RPER'S ENCYCLOP
£] STATES HIST
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EDITION
HARPER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA
of UNITED STATES HISTORY
FROM 458 A.D. TO 1905
BASED UPON THE PLAN OF
BENSON JOHN LOSSINQ, LL.D.
SOMETIMK EDITOR OF "THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL RECORD" AND AUTHOR OF ' ' THE PICTORIAL FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION " ' ' THE PICTORIAL FIELD- BOOK OF THE WAR OF l8l2 " ETC., ETC., ETC.
WITH SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS COVERING EVERY PHASE OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES, INCLUDING
JOHN FISKE.
THE AMERICAN HISTORIAN
WM.R. HARPER, Ph.D., LL.D., D.D.
PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D.
PROF. OF HISTOR Y AT HARVARD
JOHN B. MOORE.
PROF. OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AT COLUMBIA
JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D.
PROF. OF LITERATURE AT UNIV. OF CALIFORNIA
WILLIAM T. HARRIS, Ph.D., LL.D.
U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION
WOODROW WILSON, Ph.D., LL.D.
PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.
PROF. OF HISTORY UNIV. OF TORONTO
MOSES COIT TYLER, LL.D.
PROF. OF HISTORY AT CORNELL
EDWARD G. BOURNE, Ph.D.
PROF. OF HISTORY AT YALE
R. J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.
PROF. OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AT COLUMBIA
ALFRED T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D.
CAPTAIN UNITED STATES NAVY (Retired)
ETC., ETC., ETC., ETC. WITH A PREFACE ON THE STUDY OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY
WOODROW WILSON, PH.D., LL.D.
PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
AUTHOR OP " A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE " ETC. , ETC.
WITH ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS, PORTRAITS, MAPS, PLANS, &c.
COMPLETE IN TEN VOLUMES VOL. V
HARPER & BROTHERS NEW YORK - 1905
PUBLISHERS LONDON
Copyright, 1905, by HARPER & BROTHERS.
Copyright, 1901, by HARPER & BROTHERS
All rights reserved.
LIST OF PLATES
PRESIDENT ABRAHAM LINCOLN ........ Frontispiece
PRESIDENT ANDREW JACKSON Facing page 96
THE BURNING OF JAMESTOWN " "120
PRESIDENT THOMAS JEFFERSON " 130
PRESIDENT ANDREW JOHNSON " 160
LINCOLN MAKING His FAMOUS SPEECH AT GETTYS- BURG *4 " 430
HARPERS' ENCYCLOPEDIA
OP
UNITED STATES HISTORY
i.
Iberville, PIERRE LE MOYNE, SIEUR D', founder of Louisiana; born in Montreal, Canada, July 16, 1661; was one of eleven brothers who figure in some degree in French colonial history. Entering the French navy at fourteen, he became dis- tinguished in the annals of Canada for his operations against the English in the north and east of that province. In 1698 he was sent from France to the Gulf of Mexico with two frigates ( Oct. 22 ) , to occupy the mouth of the Mississippi and the region neglected after the death of La Salle. On finding that stream, he re- ceived from the Indians a letter left by De Tonty, in 1686, for La Salle. There he built Fort Biloxi, garrisoned it, and made his brother Bienville the King's lieu- tenant. In May, 1699, he returned to France, but reappeared at Fort Biloxi in January, 1700. On visiting France and returning in 1701, he found the colony reduced by disease, and transferred the settlement to Mobile, and began the coloni- zation of Alabama. Disease had im- paired his health, and the government called him away from his work as the founder of Louisiana. He was engaged in the naval service in the West Indies, where he was fatally stricken by yellow fever, dying in Havana, Cuba, July 9, 1706.
Idaho, the thirtieth State admitted to the American Union, was first explored by .ae whites of the Lewis and Clark ex- pedition. Within its present limit the Coeur d'Al£ne mission was established in 1842. The region was visited almost ex-
V. — A
clusively by hunters and trappers till 1852, when gold was discovered on its present northern boundary. By act of Congress of March 3, 1863, the Territory of Idaho was created from a portion of Oregon Territory, with an area which in- cluded the whole of the present State of
STATB SEAL OP IDAHO.
Montana and nearly all of that of Wyo- ming. In 1864 the Territory lost a part of its area to form the Territory of Montana, and in 1868 another large portion was cut from it to form the Territory of Wyo- ming. On July 3, 1890, the Territory was admitted into the Union as a State, hav- ing then a gross area of 84,800 square miles. Between the dates of its creation as a Territory and a State it became wide- ly noted as a most promising field for gold
IDAHO— ILLINOIS
and silver mining, and for several years later, Idaho was classed politically as a silver State. Prospecting, however, de- veloped a large number of rich paying gold properties, and during the copper excitement of 1898-1901 many veins of that mineral were found. During the calendar year 1899 the gold mines of Idaho yielded a combined product valued at $1,889,000; and the silver mines a pro- duct having a commercial value of $2,311,- 080. The development of the various min- ing interests was seriously retarded for many years by the lack of transporta- tion facilities, but by 1900 railroads had been extended to a number of im- portant centres, and wagon-roads had been constructed connecting direct with the chief mining properties. The State also had a natural resource of inestimable value in its forests, with great variety of timber. The chief agricultural productions are wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, and hay, and the combined values of these crops in the calendar year 1903 was $13,921,855, the hay crop alone exceeding in value $6,800,000. For 1903 the equalized valu- ation of all taxable property was $65,- ! 964,785, and the total bonded debt was $692,500, largely incurred for the construc- tion of wagon-roads. The population in 1890 was 84,385; in 1900, 161,772. See UNITED STATES, IDAHO, vol. ix.
TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS.
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
|
Name. |
No. of Congress. |
Date. |
|
George L. Shoup |
51st to |
1890 |
|
-Fred. T. Dubois |
51st " 54th |
1890 to 1897 |
|
Heury Heitfeld |
55th " 57th |
1897 " 1903 |
|
Welden B. Hey burn |
58th " |
1903 " |
|
Name. |
Date. |
|
Wm H Wallace |
1863 to 1864 |
|
Caleb Lyon |
1864 " 1866 |
|
David W Ballard |
1866 " 1867 |
|
Samuel Bard |
1870 |
|
Oilman Marston .... ... |
1870 to 1871 |
|
1871 |
|
|
Thomas M Bowen .... |
1871 |
|
1871 to 1876 |
|
|
M'i son Bray man |
1876 " 1880 |
|
John B. Neil |
1880 " 1883 |
|
John N. Irwin |
1883 |
|
Wm. N. Burn . |
1834 to 1885 |
|
Edwin A. Stevens |
1885 " 1889 |
|
STATE GOVERNORS. |
|
|
Name. |
Date. |
|
George L. Shoup |
1890 |
|
N. B. Willey |
1890 to 1893 |
|
1893 " 1897 |
|
|
Frank Steunenberg |
1897 " 1901 |
|
Frank W Hunt |
1901 " 1W3 |
|
John T Morrison |
1%3 " 1905 |
|
Frank R. Gooding .... |
1905 " 1907 |
Ide, GEORGE BARTON, clergyman; born in Coventry, Vt., in 1804; graduated at Middlebury College in 1830; ordained in the Baptist Church; pastor of the First Baptist Church of Philadelphia, Pa., in 1838-52, and afterwards had a charge in Springfield, Mass., for twenty years. He published Green Hollow; Battle Echoes, or Lessons from the War; etc. He died in Springfield, Mass., April 16, 1872.
Ide, HENRY CLAY, jurist; born in Bar- net, Vt., Sept. 18, 1844; graduated at Dartmouth College in 1866. He was a member of the Vermont State Senate in 1882-85; president of the Republican State Convention in 1884; and a delegate to the National Republican Convention in 1888. In 1891 he was" appointed United States commissioner to Samoa; in 1893- 97 was chief-justice of the islands under the appointment of England, Germany, and the United States; in 1900 became a member of the Philippine Commission; and in 1901 Secretary of Finance and Justice of the Philippines. See SAMOA.
Ik Marvel. See MITCHELL, DONALD GRANT.
Illiers, COUNT HENRY Louis, military officer; born in Luxembourg in 1750; was one of the French officers who served in the Revolutionary War; took part in the battle of the Brandywine, where he saved Pulaski. He was the author of De la guerre d'Amerique, etc. He died in Paris in 1794.
Illinoia, the proposed name for a State of part of the Northwest Territory.
Illinois. The site of the present State was first explored by Marquette and Joliet, French missionaries from Canada, in 1763, who were followed by La Salle and Hennepin. Twenty years later mis- sion stations were established at Kaskas- kia, Cahokia, and Peoria; and early in the eighteenth century a French monas- tery was established at Kaskaskia. By the treaty of 1763, the " Illinois country," as it was called, passed under the juris- diction of the English. By the treaty of
ILLINOIS
1783 it was ceded to the United States, and it formed a part of the Northwest Territory. The country conquered by General Clarke, in 1778-79, the Virginia Assembly erected into a county, which they called Illinois. It embraced all ter-
STATE SEAL OP ILLINOIS.
ritory north of the Ohio claimed as within the limits of Virginia, and ordered 500 men to be raised for its defence. In 1809, when the present boundaries of Indiana were defined, Illinois included Wisconsin and a part of Minnesota, and in 1810 con- tained more than 12,000 inhabitants.
On Oct. 14, 1812, Gen. Samuel Hopkins, with 2,000 mounted Kentucky riflemen, crossed the Wabash on an expedition against the Kickapoo and Peoria Indian villages, in the Illinois country, the former 80 miles from his starting-place, the latter 120 miles. They traversed magnificent prairies covered with tall grass. The army was a free-and-easy, undisciplined mob, that chafed under restraint. Discontent, seen at the beginning, soon assumed the forms of complaint and murmuring. Finally, when halting on the fourth day's march, a major rode up to the general and insolently ordered him to march the troops back to Fort Harrison. Very soon after- wards the army was scarcely saved from perishing in the burning grass of a prai- rie, supposed to have been set on fire by the Indians. The troops would march no farther. Hopkins called for 500 volun- teers to follow him into Illinois. Not one responded. They would not submit to his
leadership, and he followed his army back to Fort Harrison, where they arrived Oct. 25. This march of 80 or 90 miles into the Indian country had greatly alarmed the Indians, and so did some good. Towards the same region aimed at by General Hop- kins another expedition, under Colonel Russell, composed of two small companies of United States regulars, with a small body of mounted militia under Gov. Ninian Edwards (who assumed the chief com- mand), in all 400 men, penetrated deeply into the Indian country, but, hearing noth- ing of Hopkins, did not venture to attempt much. They fell suddenly upon the princi- pal Kickapoo towns, 20 miles from Lake Peoria, drove the Indians into a swamp, through which they pursued them, some- times waist-deep in mud, and made them fly in terror across the Illinois River. Some of the pursuers passed over, and brought back canoes with dead Indians in them. Probably fifty had perished. The expedition returned, after an absence of eighteen days, with eighty horses and the dried scalps of several persons who had been killed by the savages, as trophies.
General Hopkins discharged the muti- neers and organized another expedition of 1,250 men, composed chiefly of foot-sol- diers. Its object was the destruction of Prophetstown. The troops were composed of Kentucky militia, some regulars under Capt. Zachary Taylor, a company of ran- gers, and a company of scouts and spies. They rendezvoused atVincennes,and march- ed up the Wabash Valley to Fort Harrison, Nov. 5, 1812. They did not reach the vicinity of Prophetstown until the 19th. Then a detachment fell upon and burned a Winnebago town of forty houses, 4 miles below Prophetstown. The latter and a large Kickapoo village near it were also laid in ashes. The village contained 160 huts, with all the winter provisions of corn and beans, which were totally de- stroyed. On the 21st a part of the expe- dition fell into an Indian ambush and lost eighteen men, killed, wounded, and miss- ing. So destitute were the troops, espe- cially the Kentuckians, who were clad in only the remnants of their summer cloth- ing, that the expedition returned without attempting anything more. They suffered dreadfully on their return march.
Among the prominent events of the War
ILLINOIS— ILLINOIS INDIANS
of 1812-15 in that region was the massacre at CHICAGO ( q. v. ) . After that war the pop- ulation rapidly increased, and on Dec. 3, 1818, Illinois, with its present limits, was admitted into the Union as a State. The census of 1820 showed a population of more than 55,000. THE BLACK HAWK WAR (q. v.) occurred in Illinois in 1832. There the Mormons established themselves in 1840, at Nauvoo (see MORMONS) ; their founder was slain by a mob at Carthage, in 1844, and soon afterwards a general exodus of this people occurred. A new State constitution was framed in 1847, and in July, 1870, the present constitu- tion was adopted. The Illinois Central Railroad, completed in 1856, has been a source of great material prosperity for the State. During the Civil War Illinois furnished to the national government (to Dec. 1, 1864) 197,364 troops.
In 1903 the equalized valuations of taxable property aggregated $1,083,672,- 183; and in 1903 the entire bonded debt consisted of $18,500 in bonds, which had ceased to draw interest and never been presented for payment. The population in 1890 was 3,826^,351; in 1900, 4,821,550. See UNITED STATES, ILLINOIS, vol. ix.
UNITED STATES SENATORS—C'ontffmed.
|
Maine. |
No. ot Congress. Date. |
||
|
Richard M Young . .. |
25th t 2r 28th t 2t 29th t 31st 34th 3" 37th 39th 42d 43d 45th 46th 48th 50th 52d 55th 58th |
0 27th th o 31st th o 37th 33d 42d h o 39th 42d 45th 46th 47th 49th 51st 55th 57th |
1837 to 1843 1841 " 1843 1843 " 1849 1843 " 1846 1847 " 1«61 1849 " 1855 1855 " 1871 1861 1863 to 1865 1865 " 1871 1871 " 1877 1873 " 1878 1877 " 1883 1879 " 1886 1883 " 1887 " 1891 1891 " 1897 18'.)7 " 10015 1903 " |
|
Samuel McRoberts |
|||
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Sidney Breese |
|||
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Stephen A Douglas |
|||
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James Shields |
|||
|
1 ,v iii.i n Tru m bull |
|||
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Orville H. Browning William A. Richardson... Richard Yates |
|||
|
John A. Logan |
|||
|
Richard J. Uglesby |
|||
|
David Davis John A. Logan |
|||
|
Shelby M. Cullum Charles B. Farwell |
|||
|
John M Palmer |
|||
|
William E Mason |
|||
|
Albert J. Hopkins . |
TERRITORIAL GOVERNOR.
Ninian Edwards commissioned April 24,
STATE GOVERNORS.
Shadrach Bond assumes office
Edward Coles.... Ninian Edwards. John Reynolds.., William L. D. Ewing. . .act ng
Joseph Duncan assumes office.
Thomas Carlin
Thomas Ford
Augustus C. French, Joel A. Matteson. ... William H. Bissell..
John Wood
Richard Yates
Richard J Oglesby..
John M. Palmer «
Richard J. Oglesby "
John L. Bevoridge acting March 4,
Shelby M. Cullom assumes office. . . . January,
John M. Hamilton acting Feb. 7,
Richard J. Oglesby January
Joseph W. Fifer " *
John P. Altgeld "
John R. Tanner "
Richard Yates "
C. S. Deneen »'
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
acting ........... March 18,
assumes office ____ January,
'
1809
1818 1822 1826 1830 1834
1842 1846 1853 1857 1860 1861 1865 1869 1873
M
1877 1883
1897 1901 1905
Name.
Ninian Edwards
Jesse B. Thomas
John McLean
Elias Kent Kane ,
David J. Baker
John M. Robinson
William L. D. Ewing. . ,
No. of Congress.
15th to 18th 15th " 19th 18th " 20th 19th « 23d
21st 21st to 27th
24th
Date.
1818 to 1824
1818 " 1826
1824 " 1830
1826 " 1835
1830
1831 to 1841
1836
Illinpis Indians; a family of the Algonquian nation that comprised several clans — Peorias, Moingwenas, Kaskaskias, Tamaroas, and Cahokias. At a very early period they drove a Dakota tribe, whom they called the Arkansas, to the country on the southern Mississippi. These were the Quapaws. In 1640 they almost ex- terminated the Winnebagoes; and soon afterwards they waged war with the Iro- quois and Sioux. Their domain was be- tween Lakes Michigan and Superior and the Mississippi River. Marquette found some of them (the Peorias and Moingwe- nas) near Des Moines, west of the Mis- sissippi, in 1672; also the Peorias and Kaskaskias on the Illinois River. The Tamaroas and Cahokias were on the Mis- sissippi. The Jesuits found the chief Il- linois town consisting of 8,000 people, in nearly 400 large cabins, covered with water-proof mats, with, generally, four fires to a cabin. In 1679 they were badly defeated by the Iroquois, losing about 1,300, of whom 900 were prisoners; and they retaliated by assisting the Erench, under De la Barre" and De Nonville, against the Five Nations. The Illinois were converted to Christianity by Father Marquette and other missionaries, and in 1700 Chicago, their great chief, visilcd France, where he was much caressed. His son, of the same name, maintained great influence in the tribe until his death, in 1754. When Detroit was besieged by the Foxes, in 1712, the Illinois went to its relief, and in the war that followed they suffered severely. Some of them were with the French at Fort Duquesne; but they refused to join Pontiac in his con-
ILOILO— IMMIGRATION
spiracy. With the Miamis, they favored the English in the war of the Revolution, and joined in the treaty at Greenville in 1795. By the provision of treaties they ceded their lands, and a greater portion of them went to a country west of the Mis- sissippi, within the present limits of Kan- sas, where they remained until 1867, when they were removed to a reservation of 72,- 000 acres southwest of the Quapaws. In 1872 the whole Illinois nation had dwin- dled to forty souls. This tribe, combined with the Weas and Piankeshaws, num- bered only 160 in all.
Iloilo, the principal city and capital of the island of Panay, and one of the three ports of entry in the Philippine group opened to commerce in 1899. It is situated 225 miles south of Manila, at the southeastern extremity of Panay, and is built on low, marshy ground, the whole of which during a part of the spring is covered with water. The population in 1900 was estimated at over 10,000. On Dec. 25, 1898, after General Rios, who held the town with 800 Spanish troops, heard that the Philippine Islands were to be ceded to the United States, instead of awaiting the arrival of the American forces, then on the way to take possession of the city, he turned it over to Vincente Guies, the alcade. On the following day that official surrendered it to 3,000 Fili- pino insurgents. When Gen. M. P. Mil- ler, of the American army, reached the bay on which the city is situated he found General Lopez with 5,000 Filipinos in possession. The Filipinos would not sur- render without instructions from Agui- naldo, and General Miller made prepara- tions to take forcible possession, but on a petition from the European residents no hostile move was made until Feb. 11, 1899, when the American commander demanded the surrender of the city to the authority of the United States. After it became evi- dent that the insurgent-officer in command would not peaceably accede to this de- mand, the United States naval vessels Petrel and Baltimore opened fire upon the city, which was soon evacuated by the in- surgents after being fired. The American troops quickly landed and extinguished the flames, but not before considerable damage had been done. During the en- gagement the Americans suffered no
casualties. Iloilo at the time of the bom- bardment was the seat of the so-called government of the Visayan federation.
Ilpendam, JAN JANSEN VAN, merchant; appointed custom - house officer on the Delaware, and put in command of Fort Nassau in 1640 by the Dutch governor of New York. He tried to keep the Eng- lish colony from trading on the Delaware, and his action in burning trading-houses and taking the traders prisoner involved the governor of New York in difficulty with the government of New Haven. As the result, Ilpendam resigned, but con- tinued to trade with the Indians. He died at Marcus Hook, Pa., in 1685.
Imlay, GILBERT, author; born in New Jersey in 1750; served throughout the Revolutionary War; was the author of A Topographical Description of the West- ern Territory of North America; The Emi- grants, or the History of an Exiled Family.
Immigration. When the French do- minion in America was ended, the causes for war dismissed thereby, and the Indian tribes on the frontiers were quieted, emi- gration began to spread westward in New England, and also from the middle colo- nies over the mountains westward. Many went from the other colonies into South Carolina, where immigration was encour- aged, because the white people were alarmed by the preponderance of the slave population. Bounties were offered to im- migrants, and many Irish and Germans settled in the upper districts of that prov- ince. Enriched by the labor of numerous slaves, South Carolina was regarded as the wealthiest of the colonies. Settlers also passed into the new province of east Flor- ida. A body of emigrants from the Roa- noke settled in west Florida, about Baton Rouge; and some Canadians went into Louisiana, for they were unwilling to live under English rule. A colony of Greeks from the shores of the Mediter- ranean settled at what is still known as the inlet of New Smyrna, in Florida. And while these movements were going on there were evidences of a rapid advance in wealth and civilization in the older communities. At that time the population and production of Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina had unprecedented in- crease, and it was called their golden age.
IMMIGRATION
Commerce rapidly became more diffused. Boston, which almost engrossed trade in navigation, now began to find rivals in New York, Baltimore, Norfolk, Charleston, and little seaports on the New England coasts; and its progress, which had been arrested by these causes twenty-five years before, stood still twenty-five years longer. The leading political parties in recent years have made almost identical declara- tions in their national platforms. At the beginning of the campaign of 1896 the Democratic National Convention, which nominated Mr. Bryan, ignored the sub- ject; hut the Free-Silver wing of the party, in convention in Chicago, declared : " We hold that the most efficient way of protecting American labor is to prevent the importation of foreign pauper labor to compete with it in che home market, and that the value of the home market to our American farmers and artisans is greatly reduced by a vicious monetary system which depresses the prices of their products below the cost of production, and thus deprives them of the means of purchasing the products of our home manufactories; and as labor creates the wealth of the country, we demand the pas- sage of such laws as may be necessary to protect it in all its rights;" and the Re- publican National Convention declared: " For the protection of the quality of our American citizenship, and of the wages of our workingmen against the fatal com- petition of low-priced labor, we demand that the immigration laws be thoroughly enforced, and so extended as to exclude from entrance to the United States those who can neither read nor write." In the campaign of 1900 the Democratic Na- tional Convention called for the strict en- forcement of the Chinese exclusion act and its application to the same classes of all Asiatic races; the Republican Na- tional Convention pronounced : " In the further interest of American workmen we favor a more effective restriction of the immigration of cheap labor from foreign lands, the extension of opportunities of education for working children, the rais- ing of the age limit for child labor, the protection of free labor as against con- tract convict labor, and an effective sys- tem of labor insurance;" the People's party (Fusion wing) inserted this
declaration in its platform: "The im- portation of Japanese and other laborers under contract to serve monopolistic cor- porations is a notorious and flagrant vio- lation of the immigration laws. We de- mand that the federal government shall take cognizance of this menacing evil and repress it under existing laws. We fur- ther pledge ourselves to strive for the enactment of more stringent laws for the exclusion of Mongolian and Malayan im- migration;" and the Silver Republican party declared : " We are opposed to the importation of Asiatic laborers in com- petition with American labor, and favor a more rigid enforcement of the laws re- lating thereto."
Immigration Statistics. — During the period 1789-1820, when no thorough over- sight was exercised, it is estimated that the number of immigrants into the United States aggregated 250,000; and during the period 1820-1904 the aggregate was 22,574,223. The nationality of immi- grants in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, was as follows: Austria-Hungary, 178,316; German Empire, 46,520; Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia, 194,155; Norway, 23,728; Sweden, 27,824; Ruma- nia, 7,296; Russian Empire and Finland, 144,138; England, 37,865; Ireland, 36,731; Scotland, 11,113; Wales, 1,829; Japan, 13,046; Turkey in Asia, 5,659; West Indies, 11,285; all other countries, 75,846; total, 815,361.
High-water mark was reached in 1903, when the immigrants numbered 857,046. the total of the previous year being the highest up to that time, 648,743. The lowest number of arrivals in the period of 1867-1900 was 141,857 in 1877, and in the period 1880-1904, 229,299 in 1898.
Immigration Act of 1891. — This meas- ure, " in amendment of the various acts relative to immigration and the importa- tion of aliens under contract or agree- ment to perform labor," was introduced in the House by Mr. Owen, of Indiana, and referred to the committee on immi- gration and naturalization. It was re- ported back, discussed, and amended, and passed the House Feb. 25, 1891, as fol- lows:
"Be it enacted, etc., that the follow- ing classes of aliens shall be excluded from admission into the United States,
IMMIGRATION
in accordance with the existing acts regu- " Sec. 4. That no steamship or trans- lating immigration, other than those con- portation company or owners of vessels cerning Chinese laborers: All idiots, in- shall, directly, or through agents, either sane persons, paupers or persons likely by writing, printing, or oral representa- to become a public charge, persons suffer- tions, solicit, invite, or encourage the im- ing from a loathsome or dangerous con- migration of any alien into the United tagious disease, persons who have been States except by ordinary commercial convicted of a felony or other infamous letters, circulars, advertisements, or oral crime or misdemeanor involving moral representations, stating the sailings of turpitude, polygamists, and also any per- their vessels and the terms and facilities son whose ticket or passage is paid for of transportation therein; and for a vio- with money of another or who is assisted lation of this provision any such steam- by others to come, unless it is affirma- ship or transportation company, and any tively and satisfactorily shown on special such owners of vessels, and the agents by inquiry that such person does not belong them employed, shall be subjected to the to one of the foregoing excluded classes, penalties imposed by the third section of or to the class of contract laborers ex- said act of Feb. 26, 1885, for violations eluded by the act of Feb. 26, 1885. But of the provisions of the first section of this section shall not be held to exclude said act.
persons living in the United States from " Sec. 5. That section 5 of said act of sending for a relative or friend who is Feb. 26, 1885, shall be, and hereby is, not of the excluded classes, under such amended by adding to the second proviso regulations as the Secretary of the Treas- in said section the words ' nor to minis- ury may prescribe; Provided, that noth- ters of any religious denomination, nor ing in this act shall be construed to persons belonging to any recognized pro- apply to exclude persons convicted of a fession, nor professors for colleges and political offence, notwithstanding said po- seminaries,' and by excluding from the litical offence may be designated as a second proviso of said section the words ' felony, crime, infamous crime or mis- ' or any relative or personal friend.' demeanor involving moral turpitude ' by " Sec. 6. That any person who shall the laws of the land whence he came or bring into or land in the United States by the court convicting. by vessel or otherwise, or who shall aid
" Sec. 2. That no suit or proceeding for to bring into or land in the United
violations of said act of Feb. 26, 1885, States by vessel or otherwise, any alien
prohibiting the importation and migra- not lawfully entitled to enter the United
tion of foreigners under contract or agree- States, shall be deemed guilty of a mis-
ment to perform labor, shall be settled, demeanor, and shall, on conviction, be
compromised, or discontinued without the punished by a fine not exceeding $1,000,
consent of the court entered of record or by imprisonment for a term not ex-
with reasons therefor. ceeding one year, or by both such fine and
" Sec. 3. That it shall be deemed a vio- imprisonment.
lation of said act of Feb. 26, 1885, to " Sec. 7. That the office of superintend- assist or encourage the importation or mi- ent of immigration is hereby created and gration of any alien by promise of em- established, and the President, by and ployment through advertisements printed with the advice and consent of the Sen- nnd published in any foreign country; ate, is authorized and directed to appoint and any alien coming to this country in such officer, whose salary shall be $4,000 consequence of such an advertisement per annum, payable monthly. The super- shall be treated as coming under a con- intendent of immigration shall be an tract as contemplated by such act; and officer in the Treasury Department, under the penalties by said act imposed shall be the control and supervision of the Secre- applicable in such a case; Provided, this tary of the Treasury, to whom he shall section shall not apply to States, and im- make annual reports in writing of the migration bureaus of States, advertising transactions of his office, together with such the inducements they offer for immigra- special reports, in writing, as the Secre- tion to such States. tary of the Treasury shall require. The
IMMIGRATION
Secretary shall provide the superintendent ccrs and agents of such vessel to adopt
with a suitably furnished office in the due precautions to prevent the landing
city of Washington, and with such books of any alien immigrant at any place or
of record and facilities for the discharge time other than that designated by the
of the duties of his office as may be inspection officers, and any such officer
necessary. He shall have a chief clerk, or agent or person in charge of such ves-
at a salary of $2,000 per annum, and two sel who shall either knowingly or negli-
first-class clerks. gently land or permit to land any alien
" Sec. 8. That upon the arrival by wa- immigrant at any place or time other ter at any place within the United States than that designated by the inspection of any alien immigrants it shall be the officers, shall be deemed guilty of a mis- duty of the commanding officer and the demeanor and punished by a- fine not ex- agent of the steam or sailing vessel by ceeding $1,000, or by imprisonment for which they came to report the name, na- a term not exceeding one year, or by both tionality, last residence, and destination such fine and imprisonment. of every such alien, before any of them "That the Secretary of the Treasury are landed, to the proper inspection offi- may prescribe rules for inspection along cers, who shall thereupon go or send com- the borders of Canada, British Columbia, petent assistants on board such vessel and Mexico so as not to obstruct, or un- and there inspect all such aliens, or the necessarily delay, impede, or annoy pas- inspection officer may order a temporary sengers in ordinary travel between said removal of such aliens for examination countries: Provided, that not exceeding at a designated time and place, and then one inspector shall be appointed for each and there detain them until a thorough customs district, and whose salary shall inspection is made. But such removal not exceed $1,200 per year, shall not be considered a landing during "All duties imposed and powers con- the pendency of such examination. ferred by the second section of the act of
" The medical examination shall be Aug. 3, 1882, upon State commissioners,
made by surgeons of the marine hospital boards, or officers acting under contract
service. In cases where the services of a with the Secretary of the Treasury shall
marine hospital surgeon cannot be ob- be performed and exercised, as occasion
tained without causing unreasonable de- may arise, by the inspection officers of
lay, the inspector may cause an alien to the United States.
be examined by a civil surgeon, and the " Sec. 9. That for the preservation of the
Secretary of the Treasury shall fix the peace and in order that arrest may be
compensation for such examinations. made for crimes under the laws of the
"The inspection officers and their as- Slates where the various United States
sistants shall have power to administer immigrant stations are located, the offi-
oaths, and to take and consider testimony cials in charge of such stations, as occa-
touching the right of any such aliens to sion may require, shall admit therein the
enter the United States, all of which shall proper State and municipal officers charged
be entered of record. During such inspec- with the enforcement of such laws, and
tion after temporary removal the super- for the purposes of this section the juris-
intendent shall cause such aliens to be diction of such officers and of the local
properly housed, fed, and cared for, and courts shall extend over such stations, also, in his discretion, such as are delayed " Sec 10. That all aliens who may un-
in proceeding to their destination after lawfully come to the United States shall,
inspection. if practicable, be immediately sent back
" All decisions made by the inspection on the vessel by which they were brought
officers or their assistants touching the in. The cost of their maintenance while
right of any alien to land, when adverse on land, as well as the expense of the re-
to such right, shall be final unless appeal turn of such aliens, shall be borne by the
be taken to the superintendent of immi- owner or owners of the vessel on which
gration, whose action shall be subject to such aliens came; and if any master,
review by the Secretary of the Treasury, agent, consignee, or owner of such vessel
It shall be the duty of the aforesaid offi- shall refuse to receive back on board the
8
IMMIGRATION— IMPERIALISM
vessel such aliens, or shall neglect to de- the United States gives the House of tain them thereon, or shall refuse or neg- Representatives sole power to impeach the lect to return them to the port from President, Vice-President, and all civil which they came, or to pay the cost of officers of the United States by a numeri- their maintenance while on land, such cal majority only. It also gives the Sen- master, agent, consignee, or owner shall ate sole power to try all impeachments, be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and The Senate then sits as a court, organiz- shall be punished by a fine not less than ing anew, Senators taking a special oath $300 for each and every offence; and any or affirmation applicable to the proceed- such vessel shall not have clearance from ing. From their decision there is no any port of the United States while any appeal. A vote of two-thirds of the Sen- such fine is unpaid. ate is necessary to convict. When the
" Sec. 11. That any alien who shall come President is tried the chief-justice pre- into the United States in violation of law sides. The punishment is limited by the may be returned, as by law provided, at Constitution ( 1 ) to removal from office ; any time within one year thereafter, at (2) to disqualification from holding and the expense of the person or persons, ves- enjoying any office of honor, trust, or sel, transportation company or corpora- profit under the United States government, tion bringing such alien into the United Important cases : ( 1 ) William Blount, States, and if that cannot be done, then United States Senator from Tennessee, for at the expense of the United States; and conspiring to transfer New Orleans from any alien who becomes a public charge Spain to Great Britain, 1797-98; ac- within one year after his arrival in quitted for want of evidence. (2) John the United States from causes existing Pickering, judge of the district court of prior to his landing therein shall be New Hampshire, charged with drunken- deemed to have come in violation of law ness, profanity, etc. ; convicted March 12, and shall be returned as aforesaid. 1803. (3) Judge Samuel Chase, impeach-
" Sec. 12. That nothing contained in this ed March 30, 1804; acquitted March 1,
act shall be construed to affect any pros- 1805. (4) James H. Peck, district judge
ecu tion or other proceeding, criminal or of Missouri, impeached Dec. 13, 1830, for
civil, begun under any existing act or arbitrary conduct, etc.; acquitted. (5)
acts hereby amended, but such prosecution West H. Humphreys, district judge of
or other proceeding, criminal or civil, Tennessee, impeached and convicted for
shall proceed as if this act had not been rebellion, Jan. 26, 1862. (6) Andrew
passed. Johnson, President of the United States,
" Sec. 13. That the circuit and district impeached " of high crimes and misde- courts of the United States are hereby meanors," Feb. 22, 1868; acquitted. (7) invested with full and concurrent juris- W. W. Belknap, Secretary of War, im- diction of all causes, civil and criminal, peached for receiving money of post- arising under any of the provisions of traders among the Indians, March 2, 1876; this act; and this act shall go into effect resigned at the same time; acquitted for on the first day of April, 1891." want of jurisdiction.
The measure passed the Senate Feb. "Impending Crisis," the title of a
27, and was approved by the President book written by Hinton R. Helper, of
March 3, 1891. North Carolina, pointing out the evil ef-
Immigration, RESTRICTION OF. See fects of slavery upon the whites, first
LODGE, HENRY CABOT. published in 1857. It had a large sale
Impeachment. The Constitution of (140,000 copies) and great influence.
IMPERIALISM
Imperialism. The Hon. William A. The arraignment of the national ad- Peffer, ex-Senator from Kansas, makes ministration by certain citizens on a the following important contribution to charge of imperialism, in the execution the discussion of this question: of its Philippine policy, brings up for
9
IMPERIALISM
discussion some important questions relat- portation, not exceeding ten dollars for each
ing to the powers, duties, and responsibili- Person-"
ties of government, among which are three These two provisions were intended to
that I propose to consider briefly, namely: apply and did apply to negro slaves, of
First. Whence comes the right to gov- whom there were in the country at that
ern? What are its sphere and object? time about 500,000, nearly one - sixth
Second. Are we, the people of the United of the entire population; and they, as a
States, a self-governing people? class, together with our Indian neighbors
Third. Is our Philippine policy anti- and the free people of color, were all ex- American? eluded from the ranks of those who par- j ticipated in the institution of our new government. Their consent to anything
As to the right to govern — the right done or contemplated in the administra- te exercise authority over communities, tion of our public affairs was neither ask- states, and nations, the right to enact, ed nor desired. Their consent or dissent construe, and execute laws — whence it is did not enter into the problems of govern- derived? For what purposes and to what ment. It made no difference what their extent may it be properly assumed? wishes were, or to what they were op-
In the Declaration of Independence it posed. A majority of such persons as en- is asserted that: joyed political privileges — they and they
"We hold these truths to be self-evident, only— formed the new government and or-
that all men are created equal ; that they ganized its powers, without regard to the
are endowed by their Creator with certain disfranchised classes, as much so as if
inalienable rights; that among these are tv.p6,p rlaccPo had Tint hppn in PvUfpnPP
life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. T
That to secure these rights, governments are And> m addition to the non-voting peo-
instituted among men, deriving their just pie, there were many white men in the
powers from the consent of the governed." States who, by reason of their poverty,
But is it true that government, even in wer® not Permitted to vote, and hence a republic like ours, derives its just pow- ^uM not **£e PaiJ ln P°Pul\r elect;ons- ers only from the consent of the governed? Jt "» Probfblv> safe to say that, of the Is it not a fact that at no time in our whole population of the country, when the history have we either had or asked the Constitution Was Put.mto effect> the num' consent of all the people within our juris- ber that had no part in the work of estab- diction, to the powers of government which l1BhlllS the ^ionf government, either we have been exercising over them? Is for or against it, although they were sub- it not true, on the contrary, that we have Ject to its rule> constituted at least 25 been governing many of them, not only P6^ *!„ '
without their consent, but in direct oppo- ? m°re* 6Vei7 °nC teS'
sition to it? a among those persons, too, qualified
The Constitution, framed to provide such to vote' there ™ opposition, more or a form of government as the signers of less' to the inauguration of the new re- the Declaration had in mind, contains the Sime' North Carolina did not ratify the following provision : Constitution ti 11 more than two years af-
ter the convention that framed it had ad-
" No person held to service or labor in one journed sine die; and Rhode Island did
aSrthW™"n "ueenc°e' ofanffawTr «ot <°™ ™° «» U™" «U May of Presi- regulation therein, be discharged from such dent Washington's second year, service or labor, but shall be delivered up There is no way of ascertaining exact- or labo? may ^du?' tO Wh°m ^ SerVi°e ^ the number of voters who were opposed
to the new plan, who did not consent to
And this: it, and who would have defeated it if they
"The migration or importation of such could; but, if these be added to the dis-
persons as any of the States now existing franchised classes, we have a total of at
''"SJJS'L P!'£pe^ to admit' sha11 not be l^ast one-third of the inhabitants of the prohibited by the Congress prior to the vear ,• ,-, f
one thousand eight hundred and eight/but country not consenting to the exercise of a duty or tax may be imposed on such im- these governmental powers over them. Yet
10
IMPERIALISM
these powers were deemed by the majority and sack, pursues his calling alone in the
that organized them to be just powers, wilderness; but, with settlement, the
and the said majority felt that they were forest disappears, farms are opened up,
justified in executing them. towns laid out, neighborhoods formed,
Thomas Jefferson held " the vital prin- laws become necessary, and government
ciple of republics " to be " absolute acqui- begins.
escence in the decisions of the major- It is not necessary, however, that we
ity." But whence comes the right of a should agree on the origin of govern-
majority to rule? And may the majority ment, for we know that, as a matter of
of to-day determine the course of the fact, governments in one form or another
majority of to-morrow? Had two-thirds of have existed ever since the beginning of
a population of less than 4,000,000 in recorded history; and we know, further,
1789 the rightful authority to lay down that under the operation of these govern-
rules of government for a population of ments 90 per cent, of the habitable sur-
75,000,000 in 1900 — rules which we can- face of the globe has been reclaimed from
not change, save by revolution, unless we barbarism. The whole world is to-day
do it in accordance with forms prescribed virtually within the jurisdiction of regu-
by our ancestors more than 100 years larly organized powers of government,
ago? international law is recognized and en-
We all believe with Jefferson that the forced as part of the general code of the
right of a majority to rule in a republic nations, and the trend of the world's
is not to be challenged; and that the civilization is towards free institutions
answer to these troublesome questions and popular forms of government, concerning the source of this undisputed
right to govern can be found only in jj the theory that government is one of the
essential agencies provided in the begin- As to whether we are a self-governing ning by the Father above for the work of people, the answer to this question de- subduing the earth and bringing all men pends upon whether all classes of the to Himself. The thought is tersely ex- population within our jurisdiction share pressed by St. Paul in his letter to the in the work of governing, or whether, as Romans: " There is no power but of God." in the ancient republics, only a portion " The powers that be are ordained of of the people are to be taken for the whole God." The ruler is a " minister of God." for purposes of government.
Man's right to life, liberty, and room In any age of the world, the character
to work in is inherent, and government of government fairly represents the state
follows as naturally as the seasons fol- of the world's inhabitants at that partic-
low each other. As long as the individual ular period. That a people are not far
man lives separated from his fellows, he enough advanced to form a government
needs no protection other than he is able for themselves, and conduct its affairs
himself to command; but when popu- in their own way, is not a reason why they
lation increases and men gather in com- should not have any government at all.
munities, governments are instituted On its lower level, government may ex-
among them in order to make these in- tend no further than the will of an
dividual rights secure; and then new ignorant despot, who holds the tenure
rights appear, communal rights; for of life and property in his hands; but
communities, as well as individual per- as men advance, they rise to higher levels
sons, have rights. and the sphere of government is enlarged.
The necessity for government increases In the end it will, of necessity, embrace with the density of population, and the all human interests which are common, scope of its powers is enlarged with the The members of the Continental Con- extension of its territorial jurisdiction, gress, in declaring the cause which im- the diversity of employments in which the pelled the separation of the colonies citizenship are engaged, and the degree from the mother-country, began the con- of refinement to which they have attained, eluding paragraph of the Declaration in The trapper, with his axe, knife, gun these words:
11
IMPERIALISM
" We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in Congress as-
do, in the name, and by authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly pub- lish and declare," etc.
, The words "good people ^ of these colo-
nies » included only such of the people as at that time participated in the work of local government, excluding those who were opposed to separation. The Tories -and there were a good many of them- did not approve anything that the Con- gress did. They were regarded by the patriots as public enemies, and were kept under constant watch by committees of inspection and observation in every county. They were subject to arrest and imprison- ment-even to banishment; and in many instances their property was confiscated. The Congress surely did not speak in the name of the Tories, nor by their au-
try. ,
The Articles of Confederation, under
the provisions of which the Congress acted after March 2 178 recognized as its constituency only the free inhabitants of each of these States." Slaves, though constituting nearly, if not quite, 16 per
submitted to the legislatures of the several states for their action, it was strenuous- b' opposed in some of them, and received unanimous support in only three — Uela- Ware, New Jersey, and Georgia. The ma- jority in its fayor was large in Con.
necticut and South Carolina, while in yi inia the majority was only ten votes, ^ ^ New York Qn ^^ The yote in fiye of the ^^ ^ thus; p j.
yan 4g to Massachusetts, 187 to
Maryland, 63 to 11; New Hampshire, ^ ^ New Yorkj 3Q to 2? North
Carolina and Rhode Island were two years hi ma their mindg ^ t l
go we ^ ^ ft .Qrit of about
two.thirds (and that h/ve been in
fact legg than R majorit of the whole
} agsumed to k and act for alL
The Qf ^ United stateg haye ftU
al Fa(fted on that lan> We have even further than that. We have in some cases expressly authorized minorities to determin£ th/gravest matters. The Con- gtitution fdeg that «ft majority of
each ^ of c ghaU
tute ft to do ^^ „ and „
House ^ determine the rules of itg ro.
£
whole body, may pass any measure that is
"We, the people of the United States n<* r^uire? ^ the C(fstitution to re-
... do ordain and establish this Constitu- ceive a majority or a two-thirds vote—
tion for the United States of America." a treaty, for example. And it is the same
in the House of Representatives.
But not more than two-thirds of the And, although a majority of the electo-
population were represented in " We, the ral vote is required to choose a President
people," and a majority of the two-thirds of the United States, it has frequently
assumed the responsibilities of govern- happened that the successful candidate
ment — rightfully, as all loyal Americans was opposed by a majority of the voters
believe. The machinery of the republic of the country.
was set in motion in 1789, and the census In the matter of amending the Con-
taken the next year showed the total stitution, a. majority of the voters may
population to be 3,929,214, of which total favor any particular amendment proposed,
number 757,208 were colored — mostly per- but it must be ratified by three-fourths
sons of African descent, who were nearly of the legislatures of the several States
all slaves, and these, with the other dis- before it becomes law.
franchised classes, as before stated, made We not only have adopted the majority
up about 33 per cent, of the population principle as a rule of government, but we
that were not permitted to take part have uniformly insisted upon acquiescence
in establishing the new government. in minority rule in any and all cases
Furthermore, when the Constitution was where it has been so provided in advance.
12
IMPERIALISM
We have but to look at our record to tions. Smith strengthened the fort in see that, from the beginning, we have ex- 1608, trained the watch regularly and eluded a very large proportion of our own exercised the company every Saturday, people from all participation in affairs No organized opposition to the white set- of government, and we have never accused tlement appeared during the first few ourselves of exercising unjust powers or years, though the Indians manifested their undue authority. This fact strengthens dissatisfaction in the arrest of Smith, the belief that there is a source of power whom they would have summarily put to which does not lie in the people at all — death but for the intercession of the a " higher power," if you please. The chief's daughter. But in 1622, under Declaration of Independence conforms to Opechancanough, they attacked the set- this view, in affirming that men are " en- tiers, killed several hundred of them, and dowed by their Creator with certain in- devastated a good many plantations. They alienable rights," and in appealing to were finally beaten back by the whites, the " Supreme Judge of the World," " with many of them being unmercifully slaugh- a firm reliance on the protection of Divine tered, and the rest driven into the wilder- Providence." ness. Twenty-two years later, under the -rj-r lead of the same chief, another war broke out, lasting two years, causing much loss
In order to determine whether our Phil- of life and property on both sides, and ippine policy is anti-American, we must resulting in the utter defeat of the Ind- examine the testimony of American his- ians and the cession by them of tracts tcry, and see the record that Americans of land to the colonists. This policy was have made for themselves in their treat- pursued to the end of the colonial period, ment of subject people in our own coun- The Plymouth colony early sent Cap- try, tain Standish, with a few men, to confer Virginia and New England may fairly with the natives and ascertain, if possible, be taken as representative of the colo- the state of their feelings in regard to nies up to the time of the Revolution, the white settlement; but the Indians in so far as the Indian population is con- eluded him and he learned nothing. The cerned. second year after this reconnoissance Can- Patents to the London Company and to onicus, king or chief of the Narragansets, the Plymouth Company were issued in by way of showing how he felt about it, 1006 by King James I., authorizing them sent to the Plymouth people a bundle of to " possess and colonize that portion of arrows tied with the skin of a rattle- North America lying between the thirty- snake. As an answer to this challenge, fourth and forty - fifth parallels of north the skin was stuffed with powder and bul- latitude." What legal rights or privileges lets and returned. These exchanges of James had in America were based wholly compliments opened the way for a peace on the discoveries made by English navi- treaty between the settlers and several gators. Rights of the native inhabitants tribes; but some of the chiefs were sus- were not considered in the granting of picious of the whites and formed a con- these patents, nor in the subsequent col- spiracy to kill them off. The scheme corn- on ization. ing to the knowledge of the colonists, it The London Company colonized Vir- was frustrated by Standish and his com- ginia and the Plymouth Company and its pany, who treacherously killed two chiefs, successors colonized New England. In A treaty of peace with the Narragansets both cases landings were effected and set- soon followed this occurrence, and it re- tlements begun without consulting the mained in force until the Wampanoags, people that inhabited the country. weary of encroachments on their lands As to Virginia, among the early acts by the whites, made war on them under of the Jamestown colony, under the lead the leadership of King Philip, in 1675. of Captain Smith, was the procuring of Among the incidents of that war, and food from the Indians by trading with as showing the temper of the colonists, them, and at the same time fortifying the may be mentioned the destruction of the new settlement against Indian depreda- Narraganset fort and the subsequent capt-
13
IMPERIALISM
ure and treatment of Philip. The fort to this subject race in our new territorial
sheltered about 3,000 Narragansets, most- ly women and children. It was surprised during a snow-storm, the palisades and wigwams were fired, and the Indians were driven forth by the flames to be either burned, suffocated, frozen, butchered, or drowned in the surrounding swamp. His- tory says that " 500 wigwams were de- stroyed, 600 warriors killed, 1,000 women and children massacred, and the winter's provisions of the tribe reduced to ashes." " The government set a price of 30s. per head for every Indian killed in battle, and many women and children were sold into slavery in South America and the West Indies." Towards the last, Captain Church, the noted Indian fighter, headed an expedition to find Philip and destroy the remainder of the Wampanoags. Philip was hunted from place to place, and at last found in camp on Aug. 12, 1676. The renegade Indian who betrayed the Narraganset camp led Captain Church to the camp of Philip. The attack was made at night, while the Indians were asleep. Philip, in attempting to escape, was recog- nized by an Indian ally of the whites and shot dead as he stumbled and fell into the mire. His body was dragged forward, and Church cut off his head, which was borne on the point of a spear to Plymouth, where it remained twenty years exposed on a gibbet. According to the colonial laws, as a traitor, his body was drawn and quartered on a day that was appointed for public thanks- giving.
With this policy steadily pursued to the end, when the time came for Ameri- cans themselves to turn upon their op- pressors, there was little left of the Indian question in New England and Vir- ginia, or in any of the States; but, with the Declaration of Independence, the formation of the federal Union, and the establishment of a national government for the whole country, our Indian trou- bles were confined chiefly to territory be- longing to the Union, regions acquired after the Union was formed, and, hence, national territories under the sole juris- diction of the national government, though inhabited by Indians, whose rights to the soil had never been questioned. What has been our policy with respect
14
acquisitions we shall now see.
The region bounded on the north by the Great Lakes, on the east by the Alle- ghany Mountains, on the south by the Ohio River, on the west by the Missis- sippi, out of which have grown the States of Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana, had been claimed under their charters by Virginia, New York, Connecti- cut, and Massachusetts, but they ceded their claims to the United States. The country so ceded was our first territorial acquisition, and became known as the Northwest Territory. A government was provided for it under the ordinance of 1787, and President Washington, in 1789, appointed Gen. Arthur St. Clair its gov- ernor. The various tribes of Indians in- habiting that part of the country object- ed to the jurisdiction of the whites, just as some of the Filipinos have done in the Philippine Islands, and they made war on the whites, under Michikiniqua, chief of the Miamis, as the Filipinos have done under Aguinaldo, chief of the Tagals.
Under date of Oct. 6, 1789, President Washington forwarded instructions to Governor St. Clair, in which he said:
" It is highly necessary that I should, as soon as possible, possess full informa- tion whether the Wabash and Illinois Indians are most inclined for war or peace. . . . You will, therefore, inform the said Indians of the disposition of the general government on this sub- ject, and of their reasonable desire that there should be a cessation of hostilities as a prelude to a treaty. ... I would have it observed forcibly that a war with the Wabash Indians ought to be avoided by all means consistently with the security of the frontier inhabitants, the security of the troops, and the na- tional dignity. . . . But if, after manifest- ing clearly to the Indians the disposition of the general government for the preser- vation of peace and the extension of a just protection to the said Indians, they should continue their incursions, the United States will be constrained to punish them with severity."
The Indians were most inclined for war, as the Tagals have been, and a good deal of hard fighting, extending over five years, was done before they were brought
IMPERIALISM
to terms in a treaty. The battle at Seminole, War our armed conflicts with
Miami Village, Sept. 30, 1790, between Indians have been mostly in the West, on
about 1,800 Americans under General territory which we acquired by purchase
Harmar, and a somewhat larger body of from France and by cession from Mexico
Indians under various chiefs, resulted in in concluding a two years' war with that
a victory for the Indians, with a loss of country.
120 men killed and 300 wigwams burned. Between 1846 and 1866 there were
Another pitched battle was fought near some fifteen or twenty Indian wars or
the same place the next year. The Ind- affairs, in which it is estimated that
ians were again victorious, and the Amer- 1,500 whites and 7,000 Indians were
ican loss was more than half the army — killed.
631 killed and 263 wounded. On Aug. 20, In the actions between regular troops
1794, General Wayne, with 900 United and Indians, from 1866 to 1891, the num-
States soldiers, routed the Indians in a her of whites killed was 1,452; wounded,
battle near Miami Rapids, and a year 1,101. The number of Indians killed was
later a treaty of peace was concluded, by 4,363; wounded, 1,135.
the terms of which nearly the whole of Our Indian wars have been expensive
Ohio was ceded by the Indians to the as well as bloody. It is estimated by the
United States. War Department that, excluding the time
It will be observed that with five years covered by our wars with Great Britain
of war we had got no farther west than (1812-14), and with Mexico (1846-48)
Ohio. And these battles with the Ind- and with the Confederate States (1861-
ians in the Miami Valley were more 65 ) , three-fourths of the total expense of
bloody than any ever fought by American the army is chargeable, directly or in-
armies with white men. directly, to the Indians; the aggregate
This long and bloody Indian war did thus chargeable is put at $807,073,658,
not end our troubles in the Northwest, and this does not include cost of fortifica-
The Indians confederated under Tecum- tions, posts, and stations; nor does it in-
seh in 1811, and they were routed at the elude amounts reimbursed to the several
battle of Tippecanoe by General Har- States ($10,000,000) for their expenses
rison. This practically terminated Ind- in wars with the Indians. The Indian
ian hostilities in the Northwest Territory, war pension account in 1897 stood at
but Tecumseh stirred up resistance $28,201,632.
among the Creeks and their allies in our Except when engaged in other wars, the
new acquisitions south of the Ohio, known army has been used almost entirely for the
as the Southwest Territory. The rebel- Indian service, and stationed in the Ind-
lion there began with the massacre at ian country and along the frontier.
Fort Mims, on Aug. 30, 1813, in the Such in general outline is Americanism
Creek Nation, and ended with the battle as it has consistently exhibited itself in
of Tohopeka, on March 27, 1814, where the policy followed by this country at the
the Indians were defeated by troops under only junctures which are comparable to
General Jackson. About 1,000 Creek the Philippine situation at the present
warriors were engaged at Tohopeka, and day. If it amounts to imperialism, then,
more than half of them (550) were killed, indeed, are we a nation of imperialists
Seven fierce battles were fought during without division.
the continuance of this brief war, with an But let us get closer to the subject. The aggregate loss to the Indians of 1,300 case presented by the anti-imperialists killed and an unknown number of against the administration is almost ex- wounded, actly paralleled in the history of Florida.
The Black Hawk War, in 1832, cost the Spain's title to the Philippines was as
lives of twenty-five Americans and 150 good as that by which she claimed Florida,
Indians. for it had the same basis — the right of
The Florida War began in 1835 and discovery; and her right to cede and con- lasted seven years, ending with the final vey her title was as perfect in the one case defeat of the Indians. as in the other. In both instances, the
Since the conclusion of the Florida, or inhabitants were, by international law,
15
IMPERIALISM— IMPOST DUTIES
transferred with the land on which they dwelt.* Filipinos inhabited the Philippine Islands when Magellan discovered them in 1521, and when Villalobos, a few years later, " took possession of the group and named it in honor of King Philip II., of Spain," and they were there in 1898, when Spain ceded the archipelago to the United States in consideration of closing a war and the payment of $20,000,000 in money.
The Seminole Indians inhabited Florida when that region was discovered by the Spanish navigators, and they were there in 1819-21, when Spain ceded the country to the United States in consideration of removing a just cause of war on our part, and a stipulation to settle claims against Spain to the amount of $5,000,000.
The treaty for Florida was concluded in 1819, but was not ratified by Spain till the second year thereafter; a territorial government was established on March 30, 1822, the President in the mean time gov- erning the Territory twenty years, the State being admitted on March 3, 1845. During the territorial period the army was needed there most of the time to sup- press disorders in which the Indians were almost always mixed; and in 1835 the war with the Seminoles began. Andrew Jackson was President during the first two years of this war; it continued all through Van Buren's term, and extended a year or more into that of Harrison and Tyler. To suppress this rebellion of Os- ceola and his allies, the army, consisting of regulars, militia, and volunteers, was employed seven years.
President McKinley is doing in the Philippines just what was done by Presi- dent Jackson and his successors in Flor- ida, and he is doing it more humanely. Were they imperialists?
* American Supreme Court, in the case of the American Insurance Company vs. Canter, 1 Peters, 511, referring to the territory held by a conqueror, awaiting the conclusion of a treaty, says :
"If it be ceded by the treaty, the acquisition is confirmed, and the ceded ter-
As to matters of government, American- ism means American rule in American territory. Americans govern by major- ities — majorities of those who, by pre- vious constitutional and statutory pro- visions, are authorized to govern, and whose administration of public affairs has been, as far as practicable, determined in advance by properly constituted au- thorities.
Beginning with the Pilgrims' compact, we have grown a republic, removing or surmounting all obstacles in the way of our development, until now we are in the forefront of nations. We have liberated the negro and given him the ballot. The Indians, of whom there are about as many in the country as ever, have to their credit in the national treasury a trust fund amounting to about $25,000,000; they are dissolving their tribal relations; the adults, under government supervision, are learning to work at farming and other useful callings, their children are in gov- eminent schools, and all are in process of citizenization. Government Indian schools now number about 150, with near- ly as many contract schools. Indian edu- cation is costing the government about $2,000,000 a year.
The trouble in the Philippines has been occasioned by Aguinaldo and his associ- ates. Americans are there of right, and they ask nothing of the natives but to be peaceable, to obey the laws, and to go ahead with their business; they will not only be protected in every right, but will be aided by all the powerful influences of an advanced and aggressive civilization. See ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY; ANNEXED TERRITORY, STATUS OF; ANTI-EXPANSION- ISTS.
Imports. See COMMERCE.
ImP°st Duties. The first impost duties laid on the English- American colo-
nies were in 1672, when the British Par-
T j. j- i • t
liament, regarding colonial commerce as
a proper source of public revenue and taxation, passed a law imposing a duty
ser
of territory, the relations of the inhabitants dl£°> logwood, fustic, wool, and cotton,
with their former sovereign are dissolved, and under certain conditions. It was enacted
XT l£^r^,r^l2r«S! *"* the whole>si sh w „
territory. The same act which transfers aSe<1 and tne imP°sts levied by officers
their country transfers the allegiance of appointed by the commissioners of cus-
those who remain in it." toms in England, under the authority of
16
IMPRESSMENT
the lords of the treasury. This was the the action of Parliament. In November,
first attempt at taxation of the colonies 1747, Commodore Knowles, while in Bos-
without their consent. ton Harbor, finding himself short of men,
The first of such duties established by sent a press-gang into the town one morn- the United States was for the purpose ing, which seized and carried to the ves- of restoring the public credit. On April sels several of the citizens. This violence 18, 1782, the Congress voted " that it be aroused the populace. Several of the naval recommended to the several States as officers on shore were seized by a mob and indispensably necessary to the restoration held as hostages for their kidnapped coun- of public credit, and to the punctual trymen. They also surrounded the town and honorable discharge of the public house, where the legislature was in ses- debts, to invest the United States, in sion, and demanded the release of the Congress assembled, with power to levy impressed men. The governor called out for the use of the United States " certain the militia, who reluctantly obeyed. Then, duties named upon certain goods import- alarmed, he withdrew to the castle, ed from any foreign port. Under the pro- Knowles offered a company of marines to visions of the Articles of Confederation, sustain his authority, and threatened to the unanimous consent of the States was bombard the town if his officers were not necessary to confer this power upon the released. The populace declared that the Congress. This was the first attempt to lay governor's flight was abdication. Matters such duties for revenue. The necessity became so serious that the influential citi- was obvious, and all the States except zens, who had favored the populace, tried Rhode Island and Georgia agreed to an to suppress the tumult. The Assembly or- ad valorem duty of 5 per cent, upon all dered the release of the officers, and goods excepting spirituous liquors, wines, Knowles sent back most of the impressed teas, pepper, sugars, molasses, cocoa, and men. The authorities attributed the out- coffee, on which specific duties were laid, break to " negroes and persons of vile con- The Assembly gave, as a reason for its dition." This was the first of a series of refusal, the inequality of such a tax, bear- impressments of American citizens by ing harder on the commercial States, and British officers which finally led to the the inexpediency and danger of intrust- War of 1812-15.
ing its collection to federal officers, un- Proofs of the sufferings of American
known and not accountable to the State seamen from the operations of the British
governments. A committee of the Con- impress system were continually received,
gress, with Alexander Hamilton as chair- and so frequent and flagrant were these
man, was appointed to lay the proposi- outrages, towards the close of 1805, that
tion before the several States and to urge Congress took action on the subject. It
their acquiescence. They sent it forth was felt that a crisis was reached when
with an eloquent address, which appealed the independence of the United States
to the patriotism of the people. The must be vindicated, or the national honor
measure was approved by the leading men would be imperilled. There was ample
of the country, and all the States but cause not only for retaliatory measures
two were willing to give Congress the de- against Great Britain, but even for war.
sired power. " It is money, not power, A non-importation act was passed. It was
that ought to be the object," they said, resolved to try negotiations once more.
" The former will pay our debts, the latter William Pinkney, of Maryland, was ap-
may destroy our liberties." See COM- pointed (May, 1806) minister extraordi-
MERCE; INTERNAL REVENUE. nary to England, to become associated
Impressment. In 1707 the British Par- with Monroe, the resident minister, in
liament, by act, forbade the impressment negotiating a treaty that should settle all
of seamen in American ports and waters disputes between the two governments,
for privateering service, unless of such He sailed for England, and negotiations
sailors as had previously deserted from were commenced Aug. 7. As the Ameri-
ships-of-war. The custom had been a can commissioners were instructed to
source of annoyance and complaint for make no treaty which did not secure the
several years, and was continued despite vessels of their countrymen on the high
V.— B 17
IMPRESSMENT
seas against press-gangs, that topic re- of slavery as seamen in British ships-of- ceived the earliest attention. The Ameri- war. When Jonathan Russell, minister cans contended that the right of impress- at the British Court, attempted to ne- ment, existing by municipal law, could gotiate with that government (August, not be exercised out of the jurisdic- 1812) for a settlement of disputes be- tion of Great Britain, and, consequently, tween the Americans and British, and pro- upon the high seas. The British replied posed the withdrawal of the claims of that no subject of the King could expatri- the latter to the right of impressment ate himself — " once an Englishman, al- and the release of impressed seamen, Lord ways an Englishman " — and argued that Castlereagh, the British minister for for- to give up that right would make every eign affairs, refused to listen to such a American vessel an asylum for British proposition. He even expressed surprise seamen wishing to evade their country's that, " as a condition preliminary even service. Finally, the British commission- to a suspension of hostilities, the govern- ers stated in writing that it was not in- ment of the United States should have tended by their government to exercise thought fit to demand that the British gov- this claimed right on board any American ernment should desist from its ancient vessel, unless it was known it contained and accustomed practice of impressing British deserters. In that shape this por- British seamen from the merchant-ships tion of a treaty then concluded remained, of a foreign state, simply on the assur- and was unsatisfactory because it was ance that a law was hereafter to be passed based upon contingencies and provisions, to prohibit the employment of British and not upon positive treaty stipulations, seamen in the public or commercial ser- The American commissioners then, on vice of that state." The United States their own responsibility, proceeded to treat had proposed to pass a law making such upon other points in dispute, and an agree- a prohibition in case the British govern- ment was made, based principally upon ment should relinquish the practice of Jay's treaty of 1794. The British made impressment and release all impressed some concessions as to the rights of neu- seamen. Castlereagh acknowledged that trals. The treaty was more favorable to there might have been, at the beginning the Americans, on the whole, than Jay's, of the year 1811, 1,GOO bona fide American and, for the reasons which induced him, citizens serving by compulsion in the the American commissioners signed it. It British navy. Several hundreds of them was satisfactory to the merchants and had been discharged, and all would be, most of the people ; yet the President, con- Castlereagh said, upon proof made of their suiting only his Secretary of State, and American birth; but the British govern- without referring it to the Senate, re- ment, he continued, could not consent " to jected it. suspend the exercise of a right upon A Cause of War. — The British govern- which the naval strength of the empire ment claimed the right for commanders of mainly depended, unless assured that the British ships - of - war to make up any object might be attained in some other deficiency in their crews by pressing into way." There were then upward of 6,000 their service British-born seamen found cases of alleged impressment of American anywhere not within the immediate juris- seamen recorded in the Department of diction of some foreign state. As many State, and it was estimated that at least British seamen were employed on board as many more might have occurred, of of American merchant-vessels, the exer- which no information had been received, cise of this claimed right might (and Castlereagh had admitted on the floor of often did) seriously cripple American ves- the House of Commons that an official sels at sea. To distinguish between Brit- inquiry had revealed the fact that there ish and American seamen was not an easy were, in 1811, 3,500 men claiming to be matter, and many British captains, eager American citizens. Whatever may have to fill up their crews, frequently impressed been the various causes combined which native-born Americans. These were some- produced the war between the United times dragged by violence from on board States and Great Britain in 1812-15, their own vessels and condemned to a life when it was declared, the capital question,
18
IMPRISONMENT FOB DEBT— INDIAN CORN
and that around which gathered in agree- ment a larger portion of the people of the republic, was that of impressment. The contest was, by this consideration, re- solved into a noble struggle of a free people against insolence and oppression, undertaken on behalf of the poor, the help- less, and the stranger. It was this con- ception of the essential nature of the conflict that gave vigor to every blow of the American soldier and seamen, and the watch-words " Free Trade and Sail- ors' Eights " prevailed on land as well as on the sea. See MADISON, JAMES.
Imprisonment for Debt. See DEBTORS.
Income-tax. The first income-tax was enacted by Congress July 1, 1862, to take effect in 1863. It taxed all incomes over $600 and under $10,000 3 per cent., and over $10,000 5 per cent. By the act of March 3, 1865, the rate was increased to 5 and to 10 per cent, on the excess over $5,000, the exemption of $600 remaining the same. On March 2, 1867, the ex- emption was increased to $1,000, and the rate fixed at 5 per cent, on all excess above $1,000; the tax to be levied only until 1870. After a contest in Congress the tax was renewed for one year only by act of July 14, 1870, at the reduced rate of 2V2 per cent, on the excess of income above $2,000. A bill to repeal it passed the Senate Jan. 26, 1871, by 26 to 25. The House refused to take up the Senate bill Feb. 9, 1871, by a vote of 104 to 105, but on March 3, 1871, concurred in the report of a committee which endorsed the Senate bill and repealed the tax. The last tax levied under the law was in 1871. In- come-taxes assessed and due in 1871 and for preceding years, however, continued to be collected, 1872-74, as seen by the subjoined table:
AMOUNT OF REVENUE FROM INCOME-TAX BACH YEAR.
1863 $ 2,741,857
18G4 20,294,733
18G5 32,050,017
1866 72,982,160
1867 66,014,429
1868 41,455,599
1869 34,791,857
1870 37,775,872
1871 19,162,652
1872 14,436,861
1873 5,062,312
1874 140,391
Total $346,908,740
The Wilson tariff bill of 1894 contained provisions for an income-tax, which the United States Supreme Court declared un- constitutional on May 20, 1895.
Independence Day, LESSONS OF. See GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD.
Independents. See CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH.
Indian Corn. When the English settlers first went to Virginia, they found the Indians cultivating maize, and the Europeans called it " Indian corn." It proved to be a great blessing to the immi- grants to our shores, from Maine to Florida. Indian corn appears among the earliest exports from America. As early as 1748 the two Carolinas exported about 100,000 bushels a year. For several years previous to the Revolution, Virginia ex- ported 600,000 bushels annually. The total amount of this grain exported an- nually from all the English-American colonies at the beginning of the Revolu- tion was between 560,000 and 580,000 bushels. At the beginning of the nine- teenth century the annual export was 2,000,000 bushels. But its annual product was not included in the census reports until 1840, when the aggregate yield was nearly 400,000,000 bushels. In the calen- dar year 1903 the aggregate production was 2,244,176,925 bushels, from 88,091,- 993 acres, and the total value was $952,- 868,801. The banner States, in their order and with their production, were: Illinois, 264,087,043 bushels. Iowa, 229,218,220 bushels; Missouri, 202,839,584 bushels; Nebraska, 172,379,532 bushels; Kan- sas, 171,687,014 bushels; Indiana, 142,- 580,886 bushels; and Texas, 140,750,733 bushels — all other States and Territories being below the 100,000,000 mark. See AGRICULTURE.
Legend of the Grain. — While Capt Miles Standish and others of the Pilgrims were seeking a place to land, they found some maize in one of the deserted huts of the Indians. Afterwards Samoset, the friendly Indian, and others, taught the Pilgrims how to cultivate the grain, for it was unknown in Europe, and this sup- ply, serving them for seed, saved the lit- tle colony from starvation the following year. The grain now first received the name of " Indian corn." Mr. Schoolcraft tells us that Indian corn entered into the 19
INDIAN CORN— INDIAN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS
mythology of the Indians of the region Such is the legend of the origin of Ind-
of the Upper Lakes. In legend the Ind- ian corn, or maize.
ians tell us that a youth, on the verge Indian Industrial Schools. In addi- of manhood, went into the forest to fast, tion to a large number of day, boarding, where he built himself a lodge and paint- and other schools maintained by the fed- ed his face in sombre colors; and then eral government, various religious organ- he asked the Master of Life for some pre- izations, and each of the five civilized cious gift that should benefit his race, tribes in the Indian Territory, there were Being weak from fasting, he lay down in in 1900 a total of twenty-four schools for his lodge and gazed through its opening Indian youth, in which in addition to the into the blue depths of the heavens, from ordinary branches special attention was which descended a visible spirit in the paid to industrial education on lines that form of a beautiful young man dressed in would render the youth self - supporting green, and having green plumes on his in the future. These special schools corn- head. This embodied spirit bade the young bined had a total of 262 instructors in in- Indian to rise and wrestle with him as dustrial work, and 3,076 male and 2,288 the only way to obtain the coveted bless- female pupils, and the total expenditure ing. Four days the wrestlings were re- for the school year 1898-99 was $198,- peated, the youth feeling each time an in- 834. The most noted of these schools is creasing moral and supernatural energy, the United
while his bodily strength declined.
States Indian Industrial
This School, established in Carlisle, Pa. It mysterious energy promised him the final had in the above year twenty-nine in- victory. On the third day his celestial vis- structors and 1,090 pupils, of whom 487 itor said to him: "To-morrow will be were girls. In addition to the foregoing the seventh day of your fast, and the last schools the federal government was hav- time I shall wrestle with you. You will triumph over me and gain your wishes. As soon as you have thrown me down, strip off my clothes and bury me in the spot of soft, fresh earth. When you have done this, leave me, but come occasionally to visit the place to keep the weeds from growing. Once or twice cover me with fresh earth." The spirit then departed, but returned the next day; and, as he had predict- ed, the youth threw him on the ground. The young man obeyed his visitor's in- structions faithfully, and very soon was delighted to see the green plumes of the heavenly stranger shooting up through the mould. He carefully weed- ed the ground around them, and kept it fresh and soft, and in due time his eyes were charmed at beholding a full-grown plant bending with fruit that soon became golden just as the frost touched it. It gracefully waved its long leaves and its yellow tassels in the autumn wind. The young man called his parents to behold the new plant. " It is Men-du-min," said his father; "it is the grain of the Great Spirit." They invited their friends to a feast on the excellent grain, and there were great rejoicings.
20
INDIAN APPRENTICES MAKING HARNE
INDIAN PROBLEM, THE
ing Indian youth educated in the Hamp- undertake the experiment of having Ind-
ton Normal and Industrial Institute in ian youth educated there also, arrd such
Virginia, which was originally established encouraging results followed that the
for the education of colored youth only, government has since kept a large
The success of the institution in its origi- class of Indian boys and girls in the
nal purpose induced the government to institution.
INDIAN PROBLEM, THE
Indian Problem, THE. The following is a consideration of this subject from the pen of the Rev. Lyman Abbott:
Helen Jackson has written the history of 100 years of our nation's dealing with the Indians, under the title of A Century of Dishonor. Her specifications seem to make the indictment of her title good. Yet I am persuaded that the dishonor which justly attaches to the history of our dealings with the North American Indians is due rather to a lack of pro- phetic vision, quite pardonable, in the nation's leaders, and an ignorance and indifference, not pardonable, in the nation at large, rather than to any deliberate policy of injustice adopted by the nations Bad as has been our treatment of the Indians, it is luminous by the side of Russia's treatment of the Jews, Turkey's treatment of the Armenians, Spain's treat- ment of the Moors, and, if we include the war of Cromwell against the Irish, the English legislation against Irish industry, Irish education, and the Church of Ire- land's choice, it compares favorably with England's treatment of Ireland.
When thirteen States — a fringe of civ- ilization on the eastern edge of an un- known wilderness — constituted the Amer- ican Republic, there was no prophet to foresee the time when the republic would stretch from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and would include 70,000,000 people. If there were any such prophet ne was as a voice crying in the wilderness; no one heard or heeded. The politician is al- most invariably an opportunist, perhaps necessarily so, since no great prevision is granted to the children of men. The in- fant republic did not know and took little pains to ascertain the extent of the domain which stretched to the west, or the num- ber or character of the people who roamed
over it. Each decade was satisfied to pro- vide for its necessities and leave the next decade to take care of itself. As the boundary-line was pushed steadily west- ward, new treaties were made, by which all territory west of a given boundary was reserved for the Indians forever. I think it was in 1800 that such a treaty was made, securing to them for all future time the land west of the Mississippi River. All future time is a long while, and each new treaty was made only to be broken, as increase of population and in- coming immigration made new demands on the continent for support. Thus gradually grew up without design the so-called reser- vation system. Less and less land was reserved to the Indians; more and more was taken up by the whites; until at last certain relatively small sections were deeded to separate Indian tribes. In these, according to the treaties made, the several tribes were at liberty to remain forever hunters and trappers, freed from the obli- gations and without the advantages and perils of civilization.
These reservations have been practically prison yards, within which the tribes have been confined. If any member passed be- yond the boundaries of the reservation without leave he was liable to arrest. If he raised crops or manufactured goods he could not carry them for sale to the open market ; if he wished to buy he could not go to the open market to purchase. The land was owned by the tribe in com- mon, and the idle and industrious shared alike its advantages and disadvantages. Industry received no reward; idleness in- volved no penalty. Money due the tribe under the treaty was paid with more or less regularity, generally in rations, some- times in guns and ammunition to fight the white man with, or seal ping-knives to take from his head a trophy of the battle. The forms of industry to which
21
INDIAN PROBLEM, THE
AN INDIAN RESERVATION.
the men were accustomed — hunting and as existed was administered by an Indian
trapping — gradually disappeared; little or nothing was done to teach new forms of industry or to inspire the men to undertake them. From the reservation all the currents of civilization were excluded by federal law. The railroad, the tele- graph, the newspaper, the open market, free competition — all halted at its walls. By favor of the government, generally freely granted, the missionary was al- lowed to establish a church, or Christian philanthropy to plant a school. But as an educated Indian was rather impeded than aided in the tribal community by education, neither the church nor the school could do more than save individuals from a population shut up by law to the general conditions of barbarism. No courts sat in these reservations; no law was administered by those judicial meth- ods familiar to the Anglo-Saxon; no war- rants from local courts outside could be executed ; no Indian, if wronged, could appeal to any court for redress. Such law
agent, a person of ill-defined, and to the Indian mind, of illimitable power. He was as nearly an absolute despot as can be conceived existing on American soil. He was sometimes an intelligent and be- neficent despot, sometimes an ignorant and incompetent one; but in either case a despot.
Thus there has grown up in America, by no deliberate design but by a natural though mischievous opportunism which has rarely looked more than ten years ahead, a system as inconsistent with American principles and the American spirit as could easily be devised by the ingenuity or conceived by the imagination of a man. It has denied to the Indian, often under the generous desire to do more for him than mere justice, those rights and prerogatives which the Declaration of Independence truly declares to belong in- alienably to all men. It has made a prisoner of him that it might civilize him, under the illusion that it is possible to
INDIAN PROBLEM, THE
civilize a race without subjecting them to the same disadvantages. The same policy the perils of civilization. It has en- of political removal and political ap- deavored to conduct him from the relative pointment has characterized the whole innocence of barbarism to the larger and Indian administration. Sometimes the more perilous life of a free and civilized appointments have been made by the corn- community, and to guard him from the missioner of Indian affairs, sometimes by dangers of temptation and the consequences the Secretary of the Interior, sometimes of his own ignorance en route. The practically by local politicians; but in reservation system is absolutely, hopeless- all cases alike, not for expert knowledge ly, incurably bad, " evil and wholly evil of Indians, but for political service ren- and that continually." It was never dered or to be rendered, or from reasons framed by any one. It has grown up of personal friendship. The notion that under the commingled influence of careless there is a continuous and consistent indifference, popular ignorance, local policy to be pursued towards the Indians, prejudipe, and unthinking sentimentalism. and that this requires continuity of ser- The Indian problem is, in a sentence, vice and expertness of knowledge in the how to get rid of it in the easiest and administration, has not entered the head quickest way possible, and bring the Ind- of our public men; or, if so, has not been ian and every Indian into the same in- allowed to obtain lodgment there. That dividual relation to the State and federal so bad a system has secured so many governments that other men in this coun- good Indian agents and subordinate offi- try are, with the least possible violence cials is a matter for surprise. It is not of rupture with the past and the greatest surprising that it has in more than one possible regard for the right and the instance sent a drunken official to keep welfare of those who are the least re- the Indians sober, an ignorant official to sponsible for the present conditions — the superintend their education, and a lazy Indians themselves. official to inspire them with industry.
The reservation system, I say, is wholly One illustration of the result of this
bad. The indictment against it is four- method of administration is to be seen
fold. in the removal of Dr. Hailman, the
In tt» first place, the Indian Bureau superintendent of Indian education, an
is, and always has been, a political ma- expert educator, whose retention in his
chine, whose offices are among the spoils office was urged upon the administration
which belong to the victors. In the by substantially all those familiar with
twenty years during which I have had the work which he had done. An even
some familiarity with Indian affairs, not more striking object-lesson is afforded by
a single commissioner of Indian affairs the outbreak among the Pillager Indians,
has been appointed because he was fa- largely due to three successive appraisals
miliar with the Indians, or an expert of their timber lands, two of which ap-
in the Indian problem, and only one who praisals have been set aside as inade-
was an expert in that work of education quate, through the incompetence of the
which is, of course, one of the chief ele- appraisers, the enormous cost of each ap-
ments in the Indian problem. They have praisal having been charged to the
been, I think, all of them, men of excel- Indians.
lent character — honest, able, ambitious to But even if the Indian Bureau could do the best that could be done for the be taken out of politics and kept out of Indian. Some of them have made not- politics, the reservation system would able contributions towards the solution still be incurably bad. It assumed that of the problem. But each one of them the federal executive can administer a has come into office with little or no paternal government over widely scat- familiarity with the problem, has had to tered local communities. For such a acquaint himself with it, and has hardly function it is peculiarly unfitted. The had, more than enough time to do so be- attempt to engraft a Russian bureaucracy fore his term of office has expired, and on American democracy is a fore-doomed he has been replaced by a successor who failure. The federal government does ex- has had to take up the work subject to ercise paternal authority over the Dis-
23
INDIAN PROBLEM, THE
trict of Columbia. But on the decent gov- ernment of the District the well-being, the health, and, perhaps, the lives of the members of Congress depend; the relation between the government and the governed is thus direct, close, intimate. Local communities in the United States exer- cise some paternal functions, as in the case of the insane, the sick, and the paupers. But here, again, those directly interested have an opportunity of exer- cising an immediate supervision over the work and calling the public officials to account. But it is in the nature of the case impossible that a President, a Sec- retary of the Interior, or even a commis- sioner of Indian affairs, can personally supervise the innumerable details involved in the paternal administration of com- munities scattered from Minnesota to New Mexico, and from Michigan to Cali- fornia.
An aristocratic government, composed of men who have inherited political ability from a long line of governing ancestry, and who have been especially trained for that work from boyhood, so that both by inheritance and training they are experts, may be supposed fitted to take care of peo- ple weaker, more ignorant, or less compe- tent than themselves, though the history of oligarchic governments does not render that supposition free from doubt. But there is nothing in either philosophy or history to justify the surmise that 70,000,- 000 average men and women, most of whom are busy in attending to their own affairs, can be expected to take care of a people scattered through a widely extended territory — a people of social habits and social characteristics entirely different from their care-takers; nor is it much more rational to expect that public ser- vants, elected on different issues for a dif- ferent purpose, can render this service efficiently. Our government is founded on the principle of local self-government; that is, on the principle that each locality is better able to take care of its own affairs than any central and paternal au- thority is to take care of them. The mo- ment we depart from this principle we introduce a method wholly unworkable by a democratic nation. It may be wide of the present purpose, yet perhaps not as an illustration, to say that if the United
States assumes political responsibility for Cuba and the Philippines, as I personally think it is bound to do, it must fulfil that responsibility not by governing them as conquered territory from Washington, but by protecting and guiding, but not controlling them, while they attempt the experiment of local self-government for themselves. We have tried the first method with our Indians, and it has been a con- tinuous and unbroken failure. We have tried the second method with the territory west of the Mississippi River, ours by con- quest or by purchase, and it has been an unexampled success. If the Indian is the " ward of the nation," the executive should not be his guardian. How that guardian- ship should be exercised I shall indicate presently.
This political and undemocratic pater- nalism is thoroughly bad for the Indian, whose interests it is supposed to serve. It assumes that civilization can be taught by a primer in a school, and Christianity by a sermon in a church. This is not true. Free competition teaches the need of industry, free commerce the value of honesty; a savings-bank the value of thrift; a railroad the importance of punc- tuality, better than either preacher or pedagogue can teach them. To ^iose, and there are still some, who think we must keep the Indian on the reservation until he is prepared for liberty, I reply that he will never be prepared for liberty on a reservation. When a boy can learn to ride without getting on a horse's back, or to swim without going into the water, or to skate without going on the ice — then, and not before, can man learn to live with- out living. The Indian must take his chance with the rest of us. His rights must be protected by law; his welfare looked after by philanthropy; but pro- tected by law and befriended by philan- thropy, he must plunge into the current of modern life and learn to live by living. The tepee will never fit him for the house, nor the canoe for the steamboat, nor the trail for highways and railroads, nor trapping and hunting for manufactures and husbandry. Imagine — the illustration is Edward Everett Hale's, not mine — imagine that we had pursued towards our immigrants the policy we have pursued towards the Indians; had shut the Poles,
24
INDIAN PROBLEM, THE
the Hungarians, the Italians, the Germans, the Scandinavians, each in a reservation allotted to them, and forbidden them to go out into the free life of America until they had Americanized themselves — how long would the process have taken?
But the capital objection to the reser- vation system is that it is one impossible to maintain; and it is impossible to main- tain because it ought not to be main- tained. The tide of civilization, surging westward, comes some day to a fair and wealthy but unused and idle territory. There are forests which no woodman's axe has ever touched; rivers where water-falls turn no mill-wheels; mountains whose treasures of gold and silver, iron or cop- per or coal no pickaxe has uncovered; prairies whose fertile soil is prolific only in weeds. "Come," cries the pioneer, eager to develop this useless territory, " let us go in and make those acres rich by our industry." " No!" replies the law; "you cannot." "Why not?" "It be- longs to the Indians." " Where are they?" "Hunting, trapping, sleeping, idling, and fed on rations." " When are they going to use this land; to convert this timber into boards; these rivers into mill-streams; when are they going to ex- cavate these minerals, and turn these weedy prairies into fruitful farms?" "Never! This land in the heart of a civilized community is forever consecrated to barbarism." The pioneer's impatience with such a policy is fully justified, though his manner of manifesting it is not. Barbarism has no rights which civil- ization is bound to respect. The ques- tion on what basis the right to land rests is one of the most difficult which political economy has to answer. Many scholars who do not accept Henry George's con- clusions accept his premise, that the soil belongs to the community, and that in- dividual ownership rests not on any indefeasible right, but on the express or implied agreement of the community. Certain it is that the 500,000, more or less, of Indians who roamed over this con- tinent in the seventeenth century, had no right by reason of that fact to exclude from it the several hundred million industri- ous men and women whom eventually it will support. As little have a tribe of a few hundred Indians a right to keep in
unproductive idleness a territory which, if cultivated, would provide homes for as many thousands of industrious workers. No treaty can give them that right. It is not in the power of the federal government to consecrate any portion of its territory thus to ignorance and idleness. It has tried, again and again, to do so; it has always failed; it always ought to fail; it always will fail. English parks kept un- tilled, yet ministering to taste and refine- ment, have always been regarded by po- litical economists as difficult to justify; nothing can be said to justify American reservations, kept untilled only that they may minister to idleness and barbarism.
