in the 1\Iessrs. 'Yelling, Frank]in 3 Livingstun.

\.tlanta eaml'aih'11 and heean)(' a hrevet Alsop, Deane, Dickinson. L'mgdon,
Ic-
major-general üf \Ï)lnntf'ers. In IRS!I he KC'an, and 'Yard a .. s('cret committee"
becamc commandant of the Ohio
o]dil'rs' to contract for the importation from
and Sailors' Home. Among his puhliea- l:urope of ammunition, small-.ums. and
tions are /'rolll 1-'ort J/(lIr!! to ('orilllh; eannon, and for suell a purpose Silas
TI/f' Jl()lIl1d - HlliltifT8: l'rehistoric Man; Deane was soon !'ent to l"rance
By a
'l'he I "irl.sbllrg Call1imign; JJm'ching resolution of the Congres!'. April 17, 17i7,
leross ('m'olilla: C'tc. He died near
an- the name of this commi Hee was e:,hanged
du!-h'. 0.. :\Iav 8, ISH!). to ., committee of foreign affairs." whose
F
rce, I:)ET
R, editor; born at Passaic fl1Jlctiom; were like those of the pt'esent
Falls, K. J., Nov. 26, linO; learned the f'ecr('tary of f'tate (s('e CAßIXET, PUESl-
printer's tradf' in Xew York City, and DEXT'S). Foreign intf'rcourse was first
was president of the Kew York T
'po- e!'tablished by law in 17HO. rn'sid\
nt
graphical
oeiety in 181
. In XO\"ember, 'Yashington. in his ml'

age, Jan. R,
1815, he settled in Washington, D. C.. be- I i!lO, suggested to Congress the prol'ri('ty
came a newspaper editor and puh]isher; of pro,'iding for the emplo
'nH'nt and ('om'
and was ma
'or IS3fi--I:0. He was major- pl'nsation of persons for carrying on in-
gflleral of the militia of the District of tercourse with foreign nations. The
('olumhia in IRGO, and was pre'sident of House appointcd a committl'e, Jan. 15,
the Xational Institute. In 183:3 hc made to prepare a bill to that efl"eet, which
a contract with the Unitf'd Stat('s gov- was l)}'esf'nted on the 21st. It passed the
C'rnment for the preparation and puh]i- lIouse on 1\Iarch 3n. The two Houses
cation of a documentary history of the ('Ould not agrC'e upon the provi
ions of
.\meriean colonies cm'('ring thc entire the bill. an(l a committee of conft'rencc
pf'l"iod of t]\(' Rl'volution. He preparf'd was al'poinh'd; and finally th(' original
and puhlished !) volumes. folio, and had hilI, greatl
. modified. was I'ass!'d. .June
the tf'ntll preparf'd, when ('ongrf's
re- 2;). I7!10. The act fixed the sa]nry of
fU
f'd to make furthf'r appropriations for ministers at forf'ign eourts
t !J;fI.OOO a
the work, and it ]ws n(',"('r h('cn hrought
'ear, and cllflrgh d'af{airrs at $4,;)00.
out. He had gathered an imnwns(' eol- To the first mini..tf'rs !wnt to Europe the
lC'etion of hooks. maml!'cripts. mal'
. and Continental C'ongre,;s guarante('d the pay-
],lans; and in IRfii his entire colleetion n1<'nt of their C'i:]wnsf's, \\ ith an additional
was purchased lIy the government for compensation for their time and trouh]('.

aoo.ono. and was transfC'rr('d to the li- Thes(' allowanc('s had heen fi
ed at fir
t
brary of C'ongrl""'s. IIis gr('at work is en- at $ll.Ill annually. After the peace the
titled -t mcrirnn .trrhin'.'l. ::Ur. Fo}"f'f"s C'ontinf'ntal C'ongre!'s had redu('ed the
first publication in "'ashington was the salary to
!I.oon, in eon
('qlH'nee of whieh
402

FOREIGN GOVERNMENTS AND THE UNITED STATES

Franklin insisted upon his recall, the sum France that they were to act together in
being insutlicient. ''"hen the bill of lï90 regard to American affairs. They had
went before the SC'nate that body was only n'en gone so far as to apprise other Euro-
willing to vote a general sum for the eÁ- pean governments of this understanding,
penses of foreign intercourse, and to leave with the expectation that they would con-
the compensation of the respecth'e minis- cur with them and follow their example,
ters to the di::.el"f'Ìion of the President, whate,'er it might he. Thus, at the very
urging that the difference in expenses at outset of the Civil "'ar, these two power-
the various courts called for discrimi- ful go,'ernments had entered into a com-
nation in the sums allowed. To this the bination for arraJ'ing Europe on the side
House would not agree, and for a while of the Confederates. and giving them mor-
both Houses insisted upon compliance al if not material aid in their efforts to
with their respective views. Henee the destroy the r<'puhlic. The proclamation of
delay in the passage of the bill. The act Queen Yictoria, made with unseemly haste
also made allowance for "outfits," which before the minister of the new administra-
had been insist<,d upon by Jefff'rson when tion, CHARLES F. AD.UIS (q. v.), could
he was appointed to succeed Franklin. reach England, was followed by corre-
Foreign Governments and the United sponding unfriendly action in the British
E'tates. From the time wl
en the South Parliament. And in addition to affected
Carolina ordinance of s<,ee;;sion was passed inditl"er<,nce to the fate of the American
there was obs<,}'\'ed in most of the Euro- nation, British legislators, orators, pub-
peau courts an unfrienclliuC'ss of spirit tow- Jieists, and journalists were la,'ish of
ards the national government and a causeless ahuse, not only of the govern-
willingness to gi,-e its enemies encourage- mf'nt, but of the people of the free-labor
ment in their revolutionary measures. States who were 10J'al to the government.
The public journals in their interest were This abuse was often expressed in phrases
<'qually unfriendly in their utterances. so uumanly and ungenerous, and e,'en
"'hen, early in February, the Confederate coarse and vulgar at times, that high-
States gowrnulf'nt was organized, Europe minded Englishmen blushed for shame.
seemed prepared to accept the hopeless The Emperor of the French was more
dismemberment of the republic as an ac- cautious and astute; but he followed
coll1plished iact. This beli

f was strength- Queen Yictoria apparently in according
ened by the despatches of most of the for- belligerent rights to the Confederates by a
l:ign ministers at \Yashington to their re- decree (June 11, 18Gl), and, at the same
specth'e go,'ernments, who announced, time, entered into poJitical combinations
early in February, the practical dissolu- for the propagation of imperialism in
tion of the rnion; and some affected to -be North Ameriea, with a belief that the days
amazed at th
folly of Congress in legis- of the great republic were numbered and
lating conccrulllg the tariff and other na- its power to enforce the :;UOXROE Doc-
tional measures when the nation was hope- TRIXE (q. v.) had vanishpd. The Queen
IpsslJ' expiring. The Queen of England, of Spain also hastened to proe1aim the
in her speech from the throne, expresscd TItutrality of her government. and to com-
a "h<,artfelt wish" that the difference hine with France in r<'planting the seeùs
that distrac'Ìed our countrv "mi<rht be of monarchical institutions in the Wf'st-
suseeptihle of a satisfactory. adjust.nent." ern henlÏsphere, now that the republi.

For these humane f'xpresslOns she was re- was apparently expiring. The King of
proved; and. finally. yielding to tIle im- Portugal also recognized the Confederates
portunities of her mini
ters, some of whom as belligerents.
<,arn<,stly de
irf'd the downfall of the nut the more enlightcnC'd and wise mon-
.A merican republic, she issued (:\[ay 13, arch of Russia, who was about to strike
18(1) a proe1amation of neutrality, by off the shackles of almost 40.000.000 sla,'es
wl,ich a Confederate go"ernment. as ex- in hi'3 own dominions, instructed his
isting. was acknowledged. and he1ligerent minist<,r (July 2f1, ISßl) to say to the
rights were aeeonlf'd to the Confederatf's. imperial representatin' at "'ashington:
A1ready an unùprstanding existf'd hp- "Tn e"pry p"ent the American nation ma.,"
tween the governments of England :11111 count upon the most cordial sympathy on
402

FORESTERS-FORNEY

the part of our august master during the izcd ISS!}; :rrand eourts, :W;
ub-court
,
important cri
i8 which it is passing 1,-1 ï.ï ; memhers, 17 .ï,.ïlj!) ; \wlle/its di
-
through at presenL" Thc Russian J-:m- hun,,('d sinec organi7ation, $ï ,:ïOO.IIOIl;
peror kept his word; and the powers of bl'nc1it::õ dishurscd la:;t fiscal
'ear, $!llIï,-
wc!'.tern Europe, rC'garding him as a pro- 9ï:{.
nounced any of the .\merican Republic, Forestry. For lllany years thc cutting
acted with more circumspection. The of yaluahle timber in various parts of the
attitude of foreign govermnents en- Pnited States has heen eanil'd to suc'h an
e(Juragf'd the Confederates to believe that extent that there has hC'en quitf' a changc
recognition and aid would surely be fur- in climatic conditions in various
e(.tions
nished; and the gonrnment of England, and the denudation of the ,-irgin fon'sts
by a negatin policy, did gi,'e them all has been seriously threatened. For the
the aid and encouragement it prudently purpose of checking the indiscriminate
could until it was seen that the Confed- cutting of valuable timber and to IH"o,'ide
('I ate ca.use was hopeless, when Lord a future supply of the principal woods re-
John Russell addressed the head of the quired in the manufacturing industries the
Confederacy in insulting terms. That as- national go,-ernment has established a
tute publicist, Count Gasparin, of France, bureau of forestry under the direction of
writing in IRG2, when considering the un- the Df'partmcnt of Agriculture, and more
precedented precipitancy with which lead- recently Cornell Uni,'ersity has been en-
ing European powers recognized the Con- abled to create a school of forestry for
federates as belligerents, said: "Instead the promotion of the science of fore!'.t cult-
of asking on which side were justice and ure. The Cornell school has lwd pla.ced
liberty, we hastened to ask on which side at its disposal for study large tracts of
were our interests; then, too, on which forest-laml helonging to the
tate of Kew
side were the best chances of succ{'s,...." York and to prh'ate imlividuals. As a
He said Eng]and had a legal right to be means of C'dueating the rising gf'neration
neutral, but had no moral right to with- into a ]o,'e for tree presel"\-ation. almost
hold her s
'mpathies from a nation enry State in the country now has its
"struggling for its existcnce and un i- ARBOR D.\ Y ('I. v.), one day set a part in
versal justice against rebels intent on each ."ear for the planting of young trl'C'S
crimes against humanity." and for class-room instruction in the "alut

Foresters, ANCIE
T ORDER OF, a of tree culture. Tn 1\101 official report

fraternal organi7ation founded in 17-15; showed that tlw standinO' timher in tIt('
established in the "Cnited States in IS3G. enited States eowred an ;rea of I,09-1.4!IG
The American branch is composed of 3 square miles, amI contained a supply of
high courts and 397 subordinate courts, 2.300,000,000,000 fect. Timber was thf'n
and has 38,08!) members. Total member- being cut at the rate of 40,000,000,000
ship throughout the world 9l2,GGfI, as fpet a year, and it was
stimated that if
stated by the Foresters' Directory, Dec. that a"C'rage was contimlC'd the snpply
31, IS!)!). The surplus funds of the society would he f'xllausted in about sixty
amounted to $33,1 24,(ì!);), and its assets
'('an
.
aggregated owr $7G,000,OOO. Benefits Forney, .TUII
WEIHS, journali
t; born
dishursed since IR3r., $111,2;)0,UUO; bene- in Laneastf'r, Pa., Sept. 30, 18 J ï; pm-
fits dishursed last fiscal
'ear. $.ï.OOO,OOO. ehasl'd the Lancaster Intelligcnce/" in IR
ï
Foresters, I
DEPEXDEXT' ORIIER OF. a and three J'f'ars latf'r the ./OUl"IW 7, whil'h
fraternal organi7ation foundf'd in IRï -1; papf'rs he amaJgamatf'C1 under tllf' nanH' of
high courts, 43; subordinate f'ourts, the Inte71igcncer amI Jounwl. He suh-
4,000; members, 170,000; benefits dis- spqlH'ntly l)('came part owner of the [>( 111/-
bursed since organization, $8.853.100; sylrnnia and \\'ashington Union. 1If' wa

henefits disbursed last fiscal year, $1,- clerk of the national Hou<;f' of Represl'nt-
430.200. ati,'es in IR:il-;);); startf'd tlw Pre.<;.<;, an
Foresters of America, a fraternal indf'pf'Jll]ent Df']mwratic journal. in Phila-
organization, not in affiliation with the delphia. in JR:ï7. nnd npon his re-C'lection
abO\'e, with jurisdil'tion limitf'd to the as clt'rk of the [fou<;e of Hl']u'esf'ntati,'l'<; in
L"nitf'd States. Founded IRG4. reorgan- l
:ï!) II(' starh.cl tllf' NUl/day .11ornillg
40-1

Chronicle in \\' ashington. Among his pub-
lications are _lnecdotes of Public lIen (2
volumes) ; Porty rears of American .lour-
nalisnl
' A. Centmmial Commissioner in
L'uropc, etc. He died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
1>ec. 9, 1881.
Forrest, EDWIN, actor; born in Phil:t-
delphia, Pa.,
Iarch 9, 180G. \\'hile still
a boy he began performing female and
jm'enile parts, being especially remem-
b('red as Young
'on.al in Home's play of
Douglas. His fin,t appearance on the
profes
ional stage was on :Kov. 27, 18
0,
at the \\Talnut Street Theatre, Philadel-
phia, in the title rôle of Douglas. Af-
ter a long professional tour in the \Vest,
during which he undertook several Shake-
spearian characters, he filled engagements
in Albany and Philadelphia, and thcn ap-
peared as Othello at the Park Theatre.
J'\ew York, in 18:W. He met with rcmark-

ble success, owing to his superb form and
IH csence and his natural genius. Kot be-
ing satisfif'cl with merely local fame, he
pla,r ed in all the large cities in the Unit-
eù States. His chief characters were
Othcllo, Macbeth. Hamlet, Richard III.,
l\f(.tamora and Spartacus, the la.st of
w'hich he' made exceedingly effective by
his immense energy. In 1835 he went to
England and the Continent. and played
with much acceptance, making many warm
friends, among them \YILLIAM C. l\IAC'-
READY (q. v.). In 18:H he again vi:;;itf'J
Europe and while there married Catha-
rine, a daughter of .Tohn Sinclair, the
widely known hallad-singer. Aftcr 1845
)Ir. Forrest spent two more years in Eng-
land, during which his friendship with

rr. l\Iacready wa.s broken. lIe had aeted
with great success in Virginius and other
parts, but when he attempted to persunate
1[aebeth llf' was his!-I'd hy the audience.
This hissing was attributed to professien-
'11 jealousy on the part of 1\Iacready. .\
t< w weeks after. whf'n l\Iacready appearf'd
as Hamlet in Edinburgh. Forrest hissed
him from a hox in which he stood. On
)lay 10. IS.H). whf'n 1Iaeready appea,red Hivf'r into western Tenne::,;sce, rested a
as 1[acheth in tllf' Astor Plac'e Theatre, in while at Jackson, and then (l\Iarch 23)
X ew York, thp frif'nds of Forrpst inter- pHshed on towards Kentuck,V. A part of
rupted thl' pprfonuau('p. The rf'sult was his forep eapturpd Union City the next
the Astor Plaef' riot. in whieh tWf'nty-two day. with tJlf' Xational garrison 'of 4;'0
H!f'n Wf'rp killed and thirt
'-six woundf'(J. mf'n. Forrest Own pushed on to Paducah,
Tn lR.,)8 )fr. Forrf'st announced his rf'tire- on the Ohi'o RiVl'r, with 3.000 men, and
ment from the stage. but appea.red at in- demanded the surrender 'of Fort Anderson
403

FORREST

tervals till 1871, when ill-health COUl-
pellcd him to rctire permanently. He was
a man of literary culture and accumu-
lated a large library rich in Shakespeari-
ana, which was destroyed by fire on
Jan. 1.3, 1873. He left his Philadelphia
home and a considerable portion of his
la rge fortune for the establishment of
an asylum for aged and indigent act-
ors. He died in l
l1Ïladelphia, Dec. 12,
1872.
Forrest, NATHAN BEDFORD, military
officer; born in Bedf'ord county, Tenn.,
.July 13, ]8
1; joincd the Tennessee
Mounted Rifles in June, 1861; and, in
July following, raised and equipped a
rC'giment of cayalry. By ]8U3 he had be-
come a famous Confederate chief; and
early in 1864 the sphere of his duties was
enlargcd, and their importance increased.
He was acknowledged t'o be the most
skilful and daring Confederate leader in
the 'Vest. He made an extensive raid in
Tennessee and Kentucky, with about 5,000
mounted men, in :,Iarch and April, 1864.
He had hepl1 skirmi!'hing with Gen. \Y.
S. Smith in northern :Mississippi, and,
sweeping rapidly across the Tennebsee

i J
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. ."" "Ù
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4
/

NATHAY HEOFOJW FORR
;
T.

FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD

tbere, in which the little garrison of 700
men, undpr Colonel Hicks, had taken
Iduge. It was rpfuspd; and, after assail-
ing the works furiously, and plundering
and burning the town untU midnight, he
ef'ased the assault. Hearing of reinforce-
ments for Hicks approaching-. he retreated
(:\larch 27), with a lo,",s of 300 men kiHed

lT1d wounded. TliP Kational loss was
sixty kiHed and woundpd. Forrt'
t was
chagrined by this faUure, and procf'eded
to attack Fort Pil1ow, on the l\lississippi,
which hc captured in April. Hearing- of
the march of General Rturgis from l\lem-
rhis to intercept him, Forrest escaped
from Tellll<'s"ìee into 11issi",sippi. \. few
weeks later, troops sent out from
Memphis to hunt up and capture him
were defeated h,Y him in a severe engage-
ment at Gun Town (June 10), on the
1Iobile and Ohio Railway, and were driven
hack with great loss. On the 14th he
was defeated near Tupelo, Miss.
ot
long afterwards, when Smith was in 1rïs-
sissippi with 10.000 men, the bold raider
flanked him, and dashed into :\femphis in
broad daylight, at the lwad of 3,000
cavalry, in search of Xational officers,
aed esca pell again into Mississippi. He
died in
lemphis. Tenn., Oct. 2
, 1877.
His im"asion of Tennessee, in 18G4, was
a remarkable performance. For several
weeks he had heen in northern Alabama,
to preYent troops from the 1Iississippi
joining Shcrman. He crossed the Ten-

m.ssee River, near 'Yatf'l"loo (Sept.
;;,
l
(i-t), with a force of light cavalry, about
7,000 strong, and inwsted Athcns. The
Pl'St was surrendered ahout half an hour
before sufficient reinforcements arrived
to hold it. These, with the garrison, aftf'r
a sharp conflict, became prisoners. For-
I"<;st then pushed on northward to Pulaski.
in Tennessef', (/f'stroJ'ing the railway; hut
Ge.neral }{ous,.;pau, at Pula!'\ki, rf'IH11spd
Forrest after brisk skirmishing several
hours, when the raider made eastward,
and struck the railway bctwpen TulIa-
hüma and Decherd. IIp was confronÜ'd
and menaced by Kational forces ulldn
now-sean, Steedman, and Morgan, and
withdrew before he had done much
damag-e.
\t }'ayettedlle he divided his
forces, giving 4,000 to Buford. his second
in command. Buford attaeked
\tllf'ns
(Oct. 2-3), which Gf'nf')'fil Granger had
regarrisoned with the 7:M Indiana Regi-
ment, and was repulsed. Forrest had
rushed on to Columhia, on the Duck
River, with 3.000 men, hut did not attack,
for he met Uoussean. with 4,000 men,
coming down from K asln'illf'. A t the
same time, Gen. C. C. "'ashhurne was
moving up the Tennp,..,..pe on steamers,
with 4,000 troops, 3,000 of them cavalry,
to assist in capturing the invaders. Scv-
eral otllPr leaders of the National troops,
under thp command of General Thomas,
\\ ho had tllPn arrin'd at
ashvme, joined
in thp hunt for l;'orrest. He saw his peril,

MAP Ot' BOF.:\E OF BO:\lt: OF FORHE8T'S OPt:RATIO:\S.
406

FORSYTH-FORTIFICATIONS

anò, paroling his prisoncrs (1,000), he
dcstro.red 5 miles of the railwa,y south
from the Duck River, and escaped over
the Tennessee (Oct. 6), at Bainbridge,
with veQT little lU:>5.
Forsyth, .JA}IES \V., military officer;
born in Ohio in 183.3; graduated at \Yest
Point in 18.36; promoted first lieutenant
in 18Gl and brigadier-general in 18li.j. He
served in the )laryland, Richmond, and
IShenandoah campaign,.,. lIe wrote Report
of (ln E.rpcdition up the rcllou:stonc River
itl, 187.).
Forsyth, JOII
, diplomatist; born in
Freùericksbmg, Va., Oct. 2
, 1 ï80; grad-
uated at the College of Kew Jersey in
lï!)!). His parents removed to Geor
ia
when he was quite young, and there he
studied law, Hnd was admitted to its prac-
tice about 1801. He was attorney-gen-
eral of the State in 1808; member of Con-
gress from 1813 to 1818, and from 1823
to 1827; Gnited States
enator, anù
governor of Georgia from 182ï to 18
!).
1\1r. Forsyth was rnited States min-
ister to f'pain in 18H) - 22, and nego-
tiated the treaty that ga\'e Florida to
the rnited States. He opposed X(TLLlFI-
CAT lOX (q. v.) in South Carolina, fa\"ored
Clay's compromise act of 1833, and was
United States Recretary of State from
IS
;) tiB his death, which occurred Oct
21, 18.H.
Forsyth, .ToTI
. clprg:\TJ11an: born in
Xpwburg, N. Y., in uno: graduated at
Hutgprs in 182f1: studipd t11pologr in Edin-
lmrgh eniwrsit.'T: onlained in 1834: Pro-
fessor of Bihlical Literature in Kewburg.
lR
6; of Latin in Princeton in 1847-53;
later again in Xpwhurg. and occupied the
Chair of En!!1ish LÏtf'ra turp in Rut-
gprs in lRGO-G
. From 18jl to 1881 lIP
was f'llaplain of \Yf'st Point. Among' 11is
works arp T
ir(',<: of flu' F:nrly Go/"('rnors of
).'('/1" Ynrk: and TTistor./! of the P1tblic
Sr1'ool.
of Ycwblll"f/. He died in New-
hurg. Oct. Ii. 1886.
Fort-FoRTS. Special articles will he
found on the \Tarious forts under their
rpspective names. For instance: FORT
CUXTOX, Sf'e CUXTON: FORT Sr\rTER. spc
Sr;\ITER, etc.
Fort Leavenworth War College. Spe
J
EAVEXWOP.TII. FORT.
Fort Montgomery.
!<'ORT.

Fort Washington, See CIXCIXNATI.
Fortifications. When the question of
taking measures for the defence of the
colonies was proposed in Congress, a dis-
cussion arose that was long and earnest,
for many members J'et hoped for recon-
ciliation. On the yery day that a British
reinforcement at 13o:,;ton, with Howe, Clin-
ton, and ßurgoy
te, entered that harbor,
Duane, of New York, moyed, in the com-
mittee of the wholp, thc opening a nego-
tiation, in order to aceOlnmodate the un-
happy dispute:,; existing between Great
Britain and the colonies, and that this be
made a part of the petition to the King.
But more determined spirits prevailed,
and a compromise was reached late in l\Iay
(23th), when dil"ections were given to
the Provincial Congress at Kew York to
preserye the communications between that
city and the country by fortifying- posts
at the upper end of )Ianhattan Island,
near King's Bridge, and on each side of
the Hudson Hiver, on the Highlands.
They wpre also directed to estahlish a
fort at Lake George and sustain the posi-
tion at Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain,
which the "GREEN l\IO-eXTAIN Boys"
(q. v.) and others had seized a fortnight
before.
The first bill for the fortification of
American harbors was reported in Con-
gress, l\Iarch 4, lï!J-l, by a committee of
one from each State, while the bill for
the. construction of a navy was under
consideration. rhe aet authorized the
President to commence fortifications at
Portland, Portsmouth, Gloucester, Salem,
Boston, Newport,
ew London, Kew York,
Philadelphia, Wilmington, Baltimore,
-\.l-
exandria, Norfolk, Ocracoke Inlet, Cape
Ff'ar Ri\'er. Georgetown. Charleston, Sa-
vannah, and S1. l\Iarfs. Annapolis was
ridded hy a suhsequent act. For this pur-
p0se only $1:3G,000 were al)propriatcd.
The Presi{lent was authorized to purdlase
200 cannon fo. the armalllPnt of the nt'w
fortifications, and to provide 130 extra
gun-carriagf's. with 230 tons of cannon
talIs, for which purpose $fl6.000 Wf'rp
apl'ropriat('(t.
-\notlt('r act appropriatf'd
$S1.000 for thc f'stah1ishment of arsf'nal...
al,d armorif's in addition to thos(' at
Springfield allll Carlisle, amI $3-to.OnO for
CLIXTO
, the purchase of arms and stores. T)IP
f'xportation of arms was prohihited for
407

See

FORTS CLINTON AND MONTGOMERY-FOSTER

one year, and all ar
us imported during bar of Penns,ylvania in 180G; elected to
the ne
t two J'ears \\ere to come in free Congress in IS
2; appointed first comp-
of duty. troller of the United States Treasury in
In recent J'ears the national government 1841; Secretary of the enited States
has been giving a larger degree of atten- Treasury in 1841; elected judge of the
tion to the question of coast defences, and district court of AlleghanJ' county, Pa.,
a board of ordnance and fortification in 1831. He died in Pittsburg, Nov. 24,
has in l:hargc the ercction of new works, IH52.
the strengthening of old ones, and the Forwood, \YILLIA
I STr
Ir, physician;
provision of the most approved ordnancc born in Harford county, l\1d., .Jan. 27,
for the protection of the principal coast 1830; graduated at the L'niversity of
dties of the country. The plans under Penn
yl\"ania in 1834; began the practice
which the board has been working will of medicine in Darlington, Md. He was
rf'quire manJ' years' time, e,'en with un- the author of The llistory of the Passage
usually liheral appropriations by Con
of General Lafa.lJPtte with his Army
grf'SS, to complete. After the rnited through Harford rounty in 1781
' The
States declared war against :;:pain in 18t18 llistory of Harford County; and A.n His-
one of the first works of importance \\ as torical and Descriptive X arrative of the
the preparation of the principal harbors Jlarnmoth Cat'e of ](entucky.
of the Atlantic coast to be able to suc- Foster, CnARLEs, financier; horn in
cess fully resist any hostile na\"al attacks. f:)eneca county, 0., April 12, lR28; was
For the adequate defence of the coast not first elected to Congress as a Republican
only were the e,-isting fortifieations at in 1870; elected governor of Ohio in
once put on a war footing and supplied 1879 and 1881; was appointed Secretary
with the latest style of ordnance, but the of the United States Treasury in Febru-
harbors of the cities that were likf'ly to ary, 18!11. He was concerned in a numhf'r
ÍI1vite attack were reinforced by the most of financial enterprises in which 11e ac-
complete system of mines and torpedoes. quired a large fortune, but in 1893 was
In this work the navy also bore an im- ohliged to make an m,signment of his vast
rortant share, as the exceptionally swift interests for the bf'ncfit of his cl'editors.
cruisers Columbia and Jlinneapolis were He died in Springfield, 0., Jan. 9, }!104.
kept constantly patrolling at sea for many Foster, ..TOlIN GRAY, military officer;
weeks, while a special fleet of smaJIer born in \Vhitefield, X. H., l\Iay 27, lR23;
\Cssels aidcd them in keeping watch nearer graduated at "'est Point in lR-Hi, en-
shore for the two
panish fleets that were tering the engineer corps. He sen'ed in
c
pected to menacc the coast from l\Iaine the war with
Iexieo and was brp,'etted
to Florida. Similar precautions were ca.ptain for meritorious ser\"Íces. For two
taken also at San Franciseo. For a list years (1855-57) he was Professor of En-
of the forts of the rnited States sec ::\hu- gineering at We5t Point; promotf'd to
TARY POSTS. eaptain in .July, ISGO; major in ::\Iareh
Forts Clinton and Montgomery. See I
ô3; and lieutenant-colonel in 18ô7. He
CLINTO
, FORT. was one of the garrison of Fort Sumter
Forty, FORT, a protectiYe work erected during the sie1!e, and was made brigadier-
b
' the Connecticut settlf'rs in \Vyoming general of volunteers in Octoher, IRQ1.
Yallev, Pa., in liG!}. It \\RS the renùez- He took a leadin
part in the capture of
\"Ims 'of the \mericans when the valley Hoanoke Island, early in 18fi2, anù of
\\ as invaded by Tories and Indians on
ewhf'rn, N. C.; was promoted to major-
,June 3, 1778, and was RurrenderPlI on the g('neral of volunteers, and heC'ame com-
foJIowing day.
f'e \\'ymnNG, MASSACRE mander of the Department of Xorth Car-
Ol". olina, and defended that region with skill.
"Forty-five." See" NIXETY-TWO A
D In .Tuly, 18(i3, he was made commander of
}'OHTY-FIVE." the Dqmrtment of \ïrginia and Korth
Forward, \YALTEIt, statesman; horn in Carolina. with his Jwadquartf'rs at Fort
Connecticut in 17Rô; remo\'ed to Pittsburg, Monroe. He was aftC']"wards in command
wllerc he was editor of the Trpe of Lib- of the Department of Ohio, of which Jle
. crty, a Dl'IlIonatic paper; admitted to the was relieved on account of wounds in
408

FOSTER-FOUNDERS AND PATRIOTS OF AMERICA

January, 18G4. He afterwards commanded for governor in 1892 and was elected; and
the Departments of South Carolina and was re-elected in 1896. In I!JOO he was
Florida. He was brevetted major-general unanimously elected to the United States
in the regular army for services during Senate as a Democrat.
the Civil War in 18G5. He died in Foster, ROGER, lawyer; born in \,"or-
Xashua, K. H., Sept. 2, 1874. cester, 1\1ass., in 1857; was graduated at
Foster, JOII
\YATSO
, diplomatist; Yale College in IS78, and at the law school
horn in Pike county, Ind., :Uarch 2, 183G; of Columbia University in 1880; and ad-
graduated at the Indiana State Uni- mitted to the New York bar in the same
versity in 1855; studied at Harvard Law year. Among his publications are A.

chool, and was admitted to the bar in Treatise on the Pedcral J udici-ary Acts of
E\ ansviIle, Ind. During the Civil War lSì5 and 18Sì; .d. Treatise on Pedcral
he sened in the Union army, reaching the rractice
' Commentaries 0111 the COllstitu-
rank of colonel of volunteers. After the tion; A Treatise on the Incorne Tax of
war he was in turn editor of the Evans- 1S!)
; etc.
viIle Daily Journal and postmaster of that Foster, \VILLIA
I EATON, historian;
city in lSG9-73. He was minister to l\Iex- born in Drattleboro, Vt., June 2. 1831; be-
ico in 1873-80, and to Ru
sia in 1880-81. came librarian of Providencc Public Li-
On his return to the United States he cn- brary. He is the author of The Literature
gaged in the practice of international law of the Cicil Flcrvice Refonn Movement;
in \Vashington, representing foreign lega- TOll'n GOVPl"IWlent in Rhod-e Island; ,çjte-
tions before arbitration board
. commis- phen HO}lkins, a Rhode Island Statesman;
sions, etc. In 1883-85 he was minister to etc.
Spain; and in 1891 was a special commis- Fouchet, JEAN ANTOIXE JOSEPH,
sioner to negotiate reciprocity treaties BARO
, diplomatist; born in St. QUf'lltin,
with Spain, Germany, Brazil, and the France, in 17G3; was a law student at
\Vest Indies. He was appointed "Cnited Pm'is when the Revolution broke out, and
States Secretary of State in 1802 and published a pamphlet in defence of its
sened till 18n3, when he became the agent principles. Soon afterwards he was ap-
for the United States before the Bering pointed a member of the executive council
Sea arbitration tribunal at Paris. In of the revolutionary government. and was
IH!J3, on the invitation of the Empcror of French ambassador to the rnited States
China, he participated in the peace nego- in li04-05. Here his behavior wa
lp
s
tiations with Japan: in 18n7 he was a offensive tImn that of "Citizen" Genf't.
special Cnited States commissioner to but it was not satisfactorv, and I1e was
Great Britain and Russia, and in 18n8 succeeded by Aclet. a more' prudent man.
was a member of the A
GLO-A
IERI('A
After he left the "Cnited
tates. the French
CmBnssIO
(q. v.). He is the author of Directory appointed him a commi
sioner
.4 Century of American Diplomaf'Y, a to
anto Doming-o. which lle declined.
brief review of the foreign relations of rnder Bonaparte h
was prefect of Var,
the United States from 177G to 1876. See ann. in I RO;') he was thp
amp of Ain. He
DEIUXG SEA ArmITRATIO
. remainpd in Ttalv until th(' French evac-
Foster, l\IURPHY JA
IES, lawyer: born uatNI it in 1814. On Napoleon's return
in FrankHn, La., Jan. 12, 18-H); was from Elba Fouchet was made prpfect of
graduated at Cumberland University, the Gironde. The date of his death is not
Lebanon, T
nn., in 1870. and at thc law known.
I'('hool of Tulane "Cni\"prsity. Kew Orleans, Founders and Patriots of America,
in 1871; and practi
ed in l1is native town. OIWER OF. a patriotiC' organi7ation incor-
He was eJected a member of the State porated :\1arch IR. 1 ROf). The object of
Smate in 187n, was returnpd for three the order is "to bring togpthpr and a
soci-
con
ecutiv
terms of four years pach, and ate congC'nial men whosp ance
tors
was presirl.C'nt l}ro trill. in 1880-00. He strugg-lpd together for Hfe and 1ibprty.
was tJl<' leader in thf' long and slIeee

ful IlOm
and happiness, in tIle land when it
fight against the Louisiana Lottery Com- was a new and unknown country, and
pany, while in the State Senate; was whose line of descent from them comps
nominated by the Anti-lottery Convention through patriots who sustained the colo-
409

FOUNTAIN OF YOUTH-FOWLTOWN

nies in the struggle for inùepend('nce in he was joint partner with Gamaliel
the Revolutionary War; to teach ren'rent Rogers in publi
hing the IndC}Jendent
regard for the names and history. char- .1 drat iser. They had published the
acter and persevcrance, deeds and hero- A. mcric.m J[ aga::iJle from 17.13 to 17 4G,
ism, of the founders of this countQ" and anrl were the first in America to print
their patriotic descendants; to inculcate the Kew Testament. ::\lr. .Fowle settled
patriotism; to disco,-er, collpct. and pre- in Porbmouth, X. H.; and there, in Octo-

I'rn' rpcord ", documents, manuscripts, bpr, 17 ;)G, began the publication of the
monuments, and hìstory relating to the :\ (IV llamlJshirc Gazette. lIe tlied in
fir--t colonists and their ancestors and Portsmouth. K. H.. in .June, 1787.
their des.cendant
; and to commemorate Fowler, f'A
lrEL PAGE, antiquarian;
Hnd celebrate events in the hi
tory of the born in Dan\"er
.
la::-s.,
\pril

. ISOO;
coìonies of the republic." The oillc'ers in aided in founding the Essex Institute.
I !lOO were: Governor-gpneral, Stewart L. He was the author of articles in the II is-
". oodford, X PW York; deputy go'"ernor- torienl ('o11('el ions of the Bss('x I llstitute:
general, Samuel Emlen )Ieigs, Philadel- Utc and Clwractcr of the Rev. Samuel
phia; secretary-general, Charlps Mather Parris, of Salem 'illagc, a1/(I his ('ollllee-
Glazier, Hartford, Conn.; treasurer-gen- tion Il:ith the l\7itrhcraft Delusion of
eral, Samuel Victor Constant, Xew York; J{;!(2, etc.
attorney - general, \Yi11iam Raymond Fowler, \YILLIA
[ CIIA{;:\"CEY, author;
\\7 ee ks, Xpw York: registrar-general, \Yill- born in Killingworth, Conn., Sppt. 1,
iam Anùerson l\litcllPll, Xf'W York; and ] 7!1:J: graduated at Yale in IR Hi; he-
chaplain-genera], Rev. Daniel Frederick camp pastor of the ('ongr('gational Church
Warren, .Jen;ey Citro K. J. in (ireenfielù.
lass., in IH
.'). lIe puhli
h-
Fountain of Youth, a fabl('d fountain, pd many school-books and also 'J'he Scr-
the discovery of which was one of the ob- tiûnal ('ontror:crsy, OJ' Passagrs in th('
jects of the exploration of Florida in rúlitieal History of the United States;
1;'12 by POXCE DE LEOX ('1.1.'.). The /I;storyofDurham;LocalLawinJ[assa-
water of this fountain was suppo::-l.d to rll1lsctts and ('onnccti"llt: gpn<>alogical
constitute an elixir, the drinking of which '\flrks on the Fowler and Channepy fami-
would greatl)T prolong human life. lies, etc. He died in Durham, Conn., Jan.
Four Mile Strip, a strip of land 4 1.3. IbRl.
miles wide on each side of the Xiag- Fowler, \Yn,LT.nl \YoRrIII
GTo:v. au-
ara Rinr. e),.t('nding from Lake Erie thor: born in :;\[iddlebury, Yt.. .June 24,
to Lake Ontario, which was cedNI to IS:J:J: graduatpd at Amhcrst Col1pge in
the British gonrnnl<'nt in 170-t hy a IR.').1: admittptl to the har in If;.)7: and
council of Indians representing Iroquoi!o', bf'gan practice in Xew York City. His
Ottawas, Ojibwa
"s, "'yandottes, and puhlieations include Tcn rears in lrnll
others. ,....tred; Life (lnd Adl'cntltreS of Benjamin
Fourier, CIIARLES, f\ocialif't: horn in P. J/oncyprnn!l: lromcn on the lmericmt
Bensançon, France, April 7. 1772: d('\"Ï
ed l'rontier; Twrnty rem's of Inside Life in
a social system known as Fourierism. I If' trall Rtrcet; etc. He died in ISRl.
died in Paris, Oct. 10, 1837. Sec BROOK Fowltown, BATTLE OF, an engagenH'nt
FAIOI ASSO(,IATIO
. in 1817 fought hy National troops und('r
Fourteenth Amendment to the Con- Gm. E. P. r.ainps and ho"tile Crppk Ind-
stitution. See COXSTI1TTIO:\" ASH Gov- i
ns during the Seminole "'ar in Florida.
ER:\'
fEXT OF THE l'XITED
TATES. TI1P Indians had committed depredations
Fourth of July, the _\merican natal on the frontier settlpnwnts of Georgia and
day. so designated because of the HECLA- Alabama. General Gaines fol1owf'rl t1IPm
IMTIOX OF IXDEPEXUEXCE ('1. r.) on .July up anrl on thp refnsal of the inhahitants
4, I 'ï7fi; also popularly known as [ndl" of Fowltown to f\urrPTHl('r the ringleadprs
prndence Da
'. See AJ)A
ls. .ToIl
. ]1(' took and dpstrnp'd tIJ(' ItHlian village'.
Fowle, DANIEL, prinf('r: born in for \\"lIi{'h the Indians !,oon aftl'rwanls r('-
CharlestO\\n. 'fass., in 17]."): lparned the taliatpfl hy capturing a hoat conVf'ying'
art of printing. and began husiness in snppli('s for Fort f'mtt up thf' Apalachico-
Boston in 17 -to. where. trom 174R to 17:)0. l:t HÏn'r. and killing thirt,y-foUT men and
110

Taken before Cromwell, in London, that
ruler not only released him, but declared
his doctrines were salutary, and he after-
wards protected him from persecution;
but after the Restoration he and his fol-
lowers were dreadfully persecuted by the
Stuarts. He married the widow of a
Welsh judge in Hj(m, and in HJ72 he came
to America, and preached in Maryland,
Long Island, and New Jersey, visiting
Friends wherever they were seated. Fox
afterwards visited Holland and parts of
Germany. His writings upon the subject
of his peculiar doctrine-that the "light
of Christ within is gi,'en by God as a gift
of salvation "-occupied, when first pub-
lished, 3 folio volumes. He died in Lon-
don, Jan. 13, lüm.
\Yhen the founder of the Societv of
Friends visited New England in Hì72, being
more discreet than others of llis sect, he
went only to Uhode Island, avoiding Con-
necticut and Massachusetts. Roger \Yill-
iams, who denied the pretensions to spir-
itual enlightenment, challenged Fox to
disputation. Before the challenge was re-
ceived, Fox had departed, but three of
his disciples at Kewport accepted it.
\\ïlliams went there in an open hoat,
30 miles from Providence, and. though
over seventy years of age. rowed the ve,.:;sel
himself. There \Vas a three days' dis-
putation, which at times was a tumultu-
ous quarrel. \YilIiams published an ac-
was grave and contpmplative in tempera- count of it, with the title of George Pox
nwnt, was apprenticf'd to a shoemaker, Diggcd out of his Burrowes,. to which
and madp the Scriptures his constant :Fox replied in a pamphlet entitled, _t
studv. TIH' òoctrines he afterwards X em England Pirebrand Qllenchcd.
taught were gradually fashioned in his Xeither was sparing in sharp f'pithets.
mind, and hplieving himself to be called to Fox, GUSTAV{TS VASA, naval officer;
disspminate them, he abandoned his trade Lorn in Saugus, l\1ass., .June 1 3, lS
l; ap-
at the age of nineteen, and began his pointed to the rnited States navy .Tan.
spiritual 'work, leading a wandering life 12, IR38: resigneù with the rank of lieu-
for some years. living in the woods. and tenant July 10, 18,>6; was sent to Fort
practising rigid self-denial. He first ap- Sumter for the purpose of opening eommu-
pea red as a prpacher at ::\Ianehester. in nieation with .:\Iajor Anùprson. Before the
Hi-tR. and he was imprisonl'd as a dis- expedition rp:lehed Charleston the Conff'd-
turber of the peace. Then he travelled crates had opened fire on Fort f'Ulllter and
oyer England, meeting the same fate forced ::\Iajor Anderson to surrenùer. He
ever
'where, but gaining many followers. was subsequf'ntly appointed assistant Hec-
He warmly advocated all the Christian rf'tary of the Navy, and held this post
virttlPs, simplicity in worship, and in man- until the end of the war. He plamwd op-
J1er of living. Brought hcforp a justice nations of tIll' navy, including the capt-
at DC'rhy. in 1(;,>0, he told thp magistrate urC' of Xew Orleans. He was sent b
' the
to "quake before the J
o]'(l." and there- rniteù Rtates government on the monitor
after he and his sect were called Quakers. JIiantoltollloh to eonn'y the epngratula.
411

a number of "'omen. This e,'ent led Gen-
eral Jackson to take the field in person
against the Indians early in January,
1818.
Fox, GEORGE, founder of the Society of
Friends, or Quakers; born in Dray-
ton, Leicestershire, England, in July,
1624. His father, a Presbyterian, was
too poor to gin his son an education he-
yond reading and writing. The son, who

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GEORGE FOX.