The editor, in asking me to write this article, indicated his desire that I should write " on the probable future of the Ind- ians in their relation with the govern- ment, and the reforms necessary in the administration of their affairs." It may seem that I have been a long time coming to any definite answer to this question; but in order to set forth succinctly a re- form it is first necessary to set forth as clearly and forcibly as possible the evil to be reformed. That evil, I believe, is the reservation system. The reform is all summed up in the words, abolish it. Cease to treat the Indian as a red man and treat him as a man. Treat him as we have treated the Poles, Hungarians, Italians, Scandinavians. Many of them are no better able to take care of them- selves than the Indians; but we have thrown on them the responsibility of their own custody, and they have learned to live by living. Treat them as we have treated the negro. As a race the Afri- can is less competent than the Indian; but we do not shut the negroes up in reservations and put them in charge of politically appointed parents called agents. The lazy grow hungry; the criminal are punished; the industrious get on. And though sporadic cases of in- justice are frequent and often tragic, they are the gradually disappearing relics of a slavery that is past, and the negro is find- ing his place in American life gradually, both as a race and as an individual. The reform necessary in the administration of Indian affairs is: Let the Indian admin- ister his own affairs and take his chances. The future relations of the Indians with
25
INDIAN PROBLEM, THE
the government should be precisely the same as the relations of any other indi- vidual, the readers of this article or the writer of it, for example. This should be the objective point, and the sooner we can get there the better. But this will bring hardship and even injustice on some individuals! Doubtless. The world has not yet found any way in which all hardship and all injustice to individ- uals can be avoided. Turn the Indian loose on the continent and the race will disappear! Certainly. The sooner the better. There is no more reason why we should endeavor to preserve intact the Indian race than the Hungarians, the Poles, or the Italians. Americans all, from ocean to ocean, should be the aim of all American statesmanship. Let us understand once for all that an inferior race must either adapt and conform itself to the higher civilization, wherever the two come in conflict, or else die. This is the law of God, from which there is no appeal. Let Christian philanthropy do all it can to help the Indian to conform to American civilization; but let not sen- timentalism fondly imagine that it can save any race or any community from this inexorable law.
This general and radical reform in- volves certain specific cures. For ex- ample :
1. The Indian Bureau ought to be taken at once and forever out of politics. The government should find the man most ex- pert in dealing with the Indians — he may be the present commissioner of Indian affairs — and instruct him to bring the Indian Bureau to a close at the earliest possible moment. Once appointed to office for that purpose he should stay there till the work is completed. I be- lieve that in one respect an army officer would be the best fitted for such a post, because he would be eager to bring the work to a close, while the civilian would see 100 reasons why it should be con- tinued from year to year. His subor- dinates should be Indian experts and re- moved only for cause, never for political reasons.
2. There are, it is said, ten or a dozen reservations in which the land has al- ready been allotted in severally and the reservations broken up. The agents in
such cases should be dismissed. If the Indian still needs a guardian, if there is danger that his land will be taxed away from him, or that he will be induced to sell it for a song, the courts, not the ex- ecutive, should be his guardian. Guardiaii- ship is a function the courts are accus- tomed to exercise. It ought not to be difficult to frame a law such that an Indian could always appeal to a- federal judge to have his tax appraisal revised, and always be required to submit to a federal judge any proposed sale of real estate.
3. The Indian and every Indian should be amenable to the law and entitled to its protection. I believe that, despite occa- sional injustice from local prejudice, it would be quite safe to leave their inter- ests to be protected by the courts of any State or Territory in which they live; for I believe that the American people, and certainly the American judiciary, can be trusted. The policy of distrust has intensified the local prejudice against the Indian. But it would be easy, if it be necessary, to provide that any Indian might sue in a United States court, or if sued or prosecuted might transfer the suit to a United States court. I assume there is no constitutional provision against such a law.
4. All reservations in which the land is capable of allotment in severally should be allotted as rapidly as the work of sur- veying and making out the warrants can be carried on. The unallotted land should be sold and the proceeds held by the United States in trust for the Indians. How to be expended is a difficult question. Not in food and clothing, which only pau- perize. The first lesson to be taught the Indian is, if he will not work, neither shall he eat. Perhaps in agricultural im- plements; perhaps in schools; perhaps in public improvements; perhaps in a-11 three. When the land is of a kind that cannot be allotted in severalty, as in the case of extended grazing lands, for example, it would seem as though a skilful lawyer should be able to devise some way in which the tribe could be incorporated and the land given to the corporation in fee simple; in which case the shares of stock possibly for a time should be inalienable, except by approval of the court; or pos-
INDIAN RESERVATIONS— INDIAN TERRITORY
sibly tlie property might even be adminis- tered for a time by a receiver appointed by and answerable to the court.
5. Every Indian should be at once free to come and go as he pleases, subject as every other nuui is In tin- law of the local- ity and the processes of the courts where he is, and under their protection. The Indian with his blanket should have the privilege of travelling where he will, as much as the Italian with her shawl.
6. Finally, as fast and as far as the tribal organization is dissolved and the reservation is broken up, the Indian should have a ballot, on the same terms as other citizens; not so much because his vote will add to the aggregate wisdom of the community as because the ballot is the American's protection from injustice.
The reform is very simple, if it is very radical. It is: Apply to the solution of the Indian problem the American method ; treat the Indian as other men are treated ; set him free from his trammels; cease to coddle him: in a word, in lieu of paternal protection, which does not protect, and free rations, which keep him in beggary, give him justice and liberty and let him take care of himself.
Indian Reservations. See RESERVA- TIONS, INDIAN.
Indian Territory. By act of Congress, June 30, 1834, " all that part of the United States west of the Mississippi River, and not within the States of Missouri and Louisiana, or the Territory [now the State] of Arkansas, shall be considered the Indian country." It has been reduced in area by the successive formation of States and Territories, until now it is i hounded north by Kansas, east by Missouri and Arkansas, south by Texas, and west by Texas and Oklahoma, and contains an area of 31.000 square miles. The popula- tion in 1890 was 180,182; in 1900, 391,960. This aggregate population, however, is only partially Indian, as many " squaw- men," other whites, and negroes are in- cluded therein. In 1900 there were seven reservations in the Territory, and five civ- ilized nations, the Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles, and over 97 per cent, of the entire population was in the first four nations. It was estimated that the population of the five nations in- cluded 84,750 Indians. The reservation
Indians include Quapaws, Peorias, Kas- kaskias, OH a was, \Vyandottes, Miamis, Shawnees, Modocs, Senecas, Cayugas, Sacs and Foxes, Pottawattomies, Osages, Kaws, Kiowas, Comariches, Apaches, Arapahoes, Cheyennes, Piankeshaws, and Weas, and the affiliated bands of Wichitas, Keechies, Wacoes, Tawacanies, Caddoes, loneis, Del- awares, and Penetethka Comanches. In the latter part of 1873 the Modocs (a remnant of Captain Jack's band) and about 400 Kickapoos and Pottawattomies, from the borders of Texas and Mexico, were re- moved to the Indian Territory. The Ter- itory is well watered and wooded, and has much fertile land suitable for raising cere- als and cotton, while the climate is mild and salubrious, but d>y. Previous to the Civil War the five civilized tribes were well-to-do, even wealthy, possessing large farms and many slaves, a>/d having an ex- tensive trade with the Southern cities. Many of them enlisted — s^me with the Nationals, same with the Confederates — and at the close of the war the tribes were reduced to poverty. Since then, however, they have made remarkable progress, and have regained much of their former wealth. In 1891 the Ind- ian population cultivated over 400,000 acres of land, and raised fully 4,500,000 bushels of wheat, corn, and oats, 400,000 bushels of vegetables, 60,000 bales, of cot- ton, and 175,000 tons of hay, amounting in value to nearly $6,000,000. A portion of the Territory is fine grass - land, well fitted for grazing, and the several tribes owned 800,000 head of live-stock. Besides these there were produced large quantities of maple sugar, wild rice, cord-wood, hem- lock bark, and wool. More than 8,000,000 feet of lumber was sawed, and many thou- sands of woollen blankets, shawls, willow baskets, and other small articles of manu- facture were produced. The Territory also produces iron, coal, marble, sandstone, and brick-clay. Wild turkeys and other varieties of small game are abundant. In certain instances, where white men are concerned, the jurisdiction of the United States courts extends over the Territory. The subject of a territorial government for the Indian country has long been dis- cussed, but no decision has yet been reached. It was the policy of the United States to settle the various tribes in this
27
INDIANA
region upon separate reservations, as far of New France, and afterwards of the as possible, where they might be free from Northwest Territory. In 1702 some the encroachment of the white people, French Canadians discovered the Wabash, and under the general superintendence and established several trading-posts on and protection of the government; but its banks, among others, Vincennes. Lit- nearly 3,000 " pale-faces " had intruded tie is known of the early settlers until and seated themselves in the Territory, the country was ceded to the English, in when, in 1889, a portion of it was made 1763. The treaty of 1783 included Indi- a Territory of the United States by pur- ana in the United States. A distressing chase from the Indians, under the name Indian war broke out in 1788, but by vic- of Oklahoma. tories by General Wilkinson (1791) and
In 1893 Congress created the commission General Wayne (1794), a dangerous con- to the five civilized tribes, with instruc- federacy of the tribes was broken up. tions to enter into negotiations with the Another was afterwards attempted by several nations for the allotment of land Tecumseh, but was defeated by the result in severalty or to procure the cession to of the battle of Tippecanoe. the United States of the lands belonging In 1800 the " Connecticut Reserve," in to the five tribes at such price and terms the northwestern portion of Ohio, having as might be agreed upon, it being the ex- press determination of Congress to bring about such changes as would enable the ultimate creation of a Territory, with the view to the admission of the same as a State of the Union. The work of the com- mission was still in progress in 1901, a principal difficulty being the taking of a census that would show the number of people in the several nations that would be entitled to consideration in the execu- tion of the intentions of Congress. An encouraging advance had been made in carrying out the other duties of the com- mission.
Each of the five nations constitutes a separate organism, independent of any cen- tral authority; having its own executive and legislative officers; and being sover- eign excepting as to an observance of certain provisions of Congress. Each na- been sold to a company of speculators, tion, in a word, practically stands measures were taken to extinguish cer- towards the other nations and to the tain claims on the part of the United national government in the same rela- States and the State of Connecticut, tion as any one of the States. Hence, the The speculators found their bargain to labor of gathering information concern- be pecuniarily unprofitable, and likely to ing the material, financial, educational, prove a serious embarrassment. Fully social, and other interests of the Indian 1,000 settlers were already on the " Re- Territory, and of carrying out the duties serve." Hitherto a confirmation of the imposed on the commission, may be lik- Connecticut title to these lands by the ened to the application of the same effort United States had been inferentially ac- to any five adjoining States, although knowledged, and Connecticut had given the actual area of investigation is here no quit-claim deeds; therefore, it was to more restricted. the interest of the speculators to obtain
Indiana, STATE OF, was first explored from the United States a direct confirma- by French missionaries and traders, and tion. On the other hand, it was an ob- Vincennes was a missionary station as ject for the United States to extinguish early as 1700. Indiana constituted a part Connecticut's claim of jurisdiction. Con-
2S
STATE SEAL OF INDIANA.
INDIANA— INDIANS
gress passed an act (April 28, 1800) authorizing the issue of letters - patent conveying the title of these lands to the governor of Connecticut, for the benefit of those claiming under her, and similar letters-patent were used by Connecticut, relinquishing all claim to jurisdiction. So the " Reserve " was annexed to the Northwest Territory, which was presently divided, by act of Congress (May 7), into two separate jurisdictions, the western one being called the Territory of Indiana, after one of the old ante-Revolutionary land companies. St. Vincent, or Vin- cennes, was made the capital, and Will- iam Henry Harrison was appointed gov- ernor of the Territory. It then included Michigan and Illinois.
In 1803 a movement was made in Con- gress for suspending for a limited term, in the case of Indiana Territory, the pro- vision of the ORDINANCE OF 1787 (q. v.) prohibiting slavery northward of the Ohio River. A committee, of which John Randolph, of Virginia, was chairman, re- ported strongly against the proposition, believing that " in the salutary operation of this salutary and sagacious restraint the inhabitants of Indiana would, at no distant day, find ample remuneration for a temporary privation of labor and immi- gration." At the next session (1804) it was proposed to admit, for ten years, the introduction of slaves born within the United States, their descendants to be free, masculine at the age of twenty-five years, and feminine at twenty-one years. No action was ever taken.
When war with Great Britain broke out, in 1812, a fresh impulse was given to Indian depredations, which had never fairly ceased, but the hostiles were beaten, and were quiet after the close of that con- test. On June 29, 1816, a convention adopted a State constitution for Indiana, and on Dec. 11 it was admitted into the Union. Rapid and continued immigra- tion ensued. This was greatly increased by the opening of the Erie Canal. Dur- ing the Civil War Indiana furnished to the National army 195,147 soldiers. In 1899 the assessed valuation of taxable property was $1,342,831,161; total tax rate, $2.96 per $1,000; and total debt, $5,004,615. The population in 1890 was 2,192,404; in 1900, 2,516,462. See CLARK,
GEORGE ROGERS; UNITED STATES — INDI- ANA, in vol. ix.
GOVERNORS OF TERRITORY.
William H. Harrison 1800 to 1812
John Gibson acting 1800 " 1801
Thomas I'osey appointed March 3, 1813
GOVERNORS OF STATE.
Jonathan Jennings. . . .elected to Congress 1816
Ratlin" Boon acting Sept. 12 to Dec. 5, 1822
William Hendncks elected U. S. Senator 1822
James B. Hay acting. . .Feb. 12 to Dec. 11, 1825
" " " 1825
Noah Noble 1831
David Wallace 1837
Samuel Bigger 1840
James Whitcomb elected U. S. Senator 1843
Paris C. Dunning
Joseph A. Wright
Ashbel P. Willard... Abram A. Hammond
.acting 1848 to 1849
1849
. (died Oct. 4, I860) 1857
• acting I860 to 1861
Henry S. Lane elected U. S. Senator 1861
Oliver P. Morton acting 1861 to 1865
" " " elected U. S. Senator 1865
Conrad Baker acting 1867 to 1869
" " 1869
Thomas A. Hendric ks 1873
James D. Williams (died Nov. 20, 1880) 1877
Is;iac P. Gray acting 1880 to 1881
Albert G. Porter ' ]881
Isaac P. Gray 1885
Alvin P. Hovey (died Nov. '23, 1891) 1889
Ira J. Chase acting 181)1 to 1893
Claude Matthews 1893
James A. Mount < 1897
Winfleld T. Durbin 1901
J. Frank Hanly 1905
UNITED STATES SENATORS
|
Name. |
No. of Congress. |
Date. |
|
James Noble |
14th to 22d |
1816 to 1831 |
|
Waller Taylor.. William Hendricks Robert Hanoa |
14th «• ISith 19th " 24th 2'2d |
1816 " 1825 1825 " 1K37 1831 " 1832 |
|
John Tipton |
22d to 25th |
1K32 " 1837 |
|
Oliver H Smith |
25th " 27th |
1837 " 1843 |
|
Albert S White |
26th " 28th |
1839 " 1844 |
|
Edward A. Hannegan.... Jesse D Bright |
28th " 30th 29th " 37th |
1843 " 1849 1845 " 1861 |
|
James Whitcomb Charles W. Cathcart John Petit |
31st " 32d 32d 32 d to 33d |
1849 " 1852 1852 " 1853 1853 " 1856 |
|
Graham N. Fitch Henry S Lane |
34th «' 36th 37th " 39th |
1857 " 1860 ]861 " 1867 |
|
Joseph A. Wright David Turpie ... |
37th |
1861 " 1862 1863 |
|
Thomas A. Hendricks. . . . Oliver P. Morton Daniel D Pratt |
38th to 40th 40th " 45th 41st " 43d |
1863 to 1869 1867 " 1877 1869 " 1875 |
|
Joseph E. McDonald Daniel W. Voorhees Benjamin Harrison David Turpie . . |
44th " 46th 45th " 55th 47th " 49th 50th " 56th |
1875 " 1881 1877 " 1897 1881 " 1888 1888 " 1899 |
|
Charles W. Fairbanks Albert J Beveridge |
55th " 56th " |
1897 " 1899 " |
Indians, the name commonly applied to the people found by Columbus in America; by many authorities believed to have been the aboriginal inhabitants. The
INDIANS
|
following remarks and tables refer to Indians within the present area of the United States. In manners, customs, and general features the difference between the Indians of the Gulf States and those of the shores of the Northern Lakes is scarcely perceptible; it is only by languages that they can be grouped into great families. East of the Mississippi there were not more than eight radically distinct lan- guages, four of which are still in existence, while the others have disappeared. NAMES AND LOCATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TRIBES OF THE EIGHT GREAT FAMILIES AT THE TIME OF THE FIRST SETTLEMENTS. |
NAMES AND LOCATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TRIBES OF THE EIGHT GREAT FAMILIES AT THE TIME OF THE FIRST SETTLEMENTS— Continued. |
|
|
Name. Location. |
||
|
Chowans (Huron) or Wyandotte- [ Iroquois) ) |
Southern Virginia. (( u U (I (W. North and South Caro- lina. Mountainous regions of Tennessee, Georgia, North and South Caro- lina. About Augusta, Ga. N. W. Mississippi. (Western Tennessee and \ Northern Mississippi. I Eastern Mississippi and ( Western Alabama. Alabama and Georgia. Florida. About Green Bay, Wis. |
|
|
Meherrins (Huron or Wyandotte Iroquois) . ... |
||
|
Notta ways (Huron or Wyandotte- Iroquois) |
||
|
III. Catawbas |
||
|
IV. Cherokees |
||
|
V. Uchees |
||
|
Name. |
Location. |
VII. Mobilian or Musco- ffees : |
|
I. Algonquian tribes: Micraacs |
East of the State of Maine. Maine. (New Hampshire and \Maine. ( Eastern Massachusetts 1 and Rhode Island. ( Central Massachusetts and \ Rhode Island. ( Western Massachusetts \ and Connecticut. (New Jersey, the valley { of the Delaware and ( Schuylkill. {Eastern shores of Chesa- peake Bay. E. Virginia and Maryland. E. North Carolina. (South of the Ohio, W. Ken- \ tucky, and Tennessee. ( S. Michigan, N. Indiana, ( and N. W. Ohio. S. Illinois and Indiana. N. and central Illinois. Northern Illinois. Michigan. Northern Wisconsin. (Southern shore of Lake \ Superior. (Southern shore of Lake \ Superior. (Southern shore of Lake { Erie. Head-waters of the Ohio. (Territory north of Lakes \ Erie and Ontario. Western New York. Central New York. • t (( (( Eastern New York. (S. W. Virginia and North < Carolina. Joined the Iro- ( quois of New York, 1713. |
|
|
Etchemins or Ca-\ noe men j |
Choctaws |
|
|
Abenakis |
||
|
Narragansets. . . . ) Pokauokets or>- Wampanoags . . J |
Semiuoles |
|
|
VIII. Winnebagoes. |
||
|
PRINCIPAL TRIBES WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI IN 1300-30. |
||
|
Delawares or Len- ) ni Lenape j Nanticokes |
Name. Location. |
|
|
Dakotas (Sioux) |
(Wisconsin, west to Rocky \ Mountains. ( Wyoming, head-waters of I Platte. "Wyoming and Nebraska. Kansas, west. Dakotas. Nebraska. Montana. Montana and Dakotas. Mon tana. Lower Missouri. Iowa. Kansas, west. Dakotas. Kansas. Kansas and Nebraska. Red River and Arkansas. Kansas to Oregon. Kansas, west. Utah and Colorado. Texas and New Mexico. New Mexico and Arizona. Arizona. Arizona and California. Nevada and New Mexico. Arizona. Idaho and Oregon. Nevada and Oregon. (California, Oregon, and t Nevada. Oregon and N. California |
|
|
PowhatanConfed-) |
||
|
Omahas |
||
|
Shawnees |
Mandans |
|
|
Miamis |
Minnetaries (Gros Venires). |
|
|
Illinois |
lowas |
|
|
Kickapoos |
Osages |
|
|
Pottawattomies .... Ottawas |
Crows |
|
|
Raws |
||
|
Sacs and Foxes Menomonees |
||
|
Caddos |
||
|
ChippewasorOjibO ways j |
Kiowas |
|
|
Utes |
||
|
II. Wyandotte or Huron- Iroquois tribes : Eries (Huron or ) Wyandotte -Iro- 1 quois) ) |
Comanches |
|
|
Apaches |
||
|
Navajos and Moquis |
||
|
Yumas |
||
|
Pueblos |
||
|
Andastes (Huron) or Wyandotte- 1 Iroquois) ... ) |
Pimas |
|
|
Bannocks |
||
|
Modocs |
||
|
Wyandottes (HuO ron or Wyan- 1 dotte- Iroquois)) Senecas (Iroquois \ |
||
|
Flatheads |
||
|
Klamaths |
||
|
proper) / Cayugas (Iroquois^ proper) ... j |
For other details concerning the various tribes, see their respective titles ; also RES- ERVATIONS, INDIAN. Indians, AMERICAN. Believing the earth to be a globe, Columbus expected to find India or Eastern Asia by sailing westward from Spain. The first land dis- covered by him— one of the Bahama 0 |
|
|
Onondagas (Iro-) quois proper) . . j Oneidas (Iroquois) proper) j |
||
|
Mohawks (Iro- J quois proper).. J Tuscaroras (Iro- ) quois proper) . . J |
||
|
3 |
INDIANS, AMEBICAN
A MODERN COMANCHB.
Islands — he supposed to be a part of satisfying. Recent investigations favor a
India, and he called the inhabitants theory that, if they be not indigenous,
Indians. This name was afterwards ap- they came from two great Asiatic fami-
plied to all the nations of the adjacent lies: the more northern tribes of our
islands and the continent.
continent from the lighter Mongolians,
Origin. — There is no positive knowl- who crossed at Bering Strait, and the edge concerning the origin of the more southerly ones, in California, Cen- aborigines of America; their own tradi- tral and South America, from the darker tions widely vary, and conjecture is un- Malays, who first peopled Polynesia, in
31
INDIANS, AMERICAN
INDIAN WAR-CLUBS.
the southern Pacific Ocean and finally colony said to have been lost in the wilds made their way to our continent, grad- of North America 700 years ago. ually spreading over it from the Pacific Unity. — There seems to be a physical to the Atlantic. Language fails to con- identity of race throughout most of the nect any of them with the Asiatic continent. Their skin is generally of a families, but their traditions, imple- dark reddish-brown, or cinnamon, color; ments, and modes of life point to such they have long, black, and straight hair, a relationship. It has been suggested prominent cheek-bones, and broad faces;
eyes deep-set, full and rounded lips, broad and prominent noses, scanty beard; their heads are generally square, arid their stature about the same as that of other races of the same latitude. Their muscular development is not great, and their hands and feet are small; their skin is thinner, softer, and smoother than that of Europeans; the expression of the men is often noble, and many of the women are handsome. Haughty in deportment, taciturn, stoical, cunning, persevering, re- vengeful, brave and ferocious in war; cruel towards enemies and faithful towards friends; grateful for favors, hos- pitable and kind, the Indians of North America are undoubtedly capable of great and rapid development under the genial influence of civilization. Their mental temperament is poetic and imaginative in a high degree, and it is often expressed in great beauty and eloquence of lan- guage; but in their present social con- dition their animal propensities greatly preponderate over the intellectual. The
INDIAN GRAVE-POST.
tribes south of California have always been noted for mental development much superior to those of more northern lati-
that the Mandans and Chinooks, who are tudes.
almost white, are descendants of a Welsh Pursuits. — War, hunting, and fishing
32
INDIANS, AMEBICAN
are the chief pursuits of the men of the Those official honors were gained some- more barbarous tribes; agriculture of the times by inheritance, but more frequently semi-civilized. Among the savages found by personal merit. Such was the simple in North America by Europeans, the women performed almost all the manual labor and burden-bearing. They carried on their limited agriculture, which con- sisted in the production of maize or Ind- ian corn, beans, squashes, potatoes, and tobacco. They manufactured the im- plements of war, and for hunting and fish- ing; made mats, and skin and feather clothing, canoes, ornaments of the teeth and claws of beasts, and of shells and porcupine-quills; performed all domestic drudgery, and constructed the lodges of the bark of trees or the hides of beasts. Rude figures of animate and inanimate objects carved in wood or stone, or moulded in clay, and picture-writing on the inner bark of trees or the skins of beasts, or cut upon rocks, with rude or- namented pottery, were the extent of their accomplishments in the arts of de- sign and of literature. The picture-writ- ing was sometimes used in musical nota- tion, and contained the burden of their songs.
Religion. — They believed in a good and Supreme Being, and in an Evil Spirit, and recognized the existence of inferior good and evil spirits. They believed in a fut- ure state of existence, and there were no infidels among them. Superstition swayed them powerfully, and charlatans, called "medicine-men," were their phy- sicians, priests, and prophets, who, on all
occasions, used incantations. Christian government, seldom disobeyed, that con- missionaries have labored among them in trolled about 1,000,000 dusky inhabi- many places, from the time the Spaniards tants of the present domain of the United and Frenchmen settled in America until States, which extends over nearly twenty- now, and have done much to enlighten five degrees of latitude and about sixty them. degrees of longitude.
Government. — There was not a sem- Geographical Distribution. — There seem blance of a national government among the to have been only eight radically distinct aborigines when the Europeans came, ex- nations known to the earlier settlers — cept that of the IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY namely, the Algonquian, Huron - Iroquois, (q. v.) . Their language was varied by Cherokee, Catawba, Uchee, Natchez, Mo- more than a hundred dialects, and they bilian or Floridian, and Dakota or Sioux, were divided into many distinct families More recently, other distinct nations have or tribes, under a kind of patriarchal been discovered — namely, the Athabascas, rule. Each family had its armorial sign, Sahaptins, Chinooks, Shoshones, and Atta- called a totem, such as an eagle, a bear, kapas. Others will doubtless be found, or a deer, by which it was designated. The Algonquians were a large family oc- The civil head of a tribe was called a cupying all Canada, New England, a part sachem, and the military leader a chief, of New York and Pennsylvania; all New
33
INDIAN ARROW-HEADS.
INDIANS, AMERICAN
Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia ; eastern North Carolina above Cape Fear, a large part of Kentucky and Tennessee, and all north and west of those States east of the Mississippi. Within the folds of this nation were the Huron-Iroquois, occupying a greater portion of Canada south of the Ottawa River, and the region between Lake Ontario and Lakes Erie and Huron, nearly all of the State of New York, and a part of Pennsylvania and Ohio along the southern shores of Lake Erie. Detached from the main body were the Tuscaroras and a few smaller families dwelling in southern Virginia and the up- per part of North Carolina. Five families of the Huron-Iroquois, dwelling within the limits of the State of New York, formed the famous Iroquois Confederacy of Five Nations. The Cherokees inhabited the
small family in the pleasant land along the Oconee and the head-waters of the Ogeechee and Chattahoochee, in Georgia, and touched the Cherokees. They were only a remnant of a once powerful tribe, when the Europeans came, and they claimed to be more ancient than the sur- rounding people. The Natchez occupied a territory on the eastern side of the Mississippi, extending northeastward from the site of the city of Natchez along the Pearl River to the head-waters of the Chickasaw. They claimed to be older than the Uchees, and, like others of the Gulf region, they worshipped the sun and fire, and made sacrifices to the source of terrestrial light. The Mobilians or Flo- ridians occupied a domain next in ex- tent to that of the Algonquians. It stretched along the Atlantic coast from
fertile and picturesque region where the moun- tain - ranges that form the water- shed between the Atlantic and Mississippi melt in the lowlands that border the Gulf of Mexico.
The Catawbas were their neighbors on the east, and dwelt upon the borders of the Yadkin and Catawba rivers, on both sides of the boundary-line between North and South Carolina. The Uchees were a
the mouth of the Cape Fear River to the extremity of the Florida peninsula, and westward along the Gulf of Mexico about 600 miles to the Mississippi River. They also held jurisdiction up that stream as far as the mouth of the Ohio. The do- main included parts of South Carolina, the whole of Florida, Alabama, and Mis- sissippi, all of Georgia not occupied by the Cherokees and Uchees, and portions of Tennessee and Kentucky. The nation was divided into three confederacies, each powerful and independent, like our sepa- rate States. They were known respective- ly as the Muscogee or Creek (the most
INDIANS, AMERICAN
large number of tribes west of the Great Lakes and Mis- sissippi, with whom the earlier French explorers came in contact. These, speaking dialects of the same language, apparently, were regarded as parts of one nation. They inhabited the domain stretching northward from the Arkan- sas River to the western tributary of Lake Winnipeg, and westward along all that line to the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. They have been arranged into four classes: 1. The Win- nebagoes, situated between Lake Michigan and the Mis- sissippi, within the domain
powerful), the Choitnn, and the Chicka- of the Algonquians. 2. The Assiniboins, saw. The heart of the Creek family was or Sioux proper, who formed the more
INDIAN PAPPOOSE AND CRADLE.
INDIAN PICTURE WRITING.
in Alabama. Under the general title of northerly part of the nation. 3. The Dakotas or Sioux have been grouped a Southern Sioux, who were seated in the
35
INDIANS, AMERICAN
country between the Platte and Arkansas rivers. The Sahaptins include the Nez Perces and Walla Wallas, extending from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, in Oregon and Washington. Beyond these are the more powerful Chinooks, now rapidly melting away. They em- braced numerous tribes, from the mouth of the Columbia River to the Grand Dalles. The Shoshones comprise tribes inhabiting the territory around the head- waters of the Columbia and Missouri rivers; the Comanches, extending from
government. There were 180,000 Indians on reservations, or at schools under control of the Indian Bureau, leaving about 90,000 in the five civilized tribes of Indian Terri- tory and in New York State, the former numbering about 84,500, and the lat- ter, 5,232. Besides these, there were 32,567 taxable and self - sustaining Ind- ians who had become citizens of the United States. The expensive and com- plicated machinery for the management of Indian affairs has been much in the way of the elevation of the race in the scale of
A GROUP OF EDUCATED INDIANS.
the head-waters of the Brazos to those of the Arkansas; families in Utah and Texas, and several tribes in California. The Attakapas and Chitemachas, in Texas, have languages that enter into no known group.
Condition of the Indians. — According to official reports, the Indian population in 1904 was, approximately, about 270,000, nearly all of whom were partially or abso- lutely under the control of the national
civilization, and has produced much evil by creating irritation, jealousy, and universal lack of faith in the white race. These irritations for a long time kept a large portion of the Indians in a state of chronic hostility, and whole tribes utterly refused all overtures of the government to accept its protection and fostering care. In 1880 it was estimated that the number of po- tentially hostile Indians was fully 60,000. In 1891 the condition of affairs had been
36
INDIRECT CLAIMS— INFLATION LEGISLATION
much improved. Among many tribes the introduction of agriculture, schools, and churches had been attended with the hap- piest results. There were 24,357 pupils enrolled in the reservation, non-reserva- tion, and day schools, besides 3,506 in in- stitutes and public schools, and these schools were supported at an expense of $3,522,950. There is a tendency in most of the tribes to engage in settled pursuits and accept citizenship. See also names of various tribes.
Indirect Claims. See ALABAMA CLAIMS.
Industrial Education. See TECH- NOLOGY, SCHOOL? OF.
Industrial Exhibitions. See EXPOSI- TIONS.
Inflation Legislation. In order to fully comprehend the financial situation of the United States which led up to the inflation legislation, it is necessary to go back to the State and national finances just after the Civil War opened, The demand - note issue of July~ 17,
1861, was the first attempt to use the government notes as currency. These were redeemable at sight in coin, and were used in the payment of salaries due em- ploye"s in the departments. The act of Feb. 25, 1862, authorized the issue of $150,000,000 in legal-tender United States notes, $50,000,000 of which were to take up the issue of demand notes. July 11,
1862, an additional issue of $150,000,000 in legal-tender notes was authorized by Congress, $35,000,000 of this to be in sums of less than five dollars. July 17, 1862, an act authorized the issue of notes of the fractional part of one dollar, re- ceivable in payment of all dues, except customs, less than five dollars, and ex- changeable for United States notes in sums not less than five dollars. The amount of this issue was not specified, On Jan. 17, 1863, a resolution authorized the issue of $100,000,000 in United States notes for the immediate payment of the army and navy. The amount of this issue was subsequently included in the act of March 3, 1863, which authorized an issue of legal-tender United States notes, in all respects similar to those al- ready issued, to the amount of $150,000,- 000, and also an amount, not to exceed $400,000,000, of treasury notes, payable
at any time within three years, bearing interest not to exceed 6 per cent., and issued in denominations of not less than ten dollars, which should be legal tender for their face value, the same as the United States notes. Under the author- ity of this latter clause, there were is- sued of one-year notes, bearing interest at 5 per cent., $44,520,000, and of two- year notes, bearing interest at 6 per cent., $160,480,000. Authority was given on the same day for the issue of enough fractional currency to bring the amount of circulation up to $50,000,000.
Authority having been given by law to reissue indefinitely any of the United States notes, no care was taken, in re- issuing them, to maintain any distinc- tion in the character of the notes. The amount outstanding at one time, how- ever, never exceeded the aggregate amount authorized to be issued by the three acts, and its highest amount was reached Jan. 30, 1864, when it was $449,338,902. The total amount of legal- tender paper issued by the government, exclusive of fractional currency, having a limited legal-tender quality, may be thus summed up:
United States notes .......... $449,338,902
One year 5 per cent, notes.. 44,520,000 Two year 6 Per cent' notes.... 166,480,000
Total ................... $660,338,902
In July, 1865, the government had out- standing $433,000,000 of United States notes, $43,000,000 of one and two year notes, and $25,000,000 of fractional notes. In his report at the opening of Congress in that year Secretary McCulloch advo- cated a contraction of the currency, and to carry out this policy Congress, by an act approved April 12, 1866, directed "that of United States notes not more than $10,000,000 may be retired and can- celled within six months of the pas- sage of this act, and thereafter not more than $4,000,000 per month." Under this act the notes were retired and cancelled as provided by law, and reduced to ashes, as provided by treasury regulations, until threatened stringency in the money mar- ket made Congress eager to ward off, if possible, the inevitable result of contrac- tion.
INFLATION LEGISLATION
By an act of Feb. 4, 1868, the authority would give the expected relief. This to further retire United States notes was theory, in my belief, is a departure from suspended, then leaving outstanding true principles of finance, national in- $356,000,000. Now the maximum limit of terest, national obligations to creditors, United States notes had been fixed, by the congressional promises, party pledges on act of June 30, 1864, as $400,000,000, and the part of both political parties, and of during the year 1870 some financial ge- personal views and promises made by me nius discovered that this was meant to in every annual message sent to Congress, indicate the minimum also, and that $44,- and in each inaugural address." After 000,000 in notes, though they had been quoting passages to verify this last burned according to regulations, still re- assertion, the President said : " I am mained as a reserve, which the Secretary not a believer in any artificial method of the Treasury could issue or retire at of making paper money equal to coin, his discretion. By virtue of this newly when the coin is not owned or held ready discovered discretionary power, Secretary to redeem the promises to pay, for paper Boutwell, in October, 1871, issued $1,- money is nothing more than promises to .500,000 of this to relieve a stringency on pay, and is valuable exactly in proportion Wall Street. By the following year he to the amount of coin that it can be con- had issued $4,637,256 of this reserve, but verted into. While coin is not used as the outcry against his policy was so a circulating medium, or the currency of strong that he retired nearly all of it, the country is not convertible into it at and early in 1873 Secretary Richardson par, it becomes an article of commerce as retired the rest. In the latter part of the much as any other product. The surplus year, however, on the occasion of the will seek a foreign market, as will any panic, Secretary Richardson reissued other surplus. The balance of trade has $25,000,000 of it to relieve the embar- nothing to do with the question. Duties rassed banks. on exports being required in coin creates
A bill fixing the legal - tender United a limited demand for gold. About enough States currency at $400,000,000, and mak- to satisfy that demand remains in the ing some important stipulations about country. To increase this supply I see bank issues, was passed by both Houses no way open but by the government hoard- early in 1874, but was vetoed by the Presi- ing, through the means above given, and dent. A part of the veto message is here possibly by requiring the national banks given to show the grounds of his ac- to aid. It is claimed by the advocates tion: of the measure herewith returned that
"Practically it is a question whether there is an unequal distribution of the the measure under discussion would give banking capital of the country. I was an additional dollar to the irredeemable disposed to give great weight to this view paper currency of the country or not, and of the question at first, but on reflection whether, by requiring three-fourths of the it will be remembered that there still re- reserve to be returned by the banks and mains $4,000,000 of authorized bank-note prohibiting interest to be received on the circulation, assigned to States having less balance, it might not prove a contraction, than their quota, not yet taken. In ad- But the fact cannot be concealed that dition to this the States having less than theoretically the bill increases the paper their quota of bank circulation have the circulation $100,000,000, less only the option of $25,000,000 more to be taken amount of reserves restrained from circu- from those States having more than their lation by the provision of the second sec- proportion. When this is all taken up, tion. The measure has been supported or when specie payments are fully re- on the theory that it would give increased stored, or are in rapid process of circulation. It is a fair inference, there- restoration, will be the time to consider fore, that if in practice the measures the question of more currency." should fail to create the abundance of cir- An act fixing the issue of United States culation expected of it, the friends of the notes at $383,000,000, the amount then measure — particularly those out of Con- outstanding, was approved June 20, 1874. gress— would clamor for such inflation as Between 1868 and 1874 the amount of
38
INGALLS
fractional notes had also been increased of the Farmers' Alliance, which he had
from $25,000,000 to $46,000,000. In Janu- severely criticised. On retiring from the
ary, 1875, the resumption act was passed, Senate he engaged in journalism and lec-
and under its provisions the retirement of turing till his death, in Las Vegas, N. M.,
United States notes was again begun. Aug. 16, 1900.
The redemption of the fractional currency Eulogy on Senator Hill. — On Jan. 23,
with silver was also begun, and went on 1882, he delivered the following eulogy
so rapidly that by the end of 1877 only on the occasion of the death of Senator
$16,000,000 of it remained. Congress Benjamin Harvey Hill, of Georgia: passed an act, May 31, 1878, forbidding
the further retirement of United States Mr. President, — Ben. Hill has gone to
notes under the resumption act. But the the undiscovered country. Whether his
increase in the commerce of the country journey thither was but one step across
had by this time so far readjusted credits an imperceptible frontier, or whether an
that the value of legal tender and coin interminable ocean, black, unfluctuating,
had become nearly equal. On Jan. 1, and voiceless, stretches between these
1879, therefore, resumption took place earthly coasts and those invisible shores
according to law, without any serious — we do not know.
derangement of the business of the Whether on that August morning af-
country. ter death, he saw a more glorious sun rise
Ingalls, JAMES MONROE, military offi- wjtft imimaginable splendor above a celes-
cer; born in Sutton, Vt., Jan. 25, 1837; tial horizon, or whether his apathetic and
was educated at Evansville (Wis.) Semi- unconscious ashes still sleep in cold ob-
nary; graduated at the United States gtruction and insensible oblivion — we do
Artillery School in 1872; entered the regu- not know.
lar army, Jan. 2, 1864; promoted 1st Whether his strong and subtle ener-
lieutenant, May 3, 1863; captain, July 1, gies found instant exercise in another
1880; major, June 1, 1897; lieutenant- forum, whether his dexterous and undis-
colonel, Oct. 5, 1900; and was retired, ciplined faculties are now contending in
Jan. 25, 1001. He founded the depart- a higher Senate than ours for supremacy,
ment of ballistics in the United States or whether his powers were dissipated and
Artillery School in 1882, and was the prin- dispersed with his parting breath — we do
cipal instructor there till the outbreak of not know.
the war with Spain, when the school sus- Whether his passions, ambitions, and
pended operations. He was the author affections still sway, attract, and impel,
of Exterior Ballistics; Ballistic Machines; whether he yet remembers us as we re-
Ballistic Tables; Ballistics for the In- member him — we do not know.
struction of Artillery Gunners; etc. These are the unsolved, the insolvable
Ingalls, JOHN JAMES, lawyer; born in problems of mortal life and human des-
Middleton, Mass., Dec. 29, 1833; grad- tiny, which prompted the troubled patri-
uated at Williams College in 1855, and arch to ask that momentous question,
was admitted to the bar in 1857. He went for which the centuries have given no
to Atchison, Kan., in 1858, and became a answer: "If a man die, shall he live
member of the Wyandotte Convention in again?"
1859, secretary of the territorial council Every man is the centre of a circle, in 1869, and secretary of the State Sen- whose fatal circumference he cannot pass, ate in 1861. He was State Senator in Within its narrow confines he is potential, 1862, and in the same year was defeated beyond it he perishes; and if immortality as "Republican candidate for lieutenant- is a splendid, but delusive dream, if the governor. In 1863-65 he was editor of incompleteness of every career, even the the Atchison Champion; in 1864 was again longest and most fortunate, be not sup- defeated for lieutenant-governor; in 1873- plemented and perfected after its termi- 91 was a United States Senator, and in nation here, then he who dreads to die 1887-91 was president pro tern, of the should fear to live, for life is a tragedy Senate. He was forced to retire to private more desolate and inexplicable than life in 1891 bv the ascendancy in Kansas death.
39
INGALLS— INGERSOLL
Of all the dead whose obsequies we commanding presence, his sinewy diction,
have paused to solemnize in this chamber, his confidence, and imperturbable self-
I recall no one whose untimely fate seems control.
so lamentable, and yet so rich in prophecy, But in the maturity of his powers
as that of Senator Hill. He had reached and his fame, with unmeasured oppor-
the meridian of his years. He stood upon tunities for achievement apparently be-
the high plateau of middle life, in that fore him, with great designs unaccom-
serene atmosphere where temptation no plished, surrounded by the proud and af-
longer assails, where the clamorous pas- fectionate solicitude of a great constitu-
sions and contention, such as infrequently ency, the pallid messenger with the in-
fall to the lot of men, no longer find ex- verted torch beckoned him to depart,
ercise. Though not without the ten- There are few scenes in history more
dency to meditation, reverie, and introspec- tragic than that protracted combat with
tion which accompanies -genius, his tern- death. No man had greater inducements
perament was palestric. He was competi- to live. But in the long struggle against
tive and unpeaceful. He was born a po- the inexorable advances of an insidious
lemic and controversialist, intellectually and mortal malady, he did not falter or
pugnacious and combative, so that he was repine. He retreated with the aspect of
impelled to defend any position that might a victor, and though he succumbed, he
be assailed, or to attack any position that seemed to conquer. His sun went down
might be intrenched, not because the de- at noon, but it sank amid the prophetic
fence or assault was essential, but be- splendors of an eternal dawn,
cause the positions were maintained, and With more than a hero's courage,
those who held them became, by that with more than a martyr's fortitude, he
fact alone, his adversaries. This tendency waited the approach of the inevitable
of his nature made his orbit erratic. He hour, and went to the undiscovered coun-
was meteoric, rather than planetary, and try.
flashed with irregular splendor, rather Ingalls, RTJFUS, military officer; born than shone with steady and penetrating in Denmark, Me., Aug. 23, 1820; grad- rays. His advocacy of any cause was fear- uated at West Point in 1843, enter- less to the verge of temerity. He appeared ing the rifles, but was transferred to the to be indifferent to applause or censure, dragoons in 1845. He served in the war for their own sake. He accepted intrep- with Mexico, and was on the staff of Gen- idly any conclusion that he reached, with- eral Harney on the Pacific coast. In out inquiring whether it was politic or April, 1861, he went with Colonel Brown expedient. to reinforce Fort Pickens; and in July
To such a spirit partisanship was un- was ordered to the Army of the Potomac, avoidable, but with Senator Hill it did where he was upon the staff of General not degenerate into bigotry. He was McClellan, with the rank of lieutenant- capable of broad generosity, and extended colonel. He was chief quartermaster of to his opponents the same unreserved that army from 1862 to 1865; was made candor which he demanded for himself, brigadier-general of volunteers in May, His oratory was impetuous, and devoid of 1863, and was brevetted major-general, artifice. He was not a posturer or U. S. A. and U. S. V., March 13, 1865. phrase-monger. He was too intense, too He was in most of the battles of the Army earnest, to employ the cheap and paltry of the Potomac from that of South Moun- decorations of discourse. He never re- tain to the surrender of Lee at Appomat- connoitred a hostile position, nor ap- tox. He died in New York City, Jan. 16, proached it by stealthy parallels. He 1893.
could not lay siege to an enemy, nor be- Ingersoll, CHARLES JARED, statesman;
leaguer him, nor open trenches, and sap born in Philadelphia, Oct. 3, 1782; became
and mine. His method was the charge a lawyer, and was attached to the legation
and the onset. He was the Murat of of Rufus King when he was minister to
senatorial debate. Not many men of this France. After travelling in Europe, he
generation have been better equipped for returned, and published a poem in 1800,
parliamentary warfare than he, with his and a tragedy in 1801. In 1810 he pub-
40
INGERSOLL
lished a political satire, called Inchiquin can Birds; the Oyster Industries of the
the Jesuit's Letters. In 1813 he was in United States; Friends Worth Knowing;
Congress, and from 1815 to 1829 he was Knocking Round the Rockies; The
United States district-attorney. He was Crest of the Continent; Western Canada;
again in Congress from 1841 to 1847, when The Book of the Ocean, etc. He is also
he was a Democratic leader. President editor and part author of a series of
Polk nominated him minister to France, guide-books to the Eastern States and
but the Senate did not confirm the nomina- cities.
tion. He wrote a history of the second Ingersoll, JARED; born in Milford,
war between the United States and Great Conn., in 1722; graduated at Yale in
Britain. He died in Philadelphia, Jan. 1742; was stamp agent in 1765. He was
14, 1862. obliged to reship the stamps he had
1 Ingersoll, EDWARD, author; born in received and to resign his office. He is
Philadelphia, Pa., April 2, 1817; son of the author of The Stamp Act. He
Charles Jared Ingersoll; graduated at the died in New Haven, Conn., in August,
University of Pennsylvania in 1835. His 1781.
publications include History and Law of Ingersoll, JARED, jurist; born in Con- Fa beas Corpus and Grand Juries; and necticut in 1749; graduated at Yale in Personal Liberty and Martial Law. He 1766; studied law in London; returned to was also the editor of Bale's Pleas of the Philadelphia in 1771; was a delegate to Crown; Addison on Contracts; and Saun- the Continental Congress in 1780; a mem- bers on Uses and Trusts. He died in Ger- ber of the Constitutional convention in mantown, Pa., Feb. 19, 1893. 1787; and was the Federal candidate Ingersoll, ERNEST, naturalist; born in for the Vice - Presidency in 1812, but Monroe, Mich., March 13, 1852; was edu- was defeated, receiving 86 electoral cated at Oberlin College and the Harvard votes. He died in Philadelphia, Oct. 31, Museum of Comparative Zoology. He be- 1822.
came connected with the Hayden Survey Ingersoll, JOSEPH REED, legislator; in 1873, and later was made a member of born in Philadelphia, Pa., June 14, 1786; the United States Fish Commission. In graduated in Princeton in 1804; practised 1880 he was a special agent of the census law in Philadelphia; served in Congress to report on the oyster industry. He went as Whig in 1835-37 and 1842-49; and was to California in 1883 to write special arti- an ardent supporter of Henry Clay; and cles for Harper's Magazine. Later he was was United States minister to Great Brit- editor of the Canadian Pacific Railway ain in 1852. He published Secession, a Company's publications in Montreal. He Folly and a Crime; Life of Samuel Breck, is author of Nests and Eggs of Ameri- etc.
INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN
Ingersoll, ROBERT GREEN, lawyer; born 600 men, he was attacked by a force of
in Dresden, N. Y., Aug. 11, 1833; began 10,000, and captured. He was almost im-
the study of law when eighteen years old, mediately paroled, and placed in command
and three years later was admitted to the of a camp at St. Louis. After a few
bar. His gift of oratory soon made him months in this capacity, fearing that he
a distinguished man, both in the courts would not be returned to active service,
and in Democratic politics. In 1857 he he resigned his commission. Returning
removed from Shawneetown, 111., to Peoria, home, he became a strong Republican, and
and in 1860 was an unsuccessful candidate in 1866 was appointed attorney-general of
for Congress. In 1862 he organized the Illinois. In 1876, at the Republican Na-
llth Illinois Cavalry and went to the tional Convention, he nominated James G.
front as its colonel. He spent most of his Elaine for the Presidency in a speech
military career in raiding and scouting, which contained the following memorable
On Nov. 28, 1862, while endeavoring to in- sentence: "Like an armed warrior, like a
tercept a Confederate raiding body with plumed knight, James G. Elaine marched
41
INGEBSOLL, EGBERT GBEEN
down the halls of the American Congress chorus of denunciation. In addition to and threw his shining lances full and fair this, the believers in the inspiration of against the brazen forehead of every de- the Scriptures, the occupants of ortho- famer of his country and maligner of its dox pulpits, the professors in Christian honor." He was conspicuously active in colleges, and the religious historians, were the Presidential campaigns of 1876 and his sworn and implacable foes. 1880, and had it not been for his pro- This man had gratified no ambition at
the expense of his fellow - men ; he had desolated no country with the flame and sword of war; he had not wrung millions from the poor and unfortunate; he had betrayed no trust, and yet he was al- most universally despised. He gave his life for the benefit of mankind. Day and night, for many, many weary years, he labored for the good of others, and gave himself body and soul to the great cause of human liberty. And yet he won the hatred of the people for whose benefit, for whose emancipation, for whose civili- zation, for whose exaltation he gave his life.
Against him every slander that malig- nity could coin and hypocrisy pass was ROBKRT GREEN iNGERsoLL. gladly and joyously taken as genuine,
and every truth with regard to his career
nounced agnostic views he would have was believed to be counterfeit. He was been honored with high official preferment, attacked by thousands where he was de- In 1882 he settled in New York City, and fended by one, and the one who defended engaged in law practice till his death, him was instantly attacked, silenced, or July 21, 1899. He was a man of rare per- destroyed.
sonal attractions; an orator of excep- At last his life has been written by tional brilliancy. His generosity was un- Moncure D. Conway, and the real history bounded. Among his lectures, which had of Thomas Paine, of what he attempted gained him wide popularity, the most char- and accomplished, of what he taught and acteristic were: Some Mistakes of Moses; suffered, has been intelligently, truth- The Family; The Liberty of Man, Woman, fully, and candidly given to the world. and Child; The Gods; and Ghosts. His Henceforth the slanderer will be without publications included: Lectures Complete; excuse.
and Great Speeches. He who reads Mr. Conway's pages will
Thomas Paine. — The following is Colo- find that Thomas Paine was more than a
nel Ingersoll's noted review of the life patriot; that he was a philanthropist —
and works of THOMAS PAINE (q. v.) : a lover not only of his country, but of
all mankind. He will find that his sym-
Eighty-three years ago Thomas Paine pathies were with those who suffered, ceased to defend himself. The moment without regard to religion or race, coun- he became dumb all his enemies found a try or complexion. He will find that this tongue. He was attacked on every hand, great man did not hesitate to attack the The Tories of England had been waiting governing class of his native land, to for their revenge. The believers in kings, commit what was called treason against in hereditary government, the nobility of the King, that he might do battle for the every land, execrated his memory. Their rights of men; that, in spite of the preju- greatest enemy was dead. The believers dices of birth, he took the side of the in human slavery, and all who clamored American colonies; that he gladly at- for the rights of the States as against tacked the political abuses and absurdi- the sovereignty of a nation, joined in the ties that had been fostered by altars and
42
INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN
thrones for many centuries; that he was He was the first to suggest a union of for the people against nobles and kings; the colonies. Before the Declaration of and that he put his life in pawn for the Independence was issued, Paine had writ- good of others. ten of and about the Free and Independent
In the winter of 1774 Thomas Paine States of America. He had also spoken
came to America. After a time he was of the United States colonies as the " Glo-
employed as one of the writers on The rious Union," and he was the first to write
Pennsylvania Magazine. these words: "The United States of
Let us see what he did, calculated to ex- America."
cite the hatred of his fellow-men. In May, 1775, Washington said: "If
The first article he ever wrote in Amer- you ever hear of me joining in any such
ica, and the first ever published by him any- measure (as separation from Great Brit-
where, appeared in that magazine on March ain ) you have my leave to set me down
8, 1775. It was an attack on American for everything wicked." He had also
slavery — a plea for the rights of the said: "It is not the wish or interest
negro. In that article will be found sub- of the government (meaning Massachu-
slantially all the arguments that can be setts), or of any other upon this conti-
urged against that most infamous of all nent, separately or collectively, to set up
institutions. Every line is full of human- for independence." And in the same year
ity, pity, tenderness, and love of justice. Benjamin Franklin assured Chatham that
Five days after this article appeared the no one in America was in favor of separa-
American Anti-Slavery Society was form- tion. As a matter of fact, the people of
ed. Certainly this should not excite our the colonies wanted a redress of their
hatred. To-day the civilized world agrees grievances— they were not dreaming of
with the essay written by Thomas Paine separation, of independence,
in 1775. In 1775 Paine wrote the pamphlet
At that time great interests were known as Common Sense. This was pub-
against him. The owners of slaves be- lished on Jan. 10, 1776. It was the first
came his enemies, and the pulpits, sup- appeal for independence, the first cry for
ported by slave - labor, denounced this national life, for absolute separation. No
abolitionist. pamphlet, no book, ever kindled such a
The next article published by Thomas sudden conflagration — a purifying flame, Paine, in the same magazine, and for the in which the prejudices and fears of mill- next month, was an attack on the prac- ions were consumed. To read it now, tice of duelling, showing that it was bar- after the lapse of more than 100 years, barous, that it did not even tend to set- hastens the blood. It is but the meagre tie the right or wrong of a dispute, that truth to say that Thomas Paine did more it could not be defended on any just for the cause of separation, to sow the grounds, and that its influence was de- seeds of independence, than any other man grading and cruel. The civilized world of his time. Certainly we should not now agrees with the opinions of Thomas despise him for this. The Declaration of Paine upon that barbarous practice. Independence followed, and in that decla-
In May, 1775, appeared in the same ration will be found not only the thoughts,
magazine another article written by but some of the expressions, of Thomas
Thomas Paine, a Protest Against Cruelty Paine.
to Animals. He began the work that was During the war, and in the very darkest
so successfully and gloriously carried out hours, Paine wrote what is called The
by Henry Bergh, one of the noblest, one Crisis, a series of pamphlets giving from
of the grandest, men that this continent time to time his opinion of events, and his
has produced. prophecies. These marvellous publica-
The good people of this world agree tions produced an effect nearly as great
with Thomas Paine. as the pamphlet Common Sense. These
In August of the same year he wrote strophes, written by the bivouac fires, had
a plea for the Rights of Woman, the first in them the soul of battle,
ever published in the New World. Cer- In all he wrote. Paine was direct and
tainly he should not be hated for that. natural. He touched the very heart of
43
INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN
the subject. He was not awed by names or titles, by place or power. He never lost his regard for truth, for principle — • never wavered in his allegiance to reason, to what he believed to be right. His argu- ments were so lucid, so unanswerable, his comparisons and analogies so apt, so un- expected, that they excited the passionate admiration of friends and the unquench- able hatred of enemies. So great were these appeals to patriotism, to the love of liberty, the pride of independence, the glory of success, that it was said by some of the best and greatest of that time that the American cause owed as much to the pen of Paine as to the sword of Washington.
On Nov. 2, 1779, there was introduced into the Assembly of Pennsylvania an act for the abolition of slavery. The pre- amble was written by Thomas Paine. To him belongs the honor and glory of hav- ing written the first proclamation ot emancipation in America' — Paine the first, Lincoln the last.
Paine, of all others, succeeded in getting aid for the struggling colonies from France. " According to Lamartine, the King, Louis XVI., loaded Paine with favors, and a gift of six millions was con- fided into the hands of Franklin and Paine. On Aug. 25, 1781, Paine reached Boston, bringing 2,500,000 livres in silver, and in convoy a ship laden with clothing and military stores."
In November, 1779, Paine was elected clerk to the General Assembly of Pennsyl- vania. In 1780, the Assembly received a letter from General Washington in the field, saying that he feared the distresses in the army would lead to mutiny in the ranks. This letter was read by Paine to the Assembly. He immediately wrote to Blair McClenaghan, a Philadelphia mer- chant, explaining the urgency, and enclos- ing $500, the amount of salary due him as clerk, as his contribution towards a re- lief fund. The merchant called a meet- ing the next day, and read Paine's letter. A subscription list was immediately cir- culated, and in a short time about $1,- 500,000 was raised. With this capital the Pennsylvania Bank — afterwards the Bank of North America — was established for the relief of the army.
In 1783 Paine wrote a memorial to
Chancellor Livingston, secretary of for- eign affairs; Robert Morris, minister of finance, and his assistant, urging the ne- cessity of adding a continental legislat- ure to Congress, to be elected by the several States. Robert Morris invited the chancellor and a number of eminent men to meet Paine at dinner, where his plea for a stronger Union was discussed and approved. This was probably the earliest of a series of consultations pre- liminary to the constitutional convention. On April 19, 1783, it being the eighth anniversary of the battle of Lexington, Paine printed a little pamphlet entitled, Thoughts on Peace and the Probable Ad- vantages Thereof. In this pamphlet he pleads for " a supreme nationality absorb- ing all cherished sovereignties." Mr. Con- way calls this pamphlet Paine's Farewell Address, and gives the following extract:
" It was the cause of America that made me an author. The force with which it struck my mind, and the dangerous condition which the country was in, by courting an impossible and an unnatural reconciliation with those who were determined to reduce her, instead of striking out into the only line that could save her — a Declaration of In- dependence— made it impossible for me, feel- ing as I did, to be silent; and if, in the course of more than seven years, I have rendered her any service, I have likewise added something to the reputation of litera- ture, by freely and disinterestedly employing it in the great cause of mankind. . . But as the scenes of war are closed, and every man preparing for home and happier times, I therefore take leave of the subject. I have most sincerely followed it from be- ginning to end, and through all its turns and windings ; and whatever country I may hereafter be in, I shall always feel an honest pride at the part I have taken and acted, and a gratitude to nature and providence for putting it in my power to be of some use to mankind."
Paine had made some enemies, first, by attacking African slavery, and, second, by insisting upon the sovereignty of the na- tion.
During the Revolution our forefathers, in order to justify making war on Great Britain, were compelled to take the ground that all men are entitled to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. In no other way could they justify their ac- tion. After the war, the meaner instincts began to take possession of the mind, and those who had fought for their own lib-
44
INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN
erty were perfectly willing to enslave with love and reverence. Every English- others. We must also remember that the man who has sought to destroy abuses, Revolution was begun and carried on by to lessen or limit the prerogatives of the a noble minority — that the majority were crown, to extend the suffrage, to do away really in favor of Great Britain and did with " rotten boroughs," to take taxes from what they dared to prevent the success knowledge, to increase and protect the of the American cause. The minority, freedom of speech and the press, to do however, had control of affairs. They were away with bribes under the name of active, energetic, enthusiastic, and coura- pensions, and to make England a govern- geous, and the majority were overawed, ment of principles rather than of persons, shamed, and suppressed. But when peace has been compelled to adopt the creed and came, the majority asserted themselves use the arguments of Thomas Paine. In and the interests of trade and commerce England every step towards freedom has were consulted. Enthusiasm slowly died, been a triumph of Paine over Burke and and patriotism was mingled with the self- Pitt. No man ever rendered a greater ishness of traffic. service to his native land.
But, after all, the enemies of Paine were The book called the Rights of Man was
few, the friends were many. He had the the greatest contribution that literature
respect and admiration of the greatest had given to liberty. It rests on the bed-
and the best, and was enjoying the fruits rock. No attention is paid to precedents
of his labor. except to show that they are wrong.
The Revolution was ended, the colonies Paine was not misled by the proverbs were free. They had been united, they that wolves had written for sheep. He formed a nation, and the United States had the intelligence to examine for him- of America had a place on the map of the self, and the courage to publish his con- world, elusions. As soon as the Rights of Man
Paine was not a politician. He had not was published the government was alarm- labored for seven years to get an office, ed. Every effort was made to suppress His services were no longer needed in it. The author was indicted; those who America. He concluded to educate the published, and those who sold, were ar- English people, to inform them of their rested and imprisoned. But the new gos- rights, to expose the pretences, follies and pel had been preached — a great man had fallacies, the crimes and cruelties of shed light — a new force had been born, nobles, kings, and parliaments. In the and it was beyond the power of nobles brain and heart of this man were the and kings to undo what the author-hero dream and hope of the universal republic, had done.
He had confidence in the people. He hated To avoid arrest and probable death,
tyranny and war, despised the senseless Paine left England. He had sown with
pomp and vain show of crowned robbers, brave hand the seeds of thought, and he
laughed at titles, and the " honorable " knew that he had lighted a fire that noth-
badges worn by the obsequious and servile, ing could extinguish until England should
by fawners and followers; loved liberty be free.
with all his heart, and bravely fought The fame of Thomas Paine had reach-
against those who could give the rewards ed France in many ways — principally
of place and gold, and for those who through Lafayette. His services in Amer-
could pay only with thanks. ica were well known. The pamphlet
Hoping to hasten the day of freedom, he Common Sense had been published in wrote the Rights of Man — a book that French, and its effect had been immense, laid the foundation for all the real liberty The Rights of Man that had created, and that the English now enjoy — a book that was then creating, such a stir in Eng- made known to Englishmen the Decla- land was also known to the French. The ration of Nature, and convinced millions lovers of liberty everywhere were the that all are children of the same mother, friends and admirers of Thomas Paine, entitled to share equally in her gifts. In America, England, Scotland, Ireland, Every Englishman who has outgrown the and France he was known as the de- ideas of 1688 should remember Paine fender of popular rights. He had preach-
45
INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN
ed a new gospel. He had given a new felt grateful not only to the King, but Magna Charta to the people. to every Frenchman. He, the adversary
So popular was Paine in France that of all kings, asked the convention to re- he was elected by three constituencies member that kings were men, and subject to the national convention. He chose to to human frailties. He took still another represent Calais. From the moment he step, and said : " As France has been the entered French territory he was received first of European nations to abolish with almost royal honors. He at once royalty, let us also be the first to abolish stood with the foremost, and was wel- the punishment of death." corned by all enlightened patriots. As in Even after the death of Louis had been America, so in France, he knew no idle- voted, Paine made another appeal. With ness — he was an organizer and worker, a courage born of the highest possible The first thing he did was to found the sense of duty, he said: first republican society, and the next to « France has but one ally_the united write its Manifesto, in which the ground states of America. That is the only nation was taken that France did not need a that can furnish France with naval pro- king; that the people should govern them- «; ^th. Mnjd,*. w^ttThS"°S selves. In this Manifesto was this argu- happens that the person now under dis- ment: cussion is regarded in America as a deliverer
of their country. I can assure you that his
" What kind of office must that be in a execution will there spread universal sorrow, government which requires neither experience and it is in your power not thus to wound nor ability to execute ; that may be abandon- the feelings of your ally. Could I speak the ed to the desperate chance of birth ; that may French language I would descend to your be filled with an idiot, a madman, a tyrant, bar, and in their name become your petitioner with equal effect as with the good, the to respite the execution of your sentence virtuous, the wise? An office of this nature on Louis. . . . Ah, citizens, give not the tyrant is a mere nonentity ; it is a place of show, Of England the triumph of seeing the man not of use." perish on the scaffold who helped my dear
brothers of America to break his chains."
He said:
"I am not the personal enemy of kings. ™s ™ worthy of the man who said: Quite the contrary. No man wishes more Where liberty is not, there is my heartily than myself to see them all in the country."
happy and honorable state of private in- Paine was second on the committee to SEES »2E ofTbr^SVoKl P-pare the draft of a constitution for and I am such by principles which nothing France to be submitted to the convention, can either alter or corrupt, by my attach- He was the real author, not only of the ment to humanity, by the anxiety which I d ft f th constitution, but of the feel within myself for the dignity and honor of the human race." Declaration of Rights.
In France, as in America, he took the
One of the grandest things done by lead. His first thoughts seemed to be Thomas Paine was his effort to save the first principles. He was clear because he life of Louis XVI. The convention was was profound. People without ideas ex- in favor of death. Paine was a foreigner, perience great difficulty in finding words His career had caused some jealousies, to express them.
He knew the danger he was in; that the From the moment that Paine cast his tiger was already crouching for a spring; vote in favor of mercy, in favor of life, but he was true to his principles. He was the shadow of the guillotine was upon opposed to the death penalty. He re- him. He knew that when he voted for membered that Louis XVI. had been the the King's life he voted for his own friend of America, and he very cheerfully death. Paine remembered that the King risked his life, not only for the good of had been the friend of America, and to France, not only to save the King, but him ingratitude seemed the worst of to pay a debt of gratitude. He asked crimes. He worked to destroy the mon- the convention to exile the King to the arch, not the man; the King, not the United States. He asked this as a mem- friend. He discharged his duty and ac- ber of the convention and as a citizen of cepted death. This was the heroism of the United States. As an American he goodness, the sublimity of devotion.
46
INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN
Believing that his life was near its that they were the authorized agents of
close, he made up his mind to give to God. Paine replied with the Age of Rea-
the world his thoughts concerning " re- son.
vealed religion." This he had for some This book is still a power, and will be
time intended to do, but other matters as long as the absurdities and cruelties of
had claimed his attention. Feeling that the creeds and the Bible have defenders,
there was no time to be lost, he wrote The Age of Reason affected the priests just
the first part of the Age of Reason, and as the Rights of Man affected nobles and
gave the manuscript to Joel Barlow. Six kings. The kings answered the arguments
hours after, he was arrested. The second of Paine with laws, the priests with lies,
part was written in prison while he was Kings appealed to force, priests to fraud,
waiting for death. Mr. Con way has written in regard to the
Paine clearly saw that men could not Age of Reason the most impressive and
be really free, or defend the freedom the most interesting chapter in his book,
they had, unless they were free to think Paine contended for the rights of the in-
and speak. He knew that the Church was dividual, for the jurisdiction of the soul,
the enemy of liberty; that the altar and Above all religions he placed Reason,
throne were in partnership; that they above all kings, Men, and above all
helped each other and divided the spoils, men, Law.
He felt that, being a man, he had the The first part of the Age of Reason was
right to examine the creeds and the Script- written in the shadow of a prison, the
ures for himself, and that, being an honest second part in the gloom of death. From
man, it was his duty and his privilege to that shadow, from that gloom, came a
tell his fellow-men the conclusions at flood of light. This testament, by which
which he arrived. the wealth of a marvellous brain, the love
He found that the creeds of all ortho- of a great and heroic heart were given to dox churches were absurd and cruel, and the world, was written in the presence of that the Bible was no better. Of course the scaffold, when the writer believed he he found that there were some good was giving his last message to his fellow- things in the creeds and in the Bible, men.
These he defended, but the infamous, the The Age of Reason was his crime,
inhuman, he attacked. Franklin, Jefferson, Sumner and Lin-
In matters of religion he pursued the coin, the four greatest statesmen that
same course that he had in things politi- America has produced, were believers in
cal. He depended upon experience, and the creed of Thomas Paine,
above all on reason. He refused to ex- The Universalists and Unitarians have
tinguish the light in his own soul. He found their best weapons, their best ar-
was true to himself, and gave to others guments, in the Age of Reason.
his honest thoughts. He did not seek Slowly, but surely, the churches are
wealth, or place, or fame. He sought the adopting not only the arguments, but the
truth. opinions, of the great Reformer. Theodore
He had felt it to be his duty to attack Parker attacked the Old Testament and
the institution of slavery in America, Calvinistic theology with the same weap-
to raise his voice against duelling, to plead ons and with a bitterness excelled by no
for the rights of woman, to excite pity man who has expressed his thoughts in
for the sufferings of domestic animals, the our language.
speechless friends of man; to plead the Paine was a century in advance of his
cause of separation, of independence, of time. If he were living now his sym-
American nationality, to attack the abuses pathy would be with Savage, Chadwick,
and crimes of monarchs, to do what he Professor Briggs and the " advanced theo-
could to give freedom to the world. logians." He, too, would talk about the
He thought it his duty to take another " higher criticism " and the latest defini-
step. Kings asserted that they derived tion of " inspiration." These advanced
their power, their right to govern, from thinkers substantially are repeating the
God. To this assertion Paine replied with Age of Reason. They still wear the old
the Rights of Man. Priests pretended uniform — clinging to the toggery of the-
47
INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN
ology — but inside of their religious rags they agree with Thomas Paine.
Not one argument that Paine urged against the inspiration of the Bible, against the truth of miracles, against the barbarities and infamies of the Old Testa- ment, against the pretensions of priests and the claims of kings, has ever been answered.
His arguments in favor of the existence of what he was pleased to call the God of Nature were as weak as those of all theists have been. But in all the affairs of this world, his clearness of vision, lu- cidity of expression, cogency of argument, aptness of comparison, power of state- ment and comprehension of the subject in hand, with all its bearings and con- sequences, have rarely, if ever, been ex- celled.
He had no reverence for mistakes be- cause they were old. He did not admire the castles of feudalism even when they were covered with ivy. He not only said that the Bible was not inspired, but he demonstrated that it could not all be true. This was "brutal." He presented arguments so strong, so clear, so convin- cing, that they could not be answered. This was " vulgar."
He stood for liberty against kings, for humanity against creeds and gods. This was "cowardly and low." He gave his life to free and civilize his fellow-men. This was " infamous."
Paine was arrested and imprisoned in December, 1793. He was, to say the least, neglected by Gouverneur Morris and Washington. He was released through the efforts of James Monroe in November, 1794. He was called back to the conven- tion, but too late to be of use. As most of the actors had suffered death, the tragedy was about over and the curtain was falling. Paine remained in Paris until the " reign of terror " was ended and that of the Corsican tyrant had com- menced.
Paine came back to America hoping to spend the remainder of his life surrounded by those for whose happiness and freedom he had labored so many years. He expected to be rewarded with the love and rever- ence of the American people.
In 1794 James Monroe had written to Paine these words:
48
" It is unnecessary for me to tell you how much all your countrymen — I speak of the great mass of the people — are interested in your welfare. They have not forgot the history of their own Revolution and the difficult scenes through which they passed ; nor do they review its several stages without reviving in their bosoms a due sensibility of the merits of those who served them in that great and arduous conflict. The crime of ingratitude has not yet stained, and I hope never will stain, our national character. You are considered by them as not only hav- ing rendered important services in our own Revolution, but as being on a more ex- tensive scale the friend of human rights and a distinguished and able advocate of public liberty. To the welfare of Thomas Paine we are not and cannot be indifferent."
In the same year Mr. Monroe wrote a letter to the committee of general safety, asking for the release of Mr. Paine, in which, among other things, he said:
" The services Thomas Paine rendered to his country in its struggle for freedom have implanted in the hearts of his countrymen a sense of gratitude never to be effaced as long as they shall deserve the title of a just and generous people."
On reaching America Paine found that the sense of gratitude had been effaced. He found that the Federalists hated him with all their hearts because he believed in the rights of the people and was still true to the splendid principle advocated during the darkest days of the Revolution. In almost every pulpit he found a malig- nant and implacable foe, and the pews were filled with his enemies. The slave- holders hated him. He was held responsi- ble even for the crimes of the French Revolution. He was regarded as a blas- phemer, an atheist, an enemy of God and man. The ignorant citizens of Borden- town, as cowardly as orthodox, longed to mob the author of Common Sense and The Crisis. They thought he had sold himself to the devil because he had de- fended God against the slanderous charges that he had inspired the writers of the Bible — because he had said that a being of infinite goodness and purity did not es- tablish slavery and polygamy.
Paine had insisted that men had the right to think for themselves. This so enraged the average American citizen that he longed for revenge.
In 1802 the people of the United States had exceedingly crude ideas about the
INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN
liberty of thought and expression, without regard to their virtues, and all
Neither had they any conception of re- for the glory of the Damner — this was
ligious freedom. Their highest thought Calvinism. " He that hath ears to hear,
on that subject was expressed by the let him hear," but he that hath a brain
word " toleration," and even this tolera- to think must not think. He that be-
tion extended only to the various Chris- lieveth without evidence is good, and he
tian sects. Even the vaunted religious that believeth in spite of evidence is a
liberty of colonial Maryland was only to saint. Only the wicked doubt, only the
the effect that one kind of Christian blasphemer denies. This was orthodox
should not fine, imprison and kill an- Christianity.
other kind of Christian, but all kinds of Thomas Paine had the courage, the
Christians had the right, and it was their sense, the heart, to denounce these hor-
duty, to brand, imprison and kill infidels rors, these absurdities, these infinite in-
of every kind. famies. He did what he could to drive
Paine had been guilty of thinking for these theological vipers, these Calvinistic himself and giving his conclusions to the cobras, these fanged and hissing serpents world without having asked the consent of superstition from the heart of man. of a priest — just as he had published his A few civilized men agreed with him political opinions without leave of the then, and the world has progressed since king. He had published his thoughts on 1809. Intellectual wealth has accumu- religion and had appealed to reason — to lated; vast mental estates have been left the light in every mind, to the humanity, to the world. Geologists have forced the pity, the goodness which he believed secrets from the rocks, astronomers from to be in every heart. He denied the right the stars, historians from old records and of kings to make laws and of priests to lost languages. In every direction the make creeds. He insisted that the people thinker and the investigator have vent- should make laws, and that every human ured and explored, and even the pews being should think for himself. While have begun to ask questions of the pul- some believed in the freedom of religion, pits. Humboldt has lived, and Darwin he believed in the religion of freedom. and Haeckel and Huxley, and the armies
If Paine had been a hypocrite, if he led by them, have changed the thought
had concealed his opinions, if he had de- of the world.
fended slavery with quotations from the The churches of 1809 could not be the
" sacred scriptures " — if he had cared friends of Thomas Paine. No church as-
nothing for the liberties of men in other serting that belief is necessary to salva-
lands — if he had said that the state could tion ever was, or ever will be, the cham-
not live without the Church — if he had pion of true liberty. A church founded
sought for place instead of truth, he on slavery — that is to say, on blind obedi-
would have won wealth and power, and ence, worshipping irresponsible and arbi-
his brow would have been crowned with trary power — must of necessity be the
the laurel of fame. enemy of human freedom.
He made what the pious call the " mis- The orthodox churches are now anxious
take " of being true to himself — of living to save the little that Paine left of their
with an unstained soul. He had lived creed. If one now believes in God, and
and labored for the people. The people lends a little financial aid, he is considered
were untrue to him. They returned evil a good and desirable member. He need
for good, hatred for benefits received, and not define God after the manner of the
yet this great chivalric soul remembered catechism. He may talk about a " Power
their ignorance and loved them with all that works for righteousness"; or the
his heart, and fought their oppressors tortoise Truth that beats the rabbit Lie
with all his strength. in the long run; or the "Unknowable";
We must remember what the churches or the " Unconditioned " ; or the " Cosmic
and creeds were in that day, what the Force"; or the "Ultimate Atom"; or
theologians really taught, and what the " Protoplasm," or the " What "—provided
people believed. To save a few in spite he begins this word with a capital, of their vices, and to damn the many We must also remember that there is a V.— D 49
1NGERSOLL— INGLIS
difference between independence and lib- erty. Millions have fought for independ- ence— to throw off some foreign yoke — and yet were at heart the enemies of true liberty. A man in jail, sighing to be free, may be said to be in favor of liberty, but not from principle; but a man who, being free, risks or gives his life to free the en- slaved, is a true soldier of liberty.
Thomas Paine had passed the legendary limit of life. One by one most of his old friends and acquaintances had deserted him. Maligned on every side, execrated, shunned, and abhorred — his virtues de- nounced as vices — his services forgotten — his character blackened, he preserved the poise and balance of his soul. He was a victim of the people, but his convictions remained unshaken. He was still a soldier in the army of freedom, and still tried to enlighten and civilize those who were im- patiently waiting for his death. Even those who loved their enemies hated him, their friend — the friend of the whole world — with all their hearts.
On June 8, 1809, death came — death, al- most his only friend.
At his funeral no pomp, no pageantry, no civic procession, no military display. In a carriage, a woman and her son who had lived on the bounty of the dead — on horseback, a Quaker, the humanity of whose heart dominated the creed of his head — and, following on foot, two negroes, filled with gratitude — constituted the funeral cortege of Thomas Paine.
He who had received the gratitude of many millions, the thanks of generals and statesmen — he who had been the friend and companion of the wisest and best — he who had taught a people to be free, and whose words had inspired armies and enlightened nations, was thus given back to Nature, the mother of us all.
If the people of the great republic knew the life of this generous, this chivalric man, the real story of his services, his sufferings and his triumphs — of what he did to compel the robed and crowned, the priests and kings, to give back to the people liberty, the jewel of the soul; if they knew that he was the first to write The Religion of Humanity; if they knew that he, above all others, planted and watered the seeds of independence, of union, of nationality, in the hearts of our
forefathers — that his words were gladly repeated by the best and bravest in many lands; if they knew that he attempted, by the purest means, to attain the noblest and loftiest ends — that he was original, sincere, intrepid, and that he could truth- fully say: "The world is my country, to do good my religion" — if the people only knew all this — the truth — they would re- peat the words of Andrew Jackson: " Thomas Paine needs no monument made with hands; he has erected a monument in the hearts of all lovers of liberty."
Ingham, SAMUEL DELUCENNA, legisla- tor; born in Pennsylvania, Sept. 16, 1779; served several years in the Pennsylvania legislature; served in Congress in 1813-18 and 1822-29. President Jackson appoint- ed him Secretary of the Treasury, but he resigned on account of the Kitchen Cabi- net. He died in Trenton, N. J., June 5, 1860.
Ingle, EDWARD, author; born in Balti- more, Md., May 17, 1861; graduated at Johns Hopkins University in 1882. Among his publications are Local Institu- tions of Virginia; Local Institutions of Maryland; Southern Sidelights; The Ne- gro in the District of Columbia, etc.
Ingle, RICHARD, mariner; born in Lon- don, England, about 1610. During the civil war in England the royalist governor of Maryland seized Ingle's ship. On his return to England, Ingle applied to Par- liament for redress, and received a com- mission authorizing him to act against the royalists. Ingle returned to America in 1645, and, taking advantage of local troubles, expelled Leonard Calvert, and himself took charge of the government for six months, at the end of which period Calvert regained control.
Inglis, CHARLES, clergyman; born in Ireland, in 1734. From 1764 to the Revo- lution he was assistant rector of Trinity Church, New York; and was rector from 1777 to 1783. He adhered to the royal cause, and departed for Nova Scotia with the loyalists who fled from New York City in 1783. His letters evinced consid- erable harsh feeling towards the Ameri- can patriots as " fomenters of rebellion." Dr. Inglis was consecrated bishop of Nova Scotia in 1788, and in 1809 became a member of the governor's council. He published an answer to Paine's Common
50
INGLIS— INMAN
Sense, which made him obnoxious to the or imperative initiative is allowed. Any
patriots, and they confiscated his estate, petition containing a certain number of
He died in Halifax, N. S., Feb. 24, 1816. signatures (generally from 5,000 to 6,000),
His son JOHN was made bishop of Nova demanding action upon any matter what-
Scotia in 1825, and died in 1850; and his ever, must be given attention by the coun-
grandson. Gen. Sir JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT cil, which, after passing upon it, must
INGLIS, born in Halifax in 1814, was the submit it to the popular vote. This course
brave defender of Lucknow. must be taken even if a proposed measure
Inglis, MARY, pioneer; born in 1729. is unfavorable to the council. Again, in
She, with her two children, was captured a number of the cantons, the people have
by the Shawnee Indians, who had made a the right of veto power. In about a
successful attack upon the small settle- month's time after any measure has been
ment. The Indians carried their captives adopted by the cantonal council it may
down the Kanawha River to the Scioto. he brought before the people by a petition,
She was thus the first white woman in and according to their vote made to stand
Kentucky. She made her escape in com- or fall. This veto power, however, may
pany with another white woman, and sue- be said to be included in the referendum,
ceeded in reaching a settlement on the In all the cantons, except Freiburg, the
Kanawha. She died in 1813. right of the people to have every important
Ingraham, DUNCAN N. See NATURAL- act of legislation referred back to them
IZATION (Koszta Case). for adoption or rejection is now estab-
Ingraham, JOSEPH HOLT, author; born lished by law.
in Portland, Me., 1809; became a pro- In recent years the principle of the ini- fessor in Jefferson College, Miss. ; subse- tiative and referendum has met with much quently took orders in the Protestant favor in the United States, and in several Episcopal Church. He wrote many novels, States there has been an influential move- some of which were very popular, but he ment to bring about its adoption, is best known through his three books, Injunction, an order of a court, which entitled The Prince of the House of David; commands the party or parties against The Pillar of Fire; and The Throne of whom it is issued (1) not to commit a David. He died in Holly Springs, Miss., certain act; or (2) to desist from the in December, 1866. commission of a certain act; or (3) to
Ingram, DAVID. See HORTOP, JOB. restore to its former condition something
Ingulf, RUDOLF, traveller; born in which has been altered or interfered with
Cologne in 1727; emigrated to Mexico in by the person or persons to whom the
1751, where he became a merchant. After injunction is directed.
securing a competence he travelled through Inman, GEORGE, military officer ; born
Central America, Mexico, and California, in Boston, Mass., Dec. 3, 1755; graduated
He published, in the German language, at Harvard College in 1772. During the
Travels in New Spain; The Geologic For- Revolutionary War he was a royalist,
mat ion of California, in which he proved entering the army as a private, but soon
that California was a rich gold-field; receiving a commission; took part in the
Cosmography of America, etc. He died in battles of Princeton, Brandy wine, Ger-
Vienna in 1785. mantown, and Monmouth, in the first of
Initiative and Referendum, a politi- which he was wounded. He was the au-
cal system which originated in Switzer- thor of Narrative of the Revolutionary
land, designed to test the feeling of the War, 1776-1779. He died in the West
people concerning proposed legislation. Indies in 1789.
In the several cantons of the Swiss Con- Inman, HENRY, painter; born in Utica,
federation the councils merely formulate N. Y., Oct. 20, 1801; was a pupil of John
the laws, while the people pass them. Wesley Jarvis, the portrait - painter, to
Similar to the law of all other nations whom he was apprenticed for seven years.
that of Switzerland concedes the people a He painted landscapes and historical pict^
certain right of initiative in the way of ures, but portraits were his chief subjects,
petition ; but in many of the cantons this and he introduced lithography into the
right goes much further and an additional United States. In 1844 he went to Eng-
51
INMAN— INSPECTION
land, where, becoming the guest of Words- in 1833 there were 2,500 lunatics in jails worth, the poet, he painted his portrait, and other prisons, besides hundreds in He also painted the portraits of other dis- the county poor-houses and private fam- tinguished men while in England. He had ilies. One of the very earliest asylums begun painting an historical picture for for the insane was that opened in 1797 the national Capitol, representing Daniel at Bloomingdale, in the suburbs of New Boone in the wilds of Kentucky, at the York City, by the New York Hospital So- time of his death, in New York City, Jan. ciety. To the labors of Miss DOROTHEA 17, 1846. L. Dix (q. v.) is largely due the establish-
Inman, HENRY, author; born in New ment of State asylums. Miss Dix de- York, July 30, 1837; educated at the voted herself after 1837 to the investi- Brooklyn public schools and Athenian gation of the subject, and visited every Academy, and is the author of The Old State east of the Rocky Mountains, ap- Santa Fe Trail; Great Salt Lake Trail; pealing to the State legislatures to pro- bates of the Trail; The Ranch on the vide for the care of the insane. In April, Oxhide; Pioneer from Kentucky, etc. He 1854, a bill appropriating 10,000,000 acres died in Topeka, Kan., Nov. 13, 1899. of public lands to the several States for
Inman, WILLIAM, naval officer; born in the relief of the pauper insane, passed
Utica, N. Y., in 1797; appointed midship- by Congress under her appeals, was vetoed
man, United States navy, in 1812; pro- by President Pierce. Her efforts, however,
moted to lieutenant, April 1, 1818; com- led to the establishment of State insane
mander in 1838; and captain in 1850. asylums, and it is now recognized as the
In 1859-61 he commanded the West duty of each State to care for its insane.
African squadron, during which time he New York State alone has fifteen corporate
succeeded in recapturing and liberating institutions of this class. The following
nearly 4,000 slaves; and was promoted statistics show the number of insane, etc.,
commodore, and was retired, April 4, 1867. in the United States. Until 1850 there
He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 23, 1874. were no reliable statistics:
Inness, GEORGE, artist; born in New- burg, N. Y., May 1, 1825; removed to New York in 1845; studied art; and was chosen a member of the National Acad- emy in 1868. He was one of the greatest landscape-painters America has produced.
His pictures include American Sunset; 1906. Delaware Water -Gap; View near Med- field, Mass.; An Old Roadway, Long Isl- and; and Under the Green Wood. He died in Scotland Aug. 3, 1894.
|
Year. |
Population of U.S. |
No. of Insane. |
To each million of inhabitants. |
|
1850 |
21 191 876 |
15 610 |
673 |
|
1860 1870 |
31,443,321 38 558 371 |
24,642 37 432 |
783 971 |
|
1880 |
50 155 783 |
91 997 |
I 834 |
|
1890 |
62 622 250 |
106 252 |
1 697 |
|
1900 |
76,303,387 |
106,485 |
1,396 |
Insolvency. See BANKRUPTCY LAWS. Inspection, COMMITTEES OF. In many of the present American States the class
Inness, HARRY, jurist; born in Caro- known as Tories, or adherents of the line county, Va., in 1752; was an ardent crown, were in a minority at the beginning patriot during the Revolutionary War ; of the Revolutionary War, and in many superintendent of the mines from which places suffered indignities, such as, if the Americans obtained their lead; ap- offensively active, receiving a covering of pointed judge of the Supreme Court of tar and feathers, being carted around as Virginia in 1783, and United States dis- a public spectacle, and other abuses which trict judge for Kentucky in 1787. His personal and political malignity could in- enemies caused charges to be brought flict. To prevent such disgraceful scenes, against him in Congress in 1808, but which would lead to retaliation and the that body refused to take any action look- rule of mob law, the Continental Congress ing to his impeachment. He died in specially committed the oversight of Tories Frankfort, Ky., Sept. 20, 1816. and suspected persons to regularly ap-
Insanity. Until 1840 the insane poor pointed committees of inspection and ob- in the United States were cared for al- servation for the several counties and dis- most exclusively by the township and tricts. The Tories were also exposed to county authorities. It was estimated that the dangers from the law, for the Whigs
52
INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT— INSURANCE
had taken all power into their hands, and required allegiance to State governments from all the inhabitants. The consequence was that many left the States and became refugees in Great Britain or in its Ameri- can provinces.
Instrument of Government. See GOV- ERNMENT, INSTRUMENT OF.
Insurance. The following is a brief summary of the insurance business in the United States in its principal forms: The first fire insurance in the colonies was written in Boston by the Sun Company (English) in 1728. Some insurance was done in Philadelphia in 1752. The first fire insurance policy issued in the United States was in Hartford, Conn., in 1794, un- der the unofficial title of " Hartford Fire Insurance Co." Sixteen years after, in 1810, the Hartford Fire Insurance Com- pany was organized. From 1801-10 there were 60 charters issued; 1811-20, 43; 1821-30, 149; 1831-40, 467; 1841-50, 401; 1851-60, 896; 1861-70, 1,041.
From Jan. 1, 1880, to Dec. 31, 1889, property of the citizens of the United States was insured against fire and ac- cident on ocean, lake, and river, and by tornado, to the amount of over $120,000,- 000,000, for premiums of $1,156,675,391, and losses were paid of $647,726,051, being 56 per cent, of the premiums.
The condition and transactions of fire companies doing business in the United States on Jan. 1, 1903, were as follows:
between twelve and forty - five years of age. In 1734 it guaranteed a divi- dend for each deceased member not less than £100. This was the first insurance for a definite sum at death, whenever that might occur. In 1762 the Equit- able Assurance Society of London began to rate members according to age. At the close of the eighteenth century there were eight companies transacting, in a more or less complete form, the business of life in- surance in Great Britain and Ireland. The Presbyterian Annuity and Life Insurance Company of Philadelphia, the first life in- surance company in the United States, re- ceived its charter from Thomas Penn in 1759. The Penn Company for Insurance on Lives was chartered in 1812, and the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company, Boston, in 1818.
The assessment system of life insurance is based on the plan of collecting assess- ments on living members to pay death losses as they occur. In this plan the as- sessments during early years are less than the premiums of regular companies; but they increase rapidly, and often become impossible to collect in later years. Since its appearance (about 1865) as an in- surance business, aside from fraternal organizations, this system has rapidly ex- tended.
The first accident insurance company established in the United States was the Traveler's, of Hartford, Conn., in 1863;
|
Number of Companies. |
Capital. |
Assets Exclusive of Premium Notes. |
Net Surplus. |
Cash Premiums Re ceived during Year. |
Total Cash Income during Year. |
|
313 Stock > 178 Mutual f |
$70,537,743 |
$451,010,545 |
$171,390,162 |
$224,076,129 |
$242,819,167 |
|
Number of Companies. |
Paid for Losses during Year. |
Paid for Dividends during Year. |
Expenses other than Losses and Divi- dends during Year |
Total Disburse- ments during Year. |
Risks Written during Year |
|
313 Stock \ |
* $26 000 000 000 |
||||
|
178 Mutual f |
$113,147,727 |
* Approximation. The statistics of fire Insurance business in the United States are, with the exception of the estimate of risks written during the year, compiled from The Insurance Year-Book, published by The Spectator Company. They do not include the returns of a few stock companies and some 600 mutuals and town and county mutuals, whose 'transactions are purely local and individually of small volume.
In 1903 the aggregate property loss by fires was estimated at $135,000,000, and the aggregate insurance loss at $75,000,000.
Life insurance was not known before the sixteenth century. The first life in- surance company, "The Amicable," was established in London, England, in 1706, and insured at uniform rates persons
the first steam-boiler insurance company, Hartford, Conn., was chartered in 1866; and plate-glass was first insured in 1870. Most of the States have established de- partments or bureaus of insurance, for the supervision of the companies and the en- forcement of the laws requiring their solvency to be maintained. The mainten-
INSURRECTIONS— INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS
THE CONDITION OF THE REGULAR LEVEL PREMIUM COMPANIES ON JAN. 1, 1903 AND THE BUSINESS OF THE PRECEDING YEAR WERE AS FOLLOWS*:
|
No. of Cos. |
Assets. |
Premiums Received. |
Total Income. |
Payments to Policy-holders (Losses, Divi- dends, Surren- ders, etc.) |
Total Expen- ditures. |
New Policies Issued. |
Policiei in Force. |
|
|
No. |
Amount. |
No. 1 Amount. |
||||||
|
80 |
$2,091,822,851 |
$406,946,597 |
$504,527,705 |
$199,883,721 |
$321,966,272 |
5,209,288 |
$2,338,734,463 |
17.H20.435 ! $10.505.399.385 |
|
* Including industrial policies. THE FOLLOWING SHOWS THE CONDITION AND BUSINESS OF ASSESSMENT COMPANIES AND ORDERS*: |
|
No. of Cos. |
Assets. |
Assessments Collected. |
Total Income. |
Payments to Policy-holders. |
Total Expen- diture* |
Membership. |
Insurance iu Force. |
|
|
Admitted Dur- ing the Year. |
No. of Members. |
Amount. |
||||||
|
770 |
$45,591,473 |
$90,040,589 |
$97,114,065 |
$72,793,886 |
$83,193,861 |
706,200 |
5,270,207 |
$6,530,360,368 |
* These figures are from the Illinois Life Insurance Report for 1900, and represent the combined business of the assessment companies and fraternal orders. The assessment business having declined since 1896, these aggregates are nearly half those of that year.
The returns of life insurance in the first and third tables are from The Insurance Year-Book, published by The Spectator Company.
LIFE INSURANCE TABLE OF MORTALITY, AMERICAN EXPERIENCE.
|
J. |
1 |
3 ' |
If |
1 |
- |
IS |
| |
J=j |
|j |
|||||
|
1 |
.I |
oa S |
K§ |
!£ |
1 |
a • •51 |
w s |
** |
I* |
& |
1-9 |
" s |
*» Q £>> |
|
|
II |
r |
2>- |
if |
II |
f |
I* |
wj |
z$ |
f |
s |
*2 W-s |
|||
|
10 |
100,000 |
749 |
7.49 |
48.72 |
39 |
78,862 |
756 |
9.59 |
28.90 |
68 |
43,133 |
2,243 |
52.00 |
9.47 |
|
11 |
99,251 |
746 |
7.52 |
48.08 |
40 |
78,106 |
765 |
9.79 |
28.18 |
69 |
40,890 |
2,321 |
56.76 |
8.97 |
|
12 |
98,505 |
743 |
7.54 |
47.45 |
41 |
77,341 |
774 |
10.01 |
27.45 |
70 |
38,569 |
2,391 |
61.99 |
8.48 |
|
13 |
97,762 |
740 |
7.57 |
46.80 |
42 |
76,567 |
785 |
10.25 |
26.72 |
71 |
36,178 |
2.448 |
67.67 |
8.00 |
|
14 |
97,022 |
737 |
7.60 |
46.16 |
43 |
75,782 |
797 |
10.52 |
26.00 |
72 |
33,730 |
2,487 |
73.73 |
7.55 |
|
15 |
96,285 |
735 |
7.63 |
45.50 |
44 |
74,985 |
812 |
10.83 |
25.27 |
73 |
31,243 |
2,505 |
80.18 |
7.11 |
|
16 |
95,550 |
732 |
7.66 |
44.85 |
45 |
74,173 |
828 |
11.16 |
24.54 |
74 |
28,738 |
2,501 |
87.03 |
6.68 |
|
17 |
94,818 |
729 |
7.69 |
44.19 |
46 |
73,345 |
848 |
11.56 |
23.81 |
75 |
26,237 |
2,476 |
94.37 |
6.27 |
|
18 |
94,089 |
727 |
7.73 |
43.53 |
47 |
72,497 |
870 |
12.00 |
23.08 |
76 |
23,761 |
2,431 |
102.31 |
5.88 |
|
19 |
93,362 |
725 |
7.77 |
42.87 |
48 |
71,627 |
896 |
12.51 |
22.36 |
77 |
21,330 |
2,369 |
111.06 |
5.49 |
|
20 |
92,637 |
723 |
7.81 |
42.20 |
49 |
70,731 |
927 |
13.11 |
21.63 |
78 |
18,961 |
2,291 |
120.83 |
5.11 |
|
21 |
91,914 |
722 |
7.86 |
41.53 |
50 |
69,804 |
962 |
13.78 |
20.91 |
79 |
16,670 |
2,196 |
131.73 |
4.74 |
|
22 |
91,192 |
721 |
7.91 |
40.85 |
51 |
68,842 |
1,001 |
14.54 |
20.20 |
80 |
14,474 |
2,091 |
144.47 |
4.39 |
|
23 |
90,471 |
720 |
7.96 |
40.17 |
52 |
67,841 |
1,044 |
15.39 |
19.49 |
81 |
12,383 |
1,964 |
158.61 |
4.05 |
|
24 |
89,751 |
719 |
8.01 |
39.49 |
53 |
66,797 |
1,091 |
16.33 |
18.79 |
82 |
10,419 |
1,816 |
174.30 |
3.71 |
|
25 |
89,032 |
718 |
8.07 |
38.81 |
54 |
65,706 |
1,143 |
17.40 |
18.09 |
83 |
8,603 |
1,648 |
191.56 |
3.39 |
|
26 |
88,314 |
718 |
8.13 |
38.12 |
55 |
64,563 |
1,199 |
18.57 |
17.40 |
84 |
8,955 |
1,470 |
211.36 |
3.08 |
|
27 |
87,569 |
718 |
8.20 |
37.43 |
56 |
63,364 |
1,260 |
19.89 |
16.72 |
85 |
5,485 |
1,292 |
235.55 |
2.77 |
|
28 |
86,878 |
718 |
8.26 |
36.73 |
57 |
62,104 |
1,325 |
21.34 |
16.05 |
86 |
4,193 |
1,114 |
265.68 |
2.47 |
|
29 |
86,160 |
719 |
8.35 |
36.03 |
58 |
60,779 |
1,394 |
22.94 |
15.39 |
87 |
3,079 |
933 |
303.02 |
2.18 |
|
30 |
85,441 |
720 |
8.43 |
35.33 |
59 |
59,385 |
1,468 |
24.72 |
14.74 |
88 |
2,146 |
744 |
346.69 |
1.91 |
|
31 |
84,721 |
721 |
8.51 |
34.63 |
60 |
57,917 |
1,546 |
26.69 |
14.10 |
89 |
1,402 |
555 |
395.86 |
1.66 |
|
32 |
84,000 |
723 |
8.61 |
33.92 |
61 |
56,371 |
1,628 |
28.88 |
13.47 |
90 |
847 |
385 |
454.55 |
1.42 |
|
33 |
83,277 |
726 |
8.72 |
33.21 |
62 |
54,743 |
1,713 |
31.29 |
12.86 |
91 |
462 |
246 |
532.47 |
1.19 |
|
34 |
82,551 |
729 |
8.83 |
32.50 |
63 |
53,030 |
1,800 |
33.94 |
12.26 |
92 |
216 |
137 |
634.26 |
.98 |
|
35 |
81,822 |
732 |
8.95 |
31.78 |
64 |
51,230 |
1,889 |
36.87 |
11.67 |
93 |
79 |
58 |
734.18 |
.80 |
|
36 |
81,090 |
737 |
9.09 |
31.07 |
65 |
49,341 |
1,980 |
40.13 |
11.10 |
94 |
21 |
18 |
857.14 |
.64 |
|
37 |
80,353 |
742 |
9,23 |
30.35 |
66 |
47,361 |
2,070 |
43.71 |
10.54 |
95 |
3 |
3 |
1,000.00 |
.50 |
|
38 |
79,611 |
749 |
9.41 |
29.62 |
67 |
45,291 |
2,158 |
47.65 |
10.00 |
ance of these departments, and all ex- penses of supervision are charged to the companies, and sometimes amount to a serious burden, increasing the cost of insurance to the people. The belief of most insurance experts and of political economists is that the effort to regulate the business by law has been carried too far, and has done more harm than good.
Insurrections. See REBELLIONS ; RIOTS.
Interest. The table on opposite page shows interest laws and statutes of limita- tions of the various States in the Union.
Interior, DEPARTMENT OF THE. See CABINET, PRESIDENT'S.
Internal Improvements. Millions of acres of the public lands of the United States have been granted to aid in the construction of roads, canals, and rail- ways; and also for educational and other purposes. The first acts of Congress for the purpose of internal improvements were two for the new State of Ohio, which became laws on April 30, 1802, and March 3, 1803, respectively. Previous to that there had been donations of land in favor
54
INTEREST LAWS— INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS
TABLE SHOWING INTEREST LAWS AND STATUTES OF LIMITATIONS.
|
States and Territories. |
Interest Laws. |
Statutei of Limitations. |
States and Territories. |
Interest Laws. |
Statutes of Limitations. |
||||||
|
Legal Rule. |
Rate Allowed by Contract. |
JudR- Years! |
Notes, Years |
Open Ac- counts, Years. |
Lefjal Rate. |
Rate Allowed by Contract. |
Jude- nients, Years. |
Notes Years. |
Open Ac- counts, Years. |
||
|
Perct. 8 6 7 7 8 6 6 6 8 7 7 5 6 6 6 6 5 6 6 6 5 6 6 6 10 |
Per ct. 8 10 Any rate. Any rate. Any rate. (j) 6 10 10 8 12 7 8 8 10 6 8 Any rate. 6 Any rate. 10 10 8 Any rate. |
20 10 5 5 iott t 20 12 20 7 6 20 20 20(d) 5 15 10 20 12 20 6* 10 7 10 10(6) |
6* 5 5 4t 6 '!,', 3 5 6 5 10 10 10 5 15 6 6|| 3 6 6 6 6 10 8 |
3 3 3 2 6 6 3 3 2 4 4 5 6 5 3 5(a) 3 6§§ 3 6 6§§ 6 3 5 3 |
Nebraska |
Per ct. 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 6 6§ 7 7 6 6 8 6 6 7 6 6 8 |
Per ct. 10 Any rate. 6 6 12 P 12 8 12 10 6 Any rate. 8 12 Any rate. 10 Any rate. 6 6 12 6 10 12 |
6tt 6 20 20 7 20(i) 10 10 5« ,r #" 10 y iott 8 8 20 6 10 20(i) 6(*) |
5 6 6 6 6 6 3* 6 15 5 6 611 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 5* 6 10 6 5 |
4 4 6 6 4 6§§ 3 6§§ 6 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 2 4 6§§ 211 3 3 6 8 |
|
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Arkansas |
Nevada |
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New Hampshire. New Jersey New Mexico New York |
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California |
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Delaware |
North Carolina. . North Dakota... Ohio |
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Dist. of Columbia. Florida Georgia . . |
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Oklahoma |
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Idaho |
Oregon |
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Illinois |
Pennsylvania . . . Rhode Island South Carolina.. South Dakota... Tennessee |
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Indiana . . . |
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Iowa |
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Kansas |
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Kentucky |
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Texas |
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Maine .. |
Utah |
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Maryland .... |
Vermont |
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Massachusetts .. . Michigan |
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Washington West Virginia... Wisconsin |
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Minnesota |
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Missouri Montana |
Wyoming |
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* Under seal, 10 years, t If made in State; if outside, 2 years, t No law and no decision regarding judgments. § Unless a different rate is expressly stipulated. || Under seal, 20 years.. IT Store accounts; other accounts, 3 years, ft New York has by a recent law legalized any rate of interest on call loans of $5,000 or upward, on col- lateral security, ti Becomes dormant, but may be revived. §§ Six years from last item, (a) Accounts between merchants, 2 years, (b) In courts not of record, 5 years, (d) Twenty years in courts of record; in justice's court, 10 years, (e) Negotiable notes, 6 years; non-negotiable, 17 years. (/) Ceases to be a lien after that period. (h) On foreign judgments, 1 year, {i) Is a lien on real estate for only 10 years, (j) Any rate, but only 6 per cent, can be collected at law. (k) And indefinitely by having execution issue every 5 years. (/) Ten years foreign, 20 years domestic.
of various deserving persons. The grants to repay the government. On the same to the inhabitants of Ohio were for the day (March, 1827) there was granted to purpose of laying out public roads lead- Indiana a certain strip of land formerly ing to the Ohio River. Other grants were held by the Pottawattomie Indians, the made from time to time for improvements proceeds of the sale thereof to be applied in the Northwest until 1824, when (May to building a road from Lake Michigan, 26) Congress authorized the State of Indi- via Indianapolis, to some convenient ana to construct a canal, giving the right point on the Ohio River. March 3, 1827, of way, with 90 feet of land on each a grant was made to Ohio of two sec- side thereof. Nothing was done under tions of land along the entire line of a the act; but in 1827 (March 2) two acts road to be constructed from Sandusky to were passed, giving to Indiana and II- Columbus.
linois, respectively, certain lands in aid May 23, 1828, a grant of 400,000 acres
of the construction of canals, the first of the "relinquished lands" in certain
to connect the navigation of the Wabash counties in Alabama was made in aid of
River with the waters of Lake Erie, and the improvement of the Tennessee and
the second to connect the waters of the other rivers in that State. In this grant
Illinois River with those of Lake Michi- was the first provision for indemnity in
gan. A quantity of land equal to one- case the grant was not full by reason of
half of five sections in width, on each prior sales or disposals by the govern-
side of the canals, was granted, reserv- ment. Similar grants were made from
ing to the United States each alternate time to time for like purposes. March 2,
section. It was not an absolute grant 1833, the State of Illinois was authorized
of land in fee, for, under certain restric- to apply the lands granted by the act of
tions, the States had a right to sell the March 2, 1827, for canal purposes to the
awards, and from the proceeds they were construction of a railway instead. This
55
INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS
was the first act looking to the con- struction of a railway through the assist- ance of land donations. The railroad sys- tem was then in its infancy. The State did not avail itself of the privilege, but subsequently built a canal. March 2, 1835, a grant was made to aid the con- struction of a railway in Florida. Suffi- cient was given for the way — 30 feet of land on each side — and the right to take
right of way through such portions of the public lands as remained unsold — not to exceed 80 feet in width — to the New Orleans and Nashville Railroad Company. This road was never completed. Next came a grant to East Florida and other railroads which were never constructed. March 3, 1837, a grant was made to the Atchafalaya Railroad and Banking Com- pany, in Louisiana, similar to that to
GOVERNMENT TOLL-GATR ON THE CUMBER- LAND ROAD.
and use the timber for 100 yards on each side for the construction
and repairs of the road. This was the the New Orleans and Nashville Railroad,
first grant of the right of way for a rail- Aug. 8, 1846, an act granted lands in aid
road, the previous grant having been for of improvements of the Des Moines River,
a canal. July 2, 1836, an act granted the in Iowa, and the Fox and Wisconsin
56
INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS
rivers, in Wisconsin. These rivers, when improved, were to remain highways for the United States government forever, free from toll.
The grant to the then Territory of Iowa for the improvement of the Des Moines River led to long discussions as to the extent of the grant, and to many legal decisions. Finally, on March 22, 1858, the consent of Congress was given to ap- ply a portion of the grant to the con- struction of a railway. The rivers were not improved, but the railway was con- structed— the Keokuk, Fort Des Moines, and Minnesota Railroad. Sept. 20, 1850, a grant was made to the State of Illinois of every alternate section of land, desig- nated by even numbers, for six sections in width, on each side of a railroad and branches thereof. This road, which was built, is known as the Illinois Central. Although this was not the first concession of land to a railway corporation, it granted specific sections instead of one- half of a certain number of sections, and may be considered the initiatory measure of the system since adopted in making grants in favor of railways. On June 10, 1852, a donation was made to the State of Missouri for the construction of certain railroads therein, afterwards known as the Hannibal and St. Joseph, and the Misouri Pacific, south branch. This grant was similar in character and extent to that of the Illinois Central. In this, as in the case of the Illinois Central, there was a provision for the reimbursement of the United States for all the land sold. Feb. 9, 1853, an act made a similar grant to Arkansas. June 29, 1854, an act granted aid to Minnesota for construct- ing a railroad from the southern line of that then Territory, via St. Paul, to its eastern line, in the direction of Lake Su- perior. For this purpose there were given each alternate section of land, designated by odd numbers, for six sections in width on each side of said road. This act was repealed in August following.
At various times in 1856 grants of land for similar purposes were made to the States of Iowa, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Mississippi. On March 3, 1856, a grant was made to Minnesota. All of these grants made in 1856 and 1857 were similar
to that given to Missouri in 1852. July 1, 1862, the Union Pacific Railroad Com- pany was created for the purpose of constructing and maintaining a railroad and telegraph line from the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean. They were granted the right of way through the public lands to the extent of 200 feet in width on each side of the line of the road, together with the necessary ground for stations, buildings, etc. They were also granted in aid of the construction of the road every alternate section of public land to the amount of five alternate sections a mile on each side of the road, excepting mineral lands and all lands already dis- posed of or reserved. Several other roads were provided for on the same conditions, which became known as the Central Pacific, Central Branch of the Union Pa- cific, Kansas Pacific, and Sioux City and Pacific. It was a grant of 10 miles of land on each side of the road. By an act approved July 2, 1864, instead of five, ten sections were granted, making the area 20 miles on each side of these roads. The term mineral land was con- strued not to mean coal or iron. By the same act a grant of 20 miles of land was made to the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad Company for the construc- tion of a road from the Missouri River to some point not farther west than the one hundredth meridian west longitude, to connect with the Union Pacific road.
March 3, 1864, a grant of land was made to the State of Kansas to assist in con- structing railroads within its borders, af- terwards known as the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa F§; Leavenworth, Lawrence, and Galveston; and Missouri, Kansas, and Texas railroads. In May, 1864, similar grants were made to the States of Minne- sota, Wisconsin, and Iowa, and others soon followed to Arkansas, Missouri, Alabama, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, and Kansas. The North Pacific Railroad Company was created July 1, 1864, with grants similar to those of the Union Pacific, excepting double the extent of land, through the Ter- ritories. July 27, 1866, grants were made to the Atlantic and Pacific, and the South- ern Pacific, on terms similar to those of the Union Pacific. March 3, 1869, land grants were made to the Denver Pacific Railway; and by act of March 3, 1871,
57
INTERNAL REVENUE— INTERNATIONAL LAW
similar grants were made to the Southern Pacific (branch line) and Texas and Pa- cific. Many of the grants made in the earlier years of the system were enlarged. The aggregate amount of land granted is more than 215,000,000 acres, but the amount made available is not more than 187,000,000 acres. By the aid of these grants over 15,000 miles of railroad have been built. Their benefits have extended to all parts of the country, and cannot be estimated by values. See CANALS; PUBLIC DOMAIN; RAILROADS.
Internal Revenue. The following table shows the total collections of internal revenue in the United States in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, by States and Territories:
States and Territories.
Alabama
Arkansas
California and Nevada....
Colorado and Wyoming. .
Connecticut and Rhode Isl- and
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Illinois
Indiana , . . . .
Iowa
Kansas, Indian Territory, and Oklahoma
Kentucky
Louisiana and Mississippi. .
Maryland, Delaware, Dis- trict of Columbia, and two Virginia districts
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Montana, Idaho, and Utah..
Nebraska, and North and South Dakota
New Hampshire, Maine, and Vermont
New Jersey
New Mexico and Arizona. . .
New York
North Carolina
Ohio
Oregon, Washington, and Alaska
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
West Virginia
Wisconsin .
Total
Aggregate Collections.
mary of such receipts in the period 1880- 1903, both inclusive, with principal sources.
The re-imposition of adhesive stamps in 1898 was provided for in the War Reve- nue Act of that year. The war revenue and the receipts of the national treasury from other sources having been much larger than was anticipated, and having produced a surplus largely in excess of the actual financial needs of the country, Congress adopted a conference report on a bill to reduce the war revenue on Feb. 28, 1901, to go into effect on July 1 next ensuing. The revenue reduction was expected to amount to $42,165,000 per an- num, the repeal of various stamp taxes and a few changes in the existing law concerning specified articles being esti- mated to make the following itemized re-
$323,135.62
109,322.32 Commercial brokers, $138,000; certifi-
3,069,990.31 cates of deposits, $200,000; promissory
568,713.37 noteS) $3,500,000; bills of lading for ex-
1,865,550.10 port, $100,000; telegraphic despatches,
719,400.39 $800,000; telephone messages, $315,000;
40090'52 b°nds °ther than indemnit7> $25,000; cer-
50,562,'455.25 tificates not otherwise specified, $200,000;
28,183,610.08 charter party, $100,000; conveyances,
835,487.90 $1,750,000: insurance, $3,000,000; leases,
311,403.23 $200,000; mortgages, $500,000; passage
21,115,626.21 tickets, $100,000; power of attorney, $100,-
2,890,648.17 000; protests, $25,000; warehouse re-
ceipts, $250,000; express receipts, $800,-
5,612,791.16 000; proprietary medicines, cosmetics, and
3,'567,'075.'54 chewing-gum, $3,950,000; legacies, $500,-
4,044,317.94 000; cigars, $3,100,000; tobacco, $7,000,-
ififfti!?'™ °00' sma11 ciSars and cigarettes, $500,-
436]378!93 0005 beer» $9,800,000; bank checks, $7,-
000,000; foreign bills of exchange, $50,-
2,471,381.68 000; money orders, $602,000; manifest for
591,025.13 Custom House, $60,000.
5,998,058.98 International Arbitration. See ARBT-
78,971.41 TRATION, INTERNATIONAL.
J248341 07 International Law, the name now 20*979,333.19 given to what was formerly known as the Law of Nations. It is believed to have 18,89ois8988 originated *n the Middle Ages, and to 616,800.33 have been first applied for the purpose 1,661,300.15 of regulating commercial transactions.
From tnis fact Jt took the name of " com' mercial law>" and subsequently was ex- tended to transactions other than com- mercial of an international character. To- dft thfi aim Qf internationai ]aw js to
3 433'S70'22 l'll4^3078 7,332,'o52!oi
$230,740,925.22
The table on opposite page gives a sum- prevent war. The distinctive features of
53
INTERNAL REVENUE RECEIPTS -INTREPID
SUMMARY OF INTERNAL REVENUE RECEIPTS IN 1880-1903
|
Fiscal Years. |
Spirits. |
Tobacco. |
Fermented Liquors. |
Banks and Banker*. |
Miscellaneous. |
Adhesive Stamps. |
Collections Under Repealed Laws |
||
|
1880 .... |
$61,185,509 67,153,975 09,873,408 74,368,775 76,905,385 67,511,209 69,092,266 65,766,076 69,287,431 74,302,887 81,682,970 83,335,964 91,309,984 94,712,938 85,259,252 79,862,627 80,670,071 82,008,643 92,547,000 99,283,534 109,868,817 131.953,472 |
$38,870,149 42,854,991 47,391,989 42,104,250 26,062,400 26,407,088 27,907,363 30,083,710 30,636,076 31,862,195 33,949,998 32,796,271 31,000,493 31,843,556 28,617,899 29,707,908 30,711,629 30,710,297 36,230,522 52,493,208 59,355,084 43,514,810 |
$12,829,803 13,700,241 16,153,920 16,900,616 18,084,954 18,230,782 19,676,731 21,918,213 23,324,218 23,723,835 26,008,535 28,665,130 30,037,453 32,827,424 31,414,788 31,640,618 33,784,235 32,472,162 39,515,421 68,644,558 73,550,754 47,547,856 |
$3,350,985 3,762,208 5,253,458 3,748,995 ' 4,288 4,203 6,179 69 2 ""135 85 1,180 "£,461 899 |
$383,755 231,078 199,830 305,803 289,144 222,681 194,422 219,058 154,970 83,893 135,555 256,214 239,532 166,915 1,876,509 1,960,794 1,664,545 1,426,606 2,572,696 9,225,453 11,575,626 6,827,303 |
$7,66 7,92 7,57 7,0fi 7< 43.K 40,9( |
8,394 4708 0 109 3053 4418 t7819 >4365 |
$152, 78 71, 265, 49, 32 29, 9 |
163 559 852 068 361 087 283 548 |
|
lyyi |
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1^82 |
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1883 |
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1885 |
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1886 |
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18»7 |
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lays |
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jyyO |
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18«)1 |
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18l)2 . • • |
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is«j3 |
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1894 • . |
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1895 |
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1896 |
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1897 |
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1898 |
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1899 |
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1«>00 |
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1903 |
Of the receipts in 1900 classed as "Miscellaneous," $2,884,492 was from legacies; $4,515,641 from special taxes on bankers, billiard-rooms, brokers, and exhibitions ; and $1,079,405 from excise tax on gross receipts, under the War Revenue law of 1898 ; $2, 543, 785 from oleomargarine ; $331,011 from playing cards ; $193,721 from penalties ; and $17,064 from filled cheese.
See BIMETALLISM; EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL.
International Order of the King's Daughters and Sons, a religious order consisting of small circles of men, women, and children. It is non-sectarian, and its members may be found in nearly all churches and in nearly every country. It was established in New York City in 1886 by a circle of ten women. Its aim is to help the needy and suffering, to consider the poor, and to engage in all good works. The members wear a small silver badge in the shape of a cross, bearing the letters I. H. N. on one side, and the date 1886 on the other. In 1900 it was estimated that the society numbered more than 500,000 members. It ranks among the strongest and most useful societies in the world. The headquarters are at 156 Fifth Avenue, New York. In 1900 the officers were: President, Mrs. F. Bottome; vice- president, Miss Kate Bond; general sec- retary, Mrs. Mary L. Dickinson; treas- urer, Mrs. J. C. Davis; recording secre- tary, Mrs. Robert Sturgis; and correspond- ing secretary, Mrs. Isabella Charles Davis.
Interoceanic Ship Canal. See NICA- RAGUA CANAL; PANAMA CANAL.
Intrepid, THE. The ketch Intrepid, used in the destruction of the PHILADEL- PHIA (q. v.), had been converted into a floating mine for the purpose of destroy- ing the piratical cruisers in the harbor
international law may be summarized in brief as follows: First, that every nation possesses an exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction in its own territory; second, that no State or nation can by its law di- rectly affect or bind property out of its own territory, or persons not resident therein, natural born subjects or others; third, that whatever force the laws of one country have in another depends sole- ly on the municipal laws of the latter.
There have been numerous congresses of international law experts for the pur- pose of simplifying and making more def- inite the obligations which one country owes to another, and in these congresses the United States has occupied a con- spicuous place. The Association for the Reform and Codification of the Law of Nations held its first session in Brussels, Oct. 10, 1873, and subsequent ones were held in Geneva, The Hague, Bremen, Antwerp, Frankfort, London, Berne, Cologne, Turin, and Milan. An Institute of International Law was organized in Ghent in 1873, and has since held numer- ous sessions in various cities of Europe, The most conspicuous action of the nations concerning the abolition of international hostilities was taken in the Peace Con- ference at The Hague, in 1899, to which the United States was also a party. See CODES ; FIELD, DAVTD DUDLEY.
International Monetary Conference.
59
INTREPID— INUNDATIONS
of Tripoli. In a room below deck 100 company engaged in the perilous enter- barrels of gunpowder were placed, and prise. The Intrepid entered the harbor immediately above them a large quantity at nine o'clock in the evening. The night of shot, shell, and irregular pieces of was very dark. Many eager eyes were iron were deposited. Combustibles were turned towards the spot where her shad- placed in other parts of the vessel. On owy form was last seen. Suddenly a the night of Sept. 3, 1804, the Intrepid fierce and lurid light streamed up from
the dark waters like volcanic fires and il- luminated the sur- rounding objects with its lurid glare — rocks, flotilla, castle, town, and the broad bosom of the harbor. This was followed by an instant explosion, and for a few mo- ments flaming masts and sails and fiery bomb - shells rained upon the waters, when suddenly all was again dark. Anxious- ly the companions of the intrepid men who went into the harbor awaited their return. They never came back. What was the cause of the premature explosion that destroyed vessels and men will never be known. The belief was that the ketch was captured by the Tripolitans on the watch, and that Som- ers, preferring death to miserable captiv- ity, had himself ap- plied a lighted match to the powder. A fine monument, erect- ed to the memory of the slain men and the event, formerly stood
was towed into the harbor by two boats, at the western front of the national the whole under the command of Captain Capitol, but is now in front of the Naval Somers, attended by Lieutenant Wads- Academv at Annapolis, worth, of the Constitution, and Mr. Israel, Inundations. For a long period of an ardent young man who got on board time the principal inundations in the the Intrepid by stealth. These, with a United States were caused by the over- few men to work the torpedo-vessel, and flowing of the banks of the Mississippi the crews of the boats, constituted the River. The record of these disasters, al-
60
INTRKPID MEMKNTO AT ANNAPOLIS.
INUNDATIONS
DEVASTATION CAUSED BY FLOOD IN JOHNSTOWN, PA.
though not containing many individual cases, is a distressing one because of the vast amount of property destroyed and the large number of lives lost. The fol- lowing briefly summarizes the most nota- ble inundations in the United States:
1816. — The White Mountain region in New Hampshire was flooded by a deluge of rain after a drought of two years. Several valleys were completely under water, and large tracts of forests were torn from the ground and washed down the mountain sides.
1849, May 12.— A flood in New Orleans spread over 160 squares and submerged 1,600 buildings.
1874, May 16. — The bursting of a reser- voir on Mill River, near Northampton, Mass., caused the destruction of several villages in the valley and the loss of 144 lives.
1874, July 24- — A waterspout burst in Eureka, Nev., and with the attendant heavy rains caused a loss of between twen- ty and thirty lives.
1874, July 26. — An unusual fall of rain
61
caused the overflow of the rivers in west- ern Pennsylvania and the loss of 220 lives.
1881, June 12. — Disastrous floods be- gan in Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, and Mis- souri, lasting several days, and causing the destruction of much property.
1882, Feb. 22. — The valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers were flooded, and the loss of life and property was so great that the governor of Mississippi made a public appeal for help.
1883, February. — Portions of Pennsyl- vania, Ohio, and Kentucky were visited by a disastrous flood, which was most severe at Cincinnati, lasting several days.
1884, February. — The Ohio River over- flowed its banks, causing the loss of fif- teen lives and rendering 5,000 people homeless.
1886, Jan. 5. — Pennsylvania, New York, and several of the New England States were visited by floods, and great damage was done to property.
1886, Aug. 20. — A storm in Texas was followed by a flood, which was particular-
INUNDATIONS— IOWA
ly disastrous in Galveston, where twenty- eight lives were lost and property dam- aged to the extent of more than $5,000,- 000.
1889, May 31. — The rising of the Cone- maugh River, in Pennsylvania, under in- cessant rain, caused the breaking of the dam about 18 miles above Johnstown. The great mass of water rushed down to the city in seven minutes, and at the Pennsyl- vania Railroad bridge, near the city, it became dammed up, greatly increasing the loss of life and collecting a large mass of debris, which afterwards took fire and added further to the destruction. Official reports after the disaster placed the total number of lives lost at 2;142, and the value of property destroyed at $9,674,105. Nearly $3,000,000 was raised for the re- lief of the sufferers, contributions being sent from nearly every State and large city in the United States, and from sev- eral cities in Europe. In the distribution of the relief, the sum of $1,500 was given to each of 124 women made widows, and $50 annually till they should reach the age of sixteen was assigned to each of 965 children made orphans or half- orphans.
1890, March and April. — The levees of the Mississippi River gave way in many places and the waters flooded large areas of land in Mississippi and Louisiana. The worst crevasse was caused by the giving way of the Morgansea, near Bayou Sara, which had been built by the federal and State governments at a cost of about $250,000.
1900, Sept. 6-9. — A tropical hurricane visiting the Southern coast spent its fury at and near Galveston, Tex., on Sept. 9. The loss of life and property here was the largest ever reported in the history of the United States from this cause, the loss of life being officially estimated at about 7,000, and the value of property destroyed about $30,000,000. The latter included the United States military post. The re- lief contributions from various sources in the United States and Europe amounted to over $1,500,000.
1901, June 22. — A cloudburst occurred near the headwaters of the Elkhorn and Dry Fork rivers, whose confluence form the main Tug River in the Flat Top coal region of West Virginia. A disastrous
flood ensued, causing the loss of many lives and the destruction of a large amount of property. The consequent distress was such that Governor White appealed to the citizens of the State for relief for the sufferers.
Investigating Committees. The first investigating committee appointed by Congress was in the case of the defeat of GEN. ARTHUR ST. CLAIR (q. v.). It was a special committee, empowered to send for persons and papers. Their call upon the War Department for all papers relating to the affair first raised the question of the extent of the authority of the House in such matters. The cabinet unanimous- ly agreed that the House had no power to call on the head of any department for any public paper except through the Presi- dent, in whose discretion it rested to fur- nish such papers as the public good might seem to require and admit, and that all such calls must be made by a special resolution of the House, the power to make them being an authority which could not be delegated to any committee. This decision of the cabinet estab- lished the method ever since practised of calling upon the President for public papers.
Iowa was originally a part of the vast Territory of Louisiana, ceded to the United States in 1803. The first settlement by Europeans was made by Julian Du Buque, who, in 1788, obtained a grant of a large tract, including the site of the city of Dubuque and the mineral lands around it. There he built a fort, and manufact- ured lead and traded with Indians until his death, in 1810. The Territory was placed under the jurisdiction of Michigan in 1834, and in 1836 under that of Wis- consin. It was erected into a separate Territory June 12, 1838, and included all the country north of Missouri between the Mississippi and the Missouri and the British line. This comprised a greater part of Minnesota and the whole of the present Dakotas, with an area of 94.000 square miles. The government was estab- lished at Iowa City, in 1839. In 1844 -a State constitution was formed, but an ap- plication for admission into the Union was denied. The admission was effected Dec. 28, 1846, and in 1857 the capital was established at Des Moines, This State,
62
IOWA— IREDELL
lying westward of the Mississippi River, with a population of nearly 700,000 and a loyal governor ( Samuel J. Kirkwood ) , was quick to perceive the needs of the na- tional government in its struggle with its enemies, and was lavish in its aid. When the President called for troops (April, 1861) the governor said, "In this emer- gency Iowa must not and does not occupy
The population in 1890 was 1,911,896; in 1900, 2,231,853. See U. S., IOWA, vol. ix.
GOVERNORS— TERRITORIAL.
Robert Lucas assumes office July, 1838
John Chambers " " 1841
JumesClark " " . .. 1845
GOVERNORS— STATE.
Ansel Briggs assumes office.
Stephen Hempsteac James W. Grimes..
Ralph P. Lowe
Samuel J. Kirkwood William M. Stone..
Samuel Merrill
C. C. Carpenter
SamuelJ. Kirkwood Joshua G. Newbold acting.
John H. Gear
Buren R. Sherman. William Larrabee. . Frank D. Jackson.. Francis M. Drake. . .
Leslie M.Shaw
Albert B. Cummins.
1846
.Dec., 1850 . " 1854 . " 1858 .Jan., 1860 . " 1864 . " 1868 . " 1872 . " 1876
assumes office.
1878 1882 1886 1894 1896 1898 1902
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Name.
Augustus C. Dodge
George W. Jones
James Harlan
James W. Grimes.... Samuel J. Kirkwood James Harlan
STATE SEAL OP IOWA. James B HOWell.. . .
George G. Wright....
, ,.. , ... -n ,, TT . William B. Allison...
a doubtful position. For the Union as Samuel J. Kirkwood
our fathers formed it, and for the govern- James W. McDill —
. . , „ James F. Wilson
ment they framed so wisely and so well, John H. Gear
the people of Iowa are ready to pledge Jonathan P. Doliiv'er every fighting-man in the State and every dollar of her money and credit." That pledge was redeemed by sending over 75,-
No. of Congress.
Date.
30th to 83d 30th " 36th 34th " 38th 36th " 40th
39th 40th to 43d
41st 42d to 44th
43d
45th to 46th
47th
48th to 54th 53d " 56th 56th "
1848 to 1855 1848 '• 1859 1855 " 1865 1869 1867 1873 1871 1877
1859 1865 1867
1871 1873 1877 1881 1883 1895 1900
1881 1883 1895 1900
Iredell, JAMES, jurist; born in Lewes, England, Oct. 5, 1750; emigrated to North
000 men to the front. The present con- Carolina in 1767; admitted to the bar in stitution of Iowa was framed by a con- 1775; was elected judge of the Superior vention at Iowa City early in 1857, and Court in 1777; appointed attorney-general was ratified Aug. 3. The clause confining in 1779; and judge of the Supreme Court the privilege of the elective franchise to in 1790. He died in Edenton, N. C., Oct. white citizens was stricken out by act of 20, 1799. the legislature, and was ratified by the Iredell, JAMES, lawyer; born in Eden-
people in 1868.
ton, N. C., Nov. 2, 1788; son of James Ire-
In 1903 Iowa ranked as the second corn- dell ; graduated at Princeton College in
producing State in the country, with an 1806; served in the War of 1812; aided
output of 229,218,220 bushels, valued at in the defence of Craney Island; elected
$87,102,924; the second in hay; and the governor of North Carolina in 1827, and
second in oats. The equalized valuation served out an unexpired term in the
of all taxable property was $637,937,386; United States Senate in 1828-31. His
and the State had no bonded debt. In publications include a Treatise on the Law
1900 the State had 14,819 manufacturing of Executors and Administrators; and a
establishments, with $102,733,103 capital; Digest of all the Reported Cases in the
58,553 wage-earners; paying $23,931,680 Courts of North Carolina, 1778 to 18^5.
for wages, $101,170,357 'for materials, He died in Edenton, N. C., April 13,
products valued at $164,617,877. 1853.
63
IRELAND
Ireland. The bold stand taken by the a resolution which made the country Americans early in 1775 made the British virtually free.
ministry afraid of like movements in Ireland, which had been more oppressed Ireland, where the Protestant minority by British rule than the American colo- had hitherto been employed to keep the nies, had, at the beginning of the contest majority, who were Roman Catholics, in between the latter and Great Britain, subjection. That majority, amounting to shown peculiar subserviency to its polit- seven-eighths of the entire population, ical master. When news of the affairs were not only deprived of all political at Lexington and Bunker Hill reached privileges, but were subjected to a great that country, the Irish Parliament voted many rigorous and cruel restraints, de- that they " heard of the rebellion with signed to keep them ignorant, poor, and abhorrence, and were ready to show to helpless. Even the Protestants in Ireland the world their attachment to the sacred were not allowed an equality with their person of the King." Taking advantage fellow-subjects in England. Their Parlia- of this expressed loyalty, Lord North rnent did not possess the rights enjoyed obtained leave to send 4,000 able-bodied by the American colonial assemblies; and men to America as a part of the British Ireland, in matters of trade, was treated army. The strongest and best of the Irish very much like a foreign country. The army were selected, and eight regiments idea of political liberty aroused in the were shipped for America. This left Ire- colonies- was already sowing the seeds of land almost defenceless. Its Parliament revolution in Ireland, and it was judged offered to organize a national militia, expedient to conciliate the Irish by just which Lord North refused to accept, and, legislation that should relax the harsh instead of a militia, organized and con- commercial restrictions. This, however, trolled by the British government, self- was done so sparingly that it fell far formed bands of volunteers sprang up short of accomplishing permanent good, all over Ireland. North saw his blunder, Indeed, it was regarded as a delusive, and had a militia bill enacted. But it temporizing policy, and the attitude of was too late; the Irish Parliament pre- the Irish people, encouraged by that of ferred the volunteers, supported by the the Americans, even became more threat- Irish themselves. Meanwhile the eloquent, ening than ever. The Catholic Relief Bill patriotic, and incorruptible Henry Grat- of 1778 had made the Irish, for the first tan had become a member of the Irish Par- time in their history, one people ; " all liament, and he was principally the agent sects, all ranks, all races — the nobleman that kindled the fire of patriotic zeal in and the merchant, the Catholic and the Ireland that was burning so brightly in Protestant, the Churchman and the Dis- America. In 1779, though only thirty- senter, he who boasted of his pure native three years of age, he led the Irish Parlia- lineage and he who was as proud of the ment in demanding reforms. He moved an Saxon or Norman blood that flowed in amendment to the address to the King his veins — rushed together to the vindi- that the nation could be saved only by cation of the liberties of their common free-trade, and it was adopted by unani- country;" and, at the beginning of the mous vote. New taxes were refused. The year, beheld them embodied to the num- ordinary supplies usually granted for two ber of 80,000 volunteers. The British years were granted for six months, government dared not refuse the arms Throughout the little kingdom an inex- which they demanded to repel a threat- tinguishable sentiment of nationality was ened invasion from France. The fiery aroused. Alarmed by the threatening at- Grattan was then leader in the Irish titude, the British Parliament, in 1781, Parliament. " I never will be satisfied," conceded to the dependent kingdom its he exclaimed in debate, " so long as the claims to commercial equality, meanest cottager in Ireland has a link The volunteer army of Ireland, com- of the British chain clanking to his rags: manded by officers of their own choice, he may be naked — he shall not be in amounted to about 50,000 at the close of irons." The Irish Parliament acted in the war with America (1782). They accordance with this spirit, and adopted were united under one general-in-chief.
64
IRELAND
Feeling strong in the right and in its ma- terial and moral vitality at the moment, and encouraged by the success of the Americans, Ireland demanded reforms for herself. The viceroy reported that unless it was determined that the knot which bound the two countries should be severed forever, the points required by the Irish Parliament must be conceded. It was a critical moment. Eden, who was secre- tary for Ireland, proposed the repeal of the act of George I. which asserted the right of the Parliament of Great Britain to make laws to bind the people and the kingdom of Ireland — the right claimed for Parliament which drove the Americans to war — and the Rockingham ministry adopt- ed and carried the important measure. Appeals from the courts of Ireland to the British House of Peers were abolished; the restraints on independent legislation were done away with, and Ireland, still owing allegiance to Great Britain, ob- tained the independence of its Parliament. This was the fruit of the war for inde- pendence in America. The people of Ire- land owed the vindication of their rights to the patriots of the United States; but their gratitude took the direction of their complained-of oppressor, and their legis- lature voted $500,000 for the levy of 20,000 seamen to strengthen the royal navy, whose ships had not yet been withdrawn from American waters, and which, with an army, were still menacing the liberties of the Americans.
Ireland, JOHN, clergyman; born in Burnchurch, County Kilkenny, Ireland, Sept. 11, 1838. When nine years old he came to the United States and received a primary education in the Catholic schools of St. Paul, Minn. In 1853 he went to France and took a preparatory course in the Meximieux Seminary, after which he received his theological train- ing in the seminary of HyeTes. On Dec. 21, 1861, he was ordained a priest, and for a while served in the Civil War as chaplain of the 5th Minnesota Regiment. Later he was made rector of the St. Paul Cathedral. In 1870-71 he represented Bishop Grace of St. Paul in the Vatican Council in Rome. Subsequently the Pope
the see of St. Paul on July 31, 1884, and was made archbishop on May 15, 1888. From early youth he was a strong advo- cate of temperance. In 1869 he estab- lished the first total abstinence society in Minnesota. He also became active in col- onizing the Northwest with Roman Catho- lics. In 1887 he went to Rome with Bish- op Keane, of Richmond, for the purpose of placing before the Pope the need of a Roman Catholic University at Washing- ton, D. C., which has since been estab- lished under the name of the Catholic
ARCHBISHOP JOHN IRELAND.
University of America. In 1891 a mem- orable controversy arose over the action of a Roman Catholic priest in Faribault, Minn., in transferring the parochial school to the control of the public school board. The transfer and the conditions were ap- proved by Archbishop Ireland, and the experiment became known as the " Fari- bault Plan." The conditions in brief were that the city should bear all the expenses of the school: that the text-books and
named him Bishop of Maronea and coad- general management should be the same jutor to Bishop Grace, and he was con- as in the public schools; that the priest sccrated Dec. 21, 1875. He succeeded to should have the right of nominating V.— E 65
IRELAND, JOHN
teachers for the school of his own religious denomination, who would be subject to the required examination; and that no religious exercises, instruction, nor em- blems should be permitted in the school. This plan was also adopted in Stillwater, Minn. Soon, however, bishops in other parts of the country, who disapproved of the scheme, complained at Rome that Archbishop Ireland was disregarding the ecclesiastical law as expressed by the plenary councils of Baltimore. Archbishop Corrigan, of New York, was one of the leaders of this opposition. Archbishop Ireland was summoned to Home, and after a long examination of the plan it was approved by the Congregation of the Propaganda in its decree of April 30, 1892.
Lafayette and America. — On July 4, 1900, a statue of Lafayette, the cost of which had been raised by the school chil- dren of the United States, was unveiled in Paris and formally presented to the French people. Archbishop Ireland was selected to deliver the oration on the occa- sion, and on being informed of this Presi- dent McKinley addressed him the follow- ing letter:
" EXECUTIVE MANSION, " WASHINGTON, June 11.
" DEAR SIR, — Within a. few days I have ap- proved a resolution of Congress which voices in fitting terms the profound sympathy with which our people regard the presentation to France by the youth of America of a statue of General Lafayette. It has given me much pleasure to learn that you have been selected to deliver the address on this most interest- ing occasion.
" No more eminent representative of Amer- ican eloqxience and patriotism could have been chosen, and none who could better give ap- propriate expression to the sentiments of gratitude and affection which bind our peo- ple to France.
" I will be grateful if you will say how we honor in our national capital the statue of Lafayette erected by the French people, and convey my hope that the presentation of a similar memorial of that knightly soldier, whom both republics are proud to claim, may serve as a new link of friendship between the two countries, and a new incentive to gener- ous rivalry in striving for the good of man- kind. Very sincerely yours,
" WILLIAM MCKINLEY.
" Most Rev. John Ireland, Archbishop of St. Paul, St. Paul, Minn."
The following is the principal part of the oration:
To-day a nation speaks her gratitude to a nation; America proclaims her re- membrance of priceless favors conferred upon her by France. We speak to France in the name of America, under commis- sion from her chief magistrate, William McKinley, from her Senate and House of Representatives, from her youths who throng her schools, and from the tens of millions of her people who rejoice in the rich inheritance won in years past by the allied armies of France and America. We are bidden by America to give in the hearing of the world testimony of her gratitude to France.
Once weak and poor, in sore need of sympathy and succor, to-day the peer of the mightiest, self-sufficing, asking for naught save the respect and friendship to which her merits may entitle her, the republic of the United States of America holds in loving remembrance the nation from which in the days of her dire ne- cessity there came to her powerful and chivalrous support. Noble men and noble nations forgive injuries; they never for- get favors.
There is a land which is above all other lands the land of chivalry, of noble im- pulse and generous sacrifice, the land of devotion to ideals. At the call of a high- born principle her sons, with souls at- tuned by nature to the harmonies of the true and the beautiful, leap instinctive- ly into the arena, resolved at any cost to render such principle a reality in the life-current of humanity. The pages of its history are glistening with the names of heroes and martyrs, of knightly sol- diers and saintly missionaries. It is of France I speak.
At the close of the last century France was, more than ever, ready to hearken to an appeal made in the name of hu- man rights. The spirit of liberty was hovering over the land, never again to depart from it, even if for a time baf- fled in its aspirations by the excesses of friends or the oppression of foes. To France America turned and spoke her hopes and fears; her messengers plead- ed her cause in Paris; quick and generous was the response which France gave to the appeal.
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafay- ette! Oh, that words of mine could ex-
60
IRELAND, JOHN
press the full burning love which our soul an American, as proud of America
Revolutionary sires did bear to this il- as the proudest of her patriots, the
lustrious son of old Auvergne! Oh, that champion before all contestants of her
I could pronounce his name with the rev- honor and her fair name. More cheerfully
erence with which my countrymen across even than his American companions in
the sea wish me to pronounce it before arms he bore the terrible hardships of the
the people of France! In America two war; again and again he pledged his per-
nanies are the idols of our national wor- sonal fortune to buy food and clothing for
ship, the burden of fireside tale, the in- his men, who knew him by the familiar
spiration of the poet's song, the theme appellation of " The Marquis, the soldiers'
of the orator's discourse: the name of him friend." In camp and in battle his in-
who was the Father of his Country — fluence was boundless; a word of cheer
George Washington; and the name of him from his lips roused the drooping spirits
who was the true and trusty friend of of his soldiers; a word of command sent
Washington, Gilbert du Motier, Marquis them headlong against the enemy. A
de Lafayette. visitor to the American camp, the Marquis
Strange were it if America did not de Chastellux, could not help remarking
cherish the name of Lafayette. He loved that Lafayette was never spoken of with-
America. " From the moment that I out manifest tokens of attachment and
heard the name of America," said he, affection.
" I loved her ; from the moment I learned But much as Lafayette deserves and re-
of her struggles for liberty, I was inflamed ceives our love and honor in return for
with the desire of shedding my blood for his personal services in the cause of Amer-
her." He understood, above most men of ica, his chief title to the gratitude of our
his time, the full significance of America's people is that his heroic figure ever looms
contest. " Never," said he, " had so noble up before their entranced fancy as the
a purpose offered itself to the judgment of symbol of the magnanimity which France
men; it was the last struggle for liberty, as a nation displayed towards our country
and its defeat would have left freedom in her laborious struggle for life and lib-
without a home and without hopes." His erty. The value of the aid given to us
devotion to America was as unselfish as by France in our war for independence is
it was intense. " I offer myself," he inestimable. The joy which the memory
wrote, " to serve the United States with of it awakens in our souls is that which
all possible zeal without pension or allow- comes to us through the consciousness of
ance." our national life itself. France stood
Wealth and rank, the favors of court first sponsor for our nationhood. We and king, high distinction in the service entered into the great family of nations of his own country, the endearments of leaning on her arm, radiant with the re- wife and child— all that ambition could flection of her histrionic splendor, and covet or opportunity promise, the youth strong in the protection of her titanic of nineteen summers put resolutely aside stature. When Franklin stood in the to cast his lot with a far-off people bat- palace of Versailles, the acknowledged en- tling against fearful odds— and that at a voy of America, and Gerard de Rayneval, moment when their fortunes were at their as the minister of France, saluted the lowest ebb, and hope had wellnigh aban- Congress of America at Philadelphia, the doned their standard. When the agent of young republic thrilled with new life and America in France sadly confessed that leaped at once into a full sense of security he was even unable to furnish a ship to and a true consciousness of her dignity, carry him and other volunteers, Lafayette Let historians relate as they will that said: "I will buy a ship and take your the King and minister of France saw in men with me." tne revolt of the American colonies, and
By his magnanimity of soul, and by his in the assistance that might be given
grace of manner, not less than by his mili- them, an opportunity for France to
tary prowess, he won all hearts and be- avenge the humiliation of the treaty of
came the idol of the American army. He 1763. It is not for us to demand that
proved himself to the inmost fibre of his statesmen become for our sake oblivious
67
IRELAND, JOHN
of the interests of their own country, What America knows, what she will never fail to know, is that King and ministers of France gave us the aid through which we won our independence, that they gave it to us in warmest friendliness and with most chivalrous generosity, and that in giving to us such aid they were applauded by the noble-hearted people of France, who loved America, and encouraged the alii- ance of their country with her, because of the great principles which were linked with the triumph or the defeat of the new republic of the West.
The war of America was waged for a mighty principle of deepest import to the welfare of humanity. It rose thereby im- mensely above other wars in solemn grand- eur of meaning. The principle at stake was that of civil and political liberty, the triumph of which in America would be the presage of its triumph in the world, It was this principle that shed singular glory upon the battle-fields of America, America rose in rebellion against arbi- trary and absolute government; she un- sheathed the sword in the name of the rights of man and of the citizen.
There is but one who in His own right has power to rule over men — Almighty God — and from Him is derived whatever authority is exercised in human society, That authority is not, however, directly given to the one or the few; it is com- municated by him to the people to be exercised in the form which they choose, by those whom they designate. And the men in whom this authority is invested by delegations of the people are to use it not for the benefit of the one or the few, but for the good of the people. All this is the plain teaching of reason and re- ligion, and yet not seldom were such sim- pie truths forgotten, not seldom in prac- tice was power held as if it belonged to dynasties and classes, and exercised as if " the human race lived for the few." The rebellion of a people on so large a scale as was the uprising of the American colo- nies could not but challenge universal at- tention, and the triumph of such a rebel- lion could not but stir other peoples to a sense of their rights and to a stern resolve to maintain them.
It will not, assuredly, be said that the republican form of government is vital to
68
a well-ordered State, nor that without it the rights of the people cannot be safe- guarded, nor that it is the best and proper policy for every people. The form of a government is a question that must rest with the people of each nation, to be de- termined solely by them according to their special needs and their dispositions of character. It is, nevertheless, true that the republican form of government is of itself peculiarly expressive of the limita- tions and responsibilities of power, and consequently the founding of a republic such as that of the United States was a momentous event for liberty throughout the entire world. In every commonwealth the people's sense of their rights and power was quickened, and there sprang up in the consciences of the rulers of na- tions a new conception of their responsi- bilities towards the people. Whatever to- day in any country the particular form of government, democracy is there in some degree; and it is there because of its plenary triumph in America, whence went forth the charmed spell that reached, were it but in weakened waves, the uttermost bounds of civilized humanity.
The creation of the republic of the United States was the inauguration of a new era in the life of the human race — the era of the rights of manhood and of citizenship and of the rights of the peo- pie. Such is the true meaning of the American Revolution, the full signifi- cance of the work done in America by Lafayette and France.
This is the age of the people. Every decade will mark an advance in the tri- umphant march of democracy. Political movements do not go backward; the peo- pie do not abandon, except under duress, and then only for a time, rights of which they were once possessed, or the power which they have once wielded to maintain and enlarge those rights. To seek for ar- guments against democracy in its appar- ent perils is a waste of time. The part of true statesmanship is to study the perils such as they may be and take meas- ures to avert them. The progress of de- mocracy cannot be stayed. He who would rule must rule through the people, through the individual men who constitute the people. To obtain results in the civil and political world he must go to the individ-
IRON— IRON AND STEEL
ual, enlighten his mind, form his con- of the United States in 1898 and 1899 science and thus enlist his sympathies and was the output of Great Britain in 1880, win his intelligent co-operation. He who which reached 18,026,049 long tons. The does this will succeed; he who uses other output of the United States in 1899 aggre- methods will fail. The task for those who gated in value $34,999,077. The chief would rule men is made more difficult, ore-producing States were: Michigan, 9,- The time is long gone by when men can 146,157 long tons; Minnesota, 8,161,289 be swayed by sword or proclamation. But long tons; Alabama, 2,662,943 long tons; manhood in men has meanwhile grown, and Pennsylvania, 1,009,327 long tons. and they who love manhood in men should Virginia and West Virginia combined rejoice. ranked next with 986,476 long tons. The
Why should we be asked to regret the production in the calendar year 1902 was coming of democracy? What is it in its the largest in the history of the country, ultimate analysis but the practical asser- 35,554,135 long tons, valued at $65,412,- tion of the dignity of man, indelibly im- pressed upon him when he was fashioned to the image of the Creator? What is it but trust in the power of truth and right- eousness, and in the readiness of the hu- man soul to respond to such influences? The growth of mind and will in the in- dividual is what all must hail who be- lieve in human progress, or in the strength of Christian civilization. And as mind and will grow in men, so grow in him the consciousness of his rights and power, and the resolve to uphold rights, to put power into act, and to resist all irrational or unnecessary restraint upon either rights or power — and thus is be- gotten democracy. The new age has dawned for all humanity; but, where men have the more quickly and the more thor- oughly understood their dignity, there its golden rays have risen higher above the horizon and shed more richly their light upon human thought and action.
Iron, MARTIN, labor leader; born in Scotland, Oct. 7, 1832; emigrated to the United States in 1846; and later settled in Lexington, Mo.; joined the Knights of Labor and organized and led the famous Missouri Pacific Railroad strike of 1886. He died in Bunceville, Tex., Nov. 17, 1900.
Iron and Steel. The remarkable ad- vance in material prosperity of the United States within a few years is shown in most striking detail in the pro- duction and manufactures of iron and steel. The calendar year 1899 was a 950; and in 1903 it was 35,019,308 long record-breaker in the production of iron- tons.
ore throughout the world. In the United The amount of pig-iron manufactured States the total output was 24.683,173 in the United States in 1903 was 18,009,- long tons, an increase of 5,249,457 long 252 long tons. In the fifteen years 1889- tcns over the aggregate of the preceding 1903 the total production of ore in the year. The nearest approach to the total United States was 305,521,317 long tons,
69
Boshes
Tuysres
Hearth
Tapping-hole
White Heat 2200
DIAGRAM OF A MODERN BLAST-FTTRNAOE.
IRON AND STEEL
THE GREAT ORE DOCKS AT MARQUETTE.
an average annual output of 20,368,088 of operating companies aggregated $1,455,-
long tons. In the production of 1903 the 696,000.
red hematite constituted the most promi- The steel industry also showed the
nent general class of iron-ore, yielding United States to be at the head of all
30,328,654 long tons, or 86.6 per cent, of other countries. The total output of the
the total. Brown hematite yielded 3,080,- steel-producing countries from which re-
399 long tons; magnetite, 575,422 long ports were available for 1901 was ap-
tons; and carbonate, 34,833 long tons, proximately 27,240,000 long tons, divided
Minnesota produced the largest amount among them as follows: United States,
of red hematite, Alabama the largest of 13,474,000 tons; Germany, 6,394,000;
brown hematite, New Jersey the largest Great Britain, 4,904,000; France, 1,425,-
of magnetite, and Ohio the largest of 000; Belgium, 653,000; Sweden, -269,000;
carbonate. and Spain, 121,000. The output in the
In 1890 the United States for the first United States included 8,713,302 long tons
time gained the lead among the pig-iron of Bessemer steel and 4,656,309 long tons
producing countries of the world, but lost of open-hearth steel.
it to Great Britain in 1894. The follow- In the iron and steel trade with ing year, however, the United States foreign countries, in the twenty years again outranked Great Britain, and has preceding 1900, the position of the since kept ahead of that country. In United States was exactly reversed; and 1901 the five great pig-iron producers of within the last five years of that period the world stood in the following order of the United States changed from an im- importance: United States, 15,878,000 porting to an exporting country. In long tons; Great Britain, 7,929,000; Ger- 1880 five times as much in value of iron many, 7,867,000; Russia, 2,821,000; and and steel was imported into the United France, 2,389,000. It is also a matter of States as was exported therefrom. At record that in 1901 the United States pro- the close of this period the country ex- duced over 33 per cent, of the total ore ported six times the value of its iron output of the world, or 28,887,000 long and steel imports. These exports, in the tons out of an estimated total of 87,000,- fiscal year 1899-1900, aggregated $121,- 000 long tons. It is further interesting to 858,341, thus ranking next to bread- note that the capitalization of the groups stuffs, cotton, and provisions, the three
70
IRON AND STEEL
higher in value. There were in the iron other articles entering the daily require-
and steel exports twenty-one classes ments of man.
valued at from $1,000,000 to $9,000,000 If any further evidence was required each. In the calendar year 1904 the ex- to indicate the supremacy of the United port trade in iron and steel manufactures States in the allied iron and steel in- aggregated $111,948,586. The marvellous dustries, the gigantic United States Steel development of the iron and steel trade Corporation, organized in February, 1901, above indicated contributed to make the by a pooling of the interests of more than
A MODERN BLAST-FURNACE.
United States, in the opening of the a dozen great operating companies, known twentieth century, the world's greatest on the " street " as the " billion-dollar producer of iron, steel, coal, copper, cot- steel combine," would probably be suffi- ton, breadstuffs, provisions, and many cient to satisfy any doubt. Each of the
71
EBON AND STEEI^-IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY
corporations in the new concern was 000,000 in bonds, and with a cash account widely known for the large capital it of $200,000,000. commanded and the vast amount of work it had already accomplished, and the pos-
sibilities open to consummation by a
Ironclad Oath. See OATHS. Ironsides, OLD. See CONSTITUTION. Iroquois Confederacy, THE, was
combination of these great concerns be- originally composed of five related fami- came a matter entirely beyond the range lies or nations of Indians, in the present of human calculation. The leading figures State of New York. These were called,
ROLLING SHEET-IRON.
in this consolidation of extraordinary interests were Andrew Carnegie, the Pittsburg iron and steel king, and J. Pierpont Morgan, the New York banker, who financiered the combination. The combination began operations with a total capital of $1,154,000,000, divided into $850,000,000 in capital stock, and $304,-
respectively, Mohawks, Oneidas, Onon- dagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. Tradition says the confederacy was founded by Hia- watha, the incarnation of wisdom, at about the beginning of the fifteenth century. He came from his celestial home and dwelt with the Onondagas, where he taught the related tribes the knowledge of good lir-
72
IBOQUOIS CONFEDERACY
ing. Fierce warriors approached from the north, slaying everything human in their path. Hiawatha advised a council. It was held on the bank of Onondaga Lake. Representatives of each nation were there. Under his di- rection a league was formed, and each can- ton was assigned its appropriate place in it. They gave it a name signifying ^7\ " they form a cabin," and they fancifully called the league " The Long House." The eastern door was kept by the Mohawks, and the western by the Senecas, and the council-fire was with the Onondagas, at their metropolis, a few miles south of the site of the city of Syracuse. By common consent, a chief of the Onondagas, called Atatarho, was made the first president of the league. The Mo- hawks, on the east, were called "the door." The confeder- acy embraced within its territory the pres- ent State of New York north and west of the Kaatzbergs and south of the Adirondack group of moun- tains. The several nations were subdi- vided into tribes, each having a heraldic insignia, or totem. Through the totemic system they maintained a tribal union, and exhibited a remarkable example of an almost pure democracy in government.
Each canton or nation was a distinct republic, independent of all others in re- lation to its domestic affairs, but each was bound to the others of the league by ties of honor and general interest. Each had an equal voice in the general council or congress, and possessed a sort of veto power, which was a guarantee against
despotism. After the Europeans came, the sachem, or civil head of a tribe, affixed his totem — such as the rude outlines of a
wolf, a bear, a tortoise, or an eagle — to every public paper he was required to sign. It was like a monarch affixing his
* Atatarho, the first president of the Iroquois Confederacy, is represented by the Indians as living, at the time he was chosen, in grim seclusion in a swamp, where his dishes and drinking- vessels, like those of half- barbarian Caucasians, were made of the skulls of his enemies slain in battle. When a delegation went to him to offer him the symbol of supreme power, they found him sitting smoking his pipe, but unapproachable, because he was entirely clothed with hissing snakes. Here is the old story of Medusa s snaky tresses unveiled in the forests of the new-found world.
73
IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY
seal. Each of the original Five Nations was subjected to review by the soldiery, was divided into three tribes, those of the who had the right to call councils when Mohawks being designated as the Tortoise they pleased, and approve or disapprove or Turtle, the Bear, and the Wolf. These public measures. The matrons formed totems consisted of representations of a third and powerful party in the legis- those animals. These were sometimes ex- lature of the league. They had a right ceedingly rude, but were sufficient to de- to sit in the councils, and there exercise note the tribe of the signer; as, No. 1, the veto power on the subject of a dec- appended to the laration of war, and to propose and signature of Little demand a cessation of hostilities. They Hendrick, a Mo- were pre-eminently peace-makers. It was hawk chief, repre- no reflection upon the courage of warriors sents his totem — a if, at the call of the matrons, they with- N0 i turtle; No. 2, ap- drew from the war-path. These women pended to the signa- wielded great influence in the councils, but ture of Kanadagea, a chief of the Bear they modestly delegated the duties of tribe, represents a bear lying on his speech-making to some masculine orator, back; and No. 3 is the signature of With these Indians, woman was man's co- Great Hendrick, of the Wolf tribe, the worker in legislation — a thing unheard of rude representation of that animal ap- among civilized people. So much did the pearing at the end of his signature. Iroquois reverence the " inalienable rights As each confederated union was di- of man," that they never made slaves of vided into tribes, there were thirty or their fellow-men, not even of captives forty sachems in the taken in war. By unity they were made league. These had in- powerful; and to prevent degeneracy, ferior officers under members of a tribe were not allowed to them, and the civil intermarry with each other, power was widely Like the Romans, they caused their distributed. Office commonwealth to expand by annexation N0- 2- was the reward of and conquest. Had they remained undis- merit alone; mal- covered by the Europeans a century longer
feasance in it brought dismissal and pub- the Confederacy might have embraced the
lie scorn. All public services were com- whole continent, for the Five Nations had
pensated only by public esteem. The already extended their conquests from
powers and duties of the president of the Great Lakes to the Guff of Mexico,
the league were similar to those con- and were the terror of the other tribes
ferred and imposed upon the chief mag- east and west. For a long time the
istrate of our republic. He had au- French in Canada, who taught them the
thority to assemble a congress of rep- use of fire-arms, maintained a> doubtful
resentatives ; had a cabinet of six ad- struggle against them. Champlain found visers, and in the council he was a moderator. There was no coercive power, excepting public opinion, lodged anywhere. The military dom- inated the civil power in the league. The chiefs derived their authority from the people, and they sometimes,
like the Romans, deposed civil offi- NO. 3. cers. The army was composed wholly
of volunteers, and conscription was im- them at war against the Canada Indians possible. Every able-bodied man was from Lake Huron to the Gulf of St. Law- bound to do military duty, and he who rence. He fought them on Lake Cham- shirked it incurred everlasting disgrace, plain in 1609; and from that time until The ranks were always full. The re- the middle of that century their wars cruiting-stations were the war-dances, against the Canada Indians and their Whatever was done in civil councils French allies were fierce and dis-
74
IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY
CHAMPLAIN'S FIRST FIGHT WITH THE IROQUOIS.
tressing. They made friends of the Dutch, from whom they obtained fire- arms; and they were alternately at war and peace with the French for about sixty years. The latter invaded the cantons of the league, especially after the Five Nations became allied with the Eng- lish, who, as masters of New York, used their dusky neighbors to carry out their designs. The Iroquois, meanwhile, car- ried their conquests almost to Nova Sco- tia on the east, and far towards the Mississippi on the west, and subdued the Susquehannas in Pennsylvania. In 1649 they subdued and dispersed the Wyandottes in the Huron country. Some of the fugi- tives took refuge among the Chippewas; others fled to Quebec, and a few were in- corporated in the Iroquois Confederacy. The Wyandottes were not positively sub- dued, and claimed and exercised sover- eignty over the Ohio country down to the close of the eighteenth century. Then the Five Nations made successful wars on their eastern and western neighbors, and in 1655 they penetrated to the land of the Catawbas and Cherokees. They conquered the Miamis and Ottawas in 1657, and in 1701 made incursions as far as the Roan-
oke and Cape Fear rivers, to the land of their kindred, the Tuscaroras. So deter- mined were they to subdue the Southern tribes that when, in 1744, they ceded a part of their lands to Virginia, they re- served a perpetual privilege of a war-path through the territory.
A French invasion in 1693, and again in 1696, was disastrous to the league, which lost one-half of its warriors. Then they swept victoriously southward early in the eighteenth century, and took in their kin- dred, the Tuscaroras, in North Carolina, when the Confederacy became known as the Six Nations. In 1713 the French gave up all claim to the Iroquois, and after that the Confederacy was generally neu- tral in the wars between France and Eng- land that extended to the American colo- nies. Under the influence of William Johnson, the English Indian agent, they went against the French in 1755, and some of them joined Pontiac in his conspiracy in 1763. When the Revolution broke out, in 1775, the Iroquois, influenced by the Johnson family, adhered to the crown, excepting the Oneidas. Led by Brant and savage Tories, they desolated the Mohawk, Cherry, and Wyoming valleys. The coun-
75
IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY— IRRIGATION
try of the Western Iroquois, in turn, was desolated by General Sullivan in 1779, and Brant retaliated fearfully on the frontier settlements. At the close of the war the hostile Iroquois, dreading the vengeance of the exasperated Americans, took refuge in Canada, excepting the Oneidas and Tus- caroras.
By treaties, all the .ands of the Six Nations in New York passed into the pos- session of the white people, excepting some reservations on which their descendants still reside. In the plenitude of their
ished them in human form as fiercely as Henry VIII., or the rulers and the Gospel ministers at Salem in later times. Their "' medicine men " and " prophets " were as expert deceivers as the priests, oracles, and jugglers of civilized men. They tor- tured their enemies in retaliation for kin- dred slain with almost as refined cruelty as did the ministers of the Holy Inquisi- tion the enemies of their opinions; and they lighted fires around their more emi- nent prisoners of war, in token of their power, as bright and hot as those kindled
ATTACK ON AN IROQUOIS FORT (From an old print).
power the Confederacy numbered about 15,000; they now number about 13,000, distributed at various points in Canada and the United States. In 1899 there were 2,767 Senecas, 549 Onondagas, 161 Cayugas, 270 Oneidas, and 388 Tuscaroras in New York State; 1,945 Oneidas in Wis- consin; and 323 Senecas in Indian Terri- tory. Like the other Indians of the con- tinent, the Troquois were superstitious and cruel. They believed in witches as firmly as did Cotton Mather and his Puritan brethren in New England, and they pun-
by enlightened Englishmen around Joan of Arc as a sorceress, or Bishops Latimer and Ridley as believers in what they thought to be an absurdity.
Irrigation, artificial watering of land in arid regions for the purpose of utiliza- tion. This subject has claimed much at- tention in the United States since 1890 on the part of the general and State gov- ernments, of large corporations, and of private individuals. Associations de- signed to promote investigations into the water and forest resources of the country
70
IRRIGATION
have been formed in various localities. These bodies have raised large sums of money with which they have co-operated with various bureaus, chiefly the Geologi- cal Survey. The surprise is that there has not been much greater interest mani-
A CALIFORNIA ORANGE GROVB, SHOWING RESULTS OF IRRIGATION.
fested in this subject, since one-third of and extending westward to the foot of the the United States territory is officially Sierra Nevada Mountains and the Cas- included in what is known as the great cade Mountains in Oregon and Washing- " arid region," which needs only the ton. It comprises an immense territory, magic touch of water to change it into fertile fields.
This vast area falls topographical- ly into the follow- ing divisions:
1. The Great Plains, stretching from the 100th meridian west to the Rocky Moun- tains, a distance of 250 miles, and hav- ing an extent of about 700 miles from Manitoba on the north to Texas on the south.
2. A region be- ginning at the east- ern foothills of the
Rocky Mountains IRRIGATION BY PIPE SYSTEM.
77
IRRIGATION
In 1900 these divisions taken as a whole contained a population of 9,000,000 people, and over 50,000,- 000 acres of land under some form of cultivation. About 9,000,000 acres of this land have been made available through irrigation, by means of artesian wells in a few cases, but for the most part by the construction of canals and ditches. At a number of irrigation con-
which includes the park system of the gresses held in the West the national Rockies, culminating in Wyoming, Colo- government was strongly urged to under- rado, New Mexico, and northeast Arizona, take an active part in the reclamation of The section contains many mountain sys- the large arid areas susceptible of a high terns, the Great Basin of Salt Lake-, the state of agricultural development under great cafion system and plateau of the such liberal conditions as the national
IRRIGATION BY ARTESIAN- WELL SYSTEM.
Colorado, the meadow-lands of Nevada, the northwest Columbia Basin, and the National Park.
3. A region including about one- fourth of the territory of Cali- fornia, and divided into two parts — the foothills of the Sierras and the broad, level valley lying be- tween the Sierras and the Coast Range.
SWEETWATER DAM, SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, USED IN IRRIGATION.
78
IRVINE— IRVING
government alone could afford. The cen- sus of 1900, among general irrigation sta- tistics of the United States, reported the following: Number of irrigators, 108,218; acres irrigated, 7,539,545; area in crops, 5,944,412 acres, and in pasture and un- matured crops, 1,595,133 acres; value of irrigated crops, $86,860,491; and cost of irrigation systems, $67,770,942. In 1902 a bill was approved by the President, June 17, providing for the appropria- tion, as a special fund to be used in the construction of irrigation works, of all moneys received from the sale of public lands in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Ne- vada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Okla- homa, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming, beginning with the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901. Under this law the fund amounted in 1901 to $3,144,821, and in 1902 to $4,585,- 516. This total, $7,730,337, was appor- tioned among the States and Territories in 1903 as follows: Arizona, $81,773; California, $503,270; Colorado, $628,995; Idaho, $507,448; Kansas, $49,135; Mon- tana, $772,377; Nebraska, $235,194; Ne- vada, $23,414; New Mexico, $147,237; North Dakota, $1,227,496; Oklahoma, $1,008,795; Oregon, $910,061; South Da- kota, $307,562; Utah, $146,824; Washing- ton, $794,088; Wyoming, $385,762. On June 30, 1904, the auditor of the Depart- ment of the Interior reported that the ac- cumulations of the reclamation fund then amounted to approximately $25,000,000.
Irvine, JAMES, military officer; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Aug. 4, 1735; took part in Colonel Bouquet's expedition as cap- tain in a Pennsylvania regiment. During the Revolutionary War he was captain and later lieutenant-colonel of the 1st Pennsylvania; and was commissioned colonel of the 9th Pennsylvania Regiment, Oct. 25, 1776. He was taken prisoner during the action at Chestnut Hill, Dec. 5, 1777, carried to New York, and remain- ed there till he was exchanged in 1781. After the close of the war he was a mem- ber of the General Assembly of Pennsyl- vania in 1785-86, and of the State Senate in 1795-99. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., April 28, 1819.
Irvine, WILLIAM, military officer; born in Fermanagh, Ireland, Nov. 3, 1741;
was surgeon of a ship-of-war; came to the United States after the peace of 1763, and practised medicine at Carlisle, Pa. He was an active patriot, and raised and commanded the 6th Pennsylvania Regiment in 1776; was captured in the battle at Three Rivers, Canada; ex- changed in May, 1778; served under Wayne, and in 1781 was stationed at Fort Pitt, charged with the defence of the Northwestern frontier. He was a mem- ber of Congress in 1786-88, and took a civil and military part in the task of quelling the Whiskey Insurrection. He was again a member of Congress in 1793-95. He died in Philadelphia, July 29, 1804.
Irving, SIR HENRY, actor; born in Keinton, near Glastonbury, England, Feb. 6, 1838. His real name was John Henry Brodribb, but he preferred the name of "Irving," and in 1887 was permitted by royal license to continue the use of it. He was educated in a private school in London, and began his dramatic career in 1856, when he took the minor part of Orleans in Richelieu. In 1866 he estab- lished his reputation as an actor of merit at the St. James Theatre, in London, as Doricourt in The Belle's Stratagem. In 1870 he appeared as Digby Grant in the Two Roses, which was played for 300 nights; and in 1871, after playing the part of Mathias in The Bells at the Lyceum Theatre, he came to be regarded as the greatest actor in England. He as- sumed the management of the Lyceum Theatre in 1878, and raised that house to an international reputation. In May, 1881, he opened a memorable engagement with Edwin Booth, producing Othello, in which the two actors alternated the parts of Othello and lago. He has made sev- eral successful tours of the United States in company with Ellen Terry, on one of which (1884) he delivered an address on The Art of Acting before the students of Harvard University. In a lecture on Amusements, before the Church of Eng- land Temperance Society, he made a strong defence of the morality of the stage. He published Impressions of America (1884). In 1895 he received the honor of knighthood.
Irving, WASHINGTON, author; born in New York City, April 3, 1783. His father was a Scotchman, his mother an English- 79
IBVING, WASHINGTON
WASHINGTON IRVING.
woman. He engaged in literature while
1808, his Knickerbocker's History of New York. After editing a magazine during the War of 1812-15, he went to Europe, where he resided seventeen years; when, after the failure of a mercantile house in New York with which he was connected, he was left to rely on his literary labors for support. He spent his time partly in England, France, Germany, and Spain, and published his Life of Columbus in 1828, which was followed by the Con- quest of Granada and the Alhambra. From 1829 to 1831 he was secretary of the American legation in London, and re- ceived from George IV. the fifty-guinea gold medal awarded for eminence in his- torical composition. He returned to New York in 1832, and prepared and published several works; and from 1839 to 1841 contributed to the Knickerbocker Maga-
yet a youth, and was in Europe for his sine. From 1842 to 1846 he was minister health in 1804-06. In 1807 he published, to Spain, and on his return to New York
THE OLD CHURCH AT SLEEPY HOLLOW.
in connection with his brother Peter and he published a James K. Paulding, Salmagundi, and in works in 15
80
revised edition of all his volumes, which had a
IRVING— ISABELLA
very large sale. His last work was a Life of Washington, in 5 volumes, com- pleted a few months before his death. Mr. Irving never married. The honorary degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him by Harvard College, Oxford University, in England, and Columbia College, in New York. His remains rest near the sum- mit of a gentle slope in the cemetery at- tached to the ancient Dutch church at the entrance to " Sleepy Hollow," near
built in 1669, and is the oldest church edifice in the State of New York. Over the Sleepy Hollow brook, near it, is the bridge where Brom Bones, the supposed " headless horseman," hurled the pump- kin at the frightened Ichabod, and drove him from the neighborhood and Ka- trina van Tassell forever. Mr. Irving died in Irvington, N. Y., Nov. 28, 1859. Irwin, JARED, legislator; born in
SUNNYSIDE, HOME OP WASHINGTON IRVING.
Mecklenburg county, N. C., in 1750; re- moved to Georgia, and served throughout the Revolutionary War ; was a member of the State constitutional conventions of 1789, 1795, and 1798; and was elected governor of the State in 1796 and 1806.
Tarrytown, N. Y. They lie by the side He died in Union, Ga., March 1, 1818. of those of his mother. In a row lie the Isabella, Queen of Castile and Leon; remains of his father, mother, brothers, born in Madrigal, Old Castile, April 23, and sisters. The old church, which he 1451 ; lived in retirement with her mother, made famous by the story of Ichabod a daughter of John II., of Portugal, until Crane (a leader in the psalm-singing there her twelfth year. At the age of eleven on Sundays) in his Legend of Sleepy Hoi- years she was betrothed to Carlos, brother low, remains the same as when it was of Ferdinand (whom she afterwards mar-
V.— F 81
ISABELLA
ried ) , then forty-six years old. His death prevented the union. Other candidates for her hand were proposed, but, being a
ISABKLLA OF CASTILE.
young woman of spirit, she rejected them. Pier half-brother Henry, on the throne, contracted a marriage for her, for state purposes, with the profligate Don Pedro Giron, grand-master of the Order of Cala- trava. " I will plunge a dagger in Don Pedro's heart," said the maiden, " before I will submit to the dishonor." The grand- master died as suddenly as Carlos, while on his way to the nuptials, probably from the effects of poison. Henry now made an arrangement by which Isabella was recognized as heir to Castile and Leon, with the right to choose her own husband, subject to the Icing's approval. She chose Ferdinand, Prince of Aragon, who signed the marriage contract at Cervera, Jan. 7, 1469, guaranteeing to his betrothed all the essential rights of sovereignty in Cas- tile and Leon. King Henry, offended be- cause his sister would not marry the King of Portugal, sent a force to seize her person. She escaped to Valladolid, whither Ferdinand hastened in disguise, and they were married, Oct. 19, 1469, in the cathedral there. Civil war ensued. The King died late in 1474, and Isabella was declared Queen of Castile and Leon; but her authority was not fully recog- nized until after a war with the King
of Portugal, who was affianced to Juana, the rival of Isabella for the throne. After that her career was brilliant. She ap- peared in arms at the head of her troops in her wars with the Moors.