FOX

FOX INDIANS-FRANCE

tion::; of the Lnitcd States CongreS'S to their dominions, were to stand as one
Alnanùer II. on his escape from assa8
i- state towards foreign powers. This trcaty
nation. This was the longest vo)"age that
ecured to the American colonies, in ad-
had enr been made by a monitor. His \ance, the aid of Charles HI. of Spain.
visit to nus
ia materially aided the ac- A special conwntion was concluded the
quisition of Alaska by the Cnited I'-;tate8 Same day between France and
pain, hy
gO\"el"llment. He died in New York City, "hich the latter agrecd to d{'clare war
Oct. 2f1, I
S:t against England unless peace between
Fox Indians, a tribc of Algonquian Fran<:e and England should be concluded
J ndians first found bv the whites in \\ïs- Ldore
Iay, I i62. Choiseul cOH'nanted
con
in. Thev were
lriYen south of the with Rpain that Portugal should be com-
Wisconsin River by the Ojibwas and the pelled. and Savoy. Holland, and Denmark
French. and there incorporatcd with the should be invited, to join in a federative
f'ae Indians. In lÐOO there were 521 union" for tbe C0I111110n advantage of al1

ac and Fo"X of Mississippi at the Fox maritime powers." Pitt proposed to de-
agency in Oklahoma; 77 Sac and Fox of clare war against Spain, hut was out-
)Jis
ouri at the Pottawatomic agency in voted, and resigned (Oct. .'5, liIH).
Kanf-as, and 3SR of the Sac and Fo'\{ of The French go,-ermnel.t was pleaspd
)li:-;si:-;"ippi at the
ac and Fox agency in when the breach between Great Britain
Iowa. and her colonies hegan, and sought to
France, EAIi:I,y RELATIOSS WITH. The widen it. England had stripped France
serious quarrel between the f:nglish and of her possessions in America, anù Fran
e
French colonists in America, which was sought to dismember the nritish Empire,
begun in 1754 and continued by collisions and cause it a greater loss, by the aehie,.e-
of armed men. was taken up hy the home ment of the independence of the colonies.
governments in Ii 33. The :1<'rench had Arthur Lee, of Virginia, being in. London
offercd to treat for reconciliation, but the soon aftpr the hreaking out of hostilities,
terms were not acceptable to the English; made such repre
entations to the French
and when the offer was refused, the ambassador there that the Count de '-er-
}'rench fitted out prh-ateers and threat- gennes, the French minister of foreign
ened to invade England \\ith a fleet and affairs. sent PIERRE ALmTsT[
CARO
DE
army collect('d at Brest. To confront BEAr
I
RCHAIS (q. 1.'.), a well-known po-
this menace, a body of (jerman troops litical intriguer and courtier. to concert
were introduced into England; and. to measures with L('e for sending to the
inducc the colonies to make fresh efforts Americans arms and military stores to the
again
t the Frend} in America, the Par- amount of $
OO.OI
. An op('n br('ach
liament voted a reimbursement of $ii5,000 with the English was not then dC'sirable,
to those involved on account of Dieskau's and the French minister, to cowr up the
inva
ion. Pro\"Ìsion was also made for transaction, gave it a mercantile feature,
enlisting a }'oyal American regiment, by hadng Beaumarchais transmit the sup-
composed of four battalions of 1,000 men plies under the fictitious firm-name of
each. All hopes of r('conciliation being Rodrique Hortales & Co. Before the mat-
{'ast. England formally declared war ter was completed, RILAS ÐEAXE (q. v.),
against Fran
e ('-lay. 18, li5G), to which sent by the committee of secr('t corre-
the lattpr shortly after responded. spondenc(', arrind in Pari.; (May, liifi),
On
\ug. I;"), I iGl, Choi
eul, the able :n the disguisp of a prh-ate mpr
hant. He
French mini!-ter, brought about. by treaty, was received kindh' bv Ver"ennes. and in-
a finll alliance betwepn France and troduc('d to neaun
aT(:hais. .... It was agr('ed
Spain. a family compact that eventually that Hortalf's & Co. should send the sup-
prond beneficial to the Engli",h-Amf'I'ican plies by way of the We!".t Indies. and that
colonies. It was d('signf'd to unitf' all the Congres"
hould pay for tlH'm in tohaC'C'o
branchps of the IIou!'.e of Bourhon as a and oth('r .-\n1PrÏean produc.ts. When the
counterpoise to the maritime ascendency arrangement was completed. Beaumarchai

of England. It was agreed that at the despatched Y('ssels from timf' to time,
conclusion of the then existing war with nlluable cargof's. including 200 can-
France and Spain, in the whole e
tellt of non and mortars, and a supply of small
412

FRANCE, EARL Y RELATIONS WITH

arms from the French arsenals; also, stores as a present from the Court of
4.000 tentt-:o and clothing for ;
O,OOO men. France:' Then Beaumarchais claimed pay-
Deane was suspected of some secret con- Hunt from the Congress for every n.rti-
nection with the French government, and cle he had forwarded. This claim caused
was closely watched by British agents; a lawsuit that lasted about fifty years.
and the French Court would trust none of It was settled in 1833, by t.he pa)'ment by
its secrets to the Congress} for its most the United States government to the heirs
pri va te deliberations ( the sessions were of Bea umarehais of over $:WO,OOO.
alwa)'s private) leaked out} and became On May 4, 1778, the Contincntal Con-
known to the British ministry. The busi- gress unanimously ratified the treaties
ness was done by the secret committee. with France, and expressed their grate-
Roon after the Declaration of Indepen- ful acknowledgments to its King for his
dence, a plan of treaties with foreign na- "magnanimous and disinterested con-
tions had been reported by a committee duct." This treaty and this ratification
and accepted by Congress, and Franklin, "buried the hatchet" that had so long
Deane, and Jefferson were appointed been active between the French and the
(Rept. 28, 1776) commissioners to the English colonies in America. The latter
Court of France. Jefl'erson declined the regarded all Frenchmen as their friends,
a ppointment, and Arthur Lee was substi- and proclaimed Louis XVI. the "pro-
tuted. They were directed to live in a tector of the rights of mankind."
f'tyle " to support the dignity of their pub- On the evening of April 12, 1779, the
He chara.cter," and provision was ma'.l
representatives of France and Spain
for their maintenance. Franklin arrived signed a convention for an invasion of
at Paris, and was joined by Deane and Lee England, in which the Americans were
in December. The conun:ssioners were considered and concerned. By its terms
C'ourteously received by Vergennes, pri- France bound herself to undertake the
vately, but without any recognition of their invasion of Great Britain and Ireland;
diplomatic character. France was secret- and, if the British could be driven from
Iy strengthening her navy, and preparing Kewfoundland, the fisheries were to be
for the inevitable war which her aid to shared with Spain. France promised to
the revolted colonies would produce. The use every efl'ort to recoyer for Spain
C'ommissioners received from the French Minorca, Pensacola, and
Iobile, the Bay
p-overnment a quarterly allowance of $400,- of Honduras, and the coast of Carn-
000. to be repaid by the Congress, with pEachy; and the two C'ourts agreed not to
which they purchased arms and supplies grant peace nor truce, nor suspension of
for troops, and fitted out armed vessels- hostilities, until Gibraltar should be re-
a business chiefly performed by Deane, stored to Rpain. Spain was lpft free to
who had been a merchant, and manag<,d exact from the United States. as the
the transactions with Beaumarehais. Out price of her friendship. a rpnuncÏation
of these transactions grew much embar. of every part of the basin of the At.
1":tf-i"ment. chiefly on account of the mis- Lawrcnce and the Lakf's, of the naviga-
Tf>pre,>entations of Arthur Lee, which led tion of the :\Iississippi. and of all the
Congrpss to believe that the supplies for- territory between that rin-r amI the Allp-
w'aJ'ded by Beaumarchais were gra.tui- ghany )[ountains. This modification of
ti('s of th<, Freneh monarch. This belÏpf the treaty of France with tllP Pnited
prevailed until the close of 17ïR, when States gan the latter t]lP right to make
Franklin, on inquiry of Vergf'nnes about peace whpneyer Great Britain should rec-
the matter. was informeù that tlw King ognize tllPir indeppndenee.. Ro tlws<, two
had furnished nothing; he simply per- Bourbon dynastif's plotted to <'xclude the
rnitted Reaumarchais to be provided with Amerieans from a region essential to
articles from the arsenals upon condition U'em as mpmbers of an indppendent re-
of replacing them. The matter becoming a public. nut a llPW powpr appmred in
pub1ic question, the startled Congrpss, un- tll(' Wpst to frustratp their df>signs.
willing to compromise the French Court. which was prefigured by an expedition
declared (January, 177f1) that they" had ur.der a ]\arùy son of Yirginia. See
never received any
pecies of military CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS.
413

FRANCE, EARLY RELATIONS WITH

In I,!I, the consul-general of the .. Address to the Pre
ident;' signed by
rnited
tates in France complained of 5,000 citizens, was pre
ented to
\dam
;
the eondf'mnation (If _-\meriean ve
sels and this was follow<,d b.r an address hy the
unjustly. :i\lerlin, the Frem'h minister of young mcn of the cit)" who" ent in a. body
justice, made a reply in which he openly to deliver it. man)' of tIlf'm wearing black
a\-owed the intention to humble the cockades, the same whieh were worn in
Americans and compel Congress to con- the American army during the Revolution.
form to the wishes of }'rance by depre- This was done in the way of defiance to
d:1 tions upon American comUlerce. "Let the tricolored cockades. From this cir-
your government," wrote this minister of cumstance was derived the term, so fa-
justice (who was also a speculator in miliar to politicians of that period, of
privateers), .. return to a sense of what .. lllack Cockade }'ederalists." It b('came
is due to itself and its true friend", be- in time, a term of reproach, and the wcar

come just and grateful, and Jet it break ers were exposed to personal attacks.
the incomprehensihle treat)' which it has rn Jul)', I,tl8, the American Congres

concluded with our most implacable declared the treaties made between the
enf-'mi('s, and then the French Uepublic l-nited :'tates and France (Fl'h. G, 1,,8)
will ceai'e to take advantage of this at. an end, and authorized AnH'rkan YPs-
h(,aty, which favors England at its ex- sels of war to capture French cruisers. .-\
pense, and no appeals will then, I can marine eorps was organizl'd, and thirty
assure you, be made to any tribunal eruisers wel"t
provided for. The frigates
against injustice." FI/itcd S(atrs, Constitution, and ('vI/std.
In :\larch. 1,98, President .Adams, in a lation, already built, were soon made
spH
ial me

age, asked Congress to make )"(.ady for
pa und!'r such commalHlers as
pro\"Ïsion for the war with France that Dale, Barry, Decatur the elder, Tnn.ton,
seemed impending. It was promptly com- Nicholson, and Phillips. Decatur soon
plied with. A provisional army of 20,000 captured a F.'ench corsair (April, Ii!18).
regular soldiers was voted, and provision So many American armed ves
cls in \Yest
was made fo.' the employment of vol un- India waters, in the summer and autumn
teers as well as militia. PI"O\"Ïsion was of Ii!lS, astonished the nritish and Frpneh
also made for a national navy, and the a1!thorities there. At the close of tint
office of Secretary of the Kavy was cre- year the American navy consisted of
ated (see KAVY OF TIlE USITED STATES), twenty-three vessels, with a total of 4.Hì
and the incumbent was made a member of guns. It was nmeh strenrrthened durinO'
the cabinet. Party spirit disappeared in the J'ear Iin9 by the laun
hing and put

the national legislature in a degree, and Hng into commi!'....ion several new !'hip
,
a war spirit ever
'where pre\'ailed. There and victories over the French on the oeean
were a few members of Congress who were gained. In February, Ii!)!}, Com-
made the hnnor of the nation subsen-if'nt llIodore Truxton, in the ('on.c;tcllntion,
to tllf'ir partisanship. They opposed a cHptured the French frigate L'Insltr[lcntc;
war with France on any account; and so and in Fehruar,v. 11'100, he gained a. victory
unpopular did they become that so'ne of o\"('r the I,'rf'neh frigate l
a "rngcflnce.
tllt' most obnoxious, particularly from The connntion at Paris brought about
\ i rginia, sought pf'rsonal safety in flight. pwce h<,t w<,en the two nations, and the
umler the pn.t<,xt of needed attention to na\'y of the United States was called to
pI inIte affairs. another fìf'ld of aetion.
Ever since
Iinister Adet's prodamation \YhiJe war with Fram'e sppmpd inpvi-
the Democrats. or friends of the French, tahle, and was actually oecurring on the
had worn the tricolored cockade. \Yhen, ocean. a change in the gO\ f'rnment of
in the spring of Ii!18, President Adams that country occurred, which a\"('rterl
tock strong ground against France, a de- from the Cnited States the ealamity of
cided war spirit was aroused throughout war. For a long time the qU<1rrpls of po-
the country; addresses poured in on tlw litical faf'tions had rlistractpd Franr'e.
President: and e\'erywhere were seen evi- TilE DIRECTORY (q. v.) had bf'come very
rlencps of a reflex of opinion whieh sus- unpopular, and the pxcitahle people were
tained the Prí'sident. In Philadelphia, an ripe for another revolution. Kapoleon
4l-t

FRANCE, EARL Y RELATIONS WITH

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CAPTURE OF LA VEXGEAYCE BY CO:\STELLATIOY.

Bonaparte was then at the head of an resigned, leaving France without an execu-
army in the East. His hrothers informed tive authority, and Bonaparte with its
him of the state of afi'airs at home, and strong ann, the military, firmly in his
he suddenly appeared in Paris with a few p-l"aSp. The Council of the Ancients, de-
followers, where he was hail('d as the good ef'i'"ed hy a trick, assembled at St. Cloud
genius of the republic. \nth his brother the next (hiy. Bonaparte appeared before
Lueien, then presidcnt of the Council of them to justify his conduct. Perceiving
Five Hundred, and the Ahbr- Sicyès. one of their enmity, he threatened them with ar-
the Directory, and of great inlluence in ]"('st hy the militar,y if they should decide
the Council of the Ancients, he conspired agaiI
st him. )Ieanwhile Lucien had read
for the owrthrow of the government and the letters of resignation of the three
the estahlishment of a new one. Si(','ps directors to the Council of Five Hun-
induced the Cuuncil of the Ancients
to dred. A RCene of terrible excitement oc-
place Bonaparte in command of the miIi- curred. Tlwre were shouts of .. Ko Crom-
tary of Paris, Kov. n, 17
)!:)' Then Sie
'ès well! no dictator! the constitution for-
and two other mcmbers of the Directury ever!" Bonaparte enter('d that chamber
413

FRANCE, EARL Y RELA TIONS WITH

with four grenadiers. and attempted to :-Ind pam,ell; and, through letters to
I'peak, but was interrupted by cries and Pinehon (.\ugust and Septembl'r, I ï!)
),
e
e('ratiuns. The memhen
sepJ}wd about information was conveyed to the enitNI
to olrer personal violenee to the hold sol- States government that t1H' Hireeturv
dier. when a hody (If troops rushed in and \\ere ready to reeei\e ad\"anceb from t1;e
bore him off. A motion was made for his fonner fur entering intó negotiations.
out1awr,r, which Lucien l'efused to put.
<\!lxious for peaee, Presidf'lll _\l1am-1,
and left the chair. He went ont and ad- without consulting his cabilll't or the na-
dressed the soldiers. At the conclu
ion tianal dignity. nominated to the Spnate
of his speech, ::\Iurat entered with a body William Ya
ls. l\Iurra
(then Cnited
of armed men. and ordered the council Statf's diplomatic agent at The lIague)
to disperse. The members replied with as minister plenipotentiary to Fralll'p.
defiant shouts and execrations. The This was a concession to the DirectoQ'
drums were ordered to be beaten; the which neither Congress nor the people
soldiers le\'elled their muskets, when all approved, and the Senate rpfusl'd to
but about fifty of the Council escapeå by latify the nomination. This ad\-anee,
the \\ indows. These, with the Ancients, after una toned inbults from the Directol",)',
pas
t:'d a decree making Sicyès, Bona- seemed like cowardly cringing before a
parte. and Ducros provisional consuls. half-relenting tyrant. After a while the
In December, Bonaparte was made first President com,.ted to the appointment
consul, or supreme ruler, for life. Xew of three em'oys extraordinary. of which
American em'oJs had just reached Paris :Murray should be 01 to settle all dis-
at this crisis. and very soon Bonaparte putes between the two-e go\"ernnwnts.
concluded an amicable settlement of all Olinr Ellsworth and William R. Davie
diflicu1ties between the two nations. were chosen to join Murray. The lattpr
Peace was established; the envoys re- did not proceed to Europe until a
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)lImA!. A\\AIWt:U 11\ C'O'\GHE:<S I
CO)!.ME.MORATIO
OF THK CAPTlRE OF LA \.E;\GF.A;\C'K 11\ TilE CO'8TF.LLArION.

turned home; and the provisional army anf'e" were reeeind from France of thpir
of the rnited StateR whieh had been or- courteous reception. These were receiwd
ganized was disbanded. from Talleyrand (Kovcmber, 17!m), allll
Circumstances humhled the pride of the the two envoys sailed for France. The
Jo'reneh Directory, and the wi1:r Tal1ey- A:'lI1e 1I10nth the Directory. whieh hall hp-
rand began to think of rpeonciIiation with c('me unpopular. waR o\"erthrown, anti thl'
tl1f' Pnitpd Statpf.;. He saw the unity of g-o\'ernment of France rcmodplll'll, \\itlt
the p('ople with Washington as le
der, KapoIcon nonaparte as first consul, or
4lG

FRANCE-FRANKING PRIVILEGE

6upreme ru]er, of the nation. The en- IRl-t the
' published the -lmcrican Medi-
voys were cordially receiverl b
- Talle
T- cal and Philosophical Register. He oc-
rand, in the name of the first consul, cupied the chair of materia medica in
and all difficulties between the two na- the CoHege of Physicians and Surgeons.
tions were speedily adjusted. _-\ conven- Hud, ,'isiting- Europe, was a pupi] of UIP
tion was signed at Paris (:::;ept. 30, 1800) celebrated Abernethy. After filling vari-
b.y the three envoys and three French (US profbsorships until 182ß, he devoted
commissioners which ,,,as satisf
tory to himself to the practice of his profession
bot!l parties. The com-ention also made and to literary pursuits. Dr. Franeis
a dedsion contrary to the doctrine avowed was probably the author of more biog-
vlld practised by the English government, raphies and memoirs than any American
that" free ships make free goods." This of his time, and was active, as one of
affirmed the doctrine of Frederick the the founders, in the pI'omotion of the
Great, enunciated fifty :years before, and oLjects of the Kew York Historical So-
denied that of England in hcr famous ciety anù of other institutions. He was
"rule of 1756." t],e first president of the New York
France, THREATE
I
G ATTITUDE OF. See A(
ademy of Medicine, and was a member
ADA?lrs, JOHX. ûf numerous scientific and literary so-
Franchere, GABRIEL, pioneer!Þ born in cieties. He died in Xew York Citv, Feb.
)Iontreal, Canada, Kov. 3, 1786; was con- 8. 18m.

neeted with the Ameriean fur company Francis, JOSEPH. inn>ntor; born in
organized by .r hn
cob A
tor, and did ßOf.;ton, Mass., March 12, 1801; im-ented
much to develop the fur trade in the a number of life-boats, ]ife-cars, and surf-
ltocky ::\lountaills and the northern Pa- boats, which came into general use. In
cific coast. He pub]ished a History of the 1850. when the British ship Ayrshi1'e was
..htor B:rpeditions, in French. which was wncked off Xew Jersey, 200 persons were
the first work containing detailed aecounts sa'"ed by means of his life-car. He died
of the Xorthwest Territory. 'Yhen he in Cooperstown, X. Y., ::\Iay 10, 1893.
died, in St. Paul, )'Iilln., in 1856, he was Francis, TL"RUL"TT, soldier; born in
the last survivor of the
\8tor expedition. :\Iaryland in Iï 40; a son of the noted
Franchise. See ELE(,TIO
BILL, FED- Tench Francis; was a colonel in the Brit-
ERAJ"; ELECTIVE FRAXCHI
E; SUFFRAGE. i
h army pre,'ious to the Revolutionary
Francis, COXVERS, clergyman: born in War, but resigned to fight on the side of
'Vest Cambridge. Mass.. Xov. 9. I 7R;"); the
\mericans. He died in 1797.
graduatpd at ITal','ard in IRI:J: hpcamf' Frankfort Land Company. See
pastor of the rnitarian Church in 'Yatf'r- PASTORIUS, F. D.
town,
Ia!'s., in HH!}. Among his writings Franking Privilege, :THE, was a privi-
are Historiral Sketch of n'atcrtown: Life lpge ot f.;ending and receiving letters post
of John Eliot in Sparks's A.merican Biog- free ginn to l1Iembprs of the British Par-
raphies
. Mp'noirs of Rev. John AByn. Dr. liament ,llld of the Congress of the United
Gamaliel Bradford. Judge navis. etc. He States. and to certain public functiona-
died in Cambridge, 1faf:s., April 7, lRfì3. ries. This pridlege was alm!'ed. and it
Francis, nAnD ROWLAXD, merchant: ",as abolislwd in Grpat Britain in 1840.
horn in Richmond. Ky., Oct. 1. I R:;O: Congress bt.sto" ed upon Washington, on
graduated at \Vashinclon Cniversitv. St. his retirempnt from the 011i('f' of Prcsident
Louis. in 18iO; gO\"e
nor of 1[is!'0
ri in of the rf'public. the privilege of free po
t-
lR89-93; appointed Secretary of the Tn- age for Uw remainder of his ]ife. This
terior in 18!)(j; pn'>!'i<1f'nt Louisiana Pur- privilege has been extended to aB subse-
ch'lc:: n f'ynof.;ition Conlmi...sion in 1!)04. quent Presidf'nts. and also. to their wid-
Francis, JOHN \VAKEFIELO, physician: ows. The franking pri,'ilq!f' wa
aholished
born in Xf'W York City. Xov. 17, I iR!}: in the rnitt'd
tatps in lRi3. and each of
graduatpd at Co]umbia Co1]ege in 18m): the (':\.eeuti,'e depa.rtmpnts was supplied
began business life as a printer. but with a special set of postag-e-f.;talllps for
('ommPIl('ed thf' "tndy of medicine, in it S officia I communications. This plan
1 RIO, under Dr. Hosack, and was hi
also was i.lholished, and now official com-
partner until 1820. From 1810 until munieations are sent by the departments
1If.-2 0 417

FRANKLAND-FRANKLIN

in un!:>tamped "penaUy" envelopef\, and l"(-turu to their duty; and the Assembly
I"elldtors and Representatives are per- passed an act of ob]ivion as to all who
mitted to have mail packages forwarded should submit. But the provisional con-
!'impl)' bearing their name or frank. Let- stitution of Frankland, based upon that
t ('rs of boldiers and sailors in active ser- of
orth Carolina, was adopted (K OHm-
,ice or inconvenient stations are forward- ber, 178:>) as a permanent one, and the
ed free of posta
e. when properly marked. nt'w State entered upon an independent
Frankland. In 1784, Korth Carolina career. Very soon rivalries aud jealousies
('('.]ed her western lands to the United appeared. Parties arose and divided the
States. The people of east Tennl"ssee, people, and at length a third party, favor-
piqued at bping thus disposed of, and feel- ing adherence to North Carolina, led by
ing the burdens of State taxation, alleg- Colonel Tipton, showed much aolld increas-
ing that no provision was made for their ing strength. The new State sent \\ïlliam
defence or the administration of justice, Cocke as a delegate to the Congress, but
assembled in convention at Jonesbol'o, to he was not received, while the :North Caro-
take measures for organizing a new and lina party sent a delegate to the legislat-
independent State. The Korth Carolina ure of that State. Party spirit raoll high.
Assembly, willing to compromisp, repea.led Frankland had two sets of officers, and
the act of cession the same year, mad(' civil war was threatened. Collisions be-
th(' Tennessee ('ounties a separate military came frp<]uent. The inhabitants of south-
district, with John Sevier as brigadier- western \Tirginia sympathized with the
general, and also a separate judicial dis- rl'Volutionists, aolld were inclined to sect>dp
trict, with proper officers. But ambitiou'! from theil" own State. Finally an armed
men urged the people forward, and at a cGllision between men under Tipton and
second convention, at the same place. Def'. Fievipr took place. The latter wpre dp.
14, 1784, they resolved to form an indf'- fented, and finally arrested, and takf'1l to
pendent State, under the name of Frank- prison in irons. Frankland had recei,"pd
land. A provisional government was it::> death-blow. The ASf.;pmbly of .Korth
formed; Sevier was chosen go,'ernor Carolina passed an act of oblh'ion. and
(March, 1785); the machinery of an in- offered pardon for all offenders in Frank-
dependent State was put in motion, and land in 1788. and the trouble ceased. Yir-
the governor of Korth Carolina (Martin) ginia., alarmed b
' the moven1l'nt. hastmeJ
was informed that the counties of Sulli- to pass a law suhjecting to the ppna1ties
van, 'Yashington, and r.-reene were no Of trpason an
. perf.;on who should attempt
lûnger a part of the State of Korth Caro- tn erect a nf'W State in any part of hel"
lina. :\Iartin issued a proclama.tion, ex- territory without previous permission of
horting all engaged in the movement to her Ass('mhl
'. Spe SE\"IEH; TE
XERSEE.

FRANKLIN, EENJ AMIN

Franklin, UEx.T.nnX, statesman; born printing material. IIp was dp('ei,-ed. and
in ROf.;ton, Jan. 17. 170G. His father was remained there eighteen monthf.;. working
from England; his mother was a daughter as a journeyman printpr in LoU/Ion. HI'
of Peter Fol;.!er. tll(' Quaker poet of Kan- returned to Philadelphia late in 1726, aUlI
tucket. He learllpd thp art of printing in 1729 establishpd himsp1f there as a
with his brother; but they disagreeing. l)rinter. He started the p r nn.c;yl,.ania (/f,-
Benjamin left Boston when seventeen zctte, and married Dl'bol"8h R('IHl. It .voung
ypars of age. sought employnwnt in Xew woman whose husband had ahf.;condf'd.
York, but, not succeeding. went to Phila- For many years he published an almanac
delphia. and there found it. He soon at- under the assumed name of Richard
tracted the attention of Gonrnor Keith Saunders. It became widely known as
as a very bright lad, who, making him a Poor Rir1wrd's Almanac, as it con-
promise of the government printing, in- tained mam' wise and useful maxims.
duced young Franklin. at tIt(' age of mo...tly fro
the ancients. Franklin waR
('i!!ht('('n. to go to England anù purehaN> sùon marked as a wise. prudent. and s.\ga-
418

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

dous man, full of well-directed puhlic

pirit. He was the chief founder of tl1f'
Philadelphia Library in 1731. He became
(.Ierk of thp Pro"ÌJwial As..;embly in 17:W,
and postlllastl'r of Philadelphia the ne:o..t
year. lIe was the founder of the "Cni-
,-ersit)' of Pennsylnl1lia and the Philo-
sophical f;ociet), of Philadelphia in 1744,
1Uld was elect(.d a member of the Provin-
("ial Assemhly in 1750. In 1753 he was
appointed dpputy post-
master for the Eng-
lish-
\merican colonies:
and in 17.H he was a
delegate to tll{' Co!onial
Congress of Albany. in
which he pn'pan.d a
plan of union for the
colonies, which was the
basis of the Artic1es of
Confederation (su.
CONFEDERATIOX,
-\RrI-
CI.ES OF) adoptNl hy
Congress more tha'l
twenty years ahe

wards.
Franklin had b
g-l!'l
his investigations ami
expf'riments in e]e
-
tricity, by which hp
demonstrated its iden-
tity with Hghtning as
early as 17-10. The
puhlication of his aC'-
count of these experi-
ments proeurf'd for him
memhership in the
Royal Rociety, the Cop-
]('." gold medal, and the
dpgree of LL.D. from
O:o..ford and Edinhurgh
in 17(;
. Harvard and
Yale col]{'W's had pre-
viously conferred upon
him the degree of Mas-
ter of Arts. Franklin was for many )'('ars
It memher of the Assembly and ad,'ocated
the rights of the peoplf' in opposition to
the claims of the proprietaries; and in
17G4 he was sent to England as agent of
the colonial legislature, in which capacity
h(' afterwards acted for several other colo-
nies. His representation to the British
ministry, in lïû,3-ûü, of the temper of the
Americans on the suhject of taxation by
Parlianlf'nt did much in effecting the re-

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peal of the Stamp Act. He tried to avert
the calamity of a rupture between (;rPl'lt
Britain and her colonies; but, fai1ing in
this, hf' rf'turued to Anwrica ill 177 ."j, aftf'r
which he was eonstantly elllployed at
home and abroad in the service of his
countrymen struggHng for political in-
dependence.
In Congress, llf' advocated, helped to
pn)p
11"e and ,.:ignpd the Declaration of

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TJlde)l<,udencp; and in the fall of 177ti he
was sent as pmha",sador to France, as
the collea
ue of Si!as J)eanp and ArUmr
Lee. To him was chietiy due the success-
ful ne
otiation of t1lf' treaty of alliance
with France, and he continued to repre-
sent his country there until 178,), wllf'n
llf' returned home. \Vhile he was in
France, and residing at Passy in 1777, a
lìlf'dallioJ1 1ikf'nf>ss of him \\as maùe
in the n'd clay of that region. The

419

for the defence of the pro\"-
iJlcP in Ii 44; and was colo-
Iwl of a n>giment, and built
iorb; for the ùpfence of the
frontiers in 175.>>. IIc was
the inventor of the FRA
K-
LlX STO\ t; (q. v.), whieh in
modified forms is sti11 in use.
He was also the inventor of
the 1i
htning-rod. Franklin
Ipft two chilùren, a son, Will-
iam. and a daughter. He
died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
April 17, 1790.
In 1;;>2 the Penns
'h-ania
Assembly, yielding to the
urgency of public affairs in
the midst of war, voted a
levy of $500,000 without in-
sisting upon their claim to
tax the proprietary e
tat..s.
Thpy protested that thp
' did
it through compulsion; and
they sent Franklin to Eng-
land as their agent to UJ'ge
tlwir complaint against the
proprietaries. This was his
first mission abroad.
AU the heginning of the
French and Indian '''ar
( 1 7 .)
) the colonists, as well
as the ro
'al governors, saw
the nec('ssity of a colonial
union in order to present a
solid front of ßritish sub-
jects to the French. Dr.
Frank I in labored earnestly
to this end, and in 1735 he
engra\"Ïng of it giwn is about half went to Roston to confer with Governor
the size of the original. J1p took 3.n f';hirley on the subject. At the govern-
important part in the negotiation of the or's housp they discussed the suhject
treaties of peace. In 1 iSti he was elected long and earnestly. Shirlpy was fa,-or-
governor of Pennsyh-ania, and
en'eù one a1,le to union, but he df'sired it to be
turn; and he was a leading memher in pffec1ed hy the fiat of the British gO\ f'rn-
the convention, in 1 iSï, that framed thl> nwnt and by the splmtaneous act of the
national Constitution. His last public colonists. Franklin, on the contrary, ani-
act was the signing of a mcmorial to COII- nHlÌp(1 by a love of popular liberty. 'would
gress on the !'ubject of F;
a nry hy th(' not consent to that method of forming a
Abolition Society of Pennsylvania, of colonial union. IIp knew the true source
which he was the founder and pn'sidpnt. of power was lodged with the pPOpl e . and
])r. Franklin performed eÜraordinary that a good government should 1>p fornlf'cl
1:1 hors of uspfulness for his fenow-men. by t}w lwople for the people; and hf' I..ft
In addition to sei('ntific and literaQ' in- f:hirley in disappointment. f'hirlp." lIot

titutions, he was the founder of the first only condl'nmed the idea of a popular
fire-company in PhihHlf'lphia in 1738; or- colonial gowrnnwnt, hut assured Franklin
ganized a \"oluntepr militar
' association that he should immediately propose a plan
420

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FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

.'RASKLI:-! AS A:-! APPRF'TICR.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

of union to the ministry and Parliament,
and also a tax on the colonies.
In February, 1766, Dr. Franklin was ex-
amined before the House of Commons rela-
tive to the STA
IP ACT (q. v.). At that
examination he fairly illustrated the
spirit which animated the colonies. When
asked, "Do you think the people of
America would submit to the stamp
duty if it were moderated ?" he an-
swered, "No, never, unless compelled by
force of arms." To the question, "\Vhat
was the temper of America towards Great
Britain before the year 1 ïG3?" he replied,
.. The best in the world. They submitted
willingly to the government of the crown,
and paid, in their courts, obedience to the
acts of Parliament. Numerous as the peo-
ple are in the old provinces, they cost you
nothing, in forts, citadels, garrisons, or
armies, to keep them in subjection. They
were governed by this co,mtry at the eJ\.-
pense only of a little pen, ink. and paper;
they were led by a thread. They had not
only a respect but an affedion for Great
Britain, for its laws, its customs, and
manners, and even a fondne!>s for its fash-
ions that greatly increased the commerce.
Xatives of Britain were always treated
with peculiar regard. To be an ' Old Eng-
land man' was of itself a character of
E:ome respect, and gave a kind of rank
among us." It was asked, " \\-hat is their
temper now?" and Franklin replied, "Oh,
very much altered." He declared that an
laws of Parliament had been held valid by
the Americans, excepting s1\ch as laid in-
ternal taxes; and that its authority was
never disputed in levying duties to regu-
la te commerce. \Vhen asked, "Can you
lIame any act of Assemhly or public act of
your government that made such distinc-
tion ?" Franklin replied, "I do not know
that there was an)'; I think there never
was occasion to make such an act till now
that you have attempted to ta:\. us; that
has occasioned acts of Assemhly declaring
1 he distinction, on which, [ think, every
Assembly on the continent, and every mem-
ber of every Assembly, have been unani-
mous." This examination was one of the
causes which led to a speedy repeal of the
Stamp Act. The latter challenged Whately to mortal
Late in 1773 Dr. Franklin ïJrescnted to combat. The)' fought, but were unhurt.
Lord Dartmouth, to be laid before the Another duel was likely to ensue, when
King. R petitioJ1 from l\Jas!;achusetts for Dr. Franklin, to prevent bloodshed, pub-
421

the removal of Governor Hutchinson and
Chief - Justice Oliver from office. They
were charged with conspiracy against the
colony, as appeared by certain letters
which had been published. A rumor
found utterance in the newspapers that
the letters had been dishonestlv obtained
through John Temple, who haS' been per-
mitted to examine the papers of the de-
ceased ::\lr. \Yhately, to whom the letters
were addressed. That permission had
been given by William "-hately, brother
and executor of the deceased. Whatel)'
never made a suggestion that Temple had
taken the letters away, but he published
such an evasive card that it seemed not
to relieve Temple from the implication.

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THE FRA:\KLI:'i' )[EDALI.IO
.

FRANKLIN, BENJ AKIN

word, and, as commissioner for negot i-
ating peace almost ten years afterwards,
he performed the act that permitted him
to wear the garments again.
Franklin, in England in 1774, was a
pprfect enigma to the British ministry.
They were perplexed with doubts of tlH'
intentions of the defiant colonists. Th('v
believed Franklin poss
:":,,cd the eo"('tp
1
st'eret, and tried in vain to draw it from
him. lIe was an e
pert chess-player, and
well known as such. Lord Howe (aft('r-
wards admiral on our coast) was inti-
nl<lte with leading ministers. His sister-
in-law, Mrs. Howe, was also an expprt
dles!'-pla
'er, and an adroit diplomatist.

he sent Franklin an invitation to 11('r
house to play che!'s, with the hope that
in the fre('dom of social com'ersation she
might obLlin the !'f'eret. He went; was
charmed with the lady's mind and man-
nl'rs; plap'd a few gam('s; and accepted
an invitation to repeat the visit and the
Bmusenwnt. On his seeond visit, after
playing a short time, they entered into
ccnversation, when :Mrs. Howe put q11('S-
tions adroitly to the sag-e, calculated to
elicit the information she dpsired. He
answ{'rpd without r(,8('1','e awl with appar-
ent frankne!'s. lIe was introduced to her
blOth('r, Lord Howe, and talked freely
with him on the subject of the great dis-
putp; hut. having early perceived the de-
signs of the diplomatists. his usual cau-
tion had npver allowed him to betray a
single secret worth prpserving. At the
abused Franklin most shamefully with un- pnd of sp,-eral intervipws, enlivenpd by
just and coarse inw(,ti,'es, while not an chess-playing, his <]m'stioners were no
emotion was manifested in the face of the wispr than at the Leginning.
abused statesman. The ill-bred lords of \\'hilp thp ContiIwnhtl Congress was in
that day seconded \Yedderburn's abuse by
{':-sion in thp fa]] of Iii
. lIuwh anxi{'t."
dprisive laughter, instead of trpatinM \\as fplt in polit ic'al eire1ps in England
Franklin with dccpncy. At the ('nd of ('oncprning tlw rpsult. Thp mini..try. in
the solictor's rihald spet'ch the petition particular, wel"(' an"ious to know. a TIll
\\as dismissed as "groundlt..:-.s, se:lIHlal- Franklin was solieitpll h." pl'rsons high in
ous, and vexatious." "I have npver b('('n authority to prolllulgate t1w e
tpnt of
,.;0 sensible of the power of a good con- tiw dpmands of his ('OIl1ltryuwn.
o

,;('ience," Franklin said to Dr. Priestley, urgent wprp tIH'
e ]H]U{'"ts that. without
with whom he breakfasted the ne
t morn- waiting to rpepi,'p a r('conl of thp pro-
ing. \\"hpn he wput home h()111 tJlC' ('()un- (,(,I'dingf.ò of the ('ollgrps:'(, Jw prPl'arl'rl a
('il he laid asiùe th(> suit of cIotlH's h(> pappr entitlf.d lI;lIt,Q for ('on,.er.<ml;fH!
wore, making a ,"ow that he would IIp'-l'r lIJ'OIt ,he N/lbj('d of 1'( /"11/.''1 Ihal IIIf,.'!
put them on again until he shoulll sign 1,,'obaM.'! }lroduc(' a dllt"llMf' 1"";0" f,,'.
t he degradation of England by a di:-nwl11- t'I'('('/1 Brita;" n /Id , he ('o1rm i(',<;. ill
In-'l"IlIel1t of the British Empirl' and the in- :-1'H'lItl'f'n proposit iOIl". TJII' sul,,.,talll'(' of
dt')lf'rHlen<.'1' of America. He kl'J,l his t I.C' \\"hol(' wa"l 1 ha t t h(> eolon il'!oI shon Id
422

hely said: .. I alone am the per SOli who
obtained and transmitted to Boston the
letters in question." This frank and
courageous avowal drew upon him the
wrath of the ministry. He was summoned
before the privy council (Jan. 8, Iii -1:)
to consider the petition. He app('ared with
counsel. A crowd was present-not less
than thirty-five peers. Wedderburn, the
solicitor-general (of whom the King said,
at his Math, .. He has not left a greater
knave behind him in my kingdom"),

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FRANKLIN, BENJ AMIN

l.e reinstated in the position which they
hdd, in relation to the imperial govern-
loent, before the obnoxious acts then
complained of became laws, by a repeal,
and by a destruction of the whole brood
of enactments in reference to America
hatched since the accession of George III.
In a word, he proposed that English sub-
jects in America should enjoy all the es-
sential rights and privileges claimed as
the birthright of subjects in England.
:K othing came of the Hints.
After the a ttal'k by Wedderburne
when before the pri,-y council, and his
dh-:missal from the o!lice of postmaster-
general for the colonies, Franklin was
:mbjected to the danger of arrest, and pos-
sibly a trial, for treason; for the minis-
try, angry because he had exposed Hutch-
inson's letters, made serious threats.
Conscious of rectitude, he neither left
England then nor swerved a line from
his course of duty. \Vhen, in February,
lnG, Lord North endeavored to find out
from him what the Americans wanted,
"\Ye desire nothing," said Franklin,
., but what is necessary to our security

nd well-being." After !'tating that some
d the obnoxious acts would probably be
repealed, Lord North said the )Iassachu-
setts acts Ilm<.;t he continucd, both "as
real amemlulf'nts" of t11P constitution of
that provincC', and "as a standing ex-

lInple of the power of Par1iament."
Franklin rpplipd: " \Yhile Parliament
{'!aims the rig'ht of a1tering Ameriean
constitutions at pleasnre, there can be no
agreement, for we are rendf'rcd unsafe
in every prÏ\'ile
e." North answered:
"An agre<'mf'nt is necessary for Amer-
i<:a; it is ..0 easy for Britain to burn all

'Gur seaport 1o\\"l1s." Franklin coony an-
swered: "l\Iy littlp property consists in
honses in 1 hOf.;e towns; you may make
bonfires of them whenever you please;
1hE." ff'ar of losing them will never a1ter
mv resolution to Tf.sist to the last the
c!;im of Parhament."
Mr. Strahan, of T.Jondon, had been a
sort of go-between through whom Dr.
Franklin had communicated with Lord

orth. On .July 5, 1 iiG, Franklin wrote
to him: "You are a member of Parlia-
ment, anù one of that majority which has
doomed my country to destruetion. You Forasmueh as the euemies of America in
have hegun to burn our towns and murder the Parliameut of Great Britain, to ren-
4
3

our people. Look upon your hands;
they are stained with the blood of your
relations! You and I were long friends;
you are now my enemy, and I am yours.-
B. FnANKLIN."
Late in the autumn of 17i6 Dr. Frank-
lin was sent as a diplomatic agent to
]'rance in the ship Rep1"isal. The passage
occupied thirty days. during which that
vessel had been chased bv British cruisers
and had taken two B.:iti:"h brigantincs
as prizes. He landed at Xantes on Dee.
7. .Europe was surpriseù, for no notice
had been given of his coming. His fame
was world-wide. The courts were filled
,vith conjectures. The stor,y was spread
in England that he was a fugitive for
safety. Burke said, " I never will believe
that he is going to cOIl('lude a long life,
which has brightened every hour it has
continued, with so foul and dishonorable
a flight." On the Continent it was right-
ly concluded that he was on an important
mission. To the Freneh people he spoke
frankly, saying that twenty successful
campaigns could not subdue the Ameri-
cans: that their decision for independence
was irrevocable; and that they would be
forever independent States. On the morn-
ing of Dec. 28, Franklin, with the other
commi::ösioners (Silas Deane and Arthur
Lee), waited upon Vergcnnes, the French
minif.;ter for foreign atrairs. when he pre-
l"('l1tpd the plan of Congress for a treaty.
Yergennes spoke of the attachment of the
French nation to the American cause; re-
quested a paper from Franklin on the con-
dition of America; and that. in future, in-
terconrse with the sage might he in secret,
without the internntion of a third per-
son. Personal fri<'ndship between Ulf'se
two distinguished men became strong and
abiding. He told Franklin that as Spain
and France were in perfect accord he
might communicate frf'ely with the Span-
ish minister, the Count de Aranda. With
him the COHlJllissionel's held secrct but bar-
ren inter\"if'\\"S as Aranda would only
promise t}w freedom of Spanish ports to
American \"('ssels.
"Vindication of the Colonics.-On June.
Iii, l7ï5, Fl"anklin issued the followin

a.ddress to the public:

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

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FRASKU"( 0"( HIS WAY TO FR.A..'\"CB.

der US odious to the nation, and give an "ies were settled at the exprl1SC of Britain,
ill impression of us in the minds of other it is a known fact that nOllP of the twelve
European powers, having represented us as united colonies were settled, or even dis-
unjust and ungrateful in the highest de- covered, at Ow expensl' of England.
gree; R!'scrting, on every occasion, that Henry YII., inde('d, granted a commission
the colonies were settled at the expense to Sebastian Cabot, a Yf'I1Ptian. and his
of nritain; that they ,vere, at the expense sons to sail into western seas for tllf' dig-
of the samf', protected in their infancy: ('on'ry of new countries; hut it was to be
that they now ungratefully and unjustly "sllis corum pl"OJiriis sll>nl'tibu8 rt rx-
refuse to contribute to their own protec- prnsis," at their own co!"t and ('harge".
tion, and the common defence of the na- They diseowred, but soon slightf.d and
tion; that they intend an abolition of thf> neglected thesf' northern tpITitories:
navigation acts; nnd that they are fraud- which were, aftf'r more than a hundn'cl
dent in their commercial dealings, and years' dereliction, pureha
cd of the nati\"('
,
propose to cheat their creditors in Brit- and settled at the charge and b
' the labor
nin, by a.voiõing the payment of their of prÏ\'ate men and bo.IiI's of men. our an-
just debts; cestors, who CMlle over hither for that pur-
And as by frequent repetitions these pose. nut our adversaries have ne,er
groundless assertions and malicious cal- been able to produce any rpeord that ever
umnies may, if not contradicted and the Parliament or government of England
refuted, ohtain further credit, and be was at the f\mallest e:\.pense on these RC-
injurious throughout Europe to the repu- counts; on the contrary, there exists on
tation and interest of the Confederate colo- the jom nals of Parliamcnt a solemn
nics, it seems proper and necessary to declaration in 1642 (only twenty-two
examine them in our own just vindication. ,"pars after the first settlement of the
\Vit\) Tf'R'RTd to tlu' firl!t, that tho roZo- \IaR
a('hu8"tt!il colony, when, jf I\U('\) px-
<&2

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

pense had ever been incurred, some of the lected by the English government; which
members must have known and remem- either thought us not worth its care, or,
bered it), "that these colonies had been having no good will to some of us, on ac-
planted and established 'Lcithout any ex- count of our different sentiments in relig-
l,cnse to the state." ion and politics, was indifrerent what be-
New York is the only colony in the tame of us.
founding of which England can pretend On the othcr hand, the colonies have
to have been at any c
pense, and that was not been wanting to do what the;y could
only the charge of a small armament to ill every war for annoying the enemies ot
t8ke it from the Dutch, who planted it. Britain. They formerly assisted her in
But to retain this colony at the peace, an- the conquest of :Kova Scotia. In the war
other at that time fully as valuable, hdore last they took Louisburg, and put
planted bJ'- private countrymen of ours, it into her hands. She made her peace
was ginn up by the crown to the Dutch with that strong fortress by restoring it
if'. exchangc-viz., Surinam, now a wealthy to France, greatly to their detriment. In
sugar colony in Guiana. and which, but the last war, it is true, Britain sent a
for that cession, might still have remained fleet and army, who actcd with an cqual
in our possession. Of late, indeed, Brit- army of ours, in the }'eduction of Canada,
ain has been at some expense in planting and perhaps thereby did more for us,
two colonies, Georgia and Kova Scotia, than we in our preceding wars had done
but those are not in our confederacy; and for her. Let it be rempmbered, however,
the expense she has been at in their name that she rejected t11C plan we formed ir.
has chiefly been in grants of sums un- the Congrcss at
-\lbany. in 1734, for our
necessarily large, by way of salaries to own defence, b
' a union of the colonies;
officers sent from England, and in jobs to a union she was jealous of, and there-
friends, wherphy dependants might be pro- fore chose to send her own forces; other-
vided for; tnose excessive grants not wise her aid to protect us was not wanted.
being requisite to the welfare and good _-\nd from our first settlement to that
government of the colonies, which good time, her military o'(>emtions in our fa,"or
government (as experience in many in- were small, compared with the advantages
:;tances of other colonies has taught us) she drew from her exclusive commerce
may be much more frugally. and full as with us. 'Ye are, however. willing to
effectually, provided for and supported. give full weight to this obligation; and.
'''ith rcgard to the second as
ertion, as we are daily growing
trong('r, and our
that these colonies tcere protected in thei,' af"sistance to her becomes of more im-
infant state by England, it is a notorious portance, we should with pleasure em-
fact, that, in nune of the many wars with brace the first opportunity of showing our
the Indian natin's, sustained by our in- gratitude by returning the f:n"or in kind.
fant scttlf'mcnts for a centurv after our But, when Britain values hcrself as af-
arrind, \\ ere evcr any troops or force>; fording us protection, we df'sire it may
of any kind sent from England to assist he considered that we h:1\"e followed hf'r
us: nor were any forts built at her ex- in all her wars, and joined with lwr at
]tf'n
e. to secure our seaports from for- our own expense against all she thought
eign inmders; nor any ships of war <;lent fit to quarrel with. This she has rcquired
to prntl>ct nur trade till many years after of us; and would nenr permit us to
our first scttlement, when our commerce keep peace with any power she declared
ll('eame an ohjcct of revenue, or of advan- her enemy; though by separate trf'aties
tage to Briti
h merchants; and then it we might have done it. l'mlpr such cÏr-
was thought necessary to have a frigate cumstances, when at her instance we
in some of our ports, during peace, to givp made nations our enemies. we suhmit it
weight to the authority of custom-house to the common-sense of mankind, whether
nftieers. "hn were to restrain that com- her protection of us in those wars was
mercp for the henefit of England. Our not our just due, and to be claimed of
own arms, with our poverty, and the care 1'iffht, instead of being reccind as a favor?
of a kind Providence, were all this timp .\n<l whether, when all the parts exert
OUT only protection; while we were neg- theßl<;eh'es to do the llÌTnof'lt in tJH'ir ('om
42li

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

mon defence, and in annoJ'ing the common
enemy, it is not as well the IJarts that
plotect the lchole, as the u'hole that pro-
tects the partst The protection then has
been proportionately mutual.
\.nd whC'n-
e\"('r the time shall come that our abilities
may as far e'\.ceed hers as hers ha,-e e
-
cceded ours, we hope we shall be rea:5un-

but we further declare it to be ab!"olutely
f<J Ise; for it is well known, that we ever
hId it as our dut)' to grant aids to the
crown, upon requisition. towards carry-
ing on its wars; which duty we have
cheerfully complied with, to the utmos

oÎ our abilities, il1:50mIH..h that prudent
and grateful acknowlcdgnwnt:; thereof by
King and Parli,l-
ment appear on
the reconl:-.. Bnt,
a", nritain has
enjoyed a most
gainful monopuly
of onr ('ommerce;
thc
ame, with
our maintaining
the dignity of the
Kill:!'" represent-
ati,'c in each col-
flny. and all our
own separate
e:-;tablisllllu'nt:5 of
:"', gO\ enlllH'nt, ci ,'il
and military: has
e ,. e r hit her t 0
hC'C'n dC'C'mC'd an
e qui v <11 en t for
such aids as
might otherwise
be (')\. pected from
u!, in time of
peace. And we
herC'hy declare
that on a recon-
ei I i a tion with
Britain. we shall
not only continue
to grant aids in
time of war, as
aforesaid; but
__ "hen ever she
F\hall think fit
to ahulish her
m 0 n 0 pol y, and
give us the same
privileges of
trade as Scotland
able enou).!h to rC'st satisfied with lwr pro- rf'('C'iwd at the union. and allow us a free
portionahle e
crtion", and not think we ('onlllu'rcC' with the rf'st of the world; we
do tllO much for a part of the cIllpire. when shall will iugly agref' (and we douht nut it
that part dOl's as much as it can for tIll' willlw ratifi('11 h,\' Ollr constitucnts) to gi,'e
whole. and 'Jay into tllP sinking fllllli noo,ollo
To eharge against us that 1ce 1'efuse sterling l)f'r annum for tile tl'rm of ](",
10 contribute to our OWII protectiul/. ap- years, whic'h duly, fait hflllly. a 1111 ill\ i-
pears from the aho\'(' to lu. grounòl('

; olalll)' appli('d to that Pili,!"'';!'. i.; tI"lIIfln-
42G

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FRAX"I,I
I
FRKN"U SOCIETY.

FRANKLIN

strably more than sufficient to extinguish its capital, the fine city of Dresden! An
all her present national debt; since it wiII example we hope no provocation wiII in-
in that time amount, at legal BritÜ:h in- duce us to imitate.
terest, to more than f230,OOO,OOO. Franklin, SA)IUEL RHOADS, naval offi-
But if Britain does not think fit to ac- cer; born in York, Pa., Aug. 25, 18
5;
cept this proposition, we, in order to re- was appointed midshipman Feb. 18, 1841;
move her groundless jealousies, th:lt we was promoted to passed midshipman, Aug.
aim at independence and an abolition of 10, 1847; master, April 18, 1855; lieuten-
the navigation act (which hath in truth ant, Sept. 4, 1855; lieutenant-commander,
nner been our intention), and to avoid Sept. 26, 1866: captain, Aug. 13, l
i2:
all future disputes about the right of commodore, Dec. 15, 1880; and rear-ad-
n
aking that and other acts for regulating miral, Jan. 24, 1883; and was retired ill
cur commerce, do hereby declare ourselves 1887. Most of his forty-six years of Sf'r-
ready and willing to enter into a covenant vice was spent at !'ea. During both till'
with Britain, that she shall fully possess, Mexican and Civil wars he was actin in
enjoy, and exercise the right, for 100 the most important operations. He was
;years to come; the same being bona fide president of the international marillP
U!::ed for the common benefit; and. in case Conference; is a member of the \Vashinf!-
of such agreement, that every Assembly ton National :l\Ionument Association; and
be advised by us to confirm it solemnly is author of Memories of a Rear-A.dmiral.
by laws of their own, which, once made, Franklin, \YILLIA)I, royal governor:
cannot he repealed without the assent of born in Philadelphia in 172D, onl;y son of
the crown. Benjamin Franklin. It is not known who
The last charge, that we are dishoncst his mother was. About a year after his
traders, and aim at defrauding our credit- birth Franklin was married, took his child
ors in Britain, is sufficiently and authen- into his own house, and brought him up as
timlly refuted by the solemn declaration
his son. He held a captain's commission
of the British merchants to Parliament in the French War (1744-48). From li,")-t
(both at the time of the Stamp Act and to 1756 he was comptroller of the colonial
in the last sf'f'sion), who bore ample te
'- post - office, and clerk to the Provincial
timony to the general good faith and fair Assembly. He went to London with hi",
df'aling of the Americans. and declared father in 1757, and was admitted to the
tll('ir confidence in our integrity; for bar in 1758. In 1762 he was appointed
"hich we reff'r to their petitions on thf' gonrnor of the province of New .Tcr",('y,
journals of the House of Commons. AmI remaining loyal to the crown when the
w(' presume we may safely call on the Revolution broke out, and in January,
bedy of the Rritish tradesmen, who have 177H, a guard was put O\"er him at his
had experience of both, to say, whether residence at Perth Ambo.". He ga \"e his
they have not received much more punet- parole that he would not leave the prov-
nal payment from us, than they generally ince. In June (lïi6) he caIled a meeting
h:1\e from tlw nwmbers of tlwir own two 0f the legislature of Npw Jprsf'.", for whieh
Housf's of Parlianwnt. offence, defi.llll'e of publif' opinion. hI' was
On thf' whole of the above it appe,lrs arrested and sent to C'olllH'(.ticut. wherf'
tl'at the charge of in[lralitudc towards the for more than two
'ears ht' was strictly
mother - country, brought with so much guarded, when, in Nonmhl'r. I ii8. lIP
c(lnfidence against the eolonies. is totaI!:,- was e:\-changed. He remaim'(l in Xt'w
without foundation; and that there is York, and was acti,'e as prpsidC'nt of the
Jrueh morp rf'3!"on for retorting that B0ard of Associated Loyalists until I iH
.
C'ìmrp-e on Britain. who, not only never when he sailed for England, whp)"(' he was
eontrilmtC's any aid, nor affords, by !Ltl allowed hy the government $n.ooo and a.
pxdusiw ,'omnwrc"p. any a(h'antages to pension IIf $-t.OOf) a year. His fatht'r
RaxolJY. h('r mother - eountr,\'; but no willed him lands in N"o, a :-\("otia amI for-
longt'r 8inc(' than in the last wa.r. without ga\l' him all his debt::>. nothing mon'. In
the least pro,'ol"ation. subsidi7e(l tll(' Kin
lds wiIl, Dr. Franklin ohsel"\"ed concerning
of Prussia whil,' he ra,'agpt! that II/III he/"- this son. from whom he was estrangt'd:
(".l/lIlt".'l, HlIII C'urried firp uncI sword into "The part he aded against me in tlu'
427

late war, which is of public notoriety,
will account for my leaving him no more
of an estate he endeavored to deprin me
ot." He died in England Nov. 17. 1813.
Franklin, \YILLlA
1 BCEL. militarv of-
ficer; born in York, Pa., Feb. 27, i8
:J,
graduated at West Point in 1843. In the

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WILLIAM BUEL FRANKLIS.

engineer service. he was actinly engagnl
when the "ar with )Ie:\.ico hroke out. H(>
served on the staff of (;pueral Ta
"lor at
the battle of Buena \Tista, and was bre-
vetted first lieu1 CHant.
en'in
as Profess-
or of Xatural and E:\.p(>rimental Philos-
ophy at ";{'st Point for four years. he
occupied the same chair, and that of Ci,'il
Engineering. in the Xew York City Fn'e
Academy. in 18.)
. In )Iar, 18Gl, he was
appoint(>d colonel of the 12th Infantry.
and in .1uly was as
igned the command
of a hrigade in Heintzelman's division.

FRANKLIN

He was in the hottest of the fight at Bull
Run; wus pwmoted brigadier-general of
volunteers in September, and appointed
to the command of a di,'ision of the Army
of the Potomac. Franklin did e
e('llent

(,l"\"ice in the campaign of the Yirginia
Peninsula, and on .T ulJ' 4, ISli
, was pro-
11lllh.d to major - geJwraI. lIe sernd un-
der .McClelland in l\Iaryland, and un-
der Burnside at Fredericksburg. and in
18G3 was assigned to the Department
of the Gulf, under Banks. In l\Iarch,
18G,), he was brewtted major-general in
the regular army. and, resigning in :\Iarch,
18G6. engaged in Jll<lJlufacturing and en-
gineering. In 188D he was "Cnited States
commi!'-sioner-general for the Paris Ex-
position.
Franklin, TIA TTLE OF. <1en(>ral- Thomas
had sent General Schofiehl southward to
confront Hood's im"asion of Tennesspc in
1
(i4, and he took post south of Duck
Uiver, hoping to fight the innl(lers then'.
nut two divisions under A. J. Smith. com-
ing from :\fi,.:souri. had not arri,-ed. and
Schofield fell hack, first to Columhia. and
then to Franklin, not far below XaslJ\-ille,
Uenf'ral f'tanley saving his train from
spizurp by Forrest after a sharp fight with
the guerilla chief. At Franklin, :O;ehofield
dispm;pd his troops in a curnd line south
and \\ pst of the town, his flanks resting
on the IIarpeth Hinr. lIe cast up a line
of lig-ht intrenchments along his entire
front. His ca,'alry, with "'ood's division,
were post!'d on the north bank of the rivpr.
and Fort Cranger, on a bluff, commanded
the gently rolling plain O\-er which Hood
must ad,'ancc in a direct attack. Scho-
field had about lR.OOO n1('n. .\t fOllr

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"ATTI.I< Fllil.1> Ut' t'/tA:-It...I:>
12H

FRANKLIN-FRANKLIN STOVE

wanl and ordered Opdyke
to advance with his brigade.
Swiftly they charged the Con-
federate columns and drove
th
m back. Conrad, close b)-,
gave assistance. The work"
and the guns were recO\'ered;
:iOO prisoners and ten battlt'-
flags were captured; and the
C nion line was restOl'ed, and
not again broken, though Hood
hurled strong bodies of men
against it. The' struggle con-
tinued until long after dark;
it was almost midnight when
the last shot was fired. The
advantage was with the Ka-
tionab. The result was disas-
trous to Hood. His men were
dispirited, and he lost 6,2'>3
so1ùiers, of whom l,ï:>O were
killed and i02 made prisonprs.
Hchofield's loss was 2.3
6, of
whom 180 were killed and
1,104 missing. The Kationalg
withdrew from Franklin a lit-
tle after midnight, and fell
back to :KashviIle.
Franklin Stove. The first
iron fireplace for heating
rooms was invented by Dr. Ben-
jamin Franklin about lï40,and
o'clock on the aftel"'lOOn of Kov. 30, 1864, is known as the" Franklin Sto\-e" to thi

Hood ad\'ancpd to the attack with all his day. It is an open fireplaee constructe'd
force. A greater part of his cavalry, oi iron, and portable, so that it may be
under Forrest, was on his right, and the used in any room with a chimney. It
remainder were on his left. The Con fed- was made for the purpose of better
crates fell fiercely upon Schofield's centre. warming and for sav-
composf'd of the divisions of Huger and ing fuel. lIe refused
Cox, about 10,000 strong'. Their sudden thf' offer of a patent
appearance was almost a surpris
. Scho- for it by the gonrnor
field was at Fort Granger, and the battle, of Pennsylvania, as he
on the part of the Kationals, was con- held that, as we profit
ductpd hy General Stanley. By a furious hy the inventions of
charge Hood hurled hack the "Cnion ad- others, so we should
vane'e
n utter confusion upon the main freely give what we TH
; FRA
KLlN STOVE.
line, when that, too, bpgan to crumhlp. may for the comfort
.A strong position on a hill was carried hy of our fellow-men. IIp gave his models
the Confederate's. where they spií'pd pight to Robert Grace, one of his early friends
guns. The
' forced their way within thp in London, who had an iron-foundry, and
sl'l'ond line awl planted a Confederate flag he made mneh money hy pasting these'
upon the intrenchments. stoves. They were in g('ueral use in all
.-\ll now scemed lost to the Nationals. the rural districts of tlle country for
who, as their antagonists were preparing many years. Or until ø.nthracite coal began
to follow up their viC'tory. seenlPd about to take the place of wom1 as ftwl and
to break and fly, when Stanley rode for- nquired a different kind of stove.
429

MAP OF THE BATTLE OF FRAXKLlY.

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FRASER-FREDERICKSBURG

Fraser, SUION, military offieer; born Ì!I
:-O:eot lanei, in 1 ,2D; !'f'rved with distinction
ill (;f'rmanJ', alld wa!' appointed a brig-
adit'r-gPlwral in the Rritish army by
(;O\-ernor Carleton, Sept. G, liïû. He
ga ined a victory over the .Americans at
Huhhardton in July, 1777, and was shot
hy one of Morgan's riflcmen in the first
hattle on Bemis's Heights, Sept. 19, 1777,

lId died on Oct. 7, following.
Fraternal Organizations. According
to reports of the supreme bodies of these
organizations the memhf'rship of the prin-
ci pal fra ternal organizations in the
Gnited States and Canada in WOO was
about as follows:

Frederick, Foul', a protective work 1111
the north bank of the Potomac River ill
l\Ia ryland, 50 mi les helow Fort C'llmhf'r-
land; en'etpd ill I ï.).)-.'j(j.
Fredericksburg, BATTLE Af. Lt'e'f;
p\":leuation of :\Iaryland after the battle on
Autietam Cre<>k occurred on
cpt. ID-:W,
180:!. L<>e r<>:-tpd a few da
'
on the Vir-
?inia side of the Poton:ac, and then
marched leif\urely up the Shenandoah '-al-
ley. McClellan did not pursue, but, after
twice calling for reinforcements, he de-
clm'ed his intention to stand where he wa!',
on the defensi\'c, and "attack the enemy
!'hould he att<>mpt to recross into ::\Iary-
land." The government and the loyal peo-
ple, impatient of del a)', demanded an im-
mediate ad\'ance. On Oct. G the Presi-
d('nt instructed ::\IcClellan to "cross thp
Potomac and give battle to the enpmy, or
drive him South. Your army must now
mO\-e," he said, " while the roads are good."
Twenty-four days were spent in COlT<>spond-
enee before the order was obeyed, :Me-
Clellan complaining of a lack of men and
supplies to make it prudent to mon for-
ward. At length, when October had nearly
104.8G!I passed by and 1.<>e's army was thoroughly
rested and reorganized, 1'..nd comlllunica-
7;),000 tions with H.ichlllond were re-established,
70,000 the Army of the Potomac legan to cross
1i:.!,173 the river (Oct. 26), 100,000 strong. The
Xationals were led on the east !'ide of tll('
HIue Ridge, but failed to strike the rf'-
trf'ating Confederates over the mountain
ill flank or to get ahead of them; and T pe
pushed Longstreet's troops over the Blue
Ridge to Culpeper Court - house, betwe('n
th
Army of the Potomac and Richmond.
ready to dispute the advance of the Ka-
Honals. Quick and energptic lllo\"(
lllents
,,;ere now necessary to sever and defeat, in
detail, Lee's army.
On Nov. 5
JcClellan was relieved of
command, and General Burnside was put
in his place. A sense of responsibility
made the latt<>r commander exceedingly
cautious. Before he moved he endeavored
to get his 120,000 men well in hand.
54,!H3 Aquia Creek was made hiq base of sup-
pI ies, and he moved the army towards
5,722,016 Fredericksburg on Nov. 10. Sumner led
the movement down the left bank of
the Rappahannock. By the 20th a greater
See portion of Burnside's forces were opposite
Frpderickslmrg, and their cannon com-
430

Odd Fellows....................
F,'eemasons ..........,.. .. . . . . .
Modern "'oodmen of America.,..
K n i
h ts of P
.th ia s. . . . . . , . _ . . , . .
Ancient Order of T"nited Workmen.
I rnp"o\'ed (Irder' of Red :\Ien......
K nigh ts of the
Iaccabees.......
]{o\'al Ar.canum.................
JU;lior Order of rnlted Amer'il'an
Mechanic3 ...................
Forester's of America...... _ .. ..
Independent Or'der of For'estel's..
Woodmen of the ""or.ld,.........
Ancient O,'der of Hibernians of
America ............ .. . . . . . , .
llenevolent and Protective Order'
of Elks......................
Knights of the Golden Eagle.
Knights of Honor..............
Ladies' Catholic llenevolent Asso-
ciation ........,..... _ . . . . . . .
Xationa! rnlon.................
Improved Order of IIeplasophs...
Knights and Ladies of Honor....
Order of rnited Amer'lcan
Ie-
chanks .... . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Catholic Benevolent Legion.......
Ancient Order of Foresters......
Tribe of Ben IInr..............
Sons of Temperance.............
Independent Order of B'nal B'rith.
Xew England Order of Protection.
Knights of Malta...............
Catholic Knights of America....
T"nited Order of Pilgrim Fathers.
Ro
'al Templars of Temperance...
ß'rlth Abraham Or.der....,......
· Order of ('hosen Friends.......
T'nlted Ancient Order of Druids...
Irish Catholic Benevolent Lnion..
American Legion of Honor......
Smaller organIzations not re-
ported ,...,....... . . . . . . . . . .

Total

· Disbanded In 1900.

Frazier's Farm,
GI.EXDALE. RATTLE OF.

BATTLE

1.025,073
8D6,830
547,6:!;)
4D:.!,3f16
410,000
23G,70:!
:!27,!)
()
20::;,G:.!8

1 S:t;;08
17 ;).;)6D
170.000
114.H43

59,821
;)8,000
35,668
53,000

4D,18!1
44,000
38,ml8
36,42D
34,614
31,750
29.GR8
27,000
23,200
22,D01
22,718
1D.487
17.533
16,7E2
14.0!l;J
13,107

OF.

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FREDERICKSBURG, BATTLE AT

MAP OF BATTLE OF FREDERICKSBURG.

manùed the town. Rumner demandeù the Happahannock, its dght at Port H.oyal
surrender of the city (Ko\". 21). It was and its left G miles abo\"e the city. POll-
refused. The bridgps had b('(>n destroyed. toons for the construction of bridges
A greater portion of thc inhabitants now across the Rappahanno('k were not re-
fled, and the town was occupied by Con- ceivcd by Burnside until the first week in
federate troops. Lec's army. RO,OOO Decemher. Thl'n Go.non Xational troops
strong, was upon and near thc Heights of under Smnnl'r and Hooker la,. in front of
Fredericksburg by the close of KO\"ember. Frl'derícksburp-. with 150 c
nnon, com-
and had planted strong batteries there. manded by Gcneral Hunt. The co!"ps of
The army lay in a semicircle around Fred- Franklin, about 40,000 strong, was en-
ericl...sburg. eaeh wing r"st ing upon the (>amped about 2 miles below.
4:31

FREDERICKSBURG, BATTLE AT

On the morning of D
c. II the engineers of the 12th a greater portion of the Na-
\\('nt quidly to work to construct five tional army occupied Frerlerick!'Lurg, and
pontoon bridges for the pa!"sage of the on the morning of the 13th made a simul.
.Kational ann)'.
harp-shooters assailed taneous assault all along the line. The
the engineers. The hl'a,'y onl!1ance of Confederates, with :JO() cannon, wen>
t he Nationals on Stafford Heights opened well posted on the Jwights and ready for
upon the town, set it on fire, and drove action. The battle was I){'gun by a part
out many troops. The sharp-shooters re- of Franklin's corps, :\leade's division, sup-
mained. TheJr were dislodged by a party ported by Gibbon's, with Douhleday's in
that crossed the river in boats, the reserve. Meade soon silenced a Con fed-
bridges were rebuilt, and by the evening eI'ate battery, but very soon a terrible

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TaB ATTACK ON FKBVERICKSBD&Q.
432

storm of shells and canister-shot, at near
range, fell upon him. He pressed on, and
three of the assailing batteries were
withdrawn. Jackson's advance line, under
A. P. Hill, was driven back, and 200
men made prisoners, with several battle-
flags as trophies. )leade still pres
ed
011, when a fierce as
ault by Early com-
pelled him to fall hack. Gibbon, who
came up, was rppuIspd, and the shattered
forces tied in confusion; but the pursuera
were checked by General Birney's division
of Stoneman's corps. The Nationals could
not ad,'ance, for Stuarts cavalQ', on Lee's
right, strongly menaced
the Union left. Finally,
Reynolds, with rein-
forcements, pushed back
the Confedprate right to
the l\Iassa ponax, where
the conte5t continued un-
til dark. l\Ieanwhile,
Couch's corps had oceu-
pied the .city, with Wil-
co,-'s between his and
Franklin's. At noon III"
Couch attacked the Con- ('
fpderate front with gT(
at
,igor. Kimball's bri- .,

ade, of French's divi-
sion, led. Hancock's fol-
lowing. Lon
street waR
posted on l\Iarye's Hill,
just back of the town.
rr on his troops thp Ka-
tionals fell lwavily, while
missiles from tlw Confed-
erate cannon made great
lanes through t1leir ranks.
After a brief struggle, French was thrown drawn to the north side of the Rappahan-
back, sluÜtered and broken. nmrly one-half neck, with all his guns, taking up his
of his command disabled. Hancock ad- pontoon hridge's. Then the Confederatp

vanced, and his brigades fought 1IIost vig- re-occupied Fredericksburg.
orously. In fifteen minutps, Hancock, Free Commonwealth, PLAN FOR A.
also, was driven back. Of f>.OOO wterans See MILTOS, JOliN.
whom he led into action. 2,013 had Freedley, EDWIN TUOXELL, author;
fallen, and yet the struggle was main- horn in Philadelphia, Pa., July 28, 182ï;
tained. studied law at Han'anl C'olle
e in 184..;
Howard's divisioIJ calllP to the aid of remowd to Philadelphia in 18.H. His
French and Hancock: so, also. did those publications include Philadelphia and its
of Sturgis and Getty. Finally, Hooker J[allufacturcs 7 ' History of J.lIIerican l/an-
crossed the river with three divisions. ufarlurrs 7' Leading Pursuits and Leading
He was so satisfied with the hopelessness lIen, etc.
of any further attacks upon the strong Freedmen, the former 8]aves W}lO were
po!'ition of the Confederates, that he PlI1ancipated during the American Civil
J)('g
pd Burnside to desist. He would not War.
1II.-2 E 4:J:i

FREDERICKSBURG-FREEDMEN

yield. Hooker ..ent 4,000 men in the track
of French, Hancock, and Howard, to at-
bck with bayonets only. These were
hurled back by terrific yolleJ"s of rifle-
Lalls, leaving 1,700 of their number pros-
trate on the field. :Kight soon closed the
awful conflict, when the Army of the
Potomac had 1.3,000 less of effective men
than it had the day before. ßurnsidp, in-
tent on achieving a victory, propospd to
send his old corps, the 9th, against the
fatal barrier (a stone wa]}) on ::\larye's
Hill, but Sumner dissuaded him, and, on
the 14th and 15th, his troops were with-

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SCENt: IN FR.:DF.RICK:<RUHG ON THI<.: }WH:SING OF Imc. 12, 11;62.

FREEDMEN'S BUREAU-FREEDOM OF A CITY

Freedmen's J3ureau. Eal"ly in lSli:J
Congress established a Bureau of Freed-
Illt.n, H.efngec>s. and Abandoned Lands, at-
tached to the \Yar Department; and early
in
Iay f:EX. OUYElt O. Ho\\ ARD (q. v.)
was appoint('d commissioner. He ap-
pointed ('Ieven assistant commissioners, all
army officers; namely-for the District
of Columbia. Gen. John Eaton, .Tr.; Yir-
ginia. Co\. O. Brown; Xorth Carolina, Col.
E. \Yhittlescy; :-;outh Carolina and
Gl'or;!;ia, Gen. R. Se
ton; Florida, Col.
T. \V. Osborne; Alabama, Gen. W.
Swayne; Louisiana, first the Rev. T.
W. Conway, and then Gen. A. Baird;
Texas, Gen. E.
I. Gregory; l\lissis-
sippi, Col. S. Thomas; Kentucky and
Tennessce, Gen. C. B. Fisk, Missouri
and Arkansas, (-jen. J. \Y. Sprague.
The bureau took under 'its charge the
freedmen, the refugees, and the aban-
don('d lands in the South, for the pur-
po!'e of protcctin
the freedmen and the
rc>fugee& in their rights. and returning ""
the lands to their pl'opc>r own('rs. To
make the operations of the hll1"eaU more
f'fficient an act was pa
!'-f'd (Feb. In.
lR(î()) for enlarging its powers. Presi-
dent Johnson interposed his v('to, hut it
b('came a law. The bun-au was dis-
continued Aug. 3, 18GS, with the exception
of the educational supervision, which re-
mained in force by act of Congress until
.Tuly I, 1870.
Freedom of a City. The conferring of
all tJ1e privileges of a I"Ìtizen upon a
stranger, or one not entitled to such privi-
leges because of non-residence. is an an-
cient way of honoring one for nwritorious
services. \\'hen the eminent lawyer of
Pennsylvania, Andrew Hamilton. had ably
defended the liberty of the press in the case
of .JoIl:\" PETER ZESGER (q. v.),the corpora-
tion of the city of Xew York conferred the
freedom of the city upon him. The ccrtif-
icate of such honor is usually enclo:';t'd in
a gold box, bearing on the underside of the
lid an inscription indicative of the ev('nt.
The foil 0\\ ing is a copy of the certificate
or freedom which the corporation of the
city of Xew York gave to GE
. JACOB
nROW
(q. 1.'.) after the battles of Chip-
pewa and J_und
's Lane, in the summer This form of honor has been bestowed
of 1814: l:ut seldom in the United States; in Eu-
.. To all to wbom tbese presents sball come, }"(\pe, and especially in England and Scot-
De Witt Clinton, Esq., }layor, and the Alder- land, it is frequently granted.
414

mpn of the city of :\C'w York, send greeting:
At a mppting of the Common Council, beld
at Ule t:ommon Council chamber in tbe ('it\'
Hall of tbe city of :'\ew York, tbe foll(l\\:-
In
resolutions were unanimously agreed to:
.. 'nï,o'{'WI. the ('o['poration of the dty
entel.tains the most Ih'ely sense of thp
late b['illlant acblevements of Gen. Jacoh
llrown on the :\iag-ara frontier. considerln

tbem as proud evidences 01' tbe skill a"d
Intrepidit
' of the bero of Cbippewa and his
bl'ave companions In arms. and a!Tordi:':

ample pruof of tbe superior val n [' (If (llIr

GE:-ERAL HROWN'S GOLD BOX.

hal'dy farmel'S over tbe veteran legions of
tbe enemy. ]{csolud, that, as a tdbute of
respect to a gallant officer and bis Intrepid
associates, who bave added sucb lustre to
our arms, tbe freedom of the city of :'\ew
York be presented to Gpn. Jacob Brown,
tbat bis portrait be obtalnC'd and placed In
tbe gallel'y of portraits belonging to this
city, and that the thanks of tbls corporation
be tendered to tbe offi('el's and men under bls
command.' Know ye that Ja('ob Brown, Es-
qllÍl'e. Is admlttpd and allowed a frepman
and a citizen of the said ('ity, to have, to bold.
tfJ u
e. and enjoy tbe fl'ppdom of the city, to-
gether with all tbe benefits. privileges, fran-
chisps, and Immunities wbatsopver grantPd or
belon
ing to the said city. By order of the
mayOl' and aldprmen. In testimony wbereof
t1w said mayor and aldermen bave caused the
spal of the !'alrl {'Ity to be hpreunto affi"l:prI.
"'Itness: De Witt Clinton, Esquire. :Mayor, tbe
fourth day of February, In tbe year of our
Lord one thousand elgbt bundred and fifteen,
and of the Independpncp and sovereignty
of the {'nited States the thirty-nlntb.
.. DE '\YITT CLINTON."

FREEDOM OF SPEECH-FREE NEGROES

Freedom of Speech. The finst amend- The,.;c grand ]odgt.s arc in full a!liiation
Ilwnt to the national Con8titution, rati- with the Eng]ish grand lodge, of which
fied in December; I.Hl, after forbidding the Duke of Connaught is the grand
('(Ingress to make any law l'especting an master, and the grand lodges of Ireland,
esta.b]ishment of religion, or prohibiting I'-cot]and, Cuba, Peru, South Austra]ia.
t]le free exercise thereof, sa
's, .. or
ew
outh "'a]es, Yictoria, and )[exieo.
abridging the freedom of speech or of the and a]!'o with the maSl.ns of Germany and
press; or the right of the people to peace- Austria. They are not in affiliation and
ably assemble, and to petition the govcrn- do not correspond with the masons undpr
Illl"n t for a redress of grie\-ances." Th
3 the jurisdiction of the grand orient of
sel'ures the invaluable right of utterance France; the
', however. af1iliate with and
of opinions, and reserves to all citizens recognize masons uIllIcr the juris(]iction
the privilpge of making their grievances of the suprpme cOUJ)('il.
known to the national government. This Free Negroes. The alarm expressed in
is: a privilege of American citi7cnship in Gcbates on the act prohibiting the s]a \"('_
striking contrast with European methodR, hade, in I
O!J, hpl'ause of the increase and

)ßd one that has been abused but seldom. iTJ.fluence of free np:.!ro('s. was manifested
Freedom of the Press, THE. See LOYE- in the legislation of !"cvera] States illl'
JOY, EUJAH PARISH. mediately aftprward:-:. ] m]ped, such fears
Freeman, FREDERICK. clergyman; born had existed earlier. In] .!It,
orth Caro-
in Sandwich. 1\1a:;:s., in lHOO; was ordained lir.a pasRed a.n act prohihiting emancipa-
pastor of the Prpshyterian Church in tion, e
cept for meritorious ser\"Ïces, and
Plymouth, 1\1ass., in ] R
:
; suhspquently by allowance of t]w county courts. South
took orders in the l">rotestant Episcopal Carolina had passed a similar act in 1800;
Church. Among his works are a llistory also another act the same )TeaT. declaring
of Cape Cod; ...1ullals of Barnstable it unla.wfu] for any numher of free ne-
County; Genealogy of the Freeman groes, mulattoes. or mestizoes to assemble
f'am'ily, etc. He died in :-)andwich. )Iass., together, e\-en though in the presence of
in 188:3. white persons, " for menta] instruction or
Freemasonry, a secn.t fraternal organ- I"(.]igious worship." There had been two
ization of which there is no certain in- alarms of insurrection in \?irginia (I inn
formation as to the time of its intro- and ISO]), and in 180.3 the freedom of
duction into thc Cnited States. According emancipation. allowed by an act in ] .82,
to many masonic writprs a provincia] was suhstantially takC'n away, by a provi.
grand ]od
e (8t. .John's) and also a swn that. thencefonnU"d. emancipatC'd
private lodge werp establislwd at Boston. s]avps remaining in the State one year
Mas;;;., by Hf'nry Price on Ju]y
O, 1 .
:t Riter ohtaining their freedom should b<

Benjamin Frank]in, who is RuppoM.d to ar.prchcnded and Ro]d into s]awry for
have bp('n initiatpd in Eng]and. published' the hC'nefit of the poor of the county.
the masonic constitution in 1734; and (Inrseers of the poor, binding out black or
during the same :rear Henry Price was Ir
u]atto orphans as apprentices. were for-
constituted grand master over all Korth bidden to rf'quire theil' masters to teaeh
Amcrica. On 1'\0\'. 4. 1.52. George \Yash- P.em reading. writing. and arithmetic, as
ington became a member of the order and in the case of white orphans; and frpc
on Aug. 4, ]..")
, was made a mastpr blacks coming into the
tatc \\ere to be
mason. The first masonic hall in the Sf'nt baek to the p]ael's w]lPlll'e thpy cam
.
rnitcd Rtates was built in Philadelphia in The ]I'gis]atme of ]Üntucky in IROq
li54. The returns of the grand ]odgps paR<;C'd a law that frf'f' nt'I!rops coming
of the "Cnited States and British Anwrica ir.to that
tat(' should give security to
for IR!)fI-1900 were as follows: Whole dqJart within twenty days. and on failure
number of members. S.").,5i7: raispd. 4ß,- to do so should be sold for one ycar, th('
17fi; admissions and restorations, 21.
2;); Sf'me proCf'SS to he repeatC'd, if, at the end
withdrawals. ]6,603; expulsions am] sus- (If the yC'ar. t])('y should be found in the
ppnsions. ;"jf)7; suspensions for non-pa)'-
tatf' twenty days afterwards. This la\.\
m('nt of dues, lG,844; deaths. 13,507. Gain rcmained in force until the breaking-out
in membership over preceding year, 21,0
8. of the Civil \Yar.
4
!}

FREE POSTAGE-FREE-THINKERS

Free Postage. Ree }'RA:NKISG PRIVI- vote of 157,000. The compromise meas-
LEGE. ures of 1850, and the \'irtual repeal of
Free School System. See EDUCATION, the :\hSSOlJRI Cmll'Ro
n
E (q. v.) in the
ELEMESTAI{Y; :\[A
rAL TRAI
IXG SCHOOLS. act for the creation of the Territories of
Free _ soil Party, a political party Kansas and l\cbra8ka in 1854, greatly 111-
foundcd in 1848 upon the principle of the creased the strength of the Free-soil
non-extension of the slave system in the party, and it formed the nucleus of the
Territories. It ,,'as an outl!rowth of the historical Republican party in 185G, whpn
LIBERTY PARTY ('1. v.) of I
-tti. The im- the Free-soilers, as a distinct party, di
-
mediate cause of its or
ani/ation wa
the appeared.
acquisition of new territory at the elo!';e Free Ships, Free Goods. See E
I-
of the war with
[p
ico, which would, if BARGO.
not prevented, become slave territory. In Free-thinkers. The freedom of thought
a bill appropriating money for the nego- and expression on theological subjects
tiation of peace with
[exico, submitted which now happily prevails did not
to Congress in IS-tü, D.HID WIUWT ('xist in the eighteenth century. Then
(q. v.), a Democratic member from Penn- a person who openly opposed the ac-
f'ylvania, offered an amendment, "Pro- c('pteù tenets of orthodo:\.y was os-
vided, that there shall be neither slavery tracizeù, and hence it is that, even in
I\Or inyoluntal'y sen itude in any Terri- this day, Franklin and Jefferson are some-
tory on the continpnt of .-\merica which times spoken of as infidels (that is,
sllRn hereaftel' be acquired by or annexed opposcrs of the Christian religion), a
to the rnited States hy virtue of this charge cruelly unjust. They "ere simply
arpropriation, or in any other manner, ex- free-thinkers, men who indulged in the
ccpt for crime," etc. It was carried in e:'\ercise of reason in dealing with the
the House, hut failed in the
enate; and tJ1C'ology of the day. The first American
in the next scs:iion it was defeated in frpe-thinker was Jeremiah Dummer, for
both branches. This was the famous JIIany years colonial agent in England of
" \\ïlmot Proviso." Connecticut, and author of the [)('fellce
Resolutions to this effect were offered in or the Sell' En!Jloml ('hartrrs. Franklin
both the Democl'atic and \Yhig eonven- y,-as one of hi!'; com'eds, yet never Ctn'-
tions in 18-tß, but were rcjpcted. A con- ried his vi('ws so far as to 'dmv, a
Dum-
s('quence of such rejection was a con:-;id- mer did, th(' 5upernatural ori'gin of the
erahle !,:p('Pssion of promilH'nt men, and Christian religion. Franklin was no prop-
many others, from hoth parties, especially ag;andist of his peculiar theological views.
in Massachusetts,
ew York, and Ohio. lie thought rpligion necessary for the good
In Kew York the s('cellin
Democrats of individuals and soC'i('ty, ostensibly ad-
were called "BAH:\" m-R:\"ERS" (q. v.) and l'ered to the Church of England, and never
the two classes of sl'ceders combined were countenaneed attacks upon ('urrent relig-
called "Free-sailer!':." The two combinC'd, ious ideas. The first work of a free-
and at a convention held at Ruffalo, tltinker published in America was Ethan

\ug. 9, IS-tS. thpy formed the FrC'l>-soil Allen's Omcles of Rdi!1 ion . From pas-
party. The ('onvention was composed of sagps in his "0(('['1 OJ1 Jïrginia, published
([(-legates from all the frec-Iabor States, in I.ondon, 1i8i, it is evitlr.nt that Jefferßon
find from Delaware,
[aryland. Yirginia, was of similar mind in many thin
s, yet
r-nd the Distd(.t of Columhia. They n0111- l,if. vi'C'wR of thp nl'C'('s:,ity and goodness of
inatpd .MAltTl'\ YAS RntF.
(q. v.) for the Christian rPligion were similar to
l're
ident of the United :';tates, and those of Franklin. Paine was of an en-
CHARLES FRA:\"CIS -\nA
IS (q. 1'.) for Yict>- tirely diff<,rent stamp. He made attacks
l'resident. The ticket l'eceived a popular upon the Chri;;tian religion, and nothing
vnti-slavery vote of
fl1.000, but did not sl'Pll1Pcl too sacT<,d in the latl'r :rears
receive a single elpctoral vote. The Free- of his life to e"cape the wrath of his
soil Convention at Pitbhurg in lR.J2 nom- pen. His attaC'k upon Washington. and
iJ1ated JOH
P. HAI,E (q. 'L'.) for Prest- his scoffing ('s!'ay against Christianity,
dent, and GEORGE W. JLLTA
(q. v.) for left his otherwise bright name under a
Vice-President, who received a popular cloud.
436

FREE THOUGHT

Free Thought. On the general subject
of the growth of Free Thought with
special reference to the United States,
we present a condensation of Professor
Goldwin Smith's views.