From a conviction that it was for the safety of the Roman Catholic religion, she reluctantly, it is said, gave her con- sent to the establishment of the Inquisi- tion; and for this act, and her fiery zeal for the Church, amounting at times to fanatical cruelty, she is known in history as Isabella, " the Catholic." Ferdinand was now King of Aragon, and their king- doms were united and formed a strong empire, and the consolidated Christian power of the Spanish peninsula was ef- fected. The two monarchs were one in love, respect, and interest. They ruled as separate sovereigns, each having an inde- pendent council, and sometimes holding their courts at points distant from each other at the same time; but they were a unit in the general administration of the consolidated kingdoms, all acts of sover- eignty being executed in the name of both, all documents signed by both, and their profiles stamped together on the na- tional coins, while the royal seal dis- played the united arms of Castile and
VALLADOLID CATHEDRAL.
82
Aragon. The religious zeal of Isabella was inflamed when Columbus, in his ap- plication for aid, declared that one great
ISABELLA— ISLAND NUMBER TEN
DEATH-BED OF QUEEN ISABELLA.
object of his ambition was to carry the Gospel to the heathen of undiscovered lands. But public affairs at first so en- grossed the attention of the monarchs that the suit of the navigator did not pre- vail for a long time. Finally he was sum- moned before the monarchs, and pleaded his cause in person. The Queen's zeal was so increased that she resolved to give him aid. " Our treasury," said Ferdinand, " has been too much drained by the war to warrant us in the undertaking." The Queen said, " I will undertake the enter- prise for my own crown of Castile; and, if necessary, will pledge my jewels for the money." Then she fitted out the expedi- tion that sailed from Palos in the autumn of 1492. Afterwards she opposed the en- slaving of the natives of the western con- tinent; and when Columbus sent a cargo of captives to Spain, she ordered them to be carried back to their own country. With Cardinal Ximenes she effected a radical reform in the Church, as she had in the State; and criminals, high or low, the clergy and common offenders, felt the
sword of justice fall with equal severity. Masculine in intellect, feminine in her moral qualities, pious and loving, Isa- bella's virtues — as virtues were estimated then and there — made a favorite theme for the praise of Spanish writers. In person she was beautiful — well formed, with clear complexion, light blue eyes, and auburn hair. She had one son and four daughters. Her youngest daughter, Catharine, became the wife of Henry VIII., of England. See COLUMBUS, CHRISTO- PHER.
Island Number Ten. This island lies in a sharp bend of the Mississippi River, about 40 miles below Columbus, and with- in the limits of Kentucky. At the begin- ning of the Civil War it was considered the key to the navigation of the lower Mississippi. To this island some of the troops and munitions of war were trans- ferred when General Polk evacuated Columbus, and all the troops there were in charge of Beauregard. On March 8, 1862, he sent forth a proclamation in which he called for bells with which to
83
ISLAND NUMBER TEN
make cannon, and there was a liberal re- sponse. " In some cities," wrote a Con- federate soldier, " every church gave up its bells. Court-houses, public institu- tions, and plantations sent them. And the people furnished large quantities of old brass — andirons, candlesticks, gas- fixtures, and even door-knobs." These were all sent to New Orleans to be used in cannon foundries. There they were found by General Butler, sent to Boston, and sold at auction. Beauregard had thoroughly fortified the island, and, after the capture of New Madrid, it became an object of great interest to both par- ties, for it was besieged by the Nationals. For this purpose Commodore Foote left Cairo, March 14, 1862, with a powerful fleet of gun and mortar-boats. There were seven of the former iron-clad and one not armored, and ten of the latter. On the night of the 15th Foote was at Island Number Ten, and the next morn- ing (Sunday) he began the siege with a bombardment by the rifled cannon of his flag-ship, the Boston. This was followed by the mortar-boats, moored at proper points along the river shore, from which tons of iron were hurled upon the island and the batteries on the Kentucky bank opposite. All day long the artillery duel was kept up without much injury to either party. Meanwhile a battery of Illlinois artillery had been landed on the Missouri shore, in a position to assail the Confederate flotilla near the island. The next day a tremendous attack on the Confederate works was made by a float- ing battery of ten guns, formed of three
gunboats lashed together, side by side, followed by three others separately. The day's work was barren of any decisive re- sult. The island shores were lined with
A MORTAR- BO AT.
batteries. So the siege went on, with varying fortunes, until the first week in April, when Beauregard telegraphed to Eichmond that the "Federal guns" had "thrown 3,000 shells and burned 50 tons of gunpowder " without damaging his batteries or killing one of his men.
The public began to be impatient; but victory was near. General Pope was chafing with impatience at New Madrid. He wished to cross the river to the peninsula and attack the island in the rear, a movement that would insure its capture. The opposite shore was lined with Confederate batteries, and it would be madness to attempt a crossing until these were silenced. Gen. Schuyler Ham-
ISLAND NUMBER TEN.
84
ISLAND NUMBEB TEN
Army of Genl.Pope
OF ISLAND NUMBER TEN.
ilton proposed the construction of a dangerous voyage. Perceiving the peril- canal across the neck of a swampy penin- ous fate that awaited them after the sula of sufficient capacity to allow the completion of the canal, the Confederates passage of gunboats and transports, so as sank steamboats in the channel of the to effectually flank Island Number Ten and river to prevent the gunboats descend- in sure its capture. It was undertaken ing it, and they unsuccessfully attempted under the supervision of Colonel Bissell, to escape from the island. After the and was successfully performed. In the Carondelet had passed the batteries, mean time daring feats against the shore Beauregard was satisfied that the siege batteries had been performed; and dur- must speedily end in disaster to his com- ing a terrible thunder-storm on the night mand; so, after turning over the com- of April 3, Captain Walke ran by the mand on the island to General McCall, Confederate batteries with the gunboat and leaving the troops on the Kentucky Carondelet, assailed by all of them, her and Tennessee shores in charge of Gen- position being revealed by the flashes of eral McCown, he, with a considerable lightning. It was the first vessel that number of his best soldiers, departed for ran by Confederate batteries on the Mis- Corinth to check a formidable movement sissippi River. She had not fired a gun of National troops through middle Ten- during her passage, but the discharge of nessee towards Northern Alabama, three assured anxious Commodore Foote The vigorous operations of Pope after of the safety of the Carondelet after the he passed through the wonderful canal
85
ISLAND NUMBER TEN
hastened the crisis. McCall and his troops, in their efforts to escape from the island, were intercepted by Pope's forces under Generals Stanley, Hamilton, and Paine; and on April 8, 1862, Island
THK CARONDELKT.
Number Ten, with the troops, batteries, and supports on the main, was surren- dered. Over 7,000 men became prisoners of war; and the spoils of victory were 123 cannon and mortars, 7,000 small-arms, many hundred horses and mules, four steamboats afloat, and a very large amount of ammunition. The fall of Isl- and Number Ten. was a calamity to the
Confederates which they never retrieved. It caused widespread alarm in the Mis- sissippi Valley, for it appeared probable that Memphis, one of the strongholds of the Confederates, where they had immense work-shops and armories, would soon share the fate of Columbus, and that Na- tional gunboats would speedily patrol the great river from Cairo to New Orleans. Martial law was proclaimed at Memphis, and only by the wisdom and firmness of the mayor were the troops and panic- stricken citizens prevented from laying the town in ashes. Preparations for flight were made at Yicks- burg, and intense alarm prevailed at New Orleans among the disloyal population. It seem- ed as if the plan devised by Fremont, and now partially executed, was about to be successfully carried out. Curtis had already broken the military power of the Confederates west of the Mississippi, and a heavy National force, pressing on tow- ards Alabama and Mississippi, had just achieved a triumph on the banks of the
BOMBARDMENT OF ISLAND NUMBER TEN,
86
ISLES— IUKA SPRINGS
Tennessee, a score of miles from Corinth. Iturbide, AUGUSTIN DE, Emperor of
See FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES. Mexico; born in Valladolid, Mexico, Sept.
Isles, ANDRE DES, military officer; born 27, 1783. Leading in a scheme for over-
in Dieppe, France, in 1530; sent to Amer- throwing the Spanish power in Mexico in
ica in 1560 by Coligni for the purpose of 1821, he took possession of the capital
erecting a society for the settlement of with troops in September in the name of
French Huguenots. He landed on the the nation, and established a regency.
Florida coast near Cape San Juan, and He was declared Emperor, May 18, 1822,
erected a wooden fort, which he left in but rivals and public distrust caused him
charge of twenty men. Coligni sent 600 to abdicate, and he went to Europe in
Huguenots and three ships, under com- 1823. An insurrection in his favor in
mand of Captain Ribaut, with Des Isles Mexico induced him to return in 1824,
as lieutenant. In 1563 Des Isles returned when he was seized and shot, in Padilla,
with 300 additional emigrants, but owing July 19, 1824. After his execution Mexico
to eternal strife between the leaders, granted his family a pension of $8,000
Ribaut and Des Isles, on the one hand, per year. ANGEL, the eldest son of
and Laudonniere, on the other, the colony the Emperor, married Miss Alice Green,
was greatly reduced, and in this condition of Georgetown, D. C., and their son
was attacked by the Spaniard Menendez, AUGUSTIN was adopted by the Emperor
who massacred all the French.
Italy. The relations of the United
Maximilian as his heir. In April, 1890, Augustin Iturbide, who had entered the
States with Italy, as with other Conti- Mexican army, published an attack on nental countries, have usually been har- the Mexican government, for which he monious. In 1891, however, an incident was court-martialled.
occurred which temporarily strained the luka Springs, BATTLE NEAR. After mutual good feelings. Several murders the evacuation of CORINTH (q. v.), Gen- had been committed in New Orleans, which eral Rosecrans was placed in command had been attributed by many to the infill- of the forces under Pope, who had gone eiice of a secret Italian society — the Mafia, to Virginia, to occupy northern Missis- A number of Italians had been arrested, sippi and Alabama, in the vicinity of Co- but the normal procedure seemed to nu- rinth, and eastward to Tuscumbia. His merous inhabitants of New Orleans en- forces were known as the Army of the tirely inadequate. On March 14, 1891, Mississippi, with headquarters at Corinth, eleven Italian prisoners were lynched in There were no more stirring events in the city prison by an assemblage largely the region of General Grant's command composed, so it was stated, of the "lead- (under whom was Rosecrans) than ing citizens " of New Orleans. This event guerilla operations, from June until Sep- created intense excitement. The Italians tember. At the beginning of September in this country and Italy were greatly the Confederates under Price and Van aroused. The comments of Americans Dorn moved towards the Tennessee River, varied from downright condemnation of and, when Bragg moved into Tennessee, the proceedings to partial praise. The Price attempted to cut off communica- Italian government recalled its minister, tions between Grant and Buell. General Baron Fava. Eventually, April 12, 1892, Armstrong (Confederate), with over the United States government appropri- 5,000 cavalry, struck the Nationals, Aug. ated $25,000 for the families of the vie- 30, 1862, at Bolivar, with the intention tims, and diplomatic relations were re- of severing the railway there. He was sinned. repulsed by less than 1,000 men, under
Itata, Chilean cruiser. She put in at Colonel Leggett. He was repulsed at San Diego, Cal., April 25, 1891, for arms Jackson the next day, and again, on Sept. and ammunition, and was seized by the 1, at Britton's Lane, after a battle of four United States government for violation of hours with Indiana troops, under Colonel neutrality laws. She escaped, and was Dennis. At the latter place Armstrong pursued by the United States ship left 179 men, dead and wounded, on the Clmrli'Nlon. On June 4, 1891, the Itata field. Informed of this raid, at Tuscum- sunendered to the Charleston at Iquique. bia, Rosecrans hastened to luka, a little
87
IUKA SPRINGS, BATTLE NEAR
village celebrated for its fine mineral springs, about 15 miles east of Corinth, where a large amount of stores had been gathered. There, with Stanley's division, he encamped at Clear Creek, 7 miles east of Corinth, and, at the same time, Price moved northward from Tupelo with about
listening for the sound of Ord's guns, and skirmishing briskly by the way, had reached a point within 2 miles of luka, on densely wooded heights. There he formed a line of battle. He sent forward his skir- mishers, who were driven back, and a severe battle immediately followed. The
IUKA SPRINGS,
12,000 Confederate troops. Price struck llth Ohio Battery was, after a severe luka, Sept. 10, and captured the National struggle, placed in position on the crest of
property there.
the hill. With this battery, a few regi-
Grant at once put two columns in mo- ments of Iowa, Missouri, Minnesota, and
tion to crush Price — one, under Rosecrans, Indiana troops fought more than three
to attack his flank and rear, and another, times their number of Confederates, led
under General Ord, to confront him. These by Price in person. Finally, when Colonel
movements began on the morning of Sept. Eddy, of an Indiana regiment, was mor-
18. Ord, with 5,000 men, advanced to tally wounded, the remainder of his regi-
Burnsville, followed by General Ross with ment was hurled back in disorder, leaving
more, while Rosecrans moved with the the almost disabled battery to be seized
separated divisions of Stanley and C. S. by the Confederates. For the possession
Hamilton, about 9,000 strong, during a of these guns desperate charges and coun-
drenching rain, to San Jacinto, 20 miles tercharges were made, until at length the
southward of luka. On the next morning, Confederate soldiers dragged the guns off
Sept. 19, they pushed on towards luka, the field. All of the horses and seventy- two
Mizner's cavalry driving a Confederate of the artillerymen had been killed. The
guard. Early in the afternoon Hamilton, battle raged warmly elsewhere, when the
88
IVES— IZARD
GRAVKS OP THE llTH OHIO BATTERY-MEN.
Confederates were driven to the shelter of Izard, GEORGE, military officer; born in the hollows near the village. Darkness end- South Carolina in 1777; son of Ralph ed the battle of luka. The National loss was Izard. Having finished his education and nearly 800, killed, wound- ed, and missing ; that of the Confederates was nearly 1,400. Ord, meanwhile, whom Grant had sent to assist Rosecrans, had been watching the movements of Confederates who were making feints on Corinth. Expecting to renew the battle at luka in the morning, Stanley pressed forward for the purpose, but found that Price had fled southward under cov- er of the darkness, leaving behind the captured guns of the llth Ohio Battery. Price was pursued all day, but escaped.
Ives, HALSEY COOLEY, artist; born in made a tour in Europe, he entered the Montour Falls, N. Y., Oct. 27, 1846; United States army, in 1794, as lieuten- studied art; was chief of the art depart- ant of artillery. He was appointed aide ment of the World's Columbian Exposi- to General Hamilton in 1799; resigned in tion; and Professor of Drawing and De- 1803; commissioned colonel of artillery in
the spring of 1812; and promoted to brigadier - general in March, 1813. He was in command on Lake Champlain and on the Niag- ara frontier, in 1814, with the rank of major-general. From 1825 until his death he was governor of Arkansas Territory. Early in September, 1814, he moved tow- ards Sackett's Harbor, under the direction of the Secretary of War, with about 4,000 troops, where he received a despatch from General Brown at Fort Erie, Sept. 10, urging him to move on to his sup- port, as he had not more than 2,000 effective men. The first division of Izard's troops arrived at Lewiston on Oct. 5. He moved up to Black Rock, crossed the Ni- agara River, Oct. 10-11, and en- camped 2 miles north of Fort Erie. Ranking General Brown, he took the chief command of the combined forces, then numbering, sign, and Director of the Museum and with volunteers and militia, about 8,000 School of Fine Arts in Washington Uni- men. He prepared to march against versity. Drummond, who, after the sortie at Fort
89
GEORGE IZARD.
IZARD
Erie, had moved down to Queenston. Izard ried a daughter of Peter De Lancey,of New
moved towards Chippewa, and vainly en- York. They spent some time in Europe,
deavored to draw Drummond out. He had and Mr. Izard was appointed by Congress
some skirmishing in an attempt to destroy commissioner to the Court of the Grand
a quantity of grain belonging to the Brit- Duke of Tuscany, and resided in Paris,
ish, in which he lost twelve men killed and where he took sides with Arthur Lee
fifty-four wounded; the British lost many against Silas Deane and Franklin (see
more. Drummond fell back to Fort DEANE, SILAS). He returned home in
George and Burlington Heights. Perceiv- 1780; procured for General Greene the
ing further operations in that region to command of the Southern army, and
be useless, and perhaps perilous, Izard pledged his large estates for the purchase
crossed the river and abandoned Canada, of ships-of-war in Europe. He was in
Knowing Fort Erie to be of little service, Congress in 1781-83, and in the United
he caused it to be mined and blown up, States Senate in 1789-95. Two years
Nov. 5. He died in Little Rock, Ark., afterwards he was prostrated by paral-
Nov. 22, 1828. ysis. His intellect was spared, and he
Izard, RALPH, statesman; born near lived in comparative comfort about eight
Charleston, S. C., in 1742; was educated years, without pain, when a second shock
at Cambridge, England, and in 1767 mar- ended his life, May 30, 1804.
J.
Jackson, city and capital of the State opposition, and began tearing up the rail-
of Mississippi; on the Pearl River and way between that town and the capital,
several important railroads; is a large Sherman was also marching on Jackson,
cotton-shipping centre and has extensive while McClernand was at a point near
manufactories; population in 1890, 5,920; Raymond. The night was tempestuous,
in 1900, 7,816. In the morning, Sherman and McPherson
In 1863, while the troops of General pushed forward, and 5 miles from Jack-
SENATK CHAMBER AT JACKSON, MISS.
Grant were skirmishing at Raymond, he learned that Gen. Joseph E. Johnston was hourly expected at Jackson. To make sure of that place, and to leave no enemy in his rear, Grant pushed on towards Jackson. McPherson entered Clinton ear- ly in the afternoon of May 13, without
son they encountered and drove in the Confederate pickets. Two and a half miles from the city they were confronted by a heavy Confederate force, chiefly Georgia and South Carolina troops, under General Walker. General Crocker's di- vision led the van of the Nationals, and
91
JACKSON
a battle began at eleven o'clock, while a back. Grant sent Sherman reinforce-
shower of rain was falling. The Confed- ments, giving that leader an army 50,000
crate infantry were in a hollow, with strong. With these he crossed the Big
their artillery on the crest of a hill be- Black River, during a great drought. In
yond them. Crocker pressed the Confed- dust and great heat the thirsty men
crates out of the hollow and up the slopes and animals went on to Jackson, John-
to their artillery. Still onward the Na- ston retiring before them and taking
GOVERNOR'S MANSION AT JACKSON, MISS.
tionals pressed in the face of a severe fire, when the Confederates broke and fled tow- ards the city, closely pursued for a mile and a half to their earthworks. Under a heavy storm of grape and canister shot poured upon their works, the Nationals reformed for the purpose of making an assault; but there was no occasion, for the garrison had evacuated the fort. They left behind them seventeen cannon, and tents enough to shelter a whole division. The commissary and quartermaster's stores were in flames. The city was taken possession of by the Nationals, and the stars and stripes were unfurled over the State House by the 59th Indiana Regiment. Entering Jackson that night, Grant learned that Johnston had arrived, taken charge of the department, and had or- dered Gen. J. C. Pemberton to march im- mediately out of Vicksburg and attack the National rear.
After the fall of Vicksburg, Johnston hovered menacingly in Grant's rear. Sherman had pushed out to press him
position behind his breastworks there. Sherman invested Jackson, July 10, each flank resting on the Pearl River. He planted 100 cannon on a hill, and open- ed on the city, July 12; but his trains being behind, his scanty ammunition was soon exhausted. In the assault, General Lauman pushed his troops too near the Confederate works, and in the course of a few minutes 500 of his men were killed 01- wounded by sharp - shooters and the grape and canister from twelve cannon. Two hundred of his men were made prison- ers. Under cover of a fog, Johnston made a sortie, July 13, but with no beneficial result, and on the night of July 16-17 he withdrew with his 25,000 men, hur- ried across the Pearl River, burned the bridges behind him, and retreated to Mor- ton. Sherman did not pursue far, his object being to drive Johnston away and make Vicksburg secure. For this purpose he broke up the railways for many miles, and destroyed everything in Jackson that might be useful to the Confederates.
JACKSON, ANDREW
Jackson, ANDREW, seventh President of from the North of Ireland, in 1765, and the United States; born in the Waxhaw were of the Scotch-Irish. At fourteen Settlement, Mecklenburg co., N. C., March years of age, Andrew joined the Revolu- 15, 1767. His parents had emigrated tionary forces in South Carolina. In
92
JACKSON, ANDREW
that service he had two brothers killed, with a blue gauze veil, with a silver star He was with Sumter in the battle of on her brow. These personated the several HANGING ROCK (q. v.), and in 1781 was States and Territories of the Union. Each made a prisoner. He was admitted to carried a basket filled with flowers, and the practice of the law in western North behind each was a lance stuck in the Carolina in 1786; removed to Nashville ground, and bearing a shield on which in 1788; was United States attorney for was inscribed the name and legend of the that district in 1790; member of the con- State or Territory which she represented, vention that framed the State constitu- These were linked by festoons of ever- tion of Tennessee in 1796; member of the greens that extended from the arch to the United States Senate in 1797; and judge door of the cathedral. At the appointed of the Tennessee Supreme Court from 1798 time, Jackson, accompanied by the officers to 1804. From 1798 until 1814 he was of his staff, passed into the square, and, major-general of the Tennessee militia, and amid the roar of artillery, was conducted conducted the principal campaign against to the raised floor of the arch. As he the Creek Indians, which resulted in the stepped upon it, the two little girls leaned complete subjugation of that nation in the gently forward and placed the laurel spring of 1814. On May 31, 1814, he was crowns upon his head. At the same mo- appointed a major-general in the regular ment, a charming Creole maiden (Miss army and given command of the Depart- Kerr), as the representative of Louisiana, ment of the South. His victory at New stepped forward, and, with modesty in Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815, gave him great re- voice and manner, addressed a few con- riown. gratulatory words to the general, eloquent
On Jan. 21, with the main body of his with expressions of the most profound army, he entered the city. He was met in gratitude. To these words Jackson made the suburbs by almost the entire popula- a brief reply, and then passed on towards tion, who greeted the victors as their the church, the pathway strewn with flow- saviors. Two days afterwards there was ers by the gentle representatives of the an imposing spectacle in the city. At States. At the cathedral entrance he was Jackson's request, the apos- tolic prefect of Louisiana ap- pointed Jan. 23 a day for the public offering of thanks to God for the victory just won. It was a beautiful winter morning on the verge of the tropics. The religious cere- monies were to be held in the old Spanish cathedral, which was decorated with evergreens for the occasion. In the centre of the public square in front of the cathe- dral, a temporary triumphal arch was erected, supported by six Corinthian columns, and festooned by flowers and evergreens. Beneath this arch stood two beautiful little girls, each upon a pedestal,
and holding in her hand a civic crown received by the apostolic prefect (Abbe" du of laurel. Near them stood two dam- Bourg) in his pontifical robes, supported sels, one personifying Liberty, the other by a college of priests in their sacerdotal Justice. From the arch to the church, garments. The abbe addressed the general arranged in two rows, stood beautiful with eloquent and patriotic discourse, af- girls dressed in white, each covered ter which the latter was seated conspicu-
93
BIRTHPLACE OF ANDREW JACKSON.
JACKSON, ANDREW
ously near the great altar, while the Te Deum Laudamus was chanted by the choir and the people. When the pageant was over, the general retired to his quarters to resume the stern duties of a soldier; and that night the city of New Orleans blazed with a general illumination. On the spot where the arch was erected, in the centre of the public square in front of the cathedral, has been erected a bronze equestrian statue of Jackson, by Clark Mills.
Jackson, like a true soldier, did not relax his vigilance after the victory that saved Louisiana from British conquest. He maintained martial law in New Or- leans rigorously, even after rumors of a
JACKSON'S HEADQUARTERS, NEW ORLEANS.
proclamation of peace reached that city. When an official announcement of peace was received from Washington he was involved in a contention with the civil authorities, who had opposed martial law as unnecessary. In the legislature of Louisiana was a powerful faction opposed to him personally, and when the officers and troops were thanked by that body (Feb. 2, 1815), the name of Jackson was omitted. The people were very indignant. A seditious publication soon appeared, which increased their indignation, and as this was a public matter, calculated to produce disaffection in the army, Jackson caused the arrest of the author and his
94
trial by martial law. Judge Dominic A. Hall, of the Supreme Court of the United States, issued a writ of habeas corpus in favor of the offender. Jackson considered this a violation of martial law, and or- dered the arrest of the judge and his ex- pulsion beyond the limits of the city. The judge, in turn, when the military law was revoked (March 13, 1815) in consequence of the proclamation of peace, required Jackson to appear before him and show cause why he should not be punished for contempt of court. He cheerfully obeyed the summons, and entered the crowded court-room in the old Spanish-built court- house in citizen's dress. He had almost reached the bar before he was recognized, when he was greeted with huzzas by a thousand voices. The judge was alarmed, and hesitated. Jackson stepped upon a bench, procured silence, and then, turning to the trembling judge, said, " There is no danger here — there shall be none. The same hand that protected this city from outrage against the invaders of the coun- try will shield and protect this court, or perish in the effort. Proceed with your sentence." The agitated judge pronounced him guilty of contempt of court, and fined him $1,000. This act was greeted by a storm of hisses. The general immediately drew a check for the amount, handed it to the marshal, and then made his way for the court-house door. The people were in- tensely excited. They lifted the hero upon their shoulders, bore him to the street, and there an immense crowd sent up a shout that blanched the cheek of Judge Hall. He was placed in a carriage, from which the people took the horses and dragged it themselves to his lodgings, where he ad- dressed them, urging them to show their appreciation of the blessings of liberty and a free government by a willing submission to the authorities of their country. Mean- time, $1,000 had been collected by volun- tary subscriptions and placed to his credit in a bank. The general politely refused to accept it, and begged his friends to dis- tribute it among the relatives of those who had fallen in the late battles. Nearly thirty years afterwards (1843), Congress refunded the sum with interest, amounting in all to $2,700.
In 1817 he successfully prosecuted the war against the Seminoles. In 1819 he
JACKSON, ANDREW
JACKSON'S RECEPTION BY THK CITIZENS OP NEW ORLEANS.
resigned his military commission, and was honest and true; not always correct in
governor of newly acquired Florida in judgment; often rash in expressions and
1821-22. He was again United States actions ; misled sometimes by his hot anger
Senator in 1823-24; and in 1828, and also into acts injurious to his reputation; of
in 1832, he was elected President of the unflinching personal courage; possessed
United States ( see CABINET, PRESI- of a tender, sympathizing nature, although
DENT'S). His warfare on the United sometimes appearing fiercely leonine; and
States Bank during his Presidency re- a patriot of purest stamp. He retired
suited in its final destruction. from public life forever in the spring of
President Jackson possessed great firm- 1837. His administration of eight years
ness and decision of character; was was marked by great energy, and never
95
JACKSON, ANDREW
were the affairs of the republic in its authorities of the State or of the United domestic and foreign relations more pros- States to enforce the payment of the perous than at the close of his term of duties imposed by the said acts within office. He died in " The Hermitage," near the same State, and that it is the duty Nashville, Tenn., June 8, 1845. In 1852 of the legislature to pass such laws as
may be neces- sary to give
IHBkiflB ful1 effect to
the said ordi- nance ;
And whereas, by the said ordinance, it is further ordain- ed that in no case of law or equity decided in the courts of said State, wherein shall be drawn in question the validity of the said ordinance or of the acts of the legislat- ure that may be passed to give it effect, or of the said laws
of the United States, no appeal shall be allowed to the Supreme Court of the United States, nor shall any copy of the record be permitted or allowed for that purpose, and that any person attempting to take such appeal shall be punished as for a contempt of court;
And, finally, the said ordinance declares that the people of South Carolina will maintain the said ordinance at every hazard; and that they will consider the passage of any act by Congress abolish- ing or closing the ports of the said State, or otherwise obstructing the free ingress or egress of vessels to and from the said ports, or any other act of the federal gov- ernment to coerce the State, shut up her ports, destroy or harass her commerce, or to enforce the said acts otherwise than through the civil tribunals of the country, as inconsistent with the longer continuance of South Carolina in the Union, and that the people of the said State will thenceforth hold themselves absolved from all further obligation to maintain or preserve their political con-
THE OLD COURT-HOUSE WHERE JACKSON WAS PINED FOR CONTEMPT OF COURT.
an equestrian statue of Jackson, in bronze, by Clark Mills, was erected at Washing- ton, at the expense of the nation.
Nullification.— On Sept. 19, 1832, Presi- dent Jackson issued the following procla- mation against nullification:
Whereas, a convention assembled in the State of South Carolina have passed an ordinance, by which they declare " that the several acts and parts of acts of the Congress of the United States, purport- ing to be laws for the imposing of duties and imposts on the importation of for- eign commodities, and now having actual operation and effect within the United States, and more especially " two acts for the same purposes passed on May 29, 1828, and on July 14, 1832, "are un- authorized by the Constitution of the United States, and violate the true mean- ing and intent thereof, and are null and void, and no law," nor binding on the citizens of that State or its officers; and by said ordinance it is further declared to be unlawful for any of the constituted
90
JACKSON, ANDREW
nection with the people of the other must inevitably result from an observ- States, and will forthwith proceed to ance of the dictates of the convention, organize a separate government, and do Strict duty will require of me nothing all other acts and things which sovereign more than the exercise of these powers and independent States may of right do. with which I am now, or may hereafter And, whereas, the said ordinance pre- be, invested, for preserving the peace of scribes to the people of South Carolina a the Union, and for the execution of the course of conduct in direct violation of laws. But the imposing aspect which their duty as citizens of the United opposition has assumed in this case, by States, contrary to the laws of their clothing itself with State authority, and country, subversive of its Constitution, the deep interest which the people of the and having for its object the destruction United States must feel in preventing a of the Union; that Union which, coeval resort to stronger measures, while there with our political existence, led our is a hope that anything will be yielded fathers, without any other ties to unite to reasoning and remonstrance, perhaps them than those of patriotism and a com- demand, and will certainly justify, a full mon cause, through a sanguinary struggle exposition to South Carolina and the na- to a glorious independence; that sacred tion of the views I entertain of this im- Union, hitherto inviolate, which, perfect- portant question, as well as a distinct ed by our happy Constitution, has enunciation of the course which my sense brought us, by the favor of heaven, to of duty will require me to pursue, a state of prosperity at home, and high The ordinance is founded, not on the consideration abroad, rarely, if ever, indefeasible right of resisting acts which equalled in the history of nations. To are plainly unconstitutional, and too op- preserve this bond of our political exist- pressive to be endured, but on the strange ence from de- struction, to maintain invio- late this state of national honor and pros- perity, and to justify the con- fidence my fel- low - citizens have reposed in me, I, Andrew Jackson, Presi- dent of the United States, have thought proper to issue this my procla- mation, stating my views of the Constitution and laws ap- plicable to the measures adopt- ed by the con- vention of South Carolina, and to the rea- position that any one State may not only sons they have put forth to sustain them, declare an act of Congress void, but pro- declaring the course which duty will re- hibit its execution; that they may do this quire me to pursue, and, appealing to the consistently with the Constitution; that understanding and patriotism of the peo- the true construction of that instrument pie, warn them of the consequences which permits a State to retain its place in the V. — a 97
THE HERMITAGE IN 1861.
JACKSON, ANDREW
Union, and yet be bound by no other of decision in theory, and the practical illus- its laws than those it may choose to con- tration shows that the courts are closed sider as constitutional. It is true, they against an application to review it, both add, that to justify this abrogation of a judges and jurors being sworn to decide law, it must be palpably contrary to the in its favor. But reasoning on this sub- Constitution; but it is evident that, to ject is superfluous, when our social corn- give the right of resisting laws of that pact, in express terms, declares that the description, coupled with the uncontrolled laws of the United States, its Constitu- right to decide what laws deserve that tion, and treaties made under it, are the character, is to give the power of resisting supreme law of the land; and for greater all laws. For as, by the theory, there is caution adds "that the judges in every no appeal, the reasons alleged by the State shall be bound thereby, anything State, good or bad, must prevail. If it in the Constitution or laws of any State
to the contrary not- withstanding." And it may be assert- ed, without fear of refutation, that no federal government could exist without a similar provision. Look for a moment to the consequences. If South Carolina considers the reve- nue laws unconsti- tutional, and has a right to prevent their execution in the port of Charles- ton, there would be a clear constitu- tional objection to their collection in every other port, arid no revenue could be collected anywhere, for all imposts must be equal. It is no an- swer to repeat that an unconstitutional law is no law, so
should be said that public opinion is a long as the question of its legality is to be sufficient check against, the abuse of this decided by the State itself; for every law power, it may be asked why it is not operating injuriously upon any local in- deemed a sufficient guard against the pas- terest will be perhaps thought, and cer- sage of an unconstitutional act by Con- tainly represented, as unconstitutional, gress? There is, however, a restraint in and, as has been shown, there is no ap-
2^-^ *>r.^*V"-., JACKSON'S TOMB.
this last case, which makes the assumed power of a State more indefensible, and which does not exist in the other. There
peal.
If this doctrine had been established at an earlier day the Union would have are two appeals from an unconstitutional been dissolved in its infancy. The excise act passed by Congress — one to the ju- law in Pennsylvania, the embargo and diciary, the other to the people and the non-intercourse law in the Eastern States, States. There is no appeal from the State the carriage tax in Virginia, were all
98
JACKSON, ANDBEW
JACKSON AS PRESIDENT RECEIVING DELEGATES.
deemed unconstitutional, and were more of victory and honor, if the States who unequal in their operation than any of supposed it a ruinous and unconstitutional the laws now complained of; but fortu- measure had thought they possessed the riately none of those States discovered right of nullifying the act by which it that they had the right now claimed by was declared, and denying supplies for South Carolina. The war into which we its prosecution. Hardly and unequally were forced to support the dignity of the as those measures bore upon several mem- nation and the rights of our citizens might bers of the Union, to the legislatures of have ended in defeat and disgrace instead none did this efficient and peaceful remedy,
99
JACKSON, ANDREW
as it is called, suggest itself. The dis- proposed to form a feature in our govern- covery of this important feature in our inent.
Constitution was reserved to the present In our colonial state, although depend- day. To the statesmen of South Caro- ing on another power, we very early con- lina belongs the invention, and upon sidered ourselves as connected by common the citizens of the State will unfortu- interest with each other. Leagues were nately fall the evils of reducing it to formed for common defence, and before practice. the Declaration of Independence we were
If the doctrine of a State veto upon the known in our aggregate character as the laws of the Union carries with it internal United Colonies of America. That deci- evidence of its impracticable absurdity, sive and important step was taken jointly.
We declared ourselves a nation by a joint, not by several acts, and when the terms of our confederation were reduced to form, it was in that of a solemn league of sev- eral States, by which they agreed that they would collectively form one nation for the purpose of conducting some cer- tain domestic concerns and all foreign re- lations. In the instrument forming that Union is found an article which de- clares " that every State shall abide by the determinations of Congress on all questions which, by that confederation, should be submitted to them."
Under the confederation, then, no State could legally annul a decision of the Congress or refuse to submit to its execution; but no provision was made to en- force these decisions. Con- gress made requisitions, but they were not complied with. The government could not op- erate on individuals. They had no judiciary, no means of collecting revenue.
But the defects of the con- federation need not be detailed. Under its operation we could scarcely be called a nation. We had neither prosperity at home nor consideration abroad. This state of things could not be endured, and our present happy Constitution was formed, but formed in vain, if this fatal doctrine prevails. It was formed for important objects that are announced in the preamble made in the name and by the authority of the people of the United States, whose delegates framed and whose con- ventions approved it. The most im- portant among these objects, that
our constitutional history will also afford which is placed first in rank, on abundant proof that it would have been which all the others rest, .is " to form repudiated with indignation had it been a more perfect Union." Now, is it pos-
100
ANDREW JACKSON IN 1814.
JACKSON, ANDREW
sible that even if there were no express purpose may be in the present case, noth- provision giving supremacy to the Con- ing can be more dangerous than to admit stitution and laws of the United States the position that an unconstitutional pur- over those of the States, can it be con- pose, entertained by the members who as- ceived that an instrument made for the sent to a law enacted under a constitu- purpose of " forming a more perfect tional power, shall make that law void ; Union " than that of the confederation, for how is that purpose to be ascertained ? could be so constructed by the assembled Who is to make the scrutiny? How often wisdom of our country as to substitute may bad purposes be falsely imputed? In for that confederation a form of govern- how many cases are they concealed by ment dependent for its existence on the false professions? In how many is no local interest, the party spirit of a State, declaration of motive made? Admit this or of a prevailing faction in a State? doctrine, and you give to the States an Every man of plain, unsophisticated un- uncontrolled right to decide, and every derstanding, who hears the question, will law may be annulled under this pretext, give such an answer as will preserve the If, therefore, the absurd and dangerous Union. Metaphysical subtlety, in pursuit doctrine should be admitted that a State of an impracticable theory, could alone may annul an unconstitutional law, or have devised one that is calculated to de- one that it deems such, it will not apply stroy it. to the present case.
I consider, then, the power to annul a The next objection is that the laws
law of the United States assumed by one in question operate unequally. This objec-
State, incompatible with the existence of tion may be made with truth to every law
the Union, contradicted expressly by the that has been or can be passed. The wis-
letter of the Constitution, unauthorized dom of man never yet contrived a system
by its spirit, inconsistent with every prin- of taxation that would operate with per-
ciple on which it was founded, and de- feet equality. If the unequal operation of
structive of the great object for which a law makes it unconstitutional, and if all
it was formed. laws of that description may be abrogated
After this general view of the leading by any State for that cause, then indeed is
principle, we must examine the particular the federal Constitution unworthy of the
application of it which is made in the slightest effort for its preservation. We
ordinance. have hitherto relied on it as the perpetual
The preamble rests its justification on bond of our Union. We have received it these grounds: It assumes as a fact that as the work of the assembled wisdom of the obnoxious laws, although they purport the nation. We have trusted to it as to to be laws for raising revenue, were in the sheet-anchor of our safety in the reality intended for the protection of man- stormy times of conflict with a foreign ufactures, which purpose it asserts to be or domestic foe. We have looked to it unconstitutional; that the operation of with sacred awe as the palladium of our these laws is unequal; that the amount liberties, and with all the solemnities of raised by them is greater than is required religion have pledged to each other our by the wants of the government; and, lives and fortunes here and our hopes of finally, that the proceeds are to be applied happiness hereafter, in its defence and to objects unauthorized by the Constitu- support. Were we mistaken, my country- tion. These are the only causes alleged men, in attaching this importance to the to justify an open opposition to the laws Constitution of our country? Was our of the country, and a threat of seceding devotion paid to the wretched, inefficient, from the Union if any attempt should be clumsy contrivance which this new doc- made to enforce them. The first virtually trine would make it? Did we pledge our- acknowledges that the law in question was selves to the support of an airy nothing- passed under a power expressly given by a bubble that must be blown away by the the Constitution to lay and collect im- first breath of disaffection? Was this posts; but its constitutionality is drawn self-destroying, visionary theory the work in question from the motives of those of the profound statesmen, the exalted who passed it. However apparent this patriotism to whom the task of constitu-
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tional reform was intrusted? Did the who abuse it, and thus procure redress, name of Washington sanction — did the Congress may, undoubtedly, abuse this States deliberately ratify such an anomaly discretionary power, but the same may be in the history of fundamental legislation? said of others with which they are vested. No. We were not mistaken. The letter of Yet the discretion must exist somewhere, this great instrument is free from this The Constitution has given it to the rep- radical fault; its language directly con- resentative of all the people, checked by tradicts the imputation; its spirit, its evi- the representatives of the States and by dent intent, contradicts it. No, we do not the executive power. The South Carolina err. Our Constitution does not contain the construction gives it to the legislature or absurdity of giving power to make laws, the convention of a single State, where and another power to resist them. The neither the people of the different States, sages, whose memory will always be rev- nor the States in their separate capacity, enced, have given us a practical and, as nor the chief magistrate, elected by the they hoped, a permanent constitutional com- people, have any representation. Which pact. The Father of this country did not is the most discreet disposition of the affix his revered name to so palpable an power? I do not ask you, fellow-citizens, absurdity. Nor did the States, when they which is the constitutional disposition; severally ratified it, do so under the im- that instrument speaks a language not pression that a veto on the laws of the to be misunderstood. But if you were United States was reserved to them, or assembled in general convention, which that they could exercise it by implica- would you think the safest depository of tion. Search the debates in all their con- this discretionary power in the last re- ventions; examine the speeches of the most sort? Would you add a clause giving it zealous opposers of federal authority; look to each of the States, or would you sanc- at the amendments that were proposed, tion the wise provisions already made They are all silent; not a syllable uttered, by your Constitution? If this should be not a vote given, not a motion made to the result of your deliberation when pro- correct the explicit supremacy given to viding for the future, are you, can you the laws of the Union over those of the be ready to risk all that we hold dear States, or to show that implication, as is to establish, for a temporary and a local now contended, could defeat it. No, we purpose, that which you must acknowledge have not erred. The Constitution is still to be destructive, and even absurd, as a the object of our reverence, the bond of general provision? Carry out the conse- our Union, our defence in danger, the quences of this right vested in the different source of our prosperity in peace; it shall States, and you must perceive that the descend as we have received it, uncor- crisis your conduct presents at this day rupted by sophistical construction, to our would recur whenever any law of the posterity; and the sacrifices of local in- United States displeased any of the States, terest, of State prejudices, of personal and that we should soon cease to be a na- animosities, that were made to bring it tion.
into existence, will again be patriotically The ordinance, with the same knowledge
offered for its support. of the future that characterized a former
The two remaining objections made by objection, tells you that the proceeds of
the ordinance to these laws are that the the tax will be unconstitutionally applied,
sums intended to be raised by them are If this could be ascertained with certainty,
greater than are required, and that the the objection would, with more propriety.
proceeds will be unconstitutionally em- be reserved for the law so applying the
ployed. proceeds, but surely cannot be urged
The Constitution has given expressly against the laws levying the duty. to Congress the right of raising revenue, These are the allegations contained in
and of determining the sum the public the ordinance. Examine them seriously,
exigencies will require. The States have my fellow-citizens — judge for yourselves.
no control over the exercise of this right I appeal to you to determine whether
other than that which results from the they are so clear, so convincing, as to
power of changing the representatives leave no doubt of their correctness; and
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even if you should come to this conclu- these questions according to its sound
sion, how far they justify the reckless, discretion. Congress is composed of the
destructive course which you are directed representatives of all the States, and of
to pursue. Review these objections, and all the people of all the States; but we,
the conclusions drawn from them, once part of the people of one State, to whom
more. What are they? Every law, then, the Constitution has given no power on
for raising revenue, according to the the subject, from whom it has expressly
South Carolina ordinance, may be right- taken it away; we, who have solemnly
fully annulled, unless it be so framed agreed that this Constitution shall be
as no law ever will or can be framed, our law; we, most of whom have sworn
Congress has a right to pass laws for to support it, we now abrogate this law,
raising revenue, and each State has a right and swear, and force others to swear, that
to oppose their execution — two rights di- it shall not be obeyed. And we do this
rectly opposed to each other; and yet, is not because Congress has no right to pass
this absurdity supposed to be contained such laws — this we do not allege — but
in an instrument drawn for the express because they have passed them with im-
purpose of avoiding collisions between the proper views. They are unconstitutional
States and the general government by an from the motives of those who passed
assembly of the most enlightened states- them, which we can never with certainty
men and purest patriots ever embodied know; from their unequal operation, al-
for a similar purpose? though it is impossible, from the nature
In vain have these sages declared that of things, that they should be equal; Congress shall have power to lay and col- and from the disposition which we pre- lect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; sume may be made of their proceeds, al- in vain have they provided that they though that disposition has not been shall have power to pass laws which declared. This is the plain meaning of shall be necessary and proper to carry the ordinance in relation to laws which those powers into execution; that those it abrogates for alleged unconstitutional- laws and the Constitution shall be the ity. But it does not stop there. It re- " supreme law of the land, and that the peals, in express terms, an important part judges in every State shall be bound of the Constitution itself, and of laws thereby, anything in the constitution or passed to give it effect, which have never laws of any State to the contrary not- been alleged to be unconstitutional. The withstanding." In vain have the people Constitution declares that the judicial of the several States solemnly sanctioned powers of the United States extend to these provisions, made them their para- cases arising under the laws of the Unit- mount law, and individually sworn to ed States, and that such laws, the Con- support them whenever they were called stitution and the treaties, shall be para- on to execute any office. Vain provisions! mount to the State constitution and ineffectual restrictions! vile profanation laws. The judiciary act prescribes the of oaths! miserable mockery of legisla- mode by which the case may be brought tion! if a bare majority of the voters in before a court of the United States, by any one State may, on a real or sup- appeal, when a State tribunal shall decide posed knowledge of the intent with which against this provision of the Constitu- a law has been passed, declare themselves tion. The ordinance declares there shall free from its operation — say here it gives be no appeal; makes the State law too little, there too much, and operates paramount to the Constitution and laws unequally; here it suffers articles to be of the United States; forces judges and free that ought to be taxed ; there it taxes jurors to swear that they will disregard those that ought to be free; in this case their provisions; and even makes it penal the proceeds are intended to be applied in a suitor to attempt relief by appeal, to purposes which we do not approve; It further declares that it shall not be in that the amount raised is more than lawful for the authorities of the United is wanted. States, or of that State, to enforce the
Congress, it is true, is invested by the payment of duties imposed by the revenue
Constitution with the right of deciding laws within its limits,
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Here is a law of the United States, not even pretended to be unconstitutional, re- pealed by the authority of a small ma- jority of the voters of a single State. Here is a provision of the Constitution which is solemnly abrogated by the same authority.
On such expositions and reasonings the ordinance grounds not only an assertion of the right to annul the laws of which it complains, but to enforce it by a threat of seceding from the Union if any at- tempt is made to execute them.
This right to secede is deduced from the nature of the Constitution, which, they say, is a compact between sovereign States, who have preserved their whole sovereignty, and therefore are subject to no superior; that, because they made the compact, they cannot break it, when, in their opinion, it has been departed from by the other States. Fallacious as this course of reasoning is, it enlists State pride, and finds advocates in the honest prejudices of those who have not studied the nature of our government sufficiently to see the radical error on which it rests.
The people of the United States form- ed the Constitution, acting through the State legislatures in making the compact, to meet and discuss its provisions, and acting in separate conventions when they ratified these provisions, but the terms used in its construction show it to be a government in which the people of the States collectively are represented. We are one people in the choice of the Presi- dent and Vice-President. Here the States have no other agency than to direct the mode in which the votes shall be given. The candidates having the majority of all the votes are chosen. The electors of a majority of States may have given their votes for one candidate, and yet another may be chosen. The people then, and not the States, are represented in the execu- tive branch.
In the House of Representatives there is this difference, that the people of one State do not, as in the case of President and Vice-President, all vote for the same officers. The people of all the States do not vote for all the members, each State electing only its own representatives. But this creates no material distinction. When chosen, they are all representa-
tives of the United States, not repre- sentatives of the particular State from which they come. They are paid by the United States, not by the State, nor are they accountable to it for any act done in the performance of their legislative functions; and however they may in prac- tice, as it is their duty to do, consult and prefer the interests of their particular constituents when they come in conflict with any other partial or local interest, yet it is their first and highest duty, as representatives of the United States, to promote the general good.
The Constitution of the United States, then, forms a government, not a league, and whether it be formed by compact be- tween the States or in any other manner, its character is the same. It is a govern- ment in which all the people are repre- sented, which operates directly on the people individually, not upon the States — they retained all the power they did not grant. But each State having expressly parted with so many powers as to con- stitute, jointly with the other States, a single nation, cannot from that period possess any right to secede, because such secession does not break a league, but destroys the unity of a nation, and any injury to that unity is not only a breach which would result from the contraven- tion of a compact, but it is an offence against the whole Union. To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States are not a nation, because it would be a sole- cism to contend that any part of a nation might dissolve its connection with the other parts, to their injury or ruin, with- out committing any offence. Secession, like any other revolutionary act, may be morally justified by the extremity of op- pression, but to call it a constitutional right is confounding the meaning of terms, and can only be done through gross error, or to deceive those who are willing to as- sert a right, but would pause before they made a revolution, or incur the penalties consequent on a failure.
Because the Union was formed by com- pact, it is said the parties to that com- pact may, when they feel themselves aggrieved, depart from it; but it is precisely because it is a compact that they cannot. A compact is an agreement or
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binding obligation. It may by its terms have a sanction or penalty for its breach, or it may not. If it contains no sanction, it may be broken with no other conse- quence than moral guilt; if it have a sanction, then the breach insures the designated or implied penalty. A league between independent nations generally has no sanction other than a moral one, or if it should contain a penalty, as there is no common superior, it cannot be en- forced. A government, on the contrary, always has a sanction, express or implied, and in our case it is both necessarily im- plied and expressly given. An attempt, by force of arms, to destroy a government is an offence by whatever means the con- stitutional compact may have been formed, and such government hsts the right, by the law of self-defence, to pass acts for punishing the offender, unless that right is modified, restrained, or resumed by the constitutional act. In our system, al- though it is modified in the case of trea- son, yet authority is expressly given to pass all laws necessary to carry its powers into effect, and under this grant provi- sion has been made for punishing acts which obstruct the due administration of the laws.
It would seem superfluous to add any- thing to show the nature of that union which connects us; but as erroneous opin- ions on this subject are the foundation of doctrines the most destructive to our peace, I must give some further develop- ment to my views on this subject. No one, fellow-citizens, has a higher reverence for the reserved rights of the States than the magistrate who now addresses you. No one would make greater personal sac- rifices or official exertions to defend them from violation, but equal care must be taken to prevent on their part an improper interference with our resumption of the rights they have vested in the nation, The line has not been so distinctly drawn as to avoid doubts in some cases of the exercise of power. Men of the best in- tentions and soundest views may differ in their construction of some parts of the Constitution, but there are others on which dispassionate reflections can leave no doubt. Of this nature appears to be the assumed right of secession. It treats, as we have seen, on the alleged undivided
105
sovereignty of the States, and on their having formed, in this sovereign capacity, a compact which is called the Constitu- tion, from which, because they made it, they have the right to secede. Both of these positions are erroneous, and some of the arguments to prove them so have been anticipated.
The States severally have not retained their entire sovereignty. It has been shown that in becoming parts of a nation, not members of a league, they surrendered many of their essential parts of sovereign- ty. The right to make treaties, declare war, levy taxes, exercise exclusive judicial and legislative powers, were all of them functions of sovereign power. The States, then, for all these purposes were no longer sovereign. The allegiance of their citi- zens was transferred in the first instance to the government of the United States. They became American citizens, and owed obedience to the Constitution of the United States, and to laws made in con- formity with the powers it vested in Con- gress. This last position has not been and cannot be denied. How, then, can that State be said to be sovereign and independent whose citizens own obedience to laws not made by it, and whose magistrates are sworn to disregard those laws when they come in conflict with those passed by another? What shows conclusively that the States cannot be said to have reserved an undivided sov- ereignty is that they expressly ceded the right to punish treason, not treason against their separate powers, but treason against the United States. Treason is an offence against sovereignty, and sovereign- ty must reside with the powers to punish it. But the reserved rights of the State are not less sacred because they have, for their common interest, made the gen- eral government the depository of these powers.
The unity of our political character (as has been shown for another purpose) corn- menced with its very existence. Under the royal government we had no separate character; our opposition to its oppres- sion began as united colonies. We were the United States under the confederation, and the name was perpetuated, and the Union rendered more perfectly the federal Constitution. In none of these stages did
JACKSON, ANDREW
we consider ourselves in any other light government without the means of sup- than as forming one nation. Treaties port, or an acquiescence in the dissolution and alliances were made in the name of of our Union by the secession of one of all. Troops were made for the joint de- its members. When the first was pro- fence. How, then, with all these proofs posed, it was known that it could not that, under all changes of our position, we be listened to for a moment. It was had, for designated purposes and denned known, if force was applied to oppose the powers, created national governments — execution of the laws, that it must be re- how is it that the most perfect of these pelled by force; that Congress could not, several modes of union should now be without involving itself in disgrace and considered as a mere league that may be the country in ruin, accede to the propo- dissolved at pleasure? It is from an sition; and yet if this is not done in abuse of terms. Compact is used as sy- a given day, or if any attempt is made to nonymous with league, although the true execute the laws, the State is, by the or- term is not employed, because it would dinance, declared to be out of the Union, at once show the fallacy of the reason- The majority of a convention assembled ing. It would not do to say that our for the purpose have dictated these terms, Constitution was only a league, but it is or rather this rejecting of all terms, in labored to prove it a compact (which in the name of the people of South Caro- one sense it is), and then to argue that lina. It is true that the governor of as a league is a compact, every compact the State speaks of the submission of their between nations must, of course, be a grievances to the convention of all the league, and that from such an engage- States, which, he says, they " sincerely and ment every sovereign power has a right anxiously seek and desire." Yet this ob- to recede. But it has been shown that, in vious and constitutional mode of obtain- this sense, the States are not sovereign, ing the sense of the other States on the and that even if they were, and the na- construction of the federal compact, and tional Constitution had been formed by amending it, if necessary, has never been compact, there would be no right in any attempted by those who have urged the one State to exonerate itself from its ob- State on to this destructive measure. The ligations. State might have proposed the call for a
So obvious are the reasons which forbid general convention to the other States, this secession, that it is necessary only and Congress, if a sufficient number of to allude to them. The Union was formed them concurred, must have called it. But for the benefit of all. It was produced the first magistrate of South Carolina, by natural sacrifices of interest and when he expressed hope that, " on a re- opinions. Can these sacrifices be recalled? view by Congress and the functionaries Can the States, who magnanimously sur- of the general government of the merits rendered their title to the territories of of the controversy," such a convention the West, recall the grant? Will the in- will be accorded to them, must have known habitants of the inland States agree to that neither Congress nor any function- pay the duties that may be imposed with- ary of the general government has au- out their assent by those on the Atlantic thority to call such a convention, unless or the Gulf, for their own benefit ? Shall it be demanded by two-thirds of the there be a free port in one State and States. This suggestion, then, is another onerous duties in another? No one be- instance of the reckless inattention to lieves that any right exists in a single the provisions of the Constitution with State to involve all the others in these which this crisis has been madly hurried and countless other evils contrary to on, or of the attempt to persuade the the engagements solemnly made. Every people that a constitutional remedy had one must see that the other States, in been sought and refused. If the legislat- self - defence, must oppose it at all haz- ure of South Carolina " anxiously de- ards. sire " a general convention to consider
These are the alternatives that are pre- their complaints, why have they not made
sented by the convention: a repeal of all application for it in the way the Consti-
the acts for raising revenue, leaving the tution points out? The assertion that
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they " earnestly seek it " is completely sequent diminution in the value of your
negatived by the omission. lands, were the sole effect of the tariff
This, then, is the position in which we laws.
stand. A small majority of the citizens The effect of those laws was confess- of one State in the Union have elected edly injurious, but the evil was greatly delegates to a State convention; that con- exaggerated by the unfounded theory you vention has ordained that all the revenue were taught to believe, that its burdens laws of the United States must be re- were in proportion to your exports, not to pealed, or that they are no longer a mem- your consumption of imported articles, ber of the Union. The governor of that Your pride was roused by the assertion State has recommended to the legislature that a submission to those laws was a the raising of an army to carry the seces- state of vassalage, and that resistance to sion into effect, and that he may be em- them was equal, in patriotic merit, to the powered to give clearances to vessels in opposition our fathers offered to the op- the name of the State. No act of violent pressive laws of Great Britain. You opposition to the laws has yet been com- were told that this opposition might be mitted, but such a state of things is peaceably, might be constitutionally hourly apprehended, and it is the intent made; that you might enjoy all the ad- of this instrument to proclaim, not only vantages of the Union, and bear none of that the duty imposed on me by the Con- its burdens. Eloquent appeals to your stitution " to take care that the laws be passions, to your State pride, to your faithfully executed," shall be performed native courage, to your sense of real in- to the extent of the powers already in- jury, were used to prepare you for the, vested in me by law, or of such others as period when the mask which concealed the the wisdom of Congress shall devise and hideous features of disunion should be intrust to me for that purpose, but to taken off. It fell, and you were made to warn the citizens of South Carolina who look with complacency on objects which, have been deluded into an opposition to not long since, you would have regarded the laws, of the danger they will incur by with horror. Look back to the arts obedience to the illegal and disorganizing which have brought you to this state; ordinance of the convention; to exhort look forward to the consequences to those who have refused to support it to which it must inevitably lead! Look persevere in their determination to up- back to what was first told you as an in- fold the Constitution and laws of their ducement to enter into this dangerous country, and to point out to all the peril- course! The great political truth was re- ous situation into which the good people peated to you, that you had the revolu- of that State have been led, and that the tionary right of resisting all laws that course they have been urged to pursue is were palpably unconstitutional and in- one of ruin and disgrace to the very State tolerably oppressive; it was added that whose rights they affect to support. the right to nullify a law rested on the
Fellow-citizens of my native State, let same principle, but that it was a peace-
me not only admonish you, as the first able remedy. This character which was
magistrate of our common country, not given to it made you receive, with too
to incur the penalty of its laws, but use much confidence, the assertions that were *
the influence that a father would over his made of the unconstitutionality of the
children whom he saw rushing to certain law and its oppressive effects. Mark, my
ruin. In that paternal language, with fellow-citizens, that, by the admission of
that paternal feeling, let me tell you, my your leaders, the unconstitutionality
countrymen, that you are deluded by men must be palpable, or it will not justify
who are either deceived themselves or wish either resistance or nullification ! What
to deceive you. Mark under what pre- is the meaning of the word palpable in
tences you have been led on to the brink the sense in which it is here used? That
of insurrection and treason on which you which is apparent to every one; that
stand! First, a diminution of the value which no man of ordinary intellect will
of your staple commodity, lowered by over- fail to perceive. Is the unconstitution-
production in other quarters, and the con- ality of these laws of that description?
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Let those among your leaders, who once approved and advocated the principle of protective duties, answer the question, and let them choose whether they will be considered as incapable then of perceiv- ing that which must have been apparent to every man of common understanding, or as imposing upon your confidence, and endeavoring to mislead you now. In either case they are unsafe guides in the perilous path they urge you to tread. Ponder well on this circumstance, and you will know how to appreciate the ex- aggerated language they address to you. They are not champions of liberty emu- lating the fame of our Revolutionary fathers; nor are you an oppressed peo- ple contending, as they repeat to you, against worse than colonial vassalage.
You are free members of a flourishing and happy Union. There is no settled de- sign to oppress you. You have, indeed, felt the unequal operation of laws which may have been unwisely, not unconstitu- tionally, passed; but that inequality must necessarily be removed. At the very mo- ment when you were madly urged on to the unfortunate course you have begun, a change in public opinion had com- menced. The nearly approaching pay- ment of the public debt, and the conse- quent necessity of a diminution of duties, had already produced a considerable re- duction, and that, too, on some articles of general consumption in your State. The importance of this change was under- rated, and you were authoritatively told that no further alleviation of your bur- dens was to be expected at the very time when the condition of the country im- periously demanded Rich a modification of the duties as should reduce them to a just and equitable scale. But, as if ap- prehensive of the effect of this change in allaying your discontents, you were pre- cipitated into the fearful state in which you now find yourselves.
I have urged you to look back to the means that were used to hurry you on to the position you have now assumed, and forward to the consequences it will pro- duce. Something more is necessary. Con- template the condition of that country of which you still form an important part. Consider its government uniting in one bond of common interest and general pro-
tection so many different States — giving to all their inhabitants the proud title of American citizens, protecting their com- merce, securing their literature and their arts; facilitating their intercommunica- tion; defending their frontiers; and mak- ing their name respected in the remotest parts of the earth. Consider the extent of its territory; its increasing and happy population; its advance in arts which ren- der life agreeable; and the sciences which elevate the mind! See education spread- ing the lights of religion, morality, and general information into every cottage in this wide extent of our Territories and States! Behold it as the asylum where the wretched and the oppressed find a refuge and support! Look on this pict- ure of happiness and honor, and say, we, too, are citizens of America! Carolina is one of these proud States; her arms have defended, her best blood has cemented, this happy Union! And then add, if you can, without horror and remorse, this hap- py Union we will dissolve; this picture of peace and prosperity we will deface; this free intercourse we will interrupt; these fertile fields we will deluge with blood; the protection of that glorious flag we renounce; the very name of Americans we discard. And for what, mistaken men; for what do you throw away these ines- timable blessings? For what would you exchange yotor share in the advantages and honor of the Union? For the dream of separate independence — a dream inter- rupted by bloody conflicts with your neigh- bors, and a vile dependence on a foreign power. If your leaders could succeed in establishing a separation, what would be your situation? Are you united at home; are you free from the apprehension of civil discord, with all its fearful consequences? Do your neighboring republics, every day suffering some new revolution, or contend- ing with some new insurrection — do they excite your envy? But the dictates of a high duty oblige me solemnly to announce that you cannot succeed. The laws of the United States must be executed. I have no discretionary power on the subject; my duty is emphatically pronounced in the Constitution. Those who told you that you might peaceably prevent their execution deceived you; they could not have been deceived themselves. They know
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that a forcible opposition could alone pre- vent the execution of the laws, and they know that such opposition must be re- pelled. Their object is disunion; but be not deceived by names : disunion, by armed force, is treason. Are you really ready to incur its guilt? If you are, on the heads of the instigators of the act be the dread- ful consequences; on their heads be the dishonor, but on yours may fall the pun- ishment. On your unhappy State will inevitably fall all the evils of the con- flict you force upon the government of your country. It cannot accede to the mad project of disunion, of which you would be the first victims; its first magis- trate cannot, if he would, avoid the per- formance of his duty. The consequence must be fearful for you, distressing to your fellow-citizens here, and to the friends of good government throughout the world. Its enemies have beheld our prosperity with a vexation they could not conceal; it was a standing refutation of their slavish doctrines, and they will point to our discord with the triumph of malig- nant joy. It is yet in your power to dis- appoint them. There is yet time to show that the descendants of the Pinckneys, the Sumters, the Rutledges, and of the thousand other names which adorn the pages of your Revolutionary history, will riot abandon that Union, to support which so many of them fought, and bled, and died.
I adjure you, as you honor their mem- ory, as you love the cause of freedom, to which they dedicated their lives, as you prize the peace of your country, the lives of its best citizens, and your own fair fame, to retrace your steps. Snatch from the archives of your State the disorgan- izing edict of its convention; bid its members to reassemble, and promulgate the decided expressions of your will to remain in the path which alone can con- duct you to safety, prosperity, and honor. Tell them that, compared to disunion, all other evils are light, because that brings with it an accumulation of all. Declare that you will never take the field unless the star-spangled banner of your country shall float over you; that you will not be stigmatized when dead, and dishonored and scorned while you live, as the au- thors of the first attack on the Constitu-
tion of your country. Its destroyers you cannot be. You may disturb its peace; you may interrupt the course of its pros- perity; you may cloud its reputation for stability, but its tranquillity will be re- stored, its prosperity will return, and the stain upon its national character will be transferred and remain an eternal blot on the memory of those who caused the disorder.
Fellow-citizens of the United States, the threat of unhallowed disunion — the names of those once respected, by whom it is uttered — the array of military force to support it — denote the approach of a crisis in our affairs on which the con- tinuance of our unexampled prosperity, our political existence, and, perhaps, that of all free governments, may depend. The conjuncture demanded a free, a full, and explicit enunciation, not only of my intentions, but of my principles of action; and, as the claim was asserted of a right by a State to annul the laws of the Union, and even to secede from it at pleasure, a frank exposition of my opinions in rela- tion to the origin and form of our gov- ernment, and the construction I give to the instrument by which it was created, seemed to be proper. Having the fullest confidence in the justness of the legal and constitutional opinion of my duties, which has been expressed, I rely, with equal confidence, on your undivided sup- port in my determination to execute the laws, to preserve the Union by all con- stitutional means, to arrest, if possible, by moderate but firm measures, the neces- sity of a recourse to force; and, if it be the will of Heaven, that the recurrence of its primeval curse on man for the shedding of a brother's blood should fall upon our land, that it be not called down by an offensive act on the part of the United States.
Fellow - citizens, the momentous case is before you. On your undivided sup- port of your government depends the de- cision of the great question it involves, whether your sacred Union will be pre- served, and the blessings it secures to us as one people shall be perpetuated. No one can doubt that the unanimity with which that decision will be expressed will be such as to inspire new confidence in republican institutions, and that the pru-
109
JACKSON
dence, the wisdom, and the courage which camped around Lawrence, Kan., where he
it will bring to their defence will trans- took measures to prevent a legal polling
mit them unimpaired and invigorated to of votes at an election for members of
our children. the territorial legislature, late in March.
May the Great Ruler of nations grant His followers threatened to hang a judge
that the signal blessings with which He who attempted to secure an honest vote,
has favored ours may not, by the madness and by threats compelled another to re-
of party or personal ambition, be disre- ceive every vote offered by a Missourian.
garded and lost ; and may His wise Provi- When the Civil War broke out, Jackson
dence bring those who have produced this made strenuous efforts to place Missouri
crisis to see their folly before they feel on the side of secession, but was foiled
the misery of civil strife, and inspire a re- chiefly through the efforts of Gen. Na-
turning veneration for that Union which, thaniel Lyon. He was deposed by the
if we may dare to penetrate His designs, Missouri State convention, in July, 1861,
He has chosen as the only means of attain- when he entered the Confederate military
ing the high destinies to which we may service as a brigadier-general. He died
reasonably aspire. in Little Rock, Ark., Dec. 6, 1862.
In testimony whereof, I have caused the Jackson, FRANCIS, social reformer;
seal of the United States to be hereunto born in Newton, Mass., March 7, 1789;
affixed, having signed the same with my president of the Anti-Slavery Society in
hand. Boston for many years. He published a
Done at the city of Washington, this History of Newton, and died there ~Nov.
10th day of December, in the year of our 14, 1861.
Lord one thousand eight hundred and Jackson, FRANCIS JAMES, British min-
thirty-two, and of the independence of the ister to the United States, who succeeded
United States the fifty-seventh. David M. Erskine in 1809. An experi-
Jackson, CHARLES THOMAS, geologist; enced diplomatist, he had lately figured
born in Plymouth, Mass., June 21, 1805; discreditably in the affair of the seizure
graduated at Harvard in 1829, and after- of the Danish fleet by British men-of-war
wards studied in Paris. He was appoint- at Copenhagen. He had become known as
ed State geologist of Maine and surveyor " Copenhagen Jackson," whose conduct did
of public lands in 1836, and of Rhode Isl- not commend him to the good-will of the
and in 1839; and subsequently was engaged people of the United States. The impres-
on the geological survey of New Hamp- sion was that he had come with explana-
shire ; explored the southern shore of Lake tions of the cause of the rejection of
Superior in 1844; and was appointed to Erskine's arrangement. The Secretary of
survey the mineral lands of Michigan in State, finding he had nothing to offer, ad-
1847. He is author of a large number of dressed Jackson in a letter in which a tone
reports on the geology of Maine, New of discontent was conspicuous, declaring
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, the surprise and regret of the President
etc. He claimed to be the discoverer of that he had no explanations to offer as to
etherization, and received the Montyon the non-ratification of the Erskine ar-
prize from the French Academy of rangement, or authority to substitute any
Sciences. He died in Somerville, Mass., new arrangement for it. The object of the
Aug. 28, 1880. letter, probably, was to draw out from
Jackson, CLAIBORNE Fox, statesman; Jackson an explicit admission, as a basis
born in Fleming county, Ky., April 4, for an appeal to the nation, that he had
1807 ; became conspicuous as a leader no authority to treat except upon the
in the efforts of pro-slavery men to make ground of Canning's three conditions —
Kansas a slave-labor State. In 1822 he namely, 1. The repealing as to Great
went to Missouri; was a captain in the Britain, but the keeping in force as to
Black Hawk War; served several years in France, and all countries adopting her
the State legislature; and was elected gov- decrees, so long as these decrees were con-
ernor of Missouri by the Democrats in tinued, all American non-importation and
1860. In 1855 he led a band of lawless non-intercourse acts; 2. The renunciation
men from Missouri, who, fully armed, en- by the United States, during the present
110
JACKSON
war, of any pretensions to carry on any government. In 1883, while a special
trade with the colonies of belligerents not commissioner to inquire into the circuni-
allowed in time of peace; and 3. The allow- stances of the Mission Indians of Cali-
ing British ships-of-war to enforce, by fornia, she studied the history of the early
capture, the American non-intercourse acts Spanish missions, and a short time prior
wi\.h France and her allies. Jackson de- to her death she wrote the President a
dared that the rejection of that part of letter pathetically asking for the " right-
the arrangement of Erskine relating to ing of the wrongs of the Indian race."
the affair of the Chesapeake and Leopard Her works include Verses; Bits of Travel;
was owing partly to the offensive terms Nelly's Silver-Mine; The Story of Boone;
employed in the American note to Erskine A Century of Dishonor; Mammy Little-
concerning it. This note had offended the back and her Family ; Ramona; Glimpses
old monarch, with whom Admiral Berkeley of Three Coasts; Hetty's Strange History,
was a favorite. In it Secretary Smith and others. She died in San Francisco,
said, April 17, 1809: "I have it in express Cal., Aug. 12, 1885.
charge from the President to state that, Jackson, HENRY ROOTES, military offi- while he forbears to insist on a further cer; born in Athens, Ga., June 24, 1820; punishment of the offending officer, he is graduated at Yale College in 1839, and not the less sensible of the justice and admitted to the bar in 1840, when he utility of such an example, nor the less settled in Savannah. He was appointed persuaded that it would best comport with United States district attorney for what is due from his Britannic Majesty Georgia in 1843. During the Mexican to his own honor." Jackson's manner was War he was colonel of the 1st Georgia offensive. He had an unbounded admira- Volunteers. At the close of the war he tion for the government he represented, became part proprietor of The Georgian, and a profound contempt for the Ameri- in Savannah. In 1853 he was sent to the cans as an inferior people. He treated the Court of Austria as the United States officers of the United States government charge d'affaires. In 1854-58 he was with the same haughty bearing that he did minister to Austria. Returning to the those of weak and bleeding Denmark, and, United States he was commissioned a after one or two personal interviews, Sec- special United States district attorney for retary Smith refused to have any further Georgia, to aid in trying notorious slave- intercourse with him except in writing, trading cases. When the Civil War broke The insolent diplomat was offended, and out he entered the Confederate army with wrote an impudent letter to the Secretary, the rank of brigadier-general. During the He was informed that no more communi- battle of Nashville, in December, 1864, he cations would be received from him, when was taken prisoner, and was held till the Jackson, disappointed and angry, left close of the war. Returning to Savannah Washington with every member of the he resumed law practice. In 1875-88 he diplomatic family, and retired to New was a trustee of the Peabody Educational York. The United States government re- Fund. In 1885 he was appointed minister quested his recall, and early in 1810 he to Mexico, but served only a few months, was summoned to England. No other owing to his opposition to the govern- minister was sent to the United States for ment in seizing the American ship .Be- about a year. lecca. He published Tallulah, and other Jackson, HELEN MARIA FISKE, author; Poems. He died in Savannah, Ga., May born in Amherst, Mass., Oct. 18, 1831; 23, 1898.
daughter of Prof. Nathan W. Fiske; was Jackson, HOWELL EDMUNDS, jurist;
educated in the Ipswich Female Semi- born in Paris, Tenn., April 8, 1832; grad-
nary; married Capt. Edward B. Hunt in uated at the West Tennessee College in
1852. She first became known as an au- 1848; admitted to the bar in 1856; elected
thor under the letters " H. H." in 1875, United States Senator from Tennessee in
when she married William S. Jackson. 1881, but resigned in 1886, when he was
In 1879 she became deeply interested in appointed United States district judge by
the condition of the American Indians and President Cleveland ; appointed justice of
their treatment by the United States the United States Supreme Court in 1893.
Ill
JACKSON
He died in West Meade, Tenn., Aug. 8, Harvard College in 1761; held a seat in 1895. the Provincial Congress in 1775; was
Jackson, JAMES, military officer; born United States marshal in 1789-91. He in Devonshire, England, Sept. 21, 1757; wrote Thoughts upon the Political Situa- removed to Savannah, Ga., in 1772; stud- tion of the United States. He died in ied law; entered the military service; Boston, Mass., March 5, 1810. and was brigade-major of the Georgia Jackson, SHELDON, clergyman; born militia in 1778. He took part in the in Minaville, N. Y., May 18, 1834; gradu- defence of Savannah; and, when the Brit- ated at Union College in 1855, and at ish seized it at the close of 1778, he fled Princeton Theological Seminary in 1858, to South Carolina, where he joined Gen- and was ordained a minister in the eral Moultrie. His appearance was so Presbyterian Church on May 5 of the lat- wretched while in his flight, that he was ter year. The same year he went as a arrested, tried, and condemned as a spy, missionary to the Choctaw Indians. In and was about to be executed, when a 1859-69 he was engaged in missionary reputable citizen of Georgia, who knew work in western Wisconsin and southern him, saved him. Jackson fought a duel Minnesota; in 1869-70 was superintend- ent of the Presbyterian missions in western Iowa, Nebraska, and the Rocky Mountain Territories; and in 1877 became superintendent of the Presbyterian mis- sions in Alaska. In 1885 he was ap- pointed United States general agent of education for the Territory of Alaska. In 1887 he organized at Sitka the Alaskan Society of Natural History and Ethnol- ogy; in 1884 induced Congress to grant a district organization to Alaska; in 1891 introduced reindeer into that region; and in 1898 was authorized to secure a colony of Laplanders for Alaska. He was sev- eral times a commissioner to the general assembly of the Presbyterian Church, and moderator in 1897. He gave $50,000 to establish a Christian college in Utah in 1896. He is a member of the National in March, 1780, with Lieutenant-Governor Geographical Society, and many other Wells, killing his antagonist, and being similar organizations. His publications severely wounded himself. He joined Col. include Alaska and Missions on the Elijah Clarke, and became aide to Sum- North Pacific Coast; Education in ter. With Pickens he shared in the vie- Alaska, and elaborate reports on Alaska tory at the Cowpens. He afterwards did in the annual reports of the United States good service as commander of a legionary Commissioner of Education, corps, and was presented with a dwelling Jackson, THOMAS JONATHAN, military in Savannah by the Georgia legislature, officer; born in Clarksburg, Va., Jan. 21, In 1786 he was made brigadier-general, 1824; graduated at West Point in 1846, and in 1788 was elected governor of entering the 2d Artillery; served in Georgia, but the latter office he declined, the war with Mexico; was brevetted From 1789 to 1791 he was a member of captain and major; and resigned in 1852 Congress, and from 1793 to 1795, and with health impaired, becoming profess- froin 1801 to 1806, United States Senator, or in the Military Institute at Lexing- From 1798 to 1801 he was governor of ton, Va. He entered the Confederate ser- the State. He died in Washington, D. C., vice, as colonel, in April, 1861, and corn- March 12, 1806. manded the " Army of Observation " at Jackson, JONATHAN, patriot ; born in Harper's Ferry. His first engagement was Boston, Mass., June 4, 1743; graduated at at Falling Waters. Jackson commanded
112
JAMES JACKSON.
JACKSON JACKSON AND ST. PHILIP
THOMAS j. ("STONEWALL") JACKSON.
a brigade in the battle of Bull Run, where orphan, at an early age ; at the breaking he received the name of " Stonewall." A out of the Revolutionary War he entered furious charge, made by a New York regi- the military service. He finally became
aide to General Lincoln, and was made a prisoner at Charleston in 1780. He was secretary to Col. John Laurens, special minister to France, and was in Washing- ton's military family as aide, with the rank of major. Jackson was assistant Secretary of War under Washington, and was secretary to the convention that framed the national Constitution in 1787. From 1789 to 1792 he was aide and private secretary to President Washington; from 1796 to 1801 was surveyor of the port of Philadelphia, and was secretary to the General Society of the Cincinnati. He died in Philadelphia, Dec. 17, 1828.
Jackson and St. Philip, FORTS, two fortifications on the Mississippi River, 57 miles southeast of New Orleans, which command the lower approach to that city. Both were strongly fortified by the ment, under Col. Henry W. Slocum, had Confederates in the early part of the shattered the Confederate line, and the Civil War, and were passed by the fleet troops had fled to a plateau whereon Gen- under Farragut, April 24, 1862. eral Jackson had just arrived with reserves. " They are beating us back!" exclaimed Gen. Bernard E. Bee. "Well, sir," replied Jackson, " we will **&? * give them the bayonet." Bee was encouraged. " Form ! form!" he cried to the fugi- tives; "there stands Jackson like a stone wall." The effect of these words was wonderful. The flight was checked, order was brought out of confusion, and ever afterwards the calm general was called " Stone- wall." He attained the rank of lieutenant-general, and was accidentally shot by his own men, while reconnoitring dur- ing the battle of Chancel- lorsville; and, from his wounds, and a sudden at- tack of pneumonia, he died in Guinea Station, Va., May 10, 1863.
Jackson, WILLIAM, military officer; born in Cumberland, England, March 9, 1759; was taken to Charleston, S. C., an
V— H H3
GRAVE OK THOMAS J. JACKSON.
JACOB— JACOBI
Although Farragut had passed these forts, and the Confederate flotilla had been destroyed, the fortifications were still firmly held. The mortar-fleet under Por- ter was below them. General Butler, who had accompanied the gunboats on their perilous passage on the Saxon, had re- turned to his transports, and in small boats his troops, under the general pilot- age of Gen. Godfrey Weitzel, passed through bayous to the rear of Fort St. Philip. When he was prepared to assail it, the garrison was surrendered without
cer; born in Oldham county, Ky., in 1825; went to California in 1846, where he aided Gen. John C. Fremont in conquering that section. In 1862 he recruited a regiment of 1,244 cavalry at Eminence, Ky. ; in 1863 became lieutenant-governor of Ken- tucky. He was strongly opposed to Presi- dent Lincoln's emancipation proclamation, holding that it not only deprived those loyal citizens who owned slaves of their property, but it was unjust to the friends of the Union.
Jacobi, MARY PUTNAM, physician; born
FORTS JACKSON AND ST. PHILIP AND ENVIRONS.
resistance (April 28), for they had heard in London, England, Aug. 31, 1842;
of the destruction of the Confederate flo- daughter of George P. Putnam, of New
tilla. The commander of Fort Jackson, York. She studied in the Philadelphia
fearing that all was lost, accepted gener- Medical College for Women, and grad-
ous terms of surrender from Commodore uated at the New York College of Phar-
Porter. The prisoners taken in the forts macy. She was the first woman ma-
and at the quarantine numbered about triculated at the Ecole de Medecine, in
1,000. The entire loss of the Nationals Paris, France, where she graduated in
from the beginning of the contest until 1871. For twelve years she was the dis-
New Orleans was taken was forty killed pensary physician at the Mount Sinai
and 177 wounded. See NEW ORLEANS. Hospital, and for ten years was professor
Jacob, RICHARD TAYLOR, military offi- in the Woman's Medical College, both in
114
JACOBS— JAMES I.
New York. Her essay, The Question of maica, which they easily took possession Rest for Women during Menstruation, of, for it was inhabited by only a few of won the Boylston prize. She is the au- the enervated descendants of old Spanish thor of The Value of Life; Cold Pack and colonists and some negro slaves. Winslow Massage in Anaemia; Hysteria; Brain died at sea soon after the repulse at Santo Tumor, and other Essays; Studies in Pri- Domingo, and Sedgwick, of Massachu- mary Education; Common-Sense Applied setts, was put in his place. He framed an to Woman Suffrage; and numerous articles instrument of government for Jamaica, in medical periodicals. having a supreme executive council, of
Jacobs, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, philan- which he was the head. Cromwell, anx- tliropist; born in Paterson, N. J., Sept. ious to retain and people the island with 18, 1834; received a liberal education; subjects of Great Britain, ordered the en- and engaged in business in Chicago in listment in Ireland of 1,000 girls and 1854. At an early age he became deep- young men, and sent them over. " Idle, ly interested in Sunday-school work. In masterless robbers and vagabonds, male 1856 he was superintendent of the First and female," were arrested and sent to Baptist Mission Sunday-school of Chi- Jamaica; and to have a due admixture of cago, and in 1864 director of the First good morals and religion in the new col- Baptist Sunday Choir. During the Civil ony, Cromwell sent agents to New Eng- War he was secretary of the northwestern land for emigrants. Many at New Haven, branch of the United States Christian not prospering at home, were disposed to Commission. He founded the Waif's go, but, the magistrates opposing, few Mission in Chicago, and with others or- went. The island was of great commercial ganized the Immanuel Baptist Church importance when the outbreak between the there in 1881, becoming superintendent of English-American colonies and the mother its Sunday-school. He originated the country occurred. In December its legis- International Sunday-school Lessons which lature interposed. They affirmed the rights are used now by all evangelical denom- of the colonies, enumerated their griev- inations. In 1872 he became a member ances, and, enforcing their claims to re- of the international lesson committee, dress, implored the King to become the For several years he has been chairman mediator for peace, and to recognize the of the executive committee of the Inter- title of the Americans to the benefits of national Sunday-school Association. the English constitution. They disclaimed
Jacobs, HENRY EYSTER, theologian ; any intention of joining the American con- born in Gettysburg, Pa., Nov. 10, 1844; federated colonies, for they were too weak, graduated at Pennsylvania College in 1862, being only a small colony of white inhab- and at the Lutheran Theological Seminary, itants, with more than 200,000 slaves. Gettysburg, in 1865; became Professor of Their petition was received by the King, Systematic Theology at the Lutheran but no heed was given to it. Theological Seminary in 1888. He is the James I., King of England, etc.; author of History of the Lutheran Church born in Edinburgh Castle, June 19, 1566; in America; The German Emigration to son of Mary Queen of Scots and Henry America, 1709-40, etc. Lord Darnley. Of him Charles Dickens
Jamaica, CONQUEST OF. When Crom- writes : " He was ugly, awkward, and well had made peace with the Dutch shuffling, both in mind and person. His (1654) he declared war against Spain, tongue was much too large for his mouth, and sent a fleet under Admiral Penn and his legs were much too weak for his body, an army under General Venables to attack and his dull google-eyes stared and rolled the Spanish West Indies. Edward Winslow like an idiot's. He was cunning, covet- went with the fleet as one of Cromwell's ous, wasteful, idle, drunken, greedy, dirty, commissioners to superintend the con- cowardly, a great swearer, and the most quered countries. By volunteers from conceited man on earth. His figure — what Barbadoes and the Leeward Islands the was commonly called rickety from his army was increased to 10,000. Santo Do- birth — presented the most ridiculous ap- mingo was first attacked. The English pearance that can be imagined, dressed were repulsed, and then proceeded to Ja- in thick - padded clothes, as a safeguard
115
JAMES I.
against being stabbed (of which he lived in constant fear), of a grass-green color from head to foot, with a hunting horn dangling at his side instead of a sword, and his hat and feather sticking over one eye or hanging on the back of his head, as he happened to toss it on. He used to
JAMES I.
loll on the necks of his favorite courtiers, and slobber their faces, and kiss and pinch their cheeks; and the greatest favorite he ever had used to sign himself, in his let- ters to his royal master, ' his Majesty's dog and slave.' He was the worst rider ever seen, and thought himself the best. He was one of the most impertinent talkers (of the broadest Scotch) ever heard, and boasted of being unanswerable in all man- ner of argument. He wrote some of the most turgid and most wearisome treaties ever read — among others, a book upon witchcraft, in which he was a devout be- liever— and thought himself a prodigy of authorship. He thought, and said, that a king had a right to make and unmake what laws he pleased, and ought to be ac- countable to nobody on earth. This is the plain, true character of the personage whom the greatest men about the Court praised and flattered to that degree that I doubt if there be anything more shameful in the annals of human nature!" James was the sixth King of Scotland of that name, and came to the throne of Eng-
land, after experiencing many vicissitudes, March 24, 1603.