The history of religion during the past
century may be described as the !'equel
of that di:-òsolution of the mediæval faith
"hich commenced at the Reformation.
At the Heformation Protpstantism threw
off the yoke of pope and priest, priestly
control over conscienee through the con-
fessional, priestly ahsolution for sin, and
belief in tlw magical powpr of the prie:;t
a!' consecrator of the Host. besides the wor-
ship of the Ylrgin and the saints, purga-
tory, relics, pilgrimages, and other inci-
dents of the mediæval system.
Though Protestantism produced a multi-
tude of sects, especially in England at the
time of the Commonwealth, hardly any
of them were free-thinking or scpptical;
those of an)" importance, at all e,'ents,
were in some !'ense dogmatic, and were
anchored to the inspiration of the Rible.
Under the Restoration religiou", thought
and controversy slept. The nation was
weary of those subjects. The liberty for
which men then struggled was political,
though with political liherty was bound
up religious toleration, which achieved
a partial triumph under 'Yilliam III.
The Church of Rome, to meet the storm
of the Reformation. reorgani7pd hen;plf at
the Council of Trpl1t on lint.
pm<'tieally
traced for hcr h
' thp .Tpsuit. Papal autoc-
racy was strengthened at the pxpensp of
the episcopate, and furnished at onee with
a guard and a propölgandi:-òt mRehiner
' of
p'\.traordinary power in the order of Loyo-
la. That the plenarJ' in:-òpiration of tllf'
BiLle in the "ulgate version, and includ-
ing OIP .\pocrypha, :;hould be reaffirmed
wa.s a qeeondary matter, inasmnch as the
Church of Rome holds that it is not !'he
who .lprivps her credentials from Scrip-
ture, but Scripture which depend;; for the
attestation of its authority upon her.
Of thc di:-òint('grating forc('s critici:;l11-
the higher criticism. as it is the fashion
to call it-has h.' nil mean!' hpen the only
on('. Another. amI l)('rhaps in rt'c('nt times
the more powl'rful, has h(,('11 sl'ienc(', from
whid. Yoltaire and 01(' earJi('r s('pptics
received little or no as
istance in their at-
437

tacks; for they were unable to meet eVQJ1
the supposed testimony of fossils to the
Flood. It is curious that the bearing of
the Kpwtonian astronom:r on the Bibli-
cal cosmography should not have been
before perceived; most curious that it
.;;hould ha,-e escaped Kewton himself. His
system plainly contravened the idea which
made the earth the centre of the universe,
with hea'-en above and hell below it, and
hy which the cosmography alike of the
Old and the Xew Testament is pervaded.
The first destructive hlow from the region
of science was perhaps dealt by geology,
which showed that the earth had bepn
gradl1aJl,v forl1wd, not :mddenly created.
that its antiquity immeasurably transcend-
ed the orthodox: chronology, and that
death had come into the world long before
man. Geologists, scared by the echoes of
their own teaching, were fain to shelter
themselw8 under allegorical intprpreta-
tion,;;; of Gmesis totally foreign to the in-
tentions (If the writer; making out the
" da.'-s" of Creation to be æons, a ver-
sion which. even if accepted, would not
have accounted for the entrance of death
into the world before the creation of
man. :\Iany will recollect the shifts to
which science had recourse in its efforts
to avoid collision with the c()
mogony sup-
posed to han
been dictated by the Creator
to the reput('d author of the Pentateuch.
The grand catastrophe, however, was
the disconry of Darwin. This assailed
the belief that man was a distinct cre-
ation, apart from all other animals, with
an immortal soul speciall." breathed into
him hy the author of his "ein
. It show-
ed that he had b('en developed b
- a na t-
ural proce,;
out of lower forms of life.
It showed that instead of a fall of man
there had Leen a gradual rise, thus cutting
away the ground of the Redemption and
the Incarnation, the fundamental doctrines
of the orthodox: creed. For the hypothesis
of creation generally was suhstitutpd that
of evolution by some unknown but natural
force.
Kot only to revealed or supernatural
hut to natural religion a heavy blow wa

lll'aJt by the disclosure of wasted æons
anlI ahortive spedes whieh seem to pr('-
elude thp idea of an intelligent and om-
nipotC'llt dpsi!!npr.
The ehil'f interprC'Íl'rs of !,oeit'llc(' in its

FREE THOUGHT

bearing on re1igion were. in England, law which. if fully carried into effect,
Tyndall and Huxley. Tyndal1 always de- must have' fearfully darkened life. It
clared himself a materialist, though no produced in .Jonathan Edwards the phi-
one f'ould less de<;erve the name if it im- lc:wpher of Calvinism, from the meshes of
pJied anything like grossne
s or disregard whose prf'destinarian logic it has b('cn
of the higher sentiments. He startled found ditlieult to eseape, though all such
the world b,' his declaration that matter reasonings arc. practical1y rcbutted by our
containpd the potentiality of all life, an inddC'asibl(' consciousnpss of frf'f'dom of
assprtion which, though it has been found choice and of responsihility as attendant
difficult to prove experimentally, there can thereon. New England Puritanism was
be less difficulty in accepting, since we intolerant, e"pn pprspcuting; but the n'-
see Jife in rudimentary forms and in dif- ligious founder and prophet of Hhode T ,,1-
ferent stagps of devclopment. Huxley and proclaimed the principles of perfect
wie1ded a trenehant pen and was an un- toleration and of the entire spparation of
compromising sPl"\"ant of truth. A bitter the Church from the State. The ice of
controversy between him and O\\pn arose Kf'w England Puritanism was gradually
out of Owcn's tpndency to compromisp. thawed by commerce, non-Puritan immi-
He came at one time to the e
trf'me con- gration from the old country, and social
clusion that man was an automaton, inffuences, as much as by the force of
which would have settled all rpligious intpl1f'ctual pmancipation; though in
and moral questions out of hand; hut in founding unÏ\'('rsities and schools it had
this he seemed afterwards to feel that in fact pr('pared for its own ultimate suh-
he had gone too far. An automaton au- version. rnitariani:-m was a half-way
tomatically rf'fleeting on its automatic house through which ::\Iassachusetts pass-
character is a b('ing which seems to ddy pd into thorough-going liberalism snch as
conception. The connection of action with we find in Emerson. Thorf'au, and t1lf'
motive, of motivf' with character and ('irc1e of Brook Farm; and aft('rwanls
circumstance. is what nobody doubts; into the iconoclasm of I ngf'rsol1. TIlf'
but the preci"p nature of the connf'ction, only Protestant Chur('h of much impor-
as it is not subject. like a physical con- tance to which the Xew \Vorld has giw.n
nection, to our inspcction. defif's scrutiny. birth is the rniW'rsa1Ïst. a natural ofT-
and our consciousnf'''s. which is our only spring of democratic humanity revolting
informant, tells that our agency in some against the lw1Ïef in etf'rnal fire. En-
qualified sense is fn'f'. thusiasm unilluminated may still hold its
The all-embracing philo!"ophy of Mr. camp-mpptings and sing" Rock of Ages"
Herbert Spencer exclurles not only the in thp grove undpr th(' stars.
Fupernatural but theism in it" orrlinary The ma.in support of orthodox Prates-
form. Yet theism in a subtle form may tantism in the enited f\tatf's now is an
be thought to lurk in it. "By continu- ofT-shoot from the old countr
.. It is :\Ieth-
ally seeking." 11e says, "to know. and odism. whieh. hy the p('rff'ction of its
l)f'ing continually thrown back with a organi7ation. f'omhining strong ministcrial
deepened conviction of the impossibility authority with a democratic participa-
of knowing. "c may kpep aJi\"e the con- tion of aJl nlf'mhprs in thc aetin' s('rvi('e
sciousness that it is alike our highest of tlw (,hur("h, has so far not onJy IJ('ld
wi"dom and our highf'st duty to regard its o\\"n hut f'nlargpd its hordf'rs and in-
that through which all things e
ist as ('rea
('d it;: powf'r: its pll\nr. pf'rhaps.
the Fnknowable." rnknov,'ableness in it- rather than its !<piritnal influence. for
s('1f e'(cites no rf'Vf'rpnce. e...en though it the tinw f'omps whl'n tJlf' fire of cnthusi-
he supposed infinite and etprnal. Xoth- Mm grows ('old and class-m('ptings lo
e
ing excitcs our reverence but a pel"Son. or t1lf'ir ff'nor. TJw IIIpmhership is mostJy
at least a moral heing. drawn frolll a class little f''\.posf'd to the
Re1Ïgion passf'd from OJd to Xe\\' Eng- disturbing infllH'I1f'PS of criticism or sci-
1anrl in th(' form of a rdugpe Protf'stant- ('nc('; nor has thf' ('Ihll'ation of the min-
i
m of the most intf'nsf'1y Bihli('al anlI tllP ist('r
hiflH'rto bf'f'n gf'1\('rall
' f;ueh as to
mo'-t austere kind. [t had. notahl
' in hring- t111'm into eontact with thE' arg'u-
Connecticut, a code of moral and social ments of the sceptic.
438

FREE THOUGHT

In the "Cnited States at the beginning of as happy as anything the Catholic Church
the nineteenth century there were faint rel- had to show. From fear of New England
ics of state churches-churcbes, that is, rec- Puritanism it had kept its people 10;yaJ
ognized and protected, though not endowed to Great Britain during the Reyolutionary
by the state. But tllPre had been little to War. From fear of French atheism it
irritate scpptieism or provoke it to yio- kept its people loyal to Great Britain
lcnce of any kind, and the transition has during the war with France. It sang
accordingly been tranquil. Speculation, Te DClim for Trafalgar. So things were
however, has now arrived at a point at till the other da
'. Rut then came th('
which its results in the minds of the Jesuit. He got back, from the subseryi-
more inquiring clergy come into collision enc)' of the Canadian politicians, the
and,;
with the dogmatic creeds of their churches which he had lost after the conquest and
and their ordination tests. Especially the suppression of his order. He f-UP-
does awakened conscience rebel against planted the Ga11icans, capturC'd the hier-
the ironclad Calvinism of the \\Testmin- arch)', and prevailed oyer the great Sul-
ster Confession. Hence attempts, hitherto pician "Monastery in a struggle for the
baffled, to revise the creeds; hence heresy pastorate of
Iontreal. Othpr influences
trials, scandalous and ineffective. have of late been wOl'king for change in
\Vho can undprtake to say how far re- a dil'pction npither Ga11ican nor Jesuit.
ligion now influences the innpr life of Railroads ha\Te broken into the rural se-
the American people? Outwardly life in elusion which favored the ascendency of
the Pnited States, in the Eastern States the priest. Popular education has made
at least. is still religious. Churches are some way. Newspapers ha\'e increased
well maintained, congregations are fun, in number and are more rpad. The peas-
offertorips are liberal. It is still respect- ant has heen growing restive under the
able to be a church-goer. Anglicanism, burden of titbe and fnbriqllc. Many of
partly from its connection with the :Eng- the habitants go into the Northern States
lish hierarchy, is fashionable among the of the Lnion for work, and return to
wealthy in cities. \Ve note, however, that their own country hringing with them
in all pulpits there is a tendency to glide republican ideas. Americans who have
from the spiritual into the social, if not bepn shunning continental union from
into the material; to edge away from the drpad of French-Canadian popery may lay
ppssimistic view of t1w present world aside their fpars.
with which thp Gosppls are instinct; to It was a critical moment for the Catho-
attend Ipss exclusively to our future. and lie Church when sh@ undertook to extend
more to our prescnt state. Social re- her rlomain to the American Republic.
unions, pipnics, and side-shows are grow- She had there to encounter a genius radi-
ing in importance as parts of the church cally oppospd to her own. The remnant
system. .Jonathan Edwards, if he could of Catholic :\Iar,\"land could do little to
now come among his people, would hard- heIr her on her landing. Rut she came
h' finrl himself at home. in force with the flood of Irish. and after-
. In FrC'nch Canada the Catholic Church wards of South G('rman. Pllligration. How
has rpig-nC'd ovpr a simple peasantry, her far she has hcen sUCCt.:-;sful in holùing
own from thc bC'ginning. thoroughly suh- thesp her liegps would 1)(' a qupstion diÍ-
mi,..,.iye to the pripsthood, willing to gi\'e ficult to decide. as it would involve a
freely of its little store for the build- rather impalpable distinction between
iug of churches which tower over the formal nwmhership and 7palous attach-
hamlet, and sufficiently firm in its faith ment. In _-\nwrica. as in England, ritu-
to throng to tll(' fane of St. Anne Bpan- alism has sf'nC'd Roman Catholicism as
pr(' for miracles of IlPaling. She has kept a tendpr. TIIP critieal qtlPstion was how
1he habitant ignorant and unprogressive. the rC'ligion of the :\fiddle Ages could
hut made him, after her rule. moral. in- succC'C'd in makinQ" itself at homp under
sisting on early marriage. on remarriage, the roof of a rlpmocratic republic. the
controlling his habits and anm
em(,l1tf; flllimating spirit of which wa
freedom.
with an almost Puritan
trictnes
. Prllh- intcllectual anù spiritual as \\('11 as polit-
ahly French Canada has been as good and ipal, while the wit of its people was pro-
439

FREE THOUGHT

verbiallJ' keen and their nationalit:r was dom of inquir:r and advance in thought
jealous as well as strong. The papacy are of course impossible. Kothing is po!!.-
may call itse]f universal; in realit
., it is sible but immobilitv, or reaction such as
Italian. During its sojourn in the French that of the sy)]abu
. Dr. Bro\\nson, like
dominions the popes were French: other- H('cker, a convert, showed after his con-
\\ ise they have been Italians, native or vprsion something of the spirit of free in-
domiciled, with the single exception of quiry belonging to his fonner state, though
the F]emish .\drian YI., thrust into the rather in the line of philo
ophy than in
ehair of St. Peter by his pupil, Charles that of theology. properly speaking. But
Y.. and by thp Italians treated with con- if he ewr departed from orthodoxy he re-
hlmely as an alien intruder. The great turned to it and made a perfectly edify-
majority of the cardinals always has ing end.
been and still is Italian. She has not Such is the position in whieh at the
thrust the intolerance and ohscurantism close of the nineteenth centuryChristcndom
of the encyclical in the face of the dis- seems to have stood. Outside the pale of
cip]es of Jefferson. She has paid all due reason-of rpason; we do not say uf truth
homage to republican institutions, alien -were the Roman Catholic and Eastern
t hough they are to her own spirit, as her Chm"ches; the Roman CatllOlic ChUl'cll
uniform action in European politics resting on tradition, sacerdotal author-
hitlwrto has proved. She has made little ity, and helief in present miracles; the
show of relics. She has abstainpd from Eastern Church supported by tradition,
miracles. Thc adoration of Mary and sacerdotal authority, nationality, and the
the saints. though of course fu)]y main- power of the Czar. RceptiC'ism had not
tained. appears to be less prominént. caten into a church, preserved. like that
Compared with the mediæval cathedral of Russia, by its isolation and intellectual
and its multiplicity of side chapels. a]- torpor; though some wild sects had bppn
tars. and imagps, the cathedra] at Xc\\" generated. and Nihilism, threatening with
York strikps one as the tpmple of a some- dcstruction the church as well as the
what rationalized vprsion. Ypt between state. had appearcd on the scene. Into
the spirit rf American nationality. e\'Pn the Homan Catholic Church scepticism
in the most devout Catholic, and that of had ('atpn dpeply. and had detached from
the Jesuit or the native licgeman of her, or was rapidly detaching, the inte]-
Rome. there cannot fail to be an opposi- ]cct of educatpd nation." while she seemed
tion more or less acute, though it may rplo;o]1\tply to hill defiance to reason bv
be hidden as far as possible under a de- her syll
lbus, her declaration of pap;l
cent veil. This was seen in the casp of infallihility, her proclamation of the im-
Father Heckpr, who had begun his carper ma('u]ate conception of
rar
'. Outside
as a Socialist fit Brook Farm, and. as a the pale of tra(litional authority and
convert to Catholicism, founded a mi"sion- anlPnahle to reason stood the Protestant
arv ordpr. thp kpvnote of which was that chur<:hes. urgently presscd by a qupstion
"J
an's life in the natural and secular as to the sufficiency of the evidpncps of
order of things is marehing towards free- fmpernatural Christianity-abm'e all, of
110m and pprsonal indep('ndpnee." This its vital and fundamental doctrines: the
hp dpsl'rihpd as a radical ('hang-e. and a fall of man, thp incarnation. and the
mdiea} change it undouhted]y was from rpsurreetion. The Anglican Chureh. a
the sentimpnts and the system of Loyola. fahric of poli("
' compoundl'd of Catholi-
Conòemnation \n' Rome
onld not fa'il to ci!'m without a pope and biblical Prot-
follow. Educati
n has evidently hpen the e
tanti...m. was in thp thl"Ops of a strug-
lìcenp of a subterranean conflict hetween gle I)('t\\"een those two plempnts. largely
the Jesuit and the mm'(' libel'al. or. antiquarian and of little importanee com-
what is much the same thing. the more pared with the yital question as to thc
American section. Th(' Allwrican and lih- evidene('s of revelation and the divinity
eral head of a college has been depospd. of Christ. .
under df'('orouC\ pretpncps, it iq true. hut In the Vrotf'.,tant churchp
gf'nerally
"till deposed. Tn the American or an
'othl'r 3"sth<,ticism haò prevailf'd. Ewn thp most
brand] of t1w TIOInan ('atholic Church free- austpr(' of thpm had introduepd ('llIIr(.h
44-0

FREE TRADE

art, Bowen., and tasteful music; a ten-
dency which, with the increased craving
for rhetorical novelty in the pulpit, seem-
ed to show that the simple Word of God
and the glad tidings of salvation were
losing their power, and that human at-
tractions were needed to bring congrega-
tions together.
The last proposal had been that dogma,
including the belief in the divinity of
Christ, having become untenable, should
be abandoned, and that there should be
formed a Christian Church with a ritual
and sacraments, but without the Chris-
tian creed, though still looking up to
Christ as its founder and teacher; an or-
ganization which, having no definite ob-
ject and being held together only by in-
dividual fancy, would not be likely to
last long.
The task now imposed on the liegemen

of rea
on seems to be that of reviewing
reverentl:r, but freely and impartially, the
evidences both of supernatural Christi-
anity and of theism, frankly rejecting
what is untenable, and if possible laying
new and sounder foundations in its place.
To estimate the gravity of the crisis we
ha ve only to consider to how great an
extent our civiliza tiou has hitherto rest-
ed on religion. It may be found that after
all our being is an insoluble mystery.
If it is, we can only acquiesce and make
the best of our pt'csent habitation; but
who can say what the advance of knowl-
cdge may bring forth? Effort seems to
be the law of our nature, and if continued
it may lead to heights beyond our pres-
ent ken. In any event, unless our inmost
nature lies to us, to cling to the unten-
able is worse than usele
s; there can be
no salvation for us but in truth.

FREE TRADE

Free Trade. William Ewart Gladstone,
several times Prime :\Iinister of England,
wrote the following plea for Free Trade,
to which a reply was made by James G.
Blaine, which wiII be found in the ar-
ticle on PROTECTIO
:

nature. And where Rhould an English-
man look for weapons to be used against
protection, or an American for weapons
to be wielded in its favor, except in
America and England respectively?
This sentiment receÌ\'ed, during a late
I'residential struggle, a lively illustration
in practice. An AmericclIl gentleman,
The existing- difference of practice be- :\Ir. N. McKay, of X('\\" York, took, ac-
tween _\merica and Britain with respect cording to the pwverb, the bull by the
to free trade and pwtection of neces- horns. He visited Great Britain made
sity gives rise to a kind of inter- what he {'onsidered to be an inspe
tion of
l1ational controvet.sy on their respecti\-e the employments, wages. and condition of
merits. To interfere fwm across the the people, and reported the result to his
water in such a controversy is an act countrynwn, while they were warm with
which may wear the appearance of im- the animation of the national contest,
pertinence. It is prima facie an intrusion under the doleful titles of Free-Trade
by a citizcn of one country into the do- Toilers and Starvation n-(lgcs fm' .lIen
mestic affairs of another. which as a and l{Tomell. He was good enough to
rule must l)p IJf'ttpr judg-ed of by deni- torward to lIIe a cop.'" of his most interest-
7ens than by foreigners. Xa,v, it may iug tract. and he did me the further honor
f'ven seem a rather violf'nt intrusion: for to addr('ss to me a letter covering the
the sincere advocate of on(' of the two pamphlet. He challenged an expression
systems cannot speak of what ]1(' df'ems of my opinion on the results of free trade
to be the demerits of the other otherwise in England nnd on C'th(' relative value of
than in broad and trenchant terms. In fu>e trade and pwtection to the English-
this case, however, it may be said that speaking- people:'
something of recipwcal reproach is im- There was an p\ itll'nt title tlms to call
plied in the glaring contrast hpÌ\veen the upon me. hl'cause I had. Illany year8 since,
legi!'llation of the two countries. apart given ntte
anee to an opinion then anò
froIll any argumentative exposition of its 1I0W sincprel
' entertained. I thought, amI
441

FREE TRADE

each uf the rolling years teaches me more before:'
\nd I can state with truth that
and more fixedl:r to think, that in inter- I have heard this ,-ery same melody bf'forej
national transactions the British nation nay, that I am familiar w;th it. It comes
for the present enjoys a commercial pri- to us now with a pleasant no\'elty; but
macy; that nu country in the world once upon a time we British folk wpre
shows any capacity to wrest it from us, surfeiteù, na,v, almost bored to death, with
except it be America; that, if America it. It is simply the old sun
of our
shall frankly adopt and steadily main- squires, which they sang with perfcct a
-
tain a system of tree trade, she will by surance to defend the corn laws, fir,.t
degrees, perhaps not slow degrees, out- from within the fortress of an unreformed
strip us in the race, and will probably Parliament, and tlwn for a good IIIany
take the place which at prf'spnt belongs y('ars more, -,vith their ddcnel's fatallv
to us; but that she will not injure liS and fast crumbling before theil" e\-es afte'r
by the op('ration. On the contrary, she Parliament had been reformed. .
I:', 1\1c-
will do us good. Her freedom of trade Ka:r and protection, now made vocal III
will add to our present commerce and our him. terrify the
\merican workman hy
present wealth, so that we shall be bet- threatening him with the wages of his
ter than we now are. British eomraùe, precisely as the English
It would have been impertinent in me, landlord coaxed our rural laborers, when
and on other grounds impolitic, to accept we used to get our hcst whei\ts from Dant-
the invitation of Mr.
IcKay while the zig, by exhibiting the starvation wages of
I residential contest was yet pending. But the Polish peasant.
all the agencies in that great election But there is also a variation in the
ha,-e now done their work, and protection musical phrase. Our low wages, it is
has obtained her victory. Be she the love- said, form the basis of our cheap produe-
liest and most fruitful mother of the tion.
o it is desired, as Mr. McKay ap-
wealth of nations, or be slw an impostor prises me, to "get some relid from the
and a swindler, distinguished from other American
O\-ernment"; by which I
swindlers mainly by the vast scale of her understand that he calls for more protec-
operations, she no longer stands within tion. For
:xample: I have learned that
the august shadow of the election, and turfs are occasionally sene from Ireland
she must take her chance in the arena of to America to supply the [rish immigrant
discussion as a common combatant, pn- with a rude memorial of the country he
titled to free speech and to fair treat- was forced to leave, but has not ceas('d to
ment, but to nothing more. So that the love; and that these turfs are dear to his
citizens of two countries long friendly, and affectionate patriotism, and have h('('n
evidently destined to yet closer friendli- hought by him at prices relatively high.
ness, may now calmly and safely pursue an But they He charged (I am told) as
argument which, from either of the oppos- unenumerated articles. at I;) per cent. on
ing points of view,has the most direct bear- the vahlp. I hope there is no strong tur-
ing on the wea1th. comfort, and well-being hary int
rest in .\mNiea. for I gather
of the peoplp on hoth sides of the water. that, to secure high wages to the diggers.
The appf'al of the champion whose call
'O!l would rpadily, and quit(' mnsist('nt-
has brought me into the field is \"eQ- prop- l,v. raise this, say. to 23. TllP protI'f'-
erly madp "to t}w wage-earners of tllf' ti, f' argument. however, at this sta
!.

rnited f.\tat('!'1.." He exhibits the deplo- rilther is. How can the capitalist <,n
ag<,d
rable condition of the British workingman. in manufacture compete with his Briti<;h
and asks whether our commercial sup rem- r::.\a.1. wlJo ohtains labor at half the
acy is not upheld at his expen!'e. The pri<,e? But this also is to 1I
nf'ither
<,on"tant tenor of the argument is this: mure nor less than the reJwtition of an
High wages hy protection, low wages by old and familiar strain. Th(> argument
free tra<l('. It is eYen as the recurring i" so plausiblf' that, in thp f'arl
' dilYS of
hurd('n of a song. Xow, it 80metiuws our '\"pIl-known corn-law <,ontrO\-('rs.\'. it
l1app('n" that, while we listf'n to a melody eOlllmpnded itself <,,'en to "ome of the first
presented to us as new. the idpa gradual- (']Htmpion!o; of rep('al. Thpy pointed out
l
' arises in the mind," I have heard this that during the great French war the
442

FREE TRADE

trade of our manufacturers was secured
by our possession of the sea; but that
when, by the ('stablishment of peace, that
became an open highway, it was impossi-
ble for our manufacturers, who had to
pay their workmen wages based upon pro-
tection prices for bread as the first neces-
sary of life, any longer to compete with
the cheap bread and cheap labor of the
Continent. And, in truth, the
' could
show that their trade was at the time, to
a great extent, either stationary or even
receding. These arguments were made
among us, in the alleged interest of labor
and of capital, just as they are now em-
ploJ'ed by you; for America may at pres-
ent be said to diet on the cast-off reason-
ings of English protectionism. Th('y
were so specious that they held the field
until the genius of Cobden recalled us
from cónventional phrases to natural laws.
and until a s.:>ries of bad harvests (about
1838-41) had shown the British workman
that what enhanced the pr.ce of his bread
had no corresponding power to raise the
rate of his wages, but distinctively tended
to depress them.
Let me now mark the exact point to
which we have advanced. Like a phono-
graph of
Ir. Edison, the American pro-
tectionist simply repeats on his side of
the Atlantic what has been first and
often, and long ago, said on ours. Under
prot('ction our wages w('re. on the whole,
higher than those of the Continent.
Under prot('ction American ,vages are
higher than tho"(' of Grpat Britain. We
t11en argu('d, post hoc, er90 propter hoc.
He now argues (just listen to his phono-
graph). post hoc, er.Qo propter hoc. But
our experience has proceeded a stage fur-
ther than that of the American people.
Despite the low wages of the Continent.
we broke down every protecti,-e wall and
flooded the country (so the phrase the!}
ran) with the corn and the commodities
of tllP whole world; with the corn of
America first and foremost. But did our
)'ates of wages thereupon sink to the level
of the Continent? Or did it rise steadil
'
and rapidly to a point higher than had
heen ever known before?
That the Amerimn ratp of wages is
higher than ours ] concedp. Some, at
leagt. of the causes of this most grati-
fying fact I shall endeavor to acknowl-
443

edge. My enumcration may be sufficient
or may be otherwise. \Vhether it be ex-
haustive or not, the facts will of them-
selves tend to lay upon protectionism the
burden of establishing, by something more
than mere concomitanc
', a casual rela-
tion between commercial restraint and
wages relatively high. But what if, be-
sides doing this, I show (and it is easy)
that wages which may have been partially
and relatively high under protection, have
become both generally and absolutely
higher, and greatly higher, under free
trade?
That protection may coexist with high
'
'ages. that it may not of itself neutral-
i
:c all the gifts and fa"ors of natur(',
that it does not as a matter of course
make a rich country into a poor one-
all this may he true, but is nothing to
the point. The true question is whether
protection otfers us the way to the maxi-
mum of attainahle wage. This can only
be done by raising to the utmost attain-
able height the fund out of which wages
and profits alike are drawn. If its ten-
df'ncy is not to increase, but to diminish,
that fund, then protection is a bar to
high wages, not their cause; and is, there-
fore, the enemy, not the friend, of the
classes on whose wages their livelihood
depends. This is a first outline of the
propositions which I shall endeavor to
unfold and to hring home.

Ir.
[cKay greatly relied upon a repre-
sentation which he has given as to the
rate of wages in England. It is only in-
cidental to the main discussion, for the
subject of this pa per is not England. but
America. Yet it e,'idently requires to be
dpalt with; and T shall deal with it hroad-
l:r, though briefl.'-. asking leave to con-
h'st alike the inf('rences and the facts
which he presents. :\1,\' ('Ontention on this
head will b(' twofold. First. he ha.s heen
misled as to th(' actual ratp of wages in
England. Second).". th(' question is not
whether that rate is lower than the
rate in America. nor e"en whether the
American workman (and this is a verv
different matter) is always better off
than the workman in England. It is,
\Yhat are EngIi"h wages now under free
trad(', eompared with what they formerly
were unù('r protection?
And first, as to the actual rates in par-

FREE TRADE

ticular cases to which he has refcHed, I I am assured, had any existence. The
must draw a line between the case of the temperature in Rosebridge mine, which he
English chain-makers, on which he has states at 03 0 , does not exceed 70 0 . The
dwelt, and the case of the great coal \\ ages of men are not 3s. a day, but var
..
industry, of which he has taken the town from a minimum of 3s. 3d. up to the 8um
of \\ïgan as a sample. of 4s. Gll. The minimum for women on
In an old !'>oeiety like this, with an in- the bank is not Is., but Is. Gd., and the
definite variety of occupations, there are ma
imum not Is. Uti., but
s. Yards ,>ueh
usuall;r sume which lie, as it were, out as he estimates at -1;) inches wide are for-
of the stream, and which represent the Lidden by by - laws of the local board
traditions of a former time, or pecu- issued in 1883. and similar laws iss1U.d
liariti('s of circumstance, not yet touched in 18GO require that cottages shall han
by that quickening breath of freedom in an open i'pace. at the rear or I:;ide, of not
trade and labor under which I shall show less tlliln 1,")0 square feet. Barro\\s are not
it to be unquestionable that an over- in use for wheeling coal underground. In
whelming proportion of our population a word, 1:;0 far as the only place 1 haH'
have found their way to a great and, in- bt.en able to make the !'>ubject of e
ami-
deed, extraordinary improvement. In par- nation is concerned, the accuracy of the
ti<:ular, we may expect to find a lam- supposed statements of fad is contested
entable picture in those cases where hand all along the line by persons on the spot.
la.bor is destined to be supplanted by ma- whom I know to be of the highcst trust-
chinery, but where the transition, though worthiness and authority.
at hand, has not yet taken efrect. Thcse \Ve are, however, happily in a condi-
chain-makers are represented a-s earning, tion to bring upon the arena e,-idencc of
man and wife together. $-1 per week. far higher moment than assertions or

mall as is this amount, it would not denials founded upon a fl'w rapid glances
have dra\\ n on that account the lcast of a traveller, eyen had he not been laden
notice in the days when humanity took \' ith a foregone conclusion, or than de-
its standards from the facts supplied by lIials offer('d against those ai'sertions. So
protection. rndt-'r the present circum- far as Great Britain is coneel"lwd, it is
stances. it happens to ha"e attracted ob,'ious enough to what point we should
marked attention in Parliament, and else- address our inquiries, if they are to be
where. and I belie,'e that it is at this of any scrious force in determining by re-
\'ery time the subject of public inquiry. suIts the contronri'Y upon the respecti,'('
J
ut the true answer to the argument merits of protection and free trade. \Ye
from isolated cases, is that there is no must endC'avor to ascertain the general
relation whate,-er b('tween tIt(' condition rate of wages no\\, in comparison with
of this or that small, antiquated, and what it was under the protecti'Te system.
!'.olitaQ' emplo,y-ment, and the general con- nnd with constant regard to the cost of
dition of our wag('-earning population, living as exhihited by the prices of com-
Tt is otllPrwisp. howeyer, with reference modities.
to \\ïgan. Emplo:nnent at thib im- And, in order to try the question for
JIm.tant centre is subject to the economical this country at large, whether frC'e trade
{'IIlTents of tIlt' time, and undoubtedly the has been a curse or a hlpssing to the peo-
facts it may ðhihit nlU!'t he held to bear pie who inhabit it, I shall repair at Ollce
upon the gcneral question of the condition to our highest authority. 1\1r. Giffell, of
of the people. Hut it 1"0 happens that I the hoard of tmde. whose careful and
h,l\-e the hest l11t>ans of ohtaining infor- comprehensiye di
quisitions are before
Illation about \\ïg
1I1. and I hall lwtter the world,
nl(1 are known to command. iu
!'-tate at once th,tt I am at issue with a yery high dcgree. the public confidenC'('.
::\Ir. )Id
a,\""" 1"('}lort upon the facts. The He suppli('<! us with tahles "hich com-
htatelll('nts made by him ha,'e douht1('ss pare the wage's of lS:J:J with tho
p of
done thpil' work: hut it is 8till a lIIat- lR
:J in such a way as to speak for tht>
tI'r of intC')"(.,..t tn (,I('ar up the truth. The (,rincipal brunches of indUi
tr,\". with th..
steepl(', nf whieh )1(' dedareR that the excC'ption of agricultural labOl'. 'fh('
}mrish church has bcen denuded, neyer, as wages of miners, we learn, have incrcased
444

FREE TRADE

ill Staffordshire (whi
h, almost
ertainly, laborer. He obser>es that the aggregate
Íò the mining district of lowest incre- proportion of unskilled to skilled labor
ment) by 30 per cent. In the great ex- l'as diminished-a fact which of itself
portable manufactures of Bradford and forcibly exhibits the advance of the labor-
IIuddersfield, the lowest augmentations ing population as a whole. I will not en-
are 20 and 30 per cent., and in other iu upon details; but his general conclu-
branches they rise to 50, 83, 100, and sion is this: the improvement is from 70
eYen to 150 and lGO per cent. The quasi- to 90 per cent. in the wages of unskilled
dCilllestic trades of carpenters, bricklayers, non-agricultural labor. Aud again, com-
and masons, in the great marts of Glas- paring the laborer with the capitalist be-
gow and )lanchester, show a mean iñ- tween 1843 and 1883, he estimates that,
crease of 63 per cent. for the first, 63 while the income from capital has risen in
per cent. for the second, and 47 per cent. this country from H90,000,000 to i400,-
for the third. The lowest weekly wage 000,000, or by 210 per cent., the working-
uamed for an adult is 22s. (as against class income, below the standard which en-
1 ï s. in 1833), and the highest 3Gs. tails liability to income-tax, has risen from
But it is the relative rate with which i235,000,000 to i620,OOO,000, or at the rate
wc have to do; and, as the American of lGO per cent. \Vithin the same period
writer appears to contemplate with a pe- the prices of the main articles of popular
culiar dread the effect of free trade upon consumption have not increased, but hav3
shipping, I further quote 1\1r. Giffen on certainly declined. The laborer's charges,
the monthly wages of seamf:'n in 1833 except for his abode, have actually dimin-
and 1883, in Bristol, Glasgow, Liverpool, ished as a whole. For his larger house-
and London. The percentage of increase, n.nt he has a better house. To the O'O\T-
since we ha\-e passed from the protective emment he pays much less than he did.,
system of the navigation law into free and from the government he gets much
trade, is, in Bristol, GG per cent.; in more; and "the increase of his money
Glasgow, 55 per cent.; in Liverpool (for wages corresponds to a real gain." .
different classes), from 25 per cent. to Such, then, have been the economical re-
70 per cent.; and in London, from 45 per st:lts of free trade as compared with pro-
cent. to ün per cent. :Mr. Giffen has tection. Of its political, moral, and so-
gi\'en the figures in all the cases where cial results, at least so far as they rega)"(1
he could be sufficiently certain of exacti- the masses of the people, an account in
tude. 1\0 such return, at once exact and no way less satisfactory could be given,
comprehensive, can be supplied in the ,\ (-re this the proper occasion for entering
case of the rural workman. But here <'II the subject. If it be said that the tal..
the facts are notorious. \Ve are assured I have told is insufficient, and that wages
that there has been a unh-ersal rise ought still to rise, this may be so; and
(somewhat checked, I fear, by the recent rise I hope they will; but protection had
agricultural di
tress), which Caird and no such tale to tell at all. For the work-
other authorities place at ÜO per cent. ing population at la.rge it nlPant stagna-
:Mr. GifTen apparently concurs; and, so tien, depression, in many cases actual and
fDr as my own personal sphere of oh:;er- daily hunger and thirst, in some unqucs-
"vation reaches, I can with confidence con- tionahle and even gros!i degradation. I
firm the estimate and declare it to be will nnture to say that, taking the cas!'
moderate. Together with this increase of as a whoie. it would be difficult to match
pay, there has hf'en a general diminution in histoQ' the picture' which Great Britain
of the hOUT!, of work. whieh ::\Tr. Giffen now presents of progress, achie\-ed main-
places at one-fifth. If we nwkp this cor- Iy through WiRP law
. from stinted meanq
redion upon the comparati\'e table, w
and positi,-e want towards comfort and
shall find that the ca8es are very few in ahundance for the people.
\':hich the increment dop
not range as \Vith a yip\\, to presenting the argument
l.igh as from 50 and towards 100 per for leaving trade to the operation of nat-
cpnt. ural laws in the simplest manner, I shall
In a later essay, of January, 1886, Mr. begin with some postulates which I RUP-
Giffen touches the case of the un
killed pose to be incapable of dispute.
-t4fi

International COllllllt')"l'e is hased, not
upon a.rbitrary 01' fanciful considerations,
but upon the unequal distribution among
men and regions of aptitudes to produce
the several commodities which are neces-
sary or useful for the sustenance, com-
fort, and advantage of human life.
If every f'Ountry produced all commodi-
ties with exactly the same degree of facil-
ity or cheapness, it would be contrary to
common-sense to incur the charge of send-
iug them from one country to another.
But the inequalities are so great that
(for example) region A can supplJY region
:u with many artieles of food, and region
B can in return supply region A with
many articles of clothing, at such rates
that, although in each case the charge of
transmission has of necessity been added
to the first cost, the respective articles
can be sold after importation at a lower
rate than if they were home-grown or
home - manufactured in the one or the
other country respectively.
The relative cost, in each case, of pro-
duction and transmi!'sion, as compared
with domestic production, supplies, while
all remain untramme1Jed by state law, a
rule, motive, or main-spring of distribu-
tion which may be tprmed natural.
The argument of the free-trader is that
the legislator ought never to interfere, or
only to interfere so far as imperative fiscal
necessity may rpquire it, with this natural
law of distribution.
An interfcrf'nce with it hy a J!overnment
in order to encourage some dearer method
of production at home. in preference to a
cheaper method of production abroad, may
fairly be termed artificial. _-\nd e\"Cry
such interference means simply a diminu-
tion of the national wealth. If ]"(':!Ïon A
grows corn at home for 50s. with which
region B can supply it at 40s., and region
n manufacturcs cloth at 20.'l. with which
region A can supply it at };),'l., the na-
tional wealth of each is diminished by
the lOs. and the 58. respectively.
.And the capitalists and la1,orers in each
of these countries have so 11'uch the less to
divide into thpir respective shares, in tllat
competition bdwcC'n capital and labor
which determines the distribution between
them of the price brought in the market
hv commodities.
. In my view, and I may say for

FREE TRADE

countrJ'UH'n in our view, protection, how-
e,oer dignified by the source from which it
proceeds, is essentia1Jy an invitation to
waste, promulgated with the authority of
law. It may be more violent and pro-
hibitory, or it may be less; but, up to the
point to which it goes, it is a promise
given to dear production to shield it
against the competition of cheap produc-
tion, or given to dearer production to hold
it harmless against cheaper; to sel'ure for
it a market it could not otherwise hold,
and to enable it to exact from the con-
sumer a price which he would not other-
wise pay.
Protection says to a producer, Grow
this or manufacture that at a greater nec-
essary outlay, though we might obtain it
more cheaply from abroad, where it can bp
produced at a smaller npccssary outlay.
This is !Saying, in othpr words. waste a
certain amount of lahor and of capital;
and do not be afraid. for the cost of your
waste shall be laid on the shoulders of a
nation which is well able to bear it. So
much for the waste unavoidably attach-
ing to dearness of production. But there
are other and yet worse descriptions of
waste, as to which I know not whether
America suffers grcatly from them, but I
know that in this count
y we suffered
from them grievously under the sway of
protection. When the ba I rier erected by
a protective duty is so high that no for-
eigner can overleap it, that duty enables
the home manufacturer not only to charge
:l high price, but to force on the consumer
a bad article. Thus, with an eÜravagant
duty on foreign corks, we had for our own
use the worst corks in Europe. And ypt
again, protection causes waste of another
kind in a large c'a!'s of cases. SupposP
the natural disadvantaw's of the home pro-
ducer to equal }.) per ('cnt., but the pro.-
tective duty to be 30. But cheapness re-
quircs minute care, economy, and despatch
:ü all thp stages through which production
has to pass. l'his minute care and thrift
depend mainly on the pressure of com-
petition. There were among us, and there
may be elsewhere, many producers whom
indolence tempts to neglect; who are not
sufficiently drawn to resist this inertia by
the attraction of raising profit to a maxi-
mum; for whom the prosppet of advan-
my tage is not enough without the sense of
446

FREE TRADE

necessity, and whom nothing can spur to upon the net surplus left by the prices of
a due nimbleness of movement except the industrial products after defraying out
fear of not being able to sell their arti- of them the costs of production. To make
cles. In the case I have supposed, the this surplus large is to raise national
second 15 per cent. is a free margin wealth to its maximum. It is largest
whereupon this indolence may disport when we produce what we can produce
itself: the home producer is not only cheapest. It is diminished, and the nation
covered for what he wastes through IS so far impoverished, whenever and
necessity, but for what he wastes from wherever and to whatever extent, under
npgligence or choice; and his fellow-coun- the cover of protective laws, men are in-
trymen, the public, have to pay alike for duced to produce articles leaving a
both. We suffered grievously from this smaller surplus instead of articles leaving
in England, for oftentimes the rule of the a larger one. But such is the essence of
producer is, or was, to produce not as well protection. In England (speaking Tough-
as he can, but as badly as he can, and as ly) it made us produce more wheat at
well only as he must. An;} happy are you high prices instead of more tissues at
if, through keener energy or more trouble- low prices. In America it makes you
some conscience in production, you hav(' produce more cloth and more iron at
no similar suffering in America. high priccs instead of more cereals and
If protection could be equally distrib- more cotton at low prices. And your con-
uted all around, then it would be fair as tent ion is that by making production
between class and class. nut it cannot thus costly you make wages high. To
possibly be tIms distributed in any this question let us pass onward; yet not
country until we ha\'e discovered a without leaving behind us certain results
country which will not find. its interest which I think you will find it hard to at-
in exporting some commodity or other. tack, unless it be in flank and rear. Such
For the price of that commodity at home as these: First, that extra price imposed
must be determined by its price in foreign on class A for the bcnefit of class B, with-
or unprotected markets, and therefore, out compensation, is robbery, and robbery
even if protective duties are inscribed on not rendered (in the abstract) more re-
the statute - book at home, their effect spectable because the state is the culprit.
must remain absolutely null, so far as Secondly, that protection means dear
this particular article is eoncerned. It production, and dear production means,
is beyond human wit and power to secure pro tanto, national impoverishment.
to the cotton-grower, or to the grower of But the yiew of the genuine protec-
wheat or maize in the rnited States, the tionist is the direct opposite of all this.
tf-nth part of a cent per bale or per bushel I understand his contention to be that
beyond what the price in the markets of protection is (as I should say freedom is)
export will allow to him. If, under these a mine of wealth; that a greater aggre-
circumstances, he is required to pay to gate profit results from what you would
the iron-master of Pennsylvania, or to call keeping labor and capital at hOIlW
the manufacturer at Lo\\:ell, an e-xtra than from letting them seek employment
price on hi" implements or on his doth- wh/'rever in the whole world they can find
ing, for which he can receive no compensa- it most economically. But if this really
tion whateYer, such extra price is at first is so, if there be this inborn fertility
sight much like robbery perpetrated by in the principle itself, why are the severdl
law. States of the Union prpcluded fmm ap-
If such be the ugly physiognomy pre- plying it within their own respective
sented, at the present stage of our in- Lorders? If the aggregate would be made
quiry, by this ancient and hoary-headed riclJer by this internal application of pro-
wizard in relation to the claim for equal tection to the parts, why is it not so ap-
dpaling between class and class, the pre- plied? On the other hand, if the country
snmptiye case is not a whit better in re- as a whole would by this device be mad/'
gard to th(> aggregate wealth of the na- not richer, but poorer, through the inter-
tion. \Vealth is accumulation; and the ference with the natural laws of produc-
aggregate of that accumulation depends tion, then how is it that by similar inter-
4-17

FREE TRADE

ferenee the aggr
gate of the States. the trade. do not think the argum('nt
great commonwealth of America, can be would be unfair. It really is the logicai
made, in its general balance-sheet, not corollary of all your utterances on the
poorer, but richer? high wages which (as you belipve) pro-
What is the value of this argument teet ion gin's in _\merica, and on the low
3bout keeping capital at home, by means wages which (as you believe) our free
of protection, which, but for protection, trade, now impartially applied all round,
would find its way abroad? The conten- inflicts upon England. But I refrain from
tion seems to be this: capital which would pressing the point, because I rlo not wish
be most profitably employed abroad ought to be responsible for urging an argunlPnt
hy legal inducement to be im'eiglerl into which tpnds to drive the c:incere protec-
remaining here, in order that it may be tionist deeper and deeper into, not the
less profitably employed at home. Our mud, but (what we should call) the mire.
object ought to be. not to pursue those But n<>w I suppose the answer might
industries in which the return is the be that the case which I have put is an
largest when compared with the outlay, e),.treme case; and that arguments are not
but to detain in this country the largest well judged by their extremes. In some
quantity of capital that we can. Kow, mattHs, for instance in moral matters,
here) really must pursue the argument wlwre virtue often resides in a mean, this
into its hiding-places by testing it in may be so. But the laws of eeonomy.
extrpmes. If the proper object for the which we are now handling. approach
legislator is to keep and employ in his much more to the laws of arithmetic; and
country tþr greatest possible amount of ii
'our reasoning is that we ought to
capita], then the British Parliament prefer, among the fields for the im-est-
(cJ'elll]Jli gratia) ought to protect not ment of capita], what is domestic to what
only wheat but pineapples. A pincapple is profitable, it is at least for the pro-
is now sold in l
ondon for 8,
. Gd., which tectionist to show-and he never has
Itefore we imported that majestic fruit shown-why it is worth a nation's while
trom the tropics, would have sold for f
. on this account to lose 58. in the pounrl.
Why not protect the grower of pineapples hut not to lose (say) 108. or }.'.'l.
at f2 by a duty of 400 per cent.? Do I will, however, instead of }'elying on
not tell me that this is ridiculous. It is an unanswered challenge, push the war
ridiculous upon my princip]es; but upon into the enemy's eountry. I shall boldly

our princip]cs it is allowab]e, it is wise, contend tluÜ the whole of this doctrine--
it is obligatory-as wise, shall I say? as that capital
hould be tempted into an
it is to protect cotton fabrics by a duty ana of dpar production for the sake or
of 50 per cent. Xo; not as wise only, under the notion of keeping it at homf'-
but even more wise, and therefore enn is a delusion from top to bottom. It says
more obligatory. Because according to to the capitalist, Im'est (say) $1.000,-
this argument we ought to aim at the 000 in mills or factories to produce yarn
production within our own limits of those and cloth which we could obtain more
commodities which require the largest ex- cheaply from abroad-that is, be it re-
penditure of capital and lahar to rear mcmbcred, which could be producpd
them, in proportion to the quantity pro- ahroad and sent h('re at a smaller cost of
duced; and no commodity could more am- production, or, in othl'r won1s, with less
ply fulfil this condition. waste; for all e"pmùiture in produetion
If protection be, as its champions (or beyond the measure of necC'ssity-eall it
yictims) hold. in itself an economical what we may-is simple waste. To in-
good, tlwn it holds in the sphere of pro- dUfe him to do this. you promise that he
duction the ,.:an)(' p 1 ape as bplonl!s to truth shall re"pi\'e an artificial instead of a
in the sphpre of philosophy. or to yirtu(' Ilatural pr.ice; amI. in order that the fOJ"-
in the sphl'Te of morals. In this case, you eigner may not Ilri,"e him from the mar-
eannot ha,'e too much of it; so that. while ket, this artitipial price shall be sadrl]erl.
nlPre protection is economical good in em- through the oppration of an import rlut,'"'
bryo. such good find
its full develop- upon the eomppting foreign commodity;
ment only in the prohibition of foreign not in order to meet the wants of the
44

FREE TRADE

state, whieh is the sole justifying pur- reason upon the ass
mption that this is
IJose of an import duty, hut in order to efreded.
\nd I ask-indeed, by the force
cover the loss un wasteful domestic pro- of al"gument I may almust require--you
duction, and to make it yield a profit. to make an admission to me which is of
And all this in order, as is said, that the the most serious character-namely, this,
capitalist Illay be induced to keep hi8 that there is a great deal of capital un-
capital at home. But, in America, be- doubtedly kept at home by protection,
sides the jealously palisaded field of dear 110t for the purpose of dear production,
pì"Oduction, there is a vast open expanse which is partial waste, but for another
of cheap production, namely, in the whole kind of waste, which is sheer and abso-
mass (to speak roughly) of the agricult- lute and totally uncompensated. This is
ural products of the country, not to men- the waste incurred in the great work of
tion such gifts of the earth as its mineral distributing commodities. If the price of
oiJs. In raising these, the American cap i- iron or of cotton cloth is increased 50
talist will find the demand of the world J:er cent. by protection, then the capital
uneJ\.hausted, however he may' increase the required by every wholesale and every
supply. Why, then, is he to carry his l"(.tail distributer must be increased in
capital abroad when there is profitable the same proportion. The distributer is
employment for it at home! If protec- not, and cannot be, in his auxiliary and
tion is necessary to keep American capital essentially domestic work, protected by
at home, why is not the vast capital now an import duty, any more than can the
s'lstainin
your domestic agriculture, and scavenger or the chimney-sweep. The im-
raising commodities for sale at free- port duty adds to the price he pays, and,
trade prices, exported to other countries? consequently, to the circulating capital
Or, conversely, since vast capitals find an which he requires in order to carryon
unlimited field for employment in cheap pis traffic; but it adds nothing to the
domestic production without protection, rate of profit which he receives, and
it is demonstrated that protection is not nothing whatever to the employment
required in order to keep your capital which he gives. This forced increment of
at home. c'lpital sets in motion no labor, and is
Ko adversary will, I think, venture compelled to work in the uncovered field
upon answering this by saying that t]w of open trade. It has not the prima facie
profits are larger in protected than in un- apology (such as that apology may be)
protected industries. First, because the which the iron-maker or the mill-owner
best opinions seem to testify that in your may make, that he is employing Ameri-
protected trades profits are hard presse.l c:an labor which would not otherwise be
by wages-a f'.tate of things very likely employed. if the waste under a pro-
to occur, because protection, resting upon tective duty of .30 per cent. be a waste
artificia.l stimulants, tends to disturb and of 50 per cent., the waste of the extra
banish all natural adjustment. But, sec- capital required in distribution is a
olldly, there can hardly be any votary of waste of IOU per cent. on the cost of the
protection sufficiently quixotic to contend operation; for it accomplish('s absolutely
tnat waste ought to be encouraged in nothing on behalf of the community
('conomical processes, and the entire com- which would not be accomplished equally
munity taxed without fiscal necessity, in if the commodity were 50 per cent. less
order to secure to a particular order of in price; just as the postman distribut-
capitalists profits higher than those reaped ing letters at Is. performs no better
by another order-the public claim (such or other service- than the postman dis-
you hold it) of both resting upon exactly trilmting lett('rs at Ill. But of dis-
the same basis-namely, this, that they trihut('rs the name is legion; they con-
keep th('ir capitals at home. stitute the vast army of the wholesale
There is
.('t another point whidl r can- and retail tradesmen of a country, with
not pass without notice. I have not ad- all thl" wants appertaining to them. As
mitted that protection kepI's at home any C0nsumers, they ar(' taxed on all pro-
capital which would otherwise go abroad. tected commoditi('s; as the allies of pro-
nut I now, for the moment, accept and ducers in the business of distributing,
111.-2 F 44!)

FREE TRADE

the
' are fon'ed to do with more capital in a limited way, impussihle. If it be
what could be done as \H'll with less. true, the steps in the procp:::.s are. I con-
Admitting that \\ e
ee in the Cnited cei\"(', as follows: America absolutely re-
Slates a coe
istencc of high wage:;; with quires for her own use a certain number
protection, but den
ing the relation of and tonnage of vessels. Congress lays
cause amI el1"ect betwccn them. I may be such duties upon. foreign ships and ma-
asked whether I am prcpared to broaden terials that they shall not be obtainpd
tllat denial into a uni"ersal prol'osi- from abroad at less than double the price
tinn, and contend that in no ca
e can at which they are sold in the opcn
wages be raised by a system of protection. market. Therefore the American ship-
1\1y answer is this: A C'Ountry cannot builder can force his countrymen to pay
possibly raise its aggregate wage fund him any sum, not exceeding two prices,
hy protection, but must ine,'itably reduce ìor his commodity. The remaining point
it. It is a contrivance for producing dear is the di\"Ïsion of the amount behH'en the
and for selling dear, under cover of a capitalist and the workman. That is gov-
wall or fence which shuts out the cheaper elned by the general state of the labor
foreign article. or handicaps it on ad- market in the country. If the labor mar-
mission b
' the imposition of a heavy fine. kct, although open to the world. is in-
Yet I may for the moment allow it to be sufliciently supplied, then the wage-earner
possible that, in 80me particular trade may possibly. in a given case, come in for
or trades, wages may be raised (at the a share of the monopoly price of ships.
expense of the community) in consequence If the handwork be one requiring
long
of protection. There was a time when apprenticeship (so to call it), and thereby
America built ships for Great Britain- impeding the access of domestic com-
namelJ', before the
-\ merican Re,'olution. I'eti tors, this will augment his share.
:-:he now imposes heavy duties to prevent Then why not the like, some one will ask,
our building ships for her. Even my in all cases? Because the community in
own recollection goes back to the period, the given case pays the price of the
between sixt
. and seventy years ago, monopoly-that is to say. throws the price
when by far the most, and also the best to waste, and because. while a trader in
part, of the trade between us was car- a multitude of commodities may lose upon
ried in American bottoms. 1\Ir. ::\IcKay one of them, and yet may llavC a good
refers in his lptter to a period before the balance-sheet upon the whol(', h(' must not
war when flhe could compcte with British and cannot los(' upon thpm all without
lllb'"lr, but wlwn. as he informs us, your ceasing to be a trader; and a nation, with
shipwright was paid fis. a daJ', whereas respect to its aggregate of pwduction, is
now he has 14s.; which means that, as a single trader.
as the profits of capital are not supposed \Yithout. then, absolutely denying it to
to have declined, the community pays for be possible that in some isolated and e'{-
ships more than twice as much as it ceptional eas('s there nH1Y b(' a relation
used to pay, and your s1Üp-builders do betwePll protection (and all protection. so
a small tradp with a large capital, instead far as it gops. is monopoly) and high
of doing (as hefore) a lar.'
e trade with a wages. I contpnd that to refer gl'n('rall
'
(relati".'>ly) small capital. the high rate of wages in tll(' Lllitp(1
I wiJJ not now stop to dilate on my ad- States to this cau!>e would bt' nothing" l('ss
miration for the r('sources of a com- than pr('po..terous. And on this part of
1Ilunity which can b('ar to indulge in thp"e the cas(' J dpsire to propound wlmt ap-
impoverishing proc('
s('s;. nor p"en to ask }'(.ars to me to h(' in the nature of a
whether the shipwright in the small trade (
il('mma. with som(' curìo..ity to know
has the same eon
tancy of wage as 11(' had 110W t1\(' champions of protection would be
in the large one. or whether his large di!'-pos('d to mcpt it. Let me assume, for
Teceipt is count en-ailed hy his large out- ti\(' purpose of trying th(' issu('. that onp-
lay on the nece
!':arips and ('omfort.. of 11.llf of the salable products of the Cnit('d
life. Hut J wiJJ look simply to the qu('s- :-:tat('s are agricultural anrl one-half manu-
tion wh('th('r protection in this case rai"es factured. and that the manufactured
wages. I do not undcrtake to say it is, moiety are co\"('red hy protection. while
450

FREE TRADE

the agricultural half, sincc they arc Honal adnmtages which as a country Ute
articles of large export, bear only such l'nited ::;tate8 enjoy; which enable them
a price as is d::ösigned to them by foreign to bear the process of depletion that,
competition in the markets where they are through the systcm of protection, it is
sold. I take t.his rough estimate for the their pleasure to undergo, and which for
sake of simplicity, and in the same view them cause the question to be one not of
I overlook the fact that the sugar which a bsolute retrogression, but only of ham-
you grow is still covered, as it used to be pered and retarded progress.
covered, by an operative protection. One- I hold that dear production, even if
half, then, of American labor enjoys pro- compensated to the producer by high
tective wages; the other half of the prod- price, is a wasteful and exhausting proc-
ucts of the Unitcd States is furnished by e88. I may still be asked for a detailed
mere "free-trade toilers." Now, I want an
wer to the question, "How, then, is it
to ask whether the wages of the agricult- that America, wl
ich, as you say, makes
ural half are raised by the existence of enormous waste by proteetion, neverthe-
protective laws which cover the artisan less outstrips all other countries in the
half. This you cannot posdbly affirm, be- rapid accumulation of her wealth?" To
cause it is an elementary fE.ct that (given which my general answer is that the case
the quantity of labor in the market) they is like that of an individual who, with
are governed by the prices of the eom- wasteful expenditure, has a vast fortune,
moditips they produce, and that those Ruch as to leave him a large excess of re-
prices are free-trade prices. You have ceipts. nut for his waste that excess
.: free-trade toilers" all over your country, would be larger still.
and by their side you have protected arti- I will, then, proceed to set forth some
sans. I ask, then, ne
t, this question: Is of the causes which, by giving exceptional
the l'emuneration of the "free-trade toil- energy and exceptional opportunity to the
('rs," all thing;:; taken into account, equiva- work of production in America, seem to
lent to that of the protected artisans? allow (in homely phrase) of her making
If it is not, why do not the agricultural ducks and drakes of a large portion of
men pa:ss over into the provinces of de- what ought to be hcr accumulations, and
mand for manufacturing and mining yet, by virtue of the remainder of them, to
labor, and, by augmenting the supply, re- astonish the world.
duce and pqualize the rate? \Vhich is 1. Let me obs(,rYe. first, that America
like asking, How comes it that a man is produces an enormous mass of cotton.
content with one loaf when two are offered ('('reals, meat, oils, and other commodities:
him? The answer would be, He is not which are sold in the un sheltered market
content; whenever he can, he takes the of the world at such prices as it will
two and leaves the one. It follows that yield. The producers are fined for tllP
in this case there exists no excess of wage benefit of the protected interests, and re-
for him to appropriate. The loaf, mean- ceive nothing in return: but they obtain
ing by the loaf not a mere !1loney rate, but for their country, as well as for the world.
that money rate together with all its in- the wllOle advantage of a vast naturai
cidpnts of all kinds, is equal as between trade-that is to say, a trade in which
the protected and the unprotected laborer. produf'tion is canif'd on at a minimum
The proportions of the two kinds of lahor cost in ca.pital and labor as compared
are govel'ned in the long run (and perhaps with what the rest of the world can do.
in AnH'rica more certainly and rapidly 2. America im itf's anù obtains in are.
than anywherE' else) by the ad\'antages at- markable degref' from all the worM one
taehing to Pach rpspectively. In other of the great elements of pro<1uction, with-
words, the frf'e-trade wages are as good out ta'\. of any kind-namely, capital.
as thp protected wages; and (apart from 3. While securing to the capitalist pro-
small and exceptional case,,) the idea that clucer a monopoly in tlw protected trades,
protection raises the rate of wages on any Fohe allows all the world to do its best.
large scale or in any open field is an by a free immigration, to prevent or qual-
illusion. ify any corresponding monopoly in the
But I proceed to consider the vast excep- class of workmen.
451

FREE TRADE

4. She draws upon a Lank of natural her fe('t. 1-0 that the most timic} among
rehourc('s sO vast that it easily bears us Jl('ecl not now to greatly dn'ad Iwr con'-
those dpduetionð of improvidence which petition in the international trade of the
bimply prevent the results from being world.
vabter still. Again, the international position of
Let me now mention some at least among America may, in a certain light, be illus-
those elements of the unrivalled national trated by comparing together the economi-
strength oJ America which explain to us cal conditions under which coal has been
wl\y she is not ruined by the hu
e wastp produced in the difrerent districts of this
of the protective system. And first of i!;land. The royalty upon ('0 a I represcnts
these I place the immense extent amI vast- that surplus o\"er and above cstimated
ness of her territory, which make her not trading profit from a mine which the
so much a country as in herself a world, lessee can afford to pay the landlord. In
and not a very little world. She carries England. generall,v, royalties have varied
on the business of domestic exchangeq from about fill. a ton to Hel. in a few cases;
en a scale such as mankind has never scarcely ev!'r higher. But in Stafford-
seen. Of all the staple products of human shire, o\\-ing to the existence of a }"('nHuk-
industry and care, how few are there able coal-measure, called the lO-yard coal,
which, in one or another of her countless and to the pr('sence of iron
tone alum-
regions, the soil of America would refuse dant1y intcrstratified with the coal. the
to :yielù. Xo other country has the same royalty has often amounted to no 1('55 than
diversity, the same free choice of indus- 3s. This e),.cess has a real analogy to t}w
trial pursuit, the same option to lay hold surplus bounty of ::\Iotller Earth in Amer-
110t on the good merely, hut on the best. ica. And when I see l\('r ahating somewhat
Historically, all international trade llas of her vast advantages tln'ough the trick
had its broadest basis in the interchange> of protection, I am reminded of the curious
between tropical or southern commodities fact that (as it happens) this unusual
and those of the temperate or northprn abundance of the mineral made the get-
zune. And even this kind of exchange ting of it in Staffordshire singularly
America possesses on a considerable scale wasteful, and that fractions, and no small
within her own ample borders. fractions, of the lO-yard coal are now ir-
Apart from this wide variety, I sup- recoverably buried in the earth. like the
pose there is no other country of the tribute which America has-and has, as it
\' hole earth in which, if we combine to- scems. contentedly-heen paJ'ing to her
gdher the surface and that which is below protected interests.
the surface, Kature has been so bountiful In most of the elements of cheapnt'
5,
to man. The mineral resources of our America wholly surpasses us; as, for ex-
own Britannic Isle ha,'e, without question, ample, in the natural, indefeasible ad-
principa.J1y contributed to its commercial vantag<'!'1 she <'njoys through the Yastne
5
rre-eminence. But when we match thepl not only of the soils which produce, but
,,;ith those of America. it is Lilliput of the markets which consume, her pro-
against Hrobdingna
. I believe that your ductions. I han lately seen a p('lmy
coal-field, for example, is to ours nearly periodical, published by
Iessrs. Harp<,r.
in the proportion of thirtY-Rix to one. of Xew York, which far 8urpa::>ses all
Kow, this vast aggregate superiority of that the enterprise and skill of our pub-
purely natural wealth is simply equiva- Iishprs have been able to produce. But
)('nt to the gift, say, of a quepn in a gan w alI thpse plus quantities she works hard to
of chess, or to a start allowed in a race coll\ ('rt into minuses through the de, OUT-
llY one boy to another: with this differ- ing ag p llcy of protection.
ence: that .\merica could hold her own There are two oth<'r particulars whieh
against alI comers wittlOut t11e queen, and I llave to notice h('fore quitting this por-
that, like ht'r little Lord Fauntleroy, she tion of the subject. Eaeh of them in-
can. if she likes. run the race. and perhaps voln's a compliment-tIle one to us, tIlP
win it, upon equal terms. By protection other to yourselvps. As there is an in-
she makes a bad move, which helps us to yjdious el('H}<,nt in all seIf-prai"e. J will
make fight, and ties a heavy clog upon get rid first of what touches us. It is
452

FREE TRADE

this: Trade is, in one respect at least, ",ith one great and crying want, the
like mercy. It cannot be carried on with- scarcity of labor. So they were put upon
ûut conferring a double benefit. Again, the application of their mental powers
trade cannot be increased without increas- to labor-saving contrivances, and this
ing this benefit, and increasing it (in the want grew as fast as, or faster than, it
long run) on both sides alike. Freedom was supplied. Thus it has come about
has enormously extended our trade with that a race endued with consummate abil-
the countries of the world, and, above all ity for labor, has also become the richest
others, with the United States. It fol- of all races in instruments for dispensing
lows that they have derived immense ben- with labor. The provision of such in-
efit, that their waste has been greatly struments has become with you a stand-
repaired, their accumulations largely aug- ing tradition, and this to such a degree
mented, through British legislation. \Ve that you have taken your place as (prob-
have not on this ground any merit or ably) the most inventive nation in the
any claims whatever. We legislated for world. It is thus obvious enough that
our own advantage, and are satisfied with a remarkable faculty and habit of in-
the benefit we have received. But it is vention, which goes direct to cheapness,
a fact, and a fact of no small dimensions, helps to fill up that gap in your produc-
which, in estimating the material develop- tive results which is created by the waste-
ment of America, cannot be lost sight of. fulness of protection. The leakage in the
My second point touches the circum- national cistern is more than compen-
stances of the national infancy and sated by the efficiency of the pumps that
growth. It would be alike futile and un- supply it.
just, in pointing out the sin
ular ad- America makes no scruple, then, to
vantages over the outer world which cheapen everything in which labor is con-
:nature has given to America, not to take cerned, and she gives the capitalist the
notice of those advantages which her commanò of all invention!'; on the best
people have earned or created for them- terms she can contrive. 'Vhy? Only be-
selves. In no country, I suppose, has cause this is the road to national wealth.
there been so careful a cultivation of the Therefore, she has no mercy upon labor,
inventive faculty. And if America has but displaces it right and left. Yet,
surpassed in industrial discoveries the when we (:ome to the case lvhere capital
race from which her people sprang, we do is most in question, she enables her ship-
not grudge her the honor or the gain. builders, hu iron-masters, and her mi1l-
.Americans are economists in inventions owners to charge double or semi-double
and do not let them slip. For example, prices; which, if her practice as to labor-
the reaping-machine of modern times, saving be right, must be the road to na-
r believe, was invented in Forfarshire, but tional poverty. E con'Vcrso, if she be
did not pass into any general use. StilI- right in shutting out foreign ship!'; and
born there, it disftppeared; but it was ap- goods to raise the receipts of the Ameri-
preciated and estahlisllCd in America, and can capitalist, why does she not tax
then came back amon
us as an impo1"ta- the reaping-machine and the American
tion from thence, and was at last appreci- "devil" to raise the receipts of the
ated and establishcd here. The scarcity of American laborer? Not that I recommend
labor has, in truth, supplied the great such consistency. [rpjoice in the
republic with an e!';!';ential element of flJ10malies and contradif'tions by virtue of
severe and salutary disciplinp. which the applications of science evel'Y-
The youth of America was, espeeial1y wl!ere abound through the States for the
in New England, a youth, not of luxury, bf'nefit of their populations, and, with-
but of difTicu1ty. Nature dealt somewhat out douht, thou
h more circuitously, of
sternly with your ancestors: and to their ours also, and of tIle world at large.
great adv:mtagp. Th(>y wpre rparpd in 1 have still to notice one remaining
a mould of masculine charader, and WP1"(> point. It is this: I do not doubt that
made fit to encountel', and turn to ac- production is much cheapcn(>d in
-\lIler-
count, all ,icissitudes. As t he country it'a by the absence of all kinds of cJai'Ò

opened, they were confronted everywhere legislation except that which i5 termed
453

FREE TRADE

protection; an instance alike vicious and porters of the corn law. It is of the
bigantic, but still an instance only. In tendencies of a system that I speak, which
our British legislation, the interest of operate variously, upon most men un-
tlie individual or the class still rather consciously, upon some men not at all:
largely prcvails against that of the pub- and surely that !'ystem cannot he good
He. In America, as I understand the which makes an individual, or a sct of
matter, the public obtains fun and equal individuals, live on the resources of the
justice. I take for example the case community and causes him relatively to
(\f the railroads; that vast creation, one diminish that store, which duty to llis
of almost universal good to mankind, feHow - citizens and to their equ"a,l right

now approaching to one-tenth or one- s
lould teach him by his conÜibutions to
twelfth of our entire national posses-
u
ment. The habit of mind thus en-
sions. It is believed that in unnecessary gendered is not such as altogether befits
parliamentary expenditure, and in ab- a free country or harmonizes with an in-
normal prices paid for land, tIle railways dependent character. And the more the
of this country were taxed to between s)stem of protection is discussed and con-
!50,OOO,OOO and noo,ooo,OOO sterling be- tested, the more those whom it favors are
;yolld the natural cost of their creation. drinn to struggle for its maintenance,
Thus does the spirit of protection, only the farther tllCY must insensibly deviate
shifting its form, still go ravening about hum tlle law of equal l'ights, and, per-
among us. Nothing is so common here haps, even from the tone of
enuine per-
as to receive compensation; and we get Eonal indepcndence.
it. not only for injuries, but for benefits. In speaking thns, we !ìpeak greatly
But while the
reat nation of the Union hom our own expel'ience. I have person-
rightly rejoiccs in her freedom from our
lIy lived throu
h the vari('d phases of
superstitions, why should she desire, that experience, since we be
an that bat-
create, :md worship new superstitions of tle between monopoly and freedom which
hpr own? cost us about a quarter of a century of
I am sorry to say that, a1thou
h I the nation's life. J have seen and known,
have closed the economical argument, I and ha,1 the opportunity of comparing,
have not yet done with the counts of the temper and frame of mind engen-
my indictment against protection. I have, dered first by our protf'ctionism, which
indeed, had tú ask myself whether I we uow look back upon as sen-itude, and
should be within my right in saying hard then by the commercial frepdom and equal-
things, outside the domain of political ity which we have enjoyed for the last
economy, about a system which has com- thil"Ìy or forty years. The one tended to
mended itself tú the great American state l!arden into positive selfishness; the ot}lCr
and people, although those hard things has done much to fostpr a more liberal
are, in part at least, strictly consf'quent tonf' of mind.
ullon what has been said before. Indeed, The economif'al qUf'stion which [ Ila\'e
the moral is so closely allied to the bf'en endeavoring to discuss is a ver.\' largp
('conomical ar
ument as to be inter- one. Neverthdess, it dwindles. in lll\'
twined with it rather than conscquent vicw, when it is comparca with tllC pan
-
upon it. Further, I believe the people mount question of the American future
of the L'nited States to be a people who, vie\\"('d at large. There opens before t h('
like that race from which Uley are sprung, thinking mind wlH'n this supr('me qUf'S-
love plain "peaking; and do not believe tion is propouncled a vista so transcf'nding
t)1at to suppress opinions delibf'rately and an ordinary limitation as n'quires an al-
conscientiously held would be the way to most preterhumr.n force ana <,'\pansion of
win your respect. the n](>ntal e.re in m'der to f'mhnH'f' it.
I urge, then, that an protection is Some Ulings. and somf' weig-hty thing-so
morally
s weB as economicaHy had. This are clear so far as the future admits of
i
a very different thing from saying that dearness. Tlwl'f> is a vision of tl'lTitory,
all protectionists are bad. Many of them, populat ion. po\V('r. pa!-:sin
hf'.\'OIlIl a 11 f''\-
without doubt, are good, nay, ex
('l1ent, pf>rif>nce. Thf' f'xhihition to mankind. for
a8 were in this country many of the sup- the fir8t time in hi8tory, of free jOl
tiln-
454

FREE TRADE-FREEWILL BAPTISTS

tions on a gigantic scale, is momentous, teacher to us of the Old World in rejecting
and I have enough faith in freedom. and denouncing all the miserable degrad-
enough distrust of all that is alien from ing sophistries by which the arch-enemy,
freedom, to believe that it will work ever devising more anl more subtle
powerfully for good. But together with schemes against us, seeks at one stroke
and behind these vast developments there perhaps to lower us beneath the brutes,
wiII come a corresponding opportunity of assuredly to cut us off from the hope and
social and moral intiuence to be exercised from the source of the final good? One
over the rest of the world. And the ques- thing is certain: his temptations will mul-
tion of questions for us, as trustees for tiply with his power; his responsibilities
our posterity, is, What will be the nature with his opportunities. Wi1I the seed be
of this influence? WiII it make us, the sown among the thorns? WiII worldli-
children of the senior races, who will have neBS overrun the ground and blight its
to come under its action, better or worse? flowers and its fruit? On the answers to
Not what manner of producer, but what these questions, and to such as these, it
manner of man, is the American of the wiII depend whether this new revelation
future to be? of power upon the earth is also to be a
I am, I trust, a lover of human advance- revelation of virtue; whether it shall
ment; but I know of no true progress ex- prove a blessing or a curse. :\Iay Heaven
cept upon the old lines. Our race has not avert every darker omen, and grant that
lived for nothing. Their pilgrimage the latest and largest growth of the great
thl"ough this deeply shadowed valley of Clnistian civilization shall also be the
life and death has not been an in vain. brightest and the best! See l\!oRRILL,
They have made accumulat:ons on our be- JUSTI
SMITH; PROTECTION.
ha1f. I reRent, and to the beRt of my Free-traders, COMPANY OF. 'Yhen the
power I would resist, every attempt to de- province of Pennsylnmia was granted to
prive us either in whole or in part of the \Villiam Penn, a number of settlements
benefit of those accumulations. The already existed there. A royal prodama-
American love of freedom wiII, b('yond an tion confirming the grant to Penn, and
doubt, be to some extent qualified, per- another from Penn himRe1f, were sent to
haps in some cases impaired, by the subtle these settlements by the hand of 'ViIIiam
influence of bold, aggregated by many Markham in the summer of 1GS!. In his
hands in vaster masses than have yet been }Jroclamation Penn assured the settlers
known. that they should live free under laws of
.. Aurum per medlos Ire satellites, their own making. :1\Ieanwhile adventur-
Et perrumpere amat saxa, potentius ers calling themselves the Company of
letu fulmineo." }'ree-tI-adprs made a contract with the
But, to rise higher still, how will the proprietor for the purchase of lands at
majestic figure, about to become the larg- the rate of about $10 the 100 acres, sub.
eRt and most powerful on the stage of the jpet to a perpetual quit-rent of Is. for
world's history, make use of his power? {'\'ery 100-acre grant; the purchasers also
WiII it be instinct with moral life in pro- to have lots in a city to be laid out. Three
portion to its material strength? 'Vill \{'"sels filled with these emigrants soon
he uphold and propagate the Christian sailed for the Delaware, with three com-
tradition with that surpassing energy mi8sioners. who bore a plan of the city,
which marks him in an the ordinary pur- and a friendly letter from renn to the
suits of life? 'ViII he maintain with a Indians, whom he addre:-.s('d as brethren.
high hand an unfaltering reverence for Freewill Baptists, a division of Bap-
that law of nature which is anterior to tJsts founded by Benjamin Randall in
the Gospel, and supplies the standard to K(.w Durham. K n.. in 1780. They g.'ad-
which it appeals. the very foundation on ually e\.tendf'd h('yond New England into
which it is built up? 'Vill he fully know, the \Vest, but made no admnce in the
and fully act upon the knowledge, that South. owing to their strong anti-slavery
hoth re\'erence and strict(JesR arf' essen- opinions. The doctrinf' and practicf' of
tial conditions of all high ami dp:-;irahle Ole Frp('will Baptists are emhodied in a
well-being? And wiII he be a leader and Treatise written in 1832. The chapters,
455

FRELINGHUYSEN

twenty-one in all, declare that man can
be rescued from his faUen state and made
a child of God by redemption and regen-
eration, which have been freely provided.
The "call of the Gospel is co-extensive
with the atonement, to all men," so that
salvation is .. equally possible to all."
The "truly regenerate" are "through in-
firmity allJ manifold temptations, in
danger of falling," and "ought therefore
to watch and pray lest they make ship-
wreck of faith." They practise immer-
sion, and hold that every Christian, what-
ever his belief regarding the mode of bap-
tism, is eligible to partake of the Lord's
Supper. In 1000 they reported 1,619 min-
isters, 1,486 churches, and 85.109 mem-
bers.
Frelinghuysen, FREDERICK, lawyer;
born in Somerset county, N. J., April l
,
1753; graduated at the Col1ege of X ew
Jersey in 1770. and became an emi-
nent lawyer. He was a member of the
Continental Congress much of the timp
during the Revolutionary \Var, and served

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R!" a captain in the army. Afterwards he
filled various State and county offices, and
in 1790 was appointed by \Yashington to
lEad an expedition against the wcstern
Indians, with the rank of major-general.
In 1793 he was chosen L'nit('d Htates
Senator, and served three years. He clipd
.April 13, lR04.
Frelinghuysen, FREDERICK THEODORE,
statcsman; born in Millstone,
. J., Aug.
4, ] 817; grandson of the preceding; grad-
uated at Rutgers College in 183G; be-
c.lme an eminent lawyer, and was attor-
n(:y-general of New Jersey, 18GI-GG. He
was chosen United States Senator in 18GR,
&nd wa-s re-elected for a full term in 187l.
He was a prominent member of the Repub-
lican party. In July, 1870, President
Grant appointed him minister to England,
but he declined the position. On Dec. 12,
1881, he entered the cabinet of President
Arthur as Secretary of State, on th('
resignation of Secretary Blaine, awl
sfl"ved to the end of that a<<ministration,
March 4, 1885. He died in Kewark, N.
J., May 20, 1885.
Frelinghuysen,
TIIFODORE, law-
yer; born in Mill-
stone, K. .1., :\larch
28, 1787; son of
Gen. Frederick
Frelinghuysen;
gr
duated a.t
the College of
K ew .J ersey in
] 80.1. and was ad-
mitted to the bar
in lROS. In the
War of 18]2-13
he commanded n
company of \"olul1-
t('prs. and in ]Rli
became attorney-
general of Ken'
Jersey, which
post h(' held until
18:W, when he was
elected L' nit('o
States Senator. In
1838 he waR
chos('n chancellor
of tll(> L'"ni\"Cl"sity
of Xew York, and
madp hi'i rf'
i(lpm'I'
in that city j 1111,1

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in 1844 he was nominated for Vice-Presi-
dent of the United States, with Henry Clay
for President. Mr. Frelinghuysen left the
University of New York in 1830 to be-
came president of RUTGERS COLLEGE (q.
v.), in his native State, which place he
held until his death in New Brunswick,
N. .J., April 12, 18G2.

FRÉ:MONT

Fremin, JACQUES. See JESUIT
hSSIONS.
Frémont, .TESSIE BENTON, author; born
in \
irginia in 1
i4; was the daughter of
Senator Thomas H. Benton, of Missouri;
married John C. Frémont in 1841. She
puhli!'llPd The Rtory of the Guard: .1Je-
moir of Thoma."I H. Bpnton; SOlt'/H'nirs of
My Time; A. Year of American Travel; etc.

FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES

Frémont, JOliN CHARLES, explorer;
born in Savannah, Ga., Jan. 21, 1813;
graduated at Charleston College in 1830.
His father was a Frenchman, and his
mother a Virginian. He was instruc-
tor in mathematics in the United States
navy from 1833 to 1835. Engaged in
surveying the Cherokee country in the
winter of 1837-38, he began his famous
explorations, first in the country between
the :Missouri River and the British pos-
sessions. He had been appointed second
lieutenant of topographical engineers in
July. In 18H he married a daughter of
Senator Thomas H. Benton, and in
IaJ",
1842, he began, under the authority of
the government, the exploration of an
overland route to the Pacific Ocean. He
ascended the highest peak of the Wind
River Mountains, which was afterwards
named Frémont's Peak. He explored
the Great Salt Lake region in 1843, and
penetrated to the Pacific near the mouth
of the Columbia River. In 1845 he ex-
plored the Sierra Nevada in California,
and in 18-tG became involved in hostilities
with the Mexicans on the Pacific coast. through the intrigues of amhitiou::, poli-
He assisted in the conquest of California; ticians, was removed from the com-
was appointed its military governor; and, mand in the course of six months, while
after its admission as a State, became successfully prosecuting a campaign he
Gne of its first United States Senators. had planned. He was in command of an-
He continued his e
plorations after the other department. but rcsigned in 1862,
war. For his scientific researches, Fré- declining to serve under an offieer in-
mont received, in 1850, a gold medal from fHior to him in rank. Radical Repub-
the King of Prussia. and another from the lieans nominated him for the Presidency
Hoyal Geographical Society of London. in 1864, after which he took lea\Te of
He had already received from his country- political life; but he became active in
men the significant title of "The Path- promoting the construction of a trans-
findt'r." At his own expense he made a ('untinental raIlway. He died in New
fifth exploration, in 1853, and found a York, July 13, 18!)O.
)WW l"Outp to tlIP Paf'ific. Tn 18.JG, thf' In the spring- of 1845 Captain FrÍ'mont
Iwwly forlllpli Republican party nmlli- was
('nt by his governlllf'nt to e""lorf'
nated him for the Presidency of the Unite(l thf' g-rpat hasin and the maritime rf'::ion
8tatce. and
e received 114' electoral vote!'! of Oregon and California. He crofJ8('d tlu'
467

ag-ainst 174 given for Buchanan. Return-
ing from Europe in May, 1861, and be-
ing a ppoillted a major-general in the
United States army, he was assigned to
command the \Vestern Depal.tment; but,

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CHARLJ;;S FRÉMO
T.