He was regarded as a " Presbyterian king," and the Puritans expected not only the blessings of toleration and protection for themselves, but even hope for suprem- acy among the religionists of the realm. Soon after his accession, James called a conference of divines at Hampton Court. He was chief actor at that conference, in the r6le of " brute and mountebank." Some of the Puritan divines ranked among the brightest scholars in the land. They were greatly annoyed by the coarse browbeating of the bishop of London and the coarser jests of the King. The ven- erable Archbishop Whitgift was present, and bent the supple knee of the courtier in the presence of royalty. When the vulgar King said to the Puritan ministers, " You want to strip Christ again ; away with your snivelling," and much more to that effect, Whitgift, the primate, ex- claimed, " Your Majesty speaks by the special assistance of God's spirit." And the bishop of London fell upon his knees and said, " I protest my heart melts within me for joy that Almighty God, of His singular mercy, has given us such a King as, since Christ's time, has not been." This was the beginning of those royal and prelatical revilings and persecutions of the Puritans by the Stuarts and the hier- archy which drove the Puritans, in large numbers, to seek asylum in the wilds of North America.
The King's gross, ill manners and bad personal appearance made an unfavor- able impression on the English people. He had trouble with Parliament and with the religionists of his realm from the beginning of his reign. Glad to get rid of troublesome subjects, he read- ily granted charters for settlements in America; and in 1612 two "heretics" were burned in England, the last exe- cution of that kind that occurred in that country. His son Henry, Prince of Wales, died the same year, and his daugh- ter Elizabeth was married to the Elector Palatine in 1613. His treatment of Sir Walter Raleigh, whom he caused to be beheaded (October, 1618), was disgrace- ful to human nature; his foreign policy, also, was disgraceful to the English name. Fickle, treacherous, conceited, and arbi-
116
JAMES II.— JAMES
trary, his whole life was an example to be avoided by the good. Dickens's portrayal of his personal character is a fair picture of his reign so far as the King was con- cerned. It was during that reign that a new translation of the Bible was author- ized (1604) — the English version yet in
that of France. Finally, the announce- ment that the Queen had given birth to a son brought on a political crisis. The people had been restrained from revo- lution by the belief that the government would soon fall into the hands of his eld- est daughter, who had married the Prot-
use. The Duke of Buckingham was estant Prince William of Orange. Now James's special favorite for a long time; that event seemed remote, and William and he and the Queen were suspected of was invited by leading men of the realm
to invade England. He did so in Novem- ber, 1688, when the King was abandoned by every one but the Roman Catholics — even by his daughter Anne, who was after- wards Queen of England. James fled to France, where he was received by Louis XIV. with open arms. He made efforts to regain his kingdom, but failed, and died in St. Germain, France, Sept. 6, 1701.
causing the King's last illness, by poison. James II., King of England; born in St. James's Palace, London, Oct. 14, 1633; son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria. During the civil war, in which his father lost his head, James and his brother Gloucester and sister Elizabeth were un- der the guardianship of the Duke of Northumberland, and lived in the palace. When the overthrow of monarchy ap- peared inevitable, in 1648, he fled to the Netherlands, with his mother and family, and he was in Paris when Charles I. was beheaded. He entered the French service (1651), and then the Spanish (1655), and was treated with much consideration by the Spaniards. His brother as- cended the British throne in 1660 as Charles II., and the same year James married Anne Hyde, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. She died in 1671, and two years afterwards, James married Maria Beatrice Elea- nor, a princess of the House of Este, of Modena, twenty-five years younger than himself. While in exile James had become a- Roman Catholic, but did not acknowledge it until 1671. He had become a commander in the British navy, but the test - act of 1673 caused him to leave all public employments. Being sent to Scot- land as head of the administration there, he treated the Covenanters with great cruelty. When Charles died, James became King (Feb. 6, 1685). The prime object of his ad- ministration was to overthrow the constitution of England and give the control of the nation to Roman Catholics. His rule was vigorous — often- times years
detested him. The foreign policy of the government was made subservient to
James, BENJAMIN, lawyer; born in
tyrannous — and in less than three Stafford county, Va., April 22, 1768; be- almost the whole of his subjects came a lawyer and practised in Charles- ton, S. C., till 1796. Removed to his native place and followed his profession
117
JAMES
till 1808, when he settled permanently in press on engrossing questions of the day.
Laurens district, S. C. He published Since 1869 he has lived chiefly in England.
Digest of the Statute and Common Law His publications include Trans-Atlantic
of Carolina. He died in Laurens district, Sketches (1875); A Passionate Pilgrim;
S. C., Nov. 15, 1825. The American; The Europeans; An Inter-
James, EDMUND JANES, educator; born national Episode; The Siege of London; in Jacksonville, 111., May 21, 1855; was The Bostonians; Poor Richard; Watch educated at the Illinois State Normal and Ward; Life of Haivthorne; A Little School and at the Northwestern and Har- Tour in France; A London Life; The vard universities. In 1878-79 he was Tragic Muse; The Lesson of the Master; principal of the High School at Evanston, Embarrassments; Tales of Three Cities; 111.; in 1879-82 principal of the Model Essays in London and Elsewhere; The High School at Normal, 111.; and in 1883- Wheel of Time; What Maisie Knew, etc. 95 Professor of Public Finance and Ad- James, HENRY AMMON, lawyer; born in ministration in the Wharton School of Baltimore, Md., April 24, 1854; graduated Finance and Economy of the University of at Yale College in 1874, and at its law Pennsylvania. He- was also Professor of school in 1878; began practice in New Political and Social Science in the Univer- York City in 1880. He is the author of sity of Pennsylvania in 1884-95, and Communism in America. editor of Political Economy and Public James, LEWIS GEORGE, historian; born Economy and Public Law Series, publish- in Providence, R. I., Feb. 19, 1844; grad- ed by the University of Pennsylvania, in uated at Providence High School; instruc- 1886-95. He became president of the tor in history in the Adelphia Academy, American Academy of Political and Social Brooklyn, in 1894-95. He is the author Science in 1889, and from 1890 to 1895 of Samuel Gorton, a Forgotten Founder edited its Annals. In the latter year he of our Liberties, etc.
was made associate editor. In 1895 he James, THOMAS, clergyman; born in
was chosen Professor of Public Adminis- England in 1592; graduated at Cambridge
tration and director of the Extension in 1614; emigrated to the United States
Division in the University of Chicago. In in 1632, where he became the first pastor
1891-95 he was president of the American of the church in Charlestown, Mass. In
Society for the Extension of University consequence of dissension he removed to
Teaching. He is the author of Our Legal- New Haven and subsequently to Virginia,
Tender Decisions; The Education of Busi- but was obliged to leave Virginia as he
ness Men; The Relation of the Modern refused to conform to the English Church.
Municipality to the Gas Supply; and also He returned to New England in 1643, but
numerous papers and addresses on polit- went back to England, where he became
ical and educational topics. pastor of a church in Needham till 1662,
James, EDWIN, geologist; born in Wey- when he was removed for non-conformity
bridge, Vt., Aug. 27, 1797; graduated at after the accession of Charles II. He died
Middlebury College in 1816; and after- in England in 1678.
wards studied medicine, botany, and geol- James, THOMAS, navigator; born in
ogy in Boston. He is the author of a England about 1590. In 1631 he was
Report of the Expedition to the Rocky sent out by an association at Bristol to
Mountains, 1818-19; Narrative of John search for a northwest passage. With
Tanner, etc. He died in Burlington, la., twenty-one men, in the ship Henrietta
Oct. 28, 1861. Maria (named in honor of the Queen),
James, HENRY, author; born in New he sailed May 3. On June 29 he spoke
York City, April 15, 1843; was educated in the ship of Capt. Luke Fox, who had been
France, Switzerland, and in the Harvard sent on the same errand by the King, and
Law School. His literary career opened furnished with a letter to the Emperor
in 1866. A year or two later he began of Japan, if he should find that country,
writing serial stories, but produced no ex- Neither James nor Fox discovered the cov-
tended novel till 1875. He has since been eted " passage," but the former made valu-
a prolific writer, not only of novels but able discoveries in Hudson Bay. James
also of contributions to the periodical was a man of science, and in his Journal
118
JAMES— JAMESTOWN
he recorded his observations on rarities he History at the University of Chicago. He bad discovered, " both philosophicall and is the author of William Usselinx, Found- mathematicall." James and his crew suf- er of the Dutch and Swedish West India fered terribly, for they passed a winter in Companies; History of Historical Writing those high latitudes, and returned in in America; Dictionary of United States 1632. In the following year he published History, etc. He is also the editor of Es- The Strange and Dangerous Voyage of says on Constitutional History of the Capt. Thomas James for the Discovery of United States; and The Correspondence of a Northwest Passage to the South Sea. John C. Calhoun.
James, THOMAS LEMUEL, journalist; Jamestown. On May 13, 1607, more born in Utica, N. Y., March 29, 1831; than 100 Englishmen landed on a slightly proprietor of the Madison County Jour- elevated peninsula on the left bank of nal, published at Hamilton, N. Y., 1851- the "River of Powhatan," Virginia, 40 61; took an active interest in politics, or 50 miles from its mouth; chose the serving the State and nation in various spot for the capital of a new colony; capacities; was appointed postmaster of cleared the trees from the ground; and New York City in 1873; Postmaster-Gen- began the building of a village, which, in eral, March 6, 1881; and resigned in 1882, compliment to their King (James I.), when he organized and became president they named Jamestown. They also gave of the Lincoln National Bank, New York his name to the river. The spot is more City. of an island than a peninsula, for the
James, WILLIAM, psychologist; born in marshy isthmus that connects it with the New York City, Jan. 11, 1842; was edu- mainland is often covered with water. The cated in private schools and at the Law- Rev. Robert Hunt, the pastor of the col- rence Scientific School. In 1872 he became ony, preached a sermon and invoked the Professor of Philosophy at Harvard Uni- blessings of God upon their undertaking, versity. He is the author of Principles Then, in the warm sunshine, and among of Psychology; Psychology: Briefer the shadowy woods and the delicious per- Cotirse; The Will to Believe, and other fume of flowers, the sound of the metal Essays in Popular Philosophy. He was appointed Gif- ford lecturer on natural religion in the University of Edinburgh for 1899-1901.
Jameson, JOHN FRANKLIN, educa- tor; born in Bos- ton, Sept. 19, 1859; graduated at Amherst in 1879. In 1895, when the American Historical Review was founded, he became its man- aging editor. In the same year,
when the Historical Manuscript Commis- axe was first heard in Virginia. Th<« sion was instituted, he was made its first tree was felled for a dwelling on th^ chairman, and served as such till 1899. spot first settled, permanently, by English- He was Professor of History at Brown men in America. The Indians were at University in 1888-1900. In the latter first hostile, and the settlement built a year he accepted a call to the chair of stockade. Their first church edifice there
119
THE ARRIVAL AT JAMESTOWN.
JAMESTOWN
was very simple. "When I first went like a barn" — was burned while Captain to Virginia," says Captain Smith, " I Smith was a prisoner among the Indians, well remember we did hang an awning and he found the settlers building a house (which was an old sail) to three or four for the president of the council. When,
not long after, he was installed in that office, he ordered the " building of the palace to be stayed, as a thing needless," and the church to be re- built at once.
Commissioners under the new charter arrived at Jamestown in the spring of 1610. Of the 490 persons left there by Smith the previous autumn, only sixty remain- ed alive. They had refused to iol- low the admonitions of Smith to provide food for the winter, but relied upon the neighboring Indians to supply them. When Smith de- parted, the Indians showed hostility and withheld corn and game. They matured a plan for the destruction of the settlers at Jamestown, when POCAHONTAS (q. v.) , like an angel of mercy, hastened to the settlement un- der cover of darkness, warned them of their danger, put them on their guard, and saved them. Terrible had been the sufferings of the colonists through the winter. More than 400 had perished by famine and sickness in the space of six months. It was long after referred to by the sur- vivors as " the starving time." The settlers were in the depths of despair when the commissioners arrived. Sir Thomas Gates, who was acting gov- ernor, saw no other way to save the
trees to shadow us from the sun; our lives of the starving men than to abandon walls were rails of wood, our seats un- the settlement, sail to Newfoundland, and hewed trees, till we cut planks; our pul- distribute them among the fishermen pit a bar of wood nailed to two neighbor- there. They were embarked in four pin- ing trees; in foul weather we shifted naces, but, at dawn, they met Lord Dela- into an old, rotten tent, for we had few ware, with ships, supplies, and emigrants,
MAP OF JAMESTOWN SETTLEMENT. (From Capt. John Smith's Historic of Virginia.)
better.
This was our church till at the mouth of the river. All turned
we built a homely thing, like a barn, set back and, landed at deserted Jamestown,
upon crotchets, covered with rafts, sedge, they stood in silent prayer and thanks-
and earth ; so were also the walls. The giving on the shore, and then followed
best of our houses were of the like curios- Rev. Mr. Buckle (who had succeeded Mr.
ity, but, for the most part, of far worse Hunt) to the church, where he preached
workmanship, that could neither well de- a sermon in the evening twilight. The
fend wind nor rain. Yet we had daily congregation sang anthems of praise, and
common prayer morning and evening, were listened to by crouching savages in
every Sunday two sermons, and every the adjacent woods. In that little chapel
three months communion till our minister at Jamestown Pocahontas was baptized
died." The church — " the homely thing, and married a few years later. The fire
120
IMHH1
THE BURNING OF JA]V1ESTOWN
JAMESTOWN
that consumed the first church also de- stroyed a large portion of the town and surrounding palisades. There seems to have been another destructive fire there afterwards, for Smith, speaking of the arrival of Governor Argall, in 1617, says: "In Jamestown he found but five or six houses, the church down, the palisades broken, the bridge [across the marsh] in pieces, the well of fresh water spoiled, and the storehouse used
colony was 4,000 strong and shipped to England 40,000 pounds of tobacco. This was raised with the aid of many bound apprentices — boys and girls picked up in the streets of London and sent out — and of many " disorderly persons " sent by order of the King."
Suddenly a great calamity overtook the colony. Powhatan was dead, and his suc- cessor, OPECHANCANOUGH (q. v.) , always hostile, planned a blow for the extermina-
ARRIVAL OF THE YOUNG WOMEN AT JAMESTOWN.
for a church." In the same year Smith's tion of the white people. It fell with
Generall Historie recalls a statement by terrible force late in March, 1622, and
John Rolfe: "About the last of August eighty plantations were reduced to eight,
came a Dutch man-of-war and sold us The settlers at Jamestown escaped the
20 Negars." A more desirable acces- calamity through the good offices of
sion came in 1621 through the ship- Chanco, a friendly Indian, who gave them
ment by the company of " respectable timely warning of the plot, and they were
young women for wives of those colonists prepared for defence. Jamestown became
who would pay the cost of transporta- a refuge from the storm for the western
tion " — at first 120 Ibs. of tobacco, af- settlements: Sickness and famine en-
terwards 150 Ibs. In July, 1620, the sued, and the -colony was greatly reduced
121
JAMESTOWN— JANNEY
JAMESTOWN IN 1622.
in number, for many left through fear. It soon recovered, and increased in strength. A new and substantial church was built, with a heavy brick tower, prob- ably between 1620 and 1625. During Ba-
having reached Bacon that the royalist troops were coming upon him. The torch was applied just at twilight, and the Vir- ginia capital was laid in ashes. Nothing remained the next morning but the brick
JAMESTOWN IN 1902.
con's Rebellion, in 1676, Jamestown — " the only village in all Virginia " — was entered
tower of the church and a few solitary chimneys.
by that leader, after driving away the Janney, SAMUEL MACPHERSON, author ; governor, and, in a council of war it was born in Loudon county, Va., Jan. 11, 1801; determined to burn the town, a rumor became a Quaker preacher; was appointed
122
JANVIER— -JARBOE
a superintendent of Indian affairs in 18G9. In February, 1854, he returned to the
His publications include An Historical Bay of Jeddo, and finally effected a land-
Sketch of the Christian Church during the ing and commenced negotiations, which
Middle Ages; Life of William Pain; His- were happily successful. The treaty then
tory of the Religious Society of Friends made stipulated that ports should be
from Its Rise to the Year 1828, etc. He thrown open to American commerce, to a
30, limited extent, in different Japanese isl-
died in Loudon county, Va., April
1880.
ands; that steamers from California to
Janvier, THOMAS ALLIBONE, author; China should be furnished with supplies born in Philadelphia, Pa., July 16, 1849. of coal; and that American sailors ship- He is the author of The Aztec Treasure- wrecked on the Japanese coasts should re- House; In Old Neiv York; Stories of Old ceive hospitable treatment. So Japan was New Spain, etc. first opened to friendly relations with the
Japan and the United States. Japan, Americans. Before this treaty the Dutch like China, had always been a sort of seal- had monopolized the trade of Japan. Sub- ed kingdom to the commerce of the world, sequently a peculiar construction of the The foundation of the States of California treaty on the part of the Japanese au- and Oregon, on the Pacific coast, suggest- thorities, in relation to the permanent ed the great importance of commercial residence of Americans there, threatened intercourse with Japan, because of the a disturbance of the amicable delations intimate relations which must soon exist which had been established. The matter between that coast and the East Indies, was adjusted, and in 1860 the first em- This consideration caused an expedition bassy from Japan visited the United to be fitted out by the United States gov- States. It was an imposing array of Jap- ernment in the summer of 1852 ta carry anese officials. There was great opposi- a letter from the President ( Mr. Fill- tlon in the empire to this intercourse with more ) to the Emperor of Japan soliciting " the barbarians." Civil war ensued. A the negotiation of a treaty of friendship rapid change now marked public opinion and commerce between the two nations, i" Japan in regard to foreigners; and by which the ports of the latter should be from that time the intimate relations, so- thrown open to American vessels for pur- cial and commercial, between the United poses of trade. For this expedition seven States and Japan have constantly in- ships-of-war were employed. They were creased, with results wonderfully bene- placed under the command of Commodore ficial to both countries. Early in 1872 the M. C. Perry, a brother of the victor on government of Japan sent another embas- Lake Erie. The diplomatic portion of the sy to the United States, this one charged mission was also intrusted to Commodore to inquire about the renewal of former Perry. He did not sail until November, treaties. It consisted of twenty-one per- 1852. The letter which he bore to the Em- sons, composed, of the heads of the several peror was drafted by Mr. Webster before departments of the Japanese government *his decease, but countersigned by Edward and their secretaries. Among them was Everett, his successor in office. Perry an imperial prince — Mori — who came to carried out many useful implements and represent Japan at Washington as charge inventions as presents to the Japanese d'affaires, and also twelve students. The government, including a small railway mission arrived at Washington at the be- and equipments, telegraph, etc. He was ginning of March, and Mori had the honor instructed to approach the Emperor in the of being the first minister ever sent by most friendly manner; to use no violence his government to reside in a foreign unless attacked; but if attacked, to let coimtry.
the Japanese feel the full weight of his Jarboe, JOHN W., inventor; born in
power. Perry delivered his letter of ere- 1830. He served through the Civil War
dence, and waited some months for an in the 71st New York Regiment, and was
answer, without being permitted to land later influential in securing the display
on the shores of the empire. Meanwhile of the American flag over the public
he visited and surveyed the Loo Choo Isl- school-houses of the country. He was the
ands. inventor of a process of making house-
123
JARNAC— JASPER
hold utensils from papier-mache" and sev- eral articles employed in the manufacture of sugar. He died in New York City, June 30, 1901.
Jarnac, G ASTON LOUIS DE, military offi- cer; born in Ango'ilmne, France, in 1758; served in the French army during the Revolutionary War; emigrated to the United States in 1795; returned to France in 1805, but, being obliged to leave the country on account of his criticisms of Napoleon, he again came to the United States, where he took service under Jean Lafitte, the Louisiana buccaneer. Jarnac was killed by the Indians in Texas, in 1818.
Jarves, JAMES JACKSON, author; born in Boston, Mass., Aug. 20, 1820; estab- lished the first newspaper printed in the Hawaiian Islands, in 1840. In 1850 he was appointed by King Kamehameha III. commissioner to the United States, Great Britain, and France, for the purpose of negotiating treaties, and in 1879 United States vice-consul in Florence, Italy. Among his works are History of Hawaii; Parisian Sights and French Principles seen through American Spectacles; Italian Sights, etc. He died in Terasp, Switzer- land, June 28, 1888.
Jasper, WILLIAM, military hero; born in South Carolina, about 1750; became a
sergeant in the 2d South Carolina Regi- ment; and greatly distinguished himself in the attack on Fort Sullivan, June 28, 1776, by the British fleet. During the hottest of the attack the South Carolina flag that waved over the fort fell to the ground outside the fort, its staff having been cut in two by a cannon-ball. Ser- geant Jasper, seeing the flag fall, leaped down from one of the embrasures, seized the ensign, climbed back, fixed the colors to a sponge-staff, mounted the parapet, stuck the improvised flag-staff in the sand of one of the bastions, and returned to his place in the fort. A few days after- wards Governor Rutledge took his own sword from his side and presented it to Jasper. He also offered him a lieuten- ant's commission, which the young man modestly declined, because he could neither read nor write, saying, "I am not fit to keep officers' company; I am but a sergeant." He was given a sort of roving commission by Colonel Moultrie, and, with five or six men, he often brought in prisoners before his commander was aware of his absence. An earnest Whig lady of Charleston, Mrs. Susannah El- liot, presented Jasper's regiment with a stand of colors wrought with her own hands. They were shot down at the as- sault on Savannah (1779), and in trying
SERGEANT JASPER RKPLACINO THE COLORS.
124
JAY
to replace them on the parapet of a re- ization of the government under the doubt, Jasper was mortally wounded, but national Constitution. Mr. Jay was as- brought them off. He died Oct. 9, 1779. sociated with Hamilton and Madison in Jay, JOHN, diplomatist; born in New writing the series of articles in support York City. June 23, 1817; graduated at of the Constitution known collectively as Columbia College in 1836; admitted to the The Federalist. Washington appointed bar in 1839; appointed minister to Austria Jay the first chief-justice of the Supreme in 1869; chairman of the committee to Court of the United States, investigate the New York custom-house On April 7, 1794, a motion was made in 1877; and member of the State civil in the House of Representatives that all service in 1883. Mr. Jay was a prominent commercial intercourse with Great Brit- abolitionist and author of a number of ain and her subjects be suspended, so far pamphlets, among them are The Dignity of as respected all articles of the growth or the Abolition Cause; The American Church manufacture of Great Britain or Ireland, and the American Slave-Trade; The Great until the surrender of the Western posts Conspiracy and England's Neutrality; and due compensation for all losses and Caste and Slavery in the American damages growing out of British aggres- Church; America Free, or America Slave, sions on our neutral rights should be etc. He died in New York City, May 5, made. This motion, if adopted, would 1894. lead directly to war. Its adoption seemed
Jay, JOHN, statesman; born in New probable, and Washington, to avert the York City, Dec. 12, 1745; was of Hugue- calamitous consequences, proposed to send not descent. Graduated at King's College a special minister to England to negotiate (now Columbia University) in 1764, he an amicable settlement of the existing was admitted to the bar in 1768, and disputes. There were grave charges of formed a partnership with Robert R. Liv- violations of the treaty of 1783 made by ingston. In 1774 he was a delegate in the the two parties against each other. Wash- first Continental Congress, and the same ington desired to send Hamilton on the year he married a daughter of William mission. Violent opposition to this was Livingston, of New Jersey. In that Con- made by his political enemies, whose ha- gress, though the youngest member but tred and jealousy were intense. Fearing one, he took a conspicuous part, being the Hamilton might not have the confirmation author of the Address to the People of of the Senate, Washington nominated Mr. Great Britain. His facile pen was often Jay (April 16), which nomination was employed in framing documents in the confirmed April 19. The special minister Congress of 1775. Early in 1776 he left arrived in England in June, where he was Congress and engaged in the public affairs received with great courtesy by the Brit- of his own State, being a leading member ish government. He negotiated a treaty of the Provincial Congress in 1776. He which was not wholly satisfactory to his wrote the able address of the convention countrymen, closing his labors on Nov. 19 ; at Fishkill in December, 1776; reported a and from 1795 to 1801 he was governor bill of rights to the New York constitu- of New York, under whose administration tional convention in March, 1777; and slavery was abolished. This was his last was the chief author of the first consti- public office. He died in Bedford, N. Y., tution of the State of New York. After May 17, 1829. See AMES, FISHER. assisting in putting in motion the ma- Jay's Treaty. — After Mr. Jay's formal chinery of his State government, and be- reception in London, Lord Grenville, then ing made a judge he entered Congress at the head of foreign affairs, expressed again late in 1778 and became presi- great anxiety to bring the negotiations dent of that body. In September, 1779, to a successful issue. There was a wide he was sent to Spain to negotiate a loan, difference of views concerning matters Mr. Jay was one of the commissioners for in dispute. The Americans complained negotiating a treaty of peace with Great that, contrary to the provisions of the Britain. He returned to New York in treaty of peace (1783), a large number 1784, and was secretary for foreign of negroes had been carried off by the affairs from that year until the organ- evacuating armies; and for this loss com-
125
JAY, JOHN
pensation was demanded for the owners, dered on June 1, 1796, the present resi- They complained, also, of the detention dents to have the option of removing or of the Western posts, which was the main of becoming American citizens. There cause of the hostility of the Northwestern was to be a mutual reciprocity of inland tribes. They also alleged numerous viola- trade and intercourse between the North
American territories of the two na- tions, including the navigation of the Mississippi; but it did not extend to the Hudson Bay Company, nor to the admission of American vessels into the harbors of the British North American colonies, nor to the naviga- tion of the rivers of those colonies below the highest port of entry. These were the principal features of the first ten articles of the treaty, which were to be perpetual. Eighteen oth- ers, of the nature of a treaty of com- merce, were limited to two years. They provided for the admission of American vessels into British ports in Europe and the East Indies on terms of equality with British ves- sels; but no terms were made con- cerning the East India coasting trade, or the trade between Europe and the British West Indies. There were re- strictions upon the American trade to the British West Indies; and British vessels were to be admitted to Ameri- JOHN JAY. can ports on terms of the most fa-
vored nations. Privateers were to
tions of their neutral rights, especially give bonds to respond to any dam- on the high seas, such as the impressment ages they might commit against neu- of seamen and the exclusion of American trals, and other regulations of that ser- shipping from the trade of the British vice were made. The list of contraband West Indies. There were other complaints articles was clearly defined. No vessel on the part of the Americans; but the attempting to enter a blockaded port was matters more immediately provocative to be captured unless she had first been of war were the disputed questions of notified and turned away. Neither nation neutral rights and the detention of the was to allow enlistments within its ter- Western posts. Deeming it wise to adjust ritory by any third nation at war with these two important difficulties, Jay the other; nor were the citizens or sub- thought it best to yield, temporarily, other jects of either to be allowed to accept considerations, or leave them for future commissions from such third nation, or adjustment, and he was induced to sign to enlist in its service, on penalty of a treaty, Nov. 19, 1794, defective in some being treated as pirates. Ships-of-war respects and objectionable in others. It of the contracting parties were to be provided for the collection of British debts mutually admitted in a friendly man- in the United States contracted before the ner into the ports of each other, such Revolution, but it did not secure indem- vessels to be free from any claim of nity to those who lost slaves. It secured search, but were to depart as speedily indemnity for unlawful captures on the as might be. Other and stringent regu- high seas, and the evacuation of the lations were made concerning privateers, military posts on the frontiers yet held In case of rupture or war, the citizens by the British. These were to be surren- or subjects of either nation resident in
126
JAY, JOHN
the territories of the other were to be der of American rights. In order to pre- allowed to remain and to continue their vent misrepresentations, and to elicit the trade so long as they behaved peaceably, expressions of the people, Washington They might be ordered off, in case of caused the whole treaty to be published, suspicion, on twelve months' notice, or A mad, seditious cry went over the land without any notice, if detected in viola- from the opposition. In several cities tions of the laws. No reprisals were to mobs threatened personal violence to the be ordered by either party till satisfaction supporters of the treaty. Hamilton was had first been demanded. Fugitives from stoned at a public meeting in New York, justice charged with murder or forgery while speaking in the open air. The Brit- were to be mutually given up. ish minister at Philadelphia was insulted ; Early Opposition. — The treaty was con- and in Charleston the British flag was eluded at London on Nov. 19, 1794. It trailed in the dust of the streets. Jay reached the President in March, 1795, was denounced as a traitor; and in Vir- after the adjournment of Congress. The ginia disunion was recommended as a cure Senate was convened, in special session, for political evils. The Democratic socie- to consider it, early in June, 1795. After ties and orators put forth claims for a debate for a fortnight, in secret session, sympathy for France. " She has a govern- a vote of 20 to 10 — precisely a constitu- ment congenial to our own. Citizens, your tional majority — advised (June 24) the security depends on France. Let us unite ratification of the treaty, excepting the with her and stand or fall together!" article which related to the renunciation shouted opposition orators throughout the by the Americans of the privilege of trans- country. The Democrats adorned their portation of sugar, molasses, coffee, co- hats with the French cockade. Jay was coa, and cotton in the West India trade, burned in effigy in many places, and long- Cotton was then just promising to be ings for the -guillotine were freely express- of vast importance in the carrying-trade, ed in public assemblies, and such an article was wholly inadmissi- When the President had proclaimed the ble. The President had determined, before treaty as the law of the land, he, accord- the meeting of the Senate, to ratify the ing to promise, sent a copy of it, March treaty; and when it was laid before the 2, 1796, to the House. Its appearance was cabinet all agreed with him excepting the beginning of a violent debate in that the Secretary of State (Edmund Ran- body, which turned upon the question dolph, of Virginia), who raised the point whether the House possessed discretionary that by the ratification, before an ob- power to carry the treaty into execution noxious British Order in Council concern- or not at its pleasure. The debate arose ing neutrals should be repealed, the Brit- on a motion of Edward Livingston, of ish claim to the right of search and im- New York, calling upon the President for pressment would be conceded by the his instructions to Jay and other papers Americans. Hamilton, who had been relating to the treaty. After about thirty consulted, advised the ratification, but speeches, in a debate of three weeks, which to withhold the exchange of ratifications grew warmer and warmer the longer it until that order should be repealed. The lasted, the resolution was adopted, March Senate had removed the seal of secrecy 24, by a vote of 62 to 37. The President from their proceedings, but had forbidden consulted his cabinet, and they unanimous- any publication of the treaty itself. State- ly decided that the House had no right ments concerning the provisions of the to make such a call, as they were not a treaty soon appeared. The Democratic part of the treaty-making power. They societies and newspapers had resolved to also decided that it was not expedient oppose and attack the treaty whatever for the President to furnish the papers, might be its provisions. They had opposed for the call should be considered as an the mission to negotiate it. After it was unfounded claim of power on the part received Randolph revealed enough of its of the House to interfere with the privi- character to give a foundation for many leges of the President and Senate. The attacks upon it in the newspapers. It President, therefore, declined to comply was denounced as a pusillanimous surren- with the request of the House, giving
127
JAY— JAYHAWKERS
his reasons in a special message. Reso- A resolution declaring the treaty uncon- lutions asserting the majesty of the House stitutional was defeated. The legislature were introduced (April 6), and were sup- of Delaware passed, Jan. 14, 1796, a reso- ported by Madison. These resolutions were lution of approval. Gov. Samuel Adams, adopted by a vote of 57 to 35, and the of Massachusetts, spoke of the treaty subject of the " British treaty " was a as " pregnant with evil," suggested a con- staple topic of debate for some time after- flict of authority between the President wards. Finally, April 30, the House pass- and Senate and the House of Representa- ed a resolution — 51 to 48 — that it was tives, and transmitted to the general expedient to pass laws for carrying the court the resolutions of Virginia on the treaty into effect. subject of amendments to the Constitu- The discussions of the treaty were soon tion. The Massachusetts Senate declared transferred from public meetings and the their concurrence in the belief of the newspapers to the arena of State legisla- governor that the national government tures. Governor Shelby, in his speech to was in " honest hands," and the house sug- the Kentucky legislature, attacked the gested "a respectful submission on the treaty. The House seemed to agree with part of the people to the constituted au- him (Nov. 4, 1794), but the Senate evaded thorities as the surest means of enjoying any decided committal. The house of and perpetuating the invaluable blessings delegates of Virginia adopted, by a vote of our free and representative govern- of 100 to 50, a resolution approving the ment." The general court of Rhode Island conduct of their Senators in voting (Nov. expressed their confidence in the general 20) against the treaty. A counter-resolu- government. So, also, did the legislature tion declaring their undiminished confi- of New York.
dence in the President was lost — 59 to Jay, JOHN, diplomatist; born in New
79; but another resolution disclaiming York City, June 23, 1817; son of William
any imputation of the President's motives Jay; became manager of the New York
was passed — 78 to 62. The legislature of Young Men's Anti-slavery Society in 1834;
Maryland resolved that they felt a deep was graduated at Columbia College in
concern at efforts to detach from the 1836; admitted to the bar in 1839; acted
President the " well-earned confidence of as counsel without pay for many fugitive
his fellow-citizens," and declared their slaves; minister to Austria in 1869-75;
" unabated reliance in his judgment, integ- chairman of the committee to investigate
rity, and patriotism." The Senate of Penn- the system of the New York Custom-
sylvania made a similar declaration. The House in 1877; and president of the New
legislature of New Hampshire expressed, York State Civil Service Commission in
Dec. 5, 1795, their " abhorrence of those 1883-88. He died in New York City, May
disturbers of the peace " who had endeav- 5, 1894.
ored to render abortive measures so well Jay, WILLIAM, jurist; born in New calculated to advance the happiness of the York City, June 16, 1789; son of John country. The North Carolina legislature, Jay; graduated at Yale in 1807; appoint- by a decided majority, adopted a series of ed judge of the Court of Common Pleas in resolutions, Dec. 8, reprobating the treaty 1818; reappointed under the new consti- and thanking their Senators for having tution in 1822; served till 1843, when he opposed it. In the legislature of South was superseded on account of his anti- Carolina resolutions were introduced de- slavery views. He was the author of Life Glaring the treaty "highly injurious to of John Jay; The Action of the Federal the general interests of the United Government in Behalf of Slavery; War States " ; when the friends of the treaty, and Peace, in which he suggested that finding themselves in a minority, declared international disputes should be settled the legislature had no business to interfere by arbitration; The Mexican War; etc. with the duties of the President and Sen- He died in Bedford, N. Y., Oct. 14, 1858. ate of the United States, and refused Jayhawfeers and Bed Legs, names ap- to vote, the resolutions were adopted unan- plied to Free-State men who, during the imously. The House did not venture to Kansas conflict in 1854-59, began a series send up these resolutions to the Senate, of reprisals for outrages committed by
128
JAYNE— JEFFERSON
pro-slavery men, but ultimately practical- Adelplii Theatre, London, and, although
ly became bandits. he has since played in many of the most
Jayne, HORACE, biologist; born in Phila- popular comedies of the day, and in vari- delphia, March 5, 1859; graduated at ous parts of the world, he will be remem- the University of Pennsylvania in 1879, bered longest for his presentations of that and at its medical school in 1882; studied character. Mr. Jefferson has also distin- biology at Leipzig and Jena in 1883-84; guished himself as an orator and a paint- and, returning to the United States, was er. For many years his chief diversions first appointed lecturer in biology in the were fishing and painting, and in 1899 University of Pennsylvania, and subse- he permitted an exhibition of sixteen of quently Professor of Vertebrate Morphol- his landscape-paintings in oil in the ogy there. For a number of years he was national capital. He published an auto- dean of the faculty. In 1900 he was di- biography in 1890.
rector of the Wistar Institute of the Uni- As the representative of the dramatic
versity of Pennsylvania. He is the author profession, Mr. Jefferson was invited by
of Mammalian Anatomy; Revision of the the faculty of Yale University to deliver
Dermestidce of North America; Abnormi- a lecture on Dramatic Art, which was
ties Observed in North American Coleop- given on April 27, 1892, in the course of
tera, etc. which he says:
Jeannette, VOYAGE OF THE. See DE LONG. If I am asked to reason from my knowl-
Jeffers, WILLIAM NICHOLSON, naval edge and engraft it on the history of officer; born in Gloucester county, N. J., the past, I would unhesitatingly declare Oct. 6, 1824; joined the navy in 1840; that the stage is in a much better con- served in the war with Mexico, and also dition now than it ever was before. The through the Civil War; was promoted social and moral status of the whole commodore in February, 1878. His pub- world has undoubtedly improved, and gone lications include Short Methods in Navi- hand in hand with scientific and material gation; Theory and Practice- of Naval progress; and permit me to assure you Gunnery; Inspection and Proof of Can- that the stage in this respect has not been non; Marine Surveying; Ordnance In- idle, but that, to my knowledge, it has structions for United States Navy, etc. in the march of improvement kept pace He died in Washington, D. C., July 23, foot by foot with every social advance. 1883. Even the coarse dramas of the olden
Jefferson, the name proposed to be time were in keeping with the conditions
given to what is now the State of Colo- of the social and literary society that sur-
rado, in 1858, when an attempt was made rounded it. Those plays that appealed
to establish a provisional government, to the lowest tastes were not only welcome
The scheme failed in consequence of con- but demanded by the court of Charles,
flicting claims on the part of the surround- Old Pepys, who lived during this time,
ing Territories. When, however, Congress says in his diary: "I went last night
created the new Territory in 1861, the to see A Midsummer Night's Dream; it
name Colorado was given to it. was a great waste of time, and I hope I
Jeff erson, JOSEPH, actor ; born in Phila- shall never again be condemned to see
delphia, Pa., Feb. 20, 1829; is descended such a poor play. Ah, give me a com-
from several generations of actors ; made edy of Ethelridge, and let us have no more
his first appearance on the stage when of this dull, vague Shakespeare." It was
three years old; played in the old Span- not, therefore, that there were no good
ish theatre in Matamoras, Mexico, two plays, but that the vicious public wanted
days after that city was taken by the bad ones, and while rakes and unprin-
Americans; and in 1857 established his cipled gallants and vile women were the
reputation as a comedian by his perform- heroes and heroines of the stage, the
ance as Asa Trenohnrd in Our American plays of Shakespeare had been written for
Cousin, in New York City. In 1865 he a hundred years. Such lovely creatures
appeared for the first time in his inimi- as Rosalind, Desdemona, Beatrice, Ophelia,
table r61e of Rip Van Winkle, in the Imogene, Portia, and Juliet, together with v.— i 129
JEFFERSON
their noble mates, Orlando, Benedict, Ham- And so the people insisted that the actors
let, Romeo, and a host of pure and mar- should give them an exhibition of the
vellous creations, were moulding on the licentious times rather than the splendid
shelves, because the managers had suffered lessons of Shakespeare. As the social
bankruptcy for daring to produce them, world improved in its tastes the drama
Shakespeare says that the actors are " the followed it — nay, in some instances has
abstract and brief chronicles of the times." led it.
JEFFERSON, THOMAS
Jefferson, THOMAS, third President of the United States; born in Shadwell, Va.,
View of the Rights of British America, which, it is believed, procured for him
April 2, 1743; was educated at the Col- a place in the list of American traitors
lege of William and Mary; studied law under George Wythe; and was admitted to the bar in 1767. From 1769 to 1775 he was an active member of the Virginia House of Burgesses. In that body he introduced a bill empowering masters to manumit their slaves. On Jan. 1, 1771,
denounced by the British Parliament. He had taken an active part against the Boston port bill. Mr. Jefferson took his seat in the Continental Congress in June, 1775, when he was thirty- two years of age. In that body he served on the most important committees, and in drawing up state papers. On the committee to draft the Declaration of Independence, to Mr. Jefferson was assigned the duty of writ- ing that important paper, which he ad- vocated and signed. True to the proclivi- ties of his nature in favor of human liberty, he introduced a clause censuring slavery, which was stricken out. In Oc- tober, 1776, he retired from Congress to take part in his own State affairs, and for two years and a half was employed in revising the laws of Virginia and pro- curing some wise enactments, such as abolishing the laws of primogeniture, giv- ing freedom to convicts, etc. During the entire Revolutionary War Jefferson was very active in his own State, serving as its governor from June, 1779, to 1781. At the time of his retirement from the chair, Cornwallis, invading Virginia, des- olated Jefferson's estate at Elk Hill, and he and his family narrowly escaped capt- ure. Mr. Jefferson was again in Con- gress in 1783, and, as chairman of a committee, reported to that body the definite treaty of peace with Great Brit- ain. Assisting the suggestions of Gouver- he married Martha Skelton, a rich and neur Morris, he proposed and carried a beautiful young widow of twenty-three, bill establishing the decimal system of He was a member of the committee of currency. In 1785 he succeeded Dr. correspondence of Virginia, which he as- Franklin as minister at the French Court, sisted in forming, and was engaged in where he remained until 1789, when he active public life until his retirement returned and took a seat in Washing- from the Presidency of the United States, ton's cabinet as Secretary of State. In 1774 he wrote his famous Summary In France he had published his Notes
130
STATUK OF THOilAS JEFFKRSON.
JEFFERSON, THOMAS
( X,
on Virginia, and he had there become ed men of his own country and of Europe, thoroughly imbued with the spirit of In person he was tall and slender, with the French revolutionists previous to sandy hair, florid complexion in his youth, the bloody era of 1793. Not finding at and brilliant gray eyes, a little inclining home the same enthusiastic admiration to brown. He was buried in a family of the French people in their struggle against " the conspiracy of the kings," he became morbidly sus- picious of a monarchical party in the United States that might overthrow the government. He formed and led an active party called " Republican " or " Democratic," and there was much acrimonious feeling soon engendered between that and the Federal party, of which Alexander Hamilton was the active leader. Mr. Jef- ferson was an able leader of the Democratic party, and secured so large a fol- lowing that in 1800 he was elected President, and served eight years, retir- ing in March, 1809, when he withdrew from public life and retired to his seat at Monticello, near Char- lottesville, Va. Among the important events of his administration were the purchase of Louisiana, an exploration of the conti- nent from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean,
and difficulties with France and Great cemetery near his house at Monticello, Britain on account of their violation of and over his grave is a granite monument, the rights of neutrals. Mr. Jefferson was bearing the inscription, written by him- the founder of the University of Virginia self, and found among his papers after his (1819) at Charlottesville, Va., and was death, "Here lies buried Thomas Jeffer- its rector until his death, which occurred son, author of the Declaration of Inde- on the same day, and almost at the same pendence, of the Statute of Virginia for hour, as that on which John Adams died, religious freedom, and father of the Uni- \vho was his associate in drafting the versity of Virginia." Mr. Jefferson re- Declaration of Independence, and sign- garded slavery as a moral and political ing it, just fifty years before (July 4, evil, and did much to alleviate its hard- 1826). ships. His correspondence with men of
Jefferson was a keen politician, though all classes was voluminous, for he was a no speaker; a man of great learning and fluent writer and had a very wide ac- fine scholarly as well as scientific attain- quaintance. Few men have exerted as ments, and in conversation extremely at- much influence in establishing the free tractive. His house was the resort of learn- institutions of the United States as
131
CARICATURE OF JEFFERSON.
JEFFERSON, THOMAS
Thomas Jefferson. He adopted for the motto of his private seal that of Oliver Cromwell — " Rebellion to tyrants is obedience to God." See LEWIS, MERI-
WETHEE.
When, in the early summer of 1781, Cornwallis was overrunning a portion of Virginia, he sent Tarleton with his cav- alry to capture the Virginia Assembly siting at Charlottesville, and also Gov- ernor Jefferson, who lived 2 miles from that place. On the way Tarleton destroyed twelve wagon-loads of clothing intended for Greene's army in North Carolina. Within 10 miles of Charlottesville Tarle- ton detached Captain McLeod, with a party of horsemen, to capture Governor Jefferson at Monticello, while he pressed forward. On his way he captured some members of the legislature, but when he arrived at Charlottesville the remainder, forewarned, had fled and escaped. Mc- Leod's expedition to Monticello was quite as unsuccessful. Jefferson was entertain- ing several members of the legislature, in- cluding the presiding officers of both houses, when the British cavalry were seen coming up the winding road towards the mansion. Jefferson immediately sent his family away, while he and the others escaped on horseback. Jefferson had not been gone ten minutes when McLeod rode up and found the house deserted.
The leaders of the two great parties
Laws with powerful effect against him. The Federalists were defeated. Jefferson and Burr had each seventy-three votes in the electoral college, and, according to the provisions of the Constitution, the election was carried into the House of Representatives. There exciting scenes occurred. Two or three members, too
MOTTO :
JEFFERSON'S SEAL. Rebellion to tyrants is obedience to God.'
sick to appear otherwise, were brought to the House on beds. For seven days the balloting went on. After it was ascer- tained that a Democrat was elected, the Federalists all voted for Burr, as being less objectionable than Jefferson; but the friends of the latter were stronger than all opposition, and he was elected. The whole Federal party were mortified and humiliated by the triumph of Jef- ferson, their arch - enemy. He was in- augurated March 4, 1801. See CABINET, PRESIDENT'S; LOUISIANA; MAZZEI, PHILIP. Inaugural Address. — The following is the principal part of the inaugural ad- dress, delivered on March 4, 1801:
PART OF JEFFERSON'S GIG.
Friends and Fellow - citizens, — Called upon to undertake the duties of the first executive officer of our country, I avail myself of the presence of that portion of my fellow-citizens which is here assembled, to express my grateful thanks for the
nominated their respective candidates for favor with which they have been pleased the Presidency in 1800, the Federalists to look towards me, to declare a sincere choosing to be voted for John Adams and consciousness that the task is above my Charles Cotesworth Pinckney; the Demo- talents, and that I approach it with those crats, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, anxious and awful presentiments which There was a breach in the Federal party, the greatness of the charge and the weak- owing to extended dislike of Adams, and ness of my powers so justly inspire. A the Democrats used the Alien and Sedition rising nation, spread over a wide and
132
JEFFERSON, THOMAS
fruitful land, traversing all the seas with the rich productions of their industry, engaged in commerce with nations who feel power and forget right, advancing rapidly to destinies beyond the reach of mortal eye; when I contemplate these transcendent objects, and see the honor, the happiness, and the hopes of this be- loved country committed to the issue and the auspices of this day, I shrink from the contemplation, and humble myself be- fore the magnitude of the undertaking. Utterly, indeed, should I despair, did riot the presence of many whom I see
which we have passed, the animation of discussions and of exertions has sometimes worn an aspect which might impose on strangers unused to think freely, and to speak and to write what they think; but this being now decided by the voice of the nation, announced according to the rules of the Constitution, all will of course ar- range themselves under the will of the law, and unite in common efforts for the com- mon good. All, too, will bear in mind this sacred principle, that though the will of the majority is in all cases to prevail, that will, to be rightful, must be reason-
BEDROOM IN WHICH JEFFERSON DIED.
here remind me that, in the other high authorities provided by our Constitu- tion, I shall find resources of wisdom, of virtue, and of zeal, on which to rely under all difficulties. To you, then, gentlemen, who are charged with the sov- ereign functions of legislation, and to those associated with you, I look with en- couragement for that guidance and sup- port which may enable us to steer with safety the vessel in which we are all em- barked, amid the conflicting elements of a troubled world.
During the contest of opinion through
able; that the minority possess their equal rights, which equal laws must pro- tect, and to violate which would be op- pression. Let us then, fellow-citizens, unite with one heart and one mind, let us restore to social intercourse that harmony and affection without which liberty and even life itself are but dreary things. And let us reflect that, having banished from our land that religious intolerance under which mankind so long bled and suffered, we have yet gained little, if we counte- nance a political intolerance as despotic, as wicked, and as capable of bitter and
133
JEFFERSON, THOMAS
bloody persecutions. During the throes that this government, the world's best and convulsions of the ancient world, dur- hope, may, by possibility, want energy to ing the agonizing spasms of infuriated preserve itself? I trust not. I believe this, man, seeking through blood and slaughter on the contrary, the strongest government his long-lost liberty, it was not wonderful on earth. I believe it is the only one that the agitation of the billows should where every man, at the call of the law, reach even this distant and peaceful shore; would fly to the standard of the law, and that this should be more felt and feared would meet invasions of the public order by some, and less by others, and should as his own personal concern. Sometimes divide opinions as to measures of safety; it is said that man cannot be trusted with but every difference of opinion is not a the government of himself. Can he then difference of principle. We have called be trusted with the government of others? by different names brethren of the same Or have we found angels, in the form of principle. We are all republicans; we kings, to govern him? Let history answer are all federalists. If there be any this question.
among us who wish to dissolve this Let us, then, with courage and confi- Union, or to change its republican form, dence, pursue our own federal and repub- let them stand undisturbed as monu- Hcan principles; our attachment to union ments of the safety with which error and representative government. Kindly of opinion may be tolerated, where reason separated by nature and a wide ocean is left free to combat it. I know, indeed, from the exterminating havoc of one quar- that some honest men fear that a republi- ter of the globe; too high-minded to en- can government cannot be strong; that dure the degradation of the others; pos- this government is not strong enough. But sessing a chosen country, with room would the honest patriot, in the full tide enough for our descendants to the thou- of successful experiment, abandon a gov- sandth generation; entertaining a due eminent which has so far kept us free and sense of our equal right to the use of firm, on the theoretic and visionary fear our own faculties, to the acquisition of
our own industry, to honor and con- fidence from our fel- low-citizens, result- ing not from birth, but from our actions and their sense of them; enlightened by a benign religion, professed indeed and practised in various forms, yet all of them inculcating honesty, truth, tem- perance, gratitude, and the love of man; acknowledging and adoring an over- ruling Providence, which, by all its dis- pensations, proves that it delights in the happiness of man here, and his greater happiness hereafter ; with all these blessings, what more is necessary to
MONTICELLO, JEFFERSON'S HOME.
134
JEFFERSON, THOMAS
make us a happy and prosperous people? the general government in its whole con- Still one thing more, fellow-citizens — a stitutional vigor, as the sheet-anchor of wise and frugal government, which shall our peace at home and safety abroad; a restrain men from injuring one another, jealous care of the right of election by shall leave them otherwise free to regu- the people, a mild and safe corrective of
abuses which are lopped by the sword of revolution where peaceable remedies are unprovided; absolute acquiescence in the decisions of the majority, the vital princi- ple of republics, from which there is no appeal but to force, the vital principle and immediate parent of despotism; a well-disciplined militia, our best reliance in peace, and for the first moments of war, till regulars may relieve them; the supremacy of the civil over the military authority; economy in the public expense, that labor may be lightly burdened; the honest payment of our debts, and sacred preservation of the public faith; encour- agement of agriculture, and of commerce as its handmaid; the diffusion of informa- tion, and arraignment of all abuses at the bar of the public reason; freedom of re- ligion, freedom of the press, and freedom of person, under the protection of the habeas corpus; and trial by juries impar- tially selected. These principles form the bright constellation which has gone before us, and guided our steps through an age of revolution and reformation. The wis- late their own pursuits of industry and dom of our sages, and blood of our heroes, improvement, and shall not take from the have been devoted to their attainment; mouth of labor the bread it has earned, they should be the creed of our political This is the sum of good government; and faith, the text of civic instruction, the this is necessary to close the circle of our touchstone by which to try the services of felicities. those we trust; and should we wander
About to enter, fellow-citizens, upon the from them in moments of error or of exercise of duties which comprehend every- alarm, let us hasten to retrace our steps, thing dear and valuable to you, it is and to regain the road which leads alone proper you should understand what I deem to peace, liberty, and safety. . . . the essential principles of our government, The Jeffersonian Policy. — Soon after and, consequently, those which ought to his inauguration, Jefferson indicated his shape its administration. I will compress policy in a letter to Nathaniel Macon, them within the narrowest compass they in Congress, as follows: "1. Levees are will bear, stating the general principle, done away with. 2. The first communi- but not all its limitations. Equal and ex- cation to the next Congress will be, like act justice to all men, of whatever state all subsequent ones, by message, to which or persuasion, religious or political; peace, no answer will be expected. 3. Diplo- commerce, and honest friendship with all matic establishments in Europe will be nations, entangling alliances with none; reduced to three ministers. 4. The com- the support of the State governments in pensation of collectors depends on you all their rights, as the most competent [Congress], and not on me. 5. The army administrations for our domestic concerns, is undergoing a chaste reformation. 6. and the surest bulwarks against anti-re- The navy will be reduced to the legal publican tendencies; the preservation of establishment by the last of this month
135
THOMAS JEFFERSON'S GRAVE.
JEFFERSON
[May, 1801]. 7. Agencies in every de- partment will be revived. 8. We shall push you to the uttermost in economiz- ing. 9. A very early recommendation
FORT JEFFERSON, GARDEN KEY.
has been given to the Postmaster-General to employ no traitor, foreigner, or Revo- lutionary Tory in any of his offices." Three days after his inauguration he
he had to abandon the undertaking. Jef' ferson, then governor of Virginia, gave instructions for the occupation of a sta- tion on the Mississippi River between the mouth of the Ohio and the parallel of 36° 30'; and in the spring of 1780 Clarke chose a strong position 5 miles below the mouth of the Ohio, whereon he built Fort Jefferson. Here the Ameri- cans planted their first sentinel to watch over the freedom of the navigation of the "Father of Waters."
Jefferson and Taylor, FORTS. At
the Garden Key, one of the Tortugas Islands, off the extremity of the Florida Peninsula, was Fort Jefferson; and at Key West was Fort Taylor. Neither of
wrote to Monroe: "I have firmly refused these forts was quite finished at the be- to follow the counsels of those who have ginning of 1861. The Confederates early desired the giving of offices to some of the contemplated their seizure, but the Federalist leaders in order to reconcile laborers employed on them by the United them. I have given, and will give, only to Republicans un- der existing cir- cumstances." The doctrine, "To the victor belong the spoils," which has been accepted as orthodox in the politics of our re- public ever since, was then first pro- mulgated.
Jefferson, FORT, a fortification built by COL. GEORGE ROGERS CLARK ( q. v. ) , on the west side of the Missis- sippi. He had designed to extend his in- States government were chiefly slaves, vasion to Detroit, but troops to reinforce and their masters wished to reap the him had been added to the force of an- fruit of their labor as long as possible, other bold leader ( see SHELBY, EVAN ), and It was believed these forts might be
136
FORT TAYLOR, KEY WEST.
JEFFREYS— JENKINS
seized at any time by the Floridians. Cap- make laws to that end; and when, in 1689, tain Brannan, with a company of artil- the Stuarts were driven from the throne lery, occupied barracks about half a mile of England, these people were pardoned, from Fort Taylor. Some of the military and the Virginians received them with and civil officers there were Confederates, open arms as brethren. Sir George died and they determined to oppose Captain ir London, April 18, 1689. Brannan if he should attempt to take Jenckes, JOSEPH, colonial governor; possession of that fort. Finally Captain born on the site of the city of Pawtucket, Brannan succeeded by a stratagem in R. I., in 1656; held a seat in the General gaining possession. The steamer Wyan- Assembly of Rhode Island in 1679-93; dotte lay near the fort, and her guns com- was appointed to arrange the boundary manded the bridge that connected it disputes with Connecticut and Massachu- \vith the island. One Sunday morning, setts, and afterwards those which had while the inhabitants were at church, arisen between Massachusetts and New Captain Brannan marched his men by a Hampshire and Maine. He was also back road, crossed the bridge, and entered made commissioner to answer a letter the fort. Supplies had already been for- of the King regarding the " condition warded by water. Both forts were of affairs in Rhode Island," and to re- strengthened and were lost to the Con- ply to a number of questions proposed federates. by the lords of the privy council. He Jeffreys, SIB GEORGE, jurist; born in was governor of Rhode Island in 1727- Acton, Denbighshire, in 1648; was called 32. He died June 15, 1740. to the bar in 1668; became chief -justice Jenckes, THOMAS ALLEN, legislator; of England in 1683; and was elevated to born in Cumberland, R. I., Nov. 2, 1818; the post of lord chancellor in 1685. He graduated at Brown University in 1838; was of a blood-thirsty and cruel dispo- admitted to the bar in 1840; served in sition, delighting in the severe punishment Congress in 1862-71. He was the author of the enemies of the King. After the re- of the United States bankruptcy law, which bellion of the Duke of Monmouth (1685) was passed in 1867; and was also one of was crushed he held courts in the insur- the earliest and most prominent advocates gent districts which are known in history of civil service reform. His bill in ad- as the " Bloody Assizes." The partisans vocacy of the same was passed in 1868. of Monmouth in arms were fully 6,000 in He died in Cumberland, R. I., Nov. 4, number, many of them persons of great re- 1875.
spectability. They were brought before Jenkins, CHARLES JONES, jurist; born
the court of the ahief-justice by scores, in Beaufort district, S. C., Jan. 6, 1805;
He seemed to delight in convicting and settled in Jefferson county, Ga., in 1816;
punishing them. He caused 320 to be graduated at Union College in 1824; held
hanged or beheaded, and more than 800 a seat in the Georgia legislature in 1836-
to be sold as slaves in the West Indies and 50. He was a Union delegate to the Geor-
Virginia. Many of the latter were given to gia convention in 1850, and as chairman
court favorites that they might sell them of that body drafted the resolutions known
on speculation or extort money for their as " The Platform of 1850," in which it
pardon from those who had any to give. In was resolved " that the State of Georgia,
this nefarious business Lord Effingham, even to the disruption of every tie which
governor of Virginia, engaged; and many binds her to the Union, resist any act
men of culture, as well as good mechanics, of Congress abolishing slavery." He was
were sent to Virginia to be sold as slaves, a judge of the Supreme Court of Geor-
and so added excellent social materials for gia in 1859-65, and governor in 1865-
society in that colony. " Take care," 68. Mr. Jenkins received two votes for
wrote King Charles to Effingham, " that President of the United States in the
they continue to serve for ten years at electoral college of 1872. He died in
least, and that they be not permitted in Summerville, Ga., June 13, 1883.
any manner to redeem themselves by Jenkins, JAMES G., jurist; born in
money or otherwise until that term be Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 18, 1834;
fully expired." The Assembly refused to was liberally educated in New York State;
137
JENKINS— JENKINSON'S FERRY
and was admitted to the bar in New York 1869-71; and has since done much work
City in 1855. Two years later he removed in bridge-building. He was in charge of
to Milwaukee, Wis., where he practised the construction of the Randolph bridge
till 1888, when he was appointed United over the Missouri River, at Kansas, Mo.,
States judge for the district of Wiscon- and was employed on the Mississippi
sin. In 1893 he was promoted to the levees. He has been chief engineer of
bench of the United States Circuit Court railroads in the South and Southwest,
of the 7th Judicial Circuit. In December, and was also chief engineer of the Ar-
1893, he issued an injunction forbidding ansas Pass harbor and jetty works in
all employes of the Northern Pacific Rail- Texas. In 1898-99 he was major of the
road (which at that time was in the Volunteer Engineer Corps, and chief
hands of receivers appointed by the court) engineer officer of the 1st Division of the
from joining or conspiring with others in 2d Army Corps. In 1887 he became a
striking against reduced wages. The Cir- member of the American Society of Civil
cuit Court of Appeals sustained this in- Engineers.
junction in a modified form. Upon this Jenkinson, CHARLES, English politi-
action the labor leaders endeavored to cian; was private secretary to Lord Bute
have Judge Jenkins impeached, but with- when he was the English premier, and,
out result. when he resigned, Jenkinson became the
Jenkins, JOHN, military officer; born principal secretary of the treasury. He
in New London, Conn., Nov. 27, 1751 ; was an Oxford scholar, and, becoming per-
served throughout the Revolutionary War sonally acquainted with George III., when
as a lieutenant; and during the Wyoming he was Prince of Wales, became devoted
massacre commanded Forty Fort. He died to his service. He had great tact in
in Wyoming, Pa., March 19, 1827. dealing with delicate personal matters,
Jenkins, JOHN STILWELL, author ; born and so was fitted to please all ; or, rather,
in Albany, N. Y., Feb. 15, 1818; edu- not to offend any. He was chiefly instru-
cated at Hamilton College, and began the mental in pushing forward the English
practice of law in Weedsport, N. Y. His ministry in their schemes for taxing the
publications include Generals of the Last English - American colonists, and was
War with Great Britain; a condensation really the author of Townshend's obnox-
of Hammond's History of 'New York; Life ious bills and Grenville's Stamp Act. He
of Silas Wright; History of the Mexican held a place with Lord North at the
War; Lives of the Governors of New Treasury board, in 1768, and was the
York; Lives of Jackson, Polk, and Cal- chief instigator of that minister's bills
houn, etc. He died in Weedsport, N. Y., for asserting the absolute authority of
Sept. 20, 1852. the Parliament over the American colo-
Jenkins, THORNTON ALEXANDER, naval nies.
officer; born in Orange county, Va., Dec. Jenkinson's Ferry, BATTLE AT. In 11, 1811; appointed midshipman in 1828; 1864, General Steele, at Little Rock, Ark., commissioned lieutenant in 1839; pro- tried to co-operate with the Red River moted captain in 1862; and rear-admiral expedition, but was unable to do so effect- in 1870. In 1834 to 1860 he was employed ually, for he was confronted by a heavy on the coast survey, and in the light- body of Confederates. He started south- house board. He was fleet captain, and ward, March 23, with 8,000 troops, commanded the Hartford when Farragut cavalry and infantry. He was to be passed Forts Jackson and St. Philip be- joined by General Thayer at Arkadelphia, low New 'Orleans, April 24, 1862; com- with 5,000 men, but this was not then manded the Richmond when Farragut accomplished. Steele pushed on for the captured Mobile in 1864. He died in purpose of flanking Camden and draw- Washington, D. C., Aug. 9, 1893. ing out Price from his fortifications there.
Jenkins, WILLIAM DUNBAR, civil engi- Early in April Steele was joined by neer; born in Adams county, Miss., Sept. Thayer, and on the evening of the 15th 19,. 1849; was educated at military they entered Camden as victors. Serious- schools in France and Belgium; studied ly menaced by gathering Confederates, civil engineering in Lexington, Va., in Steele, who, by the retreat of Banks, had
138
JENKS— JERSEY PRISON-SHIP
been released from duty elsewhere, moved Jenney, WILLIAM LE BARON, architect; towards Little Rock. He crossed the born in Fairhaven, Mass., Sept. 25, 1832; Washita on the night of April 26. At was educated at Phillips Academy, An- Jenkinson's Ferry, on the Sabine River, dover, Mass.; graduated at the Ecole he was attacked by an overwhelming Centrale des Arts et Metiers, Paris, in force, led by Gen. Kirby Smith in person. 1856. He also studied art and archi- Steele's troops, though nearly famished, tecture in Paris studios in 1858-59. On fought desperately during a most sangui- his return he was commissioned a cap- nary battle that ensued. Three times the tain in the United States army; was as- Confederates charged heavily, and were signed to engineer duty; and served on repulsed. The battle was fought by in- the staff of Gen. U. S. Grant from the fantry alone, and the Nationals finally battle of Cairo to Corinth, and then on drove their adversaries and gained a com- that of Gen. W. T. Sherman until 1866, plete victory. Then they crossed the receiving the brevet of major in 1864; river and moved on towards Little Rock, he settled in Chicago as an architect in In the struggle at Jenkinson's Ferry the 1868; was landscape engineer for the West Confederates lost over 3,000 men, includ- Chicago parks in 1870-71; invented the ing more than 300 officers. The Nationals skeleton construction (now generally used lost 700 killed and wounded. Steele's in tall buildings) in 1883; and was the broken army reached Little Rock on architect for the Union League Club and May 2. the Siegel & Cooper Building, in New
Jenks, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE, educator; York City; The Fair, and the Horti- born in St. Glair, Mich., Sept. 2, 1856; cultural Building at the World's Colum- graduated at the University of Michi- bian Exposition, in Chicago, and other gan in 1878; and was admitted to the notable structures.
bar of that State. Later he taught Ger- Jersey Prison-ship, one of the prisons man, Latin, and Greek at Mount Morris used by the British at New York during (111.) College. In 1886-89 he was Pro- a part of the Revolutionary War. Noth- fessor of Political Science and English ing could exceed the horrors of these Literature at Knox College, Galesburg, crowded prisons. ' The sugar -houses of 111.; in 1889-91 was Professor of Political New York being large, were used for the Economy and Social Science in the Indiana purpose, and therein scores suffered and University; and in 1891 became Professor died. But the most terrible scenes oc- of Political Science in Cornell University, curred on board several old hulks, which He is the author of Henry C. Carey als Jfationaldkonom; Road Legislation for the American State, and contributions on monopolies, political methods, etc., to reviews, magazines, and encyclopaedias in the United States, Germany, and Eng- land.
Jenks, JOSEPH, inventor; born near London; came to America in 1645, and is supposed to have been the first brass- THE JERSEY PRISON-SHIP.
founder on this continent. On May 6,
1648, he secured a patent from the Massa- were anchored in the waters around New chusetts legislature for a water-mill and York, and used for prisoners. Of them for a saw-mill. In 1652 he made the dies, the Jersey was the most notorious for the it is said, for the silver coinage — the sufferings it contained, and the brutality " pine-tree " money of that province. In of its officers. From these vessels, anchor- 1654 he made a fire-engine for Boston, and ed near the present navy-yard at Brook- in 1655 he received a patent for an im- lyn, almost 11,000 victims were carried proved method of manufacturing scythes, ashore during the war, and buried in In 1667 he had an appropriation for the shallow graves in the sand. Their re- encouragement of wire-drawing. He died mains were gathered in 1808 and put in Lynn, Mass., in 1683. in a vault situated near the termination
139
JERSEYS— JESUIT MISSIONS
of Front Street and Hudson Avenue, Brooklyn.
Jerseys, THE. Collective name for the colonies of East and West New Jersey.
Jervis, JOHN BLOOMFIELD, engineer; born in Huntington, N. Y., Dec. 14, 1795; assisted in the construction of the Erie and the Delaware and Hudson canals. He was connected with railroads from their first introduction, and made many im- provements in locomotives; and was chief engineer of the Croton aqueduct in 1836. He is the author of A Description of the Croton Aqueduct; A Report of the Hud- son River Railroad; Railway Property; Labor and Capital, etc. He died in Rome. N. Y., Jan. 12, 1885.
Jessup, HENRY HARRIS, clergyman; Lorn in Montrose, Pa., April 19, 1832; graduated at Yale University in 1851, and at Union Theological Seminary in 1855; and after ordination went to a missionary to Tripoli, where he served in 1856-60. In the latter year he went to Beirut. In 1879 he was moderator of the General Assembly. He is the author of Mohammedan Missionary Problem; The Women of the Arabs; The Greek Church and Protestant Missions; Syrian Home Life; Kamil, Moslem Convert, etc.
Jesuit Missions. In 1539 the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, was established by Ignatius Loyola. Its members were, by its rules, never to become prelates. Their vows were to be poor, chaste, and obe- dient, and in constant readiness to go on missions against heresy and heathenism. Their grand maxim was the widest diffu- sion of influence, and the closest internal unity. Their missions soon spread to every part of the habitable globe then known. They planted the cross in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and on the islands of the sea; and when Champlain had opened the way for the establishment of French dominion in America, to the Jesuits was assigned the task of bearing the Christian religion to the dusky in- habitants in North America. More per- severing and more effective than the vo- taries of commerce and trade, the Jesuits became the pioneers of discovery and set- tlement in North America. Their para- mount object was the conversion of the heathen and an extension of the Church; their secondary, yet powerful, object was
to promote the power and dominion of France in America. Within three years after the restoration of Canada to the French there were fifteen Jesuit priests in the province (1636). The first most noted of these missionaries were Brebeuf and Daniel, who were bold, aggressive, and self-sacrificing to the last degree. Then came the more gentle Lallemande, who, with others, traversed the dark wilderness with a party of Hurons who lived far to the westward, on the borders of one of the Great Lakes. They suffered incredible hardships and privations — eat- ing the coarsest food, sleeping on the bare earth, and assisting their red companions in dragging their canoes at rough port- ages. On a bay of Lake Huron they erected the first house of the society among the North American Indians. That little chapel, which they called the cradle of the Church, was dedicated to St. Jo- seph, the husband of the Blessed Virgin. They told to the wild children of the forest the story of the love of Christ and his crucifixion, and awed them with the terrors of perdition. For fifteen years Br6beuf carried on his missionary labors among the Hurons, scourging his flesh twice a day with thongs ; wearing an iron girdle armed at all points with sharp pro- jections, and over this a bristly hair- shirt, which continually "mortified the flesh"; fasted frequently and long: kept his pious vigils late into the night, and by penitential acts resisted every tempta- tion of the flesh.
As missionary stations multiplied in the western wilderness, the central spot was called St. Mary. It was upon the outlet of Lake Superior into Lake Huron. There, in one year, 3,000 Indians received a welcome at the hands of the priest. This mission awakened great sympathy in France. Everywhere prayers were ut- tered for its protection and prosperity. The King sent magnificently embroidered garments for the Indian converts. The Pope expressed his approbation, and to confirm and strengthen these missions a college in New France was projected. The pious young Marquis de Gaenache, with the assent of his parents, entered the So- ciety of Jesus, and with a portion of their ample fortune he endowed a seminary for education at Quebec. Its foundation was
140
JESUIT MISSIONS
laid in 1635, just before the death of and adventures of missionary life. On Champlain. That college was founded his way from Quebec to the Hurons he two years before the first high seminary was captured by a roving band of Mo- of learning was established in the Protes- hawks, and he who was one of the first to tant colonies in America by John Har- vard (see HARVARD UNIVERSITY). At the same time the Duchess d'Acquillon, aided by her uncle, Cardinal Richelieu, endowed a public hospital at Quebec, open to the afflicted, whether white or red men, Christians or pagans. It was placed in charge of three young nuns, the youngest twenty-two, and the oldest twenty-nine years of age, who came from Paris for the purpose. In 1640, Hochelaga (Montreal) was taken pos- session of as a missionary station, with solemn religious ceremonies, and the Queen of Angels was petitioned to take the island of Montreal under her protec- tion. Within thirteen years the remote wilderness was visited by forty-two Jesuit missionaries, besides eighteen other devoted men. These assembled two or three times a year at St. Mary's; the re- mainder of the time they were scattered through the forests in their sacred work.
A plan was conceived in 1638 of estab- lishing missions among the Algon- quians, not only on the north, but on the south of the Great Lakes, and at Green Bay. The field of labor opened to the view of the missionaries a vast expanse of wilderness, peopled by many tribes, and they prayed earnestly for re- cruits. Very soon Indians from very re- mote points appeared at the mission stations. The hostilities of the Five Nations had kept the French from navigating Lakes Ontario and Erie; finally, in 1640, Brebeuf was sent to the NEUTRAL NATION (q. v.}, on the Niagara River. The further penetra- tion of the country south of the Lakes was then denied, but a glimpse of the marvellous field soon to be entered upon was obtained. In September and October, carry the cross into Michigan was now 1641, Charles Raymbault and Isaac Jogues the first to bear it to the villages of the penetrated to the Falls of St. Mary, in the Five Nations. At the villages on the way strait that forms the outlet of Lake from the St. Lawrence to the Mohawk Superior, where they heard of the Sioux, domain Father Jogues was compelled to They yearned to penetrate the country of submit to the horrors of running the this famous people. This favor was denied gantlet, yet he never repined, but re- the missionaries. Father Raymbault re- joiced in his tribulations, and was made turned to Quebec and died, but Father happy by the conversion, here and there, Jogues was destined to endure many trials of one of the savages, whom, on one occa-
141
A JESUIT TRAVELLING THROUGH THE WILDERNESS.
JESUIT MISSIONS
sion, he baptized with drops of dew. As he roamed through the forests of the Mo- hawk Valley he carved the name of Jesus and the figure of a cross on the trees, and with a chant took possession of the coun- try in the name of Christ. He was ran- somed by the Dutch at Albany, sailed for France, but soon returned to Canada.
Another missionary (Bressani), who suffered horribly, was also ransomed by the Dutch. In the summer of 1646 the Jesuits established a mission among the Indians of Maine, and so French out- posts were established on the Kennebec and the upper Lakes fourteen years after these missionary labors were begun. There was then a lull in hostilities be- tween the French and the Five Nations, and Father Jogues went to the Mohawks as ambassador for Canada. His report caused an effort to establish a mission
cast his body into the Mohawk River. In 1648, warriors from the Mohawk Valley fell upon the Hurons, and the Jesuit mis- sions among them were destroyed, and priests and converts were murdered after horrible tortures. Finally, in 1654, when peace between the French and the Five Nations had been restored, Father Le Moyne was sent as ambassador to the Onondagas, when he was cheered by the sight of many Hurons holding on to their faith. Le Moyne was allowed to establish a mission in the Mohawk Valley. Very soon the Onondagas received Father Da- blon and his companions kindly, and chiefs and followers gathered around the Jesuits with songs of welcome. A chapel was built in a day. " For marbles and precious metals," Dablon wrote, " we em- ployed only bark; but the path to heaven is as open through a roof of bark
A JESUIT MISSIONARY PREACHING TO THE INDIANS.
among them, and he alone understand- as through arched ceilings of silver and ing their language, was sent, but lost his gold." Fifty French people settled near life among the Mohawks, who hung his the missionary station, and very soon head upon the palisades of a village, and there were Christian laborers among the
142
JESUIT MISSIONS
Cayugas and Oneidas. A change came. Aug. 28, 1657, but was recalled to Mon- War was again kindled, and Jesuits and treal. Rene M6nard was with Le Mercier settlers were obliged to flee from the at Onondaga from 1656 to 1658, and after- bosom of the Five Nations. After that, wards among the Cayugas. Julien Gar- the self-sacrificing Jesuits penetrated the nier, sent to the Mohawks in May, 1668, western wilderness to the Mississippi passed to Onondaga, and thence to the River, carrying the cross as the emblem Senecas, and was engaged in this mission of their religion, and the lilies of France until 1683. Claude Dablon, at Onondaga as tokens of political dominion. In these a few years after 1655, and was after- labors they were assisted by the votaries wards among the tribes of the Upper of commerce. Seeds of civilization were Lakes. Jacques Fremin, at Onondaga planted here and there, until harvests from 1656 to 1658; was sent to the Mo- were beginning to blossom all along the hawks in July, 1667; left there for the .Lakes and the Mississippi to the Gulf of Senecas in October, 1668, where he re- Mexico. The discoveries of these priests mained a few years. Pierre Rafeix, at and traders gave to France a claim to Onondaga from 1656 to 1658; chaplain in that magnificent domain of millions of Courcelle's expedition in 1665; sent to square miles, extending from Acadia the Cayugas in 1671, thence to Seneca, along the St. Lawrence and the Lakes, where he was in 1679. Jacques Bruyas, and the establishment of French domin- sent to the Mohawks, July, 1667, and to ion in Louisiana, on the borders of the the Oneidas in September, where he spent Gulf of Mexico. It has been truthfully four years, and thence returned to the said, "The history of these [Jesuit] Mohawks in 1672; was at Onondaga in labors is connected with the origin of 1679, 1700, and 1701. Etienne de Car- every celebrated town in the annals of heil, sent to Cayuga in 1668, and was ab- French America ; not a cape was turned or sent in 1671-72; returned, and remained a river entered but a Jesuit led the way." until 1684. Pierre Milet was sent with There were twenty-four different Jesuit De Carheil to the Cayugas in 1668, and missionaries among the Six Nations be- left in 1684; was at Niagara in 1688, tween 1657 and 1769. Their names and and was taken prisoner at Cataraqua in places of service were as follows: Paul 1689. Jean Pierron was sent to the Mo- Ragu en eau, at Onondaga, from July, 1657, hawks in July, 1667; went among the to March, 1658. Isaac Jogues, prisoner Cayugas in October, 1668, and was with among the Mohawks from August, 1642, the Senecas after 1672, where he was in to August, 1643; a missionary to the same 1679. Jean de Lamberville was at Onon- nation in 1646, and killed in October of daga in 1671-72; was sent to Niagara in the same year. Francis Joseph Le Mer- 1687. Francis Boniface was sent to the cier, at Onondaga, from May 17, 1656, to Mohawks in 1668, and was there after March 20, 1658. Francis Duperon, at 1673. Francis Vaillant de Gueslis suc- Onondaga, from 1657 to 1658. Simon Le ceeded Boniface among the Mohawks about Moyne, at Onondaga, July, 1654; with 1674; accompanied the expedition against the Mohawks from Sept. 16, 1655, until the Senecas in 1687; was sent to New York Nov. 9 of the same year; then again in in December, 1687, and to the Senecas in 1656, until Nov. 5; again there (third 1703. Pierre de Mareuil was at Onon- time) from Aug. 26, 1657, until May, daga in June, 1709, where he surrendered 1658; at Onondaga, from July, 1661, until himself to the English in consequence of September, 1662; ordered to the Senecas war breaking out between the latter and in July, 1663, but remained at Montreal, the French, and was courteously treated He died in Canada in 1665. Francis Jo- at Albany. Jacques d'Heu was among seph Bressani, a prisoner among the Mo- the Onondagas in 1708, and the Senecas hawks from April 30 to Aug. 19, 1644. in 1709. Anthony Gordon founded St. Re- Pierre Joseph Mary Chaumont, at Onon- gis in 1769, with a colony from St. Louis, daga from September, 1655, until March There were two " Sulpicians " as mission- 20, 1658. Joseph Anthony Poncet was a aries in northern New York, Francis prisoner among the Iroquois from Aug. Piquet, who founded Oswegatchie (Ogdens- 20 to Oct. 3, 1652; started for Onondaga burg) in 1748, and his successor at Oswe-
143
JESUP— JEWS
gatchie, Pierre Paul Francis de la Garde, for his services in the battle of Lundy's For Jesuit missions in California, see Lane, or Niagara, in which he was severe- JUNIPERO. ly wounded. After the war, he was pro-
Jesup, MORRIS KETCHUM, philanthro- moted to adjutant-general and quarter- pist; born in Westport, Conn., June 21, master-general of the army in 1818, with the 1830; removed to New York City; was a rank of brigadier-general, and was brevet- clerk in a manufacturing house till 1852, ted major-general in 1828. In 1836 he was in and thence till 1884 was engaged in command of the army in the Creek nation, banking business. He was elected presi- and at the close of the year he commanded dent of the Five Points House of Industry the army in Florida. He was wounded in 1872, and the same year became a by the Seminoles in January, 1838. lie founder and president of the Young Men's died in Washington, D. C., June 10, 1860. Christian Association of New York City. Jewell, MARSHALL, diplomatist; born In 1881 he was elected president of the in Winchester, N. H., Oct. 20, 1825; learn- New York City Mission and Tract Society, ed the tanner's trade; and established a for which he built the DeWitt Memorial leather business. He was elected governor Church, in memory of his father-in-law, of Connecticut in 1869, re-elected in 1871 and also president of the Museum of and 1872; appointed minister to Russia Natural History, to which he presented in 1873; and became Postmaster-General a collection of native woods valued at in 1874. He died in Hartford, Conn., Feb. $100,000. He was elected president of 10, 1883.
the New York Chamber of Commerce in Jewett, SARAH ORNE, author; born in 1899. Besides the above institutions, he South Berwick, Me., Sept. 3, 1849; was has been an officer in the leading benevo- educated at the Berwick Academy. She lent and educational institutions in New has travelled extensively in the United York City and elsewhere. Mr. Jesup has States, Canada, and Europe; and is been exceedingly liberal in his benefac- widely known as a short-story writer, tions, and has extended his aid to a large Her works include Decphaven; Play variety of interests. In 1897 he assumed Days; Old Friends and New; A White the expense, estimated at from $50,000 Heron; A Marsh Island; Betty Leicester; to $75,000, of a series of. expeditions to Country By-ways; The Mate of the Day- secure anthropological material for the light, and Friends Ashore; A Country Museum of Natural History, with special Doctor; The Story of the Normans; The reference to the origin of the ancient King of Folly Island, and other People; population of this continent and its re- Strangers and Wayfarers ; A Native of Win- lation to the ancient inhabitants of the ly, and Other Talcs; The Life of Nancy; Old World. This project involves the The Country of the Pointed Firs, etc. thorough exploration of the coast of the Jews. The Jewish citizenship of the north Pacific Ocean. In 1891 he gave to United States is one of the most substan- Yale Divinity School $51,000, and the tial of all foreign constituents of our corn- Women's Hospital, in New York City, plex population. The Jews are an exceed- $100,000; in 1899 he erected Jesup Hall ingly law-abiding people, and in their for Williams College, at a cost of $35,000; charities are unsurpassed by any race and in 1900 he presented to Yale Univer- among us. Their homes, asylums, hospi- sity the collection of Arabic manuscripts tals, and educational establishments are made by Count Landberg, a distinguished among the best endowed and most pro- Swedish collector and traveller, for which gressive institutions in the country, and he paid $20,000. He also erected, for the the benevolent acts of prosperous Hebrew Union Theological Seminary, a building men towards objects and institutions other known as Jesup Hall. than those of their own people have re-
Jesup, THOMAS SIDNEY, military offi- ceived a high and a deserved recognition. cer; born in Virginia, in 1788; entered At the fifteenth annual meeting of the the army in 1808, and was Hull's adju- Association of Jewish Immigrants, in tant-general in 1813. For his good con- Philadelphia, in 1899, President Levy's re- duct at the battle of Chippewa, he was port treated especially of the general in- brevetted lieutenant-colonel ; also colonel crease in immigration. Of the 312,000 im-
144
JEWS
migrants to this country, representing an " In 1818 Mordecai M. Noah estimated increase of 36 per cent, over the figures the Jewish population at 3,000. In 1826 of the preceding year, the Jewish con- Isaac C. Harby placed the figures at 6,000, tingent was 37,000, an increase of 32.1 and in 1840 these were further increased per cent. A large proportion of the Jew- by the estimate published in the American ish immigrants came from Russia, where, Almanac to 15,000. In 1848 M. A. Berk however, the persecutions to which the made their number 50,000. In 1880 Will- Jews were subjected were being less rigor- iam B. Hackenburg put the figures at ously enforced than formerly. The fer- 230,257; in 1888 Isaac Markens put them ruent infused into the European social at 400,000, and in 1897 David Sulzberger body by the Dreyfus affair appeared to estimated the total at 937,800." have had a clarifying effect, even the Pro- The following figures are then given: curator of the Russian Holy Synod hav- ing in a recent interview disavowed anti- JEWISH IMMIGRATION^NTO THE UNITED STATES, Semitic sentiments. The actual storm centre of Slavic anti-Semitism had moved over the border from Russia to Austria and Rumania, and in Bohemia the condi- tion of affairs was described as gravely foreboding. In Vienna, the fever of anti- 1889. Semitism had passed its critical stage. JjjjJJ; This had been, in part, due to the disclos- I89p! ure of colossal frauds in the administra- tion of the city finances by numerous i8%! leaders of the anti-Semite majority. In Germany and France the conditions were still more favorable.
Turning to the subject of Jewish colo- nization, President Levy said that the
movement to colonize Jews in Palestine Immigration for 1881-84 74,310
had been stemmed by the interference of phiiadeliSila 88W85-99" 43e'390
the Turkish government. Jewish colonies Baltimore, 1885-99 '.'. . 20^140
had been established in Cyprus, and the
De Hirsch colonies in Argentine were Total 547,850
showing unmistakable signs of progress. "If we add this immigration to the Of the" New Jersey colonies, the one at estimate of Mr. Hackenburg made in Woodbine, under the fostering care of the 1880," says Mr. Adler, " we can secure a American De Hirsch Fund trustees, was total of 778,107, without making any al- growing in importance, and left no doubt as lowance for the natural increase in twenty to its ultimately successful establishment, years, nor for the immigration through The other colonies at Alliance, Norma, Car- Canada and other ports of the United mel, and Rosenhayn had passed the prob- States than New York, Philadelphia, and lematic stage and gave promise of success. Baltimore."