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

icrra Xemda. in the dead of winter, from on Feb. 8, 18.!7, assuming that office him-
Great t:alt Lake into California, with self, he declared the anne\.ation of Ca)j-
between sixty and seventy men, to obtain fornia to the Cnited States. Fr(>mont re-
supp1iC's. Leaving them in the ntlley of fuscd to obey Gcneral Kearm' his
the San Joaquin, he went to :Monterey, supC'rior officcr: who s('nt him to' \Vash-
then the capital of the province of Cali- in
ton undpr arrest, where he was tried
fornia, to ohtain perlnission from the )Icx- h.y a court-martial. which !,;pntencpd him
ican authoritics to continue his cxplora- to be disrniss('d from tlw )o\(')"\'ice, but
tions. It was gin'n. but was almost r('cornrncmled him to tIw cl(,lIlt'ncy of the
immediately withd1'awn. and he was per- President. The penalty wa
remitt('d,
emptorily order<,d to leave thc country and in October, 1848, FrÍ'mont pntered
without delay. He refused, when General upon his fourth exploration among the far
dc Castro, the )Iexican governor, mus- western mountains. See KEARXY. :';TEPlIE:-i
tered the forces of the province to expel "'ATTS; STOCKTO:'i, ROBERT FIELD.
him. At length he was permitted to go Fr('mont was in Europe w}u'n the Civil
on with his exploration:i without hin- \"-ar brokp out, and, IpavinO' on receivinO'
derance. On )Iay D, 184G, he receind de- notice of his appointment '"'to the arm;:
spatches from his government, directing he returned home, hringing with llim
him to watch the movcments of the )Iexi- arms for the go,'ernment. He arrind
cans in Cali fornia, who seemed disposed in Boston on ,June 27, and July G he was
to hand the province over to the British f1ppointed to the command of the "'estern
government. It was also rumoreð that ])epartment, just creatNI. He arriveù at
General de Castro intended to destroy all St. Louis .Tuly 2fi, where he made his
the American settlements on the Sacra- Ilf'adquartf'rs. U(' found disorder e,'en'-
menta River. Fr('mont hurri<,d back to where. The terms of enli"tment of hOl;1e
California. and found Dc Castro on the guards, or three-months' men. were ex-
march against the !'Iettlpmf'nts. The pi ring, a III I th<,y were unwilling to re-
scttle1's flew to anns. and joined Fré- enlist. He had very little mon('y or arlllS
mont's camp. and, under his leadership, at his disposal. anù was unahle to send
these settlements were not only saved, but aid to General Lyon, in the southwestern
the :Mexican authorities were dri,'en out portion of the Stat(', battling with tIle
of California. Fr('mont and his followers Confederates. He resolved to as
ullle
met General de Castro and his forces, grave responsibilities. He applied to the
strong in numbers, when .Frémont retired l'T1ited :';tates Treasurer at St. Louis for
about 30 miles, to a mountain position, a portion of $;WO,OOO in his hands, hut
where he called around him the American was refused. H(' was about to seize
settl('rs in that rpgion. "ïth thesp hc $100.000 of it when the ofIicer vif'lded;
captured a )Texican post at Sonoma Pas<; and, with the mone,', Fr('ll1ont sPc;lred the
(.Iune I;'). 184G), with nine cannon and re-enlistment of ma"u y of the home guard!'.
2,")0 muskets. Dc Castro was routed, and Pc strongly fortifipcl
t. Louis, and pre-
on .July 5 the Amerimns in California pared to place the important post at
declared themselves independent. and Cairo in a position of ah",olute secllrih'.
('Iected Frémollt go"ernor of the pro,'ince. "ïth nearly 4.000 tmops on steamers. ile
He then proceeded to join the
\meriean pToc('('ded to CRiro with such a display
naval forces at )lonterey. umler Commo- that the impression was general that he
dore Stockton, who had lat('ly arrÏ\'ed, had 12,000.
\lthollgh large bodi('s of
with authority from \\'ashington to con- Confederate troops in K('ntuch.y and )Tis-
quer California. Frémont appeared th('re !'Iouri were gathered for tIle purpose of
with HiO mounted riflemen. On Aug. Ii. seizing Cairo amI Bin!"s Point, Fr('mont
1R4G, Stockton and Fr('mont took posses- was not molpsÌt.d in his mi

ion, and
!'lion of the citv of I,os .-\n"eles: :1Il11 at ]>renti)o\s. at thp forl\wr place. WRS Rlllpl.v
that plaee Gcn
ral Kearny.
dlO lweI jU!o.t strpnl!t1wnPII. Pillow a 1111 Tholll)l
on a 1111
taken posses...ion of XI'\\'
Tl'
i('o, joinf'll Hardee. who had ad\":\J\('I'd in that di-
Stockton :\1111 1.'r('mont. Dpc. :!i. lH-tli. rpetion. fpll back. and },('eamp '"(,IT dis-
},"parny would nut sanetion the pl('("tion of ("I ect. Fr('mont r('t unwcl to :-;1. Louis on
:Fr{>mont as governor of California, and .Aug. 4, haYing accompli<;lwd his "ishe'i
458

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

and spread alanll among the Confederates. 5.000 troops immediately to \Vashington,
Polk, at
lemphis, ordered Pillow to D. C., notwithstanding McClellan num-
c,'acuate N(>w Madrid, with his men and bered 75,000 within easy caU of the
}lCavy gun!;, and hasten to Randolph and capita.1. }'rémont's force, never exceeding
Fort Pillow, on the Tennessee shore. 56,000, was scattered over his department.
When news of the battle at \Vilson's Chafing under unjust complaints, he pro-
('reek, and the death of Lyon, reached St. ('ceded to put into execution his plan of
Louis, the Confederates were jubilant. ridding the Mi!'sissippi Yalley of Confcd-
Frémont immediately proclaimed martial erates. His plan contemplated the capt-
law, and appointed a provost-marshal. ure or di
per8ion of troops under General
Some of the most active Confederates were Price in Missouri, and the seizure of Lit-
arrested, and the publication of news- tie Rock, Ark. Dy so doing, he expected
papers charged with disloyalty was sus- to turn the position of Pillow and others
p('nded. But the condition of public af- in the vicinity of Sew 1Iadrid, cut off the
fairs in :Missouri was becoming more and supplies f!"Om the southwest, and compel
more alarming. The provisional govern- them to retreat, at which time a flotilla
ment was almost powerless. Frémont of gunboats, then building near S1. Louis,
took all authority into his own hands. might descend the 1Iississippi, and assist
Confederates we,'e arrested and impris- in military operations against the bat-
soned, and disloyalty of every kind felt tf'ries at 11emphis. In the event of this
the force of his power. He proclaimed movement being suceessful, he proposed
that the property, Hal and personal, of to push on towards the Gulf of Mexico
all persons in 1Iissouri who should be with his army, and take possession of Sew
IHoven to han taken an acti,ye part with Orleans. :l\Jore than 20,000 soldiers wen>
the enemies of the government in the
et in motion (Sept. 27, 1861) southward
field should he confiscated to the public (5.000 of thpm ca.valry), under the re-
use, and their slaves, if they had any, spective commands of Gen(>rals Hunter,
f\hould thereafter be free men (see Pope, Sigel, 1lcKinstry, and Asboth, ac-
K\lAXClrATIO
PRO(,LA
IATIO
S). As he companied by eighty - six heavy guns.
af'ted promptly in accordance with his These wpre lflO\-in a southward e
U"lv in
proclamation, g,'eat consternation began Od,oher; and on th
lIth, when his
nnv
to prevail. At that moment his hand was was 30.000 strong, he wrote to the go
-
stayed. Becau!'f' of his avowed deter- crnment: U My plan is, Kew Orleans
mination to confiscate th
property and straight; I would precipitate the war
free thp sla \'('s of the disloyalists, a fOl ward. and cnd it soon \"Ìctoriously."
storm of indignation suddenly arose in He was marching with confidence of s
H'-
the honlpr stave
tat('s, which alarmed cess, and his troops were winning little
the national government, and the PI'esi- victories hcre and there, when, through
dent, wishing- to placate the rebellious the inthwnce of men jealous of him and
spirit of those States, reque"ted Frémont his political enemies. Frí'mont's career
to modify his proclamation on these was suddenly checked. Fal.-e accusers,
points. He df'c1ined to do so, when the public and pri,'ate, causf'd (jf'nf'rat Sf'OU
President, at Frl'mont"" request, issued to send ml order for him to turn over his
an order for such a modification. Fré- command to Genf'ral Hunter, then some
mont could not, for it would impt
. that distance in the rear. Hunter arrind just
he thought the measure wrong. which he as the troops \\"(>re about to attack PrÌ('p.
did not. He took the command. and countermandf'd
Frémont was censured for his failure Frémont's onlprs for h:ÜtIe; and ninf'
to reinforce Colonel Mulligan at Lexing- days afterwards nen. H. \V. Hal1eck was
ton. The puhlic knew very littlp of hi3 placf'd in f'ommand of HI(' Departnlf'nt of
embarrassnlf'uts at tlmt time. Pressing Missouri. T}J(' disappointf'd and disheart-
demands came for reinforcements from pned anllY were turned hack. and marched
General Grant at Paducah. At \'ariou
tu St. Louis in sullpn saduf'ss. Soon af-
points in his df'}>artll1ent wel'e heard crips tl'rwanls an f'lf'gant sword was presPJltf'1Ì
for lwlp. and a peremptory ordel' C!UII(' to Frpmont, inscribed. .. To the Path-
from General Scott for him to forward finder, by the Men of the "-est."
450

FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES

of granite. Winding our way up a long
ravine, we came une
pectedJy in ,'iew of a
most beautiful lake, set like a gem in the
mountains. The
hcct of watcr lay trans-
verseI
' aC1"OhS the directiun \\e had hpf'n
pursuin
; anù. dl'!-.
('nding th('
tel'p. ro('ky
ridge, \\ her(' it was nl'cl'!<sary to lead ollr
hors('s, "e followed its hanks to thp bouth-
ern ('),.tremity. Here a view of the utmost
magnificence anù grandeur burst upon our
A.ugust 10.-The air at sunrise is dear ('yes. \Yith nothing hct\\een us and their
and pure, and the morning extremely cold, feet to l('sscn the efT('ct of the whole height,
tut beautiful. A loft
. snow-peak of the a grand bed of snow-eappcd mountains
mountain is glittering in the first ra
's of rose before us. pile upon pile. glowing in
the sun, which has not yet reached us. the bright light of an August day. Imme-
The long mountain wall to the east, diately below them lay the lake, between
rising 2,000 feet abruptly from the two ridges, covered with dark pines, which
plain, behind which "c see the peaks, is sw('pt down from the main chain to the
still dark, and cuts cIear against the glow-
pot where we stood. Here, where the
ing sky. A fOf!. just risen from the river, lake glittered in the open sunlight. its
lies along the hase of the mountain. A hanks of
'cllow sanù and the light foliage
little bdore sum'ise, the thermometer was (If asp('n groves contrasted wI'll with the
at 3.3 0 , and at sunrise 33 0 . \Yater froze f!loomy pines. "Xenr hefore," said
Ir.
last night, and fires are v('ry comfortable. Preu
s. .. in this country or in Europe.
The scenery becomes hourly mOI'e interest- have I seen such magnificpnt. gnllld
ing and grand, and thc view here is tnll
' rock
." I was so mueh pl('ased \\ ith the
magnificent; but, indeed. it needs some- heauty of the place that I dpt('rminpd to
thing to repay the long prairie journey make the main camp h('re. where our ani-
of 1,000 miles. The sun has just Rhot mals would find good pasturage, and ex-
above the wall, amI makp
a magical plore the mountain
with a Rma]] party of
change. The whole valley is glowing and mcn. Proceeding a little further, we came
hright, and all the mountain-peaks are f.uddenly upon the outlet of the lake,
gleaming like sih-er. Though these snow- where it found its" ay through a narrow
mountains are not the Alps, they have passage between low hiIIs. Dark pin('s.
their own charader of g-ramleur and mag- which oyerhung the stream, and masses of
nificencp, and wiII doubt1e
s find pens and rock, where the \\"at('r foamed along, ga,'e
pencils to do them justice. In the sepne it much romantic beauty. "'here wp
before us, we feel how much wood im- crossed. which was immediatplv at thc
proves a view. The pines on the moun- outlet, it is two hundred and 'fifty fect
tain seemed to gi,-e it much additional wide, and so d('('p that with diflicuIty wp
heaut
.. I was agrceably disappointed in were ahle to ford it. Its hed was an HC-
thc character of UIC streams on this side cumulation of rocks, hou1c 1 (:rs. and hro:ul
the ridge. Instead of the creeks, which slabs, ami large angular fragulPnts, amon

dpseription l\ad led me to e),.pect, I find whieh the animals feH repeat('d'
T.
hold, bl'oad streams, with thr('c or four The cUlT('nt was yerv swift. and thp wa-
feet of water, and a rapiù ('unent. The ter cold and of a eryst;Ll purity. In cro
s-
fork on which we are eneamped is up- ing this stream, I met ,,,ith a great mi!-.-
ward of 100 feet wide. timherpd with f(trtunc in haying my barometer hrok('n.
gl'oves or thickets of the low wiIlow. 'Ye It was the only one. A g-rpat part of
WNe now approaching the loft iest pa rt the interest of the journey for me was in
of the Wind Rin>r chain; anll I Ipft the the p\.ploration of thpse mountains, of
vaHey a fpw milPR from our encampment, whi('h so much 11:111 hppn said that was
intending to pem.tratp tlH' mOllntaim'l. as douhtful and contradictory; and now
far as possihle. with the wholp party. \\'p thpir snowy pp:lks rllsP majpsti('aHy h('
were soon invol\('d in vpry hrokpn ground. fore me. and the onl.v mpans of giying
Among long ridgea em e1"f'd with fragmen bi tlu'm ill\tJlI'lIt it':d I)' to Þ;(:i"IIC'('. Ow ohjl'C.t
4no

Ascent of p,.émont's Pcak.-In the Jour-
nal of his first ðpedition (1842), Fré-
mont gÏ\'es a modest yet thriUing account
of the ascent of the highest peak of the
Rocky Mountains find of the planting of
"OId Glory" on the e),.freme summit.
The altitude of this peak is ginn hy Prof.
F. 'T. Hayden as 13,ï!JO feet. The Journal
reads as foIIows:

FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES

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;po." 1I!P.t",.::.

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. 6 " { J;j_
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'

t:
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t, I .....,1-
,>á1fi

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,
(,. ,Ii'.

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( -!;
.-"
. iI-'

't..

II.

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-"':...

."It"

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;(:
. "'
,-

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...\:... . ..r

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; ".;
:c. .'
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f' " t
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t i' II.'
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.;.'

ROCKY MOl'NTAIN
C
;

;ltY,

oi my anxious solicitude hy night and disputes. Their grief was only inferior
day, was destroyed. \Ve had brought this to my own.
barometer in safety 1,000 miles, and This lake is about 3 miles long and
bl'oke it almost among the snow of the ot very inegular width and apparently
nu.untaÏl..J. The loss was fpIt by the great depth, and is the hl'ad - water of
"
101e camp. All had seen my anxiety, the third K ew Fork, a tributary to Green
and aided me in presen-ing it. The River, the Colorado of the \Yest. On the
Þeight of these mountains. considpl'ed hy map and in the narrati\'e J have called
the huntpl's and traders the higllPst in it ::\Tountain J
ake. J encamped on the
the whole
ange, had been a theme of nm.th side, about 3!)O yards from the out-
constant discu<;sion among tlll"m; and al1 1('1. This was tlw most w('stern point at
had looked forward with pleasure to the which I obtained astronomical obser-
moment when the instrument, which they vations, by which this place, called Ber-
Jwlieved to be as true as the sun, should nier's encampment, is made in 1l0o 08'
stand upon the summits and decide their O
" \V. Jong. from Greenwich, and Jat.
4fil

FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES

-1
O -!!I' -!!I". Tlu' mountain peah
. as
b wil1 hl' !<l'cn. on n,ren'nl'e to a mal',
laid do\\n. wpre 'heel hv Lwarinn-s from llU thi

hl)n IlIl1UtlÍaiu dHlin are the
this and other astronolllil'al puint
. "'f' Ill'ad - \\ah'r
of four great riH'rs of the
had no other ('umpa:-;
than the slIIall one:-; ('ontinl'nt.-IJaIlll'ly. the Colorado, ('olulII-
w,ed in
k('tl'hing the country; hut frolll Ilia, l\li,.;:-;ouri, :Uill Platte Hi\"Cn;. It had
an azillluth. in which onc of them wali IIl'('n illY dl'sign, aftcr having asccnded the
used. the variation of the compas
is H
o mountains, to continue our route on the
E. The correction made in our field work western side of the range, and, crossing
by UIC astronomical ob::õenations indi- through a pasi'> at the northwestern end
eates that this is a vcr)' correct ohserva- of the chain, about 30 mil('s from our
tion. present camp, return along the eastern
As soon as the eamp was formed, I set slope across the heads of the Yel1owstone
aLout endeavoring to repair my barometer. River. and join on tlle line to OUI' sta.tion
As I have already !'laid, this was a stand- of August 7, immediately at the foot of
ard cistern bal"Ometer, of Troughton's con- the ridge. In this way. I I"hould be en-
struetion. The glass ci
terll had been abled to include the whole chain and its
broken ahout midwa)-; but, as the instru- numerou!', waters in my sun'cy; but \"ari-
ment had been kept in a proper position, ous consideration,;; imhlf'f'd me, vcry re-
no air had found its way into the tube, ludantl.v, to abandon this plan.
the end of which had always remained co\"- I was dpsirom; to kel'p "triC'tl." within
ered. I had with me a number of phials the scope of my instnlctions; and it would
of tolerahly thick glass, some of whieh have relluil'ed ten or tiftC'en additional
wpre of the same diameter as the cistern, days for the accomp1ishnwnt of this ob-
and I spent 1111' day in slowly working ject. Our animals had bl'l'ome very much
on these. endeavoring to ent them of the worn out with the }('ngth of tilt' journey;
requisite length; but, as my instrument game was very b('arce; and, though it
was a very rongh file, I inval'iably broke does not appear in the course of the narra.-
them. A groove was cut in one of the tive (as I have avoided dwelling upon
trees, where the barometer was placed trifling incidents not C'Onnpctpd with the
during the night. to he out of the wav of objects of the ðpedition), the !';pirits of
any pos
ihle danger; and in the mor
ing the men had IJPC'n mnch exhau!'lted hy the
I commeneed again. Among the powder- hard
hips and privations to which they
horns in the camp, I found one which was had heen !';ul)jC'eted. Our prm'isions had
vcry tmnsparent. so that its contents wC'I1nigh all disappC'ared. Br('ad had
could be al\llost as plainly seen as through bef'n long out of the quel"tion; and of al1
glass, This I boiled amI stretched on cur stock we IJad remaining two or thrC'c
a pi('ce of woot] to the requisite diampter, pounds of COITp(> fllld a I';mal1 quantity of
and scraped it very thin, in order to in- macaroni. which had l)('en hushanded with
crease to the utmost its transparency. I great care for the mountain expedition
then secured it firmly in its place on the we were ahout to und('rtake. Our daily
instrument with strong glue made from meal consistf'(l of dr
' hutfalo meat eookpd
a buffalo, and fil1ed it with mercllry prop- in tallow; amI. as we had not dried this
erly lll'ated. A pipce of skin, which had with Indian skill, part of it was spoiled.
coverC'd one of the phia.ls, furnished a good and what r('mainpd of good was as hard
pocket, which was wel1 secured with strong al'; wood. having nlllPh the ta!';te and ap-
thread amI glue; and then the hrass conr pf'arance of so many pie('ps of bark. En>n
was screwed into its place. The insb-u- of thi!'l. our stof'k was rapidl
' diminishing
ment was Ipft som(' time to dry: and. in a camp whieh was capahle of consum-
wll('n I rp\ ersed it, a few hours aftf'r. I ing two huffaloC's in p\'eQ- twenty-four
hr.d the "ati<;f:lC'tion to find it in pC'rff'cL hours. Tlwl"P animals had entirely cHsap-
order. its indi....ations heincr ahout the same pf'arp(l. and it was not prohahle tlUtt we
as on the other sidp of the lake hpfore it I"hou1d fa}} in with t}WI\l again until we
hflll been broken. Our succe!';s in this little returnC'd to tll('
weet \Yater.
ipcidpnt ditfusC'd pleasure throughout thp Our arrangements for the a!';cent wpre
camp; and we immediately I';et about our rapidly completed. \\'e were in a hostilf'
prepamtions for ascending the mountains. country, whieh rendered the greatest
4G2

FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES

vigilance and
ircumspection n<,c<,ssary. had pas
ed over, nature had
olleded alJ
The pass at the north end of the mountain her beautie-b together in one chosen place.
was generally infested b
' Blackfeet: and \\ e \\ er(' overlooking a de<,p valley, which
immediately opposite was one of their was entirely occupied b,\' three lakes, and
forts, on the erlg-(' of a little thicket, two from the brink the surroundin
ridges
or three hundred feet from our encamp- ro:;e precipitously ;,00 and 1,000 feet,
ment. \\'e were }>m,ted in a grove of covered \\ ith the ,-lark green of the
heech, on the margin of the lake, an(I a balsam pine, relieHd on the horder of
few hundred feet long, with a narrow the lake with the light foliage of the
1)1 airillon on the inner side, bordered hy aspen. They all communicated with each
the rock
' ridge. In the upper (,llfl of other; and the green of the waters,
this grove we cIear('d a circular space common to mountain lakes of great depth,
ahout 40 feet in diameter, and with showed that it would be impossible to
the felled timber and intenvO\'en cross them. The surprise manifested by
branches surrounded it with a breastwork our guides when these impassable ob-
5 feet in height. A gap was left for a stacles suddenly barred our progress
gate on the inner side, b
' which the ani- proYCd that they were among the hidden
mals were to be dri\'en in and spcured, tr('asUl'PS of the place, unknown even to
while the nlf'n :-.Iept around the little work. the wanderin
trappers of the region.
It was half hidden by the foliage, and. Descending the hill, we proceeded to make
garrisoned h,\r tweh-e resolute men, would our way along the margin to the f'outhern
have set at defiance any band of savages extremity. A nalTOW strip of angular
which might ehance to discO\'er them in fragments of rock sometimes afforded a
the inten-al of our absence. Fifteen of rough pathwa,\' for our mules; but gen-
Ule hest mules, with fourtepn men, were eraIl\' we rode along the sheh'iuO' side
selected for the mountain party. Our occa
ionall
' scrambling up. at a c;nsider

provisions eonsist('d of dried meat for two able risk of tumbling back into the lake.
days, with our little stock of coffee and The slope was frequently GOo. The
some macaroni. In addition to the pines grew densely together, and the
barometer and thermometer [ took with ground Was covered with the branches
me a sextant sp,\'-glass. and we had. of and trunks of trees. The air was fragrant
course. our eompass('s. Tn eharge of the with th
odor of the pines: and I realized
eamp I left Brenier, one of my most tru
t- this delightful morning the pleasure of
worthy men, wllO possl'ssed the most de- breathing that mountain air which makes
termined conrage. a constant theme of the hunt('r's praise,
A.ugust 1.?-Early in the morning we and which now made us feel as if we had
left the camp, fifteen in numher, well all been drinkin
some exhilarating gas.
armed, of course, and mounted on our The depths of this une"Xplored forpst wen>
b('st mules. .\ pack animal earri('d our a place to delight the heart of a botanist.
provisions. with a eoff('('-pot and kettle There wal'; a rich undergrowth of plants
awl tlll'PP or four tin <,ups. En>ry man and nun1Prouf' gay-colored tIO\\ ers in brill-
had a hlankpt straPI}('d OYer his Ruddle. innt bl.)om. \Ye reached the outlet at
to s<,ryp for his hed. and the instrunwnt" length. where some freshlJ' harked wil-
wprp carriPl1 hy turns on thpir hacks. \Ye lows that lay in the water "howed that
ent('red directly on roug'h and roeky bcayer had b('cn recently at work. There
ground. and. just
fter crossing tlw rillgp. \\ ('re some f'mall brown f'qnirrels jumping
had tlw good fortune to f'hoot an ante- al'out in the pines and a. couple of large
lope. \Ve heard the roar, and had a mallard dueks Rwinuning ahout in the
glimpsp of a watprfall as we rodl' along; st rpam.
and. erossing in our way two finp strpums. The hillf' on this southern end were
tributary to the Colorado, in uhout two low. and the lake looked like a mimic sea
hours' ridp wp rmclwd tll(> top of tllf' first
s the wayes broke on the sandJ' beach
row or range of the mountains. fIN'e. in the force of a strong breeze. Therp
again. a view of the most romantiC' heaut
. waf; a pretty open spot, with fine grass
met our eyes. Tt seemed as if. from tIle for our mules; and we made our noon
vast expanse of uninteresting prairie we halt on the beach, under the shade of
4G

FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES

some large hemloeks. \\'e resumed our
juurlle
' after a halt of about an hour,
lIIaking our \\ ay up the ridge on the
m:: stern side of the lake. J n search of
smoother ground, we rode a little inland,
and, passing through groves of aspen,
soon found ourselves again among tllP
pmes. Emerging from these, we struck
the summit of the ridge above the upper
elld of the lake.
We had reached a very elevated point;
find in the valley below and among the
l.iIls were a numher of lakes at different
le\'els, some 1\\0 or three hundred feet
abO\'e others, with wh!eh they com-
municated hy foaming torrents. Even to
our great height, the roar of the cata-
racts came up; and we could see them
leaping- down in lines of bnowy foam.
From thi8 scene of busy waters, we
turned abruptly into the stillness of a
forest, where we rode among the ol)(>n
holls of the pines OVAr a lawn of
verdant grass. IUl\"ing strikingly the air
of cultivated grounds. This led us, after
a time, among masses of rock, which
II ad no vegetable earth but in hollows
find crevices. though still the pine forest
continued. Towards evening we reached
a defile, or rather a hole in the moun-
tains, entirely shut in by dark pine-cov-
ered rocks.
A small stream, with a scarcely per-
c('ptible current. flowed through a level
bottom of perhaps 80 yards' width where
thp grass was saturated with water. Into
this the mules were turned, and were
neither hobbled nor pieketed during the
night, as the fine pasturage took away
all temptation to stray; and we made our
hh'ouac in the pines. The surrounding
masses were all of granite. \Yhile supper
\\ &S being prppared. I set out on an ex-
cursion in the neighborhood, aecompanied
1,:, one of my men. \\-e wa.ndered about
among the erag8 and ravinl"s until dark,
richly rppaid for our walk by a fine col-
I(.('tion of plants. many of them in full
bloom. A"cending a peak to find thp
place of our camp, we saw that the little
defile in whieh we lay communicated with
the long green valley of some stream,
which, here locked up in the mountain:'!,
far away to the south, found its way in
a dense forest to the plains.
Looking along its upward course,

secmed to conduct hJ' a :.mooth gradual
slope directlJ' towards the l)l'ak, \\ hich,
from long eonhultation as we upproaehed
the mountain, we had decided to be the
highest of the range. Pleased with the
discovery of so fine a road for the next
day, we hastened down to the camp,
where we arrived just in time for supper.
Our table service was rather scant; and
we held the meat in our hands, and clean
rocks made good plates on which to
spread our macaroni. Among all the
S1 range places on whieh we had occasion
to encamp during our long journey, none
have left so vivid an impression on my
mind as the camp of this evening. The
disorder of the masses which surrounded
us, the little hole through which we saw
the htars o\'erhead, the dark pines where
we slept, and the rocks lit up with the
glow of our fires made a night picture
of veQ' wild beauty.
.1ltgust 1.J.-The morning was bright
and pleasant, just cool enough to make
e',;ercise agreeable; and we soon entered
the defile I had :.een the preceding day.
It was smoothly carpeted with a soft
glaSS and scattered over with groups of
Howers, of which yellow was the pre-
dominant color. Sometimes we were
forced by an occasional difficult pass to
pick our way on a narrow ledge along
thc side of the defile, and the mules were
frequently on their knees; hut these ob-
structions were rare, and we journeyed
on in the sweet morning air, dplighted at
om' good fortune in having found such
a beautiful entrance to the mountains.
This road continued for about 3 miles,
when we suddenly reached its termi-
nation in one of the grand views which
at every turn meet the traveller in this
magnificent region. Here the defile up
which we had travelled opened out into a
small lawn, where, in a little Jake, the
stream had its source.
There were some fine asters in bloom,
but aU the flowering plants appeared to
spek the shelter of the rocks and to be
of lower growth than below, as if they
]o\"{'d the warmth of the soil, and kept
out of the way of the winds. Imme-
diately at our feet a precipitous descent
led to a confusion of defiles, and hefore us
rose the mountains as we have represent-
it ed them in the "iew on page 4Gl. It is
4G4

FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES

nut by the splelHlur uf far-ofl" ,iews, nllllH'rablc springs made them very
which have lent such a glor
' to the Alps, sJipppry.
that these impress the mind, but by a Bv the time we had reached the farthpr
gigantic disorder of enormous masses and side- of the lake, we found ourselves all
a savage sublimity of naked rock in won- exceedingly fatigued, and, much to the
d('rful contrast with innumerable green satisfaction of the whole party, we en-
spots of a rich floral beauty shut up in camped. The spot we had chosen was a
their stern rec('sses. Their wildness seems broad, flat rocl.;:, in some measure protected
well suited to the character of the ppople from the winds by the surrounding crags,
who inhabit the country. and the trunks of fallen pines afforded
I determinf'd to leave our animals here us bright fires. Kear by was a foaming
and makp the rest of our way on foot. torrent wl1Ìch tumbled into the little
The peak appeared so near that there lake about 1.")0 feet below us, and which,
was no doubt of our returning before by way of distinction, we have called
night; and a few men were left in charge Island Lake. \Ve had reached the upper
d the mules, with our provisions and Jimit of the piney region; aoS above
blankets. \Ve took with us nothing but this point no tree was to be seen, and
our arms and instruments, and, as the patches of snow lay everywhere around U"I
day had become warm, the greater part on the cold sides of the rocks. The flora
left our coats. Having made an early of the region we had tra'-er!"ed sinee leav-
dllmer, Wf' started again. \Ve were soon ing our mules was extremely rich, and
involved in the most ragged precipices, among the characteristic plants the scarlet
Jwaring the central chain very slowly, 1iowers of the DodccfLthcon dcntatum ev-
and rising but little. The first ridgf' hid erywhere lJIet the eye in great abundance.
a sucee!"sion of others; and wllf'n, with A smalJ green ra,'ine, on the edge of whieh
great fatigue and difficulty, we had we were encampcd, was filled with a profu-
climbed up 500 feet, it was but to sion of alpine plants in brilliant bloom.
make an equal descent on the other From barometrical ohsen'ations made dur-
side. All these intervening places were ing our thrl'e days' sojourn at this place,
filled with small deep lakes, which nwt its elevation abo,-e tlw Gulf of l\Ie"\:ico is
the eye in every direction, dpsccnding 10,000 feet. During the day we had sepn
from one level to another, sometimes no sign of animal life; but among the
under bridges formed by huge fragments rocks Iwre we Iward what was supposf'd to
of granite, beneath which was heard the be the bleat of a young goat, which we
I"Oar of the water. These constantly ob- s('arched for with hungry activity, and
structed our path, forcing us to make found to procped from a small animal of
long di"tours, frequently obligcd to re- a gray ('olor, with short cars and no tail,-
trace our stf'P", and fJ"f'qllently fa11ing prohably the Siberian squirrel. \Ve saw a
among the rocks. }Iaxwf'll was precipi- considerable numbcr of them, and, with
tated towards the face of a prf'eipice, and t.he exception of a small bird like a spar-
I'a,'pd himself from going owr by throw- row, it is the only inhabitant of this
ing himself flat on the ground. ""e elevatf'd part of the mountains. On ol1r
clambered on, always expecting with ]"(.tl1rn we saw b('low this lake large flO('ks
c,ery ridge that we crossed to rf'ach the of the mountain-
oat. "'f' had nothing
foot of the peaks, and always disap- to pat to-night. Lajeunesse with se,'eral
pointed, until about four o'clO('k, when, others took thdr guns and samed out in
pretty Wf'II worn out, WI' reached the !,;parch of a go
t, but returnf'(l unsuccess-
S!lOre of a littl(' lake in which there was fut At !';unset tlw lIa1'oulI'tf'r stood at
a rocky island, and from which we ob- 20.5

, the attached thennolJlI'ter 50 0 .
tained the view given in the f1'ontis- Hcre we had the mi!"fortune to break our
lJÌ('ce. \Ye remained here a short time to thermometf'r, having now only that at-
rf'st, and continued on 3round thf' lake. !ached to the barometer. I was taken ill
which had in some placf's a b":lch of shortly after we had encampf'd, and con-
white sand, and in othprs was bonnd tinned so until late in tlw night, with
with rocks, o\'('r which the way was lliffi- violent headache and vomiting. This wa

cult nml dan
erous, as the water from in- probably caused by the Hc('ssive fatigue
111.--2 0 4G5

FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES

I had undergone and want of flllld, and re<'Íed towcring SUII or 1,000 fe(.t into
perhaps also in some measure by the the air abo\"(
him. In the mean time
rarity of the air. The night was cold, finding himself grow rather worse thaI:
as a ,iolent gale from the north had better, and doubtful how far my strength
sprung up at sunset, which entirely blew "ould carry me, 1 spnt B:lsil Lajeune:-;,.;e
away the heat of the fires. The cold and with four men back to the place wh('re
our granite beds had not been favor- the mules had been left.
able to sleep, and we "ere glad to see \Ye were now lwtter aequa.inted with the
the face of thp sun in the Illornilw. topography of the country; and I diredl'd

ot being delayed II
' allY prepar
- l:im to bring back with him, if it were
tion for hreakfast, \\e set out imme- HI an,v way possible, four or fh'e mule..,
(1iately. with prO\-isions and blankets. "Ïth mc
On e,'ery side as \\e adn\Il('ed was heard were Maxwell and Ayer; and, after wc
tlle roar of watprs and of a torrent, whieh had. remained nearly an hour on the rock,
we followed up a short distance until it it bt'came so unpleasantly cold, though
expanded into a lake about; one mile in tll(' day was bright, that we set out on our
length. On the northern side of the lake r(turn to the camp. at which we all ar-
was a bank of ice, or rather of snow eoy- ri,'ed safely, straggling in one after the
ered with a crust of ice. Car!'.on had other. I continued ill during the after-
been our guide into the mountain, and 1I00n, but became better towards sundown,
agreeably to his ad,'ice we left this little when my recovery was completed by thp
valley and took to the ridges ag:lin, which appearance of Basil and four mcn, all
we found extremely broken and where we mounted. The men who had gone with
were again involved among precipices. bim had been too much fatigued to return,
Here were ice - fields; alllong whieh we
md were relieved by those in charge of
were all di!'.persed, seeking each the best the horses: but in his powers of en-
path to ascend the peak. Mr. Preuss at- durance Basil resembled more a moun-
tempted to walk along the upper edge of bin-goat than a man. They brought
one of these field!", which sloped away at hlankets and provisions, and we enjoyed
an angle of about twenty degrees; hut well our dripd meat and a eup of good
his feet slipped from under him, and he coffee. \Ye rolled ourseh'es up in our
went plunging down the plane. A few blankets, and, with our feet turned to
hundred feet below, at the bottom, were a blazing fire, slept soundly until morn-
some fragmente; of sharp rock, on which ing,
he landed, and, though he turnpd a ('ouple .1ugust I3.-It had beC'n supposed tlwt
of somersets, fortunately rpcei nd no in- we had finished with the mountains; and
j IIry beyond a few bruises. 1'\\"0 of the the e\"pning before it had been arrangpd
men. Clément Lambert and Descoteaux, that Carson should set out at daylight,
had been taken ill, and lay down on the find return to breakfast at the Camp of
rocks a short di!'>tance below; amI at this thc )fules. taking with him all but four
point I was attacked with hmdache and or fi,-e men, who were to stay with mp
giddine=,s, accompanipd h:v Yomitin
, as and bring back the mules and instrunlf'nts.
on the rlay before. Finding mysdf un- A('cordingly, fit the break of day they set
able to proceed. I sent the barometer over out. \Yith :\fr. Preuss and myse1f re-
to 1\1:r. Prpuss, who was in a
ap two or mained nasil LajC'unesse. Cl(.me'nt r am-
three hunrlred :rards (Iistant. desiring him hf'rt. .Tani!o'-<p. and Descoteaux. "-hen WC'
to reach the peak, if possihle, and takC' had sccnred strength for the day II," 3
an observation therc. He fonnd himse1f hearty breakfast, we covered what re-
unahle to procC'cd farther in that dirpc- m,lined. whidl was pnou
h for one nlf'al,
tion, and took an ohseryation wllPre tlw with rocks, in ordpr that it might he safe
haromf'ter stood at IfI.40I, attached tlwr- from any marauding hin!. and saddlill

mometC'r fiOO in the aap Carson who f.ur mnlC's, t1ll'npd our fa('ps onc(' morp
had gone oypr to him, ;uc
eeded in
ea('h- tnwanls thC' lwaks. This tinw wp .l('t ('r
ing one of the snowy snmmits of the mined to pro('ppd qniptly and f'antionsly,
main ridge. wllenee he Raw the peak tow- deliberatel
' resolved to :l('('Omplish our
ards which all our efforts had been di- cbject, if it were within the compass of
4G6

FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES

human means. \\'e were of opinion that sittin
düwn as suon as w(' foulld hreath
a long defile which lay to the left of ye:;- beginning to fail. At intermls we reac'hell
terday's route would lead us to the foot places where a number of springs gushed
of the main peak. Our mules had been from the rocks, and about 1,800 feet above
refreshed by the fine gra
", in the little the lakcs camp to the snow-line. l'''rom
ravine at the island camp, and we intend- this point our progress \Va,> un interrupt cd
cd to ride up the defile as far as pU!-i
iLle, climbing. Hitherto I had worn a pair of
in order to hu
band our strength for the thick moccasins, with soles of parflêche
'
main a
cent. Though this was a fine pas- but here I put on a light thin pair, which
sage, r-:till it was a defile of the most I had brought for the purpose, as now the
rugged mountains known, and we lUll I use of our toes Iwcame nf'cf-'

ary to a fur-
many a rough and steep I'lippery plaee to ther advance. I availed mvse1f of a sort
cross before reaching the end. In this of comh of the mountain;, which stood
place the sun rarcl
' shone. Rnow hty against the wall like a buttress. and which
along the border of the small stream the wind and the solar radiation, joined
which flowed through it. and occasion
l to the steepness of the smooth rock, had
icy passages ma.de the footing of the mulf's kept almost entirely frce from snow. Pp
vel y iwwcure; and the rocks and
roull(l this I made my way rapidly. Our cau-
wpre moist with the trickling waters in tious method of advancing in the outset
this spring of mighty rivers. \Ye soon had spared my strength; and, with the ex-
had the satisfaction to find oursclve,> rid- ception of a slight dispo,>ition to head-
ing along the huge wall which forms tbe ache, I felt no rcmains of yesterday's iIl-
(;entral summits of the chain. There nt ness. In a few minutes we rcached a
last it rose by our sides. a nea.rly perpen- point where the buttress was overhanging,
dicular wall of granite, terminating 2,000 and there was no ot}wr way of surmount-
to 3.000 fcet above our heads in a ser- ing the difficulty than by passing around
rated li 1 1e of broken, jagged cones. \Ve one side of it. which was the face of a
rode on until we came almost immediately vertiC'al precipice of seyeral hundred
he!ow the main peak, which I ctenominatC'd feet.
the Rnow Peak, as it exhihited more snow Putting hands and feet in the crpvices
to the e
'e than any of the npighboring between the h]ocks. J succeeded in getting
sml1J'lits. Here were three small lakes oyer it, and, w]wn I reac1lPd the top,
of a gn'en color. pach pprhapr-: 1.000 yards found my companions in a small va])py Iw-
in diameter, and apparently yery clepp. low. Dpscending to them, we (:lIntinu('d
These> lav in a kind of chasm: and. ac- climhin
, and in a short time rC'a(']wd the
cording to thp harometer. we had attain- crc;;t. I "prang- 111'0n the summit, aJIII an-
pd hut a fp\\ Inmdrf'd fpet abO\"e tlw other step would II:H'e precipitat<,d me into
Island Lake. The> haronlPtpr lwre stood an immcnr-:e snow-field 500 feet bclow.
at 20.4.íO. attaelwd thermometer 71)0. To the cdge of this field was a shcpr
\Ye man:lged to gpt our mules up to a icy prpcip](:C': and t]]('n. witlt a grad-
little hench about 100 feet abo\'e the ual fa]), thc ÍÌp]d !'>]oped off for ahout a
]akps. w}wre thC'J"e was a patch of good mile, until it struck the foot of anotl]('r
grass. and turned them ioose to graze. lower ridge. I stood on a narrow crcst,
During our rough ride to this place, they ahout 3 fpet in width, with an in-
had exhihitf'ù a wonderful Rurefootedness. clination of
hout
Oo N. 51 0 E. As soon
Par4:s of the defile were filled with an- as I had gmtitied the fir
t feelings of curi-
gular. sharp fragmcnts of rock.-3 or osit
T, I dpscpndpc1. and paí'h man ascpndpd
4 and R or 10 feet cnhp,-and among in his turn: for I wou]cJ on].v allow one at
thpse t]wy lwd workcd their way. Ipap- a timp to mOl1nt thp un
tahle and pre-
ing from one narrow point to another, carious slab. which it sl','mpcl a hreath
rarply m
lking a falsp stf'p. and giving l1S woulll hurl into UtP ab,'"ss helow. \YP
no opcaqion to dismount. Having di\'e>stf'll mountpd tlH' haronwtl'r in thp snow of the
ol1rsf'lves of PVI'QT Il1lnl'(:psr-:ar,v encmn- summit. and. fh.ing a. ramrod in a crpviPI'.
hranC'l'. Wf' ('omlllpnced tlw ascent. This lmfurh'd the national flag to wan' in the
time, like experienced tra\"pllprs, we did hn'p/p where nenr flag wa.vpd before.
not press ourselves, but climbed leisurely. During our morning's ascent we had met
4G7

FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES

no sign of animal life e
cept the sman, extremit,r of the rid
e till' I'I.aks Wt'rt.'
sparrow-like binl already mentioned. A plainl.r ,'il'lihle, among which were some

tillness the most profound and a terrible of the springs of the Nehraska or Platte
solitude forced themselves constantly on Hher. Around us the whole seene ha,]
the mind as the great features of the plaee. unc main striking feature, which was that
Here on the summit where the stillness of terrible eonvubion. ParaBe1 to its
was absolute, unbroken by any sound, and lcngth, the ridge was split into chasms and
the solitude complete, we thought our- fissures, between which rose the thin, lofty
selves b('
'ond the region of animated life; waBs, terminated with slender minarets
but, while 'we w('re sitting on the J'ock, a aMI columns. which is correctly representell
solitary bee (bro11lus, the humble-bee) in the view from the camp on Island Lake.
camc ,
'inging his flight fr.)m the eastern According to tlH' baronl('ter, the little
vaBey, and lit on the knee of one of the crest of the wall on which we 8tood was
men. 3,5iO feet abO\-e that place and 2,i80 above
It was a strange place-the icy rock the little lakes at the bottom, immediately
and the highest peak of the Rocky ::\1oun- at our feet. Ùur camp at the Two Hills
tains-for a lover of warm sunshine and (an astronomieal station) bore south 3 0
flowers; amI we pleasl'd ourselves with east, which with a bearing aftprwards 01,-
the idea that he was the first of his tained from a fixed position enabled us to
species to cross the mountain barrier, a locate the peak. The bearing of the 'l'rois
solitary pioneer to for
tcll the advance Tetons was north 50 0 west, ami the dir('c-
of cidlization. I be1ie,'e that a momcnt's tion of the central ridge of the \Yind Ri\"('r
thought would have matle us let him I'on- :Mountains south 3ü o cast. The summit
tinue his way unharmed; but we carried rock was gneiss, succ('edcd by sienitie
out the law of this countQ", where aU gneiss. Sienite and feldspar succeeded
animated nature senllS at war, and, seiz- in our de
cent to the bilow-line, wllf'r<>
ing him immediately, put him in at least w(' found a feldspathic granitp. I hall
(l fit place,-in the leans of a large book, nmarked that the noise proùul't'd by th('
among the flowers we had coBected on explosion of our pistols had the usual
onr wa". The barometer stood at 18.2ü3, (If'gree of loudnpss, but was not in tll('
the attached thermometer at 44 0 , giving least prolonged, expiring almost simul-
for the elevation of this summit 13,5iO taneously. Haying now made what ob8er-
feet above the Gulf of :l\Iexico, which may ,"at ions our means afl'ord<>d, we proceeded
be called the highest flight of the bee. It to descend. \Ye had accomplished an oh-
is certainly the highest known flight of ject of laudable ambition, and beyond the
that insect. From the description given 8trict order of our instructions. \Ye had
hy
Iackenzie of the mountain5 where he climbed the loftiest peak of the Rocky
crossed them with that of a French officer Mountains, and looked down upon the
still farther to the north and Colonpl snow 1,000 feet 1,('1 ow. and.
tanding
Long's measurements io the south, joined where never human foot had stood before.
to the opinion of the oldest tradf'rs of the felt thp exultation of first explorers. It
country, it is presumed that this is the was about two o'clock wlwn we left the
highe!'t )Jeak of the Rocky Mountains. summit; and. wll('n we rpached the bot-
The day was sunny and bright, but a tom, the sun had alread,\' sunk behind
slight shining mist hung over the lower the wall, and the day was drawing to a
plains. which interfer('d with our view of close. It would have 1,1'f'n plf'asant to
the surrounding ('ountry. On one side w(' have lingf'rf'd l)('re and on tll(' summit
O\"erlooked innumera1,lp lakes and strf'am
. longer; but Wf' hurrif'd away as rapidly
the spring of the Colorado of the Gulf of as the ground would permit, for it was
California: and on the other was the an object to regain nur party as soon as
\Yind RiYer Vallev where were the 11('ads po:;!'ible, not knowing what acddpnt the
of the Yellowston
hram.h of the )Iissouri. next hour might hring forth.
Far to the north Wf' just could diseoYf'r \Ve rf'aehed our df'posit of pro\'Ïsions
the Rnow\' heads of the Trois Teton.
at nightfall. TTf're was not the inn which
where we
e the !'IOUTeeS of the )fi!'òsouri awaits tll(' tirf'd tra,'pllf'r on his return
and Columbia riyers; and at the ROU01('rn from )Iont Blane, or the orange groves of
.tfì:-!

FRENCH-FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR

South America, with their refreshing Ch-il \Yar intercepted telegraphic messages
JUIces and soft, fragrant air; but we from the Confederate armies and forward-
found our Jittle cache of dried meat anli ed them to Washington. He died at Pear-
eo/fee undisturbed. Though the moon was saIl's, 1.. I., ::\[arch 15, ]876.
bright, the road was full of precipices, French and Indian War. A fourth
and the fatigue of the day had been intercolonial war between the EngJish
great. \Ye therefore abandoned the idea and French colonies in America was be-
of rejoining our friends, and lay down gun in 17.34, in which the Indians, as
on the l'ock, and in spite of the cold slept usual, bore a conspicuous part. The
soundly. English population (white) in the colo-
French, BEXJA
IIX FRAl'KLIX, his- Hies was then a little more than 1,000,-
torian; born in Richmond, Va., June 8, 000, planted along the seaboard. The
I 79f1; removed to Louisiana in 1830; re- French were 100,000 strong, and occupied
tired from business in 18.33; and removed the regions of XO\-a Scotia, the St.
to New York City. He published Biblio- Lawrence, the Great J,akes, and a line of
[jraphia Americana; Historical Collections trading-posts in the Valley of the l\Iissis-
of Louisiana
' History of the Iron Trade "ippi to the Gulf of ::\Iexico. The latter,
of the United Btatcs
' Historical A.nnals of as chiefly traders, had gained great in-
Xorth .4.merica. lIe died in Xew York f1uence oyer many of the Indian tribes.
Cit,v, l\Iay 30, 1877. There was outward peace, but inward
French, DANIEL CUESTER, sculptor; war, between the colonists, and it needed
brwn in Exeter, N. H., April 20, 18.30; 0J11
' a small matter to kindl':) a flame of
educated in Boston, l\Iass., and in Flor- hostilities. After the capture of Louis-
ellce, Italy; had a studio in \Yashing- burg (I745), the French had taken
ton, D. C., in 1876-78, and then estab- measures to extend and strengthen their
li
J:ed himself in Florence. His best- dominion in America. Their power be-
known works are The JIinute-illan of Con- c.tIne aggressi,-e, and early in 1754 it was
c')rd, in Concord, N. H.; a life-size statue evident that they intended to hold mili-
of General Cass, in the Capitol in \Va.sh- tary possession of the Ohio and the
bgton: D,'. Gallaudet and His First Deaf- region around its head-waters. The Eng-
JJute l'ul)il; the llillmore JIp-morial
' the lish attempted to build a fort at the
c(
lossal Statue of the Republic, at the f(.lrks of the Ohio. The French scized
World's Columbian Exposition; and the t

post, and completed the fortification
Garfidd ill emorial, in Philadelphia, Par (sce DUQGEHXE, FORT). \\? ashington led
J n April, HIOl, he was chosen by the l'rovincial troops to recapture it, but was
Lawton
Ionument Association, of Ind- unsuccessful. The colonists appealed to
ianapolis, Ind., to make a memorial to the British government, and receiyed
GEX. HENRY \V. LAWTON (q. v.), who promises of its aid in the impending
was killed in the battle of San Mateo, 'mr; and in 17.").) fiEN . EDWARD BRAD-
Philippine Islands, Dec. If1, 18!)!), DOCK (q. v.) was sent, with regular
French, )IAXSI<'IELD, clergyman; born troops, to command any forces that
in :Manchester, Vt., Feb. 21, ] 810; settled llIight be raised in America to resist the
in Xew York City in 18.")8, where he became French and their Indian a1lies. Three
an earnest abolitionist. In 18G2 he ex- !'cparate E'xpeditions were planned, one
amincd the conditions of the negroes at against Fort Duquhne, another against
Port Royal, and on his return to
ew f(lrts on, or near, Lake Ontario, and a
York held a great meeting at Cooper In- third against French forts on Lake Cham-
stitute, Fph. 10, 1862, which resulted in plain. .\n expedition against ACADIA
the establishment of the Xational Freed- (q. v.) was also undertaken. The thrpe
man's Relief
\ssociation with himsp1f as e
pp(litions failed to accomplish their full
genpral ag-pnt. In March. HHi:
. with a purpo!'ie!'i.
corps of tcachers. he rptm'npd to Port In May, 17!)G, England declarcd war
Royal and taught tlw npgt.o(.s method
of again
t ]<'ranee, anrl sent Lord Loudoun
fanning'. Ifp rendprf'd important service as chi(.f comllJal1<ler in the colonips, with
to the gon>rnmt'nt by organizing an ex- (;PlwraJ Alwrcromhie as his li('utpnant.
pedition which during one period of the Expeditions similar to those of 17.3,) were
46U

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR

tackpd. Louishurg
\\ as captured, but
_\..bercrombie, who
led the troops to\\-
ards Lake Cham-
plain. fail('d in his
attack on Ticonder-
oga. Fort Fronte-
lIac, at the foot of
Lake Ontario, was
captured; so. abo,
was Fort Duquesnl',
and it.-. name was
changed to Fort
Pitt, in compliment
to the great prime
minister. These :,ouc-
cesses so nlanned
the Indians that,
having as
('mhled in
council, Uwy agreed
not to fight the
Engli
h any more.
Pitt now resoh'ed
to conqu('r Canada.
General Amherst
was placed in chief
command in Amer-
ica, in the spring
of 173D, and a land
and naval force was sent oyer from
England. \gain three expeditions were
put in motion, one to go up the 81.

p

"

.:i>'l'. :\
0,....

.
0NTCIíA& /

)lAP OF TIIB BCRYl': OF OPERATIO:iB.

( \,.\."'''''
.#' \..

( 1--"7
z: :
I Zl
J"{( 4(' I
?/ool<J

planned, but failed in the execution. The
skilled soldier, the ::\Iarquis de :\Iontcahn,
commanding the French and Indians, capt-
ured O
wego, on the southern shore of
Lake Ontario. Loudoun proposed to con-
fine the campaign of 17:>7 to the capture
of Louisburg, on Cape Breton. Going
there with a large land and naval arma-
ment. he was told that the French were
too strong for him. H(' helieved it, with-
drew, and returned to Xe\\" York. )[('an-
while, ::\Iontcalm had str('ngthenell Fort
Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain, and
ca ptured and destro
.('tl the English fort,
William Henry. at the hmd of Lnhp
G('orge (Augus't, 17.>7) ; and so ended thf'
campaign and the leadership of the in-
efficient Lord J.oudoun. William Pitt at
this time took the chief control of public
affairs in EnglaIllI, and prepan.d to prose-
('ute the war in _\nwrica with vigor.
(;('n. ,Tame!o! Abp1"('romhie was plac('d in
ell i('f command in \ nwriea in 17 :>R. a1ll1
.\..dmirnl TImwaw('n \\n... s('nt with a fk('t La\\TPlICP. to l'al'tllr(' QII('h('c, anot1)('r to
to ('O-oper:11e. Loui..hur:,!. Fort Ticon- dri\'e 1hp Fr(,lI('h from Lake Champlain.
dE'roga, and :Fort Duquesne were to be at- and force them back to Canada; and
470

--

FORT WIU.IA)I H
::o.RY.

....,.;: -=:. ::=--

FRENCH ASSISTANCE

a third to attack Fort Niagara, at the
mouth of the Kiagara River. General
\Volfe commanded the expedition against
Quebec, General Amherst led the troops
against the French' on Lake Champlain,
and General Prideaux commanded the
expedition against Fort Niagara. Pri-
deaux 'H\S killed in besieging Fort Ni-
agara, hut it was captured under the
l<:ad of Sir William Johnson, in .July.
Amherst drove the French from Lake
Champlain into Canada, and they npver
came bDck; and he built the
trong
fortress on Crown Point whose pictu-
resque ruins stilI attract the
attention of the tourist.
Wolfe attacked Qucbec, and
at the moment of victory he
was killed. Montcalm, the
commander of the French,
also perished on the field.
In 17GO the Frenf'h tried to
rccapture QupIJpc, but were
unsuccessful. Earl,V in Sep-
tember Amherst went down
the St. Lawrpnce and capt-
ured :\IontreaL The con-
qupst of Canada was now
completed, and the French
and Indian \Var was essen-
tially ended. The last act in it was a Court. With wise forethought the offi-
treaty of peace, concluded in Paris in cial relations between \Vashington and
1763. Hochamheau had been settled by the
French Assistance. In accordance French government. In order to prevent
"ith the spirit of the treaty of alliance any diHif'ulties in relation to command be-
b(>tween the Vnited States and France tWf'en the French and American officers,
(Feb. 6, 1778), a French fleet was spef'dilv the French government commissioned
fitted out at Toulon. It consisted of \\ ashington a lieutenant-general of the
twelve ships of the line and four frigates. empire. This allowed him to take pre-
commanded by the COU
T D'EsTAIXG cedt'nce of Rochambeau and made him
(q. v.). This fleet arrind in the DeJa- commandpr of the allied armies. On all
ware on July 8, 1778, bearing 4,000 points of prpcl'dl-'nce and etiquette the
Frcnch troops. \\ïth it came :\1. Gi
rard, Frpnch oflìct'rs \\ere instructed to givp
the first French minister accredited to place to the American officers.
the United States. Silas l>eane also re- .\t the solieitation of \\-ashin
ton, the
turned from his mission to Francp in the French fleet at Newport sailed' for the
same \"essel (the Lnngurdoc) , the flag- Virginia waters to Rssist in capturing
ship. Uaving sent his passengers up to .\moJd, then marauding in Virginia. Thp
Philadelphia in a frigate. D'Estaing sailed fleet was to co - operatp with Lafayette,
for Randy Hook, and anchored off thl' h:u- whom \\-ashington had sent to Virginia
hoc of Xew Y ork. T
ord lIowe. \\"110 had for the S
lme purpose. The British block-
fortnnatelv for himsf')f left the Df'lamll"f' Hc1Ïng squadron, which had made its ,,,in-
a ff'w ddys befm'e D'Esta.ing's arrinl.l. ter-qu:Htl'rs in Uarùinf'r's Ba
'. at the
,,'as now with hiH flf'l't in I{arit:m Bay. f'a:--terrl end of Long rslarHl, pursl1pd the
,\ hither the heavy Frpneh \"(.,.;,.;('1,.; poul.l Fr'enf'll. ,'essels, and on' tll(> Capf''' of Vir-
}lot safely follow. On July 22 he sailf'ù, gnua a sharp naval engagelll('nt (lCCUlTf'd.
471

with his squadron, to co-operate with
General
ulli\-an against the British in
Rhode Island.
On July 10, 1.80, another powerful
:J1'rench fleet, commanded by the Chevalier
de Ternay, arrh'ed at .Kewport, R. I. It
was composed of seven ships of the line, be-
sides frigates aud transports. The latter
bore a French army, G,OOO strong, com-
manded by Lieutenant-General the Count
de Rochambeau. This was the first di, i-
sion intended for the American service.

I.nd was the first fruit of Lafayette's per-
sistent personal efforts at the Fr(>ndr

OSWEGO IS 1755.

FRENCH ASSISTANCE-FRENCH CREEK

i.. which the latter "ere beaten and re- archs hated republicanism, and feared the
turned to Xewport. This failure on the revolution as menacing thrones; and the
part of the French fleet mused Lafayette chief motive in fa,'oring the Americans,
to halt in his march at Annapolis, 1\1d. especially of France. was to injure Eng-
Two of the French vessels, taking advan- land, humble her pride, and weaken her
ta
e of a storm that disabled the block- power.
ading squadron, entered Chesapeake Bay The headquarters of the American army
(February, 1781). Thus threatened b
were at Ycrptlllck's Point at the begin-
hand and water, Arnold withdrew to Ports- ning of autumn. lï8
, where (about 10,-
mouth, so far up the Elizabeth River as 000 strong) it was joined by the French
to be out of the reach of the French ships. army on its return from Yirginia, in
Thpre he was reinforced by troops un- September. The latter encamped on the
del' G('neral PhiJ]ips, of the Convention Ifft of the Americans, at Crompond, about
troops. who had been exchanged for Gen- ] 0 mill's from Yerplanck's Point. Ther
era 1 Lincoln. The French ships soon had recei,'ed orders to proceed to Boston
returned to Xewport, after making some and there embark for the 'Ycst Indies.
prizes. They lpft thei r eneampment near Peeks-
"'hen, on ,Tune 2, 1 ii\), the legislature kill Oct. 22, and marched hv wav of
of Yirginia unanimously ratifi('d the Hartford and Providenee. H
chan
b('au
treaties of alliance and commerce heÌ\\een then' l('ft tllP army in charg(' of Haron
Frane(' awl the Cnitcd States, and the de Yiomenil and returned to "'ashing-
gowrnor had informed the French minis- ton's headquarters on his wav to Phila-
ter at Philadelphia of the fact, that delphia. The Fr('neh troops r
ached Hos-
functionary at once notified his govern- ton the first \\"('('k in D('eemher. On the
ment. Yergenne,." on Sept. 27. instruct- 2
th they sail('d from Hoston. having lwen
eel tIw minister at Philadelphia (Lu- ill the rnited :':tat('s two aIllI a half years.
zerne) in these words: "During the Roehamh('au sailed Í1"om Annapolis for
war it is essential, both for the Cnited Francp Jan. 11. 1783.
Ftates and for us, that their union should French Creek, ACTIO
AT. The troops
be as perfect as possible. When they coll('cted b) Wilkinson on Gr('nadier IsI-
shall be Ipft to themseh'es the general and in ]8]3 suffered much, for Rtorm after
confederation will have much difficulty storm swept OVer Lake Ontario, and snow
in maintaining itself, and wiJ], perhaps, fell to the depth of 10 incheR. A C'ana-
be rpplaced by separate eon f('dera tions. dian wint('r was too Ilear to allow delays
RhouJd this rt>\-olution take plaC'e, it will on account of the weather, and on Oct. 2f1
weaken the Cnited
tatcs. which have not General Brown. with his division, lllond
now. and never will have. real and re- forward in boats, in the face of great
RfJecìable strength ðcept by tlwir union. ppril. in a tempest. lIe landed at 'French
Hut it is for themselves alon(' to make Creek (now Clayton) and took post in a
these reflections. 'Ye have no right to pre- wood. The marine scouts from Kingston
sent them for their consideration. flnd we cliscO\'ered Brown on the afternoon of Xov.
h:we no int('rest what("'('r to see -\nlPr- ], and two brigs. two s....hooners. and eight
ica play the part of a power. The possi- gunhoats. fil1t>d with infantry, bore down
bility of a dissolution of the Cnion, and upon him at sun
et. Drown had plant('ù
the consequent suppression of Congress, a battery of three ]R-pounden:; on a high
lmds us to think that nothing can be wooded bluff on the we"tern shore of
more conformaüle to our political interest French f're('k, at its mouth. and with it
than I"eparate acts by which each State the assailants were dri\"en awav. The
shall ratify the treaties concluded with conflict wa
resunwc! at ila\\n tile np'\Í
France; because in this way pver
' State morning. with thE' same result. Th(' Brit-
will be found separately connectf.d with ish lost many nwn: the _-\nwriC'ans only
us. ",hatp\'('r mav be the fortune of the two killed and fonr wound('d. :Meanwhile,
general confederation." 1'lw poli(':v of tIlt. troops \\erp eoming down thp ri\'pr from
Fn'nch. a", well as the Spaniards. towards Cr('nacli('r Island. :Inll there lalHlpc! on tlw
the rnitcd Stat('s was pnrC'ly selfish from
ite of Clayton. \\ïlkin.:;on arrinod thpre
beginning to end. The two Bourbon mon- on XO\. 3, and on the morning of the !ith
472

FRENCH DECREES-FRENCH DOMAIN IN AMERICA

the army, in 300 ba-
teaux and other
boats, moved down the
river.
French Decrees.
The presence of John
Jay in England to
make a treaty with
Great Britain
aroused the French to
a sense of the impor.
tance of observing its
own tl'eaty stipula-
tions with the United
States, which had
been utterly disre-
garded since the war
with England began.
On Jan. 4, 1795, a
new decree was is-
sucd, giving full force
and effect to those
clauses of the treaty
of commerce (1778) with the United
States respecting contraband and the
ca Triage of enemies' goods. \Vhen news
of the failure of the Americans to
elect Jefferson President reached France,
the Directory issued a decree (March 2,
1797) purporting to definp the authority
granted to French cruisers by a former de-
cree. It was intended to annihilate
American commerce in European waters.
The treaty with America was decJared to
be so modified as to make American ves-
sels and their caI'goes liahle to capture
for any cause recognized as lawful ground
of capture by Jay's treaty. They also de-
creed that any Amprican found serving on
board hostile armed vessels should he
treated as pirates, even though they might
plead imprisonment and compulsion as an
e,,-cuse j in other words, American seamen,
impressed by the British, were made liable
to be hanged by the French. On Jan. 18,
1 i98, a sweeping decree against American
commerce was promulgated by the Frpnch
Directory. It dpclared to be good prizes
all vesRels havin
merchandise on board
t hp production of England or her colonies,
whoever the owner of the nJPrehantman
might be; amI forbade, alRo, the entrance
into any French port of any vessel which.
at any previous part of hpr \'oyage, had
touched at any English pos'iession.
French Depredations. On Feb.

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MOL TII OF FREYCH CREEK.

lill7, the Secretary of State laid before
Congress a full exhibit of the wrongs
inflicted by the French on American
comml'rce. F\kipwith, American consul-
general in France, had presented to the
Directory 170 claims, many of them for
provisions furnished, examined, and al-
lowed; for 103 VLssels embargoed at Bor-
dl'aux, for which promised indemnity had
npver been paid; and to these wrongs were
added enormous depredations then going
on in the West Indies, seizing and confis-
cating the pl'operty of Americans without
T('straint. American vessels were capt-
ured and their crews treated with indig-
nity and cruelty. Encouraged by the ac-
cesi'ion of Spain to thpir alliance and the
victories of Bonaparte in Italy, the French
Directory grcw every day more insolent.
They were countenanced by a great party
Ì:l the Lnited f;tatcs, which had failpd
J.y only two \"Ote!'; to give a President to
the American Rc>puùlic. See FRA
TE, RE-
L\.TIOXS WI fH.
French Domain in America. On Oct.
ï. I i(î
, th(' King of England (George
III.), by pmc1amation, erectpd out of th('
territory acquired from the French by the
treat
T of Pari!'; three provinces on the
cOlltinent-naIllPl
'. ('ast Florida. wpst
Florida. and QUf'h('c; and an insular pnw-
inee stylf'd Grenada. East Florida was
27. hounded on the north bJ" the St. )IaQTJ

473

FRENCH FORTS IN AMERICA-FRENCH MILLS

RÙ'er, the intervening region thence to
the Altamaha being anne
ed to Ueorgia.
The boundarit's of west Florida were the

\palachicola. the Gulf of ::\Iexico, the .:\Ii'l-
sissippi, and lakes POlltchartrain and
l\laurepa.s; and òn the north hyaline
due east from the mouth of the Yazoo
Hiver, so as to include the French At'ttle-
ments near Xatehez. The boundaries of
the province of Qt1l'bf'c were in accord-
ance with the claims of Xew York and
:\Iassaehu!'('tt!". hcin).! a line from th

southern pnd of Lake Xepissing, ",triking
the St. Lawrence at la.t. 45 0 :N., and fol-
lowing that parall('1 acro",s the foot ùE
Lake Champlain to the head-" aters of
the Connecticut River, and thence along
the highlands which form the water-shcd
between the St. Lawrence and the sea.
Grenada was composed of the island!> of
St. Yincent, Dominica, and Tobago. Sce
FLORIDA.
French Forts in America. The
'French, for the security of Ute interior
t('rritory of Ameriea, built a fort in the
Illinois country, in la1. 41 0 30', as a cheek
upon the several tribes of the Sioux who
were not in alliance with them. TIH'Y a.lso
built a fort at the junction of the Illinois
and a large tributary, and five othpr forh
from the junction of the Missouri and

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::\lississippi rivers to Kaskaskia. The fort
at the latter place was regarded as of
great importance, because it was .. thp
pa!os and outlet of the com'n,Ys of Louisi-
ana and of the baders and hunters of the
po:-t at Detroit, and that of the g.'catcr
p
trt of the savage nations:' Anothcr,
on the banks of the Ohio. oppo
itp the
mouth of the Tennessec nivcr. was con
itl-
ered ., the ke)' of the colony of J_ouisiana.'
and would ohstruc.t the dc
igns of the Eng-
lish in alienating the Indians of the Ohio.
It would also, Yamlrcuil thought, restrain
the incursions of the Cherokees on the
Wabash and :i\Iississippi rivers. check the
Chickasaws, and by this means secure the
navigation of the :\lississippi amI a frep
communication hetween I-,ouisiana and
Canada. There were at that time about
si
ty forts in Canada, most of which had
around them fine self-!>ul'porting settle-
mnlÌ<;; and the ('stablishments, posts, and
Rettlempnts in LouiRiana at that time
(175ü) elllploy(.d ahout 2.000 Roldiprs.
French Mills. After the battle at
CmwsLER'S :FIELB (q. v.) the Ameri
an
army went into winter-quarters at French
Mills, on the Salmon River. The waters
of that stream were freezing, for it was
late in Xm-ember (1813). Gen('ral Bro\\n
proceeded to make the troops as comfort-

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474

FRENCH NEUTRALS-FRENCH POLITICS IN AMERICA

able as possible. Huts were constructed,
:yet, as the winter came on very sevel'e,
the soldiers suffered much; for many of
them had lost their blankets and extra
clothing in the disasters near Grenadier
Island, at the beginning of their voyage
down the St. Lawrence, and in the battle
at Chrysler's :Field. "Cntil the huts were
built, even the sick had no shelter but
tents. Provisions
were scarce, and
the surrounding
country was a wil-
derness. They were
in the midst of the
cold of a Canadian
winter, for they
\\gere in lat. 43 0 ..ii
N. In their dis-
tress they were

I.-
tempted by Brit-
ish emi
sarips, who -
circulated placards ,. __:3"',
among the soldiers
containing the fol-
lowing words:
"XOTICE. - All
American soldiers
who may wish to
quit the unnatural
war in which they
are at present en-
gaged will recei ve
the arrears due
them by the> ..:\merican government, to the Americans to doubt the genuinench" of
e:\.tent of fi,'e months' pay, on their ar- }'rench demoC'racy. This tended to a
rival at the British outposts. No man more distinct defining of party lines be-
shall be required to serve against his own twef'n the Feòeralists and Rcpublicans.
country." It is believed tlutt not a single This enthusiasm was Rho\\ n hy public fes-
soldipr of American birth was enticed away th'als in honor of the French revolution-
by this allurement. In Fcbruary. 1814, Ï:3tS. At a celchration in honor of the
the army began to move away from Ul('i.' tt'mporary conque"t of the Austrian
winter encampmf'nt. The flotilla was de- Nptherland by Ðumruriez (1 îfl2), held in
sh'oyed and the barracks bm'nf'd. Brown, Hoston, .Jan. 24, lî!l;J, a sclf'et part." of
with a largpr portion of the troops, mal"Ch- 300 sat down to a fcast in Falil'uil Hall,
ed for
a('kett's HarbOl", and the remaindel' over which Hamuel
-\dams. then lieu-
accompani('d \Vilkinson, the commander- tenant-goveruO\" of
Ias
:mchl1setts. pre-
in-chief. to Plattsblug. sided. Speeches, toasts, music-all were
French Neutrals. :;ee ACADIA. indicative of f',nnpathr for the French
French Politics in America. The caw:;e. The childrf'n of the Boston
progress of the French Revolution, de- sehools were paradpd in the streets. and
cisively lwgun at tlH' mef'ting of tIw to f'ach olle was gÏ\'('n a (',lkf' imprintpd
f'tates-General (May 5, liR!I) , was ('on- with the- word" "Lihf'rty and E(luality."
temporau('ous with the orgalli7ation of f'imilar (,f'h.hratinll
were h('ltI in otlwr
the American Republic under the new places; and the public feeling in favor of
COllstitution. The Americans naturally the French was intensified by the arrival
475

sympathized with the French people ayOW-
edly struggling to obtain political free-
dom; and the influence of that sympathy
was speedily seen in the \"apid development
of the Republican party in the United
States. The supposed advent of liberty
in France had been hailed with enthu-
siasm in America, Lut common-sense and
a wise prudence caused many thinking

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LAXVIX(ò-/'LACE OF TROOPS OX THK RAL
IOX RIVER.

FRENCH PRIVATEERS-FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA

of )1. Genet as represpntath-e of the violation of his solemn a!'\8urance, Genpt
French Republic. That was un April Ð, ordpTl'd Thc Little Democrat to go to sea,
líÐ3. He brought with him new::, of the and others followed. In the last year of
declaration of war against En:rland. It John Adams's administration, and before
llad reached Kew York five da
's before. there was a final settlement of difficulties
::\lore fiercely than ever the two parties with France. quite a large number of
were arra
'ed againsi each other; and now French prinlteers ;yet at sea fell into the
the Federali
ts \\ ere first called the hands of American cruisers. These, \\ ith
.. British party," and the Hepublicans the otllPrs previously taken, made the number
,. French party:' So long as the French captured about fifty. There were also re-
Republic, so miscal1ed, lasted, the poli- captures of numerous llU'rchant v('ssels
tics of Fram'e e'\.erted marked influence in which had bcen previously taken by the
the Cnited States. See GEXET, EmwxD Fr('n('h.
CHARLES. French Refugees in America. The
French Privateers. On tI1P arrival of colony of Huguenots planted in America
Citizpn Genet at Charlcston, R ('.. he by Coligni disapppared, but the reVOl'a-
fitted out privateers to dcpredate on Brit- tion of the EDICT OF XAXTES (q. v.) in
i
h com mcree, issued commissions for thcir 1685 caused another and larger emigration
counnanders. allll confprred authority to America. The refugces in England
upon French consuls each to ercate him- had been kindly assi:o.ted there. amI after
f'elf into an admiralty court to decide t1l(' accession of \\ïl1iam anò )Tarv I'arlia-
upon the disposition of prizes brought ment voted *í:;,OOO to he di
trihut('d
into port hy French cruisers. neuet had .. among persons of quality and all such
commissiOlll'd t\\O, w]}('n the Lnited
tates as, through age or infirmit
", wpre unable
governuU'nt interfered. lIe persisted, in to support themselvl's." The King sent a
defiance of the government. and very soon large body of them to Yirginia, and lands
quite a numher ,\"('re afloat-namely, were allottr.d them on the .James River;
N(LnS Culottr, Cifi-::en Gcnct. Cil1cinnatlls, other
purchaspd lands of the proprie-
rnint]lU'"r dr la Bastillr, VRmbu8cadc, taries of Carolina. an,l sptt]pd on the
Anti - (Jcorflc, CarnHlflnolf'. Noland, and Santee Hiver; while otlH'rs-merchant

Concord. L'Embuscade, the frigate that and artisan
- sptt1ed in (,harlcston.
brought Genet to America, and the Gcnet, These Hugu(>nots wpre a ,-aluable acquisi-
were both fitted out as privateers at tion to the eolonif's. In thf' f;outh they
Charlef>ton. rhe others went out of the plantpd vin('
'ards and mad(' wine. A large
ports of Savannah, Boston, and Phila- numbpr of t!wm settl(>d in the provinee of
delphia. These captured more than fifty Xpw York. ehiefly in \\
p"tdwster and
English Ye
se1s, quite a number of them r]ster counties, and in the city of K(>w
within American waters. After Genet York.
had he en warned that the fitting-out of French Settlements in America.
privatpprs in
\.merican ports was a viola- Callieres. who Ruceeed('d Frontpnac as gOY-
tion of thp law. he had the [Jittle Sarah ('rnor of Canada in J(ìf)f). 6f'nt messages to
(a ,-es"cJ captured by one of tlw privateers the Fin'
ations with the alternative of
and sent to Philaùelphia) made into a pmee or an e'\.t(>rminatin
war, against
Iptt('r-of-marque ul1Ilpr the very eyes of whid., it is all, ('ged t1w English could not
the go,-ernnwnt. and called the vessel Th(' r(>nò('r t1wm as
istauc('. Tlwir jea]ous
'
Little Dcmorrnt. Go,'ernor ::\Iiffiill prp- had 1.pl'n p'\.eitpd against thp lattpr by a
pared to seize the vessel before it should claim of Be]]oll1ont to hui]d forts on t]wir
)pave port, when .J efferson, tender towards tf'rritor.'". and tlwy 'Hre imluepd to fo,pnd a
the French minister. waitpd on Gl.'npt in deputation to a grand assemhl.v nt :\fon-
pprson to p<,rsuade him not to spnò the trpal of all the Indian allips of the French.
,'essel to spa. Cpn('t storm('ò. and ,ll'c]ar('d T]wre a tn'at.' of fripn,h.hip was eon-
hi:; crew would 1"(>sis1. Hp finall.'- prom- elndpd: :md so thp FI"('ne11 who had been
i"eò that the vps<;('l shoulò only drop down Tf'..trnin",l 11." tlw 110<.;tilitr of t]1I' Iroquois
the ri,'('r a litt]p wavy That" litt]" wav" ('on fl'll('r:1 ('.", s('('nI"Pò a fn'(' l'a<.;<;age tow-
was far out of th
H'ach of militia' or anls thp 1fissb:-.ippi. .\lmo:-.t imme-
nt1wr fnr('e
. ,"cry soon afterwards, in (Hately 100
cttIcrs, with a Jcsuit leader,
47G

FRENCH SPOLIATION CLAIMS

\\ere
ent to take po
:-.c

jon of the
trait IIlt:'re was 110 changing till' French l-'U
itioll
between lakps Erie and St. ('lair. They on the subject.
built a fort, aud called the sl-'ot Detroit, The dtange in the gO\crJlment of France
the French name for a strait or sound. It by the Re,'olution of 1830 was a favorable
soon became the favorite settlement of time for
Ir. Rives, the American minister
western Canada. Yillages of French set- to France, to again propo::;e a settlement.
tIers soon grew up around the Jesuit The French, as before stated, had set up a
missionary stations at Kaskaskia and counter-claim of the non-fulfilment of the
Cahokia, on the eastern bank of the treaty of 1 ïï8; but the American gO\"ern-
::\Iississippi, between the mouths of the ment argued that subsequent events had
Illinois and Ohio. These movements oc- exonerated the United Rtates from all de-
casioned no little alarm to the English mand::; under that treaty. ::\Ir. Rives sue-
in Xew York and Xew England. ceeded ill negotiating a treaty by which
French Spoliation Claims. For more the long-pending controvers,y was closed.
than a century what are known as the By it the French go,'ernment agreed to
.French spoliation claims have been vainly pay to the United States, in complete sat-
urged on the attention of Congress. These isfaction of all claims of _\.merican citizens
claims originated as follows: In the year for spoliations, neady $,>,UOO.OOO, in six
1 ïï8, France and the "Cnited States en- annual instahnents, $300,000 to be allowed
tered upon a treaty of "commerce and by the American government to France for
amity," by which each government pledged French citizens for ancient supplies. ac-
ibf'1f to exempt from search or seizure all counts, or other claims. The Vnited
\e,;sels belongir.g to the other, even though States Senate ratified the treaty, but the
such vessels were t'arrying the goods of its French Chamber of Deputies ;'efused to
enemies; that IS, each agreed to permit its make the appropriation to carry it out.
commercial any to carryon trade with an Rnd an unplea<:ant disputp arosc betwcen
enel1lJ', unless such trade dealt in goods the two governments. The matter was
that werp known af! contraband of war. finany s.-ttled, as between the two goW'rn-
_\.t that time these two countries were al- nwnts. on the basis of the treah- in lS
G.
lied in war against Great Britain. hut Tho
e .American merchants,' howen-r,
when, some time after the close of the wl1(. had claims against the French gov-
Revolution:::.ry \Var, France was again in- emment, objected to :yielding up these
volved in hostilities with that country, claims to settle a debt of the government,
the Cnited States refused to join her and anù accordingly petitioned Congress to
proclaimed f!trict neutrality. France now indemnify their losses. They argued,
found lwr American trade interfered with and justly, that France had admitted the
hy (heat Britain. while shp was bound by fairnpsf! of these claims in vieldinO' hpr
treaty not to interfere with Great Brit- own claims to satisfy them,
nd th:
t the
ain's trade wi
h the Fnitf'd Rtates. Con- rnited Statps. in accepting this relin.
sidering t11if! injustice. Hhe broke her (l"lishmpnt, received a consideration full v
treaty with this country. and confiscated worth the sum of the private claim
,
the cargoes of Ameripan vpsself! trading Dnd thUR hound hprsplf in honor to pay
with Great Britain. This country was in t.hem. However. this petition failed of
1,0 mood or condition then to go to war itR effpct. :lIld though repf'ated again and
with France, so the WJYernment overlooked again. the claimants ha\"e not vet sue-
thpsp hostilp acts. and. in lï!J7. and again cppdpù in sPcluing the settlpuIPnt of tit('
in 1 ï!J!J, made overturPR for a peaceful set- claims. Connnittf'pf! of hoth IIousps. it is
l1p1l1pnt. The claimR of thpsc American tnH'. han> sevpral tinll's reported in favor
\"p,.;spl-ownf'rs and merchants who had hppn of t1lf' claims. and an act appropriating
dpspoilpd of their propprty werp prpsented monpy for the1l1 has twi('(' passed Con-
h
' our ('ommissioners. but the French gov- grpss. This was vetoed the first time h,.
prnment rpfuspd to take any aCMunt of f'r.esident Polk. and the sppom} tinIP h
'
tllPm unless we would allow a counter- President Pipl"ee, awl. hilt for th(' laek
f
plaim a,gainst the rnited States for a one vote in the Rf'nate, the first of thesf'
IJl'pach of the treaty of alliance. Much would haw passed oypr t11P Prps1,lpnt's
diplomatic ff'neing was rE"sorted to, but veto. :l\fany of our grpatf',;t <:tntpmpn-
477

FRENCH SPOLIATION CLAIMS-FRENCHTOWN

and, with few e
ception
, their chihlren
are a]
o dpad, but grandchi]drpn and
great-gmndchildren may at least reap the
b(>nefit of tardy justice.
Frenchtown, ::\rASSACRE AT. In the
ruiddle of Decf'mber, 1812, (}enpral Harri-
son wrote the \\'ar Departnwnt that. if
no political Or other necessity e'\.isted
for the recovery of ::\fichigan and the in-
vasion of Canada, the enormous e
pC'nse
of transportation, and
tIH' sufferings of nwn
and bpasts in the task,
pleaded for a rcmi:-;!;ion
of efforts to attain that
recovery until
pring.
He was directed to use
his own judgment in the
math'r, and was a,,-
sured that inmwdiate
measures would be tah.l.'n
for recovering the eon-
trol of Lake Erie to the
Americans. He was in-
structed, in case he
should ppnetmte Canada.
not to offer the inhabi-
tants anything but pro-
tection; and. secondly,
not to make temporary
aequi!'.itions, but to pro-
ceed so surely that he
might hold fast any ter-
ritory he should acquire.
Other troops 1Ia ving ar-
rived. Harrison re:.;oln'd
to attcmpt thc capture
of Fort ::\ralden. His
whole pffC'cti,'e force did
not e'\.ceed G.300 men.
He designa tpd the hri-
gades from Penns
'lvania
and Virginia, and one
from Ohio, unùer r.l.'n.
Simon Perkins. as the
right wing of the artily;
and the Kpntuckians.
under (:cn. ,James \\ïl-
kinson. as the ]C'ft wing-.
So arrangpc1. t he II nil,)"
])J'essC'(] fon\"a 1"11 to\\'a rcl

the rapids of thp
Iau-
mee. the dp:-.ignatC'd g-pn-
pml rcnùl'z, ous. \\ïll-
chester. with 800 young
Kentuckians, r;aeheù

Danie] Weh!'òter, Thomas Benton, Silas
\\'right, anù others-have championC'd the
cause of these claims in Congrecls with
much eloquence. III 1883 a bil] passed
the Senate authorizing the court of claims
to innstigate these long-standing cases
anù rpport upon them. This biJI passed
the House in January, 1885, and was ap-
proved by the President. The original
claimants have long :-;ince passed away,

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MAP OF TII
. VA""H'JlO: AT PPF.,rnTOWY.

478

FRENCHTOWN, MASSACRE AT

the)'e on .Jan. 10, HH3, and established ately su('ceeded in a shower upon the
a fortified eamp, when he leanwd that camp. The Americans, seizing their arms,
a party of British and Indians were tried to defend themselves. Vel'Y soon
occupying Frcnchtown, on the Raisin the soldiers fled to the woods, when

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)W:\RUK, F/tUM THI!: ßAI'n.1!: (;lUll' XV,

Riycr (now Monroe, Mich.), 20 miles the savages, who swarmed there, smote
south of Detroit. He scnt a detachment, them fearfully, with gleaming hatchets.
under Colonels AlJen and Lpwis. to pro- The British and their dusky allies made
tect the inhabitants in that region. it a war of pxtprmination. \Yinchester
"ho drove the em'my out of the hamlet was captured, and he con{'luded an ar-
of about thirty families, and held it rangcmf'nt with Proctor to surrender his
until the arrival of \Vinchester, on the troops on condition that ample provision

oth, with about 300 men. General Proc- should be made for thcir protection
tor was th('n at Fort
[alden, 18 miles against the Indians. The promise was
distant. with a considerable body of Brit- ginn and immediately violated.
ish and Indians. \Yith 1.;>00 of thesp he Proctor. knowing Harrison (who had
cr08spd the Dptroit River, and marched adnwC'pd to the )[aumee) to be near, hast-
stealthil
T at night to destroy the Ameri- ened towards :l\falden with his captives,
cans. \\ïnc1wstf'r was informed late in leaving the sick and wounded prisoners
the evening of the 21st that a foe was ap- b<'hind. The Indians followcd awhile,
proa('hing. He did not belieye it, and at wlwn thpy turnpd back, murdered and
midnight was in perfpet repose. The scalped those who were unable to travel as
ff'ntinpls wcre posted. hut. the weather captives, set fire to the houses, and tool.;:
þping intpnsely ('old. pickets wpre sent out many prisoners to Dptroit to procure px-
upon roads Ipading to th{' town. .Just mhitant pl'icps for thf'ir ra.m;om. Pro('-
as the drummf'r-boy was heating tll(' tor's inditferpll('p to this outrage, and the
TP\YPilJi>, in the gray twilight of the 22d. <b-eadful fHlspicion. which his cllara('ter
U1e sharp crack of a rifle, followed hy the warrantpd, that he encouragpd thp hutch-
Tattle of musketry, awoke the sleppers. ery of the defencelcss people. was keenly
Bomb-shelJa nnd canister-shot immedi- felt all through the West, particularly in
4i!)