In the American- Jewish J 'ear-Book for Early in 1904 Professor Haman, of 1899-1900 (Hebrew year, 5660), Cyrus Basel, Switzerland, calculated that there Adler, the editor, considering the number were about 19,000,000 Jews in the world, of Jews in the United States, said: "As of whom nearly 11,000,000 were in Europe the census of the United States has, in and 8,000,000 outside of Europe, including accordance with the spirit of American 1,000,000 in the United States. Accord- institutions, taken no heed of the religious ing to his estimates Russia had 5,500,000 ; convictions of American citizens, whether Austria-Hungary, 1,860,000; Germany, native-born or naturalized, all statements 568,000; Rumania, 300,000; Great Britain, concerning the number of Jews living in 22,000; Turkey, 120,000; Holland, 97,000; this country are based upon estimate, France, 77,000; Italy, 50,000; Bulgaria, though several of the estimates have been 31,000; Switzerland, 12,000; Greece, 6,000; most conscientiously made. Servia, 5.000; Denmark, 4,000; Sweden,
v.— K 145
|
Year. |
New York. |
Philadelphia. |
Baltimore. |
|
1885 |
18 535 |
1 076 |
|
|
1886 |
27*348 |
2 310 |
..... |
|
1887 .... |
25 788 |
1 680 |
|
|
1888 |
29' 602 |
1 761 |
|
|
1889 |
22 674 |
1*288 |
|
|
1890 |
32 321 |
1 982 |
* |
|
1891 |
62*574 |
4 984 |
1 581 |
|
1892 |
52 134 |
3 039 |
5 152 |
|
1893 |
25 678 |
5 324 |
1 941 |
|
1894 |
16 381 |
3 825 |
1 902 |
|
1895 |
27 065 |
2 791 |
2 221 |
|
1896 |
23 802 |
2 499 |
1 817 |
|
1897 .... |
17 278 |
1 752 |
1 f>64. |
|
1898 |
22 921 |
2 079 |
2 409 |
|
To July, 1899... |
12,909 |
M63 |
|
|
Total |
417,010 |
36,390 |
20,140 |
JEWS AND JUDAISM
3,500; Belgium,, 3,000; Spain, 2,500; and Portugal, 300.
The American Jewish Year-Book for 1903-04 stated the Jewish population of the United States at 1,127,268, which would make the United States rank third among the nations of the world in respect to Jewish citizens. The Year-Book esti- mated that fully 500,000 Jews were resi- dents of New York State, the greater part being on Manhattan Island. The following States were credited with hav- ing 10,000 or more Jews among their people: California, 28,000; Illinois, 75,000; Indiana, 25,000; Kentucky, 12,000; Loui- siana, 12,000; Maryland, 26,500; Massa-
chusetts, 60,000; Minnesota, 10,000; Mis- souri, 50,000; New Jersey, 23,000; New York, 500,000 ; Ohio, 50,000 ; Pennsylvania, 95,000; Tennessee, 10,000; Texas, 15,000; Virginia, 15,000; Wisconsin, 15,000. The immigration figures for 1903 show that in 1902-03, 58,079 Jews entered the port of New York, of whom 30,536 were Rus- sians, 18,113 Austrians, 8,314 Rumanians, 527 Germans, 271 Turks, 233 English, 35 Dutch, 28 French, 12 Swedes, 5 Scotch, and 5 South Americans. From Aug. 27, 1902, to Aug. 25, 1903, 24 synagogues were dedicated in fourteen of the United States, 16 hospitals and many other institutions were opened.
JEWS AND JUDAISM
Jews and Judaism. Professor Richard J. H. Gottheil, the scholarly writer on Jewish questions, and son of the well- known Rabbi Gottheil, of New York, writes as follows regarding Hebraism in America.
For the Jew the Middle Ages did not end with the Reformation and the Renais- sance; but only disappeared in the trans- formation brought about gradually by the French Revolution. During this period the Jew has passed through more up- heavals than many nations have during three or four times the number of years. The modern European and American world has had a hard fight to find its way into its present changed condition; but much harder by far was the task laid upon the Jew; and, whether he has succeeded or not, he has made an honest fight. The tale of the Jew of the nineteenth century is a record of his endeavor to do justice to the two demands which were made upon him: the one from the outside world — to fit himself to take his place worthily and do his work side by side with the other citizens of the state in which he lived ; the other from within his own ranks to har- monize his religious belief with his new point of view and to adapt his religious exercises to modern social conditions. The struggle of the Jews in the various Euro- pean countries for civil rights and for equality before the law was long drawn out, and was marked by varying fortunes
146
dependent upon the political conditions of these countries. More than seventy years of the century had passed before this struggle had been fought out.
The cause of Jewish emancipation in England suffered no such sudden changes as it did on the continent. It proceeded by regular stages through the abrogation of the Act of Test in 1828, the admission of Jews as citizens of London in 1830, as sheriffs in 1835, as magistrates in 1845, and in 1858 as members of Parliament by the removal of the words " upon the faith of a Christian" in the oath taken by the members.
There are between 10,000,000 and 11,- 000,000 Jews to-day in the world ; of these, about 9,000,000 live in Europe; 1,000,000 in the United States and Canada; 350,000 in Africa; 350,000 in Asia; and 16,000 in Australasia.
In England and America no organiza- tion of the Jews has been effected, as the state does not there take cognizance of the religious belief of the people. In both these countries attempts have been made by the Jews themselves to organize under one head upon a purely religious basis, but without much success. The congrega- tional system has been carried to its ut- most limits in the United States, where each congregation is a law unto itself and absolutely rejects any interference on the part of any larger body. From time to time a desire has been manifested to super- sede this purely congregational system by
JEWS AND JUDAISM
some form of union. The late Dr. Isaac of the French language and of French cult- M. Wise, of Cincinnati, had at various ure in the East. This one-sidedness of times attempted to bring the Jews of the its work is best seen in the fact that by its United States together with an authorita- side similar organizations have been cre- tive synod at their head. Out of this and ated in other countries, " The Board of other attempts have come the Central Con- Delegates of American Israelites " in the ference of American Rabbis and The Union United States, " The Anglo-Jewish Associa- of American Congregations (founded in tion " in England, tlnT" Israelitische Al- 1873), which now comprises about ninety- liance " in Austria, and the " Deutsche Ge- one congregations. These organizations, ineindebund " in Germany. At one point liuwever, do not by any means represent it was hoped that the B'nai B'rith, estab- either all of the Jewish ministers or all lished in this country in 1843, by Isidor of the Jewish congregations, and the Busch, Julius Bien/ and others, would Union itself is merely a deliberative body form such a union of Jews, where the having no power to do anything in the in- theological differences would be eliminated, ternal affairs of one of its constituent But though this order, which has 315 synagogues. Since the union of American lodges in the United States and Canada, Jewish congregations comprises only such has established itself in such countries as stand upon a Reform platform, a union as Germany, Rumania, Austria, Algeria, of Orthodox congregations was formed in Bulgaria, and Egypt, and despite the good New York two or three years ago, and it work it has so far done, the mere fact is hoped that this organization will do that it is a secret organization prevents it much towards binding together the very from standing forth as the representative many congregations of those who adhere of international Jewry. Where, then, and in strictly to traditional Judaism. what manner is such a body to be found?
But the organization of Jews as a It is a mistake to suppose that the Jews church has not been found sufficient. It as a people are rich. The proletariat was early felt that some more secular among them is proportionately much bond must be found which should unite larger than it is among other people; and the Jews of various persuasions for com- thus it came about that the Jewish quar- rnon and concerted action. The first at- ters in all the large cities were already tempt in this direction was nobly made well filled when they were (almost at a by Narcisse Leven, Eugene Emanuel, moment's notice) called upon to receive Charles Netter, and a few others, in found- double or triple the number they already ing (1880) the "Alliance Israelite Uni- held. The actual number of the Jewish verselle " in Paris, whose object it was to poor was thereby greatly increased ; for aid in removing Jewish disabilities wher- many a family that had been wealthy or ever they might exist, and to raise the in easy circumstances in Russia, Galicia, spiritual condition of their coreligionists or Rumania, had been reduced to want in northern Africa, eastern Europe, and and been compelled to take its place western Asia by the founding of schools, among those who needed the help of their From these small beginnings the Alliance brethren. This help was freely and cheer- has grown to be an important factor in fully given all the world over. Great the conservation of Jewish interests, sacrifices were made by the richer Jews Faithful to its programme, it has estab- to meet the pressing needs of the hour, lished a large number of elementary and and, with no help from the outside world, technical schools, and has intervened ac- excepting the London Mansion House tively in Algeria, Morocco, the Turkish Fund in 1882, the thousands and tens of Empire, and Persia whenever Jews or Jew- thousands of immigrants were cared for. ish interests were in any way threatened. The Jewish charitable organizations, the Its attempt, however, to represent the development of which has been during the whole Jewish people has not been success- hitter half of the nineteenth century the ful; for the reason that it has been allied brightest spot in Jewish communal life, too closely with French national interests ; rose to the demands of the occasion, and and side by side with the " Alliance Fran- the more than princely munificence of " it has been an active propagandist Baron and Baroness Maurice de Hirsch,
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JEWS AND JUDAISM
in regard to the Russian Jews, may justly of Jews there must be stopped, and the
be looked upon with pride. crowding into certain distinct fields of
New Ghettos, however, were formed in work must be brought to an end. A deter- nearly all the cities to which these immi- mined effort has already been made to grants came; and this name for the habi- force the new immigrants into less crowded tat of the poorer Jews became again famil- parts of the land to which they come. In iar, aided by the popularity which some this country this is being done by the modern novelists had given to it. In the United Hebrew Charities, and notably by Middle Ages and down to our own time the B'nai B'rith. A distinct clannish feel- the Jews had been forced by the state ing has, however, to be overcome, and a to live apart in such Ghettos; sometimes fear of venturing into an unknown coun- for their own protection, sometimes to try where the immigrant will be surround- preserve the outside world from contact ed by people who do not understand his with them. The modern Ghetto is a volun- peculiar social and religious customs, tary gathering of the Jews for the purpose That the Jew has taken by preference of mutual help and from a feeling of re- to certain branches of trade and work is ciprocal obligations. To the outside ob- due to the fact that anti-Jewish legisla- server it presents an unsightly appear- tion has for centuries closed many walks ance; it is the abode of poor people, and of life to him, and the guild organization its population is usually strange in dress, excluded him rigorously from many manners, and speech. The sweating sys- spheres of activity. Then, too, his richly tern (which in one form or another is to developed home life has induced a certain be found in all these Ghettos) has been a distaste for occupations which take the dreadful incentive towards grinding the wage-earner out of his home and away face of the poor; and the results of too from his family. That, however, these great a hoarding are often quite apparent; inherited instincts can easily be overcome so that the general morality of the Jews is clearly seen whenever the occasion in these Ghettos has suffered in conse- offers. Even in Amsterdam, where three- quence. A people ignorant of the Ian- fourths of the diamond industry is in the guage of their new home are a prey to the hands of Jews, there are to be found Jew- evil - intended, who make use of their ish cobblers, cigar-makers, plumbers, car- ignorance for their own commercial and pet - weavers, mattress - makers, watch- political advancement. This has been makers, etc. In the East End of London notably seen in the city of New York, there are, it is true, 10,000 Jews who where a lax city government has permitted are engaged in the clothes - making the vampires of society to fasten their trades, but the rest of 40,000 Jewish fangs upon the Ghetto and to produce con- wage - earners of this quarter are scat- ditions which call for the active interfer- tered over all possible branches of ence of all those forces which seek to work — masonry, metal-working, textile stamp out crime and vice. But, on the industries, furniture-making, cap-making, other hand, to one who is acquainted with and the like. The same is true of New the inner life of the Ghetto the virtues York, where, although the number of Jews which have hitherto characterized the employed in the tailoring industries is Jews — industry and sobriety — are still to disproportionately large, the following be found there; much more frequently list of Hebrew unions shows how far than in those parts where the richer afield the Jewish workman has gone: classes congregate, and whose wealth Cap-Makers, Cap-Blockers, Shirt-Makers, enables them to withdraw their doings Mattress-Makers, Purse-Makers, Liberty from the public gaze. Its members are as Musical Union, Jewish Chorus Union, industrious as bees in a hive; and though Jewellers' Union, Tin-Smithers' Union, extremely litigatious, drunkenness is un- Bill-Posters, Waiters' Alliance, Architect- known and actual crime is comparatively ural Ironworkers, Hebrew Typographical rare. Union, Tobacco Cutters, Paper - Makers,
In order to correct the abuses of the Bookbinders. The same is relatively true
Ghetto, two things are absolutely neces- of all other countries where Jews live in
sary— the increase of the actual number large numbers.
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JEWS AND JUDAISM
It is a popular misconception that the Alexandria, into Moorish culture in Spain,
-lew h;is an innate distaste for agricult- into Slavism in Russia and Poland. When
nre. His continued commercial life, forced the first wave of the modern spirit com-
iipon him for many centuries, has, it menced to break from France eastward
is true, disaccustomed the Jew to the over the whole of Europe, it reached the
life of a tiller of the soil. But the Jewish Jew also. While in France the new spirit
state was largely an agricultural one; the was largely political in Germany it was
legislation of the Bible and the later Law more spiritual. In its political form as
Hooks was clearly intended for an agri- well as in its spiritual form it reacted
cultural people; and Jews have never not only upon the political condition of
shown an unwillingness to return again the Jew, but especially upon his mental
to the soil. In Southern Russia there are attitude. The new spirit was intensely
to-day 225 Jewish colonies with a popula- modern, intensely cosmopolitan, intensely
tion of 100,000. In Palestine there are Occidental, and intensely inductive. The
now more than twenty colonies with a Jew had preserved to a great degree his
population of more than 5,000, and similar deductive, Oriental, particularistic, and
agricultural colonies have been established ancient mode of thought and aspect of
at various times in the United States, life. The two forces were bound to meet.
Canada, and the Argentine Republic. In As a great oak is met by the storm, so was
many cases, it is true, these colonies have Israel set upon by the fury of this terrible
not yet become self-supporting, but this onslaught. It is of interest to see in what
has been due in a large measure to mal- manner he emerged from this storm —
administration and to the popular con- whether he has been able to bend to its
ditions under which the colonies were fury, to lose perhaps some of his leaves
founded. and even some of his branches, but to
It cannot be denied that a goodly part change only in such a way as to be able
of the Jewish proletariat belongs to the to stand upright again when the storm
Socialist party. The whole Biblical sys- is past.
tern is in itself not without a Socialist It was in the United States that the tinge; and the two great founders of the Reform movement developed its full ca- itiodern system, Lasalle and Marx, were pacity and bore its most perfect fruit. Jews. But the Jew is by nature peace- In a new land, which was untrammelled loving; and under more favorable circum- by traditions of the past, and where the stances, and with the opportunity of a congregational system became the basis of greater development of his faculties, Jewish communal life, the ideas which the Socialism in his midst has no very active German Reformers had sown had a most life; the Jew very soon becoming an ar- fruitful ground in which to grow. It can- dent partisan of the existing state of not be said that the Reform movement affairs. here was actually started by the Ger-
The facility with which the Jews attach mans, for already, in 1825, one of the themselves to changed circumstances congregations in Charleston, S. C., made stands out characteristically through their up almost entirely of Sefardic Jews, whole history. It might, indeed, be said had developed " The Reformed Society of with some show of truth that this pli- Israelites"; and the formation of the ability is the weak side in the Jewish society seems to have been due, not only character. The readiness of the Jew to be to the demand for an aesthetic service, but almost anything and not simply his own to an attempt to formulate a creed which self has been one of the factors producing should omit all reference to the coming of a certain ill will against him. Disraeli the Messiah, the return to Palestine, and was the most jingo of all imperialists in the bodily resurrection. This attempt at England; Lasker, the most ardent advo- formulating a Theistic Church, however, cate of the newly constituted German Em- was unsuccessful ; and it was not until the pire. This pliability is the result of the advent from Germany in the 50's and 60's v/andering life he has led and the various of rabbis who had been influenced by the civilizations of which he has been a part, movement in Germany that reform corn- He' has to find his way into Hellenism in menced to make itself felt here. Merz-
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JEWS AND JUDAISM
bacher in New York, Isaac M. Wise in Al- bany and Cincinnati, S. Hirsch in Phila- delphia, David Einhorn in Baltimore, are only a few of the names of those who fought in the thick of the fight. About the year 1843 the first real Reform congrega- tions were established, the Temple Emanu- el in New York and Har Sinai in Balti- more. It cannot be my purpose here to trace the history of the movement in this country; suffice it to say that the un- trammelled freedom which existed here very soon played havoc with most of the institutions of the Jewish religion. Each congregation and each minister, being a law to itself, shortened the service, excised prayers, and did away with observances as it thought best. Not that the leaders did not try, from time to time, to regulate the measure of reform to be introduced, and to evolve a platform upon which the movement should stand. Rabbinical con- ferences were held for that purpose in Cleveland (1856), Philadelphia (1869), Cincinnati (1871), and Pittsburg (1885). While in the earlier conferences the at- tempt was made to find some authoritative statement upon which all parties could agree, in the subsequent ones the attempt was given up. They became more and more meeting-places simply for the ad- vanced Reform wing of the Jewish Church. The position of this wing of the Reformed synagogue may best be seen in the declara- tion of principles which was published by the Pittsburg conference. It declared that Judaism presents the highest con- ception of the God idea; that the Bible contains the record of the consecration of the Jewish people; that it is a potent in- strument of religious and moral instruc- tion; that it reveals, however, the primi- tive ideas of its own age; that its moral laws only are binding; and that all cere- monies therein ordained which are not adapted to the views and habits of modern civilization are to be rejected; that all Mosaic and rabbinical laws regulating diet, priestly functions, and dress, are for- eign to our present mental state; that the Jews are no longer a nation, and therefore do not expect a return to Palestine; that Judaism is a progressive religion, always striving to be in accord with the postulates of reason; that the belief in bodily resur- rection, in the existence of a hell and a
paradise, are to be rejected; and that it is the duty of Jews to participate in the great task of modern times to solve on the basis of justice and righteousness the problems presented by the transitions and evils of the present organization of soci- ety. Such a platform as this could not fail to arouse intense opposition on the part of the Orthodox Jews, and to lose for the conference even some of its more con- servative adherents. As in Charleston, in 1825, a platform of Theism was here postu- lated, which was bereft of all distinctively Jewish characteristics, and which practi- cally meant a breaking away from historic Judaism. This position of the advanced Reformers is also manifested in the stand which they have taken in regard to the necessity of the Abrahamic covenant. At a meeting of the Central Conference of American (Reformed) Rabbis, held at Baltimore in 1881, a resolution was passed to the effect that no initiatory rite or cere- mony was necessary in the case of one de- siring to enter the Covenant of Israel, and that such a one had merely to declare his or her intention to worship the one sole and eternal God, to be conscientiously gov- erned in life by God's laws, and to adhere to the sacred cause and mission of Israel as marked out in Holy Writ.
The service in Reform synagogues in the United States has kept pace with this de- velopment of doctrine, or rather with this sloughing-off of so much that is distinctive- ly Jewish. The observance of the second-day festivals has been entirely abolished, as well as the separation of the sexes and the covering of the head in prayer. The ritual has been gradually shortened, the ancient language of prayer (Hebrew) has been pushed further and further into the back- ground, so that in some congregations the service is altogether English; and in a few congregations an additional service on Sunday, intended for those who cannot attend upon the regular Sabbath-day, has been introduced. Only one congregation, Sinai in Chicago, has followed the old Ber- lin Reform synagogue and has entirely abolished the service on Friday night and Saturday morning. But whatever criti- cism one might like to offer on the Reform movement in the United States, it deserves great praise for the serious attempt it has made to understand its own position
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JEWS AND JUDAISM
ENTRANCE TO TEMPLE BETH-EL, A JEWISH SYNAGOGUE IN NEW YORK CITY.
and to square its observance with that position. It has also been most active in its modern institutional development. It has certainly beautified and spiritualized the synagogue service; it has founded a Union of American Hebrew Congregations, arid a seminary (Hebrew Union College in
Cincinnati). It has published a Union Prayer-book and a Union Hymn-book, and has given great care to the development of the Confirmation and the bettering of the Sunday-school. It has tried to make the synagogue a centre for the religious and spiritual development of its members;
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JEWS AND JUDAISM
and it cannot be denied that the very hold upon things which are supernatural large mass of educated Jews in this coun- will lead many of its members to seek try, in so far as they have any affiliation satisfaction elsewhere. That they will with the synagogue, belong to the Re- seek it in the Jewish synagogue is hardly form wing. But at the same time probable, seeing how the racial and other it must not be forgotten that there is ties have been broken or at least greatly a very large body of Orthodox and loosened. They or their children will conservative Jews, whose number has glide rather into some form of the domi- been greatly increased during the last nant church, possibly, in the swinging of twenty years through the influx of Rus- the pendulum, into some orthodox form sian, Galician, and Rumanian Jews. of that church. I cannot help quoting the Reform Judaism without some centrif- words of an intelligent outside observer ugal force is bound to continue on the of the Jewish question, the Right Hon. road it has once taken. The logical out- James Bryce, M. P. : " If Judaism be- come of the principles formulated at the comes merely Theism, there will be little Pittsburg conference is a gradual develop- to distinguish its professors from .the per- ment into an ethical Theism without any sons, now pretty numerous, who, while distinctive Jewish coloring. The leader of Christian in name, sit loose to Christian advanced Reform Judaism in this country doctrine. The children of Jewish theists has recently said that Judaism must be will be almost as apt as the children of recast along the lines of a universal ethi- other theists to be caught up by the move- cal religion ; that then all distinctive Jew- ment which carries the sons and daughters ish elements of the synagogue symbolism of evangelical Anglicans and of Noncon- will pass away, and that such a denation- formists towards, or all the way to, the alized Jewish temple will seek a closer al- Church of Rome/''
liance with Unitarianism and Theism, and Where, then, is this centrifugal force to with them, perhaps in a few decades, will be found, which will hold together the form a new church and a new religion for various elements in Israel, no matter what united humanity. That such a tendency their theological opinions may be? Before is inherent in Reform Judaism is seen also attempting to answer this question, a word in the formation of the Society of Ethical must be said in regard to the anti-Semitic Culture in New York. The leader of this movement, the recrudescence of which has movement is the son of a former promi- so profoundly affected the Jewish people nent rabbi of the leading Reform congre- during the last twenty years of the nine- gation in this country. In seeking to teenth century. A word only, because the bring out the underlying ethical prin- facts are of too recent date to need a de- ciples of Judaism, he has gone entirely tailed statement here. The great master- outside the pale of the ancient faith; and rnind, Zunz, writing in Germany in 1832, ihe movement would not concern us here believed that persecution for religious be- were it not that nearly all the members lief could not withstand the onslaughts of (at least of the parent society in New the new era. Theodore Reinach, some York) are Jews, whose evident desire it fifty years later, asserted that anti-Semi- is not to be recognized as such, at least tism was impossible in France. How so far as religious ceremonies and social sadly has a dementi been given to the affiliations are concerned. The society hopes thus expressed, especially in these does not even bear the name Jewish, but two countries !••
with a certain leaning towards liberal I pass over the outbreaks against the Christianity tries to find a basis for the Jews during the early years of the nine- morality and ethics of the old synagogue teenth century, even the Damascus blood- outside the sphere of supernatural re- accusation in 1840, and the forcible bap- ligion. While the Ethical Culture Society tism of little Edgar Mortara in 1858; they has been quite a power in certain lines of were believed to belong to the old order of charitable and educational work, it may things, with which the new, at least in reasonably be questioned whether it has that direction, had nothing in common, any future as a form of church organiza- Starting in Germany, perhaps as a po- tion. The inborn longing of man for some litical move on the part of Bismarck, it
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JEWS AND JUDAISM— JOHN ADAMS
spread into Russia, Galicia, Austria, Ru- mania, and France. In most of these coun- tries it not only found expression in the exclusion of the Jews from all social inter- course with their fellows, but in Russia produced the riots of 1881 and 1882; in Austria and Bohemia the turbulent scene in the Reichstag, and even the pillaging of Jewish houses and Jewish synagogues; in Rumania it received the active support of the government and reduced the Jews there to practical penury; while in France it showed itself in accusations against the Jews which for barbarity could match any that were brought against them in the Middle Ages. The charges against the Jews are varied in their character. In Germany they have been blamed for ex- ploiting the agricultural class and for serving the interests of the Liberal party, forgetting that Leo and Stahl, the found- ers of the Orthodox party in Prussia, were themselves Jews, and that Disraeli in England was born of the same race. The most foolish accusations on almost every conceivable subject have been lodged against them by such men as Ahlwart, Stocker, Lueger, and Drumont; and in late years the old and foolish charge that the Jews use the blood of Christian chil- dren in the making of Passover bread has been revived, in order to infuriate the populace; despite the fact that popes, ecclesiastics, and hosts of Christian pro- fessors have declared the accusation to be purely imaginary and malignant. The false charge that a Jewish officer in France
Among the few bright spots on the world's chart are those countries inhabited by the Anglo-Saxon race. Anti-Semitism is unknown in England (though the at- tempt has been made to fix the blame for the Boer war on the Jews) ; and the in- stitutions of the United States have up till now prevented the entrance here of the disease, though in the mild form of social anti-Semitism which debars Jewish children from private schools and Jewish people from clubs and summer hotels, it has insinuated itself into some of the Eastern cities, notably into New York.
Jogues, ISAAC, missionary; born at Orleans, France, Jan. 10, 1607; became a Jesuit at Rouen in 1624; was ordained in 1636; and, at his own request, was imme- diately sent to Canada. He was a most earnest missionary among the Indians on both sides of the Lakes. Caught, tortured, and made a slave by the Mohawks, he re- mained with them until 1643, when he es- caped to Albany, and was taken to Man- hattan. Returning to Europe, he was shipwrecked on the English coast. He returned to Canada in 1646, where he con- cluded a treaty between the French and the Mohawks. Visiting Lake George, he named it St. Sacrament, and, descending the Hudson River to Albany, he went among the Mohawks as a missionary, who seized and put him to death as a sorcerer, at Caughnawaga, N. Y., Oct. 18, 1646.
John Adams, THE. The naval opera- tions on the sea in 1814, though not so important as in the two preceding years
PLACE WHERK THE JOHN ADAMS WAS DESTROYED.
had betrayed secrets of his government was in some respects, fully sustained the char- sufficient to unloosen the most savage at- acter of the American navy. The John tacks upon the Jews which the modern Adams frigate had been cut down to a world has seen. corvette of twenty-eight guns in 1813, and
153
JOHN DOE— JOHNSON
was the first that figured after the open- ing of 1814. She started on a cruise from Washington in January, and on the night of the 18th passed the British blockading squadron in Lynn Haven Bay, put to sea, and ran to the northeast to cross the track of the West India merchantmen. She made a few prizes, and on March 25 she captured the Indiaman Woodbridge. While taking possession of her the commander of the Adams (Capt. Charles Morris) ob- served twenty-five merchant vessels, with two ships-of-war, bearing down upon her with a fair wind. Morris abandoned his prize, and gave the Adams wings for flight from danger. In April she entered the harbor of Savannah for supplies, and on May 5 sailed for the Manila. Reef to watch for the Jamaica convoy, but the fleet pass- ed her in the night. She gave chase in the morning, but was kept at bay by two ves- sels of war. She crossed the Atlantic, and on July 3 was off the Irish coast, where she was chased by British vessels, but al- ways escaped. For nearly two months the weather was foggy, cold, and damp, be- cause the ocean was dotted with icebergs. Her crew sickened, and Captain Morris de- termined to go into port. He entered Penobscot Bay, and was nearly disabled by striking a rock, Aug. 17, 1814, and made his way up the Penobscot River to Hampden. British vessels followed, and to prevent her falling into the hands of his enemy, Morris burned her.
John Doe and Richard Roe, names used in legal fictions, especially as stand- ing pledges for the prosecution of suits. In early times real and substantial persons were required to pledge themselves to answer to the crown for an amercement, or fine, set upon the plaintiff, for raising a false accusation, if he brought action without cause, or failed in it; and in 1285, 13 Edward I., sheriffs and bailiffs were, before deliverance of a distress, to receive pledges for pursuing a suit, and for the return of the property, if awarded. But
this becoming a matter of form, the ficti- tious names of Doe and Roe were used until the form was abolished by the com- mon-law procedure act, 1852.
In the United States these names are used in place of the unknown real names of parties against whom legal proceedings have been undertaken; and the form Jane Doe is similarly applied in cases of women.
Johnes, EDWARD RODOLPH, lawyer ; born in Whitesboro, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1852; grad- uated at Yale College in 1873 and at Columbia Law School in 1876. He was the Venezuelan representative in the boundary dispute of that country and also counsel in the Nicaragua and Costa Rica boun- dary case. His publications include The Monroe Doctrine as Applied to Venezuelan Boundary Question; English and American Bankruptcy and Insolvency Laws; History of Southampton, R. /., etc.
Johns Hopkins University, a non- sectarian institution in Baltimore, Md. ; organized in 1876 with funds provided by JOHNS HOPKINS (q. v.) ; coeducational in its medical department. At the close of 1900 the university had 131 professors and instructors; 645 students in all depart- ments; 94,000 volumes in the library; 1,204 graduates; and an endowment of $3,000,000. Under the presidency of Daniel C. Oilman the institution achieved a large measure of success and influence, a distinctive feature being the original re- search conducted by the students. Presi- dent Gilman resigned his charge in 1901, and was succeeded by Ira Remsen, LL.D., who had been Professor of Chemistry in the university since its opening.
Johnson, ALEXANDER BRYAN, banker; born in Gosport, England, May 29, 1786; came to the United States in 1801 and settled in Utica, N. Y. ; was in the banking business over forty-five years. His pub- lications include The Nature of Value, Capital, etc.; Guide to Right Understand- ing of our American Union, etc. He died in Utica, N. Y., Sept. 9, 1867.
JOHNSON, ANDREW
Johnson, ANDREW, seventeenth Presi- to read. After working as a journeyman dent of the United States; born in Ra- in South Carolina, he went to Greenville, leigh, N. C., Dec. 29, 1808. He learned Tenn., taking with him his mother, who the trade of a tailor, and taught himself was dependent on him. There he worked
154
JOHNSON, ANDREW
at his trade, married, and was taught by Congress as an illegal body, deserving of
his wife to write; became alderman and no respect. The tour, made wholly for
mayor; a member of the legislature political effect, extended to St. Louis.
(1832-33 and 1839); presidential elector His conduct at Cleveland and St. Louis
(1840) ; State Senator in 1841; and mem- was so offensive that the common coun-
ber of Congress from 1843 to 1853. From cils of Cincinnati and Pittsburg refused
1853 to 1857 he was governor of Tennes- to accord him a public reception. The at-
see, and from 1857 to 1863 United States tempt to establish a new party with
Senator. In 1862 he was appointed mili- President Johnson as a leader was a fail-
tary governor of Tennessee, and in 1864 ure.
was elected Vice-President of the United When the cabinet of President John- States. On the death of President Lin- son resigned, the friends of Mr. Stanton, coin he succeeded to the office, in accord- Secretary of War, urged him to retain ance with the provisions of the Constitu- the office, for it was believed the chief tion. On the morning of the death of Mr. magistrate was contemplating some revo- Lincoln, April 15, 1865, the cabinet offi- lutionary movement. The tenure of office cers, excepting Mr. Seward, who was suf- act seemed to guarantee Mr. Stanton fering from a murderous assault, ad- against removal. The Fortieth Congress dressed a note to the Vice-President, offi- met immediately after the adjournment cially notifying him of the decease of the of the Thirty-ninth, and adjourned March President, and that the emergency of the 31, 1867, to meet on the first Wednesday government demanded that he should im- in July following, for the express pur- mediately enter upon the duties of the pose of preventing the President from Presidency. Mr. Johnson appointed ten doing serious mischief. After removing o'clock that morning, when he would be obstructions cast in the way of reor- ready to take the oath of office. That ganization by the President, Congress oath was administered by Chief -Justice adjourned, July 20, to meet Nov. 21, Chase, in the presence of the cabinet offi- hoping the President would no longer cers and several members of Congress, disturb the public peace by his conduct. Then the President delivered a brief They were mistaken. As soon as Con- speech to the gentlemen present. There, gress adjourned, in violation of the ten- in the midst of universal and unparalleled ure of office act he proceeded to remove excitement, the authority of the nation Mr. Stanton from office. He first asked was quietly transferred to other hands a him, Aug. 5, to resign. " Grave public few hours after the death of President considerations," he said, " constrain me Lincoln. Mr. Johnson requested Mr. Lin- to request your resignation as Secretary coin's cabinet to remain, and the govern- of War." Stanton replied, " Grave public ment went on without a shock to its considerations constrain me to continue steady movement. See CABINET, PBESI- in the office of Secretary of War until the DENT'S. next meeting of Congress." He shared On Aug. 14, 1866, a convention was held in the general suspicion that Johnson in Philadelphia, composed largely of Con- was contemplating a revolutionary move- federate leaders and their sympathizers ment in favor of the Confederates. A in the North, for the purpose of organ- week later the President directed Gen- izing a new political party, with Presi- era! Grant to assume the position and dent Johnson as its standard-bearer, duties of Secretary of War. As a duti- Whereupon Johnson and a part of his ful soldier, he obeyed his commander-in- cabinet made a circuitous journey to Chi- chief. Stanton, knowing the firmness cago, ostensibly for the purpose of being and incorruptible patriotism of Grant, present at the dedication of a monument withdrew under protest. This change to Senator Douglas. He harangued the was followed by such arbitrary acts on people on the way in language so un- the part of the President that the country- becoming the dignity of a chief magis- was thoroughly alarmed. Even the Presi- trate of the republic that the nation felt dent's private friends were amazed and a relief from mortification after his re- mortified by his conduct. He gave un- turn in September. He had denounced satisfactory reasons for dismissing Stan-
155
JOHNSON, ANDBEW
ton. On Jan. 13, 1868, the Senate rein- stated Stanton, when Grant quietly with- drew. The enraged President reproached the latter for yielding to the Senate, charged him with having broken his promises, and tried to injure his reputa- tion as a citizen and a soldier. A ques- tion of veracity between them arose, when the general-in-chief felt compelled to say, in a letter to the President : " When my honor as a soldier and my integrity as a man have been so violently assailed, par- don me for saying that I can but regard this whole matter, from beginning to end, as an attempt to involve me in the resist- ance of law for which you have hesitated to assume the responsibility in orders, and thus to destroy my character before the country." The President's conduct concerning Stanton led immediately to his impeachment.
On Feb. 22, 1868, the House of Repre- sentatives, by a vote of 126 to 47, "Re- solved, that Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, be impeached of high crimes and misdemeanors." A com- mittee presented nine articles of impeach- ment (see below). Managers were ap- pointed, and on March 3 they presented two other charges. The Senate organized as a high court of impeachment, with Chief -Justice Chase presiding, on the 5th; the President was summoned to the bar on the 7th, and appeared by counsel on the 13th; and the trial was begun on the 30th. The examination of witnesses ended April 22; the arguments of counsel were concluded May 6; and twenty days were consumed in debates in the Senate. The votes of fifty-four Senators present were taken on the verdict on May 26, when thirty-five were for conviction, and nineteen for acquittal. As two-thirds of the votes were necessary for conviction, the President was acquitted by one vote.
Soon after the expiration of his term as President, he was an unsuccessful can- didate for the United States Senate; in 1872 he was defeated for Congressman- at-Large; and in January, 1875, he was elected a United States Senator. He died near Carter's Station, Tenn., July 31, 1875.
Impeachment Proceedings. — Articles exhibited by the House of Representa- tives of the United States, in the name
of themselves and all the people of the United States, against Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, in main- tenance and support of their impeachment against him for high crimes and misde- meanors.
ARTICLE I.
That said Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, on the 21st day of February, in the year of our Lord 1868, at Washington, in the District of Colum- bia, unmindful of the high duties of his office, of his oath of office, and of the re- quirement of the Constitution that he should take care that the laws be faith- fully executed, did unlawfully, and in violation of the Constitution and laws of the United States, issue an order in writ- ing for the removal of Edwin M. Stan- ton from the office of Secretary for the Department of War, said Edwin M. Stan- ton having been theretofore duly appoint- ed and commissioned, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate of the United States, as such Secretary, and said Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, on the 12th day of August, in the year of our Lord 1867, and during the recess of said Senate, having suspended by his order Edwin M. Stanton from said office; and within twenty days after the first day of the next meeting of said Senate — that is to say, on the 12th day of December, in the year last aforesaid — having reported to said Senate such sus- pension, with the evidence and reasons for his action in the case, and the name of the person designated to perform the duties of such office temporarily until the next meeting of the Senate, and said Senate thereafterward, on the 13th day of January, in the year of our Lord 1868, having duly considered the evi- dence and reasons reported by said Andrew Johnson for said suspension and having refused to concur in said suspen- sion, whereby, and by force of the pro- visions of an act entitled "An act regu- lating the tenure of certain civil offices." passed March 2, 1867, said Edwin M. Stanton did forthwith resume the func- tions of his office, whereof the said An- drew Johnson had then and there due notice, and said Edwin M. Stanton, by reason of the premises, on said 21st day of February, being lawfully entitled to
156
JOHNSON, ANDREW
hold said office as Secretary for the De- partment of War, which said order for the removal of said Edwin M. Stanton is, in substance, as follows — that is to iay:
" EXECUTIVE MANSION, •' WASHINGTON, D. C., Feb. 21, 1868. •« gIRj — By virtue of the power and au- thority vested in me as President by the Constitution and laws of the United States, you are hereby removed from office as Secre- tary for the Department of War, and your function as such will terminate upon re- ceipt of this communication.
"You will transfer to Brevet Maj.-Gen. Lorenzo Thomas, adjutant-general of the army, who has this day been authorized and empowered to act as Secretary of War, ad interim, all records, books, papers, and other public property now in your custody and charge.
" Respectfully yours,
" ANDREW JOHNSON. •' Hon. Edwin M. Stanton, Washington, D. C."
Which order was unlawfully issued, with intent then and there to violate the act entitled " An act regulating the tenure of certain civil offices," passed March 2, 1867; and, with the further intent, con- trary to the provisions of said act, in violation thereof, and contrary to the pro- visions of the Constitution of the United States, and without the advice and con- sent of the Senate of the United States, the said Senate then and there being in session, to remove said Edwin M. Stanton from the office of Secretary of the Depart- ment of War, the said Edwin M. Stanton being then and there Secretary of War, and being then and there in due and law- ful execution and discharge of the duties of said office, whereby said Andrew John- son, President of the United States, did then and there commit and was guilty of a high misdemeanor in office.
ARTICLE II.
That on the said 21st day of February, in the year of our Lord 1868, at Wash- ington, in the District of Columbia, said Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, unmindful of the high duties of his office, of his oath of office, and in vio- lation of the Constitution of the United States, and contrary to the provisions of an act entitled " An act regulating the tenure of certain civil offices," passed March 2, 1867, without the advice and consent of the Senate of the United States, said Senate then and there being in
session, and without authority of law, did, with intent to violate the Constitu- tion of the United States and the act aforesaid, issue and deliver to one Lorenzo Thomas a letter of authority, in substance as follows, that is to say:
" EXECUTIVE MANSION, " WASHINGTON, D. C., Feb. 21, 1868. " SIR, — Hon. Edwin M. Stanton having this day been removed from office as Secre- tary for the Department of War, you are hereby authorized and empowered to act as Secretary of War, ad interim, and will im- mediately enter upon the discharge of vthe duties pertaining to that office.
" Mr. Stanton has been instructed to trans- fer to you all the records, books, papers, and other public property now in his custody and charge.
" Respectfully yours,
" ANDREW JOHNSON.
" To Brevet Maj.-Gen. Lorenzo Thomas, Adjutant-General United States Army, Washington, D. C."
then and there being no vacancy in said office of Secretary for the Department of War; whereby said Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, did then and there commit and was guilty of a high misdemeanor in office.
ARTICLE III.
That said Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, on the 21st day of Feb- ruary, in the year of our Lord 1868, at Washington, in the District of Columbia, did commit and was guilty of a high misdemeanor in office, in this, that, with- out authority of law, while the Senate of the United States was then and there in session, he did appoint one Lorenzo Thomas to be Secretary for the Depart- ment of War, ad interim, without the ad- vice and consent of the Senate, and with intent to violate the Constitution of the United States, no vacancy having hap- pened in said office of Secretary for the Department of War during the recess of the Senate, and no vacancy existing in said office at the time, and which said ap- pointment, so made by said Andrew John- son, of said Lorenzo Thomas, is in sub- stance as follows, that is to say:
(Same as in Article II.)
ARTICLE IV.
That said Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, unmindful of the
157
JOHNSON, ANDREW
high duties of his office, and of his oath the District of Columbia, did unlawfully of office, in violation of the Constitution conspire with one Lorenzo Thomas by and laws of the United States, on the 21st force to seize, take, and possess the prop- day of February, in the year of our Lord erty of the United States in the Depart- 1868, at Washington, in the District of ment Of War, then and there in the cus- Columbia, did unlawfully conspire with tody and charge of Edwin M. Stanton, one Lorenzo Thomas, and with other per- Secretary for said Department, contrary sons, to the House of Representatives un- to the provisions of an act entitled " An known, with intent by intimidation and act to define and punish certain conspir- threats unlawfully to hinder and prevent acies," approved July 31, 1861, and with Edwin M. Stanton, then and there the intent to violate and disregard an act en- Secretary for the Department of War, titled " An act regulating the tenure of
certain civil offices," passed March 2, 1867, whereby said Andrew Johnson, President
duly appointed under the laws of the Unit- ed States, from holding said office of Sec- retary for the Department of War, con- of the United States, did then and there trary to and in violation of the Constitu- commit a high crime in office, tion of the United States, and of the pro- visions of an act entitled "An act to de- fine and punish certain conspiracies," ap- proved July 31, 1861, whereby said An-
ARTICLE VII.
That said Andrew Johnson, Presi- dent of the United States, unmindful of
drew Johnson, President of the United the high duties of his office and of his States, did then and there commit and oath of office, on the 21st day of February, was guilty of a high crime in office. in the year of our Lord 1868, at Washing-
ton, in the District of Columbia, did unlawfully conspire with one Lorenzo
That said Andrew Johnson, President of Thomas with intent unlawfully to seize, the United States, unmindful of the high take, and possess the property of the duties of his office, and of his oath of office, United States in the Department of War, on the 21st day of February, in the year in the custody and charge of Edwin M. of our Lord 1868, and on divers other days Stanton, Secretary of said department, and times in said year, before the 2d day with intent to violate and disregard the of March, A.D. 1868, at Washington, in act entitled " An act regulating the tenure the District of Columbia, did unlawfully of certain civil offices," passed March 2, conspire with one Lorenzo Thomas, and 1867, whereby said Andrew Johnson, Pres- •with other persons to the House of Rep- ident of the United States, did then and resentatives unknown, to prevent and hin- there commit a high misdemeanor in der the execution of an act entitled " An office, act regulating the tenure of certain civil offices," passed March 2, 1867, and in pur- suance of said conspiracy did unlawfully attempt to prevent Edwin M. Stanton, dent of the United States, unmindful of then and there being Secretary for the De- the high duties of his office and of his partment of War, duly appointed and com- oath of office, with intent unlawfully to missioned under the laws of the United control the disbursement of the moneys States, from holding said office, whereby appropriated for the military service and the said Andrew Johnson, President of the for the Department of War, on the 21st day United States, did then and there commit of February, in the year of our Lord 1868, and was guilty of a high misdemeanor in at Washington, in the District of Colum- office. bia, did unlawfully and contrary to the
ABTICLE vi. provisions of an act entitled "An act reg-
ulating the tenure of certain civil offices,"
That said Andrew Johnson, President passed March 2, 1867, and in violation of of the United States, unmindful of the the Constitution of the United States, and high duties of his office and of his oath of without the advice and consent of the Sen- office, on the 21st day of February, in the ate of the United States, and while the year of our Lord 1868, at Washington, in Senate was then and there in session,
158
ARTICLE VIII.
That said Andrew Johnson, Presi-
JOHNSON, ANDREW
there being no vacancy in the office of Sec- United States, according to the provisions
retary for the Department of War, with of said act, and with the further intent
intent to violate and disregard the act thereby to enable him, the said Andrew
aforesaid, then and there issue and deliver Johnson, to prevent the execution of an
to one Lorenzo Thomas a letter of author- act entitled " An act regulating the tenure
ity in writing, in substance as follows, of certain civil offices," passed March 2,
that is to say: 1867, and to unlawfully prevent Edwin
( Same as in Article II. ) M. Stanton, then being Secretary for the
Whereby said Andrew Johnson, Presi- Department of War, from holding said
dent of the United States, did then and office and discharging the duties thereof,
there commit and was guilty of a high whereby said Andrew Johnson, President
misdemeanor in office. of the United States, did then and there
commit and was guilty of a high misde- meanor in office.
ARTICLE IX.
That said Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, on the 22d day of February, in the year of our Lord 1868, at Washington, in the District of Colum
ARTICLE X.
That said Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, unmindful of the bia, in disregard of the Constitution and high duties of his office and the dignity and the laws of the United States, duly en- proprieties thereof, and of the harmony acted, as commander-in-chief of the army and courtesies which ought to exist and of the United States, did bring before be maintained between the executive and himself then and there William H. Emory, legislative branches of the government of a major-general by brevet in the army of the United States, designing and intend- the United States, actually in command of ing to set aside the rightful authority and the Department of Washington and the powers of Congress, did attempt to bring military forces thereof, and did then and into disgrace, ridicule, hatred, contempt, there, as such commander-in-chief, declare and reproach the Congress of the United to and instruct said Emory that part of a States and the several branches thereof, law of the United States, passed March 2, to impair and destroy the regard and re- 1867, entitled " An act making appropria- spect of all the good people of the United tions for the support of the army for the States for the Congress and legislative year ending June 30, 1868, and for other power thereof (which all officers of the purposes," especially the second section government ought inviolably to preserve thereof, which provides, among other and maintain), and to excite the odium things, that "all orders and instructions, and resentment of all the good people of relating to military operations, issued by the United States against Congress and the President or Secretary of War, shall the laws by it duly and constitutionally be issued through the general of the army, enacted ; and, in pursuance of said de- and, in case of his inability, through the sign and intent, openly and publicly, and next in rank," was unconstitutional, and in before divers assemblages of the citizens contravention of the commission of said of the United States convened in divers Emory, and which said provisions of law parts thereof to meet and receive said had been theretofore duly and legally pro- Andrew Johnson, as the chief magistrate mulgated by general order for the govern- of the United States, did, on the 18th day ment and direction of the army of the of August, in the year of our Lord 1866, United States, as the said Andrew John- and on divers other days and times, as son then and there well knew, with intent well before as afterwards, make and de- thereby to induce said Emory, in his offi- liver, with a loud voice, certain intemper- cial capacity as commander of the Depart- ate, inflammatory, and scandalous ha- ment of Washington, to violate the pro- rangues, and did therein utter loud threats visions of said act, and to take and re- and bitter menaces as well against Con- ceive, act upon, and obey such orders as gress as the laws of the United States he, the said Andrew Johnson, might make duly enacted thereby, amid the cries, and give, and which should not be issued jeers, and laughter of the multitudes then through the general of the army of the assembled and within hearing, which are
159
JOHNSON, ANDREW
set forth in the several specifications lating the tenure of certain civil offices,"
hereinafter written, in substance and passed March 2, 1867, by unlawfully devis-
effect, that is to say: ing and contriving, and attempting to
[Here are set out three specifications, devise and contrive, means by which he
quoting parts of speeches alleged to have should prevent Edwin M. Stanton from
been made by the President, Aug. 15, forthwith resuming the functions of the
Sept. 3, and Sept. 8, 1866.] office of Secretary for the Department of
Which said utterances, declarations, War, notwithstanding the refusal of the threats, and harangues, highly censurable Senate to concur in the suspension there- in any, are peculiarly indecent and un- tofore made by Andrew Johnson of said becoming to the chief magistrate of the Edwin M. Stanton from said office of United States, by means whereof said An- Secretary for the Department of War, and drew Johnson has brought the high office also by further unlawfully devising and of the President of the United States into contriving, and attempting to devise and contempt, ridicule, and disgrace, to the contrive, means then and there to pre- great scandal of all good citizens, whereby vent the execution of an act entitled " An said Andrew Johnson, President of the act making appropriations for the sup- United States, did commit and was then port of the army for the fiscal year end- and there guilty of a high misdemeanor in ing June 30, 1868, and for other pur- office, poses," approved March 2, 1867, and also ARTICLE xi ^° Prevent the execution of an act en- titled " An act to provide for the more
That said Andrew Johnson, President efficient government of the rebel States," of the United States, unmindful of the passed March 2, 1867 ; weherby the said high duties of his office and of his oath Andrew Johnson, President of the United of office, and in disregard of the Consti- States, did then, to wit: on the 21st day tution and laws of the United States, of February, 1868, at the city of Washing- did heretofore, to wit: on the 18th day of ton, commit and was guilty of a high mis- August, 1866, at the city of Washington, demeanor in office.
in the District of Columbia, by public And the House of Representatives by
speech, declare and affirm in substance that protestation, saving to themselves the
the Thirty-ninth Congress of the United liberty of exhibiting at any time here-
States was not a Congress of the United after any further articles or other accu-
States authorized by the Constitution to sation, or impeachment against the said
exercise legislative power under the same, Andrew Johnson, President of the United
but, on the contrary, was a Congress of States, and also of replying to his an-
only part of the States, thereby denying swers which he shall make unto the arti-
and intending to deny that the legisla- cles herein preferred against him, and of
tion of said Congress was valid or obli- offering proof to the same and every
gatory upon him, the said Andrew Johnson, part thereof, and to all and every other
except in so far as he saw fit to approve article, accusation, or impeachment which
the same, and also thereby denying shall be exhibited by them, as the case
and intending to deny the power of said shall require, do demand that the said
Thirty-ninth Congress to propose amend- Andrew Johnson may be put to answer
ments to the Constitution of the United the high crimes and misdemeanors in of-
States; and, in pursuance of said decla- fice herein charged against him, and that
ration, the said Andrew Johnson, Presi- such proceedings, examinations, trials,
dent of the United States, afterwards, and judgments may be thereupon had and
to wit: on the 21st day of February, given as may be agreeable to law and
1868, at the city of Washington, in justice.
the District of Columbia, did unlawful- Senate of the United States, sitting as
ly and in disregard of the requirements a court of impeachment for the trial of
of the Constitution, that he should take Andrew Johnson, President of the United
care that the laws be faithfully exe- States.
cuted, attempt to prevent the execu- The answer of the said Andrew John-
tion of an act entitled " An act regu- son, President of the United States, to
160
JOHNSON, ANDREW
the articles of impeachment exhibited touching the department aforesaid, and
against him by the House of Representa- for whose conduct in such capacity, sub-
tives of the United States. ordinate to the President, the President
is, by the Constitution and laws of the
ANSWER TO ARTICLE i. United States, made responsible. And
For answer to the first article he says: this respondent, further answering, says that Edwin M. Stanton was appointed he succeeded to the office of President of Secretary for the Department of War on the United States upon, and by reason the 15th day of January, A.D. 1862, of, the death of Abraham Lincoln, then by Abraham Lincoln, then President of President of the United States, on the the United States, during the first term 15th day of April, 1865, and the said of his Presidency, and was commission- Stanton was then holding the said office ed, according to the Constitution and of Secretary for the Department of War, laws of the United States, to hold the said under and by reason of the appointment office during the pleasure of the President; and commission aforesaid; and, not hav- that the office of Secretary for the De- ing been removed from the said office by partment of War was created by an act this respondent, the said Stanton con- of the First Congress, in its first session, tinued to hold the same under the ap- passed on the 7th day of August, A.D. pointment and commission aforesaid, at 1789, and in and by that act it was the pleasure of the President, until the provided and enacted that the said Sec- time hereinafter particularly mentioned; retary for the Department of War shall and at no time received any appointment perform and execute such duties as shall or commission save as above detailed, from time to time be enjoined on and in- And this respondent, further answering, trusted to him by the President of the says that on and prior to the 5th day United States, agreeably to the Constitu- of August, A.D. 1867, this respondent, tion, relative to the subjects within the the President of the United States, re- scope of the said department; and fur- sponsible for the conduct of the Secre- thermore, that the said Secretary shall tary for the Department of War, and conduct the business of the said depart- having the constitutional right to resort ment in such a manner as the President to and rely upon the person holding that of the United States shall, from time to office for advice concerning the great and time, order and instruct. difficult public duties enjoined on the
And this respondent, further answer- President by the Constitution and laws ing, says that, by force of the act afore- of the United States, became satisfied said, and by reason of his appointment that he could not allow the said Stanton aforesaid, the said Stanton became the to continue to hold the office of Secretary principal officer in one of the executive for the Department of War, without departments of the government within hazard of the public interest; that the the true intent and meaning of the sec- relations between the said Stanton and ond section of the second article of the the President no longer permitted the Constitution of the United States, and President to resort to him for advice, or according to the true intent and meaning to be, in the judgment of the President, of that provision of the Constitution of safely responsible for his conduct of the the United States; and in accordance affairs of the Department of War, as by with the settled and uniform practice of law required, in accordance with the each and every President of the United orders and instructions of the President; States, the said Stanton then became, and thereupon, by force of the Constitu- and, so long as he should continue to tion and laws of the United States, which hold the said office of Secretary for the devolve on the President the power and Department of War, must continue to be, the duty to control the conduct of the one of the advisers of the President of business of that executive department of the United States, as well as the person the government, and by reason of the con- intrusted to act for and represent the stitutional duty of the President to take President in matters enjoined upon him care that the laws be faithfully exe- or intrusted to him by the President, cuted, this respondent did necessarily
V.— L 161
JOHNSON, ANDREW
consider, and did determine, that the said believed that it was practically settled
Stanton ought no longer to hold the said by the First Congress of the United States,
office of Secretary for the Department of and had been so considered and, uniform-
War. And this respondent, by virtue of ly and in great numbers of instances, act-
the power and authority vested in him ed on by each Congress and President of
as President of the United States, by the the United States, in succession, from
Constitution and laws of the United President Washington to and including
States, to give effect to such his decision President Lincoln, and from the First
and determination, did, on the 5th day Congress to the Thirty - ninth Congress,
of August, A.D. 1867, address to the said that the Constitution of the United States
Stanton a note, of which the following is conferred on the President, as part of the
a true copy: executive power, and as one of the neces-
•'SiB,-Public considerations of a high ^ary means and instruments of perform-
character constrain me to say that your lng the executive duty expressly imposed
resignation as Secretary of War will be on him by the Constitution, of taking care
accepted." that the laws be faithfully executed, the
To which note the said Stanton made Power at an7 an<* all times of removing
the following reply: from office all executive officers, for cause,
to be judged by the President alone. This
- wJm^SSTiwrr. "fPondent had, in pursuance of the Con-
« gIRj — your note of this day has been stitution, required the opinion of each
received, stating that ' public considerations principal officer of the executive depart-
of a high character constrain you ' to say ments, upon this question of constitutional
^rbemLoreep1fS.'tl0n ^ SeCretary °' ^ ex«=uti« Power and duty, and had been
" In reply I have the honor to say, that advised by each of them, including the
public considerations of a high character, said Stanton, Secretary for the Depart-
which alone have induced me to continue at t of w th t under th Constitution
, ,, TT . ' of the United States this power was
lodged by the Constitution in the Presi- dent of the United States, and that, con- sequently, it could be lawfully exercised
This respondent, as President of the by him, and the Congress could not de-
United States, was thereon of opinion that, prive him thereof; and this respondent,
having regard to the necessary official re- in his capacity of President of the United
lations and duties of the Secretary for the States, and because in that capacity he
Department of War to the President of the was both enabled and bound to use his
United States, according to the Constitu- best judgment upon this question, did, in
tion and laws of the United States, and good faith, and with an earnest desire to
having regard to the responsibility of the arrive at the truth, come to the conclusion
President for the conduct of the said Sec- and opinion, and did make the same known
retary, and having regard to the para- to the honorable the Senate of the United
mount executive authority of the office States, by a message dated on the 2d day
which the respondent holds under the Con- of March, 1867 (a true copy whereof is
stitution and laws of the United States, hereunto annexed and marked A), that
it was impossible, consistently with the the power last mentioned was conferred
public interests, to allow the said Stanton and the duty of exercising it, in fit cases,
to continue to hold the said office of Secre- was imposed on the President by the Con-
tary for the Department of War; and it stitution of the United States, and that
then became the official duty of the re- the President could not be deprived of
spondent, as President of the United this power or relieved of this duty, nor
States, to consider and decide what act could the same be vested by law in the
or acts should and might lawfully be done President and the Senate jointly, either
by him, as President of the United States, in part or whole ; and this has ever since
to cause the said Stanton to surrender remained, and was the opinion of this re-
the said office. spondent at the time when he was forced,
This respondent was informed and verily as aforesaid, to consider and decide what
162
the head of this Department, constrain me
not to resign the office of Secretary of War
before the next meeting of Congress.
" Very respectfully yours,
JOHNSON, ANDREW
act or acts should and might lawfully be of War, and having, in his capacity of
done by this respondent, as President of President of the United States, so ex-
the United States, to cause the said Stan- amined and considered, did form the
ton to surrender the said office. opinion that the case of said Stanton and
This respondent was also then aware his tenure of office were not affected by that by the first section of " An act regu- the section of the last-named act. lating the tenure of certain civil offices " And this respondent, further answer- passed March 2, 1867, by a constitutional ing, says that, although a case thus ex- majority of both Houses of Congress, it isted which, in his judgment as President was enacted as follows: of the United States, called for the exer-
That every person holding any civil of- cise of the executive power to remove the fice to which he has been appointed by and said Stanton from the office of Secretary with the advice and consent of the Senate, for the Department of War, and although and every person who shall hereafter be this respondent was of opinion, as is appointed to any such office, and shall above shown, that under the Constitution become duly qualified to act therein, is of the United States the power to remove and shall be entitled to hold such office the said Stanton from the said office was until a successor shall have been in like vested in the President of the United manner appointed and duly qualified, ex- States; and although this respondent was cept as herein otherwise provided; Pro- also of the same opinion, as is above vided, that the Secretaries of State, of the shown, that the case of the said Stanton Treasury, of War, of the Navy, and of was not affected by the first section of the the Interior, the Postmaster-General, and last-named act; and although each of the the Attorney-General, shall hold their said opinions had been formed by this re- offices respectively for and during the term spondent upon an actual case, requiring of the President by whom they may have him, in his capacity of President of the been appointed, and one month thereafter, United States, to come to some judgment subject to removal by and with the ad- and determination thereon, yet this re- vice and consent of the Senate. spondent, as President of the United
This respondent was also aware that States, desired and determined to avoid, this act was understood and intended to if possible, any question of the construc- be an expression of the opinion of the tion and effect of the said first section of Congress by which that act was passed, the last-named act, and also the broader that the power to remove executive officers question of the executive power conferred for cause might, by law, be taken from the on the President of the United States by President and vested in him and the Sen- the Constitution of the United States to ate jointly; and although this respondent remove one of the principal officers of one had arrived at and still retained the of the executive departments for cause opinion above expressed and verily believed, seeming to him sufficient; and this re- as he still believes, that the said first spondent also desired and determined that section of the last-mentioned act was and if, from causes over which he could exert is wholly inoperative and void by reason no control, it should become absolutely of its conflict with the Constitution of necessary to raise and have in some way the United States, yet, inasmuch as the determined either or both of the said last- same had been enacted by the constitu- named questions, it was in accordance tional majority in each of the two Houses with the Constitution of the United of that Congress, this respondent consid- States, and was required of the President ered it to be proper to examine and decide thereby, that questions of so much gravity whether the particular case of the said and importance, upon which the legisla- Stanton, on which it was this respondent's tive and executive departments of the duty to act, was within or without the government had disagreed, which involved terms of that first section of the act; or, powers considered by all branches of the if within it, whether the President had government, during its entire history not the power, according to the terms of down to the year 1867, to have been con- the act, to remove the said Stanton from fided by the Constitution of the United the office of Secretary for the Department States to the President and to be neces-
163
JOHNSON, ANDREW
sary for the complete and proper execu- States, I am suspended from office as Secre- tion of his constitutional duties should » fi ^^ 'S^ VSflK be in some proper way submitted to that and also dlrecting me at once to transfer judicial department of the government in- to Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, who has this day trusted by the Constitution with the been authorized and empowered to act as power, and subjected by it to the duty, "Vrs, a^ttr^VC" not only of determining finally the con- in my custody and charge. Under a sense struction and effect of all acts of Con- of public duty, I am compelled to deny your gress, but of comparing them with the right, under the Constitution and laws of ° '., ,. TT°, , a. , the United States, without the advice and Constitution of the United States, and consent of the senate, and without legal pronouncing them inoperative when found cause, to suspend me from office as Secre- in conflict with that fundamental law tary of War, or the exercise of any or all which the people have enacted for the i.-*.;,..*--.^ -^^ government of all their servants. And to transfer to any person the records, books, these ends, first, that, through the action papers, and public property in my custody of the Senate of the United States, the as Secretary. But, inasmuch as the general absolute duty of the President to substi- JT"^1^^ tf ^^HS tute some fit person in place of Mr. Stan- notified me that he has accepted the ap- ton as one of his advisers, and as a pointment, I have no alternative but to sub- principal subordinate officer whose official m£T"n5?g; Resident." ^^ conduct he was responsible for, and had
lawful right to control, might, if possible, And this respondent, further answering,
be accomplished without the necessity of says, that it is provided, in and by the
raising any one of the questions afore- second section of " An act to regulate
said; and, second, if this duty could not the tenure of certain civil offices," that
be so performed, then that these questions, the President may suspend an officer from
or such of them as might necessarily the performance of the duties of the office
arise, should be judicially determined in held by him, for certain causes therein
manner aforesaid, and for no other end designated, until the next meeting of the
or purpose, this respondent, as President Senate, and until the case shall be acted
of the United States, on the 12th day of on by the Senate; that this respondent, as
August, 1867, seven days after the recep- President of the United States, was ad-
tion of the letter of the said Stanton, of vised, and he verily believed and still be-
the 5th of August, hereinbefore stated, lieves, that the executive power of removal
did issue to the said Stanton the order frOm office, confided to him by the Consti-
following, namely: tution aforesaid, includes the power of
•• EXECUTIVE MANSION, suspension from office at the pleasure of the
44 WASHINGTON, Aug. 12, 1867. President, and this respondent, by the c
" SIR, — By virtue of the power and author- der aforesaid, did suspend the said Stan-
ity vested in me, as President, by the Consti- t f ffi not until tne next meeting
tution and laws of the United States, you i ±1. a
are hereby suspended from office as Secre- of the Senate, or until the Senate should
tary of War, and will cease to exercise any have acted upon the case, but by force of
and all functions pertaining to the same. the power and authority vested in him
U^e0" SWGraSl SK hi" & S by the Constitution and laws of the United
authorized and empowered to act as Secre- States, indefinitely, and at
tary of War, ad interim, all records, books, of the President, and the order, in form
papers, and other public property now in aforegaid was made known to the Senate
^Hon? Edwin £*£%£ Secretary of War." of the United States on the 12th day of
December, A.D. 1867, as will be more
To which said order the said Stanton fullv hereinafter stated.
made the following reply: And this respondent, further answer-
•• WAR DEPARTMENT. «& ^ that, in and by the act of Feb.
" WASHINGTON CITY, Aug. 12, 1867. 13, 1795, it was, among other things, prc
" SIR, — Your note of this date has been vided and enacted that, in case of vacancy
received, informing me that by virtue of . th ffi f secretary for the Depart-
the powers vested in you as President, by ] e r „, ., u.n JL iowf,,i fnr the
the Constitution and laws of the United ment of War, it shall be lawful for t
164
JOHNSON, ANDREW
President, in case he shall think it neoes- a copy whereof is hereunto annexed and sary, to authorize any person to perform marked B, wherein he made known the the duties of that office until a successor orders aforesaid, and Jhe reasons which be appointed or such vacancy filled, but had induced the same, so far as this re- not exceeding the term of six months; spondent then considered it material and and this respondent, being advised and necessary that the same should be set believing that such law was in full force forth, and reiterated his views concern- and not repealed, by an order dated Aug. ing the constitutional power of removal 12, 1867, did authorize and empower vested in the President, and also ex- Ulysses S. Grant, general of the armies pressed his views concerning the con- of the United States, to act as Secretary struction of the said first section of the for the Department of War, ad interim, in last-mentioned act, as respected the power the form in which similar authority had of the President to remove the said Stan- theretofore been given, not until the next ton from the said office of Secretary for meeting of the Senate, and until the Sen- the Department of War, well hoping that ate should act on the case, but at the this respondent could thus perform what pleasure of the President, subject only to he then believed, and still believes, to be the limitation of six months, in the said his imperative duty in reference to the last-mentioned act contained; and a copy said Stanton, without derogating from the of the last-named order was made known powers which this respondent believed to the Senate of the United States, on the were confided to the President, by the 12th day of December, A.D. 1867, as will Constitution and laws, and without the be hereinafter more fully stated; and, in necessity of raising, judicially, any ques- pursuance of the design and intention tion concerning the same, aforesaid, if it should become necessary, And .this respondent, further answering, to submit the said questions to a judicial says that, this hope not having been real- determination, this respondent, at or near ized, the President was compelled either the date of the last-mentioned order, did to allow the said Stanton to resume the make known such his purpose to obtain a said office and remain therein contrary judicial decision of the said questions, or to the settled convictions of the Presi- such of them as might be necessary. dent, formed as aforesaid, respecting the And this respondent, further answering, powers confided to him, and the duties re- says that, in further pursuance of his in- quired of him by the Constitution of the tentions and design, if possible, to per- United States, and contrary to the opinion form what he judged to be his imperative formed as aforesaid, that the first sec- duty, to prevent the said Stanton from tion of the last - mentioned act did not longer holding the office of Secretary for affect the case of the said Stanton, and the Department of War, and at the same contrary to the fixed belief of the Presi- time avoiding, if possible, any question re- dent that he could no longer advise with specting the extent of the power of re- or trust or be responsible for the said moval from executive office confided to Stanton, in the said office of Secretary for the President, by the Constitution of the the Department of War, or else he was United States, and any question respect- compelled to take such steps as might, ing the construction and effect of the first in the judgment of the President, be law- section of the said " act regulating the ful and necessary to raise, for a judicial tenure of certain civil offices," while he decison, the questions affecting the lawful should not, by any act of his, abandon right of the said Stanton to resume the and relinquish, either a power which he said office, or the power of the said Stanton believed the Constitution had conferred to persist in refusing to quit the said on the President of the United States, to office, if he should persist in actually re- enable him to perform the duties of his fusing to quit the same; and to this end, office, or a power designedly left to him and to this end only, this respondent did, by the first section of the act of Congress on the 21st day of February, 1868, issue last aforesaid, this respondent did, on the the order for the removal of the said Stan- 12th day of December, 1867, transmit to ton, in the said first article mentioned the Senate of the United States a message, and set forth, and the order authorizing
165
JOHNSON, ANDREW
the said Lorenzo Thomas to act as Secre- vice and consent of the Senate of the
tary of War, ad interim, in the said second United States, then in session ; but he
article set forth. denies that he thereby violated the Con-
And this respondent, proceeding to an- stitution of the United States, or any swer specifically each substantial allega- law thereof, or that he did thereby in- tion in the said first article, says: He tend to violate the Constitution of the denies that the said Stanton, on the 21st United States, or the provisions of any day of February, 1868, was lawfully in act of Congress; and this respondent re- possession of the said office of Secretary fers to his answer to said first article for the Department of War. He denies for a full statement of the purposes and that the said Stanton, on the day last intentions with which said order was mentioned, was lawfully entitled to hold issued, and adopts the same as part of the said office against the will of the his answer to this article; and he further President of the United States. He denies that there was then and there no denies that the said order for the re- vacancy in the said office of Secretary moval of the said Stanton was unlaw- for the Department of War, or that fully issued. He denies that said order he did then and there commit, or was was issued with intent to violate the act guilty of, a high misdemeanor in office; entitled, "An act to regulate the tenure and this respondent maintains and will of certain civil offices." He denies that insist:
the said order was a violation of the last- 1. That at the date and delivery of said
mentioned act. He denies that the said writing there was a vacancy existing in
order was a violation of the Constitution the said office of Secretary for the Depart-
of the United States, or of any law there- ment of War.
of, or of his oath of office. He denies that 2. That, notwithstanding the Senate of the said order was issued with an intent the United States was then in session, it to violate the Constitution of the United was lawful and according to long and well- States, or any law thereof, or this re- established usage to empower and author- spondent's oath of office; and he respect- ize the said Thomas to act as Secretary fully, but earnestly, insists that not only of War, ad interim.
was it issued by him in the performance 3. That, if the said act regulating the
of what he believed to be an imperative tenure of civil offices be held to be a valid
official duty, but in the performance of law, no provision of the same was violated
what this honorable court will consider by the issuing of said order, or by the
was, in point of fact, an imperative offi- designation of said Thomas to act as Sec-
cial duty. And he denies that any and retary of War, ad interim. all substantive matters, in the said first article contained, in manner and form
as the same are therein stated and set And for answer to said third article,
forth, do, by law, constitute a high mis- this respondent says that he abides by his
demeanor in office, within the true intent answer to said first and second articles,
and meaning of the Constitution of the in so far as the same are responsive to
United States. the allegations contained in the said third
article, and, without here again repeating the same answer, prays the same be taken
And for answer to the second article, as an answer to this third article as fully
this respondent says that he admits he as if here again set out at length; and as
did issue and deliver to said Lorenzo to the new allegation contained in said
Thomas the said writing set forth in third article, that this respondent did ap-
said second article, bearing date at Wash- point the said Thomas to be Secretary for
ington, District of Columbia, Feb. 21, the Department of War, ad interim, this
1868, addressed to Brevet Ma j. -Gen. respondent denies that he gave any other
Lorenzo Thomas, adjutant-general Unit- authority to said Thomas than such as
ed States army, Washington, District of appears in said written authority, set out
Columbia; and he further admits that in said article, by which he authorized
the same was so issued without the ad- and empowered said Thomas to act as
166
JOHNSON, ANDREW
Secretary for the Department of War, ad interim; and he denies that the same amounts to an appointment, and insists that it is only a designation of an officer of that department to act temporarily as Secretary for the Department of War, ad interim, until an appointment should be made. But, whether the said written au- thority amounts to an appointment, or to a temporary authority or designation, this respondent denies that in any sense he did thereby intend to violate the Con- stitution of the United States, or that he thereby intended to give the said order the character or effect of an appointment in the constitutional or legal sense of that term. He further denies that there was no vacancy in said office of Secre- tary for the Department of War exist- ing at the date of said written au- thority.
ANSWER TO ARTICLE IV.
And for answer to said fourth article this respondent denies that on the said 21st day of February, 1868, at Washington aforesaid, or at any other time or place, he did unlawfully conspire with the said Lorenzo Thomas, or with the said Thomas and any other person or persons, with in- tent by intimidations and threats unlaw- fully to hinder and prevent the said Stan- ton from holding said office of Secretary for the Department of War, in violation of the Constitution of the United States or of the provisions of the said act of Congress in said article mentioned, or that he did then and there commit or was guilty of a high crime in office. On the con- trary thereof, protesting that the said Stanton was not then and there lawfully the Secretary for the Department of War, this respondent states that his sole pur- pose in authorizing the said Thomas to act as Secretary for the Department of War, ad interim was, as is fully stated in his answer to the said first article, to bring the question of the right of the said Stan- ton to hold said office, notwithstanding his said suspension, and notwithstanding the said order of removal, and notwith- standing the said authority of the said Thomas to act as Secretary of War, ad interim, to the test of a final decision by the Supreme Court of the United States in the earliest practicable mode by which
the question could be brought before that tribunal.
This respondent did not conspire or agree with the said Thomas or any other person or persons, to use intimidation or threats to hinder or prevent the said Stan- ton from holding the said office of Secre- tary for the Department of War, nor did this respondent at any time command or advise the said Thomas or any other per- son or persons to resort to or use either threats or intimidation for that purpose. The only means in the contemplation of purpose of respondent to be used are set forth fully in the said orders of Feb. 21, the first addressed to Mr. Stanton, and the second to the said Thomas. By the first order the respondent notified Mr. Stanton that he was removed from the said office, and that his functions as Secretary for the Department of War were to terminate upon the receipt of that
^^ and he ^ ther(?by ^^ ^
said Stanton that the said Thomas had been authorized to act as Secretary for the Department of War ad interim, and ordered the said Stanton to transfer to him all the records, books, papers, and other public property in his custody and charge; and by the second order this re- spondent notified the said Thomas of the removal from office of the said Stanton, and authorized him to act as Secretary for the department, ad interim, and di- rected him to immediately enter upon the discharge of the duties pertaining to that office, and to receive the transfer of all the records, books, papers, and other pub- lie property from Mr. Stanton, then in his custody and charge.
Respondent gave no instructions to the said Thomas to use intimidation or threats to enforce obedience to these orders. He gave him no authority to call in the aid of the military, or any other force to enable him to obtain pos- session of the office, or of the books, papers, records, or property thereof. The only agency resorted to or intended to be resorted to was by means of the said ex- ecutive orders requiring obedience. But the Secretary for the Department of War refused to obey these orders, and still holds undisturbed possession and custody of that department, and of the records, books, papers, and other public property
167
JOHNSON, ANDREW
therein. Respondent further states that, in execution of the orders so by this re- spondent given to the said Thomas, he, the said Thomas, proceeded in a peace- ful manner to demand of the said Stan- ton a surrender to him of the public property in the said department, and to vacate the possession of the same, and to allow him, the said Thomas, peaceably to exercise the duties devolved upon him by authority of the President. That, as this respondent has been informed and believes, the said Stanton peremptorily refused obedience to the orders so issued, Upon each refusal no force or threat of force was used by the said Thomas, on authority of the President, or otherwise, to enforce obedience, either then or at any subsequent time.
This respondent doth here except to the sufficiency of the allegations contained in said fourth article, and states for ground of exception that it was not stated that there was any agreement be- tween this respondent and the said Thomas, or any other person or persons, to use intimidation and threats, nor is there any allegation as to the nature of said intimidation and threats, or that there was any agreement to carry them into execution, or that any step was taken or agreed to be taken to carry them into execution, and that the allegation in said article that the intent of said conspiracy was to use intimidation and threats is wholly insufficient, inasmuch as it is not alleged that the said intent formed the basis or became a part of any agreement between the said alleged conspirators, and, furthermore, that there is no allega- tion of any conspiracy or agreement to use intimidation or threats.
ANSWER TO ARTICLE V.
And for answer to said fifth article, this respondent denies that on said 21st day of February, 1868, or at any other time or times, in the same year, before the said 2d day of March, 1868, or at any prior or subsequent time, at Washington aforesaid, or at any other place, this re- spondent did unlawfully conspire with the said Thomas, or with any other person or persons, to prevent or hinder the execution of the said act entitled "An act regulat- ing the tenure of certain civil offices," or
that, in pursuance of said alleged con- spiracy, he did unlawfully attempt to pre- vent the said Edwin M. Stanton from holding said office of Secretary for the Department of War, or that he was there- by guilty of a high misdemeanor in office. Respondent, protesting that said Stanton was not then and there Secretary for the Department of War, begs leave to refer to his answer given to the fourth article and to his answer given to the first article as to his intent and purpose in issuing the orders for the removal of Mr. Stanton, and the authority given to the said Thomas, and prays equal benefit therefrom as if the same were here again repeated and fully set forth.
And this respondent excepts to the suf- ficiency of the said fifth article, and states his ground for such exception, that it is not alleged to what means or by what agreement the said alleged conspiracy was formed or agreed to be carried out, or in what way the same was attempted to be carried out, or what were the acts done in pursuance thereof.
And for answer to the said sixth article, this respondent denies that on the said 21st day of February, 1868, at Washing- ton aforesaid, or at any other time or place, he did unlawfully conspire with the said Thomas by force to seize, take, or possess, the property of the United States in the Department of War, con- trary to the provisions of the said acts referred to in the said article, or either of them, or with intent to violate either of them. Respondent, protesting that said Stanton was not then and there Sec- retary for the Department of War, not only denies the said conspiracy as charged,
ence to the custody and charge of the property of the United States in the said Department of War, and again refers to his former answers for a full statement of his intent and purpose in the premises.
ANSWER TO ARTICLE ^ And for answer to the said seventh ar- tide, respondent denies that on the said 21st day of February, 1868, at Washing- ton aforesaid, or at any other time and place, he did unlawfully conspire with the
168
JOHNSON, ANDKEW
said Thomas with intent unlawfully to 22d day of February, 1868, the following
seize, take, or possess the property of the note was addressed to the said Emory by
United States in the Department of War, the private secretary of the respondent: with intent to violate or disregard the
said act in the said seventh article re- " EXECUTIVE MANSION,
" WASHINGTON, D. C., Feb. 22, 1868.
ferred to, or that he did then and there « GENERAL,— The President directs me to commit a high misdemeanor in office. Re- say that he will be pleased to have you call spondent, protesting that the said Stan- uP°n him as early as practicable, ton was not then and there Secretary for " the Department of War, again refers to his former answers, in so far as they are General Emory called at the Executive applicable, to show the intent with which Mansion according to this request. The he proceeded in the premises, and prays object of respondent was to be advised by equal benefit therefrom as if the same General Emory, as commander of the De- were here again fully repeated. Respon- partment of Washington, what changes dent further takes exception to the suf- had been made in the military affairs of ficiency of the allegations of this article as the department. Respondent had been in- to the conspiracy alleged, upon the same formed that various changes had been ground as stated in the exceptions set made which in nowise had been brought forth in his answer to said article fourth, to his notice or reported to him from the
Department of War, or from any other quarter, and desired to ascertain the facts.
And for answer to said eighth article, After the said Emory had explained in this respondent denies that on the 21st detail the changes which had taken place, day of February, 1868, at Washington said Emory called the attention of re- aforesaid, or at any other time or place, spondent to a general order which he re- he did issue and deliver to the said ferred to and which this respondent then Thomas the said letter of authority set sent for, when it was produced. It is as forth in the said eighth article, with the follows:
intent unlawfully to control the disburse- M (GBNERAL ORDERSj No 17<)
ments of the money appropriated for the » WAR DEPARTMENT, ADJUTANT-GENERAL'S
military service and for the Department OFFICE.
of War. This respondent, protesting that „ Tfae
there was a vacancy in the office of Secre- lished for the informatlon and government
tary for the Department of War, admits of all concerned : that he did issue the said letter of author-
ity, and he denies that the same was with „ An ^ '^^w^rMo** for sup-
any unlawful intent whatever, either to port of the army for the year ending June
violate the Constitution of the United 30, 1868, and for other purposes.
States or any act of Congress. On the • • . ,'
,./ , ~ "SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, that contrary, this respondent again affirms the headquarters of the general of the that his sole intent was to vindicate his army of the United States shall be at the authority as President of the United city of Washington, and all orders and in- States, and by peaceful means to bring "T^'&S oT'StarToT wS the question of the right of the said Stan- shali be issued through the general of the ton to continue to hold the office of Secre- army, and, in case of his inability, through tary of War to a final decision before the the next in rank. The general of the army ~ ~ . ,, TT ., , -,, , shall not be removed, suspended, or relieved Supreme Court of the United States, as from command or assigned to duty else- has been hereinbefore set forth; and he where than at said headquarters, except at prays the same benefit from his answer his own request, without the previous ap- in f>iA nromi'cpa « a if fVio enmo wpro horo P™val of the Senate; and any orders or the same were here instructions reiatlng to military operations
again repeated at length. issued contrary to the requirements of this
section shall be null and void ; and any"
ANSWER TO ARTICLE IX. officer, who shall issue orders or instructions
i j f . j . ,1 ,. contrary to the provisions of this section,
And for answer to the said ninth arti- ^all be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor in
cle, the respondent states that on the said office • and any officer of the army who shall
109
JOHNSON, ANDREW
transmit, convey, or obey any -orders or in- obey any law or any order issued in con-
sPurct 'ormity with any law or intend to offer
orders were so issued, shall be liable to im- any inducement to the said Emory to prisonment for not less than two or more violate any law. What this respondent
then said to General Emory was simply the expression of an opinion which he then fully believed to be sound, and which he yet believes to be so, and that is that, by the express provisions of the Consti- tution, this respondent, as President, is made the commander - in - chief of the armies of the United States, and as such
in any court of competent jurisdiction. "Approved March 2, 1867.
the
General. Official :
Mutant-
Assistant Adjutant-General."
General Emory not only called the at- ne is to be respected, and that his or-
tention of respondent to this order, but ders> whether issued through the War De-
to the fact that it was in conformity partment or through the general-in-chief,
with a section contained in an appropri- or b7 other channels of communication,
ation act passed by Congress. Respondent, are entitled to respect and obedience, and
after reading the order, observed, "This that such constitutional power cannot be
is not in accordance with the Constitu- taken fr°m him by virtue of any act of
tion of the United States, which makes Congress. Respondent doth therefore
me Commander-in-Chief of the Army and deny that by the expression of such
Navy, nor with the language of the com- opinion he did commit or was guilty of a
mission which you hold." General Em- nign misdemeanor in office; and this re-
ory then stated that this order had met spondent doth further say that the said
respondent's approval. Respondent then article nine lays no foundations whatever
said in reply, in substance, "Am I to for the conclusion stated in the said
understand that the President of the article, that the respondent, by reason of
United States cannot give an order but the allegations therein contained, was
through the general-in-chief?" General guilty of a high misdemeanor in office.