FRENCH WEST INDIES-FRIENDS

IÜlltucky. for most of the victims were IRlì5. His po('try was highly commelHled
of the tlower of society in that State; and by Heotch and English literary critics,
for a long time afterwards the most in- He died near Freehold, N. J., Dec. 18,
spiriting war-cry of the Kentucky solùiers 1832.
,\ as, "Remember the River Raisin!" Friendly Association. In the middle
French West Indies, TilE. Canada of the eighteenth cpntury the descendants
conquered, the British turned their arms of 'Yilliam Penn, who succeeded to the
against the French 'Vest India Islands, in proprietorship of Pennsylyania, departf'ù
which th(' colonies participated. Gamle- from the just course pursued by the gr('at
loupe had alt"ead)' been taken. Generl>J foundpr of the eommonwf'alth towards the
::\Ionckton, after submitting his commis- Indians and the white people, anù exas-
sion as gonrnor to the council of Xew perated both
y their greed and coyetous-
York, sailed from that port (January, ness. Tlw Indians were made thoroughly
17(2), with two line-of-battle ships, 100 discontented by the frauds practispd on
tran
ports, and l.
OO regulars and colo- them in the purchase of lands 11I1d the
nial troops. :Major Gates (afterwards depredations of banditti mll('d trad('rs.
::djutant-general of the Continental army\ So much had they become alicnated from
went with ::\Ionckton as aide-de-camp, and the EngHsh that in 17;;;; the Delawart's
carried to England the n('ws of the captur
and others joined the French in making
of ::\lartinique. Richard :\[ontgompry (af- war. For some time the Friends, or
tprwards a. general in the Continental Quakers, 11ad obsprwd with sorrow the
army) held the rank of captain in this ex- treatment of the Indians hy Thomas amI
Iwdition. The colonial troops wer(' led by John Penn and the trad('rs, and, impell('d
(;('n. Phinf'as Lyman. Grenarla, St. Lucia, b." t}wir uniform sympathy with the op-
and St. Yince!1t's-indecd, every i;;;land prf'ssf'rl. th('y formed a so('i('ty in 17;)1ì
in the Caribbean group posses
cd by the caBed the Fri('ndly Association for Re-
l-"rench-fell into the hands of the Eng. gaining amI Preserving Peace with the
lish. The French fleet was ruined, and Indians by Pacific Measures. Thp so-
J'n'nch merchantnwn were drinn from ciety was a continual thorn in the sidps
the s('as. British nssf'ls. ineluding those f'f the proprif'tors and Indian tradC'rs, for
of .xew York and Xew England, now ob- the aetiy
memh('rs of the association
t:1ined the carrying-trade of those islands: '\"atched the interests of the red mC'n with
also, under safe conducts and flags of keen yigilance, attended e\"Cry treaty. and
truce, that of Santo Domingo. pre' ented a vast amount of fraud and
Freneau, PIlI Lll>, "the Poet of the clleating in the dpaling" of the w}Jite
He\-olution:" born in New York City, ,Jan. people with 1he natins. CIJarl('s Thom-
2, 17.'j
; graduated at the College of son, aftprwards seer('tarv of the Conti-
Xew .Jerspy in 1771. He was of Huguc- nental Congr('ss, was
ypry effi('ipnt
Hot descent, and p,-inC'ed a tal('nt for rhym- co-worker with them, making truthful
ing as early as the IIge of f;Cyenteen years, TPports of the proc('erlings at treaties. and
when he wrote a poC'tieal II istory of the preypnting false or garbled stat('mpnts.
Prophet Jonah. lIe was in the \\'est Ind- Th(' Fri('ndlf Association eontimH'd until
ies during a part of the Revolutionary 1íG-l.
"'ar, amI while on a \'oyage in 1780 wa!'! Friends, SOCIETY OF, othf'l'wis(' known
captured by a British cruis('f. \Her hi!i as Quak('rs, claim as tJwir fouJlllpr GFORGE
re}('ase he wrote many patriotic f;ongs, l'ox (q. 1'.), an Englishman: horn in
amI was engagf'd in editorial duti('s, no- Dra.'.ton, I
ei('('stf'rshire. in }(j
-l. Thl'
tahly on tJl(> DplUoeratic Yntimwl (Jn
('ttc, first gC'lwral nWt.ting of Frif'n(ls was hC'hI
of Philadelphia, the organ of .Tl'ffprson in ](j(jS, and th(' sp('ond in }(j7
. Owing
and his part.". IJp continuPll to edit and to the SPYere IH-'rsC'C'ution whi('h thpy suf-
pnhlish n('wspapers. His productions con- fered in England. a numl)('r of tJwm mme
b ihuted largply to animate his country- to America in 1G3G, allll lan(led at Boston,
men while "truggling for indepeJl(l('ncp. wlwnce tJw." were lat('r scatter('d hy ppr-
.\n edition of his RCI'olutimwry Poems, fI('c"tion. The first annual m('('ting in
1rith a lIcmoir and Xotes, by Ewrt A. .\nwrica is said to have hppn }whI in
Duyckinck. W:1" puh1islwd in Xpw York in TIho(le Island in lGGl. It was SPpilrated
4S11

FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

from the London annual meeting in 1 G83.
Ic. Annual meetings wel e founded in
This meeting was held regularly at Kew- :i\Iaryland in lGï2, in PennsJ'lvania and
port till 1878, since when it has al- New Jersey in lü81, in Korth Carolina
ternated between Kewport and Portland. in 1 'íOH, and in Ohio in 1812. The

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QUAKF.R EXßORTF.1t IN COJ.():\IAL NEW E
GLA:IID.
4Rl

FRIES-FROBISHER

Friends ha,-e no creed, and no sacraments.
They claim that a spiritual baptism anù
a spiritual communion without outward
signs are all that are necessary for men.
They believe in the Old and Kew Testa-
ments as the \Yord of God, and, therefore,
accept the atonement and sanctification.
Belief in the" immediate influence of the
Holy Spirit" is said to be the most promi-
n('nt feature of their faith. They have
monthly meetings, embracing a number of
local meetings. They also have quarterly
meetings, to which they send delegates,
and tlH'se latter may deal with cases of
discipline and accept or dissolve local or
monthly meetings. The highest body,
however, is the yearly meeting. to which
all other meetings are subordinate. The
Friends in the rnited States are didded
into four bodics, known as the Orthodox,
Hieksite, Wilburite, and Primitive. The
ftr
t mentionpd greatly exceeds the others
in strength. In HIOO they reported 1,2ïU
ministers, 820 meeting-houses, and 91.8GR
members. The last reports of the other
branches showed: Hicksites. 115 minis-
tprs, 201 meeting-hOllses. and 21.!)fl2 mem-
hers; Wilburites, 38 ministers. !)2 meet-
ing-houses, and 4,32!) memb('rs; and
Primitives. J 1 minístprs. {) meeting-houses,
and 2:J2 m('mbers. See QUAKERS.
Fries, JOliN, rioter; born in Rucks
county, Pa., in 17G4. During the window-
tax riots in 1\ortha111pton. Rucks, and
::\Iontgomery counties, Pa., in 17!)8-!)!).
Fries headed the rioters, lilwratpù several
prisoners whom the sheriff had arrested,
and in turn arrested the assessors. Fries
was arrest('d and tried on the charge of
high treason. pronounced guilty, and sen-
tenc('d to be hanged in April, 1800. Prpsi-
dent Adams issued a gpneral amn('sty
\\ hich covered all the offenders.
Frobisher, :\fARTIN, navigator; born
in Doncaster, Yorkshire, England, about
1':>3G; was a mariner by profession, and

'earned for an opportunity to go in search
of a northwpst passage to India. For
fifteen years he tried in vain to get pecun-
iary aid to fit out ships. At length the
Earl of Warwick and others privately
fitted out two small barks of 23 tons each
find a pinnace, with the approval of Queen
Elizabeth, and with these he sailed from
Deptford in June, 1576, declaring that he
would succeed or never come haek alive.
4S2

\8 the Hotilla passed the palace at Green-
wich, the Qucen, sitting at an open
window, waved her hand towarùs the com-
mander in token of good-will and farewell.
Touching at Greenland, Frobish('r crossed
over and coasted up the shorN, of Labra-
dor to latitude û3 0 , where he entered
what he supposed to be a strait. but which
was really a bay, whi\'h
.et bears the
name of Frobisher's Inlet. I Ie landed,
and promptly took pos
>pssion of the
country around in the name of his <Ju('pn.
Trying to sail farther northward, he was
harred by pack-ice, when hp turned and
sailed for England. bearing a heavy black
stone which he believed contained metal.
He gave the stone to a man whose wife,
in a passion, e.lst it into the fire. The
husband snatched the glowing mineral
from the t1am('s and quenclwd it in some
vinegar, wlwn it glittpred like gold. On
fusing it, some particles of the precious
metal were found. When this fact hecame
known a gold fever was produced. Money

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was freely offered for fitting-out vessels
to go for more of the mincral. The Queen
placed a ship of the royal navy at Fro-
bisher's disposal, and he sailed, with two
other vessels of 30 tons each, from Har-
wieh in 1.:>ï7. instructed to search for
gold, and not for the northwest passage.
The v{'ssels were ladpn with the black ore
on the shores of Frohisher's Inlet, and on
the return of the expedition to England a
commission was appointed to determine
the value of thp discovery.
Yery little gold was found in the car-

FROEBEL-FRONTENAC

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goes, yet faith was not (.'(hausted. and
FrohislH'r saih-'d in
Iay, l.;ïS, with fifteen
ships in sparch of the precious metal.
Storms dislwrsed the fleet. Some turned
back, two of them went to the bottom of
the sea. and three or four of them re-
turned laden with the worthless stones.
Frobisher had won the honor of a discov-
erer, and as th(' first European who pene-
hated towards the -,\rctic Circ1e to the ();M
ùc
rce. For these e""ploits. and for spr-
vices in fightiq! t11<' Spanish Armada. he
was knighted hy Elizaheth, and in l:JflO-!l2
he comlluIllletl a squadron sent aga inst the
Rpaniard8. In l.ï!1-t. he wag sent wit h two
ships to hclp Henry nr. of France, and in
a hatt1e at Bn'st (Xo,'. ï) he was mor-
tally wounded.
FroebeI, .TFurR, author; horn in
Griesheim. Oerm:my, ,lul.\' 16. IRO.;; e<lu-
eatf'J in hi", natin> country. Hp came
to thf' rnitf'd States in midrlle life and
was natunlli7f'(I; Ipctm'f'd in N(.w York,
and in 18;;0 \\"ent to :Nicaragua. Chilmall1la,
anù Santa Fé as a correspondent of t11f'
New York Tribu1Ic. In 18.)7 he returned
to Germany. Hp was the author of SCl'rn
Years' 1'rflly'1 in (Yrntrol .lmer;rfl. Yorth-
('?"It 11('xi('O, and tllr For 1Fcst of the
Unit('fl Stflt{'.
; 'flte Nt ,,,,Mil'nn, etc. Iff'
died in ZmiclI. Xov. G, lSf):1.
Frontenac, FORT, a fortification

\

by F'rontcnae in 1Gï3 at the foot of Lake
Ontario, at the present King"ton. Aftcr
the repulse of the English at Ticonderoga
( July 8, 1758) , Co!. .10hn Bradstreet
urged Abercrombie to send an ð.pedition
against this fort. He detached 3,000 men
for the purpose, and ga'"e Colonel Brad-
street command of the e').pedition. He
went by thf' 'nl
' of Oswego, and cro!-.sed
the lakf' in hatpaux, having with him 300
bateau-men. IIis troops were chiefly pro-
vincials, and were furni<;hed with eight
pieces of cannon and two mOI"tars. Tlwy
landed within a mile of the fort on the
evening of Aug. 2.'), constructed hatteries,
and opened them upon the fort at short
range two days afterwards Finding the
works untpnable, the garrison surn'nd{'red
(.\ug. 27) without much resistance. The
Indians having previously deserted. there
w('rp only 110 prisoners. The spoils wpre
sixty cannon. sixtcpn mortars. a large
quantity of small arms, provisions and
military storcs, and nine armed \'('ssels.
On his rpturn, Bradstrppt a
sistpd in
IlIIilding Fort
tanwÍ\.. in the :\Iolwwk
Ya]]py. on the site of nome, OUf'ida
(,o11nty.
Frontenac, LorIs DE BC\DE, ('Or:
T DE,
colonial gonrnor; horn in Franpf' in Iti
();
was malle :1 eoloJwl at SP'"f'ntpen
elus of
built age, anù was an eminent lieutenant-gen-
-tS:1

FRONT ROYAL-FRY

end at twenty-nine, cO\'ered with decora- tIe in which he was
('\ ('rPly wounded,
t i(ln
anù scars.
elel'teù h
' 'iarshal when ;\)(1 of his ml'lI. with a section of
Tun'lIne to lead troop
bent for the relid rilled lU-poumlers alld hi
whole supply
of ('anaùa. he was maùe gO\ ernor of that hain, fell into the hands of the Con-
prodnce in l(i;
. and built Fort Frontcnac federates.
(now Kingston). at the foot of Lake On- Frost, CHARLES, pioneer; born in Tinr-
tario, in lIii3. He was recalled in lGH2. ton. England, in Ili:I
; came with his
hut W
\s reappoinÌf'd in Imm, when the fathel" to
\lUeriea, who settled on the Pis-
Fren('h dominions in America were on the cataqua River in }ü:W. 1.'rost was a mem-
"rink of ruin. "ïth great energy he car- ber of the gencral court from 1l;:i
to
riC'd on war against the English in Xew lü.J!I, and a ('oun<.'Ïllor from Hin:l to !ü!li.
\ork :HIll
ew England. and their allies, He was accu
t'd by the Indians of ha\-ing
the froquois. Early in lli!l\; an expedition seized some of their race for the purpose
which he sent towards _\Ihany desolated of enslavement and was killed in HiHi.

chenectad.v; and the same year he sue- Frost, .JOHX, authol': born in Kenn('-
('essfull
' resis:ed a land and naval force blink, 1\1e., Jan. :W, IHOO; graduatf'd at

ent against Canatht. Hf' was in Montreal lIan'ard in }82
; was the authol' ')f
wlH'n an Indian runner told him of the ap- History of the World; Pictorial History
proach to the
t. Lawr!'nce of Colonel 0; the L'nitcd .'{((ltes; Bool
of the lnny;

('huylf'r (see KIXO' "'ILLIA:\I'S "'AR). Book of the 'Su,-'y, etc. He died in Phila-
Frontenac, then !->e\'f'uty years of age, òelpllia. Pa., Dcc. 28, 1859.
talled out his Indian allies. and, taking a Frost, .folIx. !'oldier; horn in Kittery,
tomahawk in his hand, }If' dan('ed the war- Me., May 5, 1 i:lS: waK a captain of colonial
dance, and chantf'd the war-song- in their troo])s in the ('aJ1<ldian cam])aign of 17.')!),
pnh.;ence and t]l('n led them !'uccessfuJ1y and lieutenant - c01OJlf'1 at the !'if'ge of
ag-ain"t thf' foe. Ill' afterwards repulsed Boston in 1 7';" ft. Tn 1 iifi II(' was prolJ1otpd
Phipps at (jlwhf'f'. having hf'f'n inform ell to colonel and sel"wd under General Gatf's
of his e\.pellition by an In(lian runner until Burgoyne's surrender, whl'n he was
from Pemaqllid. So important was that c,rdered to "'ashington's al"Jnr and par-
npulse considered that King Louis caused ticipated in the battle of ::\Jonmouth and
a n1f'dal to be struck with the legend, other engagf'lllf'nts. After the c10s(' of
"France victorious in the Kew \Yorld." the W:1r he was appointed ,indgf' of the
This !'uccess was followed by an expedi- conrt of sf'ssions fOl" York connty. Me.
lion !'ent Lr Frontenae a
ainst the Mo- 1If' diNI in Kitterv, ::\If'., in .Tuly. IfnO.
hawks in IIi!Hì: and he led forces in per- Frothingham,. RI(,HARD. . historian;
son ac'ainst the Onondagas the same Yf'ar. horn in Charle!'otowTI, ::\Iass., .Tan. :n, ISl
:
Front';nac "as the terror of the Iroquois, was proprif'tor of th(' Roston PO,qt. :1nd
tor hi
couraO'e and activity were wonder- was !'I'\ ('ral times electcd to the legi
-
ful. He rf'stored the fall'en fortunes of lature; mayor of Cluu1f'!->town in lR:>I-:i:l.
France in _\nlf'ric:1. and dif'1l soon after- Among his pnhlications are llistory of
ward
. in Qllf'bf'(" :SOY.
H. Hi!IS. Clwrlrstolcn; Tlistory or the Sicge of Ro.q-
Front Royal; RATTLE AT. On "!\Iay 2
. ton: The ('ommand in the Battle of Run-
lS{)
. (itneral Ewell ff'lJ with cnlshing l;('r l/i11: Ufi' of .To.<wph 1f'arren,: Rise of
force, almost without warning.. upon thf' thi' R('pu 1 Jlic. ete. He died in Char1f's-
litth. g:11Tison of 1,000 men, undpr ('010- town.
I:1ss.. .Tan. 2f1. I SSO.
nf'l ]Ünlv, at Front nova1. Kf'nly was Fry, .TA
IER l
AR
ET. mi:it:\TY OffiCf'T:
{'hargf'd
dth the pJOtecÙon of the' roads horn in ('arro1Jton, f:rf'f'n co., TI1.. Fl'h.
and bridcrf's lktwet'n :Front Roval and 2
. l8
i: graduated at the .rnited
tatf'!'I

trasLur; IIi" troops were ('hi
flv Xf'W :\Ii1itary Af':1clemy in IRti. After :--t'lT-
Yorkers ;nd Penn
.dYanians. Kf'nl;' mad.. in/! as a,,-
istant in"-trnctor of artilIf'ry
a gallant defence, but was driven from thf' at \Yf'st Point, he was :1ssigned to the :lcl
town. He made another stand. bnt ,,'as Artillery. tllf'n in :;\Ie:\.ico. where he rp-
pu
lJ('d a('ross t1w f'llf'nandoah. He at- mained' till the e1o!':e of the war. Aftf'1"
tf'mptf'd to hurn t11f' hridge hehind him, tlo,in::! hontit'T duty at various posts. Ilf'
hut failed. Wllf'l1 Ewe]]"s ("ava1ry in pllr- waR again in,,-trm.tor at "'est Point in
snit owrtook him. Kf'nly again gaw hat- IS.ï:l-:i-t. and adjutant there in I
.')-t-:ífl.
PH

FRY-FRYE

On March lG, 18tH, he ,,'as appointed as-
sistant adjutant-general, and later in the
same year became chief of
tafl' to Gen.
Irwin McDowell. In 18ül-G
he was on
the
taff of Gen. Don Carlos Buell. He
',as appointed provost-marshal-general of
the Cnited States. :\larch 17, 18133. and
Was given the rank of brigadier-gpneral,

\pril 21, 18G4. General Fry registered
1,120,G21 recruits, arrested 7G,5G
de-
serters, collected $2G.3üü.3lG, and made an
exact enrolment of the Xational forces.
He was bre,'ctted major-general in the
regular anll
'. :\1arch 13. 1813.3, for" faith-
fu], meritorious. and di:,tinguished I:>er-
vices." After the war he served as ad-
jutant-general, with the rank of colonel,
of the division"l of the Pacific, the South,
the l\Iissouri, and the Atlantic, till 1881,
when he wa
retired from active service
at his own request. He was the author
of Fined [(cport of the Operations of the
Bureau of the Pro!:Ost-JIarslwl-Gellf'ral in
18tj.3-(j/): Sketch of the .:ldjutant-G-cllcral's
Department of the United ,çjfatcs A.l"lny
from lì73 to 18ì3
. History alld Lc[(al
Effects of Bracts in the -trmies' of Orcat
Britain and the United i"llates, from their
úrigin in 169? to thr Present Time,: A.rmy
Sacrifices: l[t'DOll"ell (lnd TyTf'r in the
Campaign of Btill HWlj O}Jf'nltions of the
A.1"Iny under Burll: and XCII' rork alld
('ont;leription. He died in Xewport. R. 1.,
Julv II, 1894.
:Fry, JOSEPH, mi1itary officer: horn in

\ndoYer, Mas'S., in ApI'iI, liIl; was an en.
sign in the army that captured T
oui!-Òh,-ug
in 174'>, and a colonel in the British army
:I..t thp <:a pture of Fort William Henry by
:\Iontcalm in 17.>7. Hp eseaped and
reached Fort Edward. In 177:5 Congre,.;s
appointed him hrigadier-general, hut in
the spring of J 77G he resigned on account
d infirmity. He died in Frycburg. 1[1.'.,
in 17!}4.
Fry, .JosEPH. na\"al offiper; born in
Louisiana, ahol1t 1828: joined the na,'y in
IS41; Was promoted lieutenant in Septem-
her. 18.3,3; re<;igned when Louisiana se-
cedf'd: was unahlp to sCf'ure a command in
the Confederate wny, hut was commis-
sioned an oflìcpr in the arm.". Tn ]R7

he hecame captain of tl)(> lïrg;n;II.<l. known
as a Cullan war stpanwr. His ship was in Lewi"ton. :\1e., :-:ept. 12. IR:H: gratln-
captured by a Rpani
h \'ar ycsseI. and he. ated at Bowdoin ('ollege in IS.30; and
with manv of his crew, was ::;hot as a became a la"
"('r. He :,ayed as a mem-

485

pirate in Santiago de Cuba, Xov. 7. 11'173.

ee Fu,musTER.
Fry, JOSHUA, military officer; born in
Somersetshire, England; educated at Ox"
ford, and was profes'Sor of mathematics
in the College of William and :\lary. in
YÜ"ginia. He served in public cÏ\ il life
in ViI.ginia, and in 1754 was intrusted
with the command of an expedition
against the French on the head-waters of
the Ohio. He died at a place at the
mouth of "ïll"" Creek (now Cumberland),
1Id., while conducting the expedition,

Iay 31, 1754. He had been colonel
of the militia (1 ï 50) and a membeI' of the
governor':, council. ""hen FQ'e died, the
command of the ðpedition to the Ohio
was a
suUled by George ""ashington. who
had ht'en s{'<,ond in command.
Frye, J.UlES, military officer; born in
Andonr, 11ass., in 1709; seI'yed in several
I{lcul oflices. and in the army at the ca.pt

ure of Louislmrg in 175.3. At the opening
of the Re\-olution he commanded the Essex
Iï.egiment (:\[as::;achuseUs), taking an ac-
tiw paI't in the battle of Runker Hill.
He aftel wards commanded a brigade of
the army investing Boston. He died Jan.
8, 177ü.
Frye, \VILLL\?f PIERCE, lawyer; born

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WI/.r.rA" PIFI<rE FRYE.

FRYER-FUGITIVE SLA VE LAWS

her of the l\Iaine legislature in 1861- magistrate, on being satisfied that the
li2 and in lRü7; was mayor of Lewiston charges against the fugitive were true,
in 181j(j-67; attorne)'-general of Maine in should give a certificate to that effect,
hHij-Ii!); Hepresentative in Congress in which was a sullicient wa.rrant for re-
1871-tH; and was elected to the rnited manding the per:-un
eizeù back to sla-
Ntates Senate in 1881. 188:
, 1888, 18!)5, w'r.y. _\ny pcr
on in any way obstructing
and I
OO. For a number of years he was such scizurc or removal, or harboring or
chairman of the Senate committee on conccaling such fugitive, was liable to il
commerce. In 1808 he was appointed one penalty of $300. For some time the law
ot the commissioners to negotiate a. treaty attracted vel'y little attention, but finall
'
with
pain. under the terms of the pro- this sunllnal'Y violation of the right of
tocol, and afterwards ably defended the personal libel"ty without a trial by jury.
treaty in committee and on the floor of or any appeal on points of law, was de-
the Senate. In recognition of his ser- nounced as dangerous a.nd unconstitu-
vices in behalf of peace the legislature of tional; and most of the free-labor States
l\Iaine set apart a day for him to become pas
ed acts forbidding their magi
trates.
a guest of the
tate. u!lder severe penalties, to take any part
Fryer, ..TOIIX. Orientalist; horn in in carrying this law into effect. It be-
Hythe. England, Aug. fi, 1839: :rrad- C<1-me a dead letter until rcvived in 18:>0.
uated at IIighbury C'ollpge in HWO: Pro- Thc domestic slave-trade increased the
fes!'or in .\lfred Cniwrsity, Hong-Kong. liability of free llersons of color being
in 1861; Profe!'!'or of English Literature kidnapped, under the provisions of the
in T'ung-\Yen College, Peking. in 1863-65; fugitive slave act of 1703. A petition
for many )'ears connected with the Chi- was presented to Congress in 1818 from
nese government in an official capacity the yeiuly meeting of FI"iends at Halti-
for the purpose of tran!"lating modern more, pra)'ing for further provisions for
scientific hooks into Chinese. Profe!"sor protecting free persons of color. This had
Fryer has puhlished a large number of followed a hill brought in by a committce
hooks. essays. and reports in the Chinese at the instigation of Pindall, a member
language. and \\a" appointed Professor of from Yirginia, for giving new stringeney
Oriental Languages and Literature in the to the fugitive slave act. While this
rniversitv of C'alifornia in 1896. In 1002 bill was pending, a member from Rhode
the C'hiu"ese gO\"CP1Ilwnt appointed him Island (Burritt) moved to instruct the
pre!"iùent of tlw "'uehang Cniwrsity. He committee on the Quaker memorial to in-
In,h1i
hed a full ae{'ouut of the Buddhist quire into the expediency of additional pro-
mi
:-ions in .\meriea. under the title The visionR for the suppre!'sion of the foreign
RIl(ldhist !Jis('()/"(/".'I of lllll'rica l/J{){) siave-trade. Pindall"s bill was warmly
YC(lr"
brfo,'r ('OllllllbIl8.
ee HeI SIlE
. opposed by members from the free-labor
Fteley, .\LPIIO"XSE. l'ugineer: horn in
'ates as going entirely be)'ond the con-
France in IR:37; came to the l'nited States f"titutional provision on the subject of
in 181i;): \\"a
appoinÍl.d chief engineer fugitives from labor. They contended tha.t
of tllP Aqued\H-t ('olllllli:-...ion of
e\\" York the personal right!' of one cla!"s of citizens
in I
S
. He wa!' idpntified with the con- were not to be trampled upon to secure
!-truction of many engineering projects, the rights of property of other citizens.
including tllP Croton Aqueduct, the tunnel The bill was bupported by the Southern
under the Ea....t Hi\er. Xew York. etc. He members and a few Xortlwrn ones: abo
died in \onhers. .Tune II, 1!}0:3. Ity Speaker Henry Clay; and it pa!'sed
Fugitive Slave Laws. In I jH;J an act the Hou<;e of l{f'prc!'enta tins by a. vote
was pas!'ed by Congress for the rendition of 8-1 to 69. .-\mong the .yeas were ten
of fugitiH sl:nes. It providpd that the from Kew York, five from
Ia!'sachusett8.
ownel' of the gla\'e, or " sern1.nt," as it wad four from Pt.'IIHsylvania. and one from
termed in the act. hÏ!
agpnt or attorney, N<'w .T<'Nl'Y' It pa!'sed the
enate. aft('f
lIIight :-ei7f' the fugitive and carry him se\'pral important 311lPllflment!', hy a vote
betore any rnited Ht:1.tes judge. or hefore of 17 to 13.
feanwhile !'ume of its Xorth-
any magigtra.te of the city, town. or coun- orn sl1pporters seem to have been alarmpd
ty in which the arrest was made; such by thund
rs of indignation from their con-
4R6

FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS-FULLER

stit.uents, and when it reached the House
it was laid on the table, and was there al-
lowed to die.
One of the acts contemplated by Mr.
Clay's "O}fNIßCS BII
L" (q. v.) was fol'
the rendition of fugitive slaves to their
owners, under the provision of clause 3,
!'Iection 2, article 4, of the national Con.
stitution. In September, 1830, a bill to
that effect was passed, and became a
law by the signature of President Fill-
more. The bill was drawn up by Senator
.Tames M. Mason, of Virginia, and in
some of its features was made very offen-
!'live to the sentiments and feelings of the
people of the free-labor States. It pro-
vided that the master of a fugitive slave,
or his agent, might go into any State or
Territory of the republic, and, with or
without legal warrant there obtained,
seize such fugitive, and take him forth-
with befOl"C' any judge or commissioner,
whose duty it should be to hear and de-
t('rmine the case. On satisfactory proof
lwing furnished the judge or commis-
sioner, such as the affidavit, in writing,
or other accpptable testimony, by the
pursuing owner or agent, that the ar-
tested person" owes labor" to the party
that arrested him, or his principal, it was
made the duty of such judge or commis-
!->loner to use the power of his office to
assist the claimant to take the fugitive
hack into bondage. It was further pro-
vided that in no hearing or t1"Íal under the
act should the testimony of such alleged where he built up an important practice.
fugitive be admitted in evidence; and He was a member of the legislature, and a
that the parties claiming the fugitive delegate to several Democratic national

hould not he molested in their work of conventions. In lR88 hf> was appointed
carrying the person hack" by any process by President Cleveland chief - justice of
iE.!"ucd by any court, judge, or magistrate, the
upreme Court of the United States.
or any per!->on whomsoever"; and any citi- Fuller, SARAH MARGARET, :MARClIIONESS
zen might he compelled to assist in the D'OSSOLI. author; born in Cambridge,
c.lpture and rendition of a slave. This 1\1ass., May 23, IRlO; at the age of seven-
hst clause of the act was so offensive to teen read French. Italian,
panish. and
('\'Cry sentiment ("If humanity and justice, German lIuently; became a teacher in Bos-
so repugnant to the feelings of the people ton in 1
:
5; and, two yeat's later, in Provi-
of the free-Iahor States, and so contrary dence, R. J.
he formed classes for young
to the Anglo-
axon principle of fair-pIa)', ladies in Boston for training in conversa-
that, while the habitual rcspect for law tion, and the next year (1840) became
Ly the _\mcrican people caus('d a general editor of the Dial, the organ of the
acquiescenec in the reqnirenwnts of t'he TI
ANRCEXDENTALISTS (q. v.), to which she
fngitivp j':Ia ve law. there Wa!'I rPlw1lion contributed articles on t1w f',ocial condi-
against it in ewry Christian heart. It tion of women. In 1844 she became
was seen that free negroes might, by literary editor of the New York Tribune.
th(' perjury of kidnappers and the dcnial Miss Fuller travelled in Europe, and,
487

of the right to defence allowed to the
vilest criminal, be carried away into
hopeless slavery, beyond the reach of pit.>"
r.lCrcy, or law. This pet"eeption of pos-
sible wrong that would follow the execu-
tion of the fugitive slave law caused
several free-labor States to pass laws for
protecting their p010red population. See
PER
ONAL LIBERTY J
AWS; SLAVERY.
Fuller, MELVILLE WESTON, jurist; born
in Augusta, Me., Feb. 11, 1833; grad-
uated at Bowdoin College, in 1833; be-
came a law
'er in his native city; and
soon afterwards removed to Chicago,

MELVILLE WESTO
FULLER.

vi",it ing Italy in 18.t7, she married th

Marquis d'Ossoli. In 1850, returning to
her native country with her husband and
child, the "Vessel was wrecked on the
E;outhern coast of Long Island, and all
three were drowned, Jul)' 16, 1850. Her
writings are held in the highest esti-
mation, and have made a deep impres-
I'oion upon features of social life in
America.
Fulton, JUSTIN DEWEY, clergyman;
horn in Earlyille, N. Y., March 1, 1828;
graduated at the University of Roches-
ter in 18;)1, and then studied at the
theological f'.eminary there. In 1863-
i3 he was pastor of Tremont Temple, Bos-
ton; in 1873-75 of the Hanson Place Bap-
tist Church. in Brookl;yn; later he founded
the Centennial Baptist Church in Brook-
lyn, and was its pastor for several years.
He then gave up church work and de-
voted himself to writing and speaking
against the Roman Catholic Church. His
publications include The Roman Catholic
Element i?
American History,: lloman a8
God made Her
' Show Your Colors; Rome
in America; Charles H. Spurgeon our
.tlly, etc. He died in Somerville, Mass.,
April 16, 1901.
Fulton, ROBERT, inventor; born in

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FULTON

Little Britain, Lancaster co., Pa., in 17tì5;
received a common-school education; be-
came a miniature painter; and, at the
age of twenty, was practising that pro-
fession in Philadelphia, by which he madl'

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FULTO:\'S CLt:R310:\T

enough money to buy a small farm in
\Vashington county, on which he placed
his mother. Then he wcnt to England;
studied painting under Benjamin West;
became a ci,-il engineer; and madc him-
self familiar with the steam engine, then
just improved by \Vatt. He de,-ised nll'i-
cus machines, among them an excavator
for scooping out the channels of aque-
ducts. He wrote and publi
hed esga
s on
canals and canal navigation in 1 i9.)-96.
He went to Paris in 1797, and remained
there Reven years with Joel Barlow,
studying languages and scienceR. and
imented a torpedo. This he offered
to the French and Engligh gm-ern-
ments, but both rejected the inyen-
tion, and in December, 1806, he ar-
rin'd in New York. He went to
\Yashington. where the models and
drawings of his torpedo made a fa-
vorable impression. In IR07 he per-
fected his steamboat for navigating
the Hud
on. IUl\'illg been aided hy
Robert R. Livingston. with whom
he had been acquainted in Paris.
JjyingRton had made ðperiments in
steamboating as early as linS. when
he was granted the exclusive privi-

lege of navigating the waters of the

-
tate by steam. Fulton was finally
included in the provisions of the act,
and in
('ptemher, 1807, the Cler-
mont, the first 8teamhoat that nad-
gated the Hudson. marle a succe!:o"ful
voyage from New York to Alhany and
back. She travelled at the ratf' of 5
miles an hour. fo:ee Lln
GSTO
, R. H.

s:-

488

FUNDAMENTAL CONSTITUTIONS

At this time, Fulton r{'gardcd his tor-
pedo as the grea ter and more lwueficial
invention, as he believed it would estab-
lish the .. liberty of the seas:'
The government, in 1810, appropri-
ated $.3,000 to enable him to try
further experiments with his tor-
}H'do; but a commi!'sion decided
against it, aud he was compelJed
to abandon his scheme. Steam
nadgation W11!oò a. success. He
huilt ferry-hoats to run across the
Xorth (Hudson) and East rivers,
and built wssels for several
stf'amhoat companies in di1ferent
})arts of the Unitf'd States. In
1814 he was appointed by the gov-
ernment engineer to superintend
the con
truetion of one or more
floating batteries. He built a war
!'teu mer (the fi rst en'r construct-
cd). which he called the Demologos.
SJle had a speed of 2% miles an
hour, and was deemed a marvel;

h(' was nanlf'ù Ftlltoa tlle First, taken to
tlw Brooklyn na ,'y-yiud. and there used
a
a recei\"ing-ship until January, 1829,
when !'\he wa" aCf'identally blown up (sre
TORPEDOES). Fulton died in Xew York, Feb.
24, 181.3. See
TEA
moAT, IXVEXTIOX OF.
Fundamental Constitutions. The pro-

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'S ßlRTHPLACE.

an aristocratic go\'Crnment, in f.:>udal
form, employed the IÙlrl of Shafteshury
aud John Locke to frame one. 'Thev

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complpted the task in March, HiGH, and
named the instrument "Fundament.11
Constitutions." It prodded for two or-
ders of nobility; the higher to consist of
Jandgraves, or e
uls, the lower of caciques,
or barons. The tenitory was to he di\'id-
ed into counties, each containing 480.000
acres, with one landgraye amI two
caciques. There were also to be lords
of manors, who, like the noblC's,
might hold courts and e'\.ercise judi-
cial functions, but could never at-
tain to a higher rank. The four
estates-proprietors, earls, barons.
and commoners-were to sit in one
legislath'c ellaruber. The proprietors
were always to be eight in numher,
to posse:-,s thc wholc .iudicial power.
and have the supreme control of all
tribunals. The commons \\"e,'f' to
have four membprs in the legi"lat-
111'(' to e"ery tlm'p of the nobility.
Every fonn of religion was profpss-
edly tolerated, hut the Church of
England only was declared to be or-
thodo:\.. In the highest degree mo-
narehical in its tendency, this fmm
of government was distasteful to
the people: so, after a contest of
lwidors of the Carolinas, which included ahout twenty years between them and the
tllP territory of what was aftf.rwanls the proprietor
, the absurd scheme was allan-
colony of Georgia, wishing to estahlish cloned.
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FUI.TO
'S TORPEDO.

FUNDING SYSTEM-FUNSTON

Funding System, EARLY. On .\ug". .1-,
I inO. an iH:t ,,'as a(lop1ed for fnnding" thl'
public dcbt of the l'nitcd StidC'..;. It au-
t1lOrií'ed the President of the United
:-'tatls to borrow $12.000.000. if so much
was found necessary. for dis('harging tht>
arrears of in1en.st and the o,'erdue 1n-
.,talml'nts on the forei:!n debt, and for pay-
in,
olr t1}e whole of that debt. could it be
effected on advantageou" terll}!": the
mOll('
' thus bOlTo,,'pd to be reimburse/I
within fifteen years. .\ m'w loan was al:::o
to be opelwd. payable in certificates of the
domestic deht. at their par ,'alue. amI in
Continental bi!ls of credit. "new tenor,"
at the rate of $1O() for $1. The ad all'o
authorized an additional loan. pa,\"all1e in
cprtificates of the State debts. to the
amount of $21,:)00.000: hut no certificates
WHe to be reef'iyed e\.cepting such I1S had
been issued for spryicps and snpp1if's dur-
ing the war for independt'nce. For p:1.y-
ment of the interest and principal on the
public debt-the foreign debt ha,"ing the
preference. and then the Continpntal loan
-a pledge was made of the income of tlw
existing tonnage and import duties. aftpr
an annual deòudion of $(ì()O.O(){) for cur-
rent e\.pensps. The faith of t1H' rnit('11
States was al1'o pled,!!/'(l to make up al1
deficiencies of intel'est. 'II\/' proceeds of
the sales of \\'l'stf'l"I} lands then lwlonging
to. or which might belong to. the rnited
Ktatps. wpre specially and e
c1usi\"Cly ap-
propriate/I Ìfl\\anls the di
'charge of tllC' prals Oti'3 and )Il1cArthur, for signal skil1
principal. For supprintpß[ling the<;;p loans awl gl111antry in swimming aeross the Rio
and for the general mana;!!l.nwnt of the Grandp at CI11umpit in the face of a lu'a,"y
public debt. the old Continental systPIl\ fire bom the insurgents. alHI pstablishing
oi a loan-office commission in pach State a rope fCITY by means of which t}H' .\meri-
was continued. The funding s
'i'tpm "'as can troops were f'nahled to makc a C'rll
"-
n-ry l)('nefìeial to the country. The r('- ing and to sue('('ssfull
' en
ag-e the insnr-
suIt of its satisfactory operation on the gents. On ::\[ay 2, I!WO. while making a
husiness of the nation was the re-í'stah- personal rec'onnoissance up the Rio Grnl\ll('
li
hment of cnmmt'H:l'. See };'ISAXCES, de Ill, Pampanga lw discO\"ered a p(,I')I('n-
r:'\ITEn STATES. dicular ladeIf'r lealling up a cliff cro\\ netl
Funston, FREf)ERICK, militar
T officer; with a d('n!ie forest. R(',;;idp the 1aeIIler
horn in Ohio. Xm. 0. I Rß'}; aUemlpd the hung a ropp which. wllPn pull('I1. rang an
Kansas Statp rni,'ersity. hut did not alarm hell in H1(' woolls hack of thc preei-
graduate: hecamp a new!ipapC'r ..pporter piee. Depming- these apl,earanecs su...-
in Kansas City in IS!)O: hotanist of the pieious. he aSC'C'fHled the 1a<1<1('}' and at the
Lnited States J)path Yalley E\.pp,lition in "ummit found 1Ilan
' larg(' \\"oollen cas('s
IROI; anl
special commissioner ()f t11P De- fillpd with document" compri..ing- a gn'at
partment of Agriculture to e:\.plore .\laska, n1llnh('r of t}1f' arf'lli,'('s of tJw in"urgC'nts.
with a yip\\, of r('porting on its flora. including all the C'OlTPspond('nC'C' of Ag-ui-
189
-f)4: joined the Cuhans in I8!)(j and naldo from the timf' of his parlipst com-
served in their army for a year and a munications with Dewey down to the flight
4fJû

half. At thl' I)('
illning of the war "ith
:-;I'a ill II!' \\ as l'Olllllli,.,,.,ioIlI'J (:olOlwl of t hI'

Clth Kallsa
\ olllntl'ers, whi,'h he al'('oll}-
pallil'd to th(' Pllllippilll's. where he suhse-
QIll'IIt1y made all l'
c/')ltiollally brilliallt
n'corù. 011 )1al'(:h :n, 18!\!). hI' was th('
1ir:,t man to enter )1alolos. 01(' Filipillo in-
sllrgents' capital. On ::\la.'" 2. IH!)!). Pn'si-
dellt
1l'Kinley promoted him to hl'ig;ulil'r-
gl'lI/'l'al in thc nl'wly org.lni7ed "01111Itl'('r
sen'il'e. on t1u-' n'(:oll\ll\('BIlat ion of (:en-

"

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('"'
" P
. I' <<'
., .'

] ) j

, u7fJ

FRF.IJF.RICK F["
STO
.

FURMAN-FUR-TRADE

from Malolos, and also including Agui- was started by the director-general of
nnldo's personal letter-book, with press ],nuisiann. A trading expedition wa-;
copies of his correspondence. These boxes fitted out, and under the direction of
were hidden in a ravine, but were all re- Pierre Ligueste Laclede, the principal pro-
covered and taken to Manila, where their jector of the enterprise, it went to the
contents were delivered to the American Missouri region, and established its chief
authorities. On March 23, 1901, he capt- depot on the site of the city of St. Louis.
ured AOUlNAI,DO (q. v.), and on the 30th which name was then given to that 10-
foJJowing was commissioned brigadier- cality. There furs were gathered fwm
general in the regular army. the regions extending eastward to Mack-
Furman, GABRIEL, lawyer; born in inaw, and westward to the Rocky Moun-
Brooklyn, N. Y., Jan. 23, 1800; trans- tains. Their treasures went in boats down
mitted extensive antiquarian researches, the Mississippi to Xew Orleans, and thence
but his only published work is Notes, to Europe; or up the Illinois River, across
Geographical and Historical, Relative to a portage to Lake Michigan, and by way
the Town of Brooklyn. He died in Brook- of the Great Lakes and the St. LawI'ence
Iyn, N. Y., Nov. II, 1834. to Montreal and Quebec.
Furman, RICHARD, clergyman; born in Early in the nineteenth century, fur-
Esopus, N. Y., in 1755. While still a trading posts had been established on the
child his father removed to South Caro- Columbia River and other waters that
lina. He became a minister in the empty into the Pacific Ocean. In 1784
Baptist Church before he was of age, and JOHN JACOB ASTOR (q. v.), an enterpris-
was such an ardent patriot during the ing young German merchant of New York,
Revolution that Lord Cornwallis offered embarked in the fur-trade. He purchased
a reward for his capture. Mr. Furman furs in Montreal and sold them in Eng-
was a member of the first constitutional land; after the trpaty of 1795 he shipped
convention of South Carolina, and presi- them to different European ports. In this
dent of the first convention representing trade, chiefly, he amassed a fortune of
all the Baptist societies in America. Fur- $250,000, when he embarked in a scheme
man University in South Carolina was for making a great fur depot on the Pa-
named in his honor. He died in Charles- cific coast. He was then competing- with
ton, S. C., in 1825. the great fur companies of the Northwest,
Furnas, ROBERT WILKINSON, born in under a charter in the name of the
)fiami county, 0., May 5, 1824; removed American Fur Company, for which 11':-
to Nebraska in 185:>; appointed colonel of furnished the entire capital. 1\lr. A<;tor
the 2d Nebraska Cavalry during the Civil made an earnest effort to carryon the
\Var; elected governor of Nebraska in business between the Pacific coast of
1873; president of the Nebra<;.ka His- America and China, founding- the town of
torical Society and of the Nebraska Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia
Pioneers Society, also grand master of River. Through the bad faith of a busi-
the Order of Odd FeJJows and of the ness partner in 1813, that establishnwnt
Masonic RoC'Îetv. was sold for a Ilominal sum and pla('pò
Fur-trade.
While the EngliRh-Ameri- under British control. After that
lr.
can colonies remained dependents of Great ARtor carried on his operations in thp
Britain, they derived very little advan- region of the Rocky Mountains, with his
tage from the extensive fur-trade with chief post at )Iackinaw. Alaska, acquired
the Indians, for the Hudson Bay Com- in 1867 by purchase. open('ò a new field
pany absorbed nearly the whole of the for the American fnr-trade. The furs
traffic. It was contention between the from that region are mainl
' those of tlH'
French and English coloniRts for the con- fur-seal; there are also those of ill('
trol of this trade that was a powerful ele- beaver, ermine, fox, otter, marten, and
ment among the caus{>s that brought on other animalR. From 1870 to 1890 the
the FRENCH AND INDIAN \V AR (q. v.). In monopoly of the trade was in the ha nd

1762 a fur company was organized in New of the Alaska Commercial Compan
r of
Orleans for carrying on the fur-trade ex- San Francisco, Cal. In the Inttpr Vf'ar
tensively with the Western Indians. It the government granted the right of 'tak-
491

FUSANG-FYFFE

in
fur-seals to the "North ...\merican Com-
mcrcial Company for a yeal'ly I'ental of

liO.OOO and :tî7.li
Y2 for eaeh seal-skin.
Canadian sealing-ve"sels were, for 8e,'eral
.I:<'ars, illegally engaged in the indiscrimi-
natp slaughter of the seals, threatening
tlwir l,,,tinction. In IRS!} some of these
"('"...('1" ,\"('rp !--l.iz('d h
' Cnited Rhttes rev-
pnuc-cuttprs, thus gi,'ing rise to the ße-
)"ill
R('a contro,'prsy with Great Britain.

ee .\LAHKA; AXGLO-A
IERICAN Co
nns-

IOX: FISHEItlES.
Fusang, or Fuh-Sang, the name of the
country vi!"lited by BlHldhist monks in the
fifth centuQ, SUppc)!--pd to be :\[exico. See
111'1 RHEX.
Fuss and Feathers. A political nick-
name applied to l;('II. \nnfield Scott.
Futhey, .101lx R)II rn, hi:.;torian; horn
in l'Iwster count
., Pa.. Sept. 3, 1820;

admitted to the bar in 1843, and was dis-
trict attorney for th'c years. In I Si!)
he bCl'ilme presiding jlHlge of the distriet.
He is the author of many historical works,
including Historicul Collections of Chr!oltn-
County j Historical .-lddrC'ss un fhi> One
Hundrrdth t nnin'T,'wry of th(' Paoli 11(1.'1-
sacr": etc. lip dipd in ISSR.
Fyffe, JOSEPH, naval o!licpr: born in
Crbana. 0.. .July 2ü. UtI:!: l'IIÌt'rpd tIll'
navy as midshipman,
('pt. !I. IS-1,i: s('1"\'Pll
on the Cumberland and the.' bomb-ship
Htromboli in the war with )le\.ico; was
a volunteer in till' Orinnell aretic e\.ppdi-
tion of ISjG; s(')"nd thl"Oughout the Ci,-il
\Var, taking part in the attack on l:01"t
Fisher, the dpstructioll of the Confedf'l"ntf'
hlockade-rumwr /(allflcr, in tIw ol)('ration

near DutC'h (:al' Canal. e1('. lIe died in
Pif'} CP, Xeb., Fell. 2.), IH9ü.

.

I

E 174 .L91 1905 v.3 SMC
Lossing. Benson John.
Harper's encyclopadia of
United States history from 4
47083523