Emory again reiterated the statement In reference to the statement made by
that it had met respondent's approval, General Emory, that this respondent had
and that it was the opinion of some of approved of said act of Congress contain-
the leading lawyers of the country that ing the section referred to, the respondent
this order was constitutional. With admits that his formal approval was given
some further conversation, respondent to said act, but accompanied the same
then required the names of the lawyers by the following message, addressed and
who had given the opinion, and he men- sent with the act to the House of Rep-
tioned the names of two. Respondent resentatives, in which House the said act
then said that the object of the law was originated, and from which it came to
very evident, referring to the clause in respondent:
the appropriation act upon which the or- " To the House of Representatives, —
der purported to be based. This, accord- The act entitled 'An act making ap-
ing to respondent's recollection, was the propriations for the support of the army
substance of the conversation held with for the year ending June 30, 1868, and
General Emory. for other purposes/ contains provisions
Respondent denies that any allegations to which I must call attention. These
in the said article of any instructions or provisions are contained in the second sec-
declarations given to the said Emory, tion, which, in certain cases, virtually de-
then or at any other time, contrary to or prives the President of his constitutional
in addition to what is hereinbefore set functions as commander - in - chief of the
forth, are true. Respondent denies that, army, and in the sixth section, which de-
in said conversation with said Emory, he nied to ten States in the Union their con-
had any other intent than to express the stitutional right to protect themselves, in
opinions then given to the said Emory, any emergency, by means of their own
nor did he then nor at any other time militia. These provisions are out of
request or order the said Emory to dis- place in an appropriation act, but I am
170
JOHNSON, ANDREW
compelled to defeat these necessary ap- lieves substantially a correct report) is propriations if I withhold my signature hereto annexed as part of this answer, from the act. Pressed by these consider- arid marked Exhibit C. ations, I feel constrained to return the That, thereupon, and in reply to the bill with my signature, but to accompany address of said committee by their chair- it with my earnest protest against the man, this respondent addressed the said sections which I have indicated. committee so waiting upon him in one
"Washington, D. C., March 2, 1867." of the rooms of the Executive Mansion;
Respondent, therefore, did no more than and this respondent believes that this,
to express to said Emory the same his address to said committee, is the
opinion which he had so expressed to the occasion referred to in the first specifica-
House of Representatives. tion of the tenth article; but this re- spondent does not admit that the pas-
ANSWER TO ARTICLE X. ^ ^^ ^ ^^ ag .f ^^ ££
And in answer to the tenth article and a speech or address of this respondent specifications thereof, the respondent upon said occasion, correctly or justly pre- says that, on the 14th and 15th days of sent his speech or address upon said August, in the year 1866, a political con- occasion; but, on the contrary, this re- vention of delegates from all, or most, of spondent demands and insists that if the States and Territories of the Union this honorable court shall deem the was held in the city of Philadelphia, said article and the said first specifica- imder the name and style of the National tion thereof to contain allegation of Union Convention, for the purpose of matter cognizable by this honorable maintaining and advancing certain polit- court as a high misdemeanor in office, ical views and opinions before the peo- within the intent and meaning of the pie of the United States, and for their Constitution of the United States, and support and adoption in the exercise of shall receive or allow proof in support of the constitutional suffrage in the elec- the same, that proof shall be required to tion of representatives and delegates in be made of the actual speech and address Congress, which were soon to occur in of this respondent on said occasion, many of the States and Territories of which this respondent denies that said the Union; which said convention, in article and specification contain or cor- the course of its proceedings, and in rectly or justly represent, furtherance of the objects of the same, And this respondent, further answer- adopted a " declaration of principles " ing the tenth article and specifications and "an address to the people of the thereof, says that at Cleveland, in the United States," and appointed a com- State of Ohio, and on the 3d day of Sep- mittee of two of its members from each tember, in the year 1866, he was attended State, and of one from each Territory, by a large assembly of his fellow-citizens, and one from the District of Columbia, to and, in deference and obedience to their wait upon the President of the United call and demand, he addressed them upon States and present to him a copy of the matters of public and political consid- proceedings of the convention ; that, on eration ; and this respondent believes that the 18th day of the said month of August, said occasion and address are referred to this committee waited upon the Presi- in the second specification of the tenth dent of the United States, at the Exec- article; but this respondent does not ad- utive Mansion, and was received by him rait that the passages therein set forth in one of the rooms thereof, and by their as if extracts from a speech of this re- chairman, Hon. Reverdy Johnson, then spondent on said occasion, correctly or and now a Senator of the United States, justly present his speech or address upon acting and speaking in their behalf, pre- said occasion; but, on the contrary, this sented a copy of the proceedings of the respondent demands and insists that, if convention, and addressed the President this honorable court shall deem the said of the United States in a speech, of which article and the said second specification a copy (according to a published report thereof to contain allegation of matter of the same, and as the respondent be- cognizable by this honorable court as a
171
JOHNSON, ANDKEW
high misdemeanor . in office, within the or to impair or destroy the regard or re^
intent and meaning of the Constitution spect of all or any of the good people of
of the United States, and shall receive the United States for the Congress or the
or allow proof in support of the same, rightful legislative power thereof, or to
that proof shall be required to be made excite the odium or resentment of all or
of the actual speech and address of this any of the good people of the United
respondent on said occasion, which this States, against Congress, and the laws by
respondent denies that said article and it duly and constitutionally enacted. This
specification contain or correctly or justly respondent further says that at all times
represent. he has, in his official acts as President, rec-
And this respondent, further answering ognized the authority of the several Con- the tenth article and the specifications gresses of the United States, as constituted thereof, says that at St. Louis, in the and organized during his administration of State of Missouri, and on the 8th day of the office of President of the United States. September, in the year 1866, he was at- And this respondent, further answering, tended by a numerous assemblage of his says that he has, from time to time, un- fellow-citizens, and in deference and obedi- der his constitutional right and duty as ence to their call and demand he addressed President of the United States, communi- them upon matters of public and political cated to Congress his views and opinions consideration ; and this respondent be- in regard to such acts or resolutions there- lieves that said occasion and address are of, as, being submitted to him as Presi- referred to in the third specification of dent of the United States, in pursuance the tenth article; but this respondent does of the Constitution, seemed to this re- not admit that the passages therein set spondent to require such communications: forth, as if extracts from a speech of this and he has, from time to time, in the ex- respondent on said occasion, correctly or ercise of that freedom of speech which be- justly present his speech or address upon longs to him as a citizen of the United said occasion; but, on the contrary, this States, and, in his political relations as respondent demands and insists that if President of the United States, to the this honorable court shall deem the said people of the United States, is upon fit article and the said third specification occasions a duty of the highest obligation, thereof to contain allegation of matter expressed to his fellow-citizens his views cognizable by this honorable court as a and opinions respecting the measures and high misdemeanor in office, within the in- proceedings of Congress; and that in such tent and meaning of the Constitution of addresses to his fellow-citizens, and in the United States, and shall receive or such his communications to Congress, he allow proof in support of the same, that has expressed his views, opinions, and proof shall be required to be made of the judgment of and concerning the actual actual speech and address of this respon- constitution of the two Houses of Congress dent on said occasion, which this respon- without representation therein of certain dent denies that the said article and speci- States of the Union, and of the effect that fication contain or correctly or justly rep- in wisdom and justice, in the opinion and resent. judgment of this respondent, Congress in
And this respondent, further answering its legislation and proceedings shall give the tenth article, protesting that he has to this political circumstance; and what- not been unmindful of the high duties of soever he has thus communicated to Con- his office, or of the harmony or courtesies grcss or addressed to his fellow-citizens or which ought to exist and be maintained any assemblage thereof, this respondent between the executive and legislative says was and is within and according to branches of the government of the United his right and privilege as an American States, denies that he has ever intended or citizen, and his right and duty as Presi- designed to set aside the rightful authority dent of the United States. or powers of Congress, or attempted to And this respondent not waiving or at bring into disgrace, rdicule, hatred, con- all disparaging his right of freedom of tempt, or reproach, the Congress of the opinion and of freedom of speech, as United States, or either branch thereof, hereinbefore or hereinafter more particu-
172
JOHNSON, ANDREW
larly set forth, but claiming and insist- the President of the United States, to the ing upon the same, further answering the people of the United States, whose ser- said tenth article, says that the views and vant, under the duties and responsibilities opinions expressed by this respondent in of the Constitution of the United States, his said addresses to the assemblages of the President of the United States is and his fellow-citizens, as in said article or in should always remain, this respondent had this answer thereto mentioned, are not and has the full right, and in his office and were not intended to be other or dif- of President of the United States is held ferent from those expressed by him in his to the high duty, of forming, and on fit communications to Congress — that the occasions expressing, opinions of and con- eleven States lately in insurrection never corning the legislation of Congress, pro- had ceased to be States of the Union, and posed or completed, in respect of its that they were then entitled to representa- wisdom, expediency, justice, worthiness, tion in Congress by local Representatives objects, purposes, and public and political and Senators as fully as the other States motives and tendencies; and within and of the Union, and that, consequently, the as a part of such right and duty to form, Congress, as then constituted, was not, in and on fit occasions to express, opinions fact, a Congress of all the States, but a of and concerning the public character Congress of only a part of the States, and conduct, views, purposes, objects, mo- This respondent always protesting against tives, and tendencies of all men engaged the unauthorized exclusion therefrom of in the public service, as well in Congress the said eleven States, nevertheless gave as otherwise, and under no other rules or his assent to all laws passed by said Con- limits upon this right of freedom of opin- gress, which did not, in his opinion and ion and of freedom of speech, or of re- judgment, violate the Constitution, exer- sponsibility and amenability for the act- cising his constitutional authority of re- ual exercise of such freedom of opinion turning bills to said Congress with his ob- and freedom of speech than attend upon jections when they appeared to him to be such rights and their exercise on the unconstitutional or inexpedient. part of all other citizens of the United
And, further, this respondent has also States and on the part of all their public
expressed the opinion, both in his com- servants.
munications to Congress, and in his ad- And this respondent, further answering dresses to the people, that the policy said tenth article, says that the several adopted by Congress in reference to the occasions on which, as is alleged in the States lately in insurrection did not tend several specifications of said article, this to peace, harmony, and union, but, on the respondent addressed his fellow-citizens contrary, did tend to disunion and the on subjects of public and political consid- permanent disruption of the States, and orations were not, nor was any one of that, in following its said policy, laws had them, sought or planned by this respon- been passed by Congress in violation of dent; but, on the contrary, each of said the fundamental principles of the govern- occasions arose upon the exercise of a ment, and which tended to consolidation lawful and accustomed right of the peo- and despotism; and, such being his de- pie of the United States to call upon their liberate opinions, he would have felt him- public servants, and express to them their self unmindful of the high duties of his opinions, wishes, and feelings upon mat- office if he had failed to express them in tors of public and political consideration, his communications to Congress or in his and to invite from such, their public ser- addresses to the people when called upon vants, an expression of their opinions, by them to express his opinions on mat- views, and feelings on matters of public ters of public and political consideration, and political consideration; and this re-
And this respondent, further answering spondent claims and insists before this the tenth article, says that he has always honorable court, and before all the people claimed and insisted, and now claims and of the United States, that of or concern- insists, that both in his personal and pri- ing this his right of freedom of opinion, vate capacity of a citizen of the United and of freedom of speech, and this his ex- States, and in the political relations of; ercise of such right on all matters of
173
JOHNSON, ANDREW
public and political consideration, and in respect of all public servants, or persons whatsoever engaged in or connected there- with, this respondent, as a citizen, or as President of the United States, is not subject to question, inquisition, impeach- ment, or inculpation, in any form or man- ner whatsoever.
And this respondent says that neither the said tenth article, nor any specification thereof, nor any allegation therein con- tained, touches or relates to any official act or doing of this respondent in the office of President of the United States, or in the discharge of any of its constitu- tional or legal duties or responsibilities; but said article and the specifications and allegations thereof, wholly and in every part thereof, question only the discretion or propriety of freedom of opinion or free- dom of speech, as exercised by this re- spondent as a citizen of the United States in his personal right and capacity, and without allegation or imputation against this respondent of the violation of any law of the United States, touching or re- lating to freedom of speech or its exer- cise by the citizens of the United States, or by this respondent as one of the said citizens or otherwise; and he denies that, by reason of any matter in said article or its specifications alleged, he has said or done anything indecent or unbecoming in the chief magistrate of the United States, or that he has brought the high office of the President of the United States into contempt, ridicule, or disgrace, or that he has committed or has been guilty of a high misdemeanor in office.
ANSWER TO ARTICLE XI.
And in answer to the eleventh article this respondent denies that on the 18th day of August, in the year 1866, at the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia, he did, by public speech or otherwise, declare or affirm, in substance or at all, that the Thirty-ninth Congress of the United States was not a Congress of the United States authorized by the Constitution to exercise legislative power under the same, or that he did then and there declare or affirm that the said Thirty-ninth Congress was a Congress of only part of the States in any sense or meaning other than that ten States
174
of the Union were denied representation therein; or that he made any or either of the declarations or affirmations in this behalf, in the said article alleged, as de- nying or intending to deny that the legis- lation of said Thirty-ninth Congress was valid or obligatory upon this respondent, except so far as this respondent saw fit to approve the same; and as to the alle- gation in said article, that he did thereby intend or mean to be understood that the said Congress had not power to propose amendments to the Constitution, this re- spondent says that in said address he said nothing in reference to the subject of amendments of the Constitution, nor was the question of the competency of the said Congress to propose such amend- ments, without the participation of said excluded States, at the time of said ad- dress, in any way mentioned or con- sidered or referred to by this respon- dent, nor in what he did say had he any intent regarding the same, and he denies the allegation so made to the contrary thereof. But this respondent, in further answer to, and in respect of the said alle- gations of the said eleventh article here- inbefore traversed and denied, claims and insists upon his personal and official right of freedom of opinion and freedom of speech, and his duty in his political re- lations as President of the United States, to the people of the United States, in the exercise of such freedom of opinion and freedom of speech, in the same man- ner, form, and effect as he has in his behalf stated the same in his answer to the said tenth article, and with the same effect as if he here repeated the same; and he further claims and insists, as in said answer to said tenth article he has claimed and insisted, that he is not sub- ject to question, inquisition, impeachment, or inculpation, in any form or manner, of or concerning such rights of freedom of opinion or freedom of speech, or his said alleged exercise thereof.
And this respondent further denies that, on the 21st day of February, in the year 1868, or at any other time, at the city of Washington, in the District of Co- lumbia, in pursuance of any such decla- ration as is in that behalf in said eleventh article alleged, or otherwise, he did un- lawfully, and in disregard of the require-
JOHNSON
ment of the Constitution that he should States, nor the omission by this respon- take care that the laws should be faith- dent of any act of official obligation or fully executed, attempt to prevent the exe- duty in his office of President of the cution of an act entitled " An act regu- United States ; nor does the said article lating the tenure of certain civil offices," nor the matters therein contained name, passed March 2, 1867, by unlawfully de- designate, describe, or define any act or vising or contriving, or attempting to mode or form of attempt, device, con- devise or contrive, means by which he trivance, or means, or of attempt at should prevent Edwin M. Stanton from device, contrivance, or means, whereby forthwith resuming the functions of Sec- this respondent can know or understand retary for the Department of War; or what act or mode or form of attempt, de- by unlawfully devising or contriving, or vice, contrivance, or means, or of at- attempting to devise or contrive, means tempt at device, contrivance, or means, to prevent the execution of an act en- are imputed to or charged against this titled, " An act making appropriations respondent in his office of President of for the support of the army for the fiscal the United States, or intended so to be, year ending June 30, 1868, and for other or whereby this respondent can more fully purposes," approved March 2, 1867, or to or definitely make answer unto the said prevent the execution of an act entitled, article than he hereby does. " An act to provide for the more efficient And this respondent, in submitting to government of the rebel States," passed ihis honorable court this his answer to March 2, 1867. the articles of impeachment exhibited
And this respondent, further answer- against him, respectfully reserves leave
ing the said eleventh article, says that he to amend and add to the same from time
has, in answer to the first article, set to time, as may become necessary or
forth in detail the acts, steps, and pro- proper, and when and as such necessity
ceedings done and taken by this respon- and propriety shall appear,
dent to and towards or in the matter of ANDREW JOHNSON.
the suspension or removal of the said Ed- HENRY STANBERY,
win M. Stanton in or from the office of B. R. CURTIS,
Secretary for the Department of War, THOMAS A. R. NELSON,
with the times, modes, circumstances, in- WILLIAM M. EVARTS,
tents, views, purposes, and opinions of W. S. GROESBECK,
official obligation and duty under and with Of Counsel.
which such acts, steps, and proceedings Johnson, BRADLEY TYLER, lawyer;
were done and taken; and he makes an- born in Frederick, Md., Sept. 29, 1829;
swer to this eleventh article, of the mat- graduated at Princeton in 1849; studied
ters in his answer to the first article, law at the Harvard Law School in 1850-
pertaining to the suspension or removal 51, and began practice in Frederick. In
of said Edwin M. Stanton, to the same 1851 he was State attorney of Frederick
intent and effect as if they were here re- county. In 1860 he was a delegate
peated and set forth. to the National Democratic Conventions
And this respondent further answering in Charleston and Baltimore; voted for
the said eleventh article denies that by the States' Rights platform; and, with
means or reason of anything in said most of the Maryland delegates, with-
article alleged this respondent, as Presi- drew from the convention, and gave his
dent of the United States, did on the support to the Breckinridge and Lane
21st day of February, 1868, or at any ticket. During the Civil War he served
other day or time, commit or that he in the Confederate army, rising from the
was guilty of a high misdemeanor in office, rank of captain to that of brigadier-gen-
And this respondent, further answering eral. After the war he practised law in
the said eleventh article, says that the Richmond, Va., till 1879, and then in
same and the matters therein contained Baltimore till 1890. He was a member
do not charge or allege the commission of the State Senate in 1875-79. His pub-
of any act whatever by this respondent, lications include Chase's Decisions; The
in his office of President of the United Foundation of Maryland; Life of General
175
JOHNSON
Washington; Memoirs of Joseph E. John- ston; Confederate History of Mary- land; etc,
Johnson, BUSHROD RUST, military offi- cer; born in Belmont county, O., Sept. 6, 1817; graduated at West Point in 1840; he served in the Florida and Mexi- can wars; and was Professor of Mathe- matics in military academies in Kentucky and Tennessee. He joined the Confed- erate army in 1861; was made a briga- dier-general early in 1862; was captured at Fort Donelson, but soon afterwards escaped; was wounded in the battle of Shiloh; and was made major-general in 1864. He was in command of a division in Lee's army at the time of the sur- render at Appomattox Court-house, and after the war was chancellor of the Uni- versity of Nashville. He died in Brigh- ton, 111., Sept. 11, 1880.
Johnson, CAVE, jurist; born in Robert- son county, Tenn., Jan. 11, 1793; elected circuit judge in 1820; served in Congress, 1829-37; and appointed Postmaster-Gen- eral in 1845. He died in Clarksville, Tenn., Nov. 23, 1866.
Johnson, CLIFTON, author; born in Hadley, Mass., Jan. 25, 1865; received a common-school education. He is the au- thor of The New England Country; What They Say in New England; Studies of New England Life and Nature, etc.
Johnson, EASTMAN, artist; born in Lovell, Me., July 29, 1824; was educated in the public schools of Augusta, Me.; studied in the Royal Academy of Diissel- dorf for two years, and was elected an academician of the National Academy of Design in 1860. He has painted many notable pictures, including The Kentucky Home; Husking Bee; The Stage Coach; Pension Agent; Prisoner of State, etc. His portraits include Two Men, ex-Presi- dents Arthur, Cleveland, and Harrison, Commodore Vanderbilt, W. H. Vander- bilt, Daniel Webster, John Quincy Adams, John D. Rockefeller, Mrs. Dolly Madison, Mrs. August Belmont, Mrs. Hamilton Fish, and many others.
Johnson, EDWARD, author; born in Herne Hill, England, in 1599; emigrated to the United States in 1630; elected speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1655. He is the author of a history of New England which was
published in 1654 under the title of Won- der-working Providence of Zion's Saviour in New England. He died in Woburn, Mass., April 23, 1672.
Johnson, FORT, a former protective work on the Cape Fear River, near Wil- mington, N. C. On June 14, 1775, the royal governor, Joseph Martin, took refuge in the fort, as the indignant people had begun to rise in rebellion against royal rule. From that stronghold he sent forth a menacing proclamation, and soon after- wards preparations for a servile insur- rection were discovered. The rumor went abroad that Martin had incited the slaves. The exasperated people determined to drive him from the fort and demolish it. A body of 500 men, led by John Ashe and Cornelius Harnett, marched to the fort. Martin had fled on board a British vessel of war in the river. The munitions of war had all been removed on board of a transport, and the garrison also had fled. The people burned the barracks and demol- ished the walls.
Johnson, FRANKLIN, educator; born in Frankfort, 0., Nov. 2, 1836; grad- uated at Colgate Theological Seminary in 1861. He held pastorates in Michigan and New Jersey in 1862-73, and in Cam- bridge, Mass., in 1874-88. In 1890 he became president of the Ottawa Univer- sity, Kansas, and remained there two years, when he was called to the chair of History and Homiletics in the Uni- versity of Chicago.
Johnson, GUY, military officer; born in Ireland in 1740; married a daughter of SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON ( q. v. ) , and in 1774 succeeded him as Indian agent. He served against the French from 1757 to 1760. At the outbreak of the Revolution he fled to Canada, and thence went with the British troops who took possession of New York City in September, 1776; he re- mained there some time, and became man- ager of a theatre. He joined Brant, and participated in some of the bloody out- rages in the Mohawk Valley. In 1779 he fought with the Indians against Sullivan. He died in London, March 5, 1788.
Johnson, HALE, lawyer; born in Montgomery county, Ind., Aug. 21, 1847; admitted to the bar of Illinois in 1875; has been actively identified with the Prohibition party for twenty years, and
176
JOHNSON
has been its candidate for governor of the State of Illinois and for Vice-President in 1896.
Johnson, HELEN KENDRICK, author; born in Hamilton, N. Y., Jan. 4, 1843; daughter of Asahel C. Kendrick, the Greek scholar and author; was educated at the Oread Institute, Worcester, Mass. She has edited Our Familiar Songs, and Those Who Made Them; The American Woman's Journal, etc. Her original works are The Roddy Books; Raleigh West gate; and Woman and the Republic. She has contributed many articles to periodicals, and is specially known as an opponent of woman suffrage.
Johnson, HENRY PHELPS, historian; born in 1842; became Professor of History in the College of the City of New York. He is the author of Loyalist History of the Revolution; The Campaign of 1116 Around New York; The Yorktown Campaign; Yale and the Honor Roll in the American Revolution, etc.
Johnson, HERSCHEL VESPASIAN, legis- lator; born in Burke county, Ga., Sept. 18, 1812; graduated at the University of Georgia in 1834; appointed for an unex- pired term to the United States Senate in 1848; elected judge of the Superior Court of Georgia in 1849; governor in 1853 and 1855. In the Civil War he was a member of the Confederate Senate; was elected to the United States Senate during the reconstruction period, but was not al- lowed to take his seat, and was appointed judge of the circuit court in 1873. In 1860 Mr. Johnson was the candidate for the Vice - Presidency on the ticket with Stephen A. Douglas. He died in Jefferson county, Ga., Aug. 16, 1880.
Johnson, JOHN, educator; born in Bristol, Me., Aug. 23, 1806; graduated at Bowdoin College in 1832; Professor of Natural Sciences at Wesleyan University in 1837-73, when he was made professor emeritus. He was the author of A His- tory of the Towns of Bristol and Bremen in the State of Maine, etc. He died in Clifton, S. I., Dec. 2, 1879.
Johnson, JOHN, Indian agent; born in Ballyshannon, Ireland, in March, 1775; came to the United States in 1786 and settled in Cumberland county, Pa. He par- ticipated in the campaign against the Indians in Ohio in 1792-93; was agent of
Indian affairs for thirty-one years; served in the War of 1812, becoming quarter- master. In 1841-42 he was commissioner to arrange with the Indians of Ohio for their emigration from that district. He was the author of an Account of the Ind- ian Tribes of Ohio. He died in Wash- ington, D. C., April 19, 1861.
Johnson, SIR JOHN, military officer; born in Mount Johnson, N. Y., Nov. 5, 1742; son of Sir William Johnson; was a stanch loyalist, and in 1776 the Whigs tried to get possession of his person. He fled to Canada with about 700 followers, where he was commissioned a colonel, and raised a corps chiefly among the loyalists of New York, known as the Royal Greens. He was among the most active and bitter foes of the patriots. While investing Fort Stanwix in 1777, he defeated General Herkimer at Oriskany, but was defeated himself by General Van Rensselaer in 1780. After the war Sir John went to England, but returned to Canada, where he resided as superintendent of Indian affairs until his death* in Montreal, Jan. 4, 1830. He married a daughter of John Watts, a New York loyalist.
Johnson, JOHN BUTLER, educator; born in Marlboro, O., June 11, 1850; grad- uated at the University of Michigan in 1878, and became a civil engineer in the United States Lake and Mississippi River surveys. In 1883-98 he was Professor of Civil Engineering in Washington Univer- sity, St. Louis. Later he was made dean of the College of Mechanics and Engineer- ing in the University of Wisconsin. He was director of a testing laboratory in St. Louis, where all the United States timber tests were made. He also had charge of the index department of the journal pub- lished by the Association of Engineering Societies, and compiled two volumes of Index Notes to Engineering Literature. He is author of Theory and Practice of Surveying; Modern Framed Structures; Engineering Contracts and Specifications; Materials of Construction, etc.
Johnson, JOSIAH STODDARD, author; born in New Orleans, Feb. 10, 1833; grad- uated at Yale College in 1853 and at the University Law School in 1854. He joined the Confederate army in 1863, and served till the close of the war. Later he en- gaged in the practice of law and in jour-
V. — M
177
JOHNSON
nalism. He is the author of Memorial History of Louisville; First Explorations of Kentucky; Confederate History of Ken- tucky, etc.
Johnson, SIR NATHANIEL, colonial gov- ernor of South Carolina in 1703-9. Dur- ing his administration he defeated the French who had attacked the colony in 1706. He died in Charleston in 1713.
Johnson, OLIVER, journalist; born in Peacham, Vt., Dec. 27, 1809; was man- aging editor of The Independent in 1865- 70; and later was editor of the Christian Union. He was the author of William Lloyd Garrison and His Times, or Sketches of the Anti-Slavery Movement in Amer- ica. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Dec. 10, 1889.
Johnson, REVERDY, statesman; born in Annapolis, Md., May 21, 1796; was ad- mitted to the bar in 1815. After serving two terms in his State Senate, he was United States Senator from 1845 to 1849, when he became United States Attorney- General under President Taylor. Mr. Johnson was a delegate to the Peace Con- vention; United States Senator from 1863 to 1868; and minister to Great Britain in 1868-69, negotiating a treaty for the set- tlement of the ALABAMA CLAIMS (q. v.)
REVERDY JOHNSON.
question, which was rejected by the United States Senate. He was recalled by Presi-
RICHARD MENTOR JOHNSON.
dent Grant in 1869; supported Horace Greeley in the Presidential campaign of 1872. He died in Annapolis, Md., Feb. 10, 1876.
Johnson, RICHARD MENTOR, Vice-Presi- dent of the United States; born in Bryant's Station, Ky., Oct. 17, 1781; graduated at Transylvania University; became a lawyer and State legislator, and raised a regiment of cavalry in 1812. With them he served under Harrison, and was in the battle of the Thames in 1813, where he was dangerously wounded. From 1807 to 1819 and 1829 to 1837 he was a member of Congress. He was United States Senator from 1819 to 1829, and Vice-President of the United States from 1837 to 1841. He died in Frankfort, Ky., Nov. 19, 1850.
Johnson, RICHARD W., military officer; born in Livingston county, Ky., Feb. 7, 1827; graduated at West Point in 1849. He was a captain of cavalry in the Civil War until August, 1861, when he was made lieutenant-colonel of a Ken- tucky cavalry regiment. In October he was commissioned a brigadier-general of volunteers, and served under Buell. In the summer of 1862 he commanded a divi- sion of the Army of the Tennessee, and
178
JOHNSON
afterwards had the same command in the ary. His original books are A History Army of the Cumberland. In the battles of the War Between the United States at Stone River and near Chickamauga, and Great Britain, 1812-15; A. History and in the Atlanta campaign, he was a of the French War, Ending in the Con- most useful officer. He was severely quest of Canada; A History of the War wounded at New Hope Church, and com- of Secession (1888; enlarged and illus- manded a division of cavalry in the battle trated, under the title Camp-fire and Bat- of Nashville, in December, 1864. He was tie-field, 1894); The Hero of Manila, etc. brevetted major-general, U. S. V. and U. S. He has been president of the Quill Club, A., for gallant services during the war; the Society of the Genesee, the New was retired in 1867; and was Professor York Association of Phi Beta Kappa, and of Military Science in the Missouri State of the People's University Extension So- University in 1868-69, and in the Univer- ciety. He received the degree of Ph.D. sity of Minnesota in 1869-71. He died in in 1888, and that of LL.D. in 1893. St. Paul, Minn., April 21, 1897. Johnson, SAMUEL, jurist; born in Dun- Johnson, ROBERT, colonial governor; dee, Scotland, Dec. 15, 1733; was taken to born in England in 1682; was appointed North Carolina by his father when he was governor of South Carolina in 1717; and three years of age, and was in civil office royal governor in 1731. He died in there under the crown until he espoused Charleston, S. C., May 3, 1755. the cause of the patriots. In 1773 he Johnson, ROBERT UNDERWOOD, editor; was one of the North Carolina committee born in Washington, D. C., Jan. 12, of correspondence and an active mem- 1853; graduated at Earlham College, Indi- ber of the Provincial Congress. He was ana, in 1871. He became connected with chairman of the provincial council in the editorial staff of the Century in 1873; 1775, and during 1781-82 was in the Con- edited the Century War Series (with tinental Congress. In 1788 he was govern- Clarence Clough Buel), and subsequently or of the State, and presided over the extended the work by 4 volumes, covering convention that adopted the national Con- the battles and leaders of the Civil War. stitution. From 1789 to 1793 he was It was he who induced General Grant to United States Senator, and from 1800 write his Memoirs, the first part of which to 1803 was judge of the Supreme Court, was published in the Century War Series. He died near Edenton, N. C., Aug. 18, He originated the movement which re- 1816.
suited in the establishment of the Yosem- Johnson, THOMAS, jurist; born in St.
ite National Park; and was secretary of Leonards, Calvert co., Md., Nov. 4, 1732;
the American Copyright League. His was an eminent lawyer, and was chosen a
works include The Winter Hour; Songs delegate to the second Continental Con-
of Liberty, etc. gress in 1775. He had the honor of nomi-
Johnson, ROSSITER, author and editor; nating George Washington for the post of
born in Rochester, N. Y., Jan. 27, 1840; commander-in-chief of the Continental
graduated at the University of Roch- armies. He was chosen governor of the
ester in 1863. In 1864-68 he was an as- new State of Maryland in 1777, and was
sociate editor of the Rochester Democrat; associate-justice of the Supreme Court of
in 1869-72 was editor of the Concord the United States from 1791 to 1793,
(N. H.) Statesman; and in 1873-77 was when he resigned. He was offered the post
an associate editor of the American Cyclo- of chief -justice of the District of Colum-
pcedia. In 1879-80 he assisted Sydney bia in 1801, but declined it. He died at
Howard Gay in preparing the last two Rose Hill, near Frederickton, Oct. 26, 1819.
volumes of the Bryant and Gay History Johnson, THOMAS GARY, clergyman;
of the United States. Since 1883 he has born in Fishbok Hill, Va., July 19, 1859;
been the sole editor of Appleton's Annual graduated at Hampden-Sidney College in
Cyclopedia. He edited The Authorized 1881 and at Union Theological Seminary,
History of the World's Columbian Exposi- Va., in 1887; was ordained in the Pres-
tion (4 vols., 1898); and The World's byterian Church; became Professor of
Great Books (1898-1901). He is also an Ecclesiastical History and Polity at Union
associate editor of the Standard Diction- Theological Seminary, Va., in 1892. He
179
JOHNSON
is the author of A History of the Southern the Indian trade. Dealing honestly with Presbyterian Church; A Brief Sketch of the the Indians and learning their language, United Synod of the Presbyterian Church he became a great favorite with them. in the United States of America, etc. He conformed to their manners, and, in
Johnson, WILLIAM, jurist; born in time, took Mary, a sister of Brant, the Charleston, S. C., Dec. 27, 1771; grad- famous Mohawk chief, to his home as his uated at Princeton in 1790; admitted to wife. When the French and Indian War the bar in 1793; elected to the State legis- broke out Johnson was made sole super- lature in 1794; appointed an associate intendent of Indian affairs, and his great justice of the United States Supreme influence kept the Six Nations steadily Court in 1804; served until his death, from any favoring of the French. He in Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 11, 1834. He kept the frontier from injury until the is the author of the Life and Corre- treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). spondence of Maj.-Gen. Nathanael Greene. In 1750 he was a member of the pro- Johnson, WILLIAM, lawyer; born in vincial council. He withdrew from his Middletown, Conn., about 1770; graduated post of superintendent of Indian affairs at Yale College in 1788; reporter of the in 1753, and was a member of the con- Supreme Court of New York in 1806-23, vention at Albany in 1754. He also at- and of the New York Court of Chancery tended grand councils of the Indians, and in 1814-23. He was the author of New was adopted into the Mohawk tribe and York Supreme Court Reports, 1799-1803; made a sachem. At the council of gov- New York Chancery Reports 181^-23 ; and ernors, convened by Braddock at Alex- Digest of Cases in the Supreme Court of andria in 1755, Johnson was appointed New York. He died in New York City in sole superintendent of the Six Nations, July, 1848. created a major-general, and afterwards
Johnson, SIR WILLIAM, military offi- led an expedition intended for the capture cer ; born in • Smithtown, County Meath, of Crown Point. The following year he Ireland, in 1715; was educated for a mer- was knighted, and the King gave him the chant, but an unfortunate love affair appointment of superintendent of Indian changed the tenor of his life. He came to affairs in the North; he was also made a
colonial agent. He continued in the military service during the remainder of the war, and was rewarded by his King with the gift of 100,000 acres of land north of the Mohawk River, which was known as "Kingsland," or the " Royal Grant." Sir William first introduced shoep and blooded horses into the Mohawk Valley. He married a German girl, by whom he had a son and two daughters; nl so eight children by Mary (or Mollie) Brant, who lived with him until his death. Sir William lived in baronial style and exercised great hospitality. He died in Johnstown, N. Y., July 11, 1774.
Johnson, WILLIAM SAMUEL, jurist; born in Stratford, Conn., Oct. 7, 1727; graduated at Yale College in 1744; became a lawyer; and was distinguished for his eloquence. He was a delegate to the STAMP ACT CONGRESS (q. v.), and for America in 1738 to take charge of landed five years (from 1766 to 1771) was agent property of his uncle, Admiral Sir Peter for Connecticut in England. He cor- Warren, in the region of the Mohawk responded with the eminent Dr. Johnson Valley, and seated himself there, about 24 several years. He was a judge of the miles west of Schenectady, engaging in Supreme Court of Connecticut and a com-
180
SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON.
JOHNSON-CLARENDON CONVENTION— JOHNSTON
missioner for adjusting the con- troversy between the proprie- tors, of Pennsylvania and the Susquehanna Company. Judge Johnson was in Congress (1784 to 1787), and was also a mem- ber of the convention that framed the national Constitu- tion, in which he was the first to propose the organization of the Senate as a distinct branch of the national legislature. He was United States Senator from 1789 to 1791, and, with his col- league, Oliver Ellsworth, drew up the bill for establishing the judiciary system of the United States. He was president of Columbia College from 1787 to 1800. He died in Stratford, Nov. 14, 1819.
Johnson - Clarendon Con- vention, the treaty negotiated by Reverdy Johnson, while minister to England, dated Jan. 14, 1869. This treaty proposed a mixed commission for the consideration of all claims, including the Alabama claims. The treaty, which was the foun- dation of the subsequent successful one, in Brooklyn, N. Y., April 2, 1849; was rejected by the United States Senate, graduated at Rutgers College, studied law, as the provision made in it for national and became a few years later Professor losses was not satisfactory. See JOHNSON, of Jurisprudence and Political Economy REVERDY. in Princeton University. His contribu-
Johnston, ALBERT SIDNEY, military tions to American history were valuable, officer; born in Washington, Mason co., They include a History of American Poli- Ky., Feb. 3, 1803; graduated at West tics, histories of Connecticut and the Point in 1826; served in the Black Hawk United States, the political articles in War, and resigned in 1834. He entered Lalor's Cyclopaedia of Political Science, the Texan army as a private in 1836 and and the political sketch under the article was soon made a brigadier-general, and " United States " in the Encyclopaedia in 1838 became commander-in-chief of the Britannica. He died in Princeton, N. J., army and Secretary of War. He retired July 20, 1889.
to private life in Texas. He served in Johnston, JOSEPH EGGLESTON, mili- the war with Mexico, and became pay- tary officer; born in Longwood, Va., Feb. master in the United States army in 1849. 3, 1809 ; graduated at West Point in In 1860-61 he commanded the Pacific De- 1829, and entered the artillery. He partment, and, sympathizing with the served in the wars with the Florida Ind- Confederates, was superseded by General ians, and with Mexico, in which he was Simmer and entered the Confederate ser- twTice wounded. He became lieutenant- vice, in command of the Division of the colonel of cavalry in 1855, and quarter- West. At his death, in the battle of master-general, with the rank of briga- Shiloh, April 6, 1862, General Beauregard dier-general, in June, 1860. He joined succeeded him. the Confederates in the spring of 1861,
Johnston, ALEXANDER, historian; born and was commissioned a major-general in
181
WILLIAM SAMUEL JOHNSON.
JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON
the Army of Virginia. He was in com- severe struggle. The Confederates ral- mand at the battle of Bull Run, and lied, and, returning with an overwhelm- fought gallantly on the Virginia penin- ing force, retook the hill. Palmer, find- sula, until wounded at the battle of Fair ing his adversaries gathering in force Oaks, or Seven Pines (1862), when he larger than his own, and learning that was succeeded by Lee. He afterwards the object of his expedition had been ac- opposed Grant and Sherman in the Mis- complished, in the calling back of Hardee sissippi Valley. He was in command dur- by Johnston, fell back and took post ing the Atlanta campaign in 1864 until (March 10) at Ringgold. In this short July, when he was superseded by General campaign the Nationals lost 350 killed Hood. and wounded; the Confederates about
When Johnston heard of Sherman's raid, 200.
and perceived that Polk could not resist With the surrender of Lee, the Civil him, he sent two divisions of Hardee's War was virtually ended. Although he corps, under Generals Stewart and Ander- was general-in-chief, .his capitulation in- son, to assist Polk. Grant, in command eluded only the Army of Northern Vir- at Chattanooga (February, 1864), sent ginia. That of Johnston, in North Caro- General Palmer with a force to counter- lina, and smaller bodies, were yet in the act this movement. Palmer moved with field. When Sherman, who confronted his corps directly upon Dalton (Feb. 22), Johnston, heard of the victory at Five
Forks and the evacuation of Petersburg and Rich- mond, he moved on John- ston (April 10, 1865), with his whole army. The lat- ter was at Smithfield, on the Neuse River, with ful- ly 30,000 men. Jefferson Davis and the Confeder- ate cabinet were then at Danville, on the southern border of Virginia, and had just proposed to Johnston a plan whereby they might secure their own personal safety and the treasures they had brought with them from Richmond. It was to disperse his army, excepting two or three bat- teries of artillery, the cav- alry, and as many infan- try as he could mount, with which he should form a guard for the " govern- ment," and strike for the Mississippi and beyond, with Mexico as their final objective. Johnston spurn- where Johnston was encamped. The Con- ed the proposition, and, deprecating the bad federates were constantly pushed back and example of Lee in continuing what he there was almost continual heavy skirmish- knew to be a hopeless war, had the moral ing. In the centre of Rocky Face Valley, courage to do his duty according to the on a rocky eminence, the Confederates dictates of his conscience and his nice made a stand, but were soon driven from sense of honor. He refused to fight the crest by General Turchin, after a any more, or to basely desert his
182
JOSEPH EGGLKSTOJi JOHNSTON.
JOHNSTON
army far away from their home, as forty-eight hours. This notification was the " government " proposed, and stated accompanied by a demand for the sur- frankly to the people of North and render of Johnston's army, on the terms South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, in- granted to Lee. The capitulation was eluded within his military department, agreed upon at the house of James Ben- that " war could not be longer contin- nett, near Durham's Station, April 26. ued by them, except as robbers," and About 25,000 troops were surrendered, that he should take measures to stop The capitulation included all the troops it and save the army and people from in Johnston's military department. Gen- further evil, and " avoid the crime of eral Taylor surrendered at Citronelle, waging a hopeless war." Sherman was Ala., to General Canby, on the same pushing Johnston with great vigor, when terms, and the Confederate navy on the the former received a note from the lat- Tombigbee River was surrendered by ter (April 14, 1865), asking if a tern- Commander Farrand to Rear -Admiral porary suspension of active hostilities might be arranged to allow the "civil authorities to enter into the needful arrange- ments to terminate the existing war." Sherman promptly replied that he would do so, and was will- ing to hold a conference. He said that, as a basis of action, he would under- take to abide by the terms made by Grant and Lee at Appomattox Court-house. Sherman and Johnston met at Durham's Station, half-way between Raleigh and Hillsboro, at ten o'clock, April 17. John- ston said he regarded the PLACE OF JOHNSTON'S SURRENDER TO SHERMAN. Confederate cause as lost,
and admitted that Grant's terms were Thatcher. After the war he engaged in magnanimous; but he insisted upon con- the fire insurance business; was a Demo- ditions involving political guarantees, cratic member of Congress in 1876-78; which Sherman had no authority to grant, and United States commissioner of rail- At a second conference the next day, roads in 1885-89. He died in Washington, Sherman consented to a memorandum of D. C., March 21, 1891. agreement as a basis for the considera- Johnston, RICHARD MALCOLM, author; tion of the government, which, if carried born in Powelton, Ga., March 8, 1822; out, would have instantly restored to all graduated at Mercer University, Geor- persons engaged in the rebellion every gia, in 1841, and a year later was right and privilege, social and political, admitted to the bar. In 1857-61 he which they had enjoyed before the war, was Professor of Literature in the Uni- without any liability of punishment. II versity of Georgia. He was an officer in was adroitly drawn up by Breckinridge, the Confederate army throughout the and was signed by the respective com- Civil War. In 1867 he moved to Balti- manding generals. The national govern- more, and engaged in authorship. His ment instantly rejected it, and General works include Georgia, Sketches; Dukes- Grant was sent to Raleigh to declare that borough Tales; Historical Sketch of rejection, which he did April 24, and English Literature (with W. H. proclaimed that the truce would end in Browne) ; Old Mark Langston; Two Gray
183
JOHNSTON
Tourists; Mr. Absalom Billingslea, and Other Georgia Folk; Ogeechee Cross Fir- ings; Widow Guthrie; The Primes and Their Neighbors; Studies: Literary and Social; Old Times in Middle Georgia; Pearse Amerson's Will, etc. He died in Baltimore, Md., Sept. 23, 1898.
Johnston, WILLIAM, revolutionist; born in Canada, in 1780; was an American spy on the Canada frontier during the War of 1812-15. He was living at Clayton, N. Y., on the bank of the St. Lawrence, when the " patriot " war in Canada broke out in 1837. Being a bold and adventur- ous man, and cordially hating the British, Johnston was easily persuaded by the American sympathizers in the movement to join in the strife. The leaders regarded him as a valuable assistant, for he was thoroughly acquainted with the whole re- gion of the Thousand Islands, in the St. Lawrence, from Kingston to Ogdensburg. He was employed to capture the steam- boat Robert Peel, that carried passengers and the mail between Prescott and To- ronto, and also to seize the Great Britain, another steamer, for the use of the " pa- triots." With a desperate band, Johnston rushed on board of the Peel at Wells's
WILLIAM JOHNSTON.
Island, not far below Clayton, on the night of May 29, 1838. They were armed with muskets and bayonets and painted like Indians, and appeared with a shout,
"Remember the Carolina!" — a vessel which some persons from Canada had cut loose at Schlosser (on Niagara River), set on fire, and sent blazing over Niagara
JOHNSTON'S COMMISSION.
Falls. The passengers and baggage of the Peel were put on shore and the vessel was burned, because her captors could not manage her. Governor Marcy, of New York, declared Johnston an outlaw, and offered a reward of $500 for his person. The governor of Canada (Earl of Dur- ham) offered $5,000 for the conviction of any person concerned in the " infamous outrage." Johnston, in a proclamation issued from " Fort Watson," declared him- self the leader of the band; that his com- panions were nearly all Englishmen; and that his headquarters were on an island within the jurisdiction of the United States. Fort Watson was a myth. It was wherever Johnston was seated among the Thousand Islands, where for a long time he was concealed, going from one island to another to avoid arrest. His daughter, a handsome maiden of eighteen years, who was an expert rower, went to his retreat at night with food. At length he was arrested, tried at Syracuse on a charge of violating the neutrality laws, and acquitted. Again arrested and put in jail, he managed to escape, when a reward of $200 was offered for him. He gave him- self up at Albany, was tried, convicted, and sentenced to one year's imprisonment in the jail there and to pay a fine of $250. His faithful daughter, who had acquired the title of " The Heroine of the Thousand
184
JOHNSTON— JOHN THE PAINTER
Islands," hastened to Albany and shared Johnstone, GEORGE, diplomatist; born the prison with her father. He procured in Dumfries, Scotland; entered the British a key that would unlock his prison-door, navy; became post-captain 1762, and gov- His daughter departed and waited for him ernor of West Florida in 1763; and was at Rome. He left the jail, walked 40 one of the commissioners sent to the Unit- miles the first night, and soon joined her. ed States to treat with Congress in 1778. They went home, and Johnston was not He had been an advocate of the Americans molested afterwards. The " patriots " in the House of Commons, and brought urged him to engage in the struggle again, letters of introduction to Robert Morris, He had had enough of it. They sent him Joseph Reed, and other leading patriots, the commission of a commodore, dated at Finding the commissioners could do noth- " Windsor, U. C., Sept. 5, 1839," and ing, officially, with Congress, Johnstone signed " H. S. Hand, Commander-in-Chief attempted to gain by bribery what could of the Northwestern Army, on Patriot not be acquired by diplomacy. To Morris Service in Upper Canada." On that com- and others he wrote letters, urging the ex- mission was the device seen in the engrav- pediency of making arrangements with the ing — the American eagle carrying off the government, and suggesting, in some of his British lion. The maple-leaf is an emblem letters, that those persons who should be of Canada. He refused to serve, and re- instrumental in bringing it about would mained quietly at home. President Pierce not fail of high honors and rewards from appointed him light-house keeper on Rock the government. An American lady in Island, in the St. Lawrence, in sight of Philadelphia, whose husband was in the the place where the Peel was burned. British service, and who was a relative of Johnston, WILLIAM PRESTON, educator; Ferguson, the secretary of the commission, born in Louisville, Ky., Jan. 5, 1831 ; son was induced by Johnstone to approach of Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston. He grad- Joseph Reed with a proposition. Mrs. Fer- uated at Yale University in 1852, and guson was a daughter of Dr. Graeme, of at the Louisville Law School in the fol- Pennsylvania, a bright woman, in whose lowing year, and began practice in Louis- prudence and patriotism the Whigs had ville. When the Civil War broke out, he such confidence that the interchange of entered the Confederate army as major of visits among them and the Tories never the 1st Kentucky Regiment. In 1862 he led to a suspicion that she would betray was appointed by President Davis his the cause of her country. Johnstone made aide-de-camp with the rank of colonel, her believe he was a warm friend of the When Lee surrendered Colonel Johnston Americans, and he entreated her to go to remained with the President, and was General Reed and say to him that if he captured with him. After his release he could, conscientiously, exert his influence lived a year in Canada and then resumed in bringing about a reconciliation, he law practice in Louisville. In 1867, when might command $50,-000 and the highest General Lee was made president of Wash- post in the government. " That," said iugton and Lee University, Colonel John- Mrs. Ferguson, " General Reed would con- ston was appointed Professor of English sider the offer of a bribe." Johnstone dis- History and Literature there, where he claimed any such intention, and Mrs. Fer- remained till 1877. During 1880-83 he guson carried the message to Reed as soon was president of the Louisiana State Uni- as the British left Philadelphia. Reed in- versity and the Agricultural and Mechani- dignantly replied, " I am not worth pur- cal College at Baton Rouge. In 1883, when chasing, but, such as I am, the King of Eng- Tulane University, in New Orleans, was land is not rich enough to do it." These founded, he was elected its president, and facts being made known to Congress, reso- served as such till his death, in Lexing- lutions were passed, Aug. 11, 1778, accus- ton, Va., July 16, 1899. His publications ing the commissioner of an attempt at include Life of Albert Sidney Johnston; bribery and corruption, and declining to The Prototype of Hamlet; The Johnstons hold any further communication with him. of Salisbury; also the poems, My Garden He died Jan. 8, 1787. Walk; Pictures of the Patriarchs; and Johnstown Flood. See INUNDATIONS. Seekers After God. John the Painter. While SILAS
185
JOHN THE PAINTER— JOINT HIGH COMMISSION
DEANE (q. v.), commissioner of the Conti- nental Congress, was in Paris (1777), a stranger, advanced in years, called upon him one day, and requested a strictly pri- vate interview. It was granted, when the stranger told Deane that he was a native of Scotland, but was an American citizen, and had lived at Amboy, N. J., where he had a comfortable house. The British troops stationed there, suspecting him of being a Whig, had greatly abused him, and finally burned his house to ashes. He told Deane he had resolved on revenge; that he had determined to kill King George, and had come to Europe for the purpose. He had been to England, had laid his plans, and was ready to execute them. He thought it right to acquaint Deane, the United States minister, with his scheme. He said he passed by the name of " John the Painter." Mr. Deane opposed the assassination of the King as cowardly and unjust. He was innocent of wrong in the matter. If he must have revenge, he should take it in a manly, generous way; he should go into the American army, and meet his enemy as a soldier, and not as a vulgar assassin; and if he could so meet King George, at the head of his army, he could kill him with propriety. It would be lawful to so kill his generals. The man was finally persuaded by Deane to abandon his regi- cidal plan, and left. He soon returned, thanked Deane for persuading him not to lay violent hands on " the Lord's Anointed," and said he was determined to seek revenge by burning the naval stores at Portsmouth, England. Deane said that would tend to weaken the enemy in carry- ing on the war, and was legitimate busi- ness. He was astonished at the wisdom of the man's plans. He warned him, how- ever, that if he should be caught his life would pay the penalty of his crime. "I am an old man," was the reply, "and it matters little whether I die now or five years hence." He borrowed a guinea from Deane, and crossed the channel.
At Portsmouth he took lodgings at the house of a very poor woman on the out- skirts of the town. While he was ab- sent, she had the curiosity to examine a bundle which he had brought with him. It contained some clothing and a tin box, with some sort of a machine inside. John
wanted a top to it, and had one made by a tinman. The same evening the naval storehouses were fired by this " infernal machine," and $500,000 worth of property was destroyed. Strict search was made for the incendiary in the morning at every house in the town. The old woman told them of John the Painter and his mys- terious tin box. The tinman reported making a top for it. John was fixed upon as the incendiary. Not doubting he had been sent by the enemy for the purpose, and that relays of horses had been fur- nished for his escape, horsemen were sent out on every road, with orders to pur- sue any person they should find riding very fast. John, meanwhile, was trudg- ing on foot towards London. Men came up to him and asked him if he had seen any person riding post-haste. " Why do you inquire?" asked John. He was prop- erly answered, when John told the pur- suers they were mistaken, for he — " John the Painter " — was the incendiary, and gave them his reasons for the act. They took him back to Portsmouth, where he was recognized by the old woman and the tinman. He candidly told them that he should certainly have killed the King had not Mr. Deane dissuaded him, and that he was revenged, and was ready to die. He was tried, condemned, and hung. A false and unfair account of his trial was published, and no mention was made of Mr. Deane's having saved the life of the King. The Gentleman's Magazine for 1777 contains the English account of the affair, with a portrait. The above is compiled from manuscript notes made from the lips of Deane by Elias Boudi- not.
Joint High Commission. The gov- ernment of the United States, in behalf of its citizens, claimed from Great Britain damages inflicted on the American ship- ping interests by the depredations of the ALABAMA (q. v. ) and other Anglo- Confederate cruisers. To effect a peace- ful solution of the difficulty, REVERDY JOHNSON (q. v.), of Maryland, was sent to England, in 1868, to negotiate a treaty for that purpose. His mission was not satisfactory. The treaty which he nego- tiated was almost universally condemned by his countrymen, and was rejected by the Senate. His successor, JOHN Lo-
186
JOINT HIGH COMMISSION— JOLIET
THROP MOTLEY (q. v.) , appointed minister federate cruisers; (6) claims of British at the British Court, was charged with subjects against the United States for the same mission, but failed in that par- losses and injuries arising out of acts ticular, and was recalled in 1870. The committed during the Civil War. A matter was finally settled by arbitration, treaty was agreed to, and was signed Much correspondence succeeded the efforts May 8, 1871, which provided for the to settle by treaty. Finally, in January, settlement, by arbitration, by a mixed 1871, the British minister at Washing- commission, of all claims on both sides ton, Sir Edward Thornton, in a letter to for injuries by either government to the Secretary Fish, proposed, under instruc- citizens of the other, during the Civil tions from his government, a Joint High War, and for the permanent settlement of Commission, to be appointed by the two all questions in dispute between the two governments, respectively, to settle dis- nations (see WASHINGTON, TREATY OF). putes of every kind between the United Arbitrators were appointed, who, at States and Great Britain, and so estab- Geneva, Switzerland, formed what was lish a permanent friendship between the known as the Tribunal of Arbitration, two nations. Mr. Fish proposed that the and reached a decision in which both par- commission should embrace in its in- ties acquiesced. See ARBITRATION, TRI- quiries the matter of the "Alabama BUNAL OF.
Claims," so that nothing should remain Joliet, Louis, discoverer; born in Que- to disturb amicable relations. The sug- bee, Canada, Sept. 21, 1645; was edu- gestion was approved, and each govern- cated at the Jesuit college in his native ment appointed commissioners. The city, and afterwards engaged in the fur- President appointed, for the United trade in the Western wilderness. In 1673 States, Hamilton Fish, Secretary of Intendant Talon, at Quebec, with the State; Samuel Nelson, associate-justice sanction of Governor Frontenac, selected of the United States Supreme Court; Joliet to find and ascertain the direc- Robert C. Schenck, minister to England; tion of the course of the Mississippi and Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar, late United its mouth. Starting from Mackinaw, in States Attorney-General; and George H. May, 1673, with Father Marquette and Williams, United States Senator from five other Frenchmen, they reached the Oregon. Queen Victoria appointed Mississippi June 17. They studied the George Frederick Samuel, Earl de Gray country on their route, made maps, and and Earl of Ripon ; Sir Stratford Henry gained much information. After inter- Northcote; Sir Edward Thornton, her course with Indians on the lower Missis- minister at Washington; Sir Alexander sippi, near the mouth of the Arkansas, McDonald, of the privy council of Can- who had trafficked with Europeans, they ada, and attorney - general of that prov- were satisfied that the Mississippi ince; and Montague Bernard, Profess- emptied into the Gulf of Mexico, and or of International Law in Oxford Uni- made their way back to Green Bay, where versity. The commissioners first met in Joliet started alone for Quebec to report Washington, Feb. 27, 1871. Lord Tenter- to his superiors. His canoe was upset den, secretary of the British commission, in Lachine Rapids, above Montreal, and and J. C. Bancroft Davis, assistant Secre- his journals and charts were lost, but tary of State of the United States, were he wrote out his narrative from memory, chosen clerks of the Joint High Commis- which agreed, in essentials, with that of sion. The commissioners of the United Marquette. Joliet afterwards went on an States were instructed to consider: (1) expedition to Hudson Bay, in the service the fisheries; (2) the navigation of the of his King, and was rewarded by his St. Lawrence River; (3) reciprocal trade sovereign with the appointment of hydrog- between the United States and the Do- rapher to his Majesty, and was favored minion of Canada; (4) the Northwest with the seigniory of the island of Anti- water boundary and the island of San costi in 1680. La Salle's pretensions de- Juan; (5) the claims of the United nied him the privilege of making explo- States against Great Britain for com- rations in the West. He died in Canada pensation for injuries committed by Con- in May, 1700.
187
JONATHAN— JONES
Jones, JACOB, naval officer; born near
Jonathan, BROTHER, the name popular- Newspaper Press in the Middle States of ly applied to the United States, as JOHN America, etc. BULL is to Great Britain; originated in Washington's humorous allusion to Smyrna, Del., in March, 1768; gradu- JONATHAN TRUMBULL (q. v.) , governor of ated at the University of Pennsylvania, Connecticut, the only colonial governor who favored independence.
Joncaire, or Jonquiere, JACQUES PIERRE DE TAFFANEL, MARQUIS DE LA, naval officer; born in La JonquiSre, France, in 1686; entered the navy in 1698, and in 1703 was adjutant in the French army. He was a brave and skil- ful officer, and was in many battles. He became captain in the navy in 1736, and accompanied D'Anville in his expedition against Louisburg in 1745. In 1747 he was appointed governor of Canada, but, being captured by the British, he did not arrive until 1749. He died in Quebec, May 17, 1752.
Jones, CHARLES COLCOCK, clergyman; born in Liberty county, Ga., Dec. 20, 1804; received his theological training at An- dover and Princeton Theological Semi- naries; was ordained in the Presbyterian Church, and became active in the work of educating the negro race. His publi- cations include Religious Instruction for Negroes in the Southern States; Sugges- JACOB JONES-
tions on the Instruction of Negroes in
the South; and a History of the Church and entered the navy as a midshipman in of God. He died in Liberty county, Ga., 1799. He was an officer of the Phila- March 16, 1863. delphia when she was captured at Trip-
Jones, CHARLES COLCOCK, lawyer; born oli. In 1810 he was made commander, in Savannah, Ga., Oct. 28, 1831 ; grad- and when the War of 1812-15 broke out uated at Princeton in 1852; admitted to he was in charge of the sloop-of-war the bar of Georgia in 1856; during the Wasp, in which he gained a victory. He Civil War he served as colonel of artillery, commanded the Macedonian, in Decatur's Among his historical works are Monumen- squadron, as post-captain. After the war tal Remains of Georgia; Historical Sketch he commanded the Mediterranean squad- of the Chatham Artillery; Life of Gen. ron; was a commissioner of the navy Henry Lee; Commodore Josiah Tatnall; board; and governor of the naval asylum Jean Pierre Purry; Richard Henry Wilde; at Philadelphia. Congress voted him Siege of Savannah in 1779; De Soto and thanks and a gold medal and several His March through Georgia, etc. States presented him with swords. He
Jones, HORATIO GATES, lawyer; born died in Philadelphia, Aug. 3, 1850. in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 9, 1822; gradu- Jones, JAMES ATHEARN, author; born ated at the University of Pennsylvania in in Tisbury, Mass., June 4, 1790; received 1841; was admitted to the bar in 1847; a common - school education, and engaged became connected with many, historical in journalism in Philadelphia in 1826; societies. His publications include History later was editor in Baltimore, Md., and of Roxborough and Manayunk; Report of in Buffalo, N. Y. His publications in- the Committee of the Historical Society elude Traditions of the North American of Pennsylvania on the Bradford Bicen- Indians, or Tales of an Indian Camp; tenary; Andrew Bradford, Founder of the Letter to an English Gentleman on Eng-
188
JONES
IIJ1PIEIR
IB I ME(Q)ILI(C MW. AN® O<DT
GOLD MEDAL AWARDED BY CONGRESS TO JACOB JONES.
lish Libels of America; and Haverhill, commander the first salute ever given to or Memoirs of an Officer in the Army of the American flag by a foreign man-of-war. Wolfe. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., in In April he scaled the walls of White- August, 1853. haven, in England, on the borders of the
Jones, JOHN MATHER, journalist; born Irish Sea, and spiked thirty-eight can- in Bangor, North Wales, June 9, 1826; non.
came to the United States in 1849; was In 1779, while cruising up and down the founder of the Welsh town of New the east" coast of Scotland, between the Cambria, Mo., and also of Avonia, in Kan- Solway and the Clyde, he tried to capture sas. In 1805-74 he was the owner and the Earl of Selkirk, in order to secure a publisher of The Mirror, the first Welsh notable prisoner for exchange. He had newspaper established in the United been an early friend of Jones's father. States. He was the author of a History His seat was at the mouth of the Dee. of the Rebellion (in Welsh). He died in Utica, N. Y., Dec. 21, 1874.
Jones, JOHN PAUL, naval officer; born in Kirkbean, Scotland, July 6, 1747. Be- fore he was eighteen years old he COTI- manded a vessel that traded with the WTest Indies. Jones came to Virginia in 1773, inheriting the estate of his brother, who died there. Offering his services to Congress, he was made first lieutenant in the navy in December, 1775, when, out of gratitude to General Jones, of North Carolina, he assumed his name. Before that he was John Paul. He was a bold and skilful sea-rover, gathering up many prizes. Made captain in the fall of 1776, he raised the first flag ever displayed on a United States ship-of-war the Alfred. He destroyed the Port Royal JOHN PAUL JONES.
(N. S.) fisheries, capturing all the vessels
and freight. In the summer of 1777 he Jones anchored his vessel, the Ran- sailed in the Ranger to Europe, and in ger, in the Solway at noon, and with February, 1778, received from a French a few men, in a single boat, he went to a
189
JONES, JOHN PAUL
wooded promontory on which the earl's fine estate lay, where he learned that his lordship was not at home. Disappointed, he ordered his men back to the boat, when his lieutenant, a large and fiery man, pro- posed to go to the mansion and plunder it of the family plate. Jones would not listen to the proposition, for the memory of old associations made his heart tender towards Lady Selkirk, who had been very kind to him. Again he ordered his men back, but they and the lieutenant, eager for prize-money, in defiance of his ex- postulations, went to the house and de- manded the plate. The frightened Lady Selkirk surrendered it with her own hands. When the prizes of the Ranger
tember, while Jones's squadron lay a few leagues north of the mouth of the Hum- ber, he discovered the Baltic fleet of forty merchantmen (convoyed by the Serapis, a 44 - gun ship, and the Countess of Scarborough, of twenty - two guns ) , stretching out from Flamborough Head. Jones signalled for a chase, and all but the Alliance, Captain Landais, obeyed. While the opposing war-ships were ma- noeuvring for advantage, night fell upon the scene. At seven o'clock in the even- ing of Sept. 23, 1779, one of the most des- perate of recorded sea-fights began. The Bon Homme Richard and Serapis, Captain Pearson, came so close to each other that their spars and rigging became entangled,
GOLD MEDAL PRESENTED TO JOHN PAUL JONES.
were sold Jones bought this plate, and and Jones attempted to board his antago-
sent it back to Lady Selkirk with a letter nist. A short contest with pike, pistol,
in which he expressed his regret because and cutlass ensued, and Jones was re-
of the annoyance she had suffered. pulsed. The vessels separated, and were
During the spring and summer of 1779, soon placed broadside to broadside, so
American cruisers were very active, both close that the muzzles of their guns
in American and European waters. At touched each other. Both vessels were
the middle of August Jones was sent out dreadfully shattered: and, at one time,
from the French port of L'Orient, with the Serapis was on fire in a dozen places,
five vessels, to the coast of Scotland. His Just as the moon rose, at half-past nine
flag-ship was the Bon Homme Richard. As o'clock, the Richard, too, caught fire. A
he was about to strike some armed Brit- terrific hand - to - hand fight now ensued,
ish vessels in the harbor of Leith a storm Jones's ship, terribly damaged, could not
arose, which drove him into the North float much longer. The flames were
Sea. When it ceased, he cruised along creeping up the rigging of the Serapis,
the Scottish coast, capturing many prizes and by their light Jones saw that his
and producing great alarm. Late in Sep- double-headed shot had cut the mainmast
190
JONES, JOHN PAUL
THE HAND-TO-HAND FIGHT ON THE DECK OF THE SERAPIS.
of the Serapis almost in two. He hurled to Jones he said, in a surly tone, "It is another, and the tall mast fell. Pearson painful to deliver up my sword to a man saw his great peril, hauled down his flag, who has fought with a rope around his and surrendered. As he handed his sword neck!" (Jones had been declared a
191
JONES
pirate by the British government.) The made vice-admiral and knighted. He battle ceased, after raging three hours, resigned from the Russian service, The vessels were disengaged, and the Rich- and was appointed consul of the United ard soon went to the bottom of the North States at Algiers in 1792, but he died Sea. For this victory Congress gave before the commission reached him. Jones the thanks of the nation, a gold He died in Paris, July 18, 179*2. His medal and a commission as commander of body was brought back to the United
States by a squadron of war - ships in June, 1905.
Jones, JOHN PERCIVAL, United States Senator; born in Hay, Wales, in 1830; came to the United States while a child; removed to California in 1849; served several terms in the State legislature. Mr. Jones removed to Nevada in 1867, and was elected to the United States Senate for the term beginning March 4, 1873, and several times re-elected. Origi- nally a Republican, he was one of the founders of the " Silver " Republican party, which acted with the Democratic party in the campaigns of 1896 and 1900.
Jones, JOHN WINSTON; born in Chesterfield, Va,, Nov. 22, 1791; grad- uated at William and Mary College in 1803; elected to Congress in 1835; served until March, 1845; during his last term he was speaker of the House. He died Jan. 29, 1848.
Jones, JOSEPH, jurist; born in Vir- ginia in 1727; elected a member of the House of Burgesses; to the Continental Congress in 1778; also to the convention of 1778; in 1778 he was appointed judge of the general court of Virginia; resigned in 1779, but accepted a reappointment the same year. He died at his home in Virginia, Oct. 28, 1805.
Jones, LEONARD AUGUSTUS, author; born in Templeton, Mass., Jan. 13, 1832; graduated at Harvard College in 1855, and at its Law School in 1858; began practice in Boston. His publications include A Treatise on the Law of Mortgages of Real Property; A Treatise on the Law of Railroads and Other Corporate Securi- ties; Pledges, including Collateral Securi- ties; An Index to Legal Periodical Liter- ature, etc.
Jones, MARCUS EUGENE, scientist; born in Jefferson, O., April 25, 1852; grad-
JONES RAISING THE FIRST FLAG EVER DISPLAYED ON A UNITED STATES SHIP-OF-WAR.
the America, which ship was soon pre- sented to France. The King of France
made Jones a knight of the Order of uated at Iowa College, in 1875; instructor
Merit, and presented him with a gold there in 1876-77 ; Professor of Natural
sword. Jones entered the service of Rus- Science in Colorado College in 1879-80;
sia as rear-admiral in 1787, and, in conse- the same in Salt Lake City in 1880-81.
quence of a victory over the Turks, was He was appointed a special expert in the
192
JONES
United States Treasury Department in born in Chambers county, Ala., Oct. 16,
1889, and was geologist for the Rio 1847; was admitted to the Georgia bar in
Grande Valley Railroad in 1890-93. Sub- 1869; but after beginning practice under
sequently he established himself as an bright prospects his health failed; and in
expert in botany, geology, and mining. 1872 he was ordained to the ministry of
He is author of Excursion Botanique; Salt the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Lake City; Ferns of the West; Some For eight years he served in various pas-
Phases of Mining in Utah; Botany of the torates in the North Georgia Conference,
Great Plateau; and Geology of Utah. and for twelve years was agent of the
Jones, SAMUEL PORTER, clergyman; North Georgia Orphanage. Popularly
V. — N
JONES INVESTED WITH THE ORDKU OF MILITARY MERIT.
193
JONES— JORDAN
known as " Sam Jones," he has engaged ATLANTA ( q. v.), on the night of Aug. 25. extensively in evangelistic work and in 1864. General Slocum, with the 20th lecturing, in all parts of the United Corps, proceeded to the protection of the States. His publications include Sermons sick, wounded, and stores near the Chatta- and Sayings by Sam Jones; Music Hall hoochee, and Howard and the rest of the Sermons; Quit Your Meanness; St. Louis army moved for the West Point Railway. Series; Sam Jones's Oivn Book; and General Stanley's corps was on the ex- Thunderbolts, treme left, and the armies of Howard,
Jones, THOMAS, lawyer; born in Fort Thomas, and Schofield pressed forward so Neck, L. I., April 30, 1731; graduated secretly that Hood was not informed of at Yale in 1750; admitted to the bar of the movement until the Nationals were de- New York in 1755, and practised in New stroying that road. This was done, Aug. York; was recorder of New York City 28, for 12 miles, and the next day they in 1769-73, when he was appointed judge struck the Macon road. Schofield reached of the Supreme Court. He was arrested the road at Rough-and-Ready Station, 10 a number of times as a loyalist, and was miles from Atlanta. Thomas struck it at exchanged for General Silliman in 1780; Couch's; and Howard, crossing the Flint went to England in 1781; was included River half a mile from Jonesboro, ap- in the New York State act of attainder preached it at that point. There he was in 1782. His estate on Long Island, met by one-half of Hood's army, under Tryon Hall, descended to his daughter, Hardee. With the remainder Hood was who had married Richard Floyd, upon holding the defences of Atlanta, but he condition that the name Jones be added was too weak to attempt to strike Scho- to that of Floyd. The estate is still in the field. There was a severe fight at the Floyd-Jones family. Judge Jones wrote passage of the Flint River, on the morn- a History of New York During the Revolu- ing of Aug. 31, between the forces of How- tionary War, a valuable contribution to ard and Hardee. Howard's army was dis- history, as it is the only one from the posed with Blair's corps in the centre, and view-point of a loyalist who participated rude breastworks were cast up. The con- in the events of that time. He died in test was renewed very soon, when Hardee England, July 25, 1792. attempted to crush Howard before he
Jones, THOMAS AP CATESBY, naval of- could receive reinforcements. He failed,
ficer; born in Virginia, in 1789; entered The Nationals thus attacked were veterans,
the navy in 1805. From 1808 to 1812 he For two hours there was a desperate strife
was engaged in the Gulf of Mexico in the for victory, which was won by Howard,
suppression of piracy, smuggling, and the Hardee recoiled, and in his hasty retreat
slave-trade. He fought the British flotilla left 400 of his dead on the field and 300
on Lake Borgne late in 1814, when he was of his badly wounded at Jonesboro. His
wounded and made captive. He command- loss was estimated at 2.500 men. How-
ed the Pacific squadron in 1842. He died ard's loss was about 500. Meanwhile
in Georgetown, D. C., May 30, 1858. Sherman had sent relief to Howard. Kil-
Jones, WILLIAM; born in Philadelphia, patrick and Garrard were very active, and Pa., in 1760; served throughout the Revolu- General Davis's corps soon touched How- tionary War, at first in the army and later ard's left. At four o'clock in the after- in the navy; elected to Congress in 1801; noon Davis charged and carried the Con- appointed Secretary of the Navy in 1813. federate works covering Jonesboro on the He died in Bethlehem, Pa., Sept. 5, 1831. north, and captured General Govan and a
Jones, WILLIAM ALFRED; born in New greater part of his brigade. In the morn- York City, June 26, 1817; graduated at ing Hardee had fled, pursued by the Na- Columbia College in 1836; appointed li- tionals to Lovejoy's.
brarian of Columbia College in 1851. He Jordan, DAVID STARR, educator; born
is the author of The Library of Columbia in Gainesville, N. Y., Jan. 19, 1851 ;
College; The First Century of Columbia graduated at Cornell University in 1872;
College, etc. and at the Indiana Medical College in
Jonesboro, BATTLE AT. Sherman began 1875. He was Professor of Biology in But-
his flanking when he raised the siege of ler University, Indiana, in 1875-79; held
194
JORDAN— JUDAISM
the same chair in Indiana University in exploit he was given command of the
1879-85; and was president there in 1885- Montgomery. On July 16, 1862, he was
91. In the latter year he was elected presi- promoted to lieutenant-commander. In
dent of the Leland Stanford, Jr., Uni- 1864 when the entrance to Mobile Bay was
versity. Since 1877 he has held several forced he took a conspicuous part. In
appointments under the United States 1866 he was promoted commander; in
government in connection with the fisheries 1874, captain; in 1883, commodore; in
and the fur-seal industry. He is author of 1886, rear-admiral; and in 1890 was re-
A Manual of Vertebrate Animals of North- tired. He had charge of the operations on
ern United States; Science Sketches; Fish- the Isthmus of Panama in 1885 and suc-
eries of North and Middle America; Fac- ceeded in obtaining a free transit across
tors of Organic Evolution; Matka and the isthmus and in restoring peace between
Kotik; Care and Culture of Men; The In- the rebels and the government of Colom-
numerable Company ; and many papers on bia, for which he was thanked by the Pres-
ichthyology. ident of that country. Congress voted him
Jordan, JOHN WOOLF, antiquarian; full pay for life.
born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 14, 1840; Journal of Congress, the official name
graduated at Nazareth Hall in 1856; be- of the authorized record of the proceed-
came editor of the Pennsylvania Magazine ings of the Congress of the United States ;
of History and Biography. He is the au- has regularly been kept and published
thor of Friedensthal and Its Stockaded from the first meeting of the Continental
Mill; A Moravian Chronicle, 174^-67; Congress at Philadelphia, September, 1774.
Bethlehem During the Revolution; The Joutel, HENRY, explorer ; born in Rouen,
Military Hospitals at Bethlehem and Li- France, in the seventeenth century; took
tits; During the Revolution; Occupation of part in La Salle's expedition; built Fort
New York by the British, 1175-83, etc. St. Louis, and was made its commander;
Jordan, THOMAS, military officer; born escaped assassination at the time La Salle
in Luray, Va., Sept. 30, 1819; graduated was killed; and later returned to France
at West Point in 1840; took part in the by way of the Great Lakes and the St.
Seminole War, and in the war with Lawrence River. He wrote a History of
Mexico; he entered the Confederate army the La Salle Expedition, which was pub-
in 1861 as lieutenant - colonel, but was lished in Paris in 1713.
made adjutant - general ; served on the Juarez, BENITO PABLO, statesman ; born
staff of General Beauregard, and on that in San Pablo Guelatao, Oaxaca, Mexico,
of General Bragg. In 1869 he joined the March 21, 1806; was descended from the
Cufyan insurgents, but resigned the next ancient Indian race. Well educated, he
year and returned to the United States. gained distinction as a lawyer. He was a
Josselyn, JOHN, author; born in Eng- legislator, and was governor of his na-
land early in the seventeenth century; tive state from 1848 to 1852. Banished
travelled in America in 1638-39 and 1663- by Santa Ana in 1853, he lived in New
71. He is the author of New England's Orleans until 1855, when he returned, and
Rarities Discovered; An Account of Two became minister of justice. Experiencing
Voyages to New England, etc. the vicissitudes of public life in that
Jouett, JAMES EDWARD, naval officer; country, he was elected President of born in Lexington, Ky., Feb. 27, 1828. He Mexico in June, 1861. Then came the entered the navy as midshipman in 1841 ; French usurpation and the short-lived fought in the war with Mexico, and empire of MAXIMILIAN (q. v.) . He de- graduated at the United States Naval feated the imperial forces in 1867 and Academy in 1847. He went with the ex- caused the Emperor to be shot. In Oc- pedition to Paraguay and served in the tober Juarez was re-elected President, and Berriby war. Later he was promoted for five years Mexico was distracted by passed midshipman and in 1855 became revolutions. Peace was restored in 1872, master and lieutenant. In 1861 he de- but Juarez, then President, worn down stroyed the Confederate war vessel Royal with perplexities, died of apoplexy in the Yacht, in Galveston Harbor, while in city of Mexico, July 18 of that year, command of the frigate Santee. For this Judaism. See JEWS.
195
JUDD— JUDICIARY OF THE UNITED STATES
Judd, ALBERT FRANCIS, jurist; born in the Hawaiian Islands, Jan. 7, 1838; grad- uated at Yale University in 1862; elect- ed to the Hawaiian legislature in 1868; appointed attorney - general of the Ha- waiian Islands in 1873; a justice of the Supreme Court of the islands in 1874; chief-justice in 1881. He died in Hono- lulu, May 20, 1900.
Judd, DAVID WRIGHT, journalist; born in Lockport, N. Y., Sept. 1, 1838; gradu- ated at Williams College in 1860; later became proprietor and editor of Hearth and Home. He served in the National army during a part of the Civil War.
ate was busy in organizing a judiciary. A bill drafted by Oliver Ellsworth, of Con- necticut, which embodied a plan of a judi- ciary, was, after several amendments, adopt- ed by both Houses and became a law. It provided for a Supreme Court, having one chief - justice and five associate jus- tices, who were to hold two sessions annu- ally at the seat of the national capital. Circuit and district courts were also es- tablished, which had jurisdiction over certain specified cases. Each State was made a district, as were also the Terri- tories of Kentucky and Maine. The dis- tricts, excepting Kentucky and Maine, were grouped together into three circuits. An appeal from these lower courts to the Supreme Court of the United States was allowed, as to points of law, in all civil cases where the
He published Two Tears' Campaigning in Virginia and Maryland, and edited The Life and Writings of Frank Forester, and The Education- al Cyclopaedia. He died in New York City, Feb. 6, 1888. Judd, SYLVESTER, author ; born in Westhampton, Mass., April 23, 1789; was a member of the State legislat- ure in 1817, and owner of the Hampshire
SUPREME COURT IN SESSION, WASHINGTON.
matter in dispute amounted to $2,000. A marshal for each was to be appointed
Gazette in 1822-34. He is the author of by the President, having the general pow- History of Hadley, and Thomas Judd and ers of a sheriff; and a district attorney, His Descendants. He died in Northamp- ton, Mass., April 18, 1860.
Judiciary, FIRST NATIONAL.
to act for the United States in all cases in which the national government might be interested, was also appointed. John
While
the House of Representatives of the first Jay was made the first chief-justice of Congress was employed (1789) in provid- the United States.
ing means for a sufficient revenue, the Sen-
196
Judiciary of the United States. Su-
JUDICIARY OF THE UNITED STATES— JUDSON
preme Court. Under the confederation lished and organized by Congress, consists
there was no national judicial department, of one chief -justice and four associate
The Supreme Court was organized in 1789, judges; salary, $6,000 per annum. Su-
with one chief-justice and five associate preme Court of the District of Columbia,
judges. There are now eight associate established and organized by Congress,
justices. It holds one term annually at consists of one chief-justice and four as-
the seat of government, commencing on sociate judges; salary of chief-justice,
the second Monday in October. The United $6,500; associate judges, $6,000. Terri-
States are divided for judicial purposes torial courts, established and organized
into nine circuits, and these circuits are by Congress. Arizona, one chief-justice
subdivided into two or more districts, and three associate judges; Indian Terri-
The 1st circuit consists of the States tory, one judge; New Mexico, one judge
of Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and four associate judges; Oklahoma, one
and Rhode Island; 2d, Connecticut, New chief-justice and two associate judges;
York, and Vermont; 3d, Delaware, New salary, $4,000 per annum. When any
Jersey, and Pennsylvania; 4th, Maryland, judge of any court of the United States
North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, resigns his office, after having held his
and West Virginia; 5th, Alabama, Flor- commission as such at least ten years,
ida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and and having reached seventy years of age
Texas; 6th, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, during his service, he shall receive during
and Tennessee; 7th, Illinois, Indiana, and life the same salary as at the time of
Wisconsin ; 8th, Arkansas, Colorado, Iowa, his resignation. This right is given to
Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, no other class of civil officers under the
North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyo- government of the United States. The
ming; 9th, California, Idaho, Nevada, Ore- Attorney-General appears in the Supreme
gon, Montana, and Washington. Each Court of the United States in behalf of
judge of the Supreme Court is allotted a the government. There is also a United
circuit, and is required to attend that States district attorney appointed for each
circuit at least one term every two years, district in which circuit and district courts
Salary of chief - justice, $13,000; each are held, to look after the interest of the
justice, $12,500 a year. Circuit courts, government in all cases that concern it.
established and organized by Congress. Women were admitted to practise in the
Each of the circuits has allotted to it one Supreme Court of the United States by
of the judges of the Supreme Court, and act of Congress, approved Feb. 15, 1879. has a local judge appointed, termed cir- In addition to the above, there are
cuit judge. There are twenty-seven circuit special courts created from time to time
judges, all excepting two circuits hav- for specific purposes, as the court on
ing three judges each; salary, $7,000 a Spanish War claims.
year. Circuit court of appeals, establish- In 1900 Congress established a district
ed and organized by Congress, 1891, for court for Alaska, with judges residing
the relief of the Supreme Court. The jus- in Juneau, St. Michael's, and Eagle City,
tice of the Supreme Court presiding over and also provided a civil code for the
the circuit, the circuit judge, and a judge Territory. In cases where constitutional
appointed for this special court constitute questions are involved, appeals and writs
it; salary, $7,000 a year. District courts, of error from this court may be taken
established and organized by Congress. Of to the United States Supreme Court ;
these districts there are eighty-five, each where other questions are involved they
presided over by a judge, termed district may be taken to the United States Cir-
judge; salary, $6,000 a year. Court of cuit Court of the 9th District, claims, established and organized by Con- For a full list of the judges of the Su-
gress, 1855, to hear and determine claims preme Court, Circuit Courts, District
against the United States. It consists of Courts, Court of Claims, etc., see FEDERAL
one chief- justice and four associate judges. GOVERNMENT.
The solicitor-general appears before this Judson, ADONIRAM, missionary; born
court; salary of judges, $6,000 per an- in Maiden, Mass., Aug. 9, 1788; grad-
num. Court of private land claims, estab- uated at Brown University in 1807,
197
JUDSON— JULIEN
and Andover Theological Seminary in The Mississippi Valley (in the United
1810. He was ordained on Feb. 6, 1812, States of America, by Shaler) ; and The
and with his wife, Anne Hasseltine, sailed Young American, etc. for Calcutta on the 19th. In Rangoon, Julian, GEORGE WASHINGTON, legis-
Burma, he toiled nearly forty years, later: born near Centreville, Ind., May
gathering around him thousands of con- 5, 1817. He was self-educated; and was
verts and many assistants, Americans and admitted to the bar in 1840. After prac-
Burmese. He translated the Bible into tising for five years, he was elected to
the Burmese language, and had nearly the legislature, and in 1849-51 repre-
completed a dictionary of that language sen ted the Free-soil party in Congress,
at the time of his death. His wife dying and in 1852 was the candidate for the
in 1826, he married (April, 1834) the Vice-Presidency on the Free-soil ticket,
widow of a missionary (Mrs. Sarah H. He also received five votes for Vice-Presi-
Boardman), who died in September, 1845. dent in the electoral college of 1872. He
While on a visit to the United States in was a strong opponent of slavery, and
1846, he married Miss Emily Chubbuck a stanch supporter of the homestead
("Fanny Forester," the poet), who ac- policy. He was again a member of Con-
companied him back to Burma. His first gress in 1861-71. During the last period
wife, Anne Hasseltine, was the first Amer- he was a member of the committees on
ican woman missionary in the East Indies, conduct of the war, on reconstruction,
He died at sea, April 12, 1850. and on the preparation of articles of im-
Judson, EDWARD, clergyman; born in peachment against President Johnson. Maulmain, Burma, Dec. 27, 1844; son of In 1872 he joined the Liberal Republican Adoniram Judson. He was brought to party. In 1885-89 he was surveyor-gen- the United States in 1850; studied in eral of New Mexico. His publications Hamilton and Madison (now Colgate) include Speeches on Political Questions; universities; graduated at Brown Uni- Political Recollections; Later Speeches; versity in 1865. In 1867-74 he was Pro- and Life of Joshua H. Giddings. He died fessor of Latin and Modern Languages in in Irvington, Ind., July 7, 1899. Madison University; in 1874-75 travelled Julian, ISAAC HOOVER; born in Centre- in foreign countries; and, returning to the ville, Ind., June 19, 1823; editor and pro- United States, was pastor of the North prietor of The True Republican at Rich- Baptist Church in Orange, N. J., till 1881, mond, Ind., and subsequently of the Peo- when he resigned to take up mission work pie's Era at San Marco, Texas; he is the in New York. He became pastor of the author of the early history of the White Berean Baptist Church, and afterwards Water Valley.
built the Judson Memorial on Washington Julien, ALEXIS ANASTAY, geologist;
Square. In 1897 he was appointed in- born in New York, Feb. 13, 1840; grad-
structor in pastoral theology at Colgate uated at Union College in 1859, and
Theological Seminary, and in 1903 was the following year went as chemist to
called to the University of Chicago. He the guano island of Sombrero, where he
has published a Life of Adoniram Judson. studied geology and natural history.
Judson, HARRY PRATT, educator; born While there he also collected birds and in Jamestown, N. Y., Dec. 20, 1849; shells and made meteorological observa- graduated at Williams College in 1870; tions for the Smithsonian Institution. Re- called to the chair of History at the Uni- turning to New York in 1864, he soon versity of Minnesota in 1885; and was after became assistant in charge of the made head Professor of Political Science, quantitative laboratory in the newly and dean of the faculties of Arts, Litera- founded Columbia School of Mines. In ture, and Science at the University of 1885-97 he had charge of the department Chicago in 1892. He is the author of of biology in the same institution, and in History of the Troy Citizens' Corps; the latter year became instructor in geol- Cczsar's Army; Europe in the Nineteenth ogy. In 1875-78 he was connected with Century; The Groicth of the American the North Carolina Geological Survey. Nation; The Higher Education as a Train- He is a fellow of the American Geologi- ing for Business; The Latin in English; cal Society, the Geological Society of
198
JULIO— JURIES
America, the American Society of Nat- California missions. He founded the fol-
uralists, and other organizations, and lowing missions: San Diego, Cal., July 16,
a past vice-president of the New York 1769; San Carlos, at Monterey, June 3,
Academy of Sciences. 1770; San Antonio, July 14, 1771; San
Julio, E. B. D. FABRINO, artist; born Gabriel, near Los Angeles, Sept. 8, 1771;
on the island of St. Helena in 1843; edu- San Luis Obispo, Sept. 1, 1772; San Fran-
cated in Paris; came to the United States cisco, June 27, 1776; San Juan Capis-
about 1861, and after living in the North trano, Nov. 1, 1776; Santa Clara, Jan.
a number of years settled in New Or- 18, 1777; San Buenaventura, March 31,
leans, where he engaged in portrait-paint- 1782. He died in Monterey, Cal., Aug.
ing. He is principally known through 28, 1784.
his painting, The Last Meeting of Lee Junius, LETTERS OF. During the
and Jackson. He died in Georgia, Sept. quarrel between Great Britain and her
15, 1879. colonies (1765-75), a series of letters ad- Jumel, ELIZA BOWEN, society leader ; dressed to King George III., his ministers,
born at sea in 1769. She married Col. and other distinguished public men in
Peter Croix in 1786, and, after his death, England, were published in the Public
Stephen Jumel, a wealthy merchant in Advertiser, and were generally signed
New York City, in 1801. Upon Jumel's " Junius " or " Philo- Junius." In the first
death she married Aaron Burr in 1830, authorized collection of these letters there
whom she sued for a divorce, which was were forty- four by " Junius " and fifteen
not granted. She died in New York, July by " Philo-Junius." They treated of
16, 1865. public men and public measures of Juneau, LAURENT SOLOMON, pioneer; that day in a style that produced a pro- born near Montreal, Canada, Aug. 9, 1793; found impression and interest in the was the first white settler in Milwaukee, public mind, and excited the hottest in- where he traded in furs. He was the dignation of those who felt the lash. The first postmaster and mayor of Milwaukee, style was condensed but lucid; full of He died in Shawano, Wis., Nov. 14, 1856. studied epigrammatic sarcasm, brilliant His remains were removed to Milwaukee, metaphor, and fierce personal attack. Wis., in 1887, and a statue of heroic size The government and those interested in erected in honor of his memory. the matter tried in vain to ascertain the
Jungman, JOHN GEORGE, clergyman; name of the author. It was evident born in Hockheimer, Germany, April 19, that he was a man of wealth and refine- 1720; became a lay evangelist to the Ind- ment, and possessing access to minute in- ians in 1742; ordained a deacon in the formation respecting ministerial measures Moravian Church in 1770. Jungman was and intrigues. The most eminent legal one of the earliest pioneers in the terri- advisers of the crown tried in vain to tory of the Ohio. In 1781 Jungman was get a clew to the secret of his identity; taken prisoner by the Hurons and con- and the mystery which has ever since fined in the fort at Detroit. At the close enveloped the name of the author of the of the war of the Revolution Jungman letters of " Junius " has kept up an in- continued his missions among the Ind- terest in them, which, because of the re- ians in Michigan, but, broken in health, moteness of their topics, could not other- he was obliged to give up his labors in wise have been kept alive. Some after- 1785. He died in Bethlehem, Pa., July wards claimed their authorship, but with-
17, 1808. out a particle of proof in favor of the Junipero, MIGUEL JOSE SERRA, mission- claim. The names of more than fifty per-
ary; born in the island of Majorca, Nov. sons have been mentioned as the sus- 24, 1713; entered the order of St. Francis pected authors. An array of facts, cir- in 1729; was sent to Mexico in 1750, where cumstances, and fair inferences has satis- he was assigned to labor among the Ind- fied the most careful inquirers that Sir ians of Sierra Gorda. When the Jesuits Philip Francis was "Junius." The let- were expelled from Lower California in ters were chiefly written between 1769 1767, the Franciscans, under Junipero, and 1772.
were appointed to take charge of all the Juries. Trial by jury was introduced
199
JURIES— JUSTICES OF THE SUPREME COURT
into England during the Saxon heptarchy, cases by jury, but not of civil cases. This
six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen caused dissatisfaction, people claiming
being appointed to try causes between that the omission was intended to abolish
Englishmen and Welshmen of property, trial by jury in civil cases, hence the
and made responsible with their whole Seventh Amendment was adopted at an
estates, real and personal, for false ver- early day, securing the rights of trial by
diets. By most authorities the institu- jury in suits at common-law where the
tion is ascribed to Alfred about 886. In value in controversy exceeds $20. Grand
Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as juries (of not less than twelve or more
a bulwark of the people's liberty. An act than twenty- three persons) decide whether
for trial by jury in civil cases in Scot- sufficient evidence is adduced to put the
land was passed in 1815. The constitu- accused on trial. In the United States,
tion of 1791 established trial by jury in owing to many striking instances of the
France. An imperial decree abolished miscarriage of justice, there has been in
trial by jury throughout the Austrian recent years an influential sentiment in
Empire Jan. 15, 1852. Trial by jury be- favor of having verdicts of juries rendered
gan in Russia Aug. 8, 1866; in Spain, on the majority vote of the jurors.
1889. In Scotland, Guernsey, Jersey, and Justice, DEPARTMENT OF. See CABINET,
France juries decide by a majority; in PRESIDENT'S.
France, since 1831, a majority of two- Justices of the Supreme Court. A
thirds is required. Under the original complete list of all the justices will be
Constitution of the United States pro- found in the article on the SUPREME
vision is made for the trial of criminal COURT.
200
DE KALB'S MONUMKNT.
Kalb, JOHANN, BARON DE, military offi- trous battle at Sander's Creek, near Cam- cer ; born in Hiittendorf , Bavaria, June 29, den, S. C., he was mortally wounded, and 1721; entered the French military service died three days afterwards, Aug. 19, 1780. in 1743, and in 1747 rose to the rank of brigadier-general under Marshal Broglie, and obtained the order of military merit in 1761. The next year he visited the English-American colonies as a secret agent of the French government, to ascer- tain their political temper. He was a brigadier-general in the French army when (November 1776) he was engaged by Franklin and Deane to serve in the Con- tinental army. He accompanied Lafayette to America in 1777, and was appointed major-general, Sept. 15, 1777, by the Con- tinental Congress. He served under the immediate command of Washington until after the evacuation of Philadelphia, June, 1778; then in New Jersey and Maryland until April, 1780, when he was sent to as- sist Lincoln, besieged in Charleston. He arrived too late. De Kalb became chief His body was pierced with eleven wounds, commander in the South after the fall of It was buried at Camden. A marble mon- ument was erected to his memory in front of the Presbyterian Church at Camden, the corner-stone of which was laid by Lafayette in 1825. Kanakas. See HAWAII. Kanawha, the name which was pro- posed for the State consisting of the western portion of Virginia, which had refused to ratify the State ordinance of secession. See WEST VIRGINIA.
Kanawha, BATTLE OF THE GREAT. See DUNMORE, JOHN MURRAY.
Kane, ELJSHA KENT, explorer; born in Philadelphia, Feb. 20, 1820; was educated at the universities of Virginia and Penn- sylvania, taking his medical degree in 1843. Ill-health led to his entering the navy, and he sailed as physician to the embassy to China in 1843. He travelled
Charleston, but was soon succeeded by extensively in Asia and Europe, traversed General Gates, when he became that offi- Greece on foot, explored western Africa cer's second in command. In the disas- to some extent, was in the war with Mex-
201
bAKON DE KALB.
KANSAS
ELISHA KENT RANK.
ico, and in May, 1850, sailed as surgeon and naturalist under Lieut. Edwin J. De Haven, in search of Sir John Franklin. Sir John, an English navigator, had sailed on a voyage of discovery and ex- ploration with two vessels, in May, 1845. Years passed by, and no tidings of him or his companions came. Expeditions were sent from England in search of him. Pub- lic interest in the fate of Sir John was ex- cited in Europe and the United States, and in May, 1850, Henry Grinnell, a merchant of New York, fitted out two ships, the Ad- vance and Rescue, and placed them in charge of Lieutenant De Ha- ven, to assist in the effort. These vessels returned, after re- markable adventures in the polar seas, in the autumn of 1851, without success. In connection with the
United States government, Mr. Grinnell fitted out another expedition for the same purpose in 1853. Two vessels, under the command of Dr. Kane, sailed from New York in May. Kane and his party made valuable discoveries, among others, of an "open polar sea," long suspected and sought for by scientific men and navi- gators. But they failed to find Sir John Franklin. The companies of these two vessels suffered much, and were finally compelled to abandon the ships and make their way in open boats to a Danish set- tlement in Greenland. Tlteir long absence created fears for their safety, and a relief expedition was sent in search of them. They returned home in the vessels of the latter in the autumn of 1855. Gold med- als were awarded Dr. Kane by Congress, the legislature of New York, and the Royal Geographical Society of London; but his own life and those of most of his compan- ions were sacrificed. His health failed, and he went first to London and then to Ha- vana, Cuba, where he died, Feb. 16, 1857.
THE ADVANCE IN THE ICE.
KANSAS, STATE OF
Kansas, STATE OF, was part of the Lou- repealed the Missouri Compromise act. isiana purchase in 1803. The Territories This produced great agitation through - of Kansas and Nebraska were established out the country, and great commotion in 1854 by act of Congress, which really among the settlers in Kansas. On Jan.
202
KANSAS, STATE OF
29, 1861, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a State. During the war Kansas furnished to the National army more than 20,000 soldiers. It is very rap- idly increasing in population and wealth. Its population in 1890 was 1,427,096; in 1900, 1,470,495. Much of the State is a fine grazing country, well supplied with rivers and watered by numerous creeks.
STATE GOVERNORS.
STATE SEAL OF KANSAS.
On its eastern border the navigable Mis- souri River presents a waterfront of al- most 150 miles. It has a coal - bear- ing region which occupies the whole of the eastern part of the State, and em- braces about 17,000 square miles. The climate of Kansas is beautiful and healthy, and probably no other Western State of the Union has so many bright, sun- ny days. The raising of cattle is a prominent industry. Kansas is a very attractive State for enterprising set- tlers, and promises to be one of the finest portions of the Union. In 1903 the aggregate assessed valuation of tax- able property was $388,724,480, the State tax rate was 6.40 per $1,000; and the bonded debt (July 1) was $632,000, all held in State funds. See UNITED STATES, KANSAS, vol. ix.
TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS.
Name.
Charles Robinson
Thomas Carney
S. J. Crawford
James M. Harvey
Thomas A. Osboru
George T. Anthony
John P. St. John
George W. Click
John A. Martin
Lyman U. Humphreys
L. D. Lewelling
E. N. Morrill
John W. Leedy
William E. Stanley
Willis J. Bailey
Edward W. Hoch...
1861 to 180-2
1862 " 1864 1864 " 1868 1868 " 1872 1873 " 1875 1876 " 1878 1879
1883 1885
1885 «« 1887
1887 " 1893
1893 " 1895
1895
1897
1899
1903
1905
1897 1899 1903 1905 1907
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
|
Name. |
No. or Congress. |
Term. |
|
James H. Lane'. . . . |
37th to 39th |
1861 to 18(10 |
|
Samuel C. Pomeroy Edmund G. Ross Alexander Caldwell Robert Crozier |
37th " 43d 39th «« 41st 42d 43d |
1861 " 1873 1866 " 1871 1871 " 1873 187T " 1874 |
|
James M. Harvey John J. Ingalls |
43d to 44th 43d " 51st |
1874 " 1877 1873 '* 1891 |
|
Preston B. Plumb William A. Peffer Bishop W. Perkins John Martin |
45th " 52d 52d " 55th 62d 53d |
1877 •* 1891 1891 " 1897 1892 " 1893 1893 |
|
54th to 66th |
1895 to 1901 |
|
|
William A. Harris Joseph Ralph Burton |
55th " 57th 57th " 58th " |
1897 " 1903 1901 " 1903 " — . |
The Kansas-Nebraska Act. — The com- promise of 1850 (see OMNIBUS BILL) did not stop the agitation of the slavery ques- tion. The following resolution was intro- duced in Congress in 1852: "That the series of acts passed during the first ses- sion of the Thirty-first Congress, known as compromises, are regarded as a final ad- justment and a permanent settlement of the questions therein embraced, and should be maintained and executed as such." In January, 1854, Senator Stephen A. Doug- las, of Illinois, presented a bill in the Senate for the erection of two vast Terri- tories in mid-continent, to be called, re- spectively, Kansas and Nebraska.
The following are some of the principal provisions of this act:
Name.
Andrew H. Reeder. Pa. ,
Wilson Shannon, O
John W Genry, Pa
Robert .T. Walker, Miss.
J W. Denver
Samuel Medary
Oeorge M. Bebee
Term.
The executive power is vested in a gov- ernor appointed by the President and Senate.
A secretary of the Territory, appointed
1854 to 1855
1855 " 1856
1856 " 1857 for five years.
18571858 18<r>8 The legislative power to be vested in the
1858 to 1861 governor and a legislative Assembly, con-
1861 sisting of a council and a House of Rep-
203
KANSAS, STATE OF
resentativea; the council to consist of one years of age and upward, actual resi-
thirteen members, and the House of dents of the Territory and citizens of the
twenty-six. The latter may be increased, United States, or having declared on oath
but may not exceed thirty-nine. their intention to become citizens, were
The first election of members of the entitled to vote at the first election; the
THE CAPITOL, TOPEKA.
legislature was to be held at such time qualifications of voters at subsequent
and place, and was to be conducted in elections to be prescribed by the legisla-
such manner, as the governor should pre- tive Assembly.
scribe. He was also to appoint the in- Bills passed by the legislature were to
specters of election, and to direct the man- be submitted to the governor, but might
ner of making the returns. be passed against the veto by two-thirds
All free white male inhabitants, twenty- majorities.
204
KANSAS, STATE OF
The judicial power was to be vested in a supreme court, district courts, probate courts, and in justices of the peace. The supreme court to consist of three judges, one in each judicial district, and one of them to be chief-justice. They were to be appointed by the President and Senate.
The first election oi delegates to Con- gress, and the time and places of election, were subject to the appointment and direc- tion of the governor.
The act also provided that the acts of Congress for the reclamation of fugitive slaves should extend to the Territories. Not the least important was the follow- ing:
" That the Constitution and all the laws of the United States which are not locally inapplicable, shall have the same force and effect within the said Territory as elsewhere within the United States, ex- cept the eighth section of the act pre-
1820, either protecting, establishing, pro- hibiting, or abolishing slavery."
After long and bitter discussions in both Houses of Congress, the bill was passed, and became a law by receiving the signature of the President, May 31, 1854. From that day the question of slavery was a subject of discussion and sectional irritation, until it was abolished in 1863.
Civil War in Kansas. — The Kansas- Nebraska act left all the Territories of the United States open to the establish-
KANSAS AVENUE, TOPEKA, SHOWING POST-OFFICE.
paratory to the admission of Missouri ment in them of the social institutions of
into the Union, approved March 6, 1820, every State in the Union, that of slavery
which, being inconsistent with the prin- among others. It was a virtual repeal
ciple of non-intervention by Congress of the MISSOURI COMPROMISE (q. v.).
with slavery in the States and Terri- The question immediately arose, Shall the
tories, as recognized by the legislation of domain of the republic be the theatre of
1850, commonly called the compromise all free or all slave labor, with the corre-
measures, is hereby declared inoperative spending civilization of each condition as
and void; it being the true intent and a consequence? This question was suc-
meaning of this act, not to legislate ceeded by positive action by the friends of
slavery into any Territory or State, nor each labor system. Those in favor of the
to exclude it therefrom, but to leave the slave system, viewing the willingness of
people thereof perfectly free to form and those in the free-labor States to accede to
regulate their domestic institutions in the wishes of the Southern politicians so
their own way, subject only to the Con- as to secure Southern trade, felt confident
stitution of the United States; Provided, that their supremacy was secure. That
that nothing herein contained shall be party sounded the trumpet for battle, and
construed to revive or put in force any the Territory of Kansas was the chosen
law or regulation which may have existed battle-field. The fugitive slave law had
prior to the act of the 6th of March, created an intense and wide-spread feel-
205
KANSAS, STATE OP
ing of hostility to slavery in the free-labor States, and when the advocates of slavery began to assert their exclusive right to the government of Kansas, and thus cast down the gauntlet before their opponents, the latter gladly took it up. They re- solved to carry on the contest with the peaceful weapons of the ballot-box. Sud- denly, emigration began to flow in a steady, copious, and ever-increasing stream from the free-labor States, espe- cially from New England, into the new Territory. It soon became evident that the settlers from those States in Kansas would soon outnumber and outvote those from the slave-labor States.
The dominant power in politics was pro-slavery in its proclivities. Alarmed by this emigration, it proceeded to organ- ize physical force in Missouri to counter- act the moral force of its opponents if necessary. Combinations were formed under various names — " Social Band," " Friends' Society," " Blue Lodge," " The Sons of the South," etc. A powerful or- ganization under the title of the " Emi- grant Aid Society" had been formed in Boston under the sanction of the legislat- ure of Massachusetts immediately after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill
(May, 1854) ; and the Southern societies just mentioned were organized to oppose this " Emigrant Aid Society." At a meet- ing at Westport, Mo., early in July, 1854, it was resolved that Missourians who formed the associations represented there should be ready at all times to assist, when called upon by pro-slavery citizens of Kansas, in removing from the Territory by force every person who should attempt to settle under the auspices of the Emi- grant Aid Society. Both parties planted the seeds of their respective systems in Kansas. They founded towns : those from the free-labor States founded Lawrence, Topeka, Boston, Grasshopper Falls, Paw- nee, and one or two others. Those from the slave-labor States founded Kickapoo, Doniphan, Atchison, and others on or near the Missouri River. Immediately after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, hundreds of Missourians went to Kansas and selected a tract of land, and put a mark upon it for the purpose of estab- lishing a sort of pre-emption title to it, and at a public meeting resolved, " That we will afford protection to no abolition- ist as a settler of this Territory; that we recognize the institution of slavery as al- ready existing in this Territory, and ad-
STREBT SCENE. WICHITA.
206
KANSAS, STATE OF
vise slave-holders to introduce their prop- It made Kansas a free-labor State, and erty as soon as possible." under this constitution they asked for
The national government appointed A. admission into the Union, as such. The H. Reeder governor of the new Territory, strife -between freedom and slavery was He arrived in October, 1854, and took then transferred to the national capital, measures for the election of a territorial Reeder made a contest for a seat in Con- legislature. With the close of this elec- gress with the delegate chosen by the tion (March, 1855), the struggle for su- illegal votes. Meanwhile, elections had premacy in Kansas between the friends been held (Jan. 17, 1856) in Kansas under and opponents of the slave system began the legally adopted new State constitu- in dead earnest. The pro-slavery men tion, and matters seemed very dark for had an overwhelming majority in the the pro-slavery party in Kansas, when legislature, for Missourians had gone over President Pierce, in a message to Con- the border by hundreds and voted. When, gress (Jan. 24, 1856), represented the ac- in November, 1854, a delegate to Congress tion of the legal voters in the Territory for Kansas was elected, of nearly 2,900 in framing a State constitution as re- votes cast, over 1,700 were put in by bellion. All through the ensuing spring Missourians who had no right there. At violence and bloodshed prevailed in the the election of the legislature, there were unhappy Territory.
only 1,410 legal votes in the Territory of Seeing the determination of the actual Kansas; but there were 6,218 votes polled, settlers to maintain their rights, armed mostly illegal ones by Missourians. Fully men flocked into the Territory from the 1,000 men came from Missouri, armed with slave-labor States and attempted to coerce deadly weapons, two cannon, tents, and the inhabitants into submission to the other paraphernalia of war, led by Clai- laws of the illegally chosen legislature, borne F. Jackson, and encamped around Finally Congress sent thither a com- the little town of Lawrence, and in like mittee of investigation. The majority re- manner such intruders controlled every ported, July 1, 1856, that every election poll in the Territory. Then a reign of had been controlled by citizens from Mis- terror was begun in Kansas. All classes souri; that the action of the legal voters of men carried deadly weapons. The il- of Kansas was valid, and that the State legally chosen legislature met at a point constitution was the choice of the major- on the border of Missouri, and proceeded ity of the people. The canvass for a new to enact barbarous laws for upholding President was now in operation, and so slavery in the Territory. These Governor absorbed public attention that Kansas had Reeder vetoed, and they were instantly rest for a while. James Buchanan was passed over his veto. He was so ob- Delected by the Democratic party. At the noxious to the pro-slavery party that, at beginning of his administration the Dred the request of the latter, President Pierce Scott case greatly intensified the strife removed him, and sent Wilson Shannon, between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery of Ohio, to fill his place. men, especially in Kansas. Mr. Buchanan
The actual settlers in Kansas, who were favored the views of the pro-slavery men, chiefly anti-slavery men, held a convention, and his strong support gave them, in Kan- Sept. 5, 1855, when they resolved not to sas, renewed courage. Then the opposing recognize the laws of the illegal legislat- parties were working with energy for the ure as binding upon them. They refused admission of Kansas as a State, with op- to vote for a- delegate to Congress at an posing ends in view. The pro-slavery election appointed by the legislature, and party, in convention at Lecompton early they called a delegate convention at in September, 1857, framed a constitu- Topeka on Oct. 19. At that convention tion in which was a clause providing that Governor Reeder was elected delegate to the " rights of property in slaves now in Congress by the legal votes of the Ter- the Territory shall in no manner be inter- ritory. On the 23d another convention fered with," and forbade any amendments of legal voters assembled at Topeka and of the instrument until 1864. It was sub- framed a State constitution. It was ap- mitted to the votes of the people on Dec. proved by the legal vote of the Territory. 21, but by the terms of the election law
207
KANSAS, STATE OF
passed by the illegal legislature no one up their arms to the sheriff. The in-
might vote against that constitution, vaders immediately entered the town,
The vote was taken, " For the constitu- blew up and burned the hotel, destroyed
tion with slavery," or " For the constitu- two printing-offices, and plundered stores
tion without slavery"; so in either and houses. The free-labor party were
case a constitution that protected and furnished with arms from the free-labor
perpetuated slavery would be voted for. States. Collisions occurred, and on May
Meanwhile, at an election for a territorial 26 a fight took place at Ossawatomie, in
legislature, the friends of free labor sue- which the anti-slavery men were led by
ceeded in electing a delegate to Con- JOHN BROWN ( q. v.) , where five men
gress.
were killed. There was another skirmish
The legally elected legislature ordered at Black Jack (June 2), which resulted the Lecompton constitution to be sub- in the capture of Captain Pots and thirty mitted to the people for adoption or re- of his men. Emigrants from the free- jection. It was rejected by over 10,000 labor States, on their way through Mis- majority. Notwithstanding this strong souri, were turned back by armed parties, popular condemnation of the Lecompton On Aug. 14, anti - slavery men captured constitution, President Buchanan sent it a fort near Lecompton, occupied by Colo- in to Congress (Feb. 2, 1858), wherein nel Titus with a party of pro - slavery was a large Democratic majority, with a men, and made prisoners the commander message in which he recommended its ac- and twenty of his men. On Aug. 25 ceptance and ratification. In that mes- the actingrgovernor (Woodin) declared sage, referring to the opinion of Chief- the Territory in a state of rebellion. He Justice Taney, the President said: "It and David R. Atchison, late United has been solemnly adjudged, by the high- States Senator from Missouri, gathered a est judicial tribunal known to our laws, considerable force, and, on Aug. 29, a that slavery exists in Kansas by virtue of detachment sent by the latter attacked the Constitution of the United States; Ossawatomie, which was defended by a Kansas is, therefore, at this moment, as small band under John Brown. The lat- much a slave State as Georgia or South ter was defeated, with the loss of two Carolina." The constitution was ac- killed, five wounded, and seven made cepted by the Senate by a Tote of 32 prisoners. The assailants lost five killed, against 25, but in the House a substitute and thirty buildings were burned. At was adopted, which provided for the re- the annual election at Leavenworth, a submission of the Lecompton constitution, party from Missouri killed and wounded It was done, and that instrument was several of the anti-slavery men, burned again rejected by 10,000 majority, Aug. their houses, and forced about 150 to em- 2, 1858. A convention at Wyandotte bark for St. Louis. John W. Geary, who adopted a new constitution, which was had been appointed governor, arrived in framed by the opponents of slavery. This Kansas early in September, and ordered was accepted, Oct. 4, 1859, by a vote of all armed men to lay down their weap- 10,421 against 5,530, under which, Jan. ens; but Missouri men, in number about 21, 1861, Kansas was admitted into the 2,000, and forming three regiments of Union as a free-labor State. artillery, marched to attack Lawrence.
During the political excitement in Kan- Geary, with United States troops, prevail- sas there was actual civil war, and some ed upon them to desist, and near the close blood was shed. Early in April, 1856, of the year (1856) he was enabled to re- armed men from Southern States, under port that peace and order prevailed in Colonel Buford, arrived in Kansas. The Kansas.
United States marshal there took Bu- The Author on His Bill. — The follow- ford's men into the pay of the govern- ing is the substance of the speech of ment, and armed them with government Senator Stephen A. Douglas on the Kan- muskets. Lawrence was again besieged sas-Nebraska bill, delivered in the Sen- (May 5), and on the 21st the inhabi- ate on March 3, 1854: tants, under a promise of safety to per- sons and property, were induced to give The principle which we propose to
208
KANSAS, STATE OF
carry into effect by the bill is this: originally framed by the territorial corn- That Congress shall neither legislate mittee. On the first trial, the Senate re- slavery into any Territories or State, fused to strike it out, but subsequently did nor out of the same; but the people shall so, after full debate, in order to establish be left free to regulate their domes- that principle as the rule of action in ter- tic concerns in their own way, subject ritorial organizations. . . . But my ac- only to the Constitution of the United cusers attempt to raise up a false issue, States. and thereby divert public attention from
In order to carry this principle into the real one, by the cry that the Missouri
practical operation, it becomes necessary Compromise is to be repealed or violated
to remove whatever legal obstructions by the passage of this bill. Well, if the
might be found in the way of its free ex- eighth section of the Missouri act, which
ercise. It is only for the purpose of carry- attempted to fix the destinies of future
ing out this great fundamental principle generations in those Territories for all time
of self-government that the bill renders to come, in utter disregard of the rights
the eighth section of the Missouri act in- and wishes of the people when they shall
operative and void. be received into the Union as States, be
Now, let me ask, will these Senators inconsistent with the great principles of who have arraigned me, or any one of self-government and the Constitution of them, have the assurance to rise in his the United States, it ought to be abrogated, place and declare that this great principle The legislation of 1850 abrogated the Mis- was never thought of or advocated as ap- souri compromise, so far as the country plicable to territorial bills, in 1850; that embraced within the limits of Utah and from that session until the present, no- New Mexico was covered by the slavery re- body ever thought of incorporating this striction. It is true that those acts did principle in all new territorial organiza- not in terms and by name repeal the act tions; that the committee on Territories of 1820, as originally adopted, or as ex- did not recommend it in their report; and tended by the resolutions annexing Texas that it required the amendment of the in 1845, any more than the report of the Senator from Kentucky to bring us up to committee on Territories proposed to re- that point? Will any One of my accusers peal the same acts this session. But the dare to make the issue, and let it be tried acts of 1850 did authorize the people of by the record ? I will begin with the com- those Territories to exercise " all right- promises of 1850. Any Senator who will ful powers of legislation consistent with take the trouble to examine our journals, the Constitution," not excepting the ques- will find that on March 25 of that year I tion of slavery; and did provide that, reported from the committee on Territories when those Territories should be admitted two bills including the following measures: into the Union, they should be received the admission of California, a territorial with or without slavery as the people government for New Mexico, and the ad- thereof might determine at the date of justment of the Texas boundary. These their admission. These provisions were in bills proposed to leave the people of Utah direct conflict with a clause in the former and New Mexico free to decide the slavery enactment, declaring that slavery should question for themselves, in the precise Ian- be forever prohibited in any portion of said guage of the Nebraska bill now under dis- Territories, and hence rendered such clause cussion. A few weeks afterwards the com- inoperative and void to the extent of such mittee of thirteen took these two bills and conflict. This was an inevitable conse- put a wafer between them, and reported quence, resulting from the provisions in them back to the Senate as one bill with those acts, which gave the people the right some slight amendments. One of these to decide the slavery question for them- amendments was that the territorial legis- selves, in conformity with the Constitu- latures should not legislate upon the sub- tion. It was not necessary to go further ject of African slavery. I objected to and declare that certain previous enact- that provision on the ground that it sub- ments, which were incompatible with the verted the great principle of self-gov- exercise of the powers conferred in eminent upon which the bill had been the bills, are hereby repealed. The v. — o 209
KANSAS, STATE OF
very act of granting those powers March, 1820, to authorize the people of and rights has the legal effect of re- Missouri to form a constitution and a moving all obstructions to the exercise State government, preparatory to the ad- of them by the people, as prescribed mission of such State into the Union. The in those territorial bills. Following first section provided that slavery should that example, the committee on Terri- be " forever prohibited " in all the terri- tories did not consider it necessary to tory which had been acquired from France declare the eighth section of the Missouri north of 36° 30', and not included within act repealed. We were content to or- the limits of the State of Missouri. There ganize Nebraska in the precise language is nothing in the terms of the law that of the Utah and New Mexico bills. Our purports to be a compact, or indicates object was to leave the people entirely free that it was anything more than an ordi- to form and regulate their domestic insti- nary act of legislation. To prove that it tutions and internal concerns in their own was more than it purports to be on its way, under the Constitution; and we face, gentlemen must produce other evi- deemed it wise to accomplish that object dence, and prove that there was such an in the exact terms in which the same thing understanding as to create a moral obli- had been done in Utah and New Mexico gation in the nature of a compact. Have by the acts of 1850. This was the princi- they shown it?
pie upon which the committee voted; and Now, if this was a compact, let us our bill was supposed, and is now believed, see how it was entered into. The bill to have been in accordance with it. When originated in the House of Representa- doubts were raised whether the bill did tives, and passed that body without a fully carry out the principle laid down in Southern vote in its favor. It is proper the report, amendments were made from to remark, however, that it did not at time to time, in order to avoid all mis- that time contain the eighth section, pro- construction, and make the true intent of hibiting slavery in the Territories; but, the act more explicit. The last of these in lieu of it, contained a provision pro- amendments was adopted yesterday, on hibiting slavery in the proposed State of the motion of the distinguished Senator Missouri. In the Senate, the clause pro- from North Carolina (Mr. Badger), in hibiting slavery in the State was stricken regard to the revival of any laws or regu- out, and the eighth section added to the lations which may have existed prior to end of the bill, by the terms of which 1820. This amendment was not intended slavery was to be forever prohibited in to change the legal effect of the bill. Its the territory not embraced in the State object was to repel the slander which had of Missouri north 01 36° 30'. The vote been propagated by the enemies of the on adding this section stood, in the Sen- measure in the North — that the Southern ate, 34 in the affirmative, and 10 in the supporters of the bill desired to legislate negative. Of the Northern Senators, 20 slavery into these Territories. The South voted for it, and 2 against it. On the denies the right of Congress either to question of ordering the bill to a third legislate slavery into any Territory or reading, as amended, which was the test State, or out of any Territory or State, vote on its passage, the vote stood 24 Non-intervention by Congress with slavery yeas and 20 nays. Of the Northern Sen- in the States or Territories is the doctrine ators, 4 only voted in the affirmative, and of the bill, and all the amendments which 18 in the negative. Thus it will be seen have been agreed to have been made with that if it was intended to be a compact, the view of removing all doubt and cavil the North never agreed to it. The North- as to the true meaning and object of the ern Senators voted to insert the prohi- measure. . . . bition of slavery in the Territories; and Well, sir, what is this Missouri Compro- then, in the proportion of more than four mise, of which we have heard so much of to one, voted against the passage of the late? It has been read so often that it is bill. The North, therefore, never signed not necessary to occupy the time of the the compact, never consented to it, never Senate in reading it again. It was an agreed to be bound by it. This fact be- act of Congress, passed on the 6th of comes very important in vindicating the
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KANSAS, STATE OF
character of the North for repudiating tories, Missouri was to be admitted into this alleged compromise a few months the Union, in conformity with the act afterwards. The act was approved and of 1820, that compact was repudiated by became a law on the 6th of March, 1820. the North, and rescinded by the joint In the summer of that year, the people action of the two parties within twelve of Missouri formed a constitution and months from its date. Missouri was State government preparatory to admis- never admitted under the act of the sion into the Union, in conformity with 6th of March, 1820. She was refused the act. At the next session of Congress, admission under that act. She was voted the. Senate passed a joint resolution de- out of the Union by Northern votes, not- claring Missouri to be one of the States withstanding the stipulation that she of the Union, on an equal footing with should be received; and, in consequence the original States. This resolution was of these facts, a new compromise was sent to the House of Representatives, rendered necessary, by the terms of which where it was rejected by Northern votes, Missouri was to be admitted into the and thus Missouri was voted out of the Union conditionally — admitted on a con- Union, instead of being received into the dition not embraced in the act of 1820, Union under the act of the 6th of March, and in addition to a full compliance 1820, now known as the Missouri Com- with all the provisions of said act. If, promise. Now, sir, what becomes of our then, the act of 1820, by the eighth sec- plighted faith, if the act of the 6th of tion of which slavery was prohibited in March, 1820, was a solemn compact, as Missouri, was a compact, it is clear to we are now told? They have all rung the comprehension of every fair-minded the changes upon it, that it was a sacred man that the refusal of the North to and irrevocable compact, binding in admit Missouri, in compliance with its honor, in conscience, and morals, which stipulations, and without further condi- could not be violated or repudiated with- tions, imposes upon us a high moral obli- out perfidy and dishonor! . . . Sir, gation to remove the prohibition of if this was a compact, what must be slavery in the Territories, since it has thought of those who violated it almost been shown to have been procured upon immediately after it was formed? I say a condition never performed. . . . it is a calumny upon the North to say The Declaration of Independence had that it was a compact. I should feel a its origin in the violation of that great flush of shame upon my cheek, as a fundamental principle which secured to Northern man, if I were to say that it the colonies the right to regulate their was a compact, and that the section of own domestic affairs in their own way; the country to which I belong received and the Revolution resulted in the tri- the consideration and then repudiated umph of that principle and the recogni- the obligation in eleven months after it tion of the right asserted by it. Abo- was entered into. I deny that it was a litionism proposes to destroy the right compact, in any sense of the term. But and extinguish the principle for which if it was, the record proves that faith our forefathers waged a seven years' was not observed; that the contract was bloody war, and upon which our whole never carried into effect; that after the system of free government is founded. North had procured the passage of the They not only deny the application of this act prohibiting slavery in the Territories, principle to the Territories, but insist with a majority in the House large upon fastening the prohibition upon the enough to prevent its repeal, Missouri abolitionists; the doctrine of the oppo- was refused admission into the Union as nents of the Nebraska and Kansas bill, a slave-holding State, in conformity with and the advocates of the Missouri restric- the act of March 6, 1820. If the propo- tion demands congressional interference si tion be correct, as contended for by the with slavery not only in the Territories, opponents of this bill— that there was a but in all the new States to be formed solemn compact between the North and therefrom. It is the same doctrine, when the South that, in the consideration of applied to the Territories and new States the prohibition of slavery in the Terri- of this Union, which the British govern-
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ment attempted to enforce by the sword until the swelling tide of emigration upon the American colonies. It is this should burst through and accomplish by fundamental principle of self-government violence what it is the part of wisdom and which constitutes the distinguishing feat- statesmanship to direct and regulate by ure of the Nebraska bill. The opponents law. How long could you have postponed of the principle are consistent in oppos- action with safety? How long could you ing the bill. I do not blame them for maintain that Indian barrier and restrain their opposition. I only ask them to meet the onward march of civilization, Chris- the issue fairly and openly by acknowl- tianity, and free government by a bar- edging that they are opposed to the prin- barian wall? Do you suppose that you ciple which it is the object of the bill to could keep that vast country a howling carry into operation. It seems that there wilderness in all times to come, roamed is no power on earth, no intellectual over by hostile savages, cutting off all power, no mechanical power, that can safe communication between our Atlantic bring them to a fair discussion of the and Pacific possessions? I tell you that true issue. If they hope to delude the the time for action has come and cannot people and escape detection for any con- be postponed. It is a case in which the siderable length of time under the catch- " let-alone " policy would precipitate a words, " Missouri Compromise " and crisis which must inevitably result in vio- " faith of compacts," they will find that lence, anarchy, and strife, the people of this country have more pene- You cannot fix bounds to the onward tration and intelligence than they have inarch of this great and growing country, given them credit for. You cannot fetter the limbs of the young
Mr. President, there is an important giant. He will burst all your chains. He fact connected with this slavery regula- will expand, and grow, and increase, and tion which should never be lost sight of. extend civilization, Christianity, and lib- It has always arisen from one and the eral principles. Then, sir, if you cannot same cause. Whenever that cause has check the growth of the country in that been removed, the agitation has ceased; direction, is it not the part of wisdom to and whenever the cause has been renewed, look the danger in the face, and provide the agitation has sprung into existence, for an event which you cannot avoid ? I tell That cause is, and ever has been, the at- you, sir, you must provide for lines of tempt on the part of Congress to interfere continuous settlement from the Mississippi with the question of slavery in the Terri- Valley to the Pacific Ocean. And in mak- tories and new States formed therefrom, ing this provision, you must decide upon Is it not wise, then, to confine our action what principles the Territories shall be within the sphere of our legitimate duties organized; in other words, whether the and leave this vexed question to take care people shall be allowed to regulate their of itself in each State and Territory, ac- domestic institutions in their own way, cording to the wishes of the people thereof, according to the provisions of this bill, or in conformity to the forms and in sub- whether the opposite doctrine of congres- jection to the provisions of the Constitu- sional interference is to prevail. Post- ti°n ? pone it, if you will ; but whenever you do
The opponents of the bill tell us that act, this question must be met and de- agitation is no part of their policy; that cided. . . .
their great desire is peace and harmony; There is another reason why I desire to
and they complain bitterly that I should see this principle recognized as a rule of
have disturbed the repose of the country action in all time to come. It will have
by the introduction of this measure. Let the effect to destroy all sectional parties
me ask these professed friends of peace, and sectional agitations. If, in the lan-
and avowed enemies of agitation, how the guage of the report of the committee, you
issue could have been avoided? They tell withdraw the slavery question from the
me that I should have let the question halls of Congress and the political arena,
alone; that is, that I should have left and commit it to the arbitrament of those
Nebraska unorganized, the people unpro- who are immediately interested in and
tected, and the Indian barrier in existence alone responsible for ita consequences,
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there is nothing left out of which sectional The Crime Against Kansas. — On May parties can be organized. It never was 10-20, 1856, Charles Simmer delivered the done, and never can be done, on the bank, following speech in the United States Sen- tariff, distribution, or any party issue ate on what he declared to be a crime which has existed or may exist, after this against Kansas: slavery question is drawn from politics.
On every other political question these Mr. President, you are now called to have always supporters and opponents in redress a great transgression. Seldom in every portion of the Union — in each State, the history of nations has such a question county, village, and neighborhood — resid- been presented. Tariffs, army bills, navy ing together in harmony and good-fellow- bills, land bills, are important, and justly ship, and combating each other's opinions occupy your care; but these all belong and correcting each other's errors in a to the course of ordinary legislation. As spirit of kindness and friendship. These means and instruments only, they are nee- differences of opinion between neighbors essarily subordinate to the conservation and friends, and the discussions that grow of government itself. Grant them or deny out of them, and the sympathy which each them, in greater or less degree, and you feels with the advocates of his own opin- will inflict no shock. The machinery of ions in every portion of this widespread government will continue to move. The republic, add an overwhelming and irre- state will not cease to exist. Far other- sistible moral weight to the strength of wise is it with the eminent question now the confederacy. Affection for the Union before you, involving, as it does, liberty can never be alienated or diminished by in a broad territory, and also involving any other party issues than those which the peace of the whole country, with our are joined upon sectional or geographical good name in history forevermore. lines. When the people of the North shall Take down your map, sir, and you will be rallied under one banner, and the whole find that the Territory of Kansas, more South marshalled under another banner, than any other region, occupies the mid- and each section excited to frenzy and die spot of North America, equally dis- madness by hostility 'to the institutions tant from the Atlantic on the east, and of the other, then the patriot may well the Pacific on the west; from the frozen tremble for the perpetuity of the Union, waters of Hudson Bay on the north, and Withdraw the slavery question from the the tepid Gulf Stream on the south, con- political arena, and remove it to the States stituting the precise territorial centre of and Territories, each to decide for itself, the whole vast continent. To such ad- and such a catastrophe can never happen, vantages of situation, on the very high- Then you will never be able to tell, by any way between two oceans, are added a Senator's vote for or against any meas- soil of unsurpassed richness, and a fas- ure, from what State or section of the cinating, undulating beauty of surface, Union he comes. with a health-giving climate, calculated to
Why, then, can we not withdraw this nurture a powerful and generous people, vexed question from politics? Why can worthy to be a central pivot of American we not adopt the principle of this bill institutions. A few short months only as a rule of action in all new territorial have passed since this spacious and medi- organizations ? Why can we not deprive terranean country was open only to the these agitators of their vocation and ren- savage who ran wild in its woods and der it impossible for Senators to come prairies, and now it has already drawn here upon bargains on the slavery ques- to its bosom a population of freemen tion? I believe that the peace, the har- larger than Athens crowded within her mony, and perpetuity of the Union require historic gates, when her sons, under us to go back to the doctrines of the Miltiades, won liberty for mankind on the Revolution, to the principles of the Com- field of Marathon ; more than Sparta con- promise of 1850, and leave the people, tained when she ruled Greece, and sent under the Constitution, to do as they may forth her devoted children, quickened by a see proper in respect to their own in- mother's benediction, to return with their ternal affairs. shields, or on them; more than Rome
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gathered on her seven hills, when, under of popular institutions, more sacred than
her kings, she commenced that sovereign any heathen altar, have been desecrated;
sway, which afterwards embraced the where the ballot-box, more precious than
whole earth ; more than London held when, any work, in ivory or marble, from the
on the fields of Crecy and Agincourt, the cunning hand of art, has been plundered]
English banner was carried victoriously and where the cry, " I am an American
over the chivalrous hosts of France. citizen," has been interposed in vain
Against this Territory, thus fortunate against outrage of every kind, even upon
in position and population, a crime has life itself. Are you against sacrilege?
been committed, which is without example I present it for your execration. Are
in the records of the past. Not in plun- you against robbery? I hold it up to
dered provinces or in the cruelties of self- your scorn. Are you for the protection of
ish governors will you find its parallel; American citizens? I show you how their
and yet there is an ancient instance, dearest rights have been cloven down,
which may show at least the path of jus- while a tyrannical usurpation has sought
tice. In the terrible impeachment by to install itself on their very necks ! which the great Roman orator has blasted But the wickedness which I now begin
through all time the name of Verres, to expose is immeasurably aggravated by
amid charges of robbery and sacrilege, the motive which prompted it. Not in
the enormity which most aroused the any common lust for power did this un-
indignant voice of his accuser, and which common tragedy have its origin. It is
still stands forth with strongest distinct- the rape of a virgin Territory, compelling
ness, arresting the sympathetic indigna- it to the hateful embrace of slavery; and
tion of all who read the story, is that it may be clearly traced to a depraved
away in Sicily he had scourged a citi- longing for a new slave State, the hide-
zen of Rome — that the cry, "I am a ous offspring of such a crime, in the hope
Roman citizen," had been interposed in of adding to the power of slavery in the
vain against the lash of the tyrant gov- national government. Yes, sir; when the
ernor. Other charges were that he had whole world alike, Christian and Turk,
carried away productions of art, and that is rising up to condemn this wrong, and
he had violated the sacred shrines. It to make it a hissing to the nations, here
was in the presence of the Roman senate in our republic, force — ay, sir, FORCE —
that this arraignment proceeded; in a has been openly employed in compelling
temple of the Forum; amidst crowds — Kansas to this pollution, and all for the
such as no orator had ever before drawn sake of political power. There is the
together — thronging the porticoes and simple fact, which you will in vain at-
colonnades, even clinging to the house- tempt to deny, but which in itself pre-
tops and neighboring slopes — and under sents an essential wickedness that makes
the anxious gaze of witnesses summoned other public crimes seem like public
from the scene of crime. But an audi- virtues.
ence grander far — of higher dignity — of But this enormity, vast beyond corn- more various people, and of wider intelli- parison, swells to dimensions of wicked- gence — the countless multitude of sue- ness which the imagination toils in vain ceeding generations, in every land, where to grasp, when it is understood that for eloquence has been studied, or where the this purpose are hazarded the horrors Roman name has been recognized, has of intestine feud not only in this distant listened to the accusation, and throbbed Territory, but everywhere throughout the with condemnation of the criminal. Sir, country. Already the muster has begun, speaking in an age of light, and a land The strife is no longer local, but na- of constitutional liberty, where the safe- tional. Even now, while I speak, portents guards of elections are justly placed hang on all the arches of the horizon among the highest triumphs of civiliza- threatening to darken the broad land, tion, I fearlessly assert that the wrongs which already yawns with the mutterings of much-abused Sicily, thus memorable of civil war. The fury of the propagan- in history, were small by the side of the dists of slavery, and the calm determina- wrongs of Kansas, where the very shrines tion of their opponents, are now diffused
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from the distant territory over widespread communities, and the whole country, in all its extent — marshalling hostile divisions, and foreshadowing a strife which, unless happily averted by the triumph of free- dom, will become war — fratricidal, parri- cidal war — with an accumulated wicked- ness beyond the wickedness of any war in human annals; justly provoking the avenging judgment of Providence and the avenging pen of history, and constituting a strife, in the language of the ancient writer, more than foreign, more than social, more than civil; but something compounded of all these strifes, and in itself more than war; sed potius commune quoddam ex omnibus, et plus quam bellum. Such is the crime which you are to judge. But the criminal also must be dragged into day, that you may see and measure the power by which all this wrong is sustained. From no common source could it proceed. In its perpetration was needed a spirit of vaulting ambition which would hesitate at nothing; a hardihood of purpose which was insensible to the judgment of mankind; a madness for slavery which would disregard the Consti- tution, the laws, and all the great exam- pies of our history; also a consciousness of power such as comes from the habit of power; a combination of energies found only in a hundred arms directed by a hun- dred eyes; a control of public opinion through venal pens and a prostituted press; an ability to subsidize crowds in every vocation of life — the politician with his local importance, the lawyer with his subtle tongue, and even the authority of the judge on the bench ; and a familiar use of men in places high and low, so that none, from the President to the lowest border postmaster, should decline to be its tool; all these things and more were need- ed, and they were found in the slave-power of our republic. There, sir, stands the criminal, all unmasked before you — heart- less, grasping, and tyrannical — with an audacity beyond that of Verres, a subtlety beyond that of Machiavelli, a meanness be- yond that of Bacon, and an ability beyond that of Hastings. Justice to Kansas can be secured only by the prostration of this Influence; for this is the power hehind — greater than any President — which succors and sustains the crime. Nay, the proceed-
ings I now arraign derive their fearful consequences only from this connection.
In now opening this great matter, I am not insensible to the austere demands of the occasion; but the dependence of the crime against Kansas upon the slave- power is so peculiar and important that I trust to be pardoned while I impress it with an illustration, which to some may seem trivial. It is related in Northern mythology that the god of Force, visiting an enchanted region, was challenged by his royal entertainer to what seemed an humble feat of strength — merely, sir, to lift a cat from the ground. The god smiled at the challenge, and calmly plac- ing his hand under the belly of the animal, with superhuman strength strove while the back of the feline monster arched far upward, even beyond reach, and one paw actually forsook the earth, until at last the discomfited divinity desisted; but he was little surprised at his defeat when he learned that this creature, which seemed to be a cat, and nothing more, was not merely a cat, but that it belonged to and was a part of the great terrestrial serpent, which, in its innumerable folds, en- circled the whole globe. Even so the creature, whose paws are now fastened upon Kansas, whatever it may seem to be, constitutes in reality a part of the slave- power, which, in its loathsome folds, is now coiled about the whole land. Thus do I expose the extent of the present con- test, where we encounter not merely local resistance, but also the unconquered sus- taining arm behind. But out of the vast- ness of the crime attempted, with all its woe and shame, I derive a well-founded as- surance of a commensurate vastness of effort against it by the aroused masses of the country, determined not only to vindi- cate right against wrong, but to redeem the republic from the thraldom of that oligarchy which prompts, directs, and concentrates the distant wrong. . . .
But, before entering upon the argu- ment, I must say something of a general character, particularly in response to what has fallen from Senators who have raised themselves to eminence on this floor in championship of human wrongs. I mean the Senator from South Carolina (Mr. Butler) and the Senator from Illinois (Mr. Douglas), who, though un-
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like as Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, over the republic, and yet, with a ludicrous yet, like this couple, sally forth together ignorance of his own position — unable to in the same adventure. I regret much to see himself as others see him — or with an miss the elder Senator from his seat; but effrontery which even his white head the cause, against which he has run atilt ought not to protect from rebuke, he ap- with such activity of animosity, demands plies to those here who resist his section- that the opportunity of exposing him alism the very epithet which designates should not be lost; and it is for the cause himself. The men who strive to bring that I speak. The Senator from South back the government to its original policy, Carolina has read many books of chivalry, when freedom and not slavery was sec- and believes himself a chivalrous knight, tional, he arraigns as sectional. This will with sentiments of honor and courage, not do. It involves too great a perversion Of course, he has chosen a mistress to of terms. I tell that Senator that it is to whom he has made his vows, and who, himself, and to the "organization" of though ugly to others, is always lovely which he is the " committed advocate," to him ; though polluted in the sight of the that this epithet belongs. I now fasten it world, is chaste in his sight — I mean the upon them. For myself, I care little for harlot, Slavery. For her, his tongue is names; but since the question has been always profuse in words. Let her be im- raised here, I affirm that the Republican peached in character, or any proposition party of the Union is in no just sense made to shut her out from the extension sectional, but, more than any other party, of her wantonness, and no extravagance national; and that it now goes forth to of manner or hardihood of assertion is dislodge from the high places of the gov- then too great for this Senator. The ernment the tyrannical sectionalism of frenzy of Don Quixote, in behalf of his which the Senator from South Carolina wench, Dulcinea del Toboso, is all sur- is one of the maddest zealots. . . . passed. The asserted rights of slavery, As the Senator from South Carolina is which shock equality of all kinds, are the Don Quixote, the Senator from Illinois cloaked by a fantastic claim of equality. (Mr. Douglas) is the squire of slavery, If the slave States cannot enjoy what, in its very Sancho Panza, ready to do all its mockery of the great fathers of the re- humiliating offices. This Senator, in his public, he misnames equality under the labored address, vindicating his labored Constitution — in other words, the full report — piling one mass of elaborate error power in the national Territories to com- upon another mass — constrained himself, pel fellow-men to unpaid toil, to separate as you will remember, to unfamiliar de- husband and wife, and to sell little chil- cencies of speech. Of that address I have dren at the auction block — then, sir, the nothing to say at this moment, though be- chivalric Senator will conduct the State of fore I sit down I shall show something of South Carolina out of the Union! Heroic its fallacies. But I go back now to an knight! Exalted Senator! A second Moses earlier occasion, when, true to his native come for a second exodus! impulses, he threw into this discussion,
But not content with this poor menace, " for a charm of powerful trouble," per- which we have been twice told was " meas- sonalities most discreditable to this body, ured," the Senator, in the unrestrained I will not stop to repel the imputations chivalry of his nature, has undertaken to which he cast upon myself; but I mention apply opprobrious words to those who them to remind you of the " sweltered differ from him on this floor. He calls venom sleeping not," which, with other them " sectional and fanatical " ; and oppo- poisoned ingredients, he cast into the sition to the usurpation in Kansas he de- caldron of this debate. Of other things I nounces as " an uncalculating fanaticism." speak. Standing on this floor, the Sen- To be sure, these charges lack all grace of ator issued his rescript, requiring sub- originality, and all sentiment of truth; mission to the usurped power of Kansas; but the adventurous Senator does not hesi- and this was accompanied by a manner — tate. He is the uncompromising, unblush- all his own — such as befits the tyrannical ing representative on this floor of a fla- threat. Very well. Let the Senator try. grant sectionalism, which now domineers I tell him now that he cannot force any
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such submission. The Senator, with the miliar with the life of Franklin; and yet
slave-power at his back, is strong; but he he referred to this household character,
is not strong enough for this purpose. He while acting agent of our fathers in Eng-
is bold. He shrinks from nothing. Like land, as above suspicion; and this was
Danton, he may cry, " L'audace! I'audace! done that he might give a point to a false
ton jours I'audace !" but even his audacity contrast with the agent of Kansas — not
cannot compass this work. The Senator knowing that, however they may differ in
copies the British officer who, with boast- genius and fame, in this experience they
ful swagger, said that with the hilt of are alike : that Franklin, when intrusted
his sword he would cram the " stamps " with the petitions of Massachusetts Bay,
down the throats of the American people, was assaulted by a foul-mouthed speaker,
and he will meet with a similar failure, where he could not be heard in defence,
He may convulse this country with a and denounced as a " thief," even as the
civil feud. Like the ancient madman, he agent of Kansas has been assaulted on
may set fire to this temple of constitu- this floor, and denounced as a " forger."
tional liberty, grander than the Ephesian And let not the vanity of the Senator be
dome; but he cannot enforce obedience to inspired by the parallel with the British
that tyrannical usurpation. statesman of that day; for it is only in
The Senator dreams that he can subdue hostility to freedom that any parallel can
the North. He disclaims the open threat, be recognized.
but his conduct still implies it. How lit- But it is against the people of Kansas
tie that Senator knows himself or the that the sensibilities of the Senator are
strength of the cause which he persecutes! particularly aroused. Coming, as he an-
He is but a mortal man ; against him is nounces, " from a State " — ay, sir, from
an immortal principle. With finite power South Carolina' — he turns with lordly dis-
he wrestles with the infinite, and he must gust from this newly formed community,
fall. Against him are stronger battalions which he will not recognize even as a
than any marshalled by mortal arm — the " body politic." Pray, sir, by what title
inborn, ineradicable, invincible sentiments does he indulge in this egotism? Has he
of the human heart; against him is nature read the history of " the State " which he
in all her subtle forces; against him is represents? He cannot surely have for-
God. Let him try to subdue these. gotten its shameful imbecility from sla-
With regret, I come again upon the very, confessed throughout the Revolution, Senator from South Carolina (Mr. But- followed by its more shameful assump- ler), who, omnipresent in this debate, over- tions for slavery since. He cannot have flowed with rage at the simple suggestion forgotten its wretched persistence in the that Kansas had applied for admission as slave-trade as the very apple of its eye, a State; and, with incoherent phrases, dis- and the condition of its participation in charged the loose expectoration of his the Union. He cannot have forgotten its speech, now upon her representative, and constitution, which is republican only in then upon her people. There was no ex- name, confirming power only in the hands travagance of the ancient parliamentary of the few, and founding the qualifications debate which he did not repeat ; nor was of its legislators on a " settled free- there any possible deviation from truth hold estate and ten negroes." And yet which he did not make, with so much of the Senator, to whom that " State " has passion, I am glad to add, as to save him in part committed the guardianship of its from the suspicion of intentional aberra- good name, instead of moving, with back- tion. But the Senator touches nothing ward treading steps, to cover its naked- which he does not disguise with error, ness, rushes forward in the very ecstasy sometimes of principle, sometimes of fact, of madness, to expose it by provoking a He shows an incapacity of accuracy, comparison with Kansas. South Carolina whether in stating the Constitution, or in is old; Kansas is young. South Carolina stating the law, whether in the details of counts by centuries where Kansas counts statistics or the diversions of scholarship, by years. But a beneficent example may He cannot open his mouth, but out there be born in a day; and I venture to say flies a blunder. Surely he ought to be fa- that, against the two centuries of the older
217
KANSAS-NEBBASKA BILL— KATIPUNAN LEAGUE
" State," may be already set the two years Frederick the Great and the United States.
of trial, evolving corresponding virtue, in He died in Berlin, Germany, Oct. 27,
the younger community. In the one is 1884.
the long wail of slavery; in the other, Kaskaskia. The Illinois country under the hymns of freedom. And if we glance the rule of the French contained six dis- at special achievements, it will be difficult tinct settlements, one of which was Kas- to find anything in the history of South kaskia, situated upon the Kaskaskia Carolina which presents so much of heroic River, 5 miles above its mouth, and with- spirit in an heroic cause as appears in in 2 miles of the Mississppi River. Kas- that repulse of the Missouri invaders by kaskia, under the French regime, was, the beleaguered town of Lawrence, where comparatively speaking, a large town, con- even the women gave their effective efforts taining from 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants, to freedom. . . . When the French were expelled from this
Already in Lawrence alone there are region by the British and Americans, the
newspapers and schools, including a high population rapidly decreased. On July
school, and throughout this infant Terri- 5, 1778, the town was captured by the
tory there is more mature scholarship Americans under GEORGE ROGERS CLARKE
far, in proportion to its inhabitants, than (q. v.), who was acting under authoriza-
in all South Carolina. Ah, sir, I tell the tion of Patrick Henry, at that time gov-
Senator that Kansas, welcomed as a free ernor of Virginia.
State, will be a "ministering angel" to Kasson, JOHN ADAM, diplomatist;
the republic when South Carolina, in the born in Charlotte, Vt., Jan. 11, 1822;
cloak of darkness which she hugs, " lies graduated at the University of Vermont
howling." ... in 1842; and was admitted to the bar in
To overthrow this usurpation is now Massachusetts. Removing to St. Louis, the special, importunate duty of Congress, Mo., he practised till 1857, when he set- admitting of no hesitation or postpone- tied in Des Moines, la. In 1861-62 he ment. To this end it must lift itself from was first assistant Postmaster-General; in the cabals of candidates, the machinations 1863-67 was a member of Congress, and of party, and the low level of vulgar in 1863 and 1867 the United States strife. It must turn from that slave commissioner to the international postal oligarchy and refuse to be its tool. Let the Congress. He again served in Congress power be stretched forth towards this in 1873-77, and in the latter year was ap- distant Territory, not to bind, but to un- pointed United States minister to Aus- bind; not for the oppression of the weak, tria, where he remained till 1881, when he but for the subversion of the tyrannical; was again elected to Congress. In 1884- not for the prop and maintenance of a re- 85 he was minister to Germany, and in volting usurpation, but for the confirma- 1893 envoy to the Samoan international tion of liberty. . . . conference. President McKinley ap-
Kansas-Nebraska Bill. See KANSAS, pointed him United States special com-
Kapp, FRIEDRICH, author ; born in missioner plenipotentiary to negotiate rec-
Hamm, Prussia, April 13, 1824; educated iprocity treaties in 1897, under the Ding-
at the University of Heidelberg, and be- ley tariff act; and in 1898 he became a
came a lawyer; came to the United States member of the Anglo-American Joint
in 1850, and practised in New York till High Commission. He resigned the office
1870, when he returned to Germany. His of reciprocity commissioner in March,
publications include The Slave Question 1901, owing to the failure of the Fifty -
in the United States; Life of the Ameri- sixth Congress to act on several commer-
can General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steu- cial treaties he had negotiated. ben; History of Slavery in the United Katipunan League, a revolutionary
States of America; The Trading in Sol- organization in the Philippine Islands.
diers of the German Princes with Amer- The aim of the society was to expel the
ica; A History of the German Migration Spaniards and the monastic orders from
into America; On Immigration and the the islands. The most inhuman atrocities
Commission of Emigration; Life of the were committed by both the Spanish troops
American General Johann de Kalb; and and the Katipunan insurgents. The re-
218
KAUFMAN— KATTTZ
volt was brought to an end by a compact made Dec. 14, 1897, between Aguinaldo and thirty-four other leaders, who agreed to quit the Philippine Islands, not to re- turn until authorized by the Spanish gov- ernment; the Spanish government agree- ing to pay $1,700,000 in instalments, provided the rebellion was not renewed within a certain time. A first instalment of $400,000 was paid, but the promised reform was not carried out and the families of the former leaders were per- secuted by the Spanish authorities.
Kaufman, THEODORE, artist; born in Nelsen, Hanover, Dec. 18, 1814; studied painting in Munich and Hamburg; came
to the United States in 1855 and served tea states in I»DO ana servea
during the Civil War in the National army. Later he settled in Boston. His
works include General Sherman near the
w«*,>7,^».,, . ru, ^ T ~^n + . A r> 'A r> -i Watchfire; On to Liberty; A Pacific Rail-
way Train attacked by Indians; Slaves seeking Shelter under the Flag of the
Union; Admiral Farragut entering Ear-
, * lor through Torpedoes; and Farragut
in the Rigging.
Kautz, ALBERT, naval officer; born in Georgetown, 0., Jan. 29, 1839; entered the navy as acting midshipman in 1854; graduated at the Naval Academy in 1859; promoted to passed midshipman, master, and lieutenant, in 1861; and was a prisoner of war in North Carolina, and at Richmond, Va., in June-October, 1861. In 1862 he was flag-lieutenant to Farra- gut, on the Hartford, and, after the sur- render of New Orleans, he entered the city, removed the " Lone Star " flag from the city hall, and raised the stars and stripes over the custom-house. He was also on the Hartford when that ship took part in the engagement with the batteries of Vicksburg. He was promoted to lieu- tenant-commander in 1865; commander in 1872; captain in 1885; commodore in 1897; and rear-admiral in 1898; and in the latter year was placed in command of the Pacific station. In 1899 Admiral Kautz figured prominently in settling the troubles at Samoa. In March of that year, after he arrived at the scene of the trouble, on board the Philadelphia, he spent two days in making inquiries, and then called a meeting of all the consuls and the senior officers of the English and German war-ships in the harbor. After
this meeting he issued a proclamation in which he declared that the so-called provisional government under Mataafa was without legal status, according to the terms of the Berlin treaty. He, therefore, ordered Mataafa and his fol- lowers to lay down their arms and return to their homes. The German consul, however, would not agree to this procla- mation, and issued a counter one, which was translated into the Samoan language, and circulated among the supporters of Mataafa. This proclamation was as fol- lows:
" Notice to al1 Samoans:
" By the Proclamation of the admiral of the Unlted gtateg> date(J March wag made
known that the three consuls of the signa- tory powers of the Berlin treaty, as well as the three commanders of men-of-war, had been unanimous to no more recognize the provlslonal government, composed of Mataafa and the thirteen chiefs.
" *> therefore, make known to you that this Proclamation is quite false. I, the German consul-general, continue to recognize the provisional government of Samoa until I receive contrary instructions from my govern- ment-
This notice resulted in hostilities which lasted for several days. About 175 sailors were landed from the American and Brit- ish war-ships. Before order was restored, several American and British officers and sailors were killed, and others wounded. The loss of the natives was supposed to have been very heavy (see SAMOA). Admiral Kautz was retired in January, 1901.
Kautz, AUGUST VALENTINE, military officer; born in Ispringen, Germany, Jan. 5, 1828; brother of Admiral Kautz. His parents came to the United States the year of his birth, and in 1832 settled in Ohio. He graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1852; commis- sioned second lieutenant in the 4th In- fantry in 1853; promoted first lieuten- ant in 1855; captain in the 6th Cavalry in 1861; colonel 8th Infantry in 1874; brigadier-general in 1891; and was re- tired Jan. 5, 1892. In the volunteer ser- vice he was commissioned colonel of the 2d Ohio Cavalry, Sept. 2, 1862; promoted to brigadier - general, May 7, 1864; and brevetted major - general, Oct. 28, follow-
219
KEAN— KEAKNY
ing. During the Civil War he distinguish- from the Chinese authorities the recogni- ed himself at Monticello, Ky. ; at Peters- tion of the right of Americans to trade burg, Va.; in the action on the Darby- there, and the same protection and facili- town road in Virginia ; in the pursuit and ties to our merchants as were about being capture of John Morgan, the Confederate granted by treaty to Great Britain. He raider; and in the final Richmond cam- died in Perth Amboy, Nov. 29, 1868. paign. After the war he served in Ari- Kearny, PHILIP, military officer; born zona, California, and Nebraska. General in New York City, June 2, 1815; studied Kautz published The Company Clerk; law, but, preferring the military pro- Customs of Service for Non-commissioned fession, entered the army at twenty- Offlcers and Soldiers; and Customs of two years of age as lieutenant of Service for Officers. He died in Seattle, dragoons. Soon afterwards the govern- Wash., Sept. 4, 1895. ment sent him to Europe to study and
Kean, JOHN, legislator; born in Ursino, report upon French cavalry tactics. N. J., Dec. 4, 1852; was educated at Yale While there he fought in the French College; graduated at the Law School of Columbia College in 1875; admitted to the New Jersey bar in 1877, but never practised; was a member of Congress in 1883-85 and 1887-89; and a Republican United States Senator in 1889-1905.
Keane, JOHN JOSEPH, clergyman; born in Ballyshannon, Ireland, Sept. 12, 1839; came to the United States in 1846; was educated in St. Charles's College and St. Mary's Seminary, Baltimore; ordained a priest of the Roman Catholic Church in 1866, and assigned to St. Patrick's Church, Washington. He remained there till Aug. 25, 1878, when he was conse- crated Bishop of Richmond, Va. He was rector of the Catholic University of Amer- ica, Washington, D. C., in 1886-97, when he resigned and went to Rome. In 1900 he was appointed Archbishop of Dubuque.
Kearns, THOMAS, legislator; born near
Woodstock, Ontario, Canada, April 11, ar™y in Africa as a volunteer, and re- 18C2; removed to Utah, where he worked turned in 1840 with the cross of the Le- in a mine, later becoming owner of two 8ion of Honor. Aide to General Scott mines. He was a delegate to the Republi- (1841-44), he was made captain in the can National Convention in 1896 and 1900; United States army, and served on the and a Republican United States Senator staff of Scott in the war with Mexico, re- in 1901-05. ceiving great applause. Near the city of
Kearny, LAWRENCE, naval officer; born Mexico he lost his left arm in battle, in Perth Amboy, N. J., Nov. 30, 1789; After serving a campaign on the Pacific entered the navy in 1807; performed im- coast against the Indians, he went to Eu- portant services on the coast of South rope, and served on the staff of the French Carolina and adjoining States during the General Maurier in the Italian War War of 1812-15; and after the war, in (1859). He received from the French gov- command of the schooner Enterprise, as- ernment a second decoration of the Legion sisted with efficiency in ridding the West of Honor. He hastened home when the Indies and Gulf of Mexico of pirates. Civil War broke out; was made brigadier- He also, in the Warren, drove the Greek general of volunteers just after the bat- pirates from the Levant in 1827, and tie of Bull Run, and commanded a brigade broke up their nests. In command of the of New Jersey troops in Franklin's di- East India squadron in 1851, he secured vision, Army of the Potomac. He com-
220
PHILIP KEARNY.
KEARNY
manded a division in Heintzelman's corps; Washington, from Aug. 25 till his death,
behaved gallantly during the Peninsula near Chantilly, Va., Sept. 1, 1862. He
campaign; was made major-general of had placed his division in preparation for
volunteers in July, 1862; was the first battle, and after dark was reconnoitring
to reinforce Pope; and was engaged in within the enemy's lines when he was dis-
the battles between the Rappahannock and covered and shot dead.
KEABNY, STEPHEN WATTS
Kearny, STEPHEN WATTS, military escort of fifteen men, to bear the intelli- officer; born in Newark, N. J., Aug. 30, gence overland to Washington, as soon as 1794; uncle of Gen. Philip Kearny. When possible. Just as he had crossed the the War of 1812-15 broke out young desert and was approaching the American Kearny left his studies at Columbia Col- frontier, he was met by General Kearny, lege, entered the army as lieutenant of with a small force of dragoons, marching infantry, and distinguished himself in the westward, under instructions from his battle of Queenston Heights. In April, government to conquer California and or- 1813, he was made captain, and rose to ganize a civil government in the terri- brigadier - general in June, 1846. He was tory, a work which had already been sue- in command of the Army of the West cessfully accomplished, at the beginning of the war with Mexico, Upon learning what had occurred, and with that army marched to California, Kearny insisted upon Carson's returning conquering New Mexico on the way. He with him, as his guide, to California, established a provisional government at having forwarded the despatches to Santa Fe", pressed on to California, and Washington by another messenger of his was twice wounded in battle. For a few own selection. Upon the general's arrival months in 1847 he was governor of Cali- at Los Angeles, the capital of California, fornia; joined the army in Mexico; in and the seat of the new government, the March, 1848, was governor, military and contest soon arose between himself and civil, of Vera Cruz, and in May of the Commodore Stockton. The process by same year was made governor of the city which Colonel Fremont became involved of Mexico. In August, 1848, he was in this controversy is obvious. He held brevetted major-general, and died in St. a commission in the army as lieutenant Louis, Mo., on Oct. 31, following. of topographical engineers, and, as such,
The Kearny -Stockton Controversy. — was, primarily, subject to the orders of The differences between General Kearny his superior general officer of the army, and Commodore Stockton, after the occu- He had since yielded to the exigencies of pation of California, originated primarily the occasion, and, from motive and for in the indefiniteness of the instructions reasons which cannot be impeached, which were issued from the seat of govern- waived any privileges he might have ment. Those addressed to the naval com- claimed, as the real conqueror of North manders on the Pacific, in their judgment, California, and, in point of rank, the su- justified the organization of a military pcrior representative of the army on the force and a civil government in California, Pacific coast, and, with his men, volun- and under those instructions Commodore teered to serve under Commodore Stock- Stockton authorized Colonel Fremont to ton in the further prosecution of the war organize the California battalion and take in South California, the subjugation of its command with the title of major. By which could not be so successfully effected virtue of those, he likewise took the neces- without the aid of a fleet. By accepting sary steps for the organization of a civil the governorship of California, a vacancy government for California and invested had been created in the command of the Fremont with the title and responsibilities California battalion, and other changes of governor. had become necessary. The first intima-
As soon as these results were com- tion which Colonel Fremont received of summated, Kit Carson was sent, with an General Kearny's intention to test the
221
KEARNY, STEPHEN WATTS
validity of Commodore Stockton's acts, this morning to make such a reply as the through him, was conveyed in the follow- brief time allowed for reflection will en- ing note: able me.
"HEADQUARTERS, ARMY OF THE WEST, " ? found Commodore Stockton in pos-
'• CIUDAD DE Los ANGELES, *ession ?f the country, exercising the func-
« !•„*, is ion tions of military commandant and civil Jan. Jo, 18^ I-
. governor, as early as July of last year;
"By direction of Brigadier - General and gh()rtl therjfter l received from* him
Kearny, I send you a copy of a com- the commission of miiitary commandant,
munication to him from the Secretary of the dutieg Qf which j immediately entered
War, dated June 18, 1846, in which is and haye continued to e/ercise to
the following: 'These troops and such the present moment.
as may be organized in California, will „ j found ^^ Qn my arriyal ftt ^
be under your command. The general laC6j gome three Qr four d ginc6j Com.
directs that no change will be made m modore stockton still exercising the func-
the organization of your battalion of tiong Qf dvil and milit governor, with
volunteers, or officers appointed m it, ^ game ent deference to his rank
without his sanction or approval being on the part of all officers (including your-
first obtained. WM. F. EMORY, gdf } ag he maintained and required when
"Lieutenant and Acting Assistant he assumed them in July last.
"I learned also, in conversation with
This note at once raised the question J™> that on the march from San Dieg°>
whether he was to obey General Kearny, recently, to this place, you entered upon
and thereby, so far as his example could and discharged duties implying an ac-
go, invalidate the acts of Commodore knowledgment on your part of supremacy
Stockton, in which he had co-operated, or to Commodore Stockton,
obey Commodore Stockton, and, so far " I feel, therefore, with great deference
as his decision would go, sustain the to vour professional and personal charac-
validity of those proceedings which he be- ter> constrained to say that, until you and
lieved to be both legal and patriotic. If Commodore Stockton adjust between your-
he took the former course, he incurred selves the question of rank, where I re-
the liability to be arraigned, and, in his spectfully think the difficulty belongs, I
judgment, justly disgraced for disobeying sha11 have to rePort and receive orders' as
an officer whose rank and authority he heretofore, from the commodore,
had deliberately recognized; and he fur- " With considerations of high regard, I
ther incurred the charge of base ingrati- am> sir> vour obedient servant, ^
tude towards an officer whose courtesy *• °- FREMONT,
and confidence he had shared, whose con- "Lieutenant-Colonel U. S. A, and Mili-
duct he ha'd approved, and who unex- tary Commandant of the Territory
pectedly found himself in a situation to °f California,
need the support of his friends. Fremont " Brig.-Gen. S. W. Kearny, U. S. A." was incapable of deserting either a friend
or what he deemed a post of duty; he The same da7 that General Kearny ad-
accordingly addressed to General Kearny dressed the note above quoted to Colonel
the following reply, on the following day: Fremont, a yet more serious correspond- ence commenced between him and Commo-
" CIITDAD DE Los ANGELES, dore Stockton. It is here given at length,
" Jan. 17, 181ft. with the introductory remarks of Commo-
" SIR, — I have the honor to be in receipt dore Stockton's biographer, who evidently
of your favor of last night, in which I wrote under the eye and approval of the
am directed to suspend the execution of commodore:
orders which, in my capacity of military " Fremont throughout the California
commandant of this territory, I had re- war was strictly and technically in the
ceived from Commodore Stockton, gov- naval service, under Commodore Stockton,
ernor and commander - in - chief in Call- He had taken service under him with an
fornia. I avail myself of an early hour express agreement that he would continue
222
KEABNY, STEPHEN WATTS
subject to his orders as long as he con- tinued in command in California. This engagement both he and Captain Gillespie had entered into from patriotic motives, and to render the most efficient service to the country. He visited California origi- nally upon topographical, and not on mili- tary, duty. His volunteering under Stock- ton on special service was a patriotic im- pulse, in complying with which the gov- ernment were in honor bound to sustain him. He therefore very properly refused to violate his agreement with Stockton, and unite with Kearny against him.
" Having failed to compel Fremont to acknowledge his authority, the general ad- dressed himself to the commodore and de- manded that he should abdicate the com- mand-in-chief.
" The commodore, considering the sub- jugation of California complete, and that no further hostilities were likely to take place, was of opinion that he might now relinquish his governorship and com- mand-in-chief and return to his ship. But, having informed the government that upon that event he intended to appoint Colonel Fremont governor, he now pro- ceeded to carry that design into execu- tion.
" General Kearny, learning this to be the purpose of the commodore, and de- sirous of exercising the functions of gov- ernor himself, addressed to him the fol- lowing letter:"
GENERAL KEARNY TO COMMODORE STOCKTON.
" HEADQUARTERS, ARMY OF THE WEST, " CIUDAD DE Los ANGELES,
"Jan. 16, 1847.
11 SIR, — I am informed that you are en- gaged in organizing a civil government, and appointing officers for it in this terri- tory. As this duty has been specially as- signed to myself, by orders of the Presi- dent of the United States, conveyed in let- ters to me from the Secretary of War, of June 3, 8, and 18, 1846, the original of which I gave to you on the 12th, and which you returned to me on the 13th, and copies of which I furnished you with on the 26th December, I have to ask if you have any authority from the Presi- dent, from the Secretary of the Navy, or from any other channel of the President
223
to form such government and make such appointments ?
" If you have such authority, and will show it to me or furnish me with a cer- tified copy of it, I will cheerfully acqui- esce in what you are doing. If you have not such authority, I then demand that you cease all further proceedings relating to the formation of a civil government of this Territory, as I cannot recognize in you any right in assuming to perform duties confided to me by the President.
" Very respectfully, "your obedient ser- vant, S. W. KEARNY, "Brigadier-General U. S. A. " Commodore R. F. Stockton, Acting " Governor of California."
COMMODORE STOCKTON TO GENERAL KEARNY.
" HEADQUARTERS, CIUDAD DE Los ANGELES, "Jan. 16, 1847.
" SIR, — In answer to your note, received this afternoon, I need say but little more than that which I communicated to you in a conversation at San Diego — that California was conquered and a civil gov- ernment put into successful operation; that a copy of the laws made by me for the government of the Territory, and the names of the officers selected to see them faithfully executed, were transmitted to the President of the United States before you arrived in the Territory.
" I will only add that I cannot do any- thing nor desist from doing anything on your demand, which I will submit to the President and ask for your recall. In the mean time you will consider yourself sus- pended from the command of the United States forces in this place.
" Faithfully, your obedient servant, "R. F. STOCKTON,
" Commander-in-Chief.
" To Brevet Brig.-Gen. S. W. Kearny."
GENERAL KEARNY TO COMMODORE STOCKTON.
"HEADQUARTERS, ARMY OF THE WEST, " CIUDAD DE Los ANGELES,
"Jan. 17, 1847.
" SIR, — In my communication to you of yesterday's date I stated that I had learned that you were engaged in organiz- ing a civil government for California. I referred you to the President's instruc-
KEARNY, STEPHEN WATTS
tions to me (the original of which you cumstances. I, therefore, immediately on have seen) and copies of which I furnished my arrival, waited upon the governor and you, to perform that duty, and added that commander-in-chief, Commodore Stockton, if you had any authority from the Presi- nnd, a few minutes afterwards, called dent, or any of his organs, for what you upon General Kearny. I soon found them were doing, I would cheerfully acquiesce, occupying a hostile attitude, and each and if you had not such authority I de- denying the right of the other to assume manded that you would cease further pro- the direction of affairs in this country, ceedings in the matter. " The ground assumed by General
" Your reply of the same date refers me Kearny was that he held in his hand to a conversation held at San Diego, and plenary instructions from the President adds that you cannot do anything or de- directing him to conquer California, and sist from doing anything or alter anything organize a civil government, and that con- 011 your (my) demand. As, in conse- sequently he would not recognize the acts quence of the defeat of the enemy on the of Commodore Stockton. 8th and 9th inst., by the troops under "The latter maintained that his own my command, a-nd the capitulation en- instructions were to the same effect as tered into on the 13th inst. by Lieutenant- Kearny's; that this officer's commission Colonel Fremont with the leaders of the was obsolete, and never would have been Californians, in which the people under given could the government have antici- arms and in the field agree to disperse and pated that the entire country, seaboard remain quiet and peaceable, the country and interior, would have been conquered may now, for the first time, be considered and held by himself. The country had as conquered, and taken possession of by been conquered and a civil government in- us; and as I am prepared to carry out the stituted since September last, the consti- President's instructions to me, which you tution of the Territory and appointments oppose, I must, for the purpose of prevent- under the constitution had been sent to ing a collision between us and possibly a the government for its approval, and civil war in consequence of it, remain decisive action undoubtedly long since had silent for the present, leaving with you the upon them. General Kearny was in- great responsibility of doing that for structed to conquer the country, and upon which you have no authority, and pre- its threshold his command had been near- venting me from complying with the Pres- ly cut to pieces, and, but for relief from ident's orders. him (Commodore Stockton), would have
" Very respectfully, your obedient ser- been destroyed. More men were lost than
vant, S. W. KEARNY, in General Taylor's battle of the 8th. In
" Brigadier-General U. S. A. regard to the remaining part of his in-
" Commodore R. F. Stockton, Acting structions, how could he organize a
" Governor of California." government without first proceeding to
disorganize the present one? His work
The motives which actuated Colonel Fre"- had been anticipated; his commission was mont in electing to pursue the course absolutely null and void and of no effect, which he did upon the arrival of General " But if General Kearny believed that Kearny, are scarcely open to misconstrue- his instructions gave him paramount au- tion. There happens, however, to be the thority in the country, he made a fatal best of evidence in regard to them in a error on his arrival. He was received letter addressed to Colonel Benton at the with kindness and distinction by the time of the collision, which reveals in all commodore, and offered by him the com- the confidence of personal friendship the mand of his land forces. General Kearny innermost secrets of his heart. In that rejected the offer and declined interfering letter, he says: with Commodore Stockton. This officer
"... When I entered Los Angeles I was then preparing for a march to Ciu- was ignorant of the relations subsisting dad de Los Angeles, his force being princi- between these gentlemen, having received pally sailors and marines, who were all from neither any order or information on foot (fortunately for them), and who which might serve as a guide in the cir- were to be provided with supplies on their
224
KEABNY, STEPHEN WATTS
march through an enemy's country, where Instructions of a corresponding import all the people are cavalry. His force was were of course received from the War De- paraded, and ready to start, 700 in num- partment, by General Kearny, and with ber, supported by six pieces of artillery, them, or not long afterwards, a despatch The command, under General Stockton, from Mr. Marcy, of which the following had been conferred upon his first lieuten- is an extract: ant, Mr. Rowan. At this juncture Gen-
eral Kearny expressed to Commodore EXTRACT FROM INSTRUCTIONS TO BRIGADIER- Stockton his expectation that the com- ERAL KEARNY- mand would have been given to him. The " WAR DEPARTMENT, June 17, 1847. commodore informed the general that "... When the despatch from this de- Lieutenant Rowan was in his usual line partment was sent out in November last, of duty, as on board ship, relieving him there was reason to believe that Lieu- of the detail of the drudgery of the camp, tenant-Colonel Fr6mont would desire to re- while he himself remained the com- turn to the United States, and you were mander-in-chief ; that if General Kearny then directed to conform to his wishes in was willing to accept Mr. Rowan's place, that respect. It is not now proposed to under these circumstances, he could have change that direction. But since that it. The general assented. Commodore time it has become known here that he Stockton called up his officers and ex- bore a conspicuous part in the conquest plained the case. Mr. Rowan gave up of California, that his services have been his post generously and without hesita- very valuable in that country, and doubt- tion; and Commodore Stockton desired less will continue to be so should he re- them clearly to understand that he re- main there.
mained commander-in-chief ; under this " Impressed, as all engaged in the pub- arrangement the whole force entered He service must be, with the great im- Angeles; and on the day of my arrival portance of harmony and cordial co-opera- at that place General Kearny told me tion in carrying on military operations in that he did then, at that moment, recog- a country so distant from the seat of nize Commodore Stockton as governor of authority, the President is persuaded that the Territory. when his definite instructions were re-
" You are aware that I had con- ceived, all questions of difficulty were set- tracted relations with Commodore Stock- tied, and all feelings which had been ton, and I thought it neither right nor elicited by the agitation of them had sub- politically honorable to withdraw my sup- sided.
port. No reason of interest shall ever " Should Lieutenant-Colonel Fremont,
compel me to act towards any man in who has the option to return or remain,
such a way that I should afterwards be adopt the latter alternative, the President
ashamed to meet him." does not doubt you will employ him in
Early in the spring, new instructions, such a manner as will render his services
bearing date Nov. 5, reached Commodore most available to public interest, having
Stockton, which put an end to the latter's reference to his extensive acquaintance
supremacy in the quarter. In his des- with the inhabitants of California, and
patch the Secretary of the Navy says: his knowledge of their language, qualifi-
" The President has deemed it best for cations independent of others, which it is
the public interests to invest the military supposed may be very useful in the pres-
officer commanding with the direction of ent and prospective state of our affairs in
the operations on land, and with the ad- that country. . . .
ministrative functions of the government " Very respectfully, your ob't servant, over the people and Territory occupied " W. L. MARCY, by us. You will relinquish to Colonel " Secretary of War." Mason, or to General Kearny, if the latter The " definite instructions " to which shall arrive before you have done so, the reference is here made were never corn- entire control over these matters, and turn municated to Colonel FrSmont, and their over to him all papers necessary to the suppression was very justly esteemed by performance of his duties." him a grievance for several reasons, and V. — P 225
KEARNY, STEPHEN WATTS
among others, because they show that by military, in that section, of the country the President's directions it was at as he may deem proper and necessary. Colonel Fremont's option whether he Any instructions he may give you will be would remain in California or not, an considered as coming from myself." option, however, which was denied him by A few weeks later Colonel Fremont re- General Kearny. ceived orders from General Kearny to re- Early in March, and after taking the port himself at Monterey with such of the supreme command in California, General members of his topographical corps as Kearny addressed Colonel Fremont the were still under pay, prepared to set out following letter: at once for Washington. Colonel Fremont
then applied for permission to join his
GENERAL KEARNY TO COLONEL FREMONT, regiment, under General Taylor's com-
_^ mand, supposed to be on its way to Vera
"HEADQUARTERS 10TH MILITARY DEPT., ^ ^ f ^ ^J ^^
MONTEREY, U. CAL., March 1, 1847. expianation or apology, and on June
"SIR,— By Department orders, No. 2, 14 Colonel Fremont addressed General
of this date (which will be handed to Kearny as follows- you by Captain Turner, 1st Dragoons,
A.A.A.G., for my command), you will see COLONEL FREMONT TO GENERAL KEARNY. that certain duties are there required of NEW HELVETIA U. CAL. you as commander of the battalion of "June 14, 1847. California volunteers. „ SlR _In a communication which I re- ' In addition to the duties above re- ceived from yourself in March of the pres. ferred to, I have now to direct that you ent year j am informed that you had been will bring with you, and with as little de- directed by the commander-in-chief not to lay as possible, all the archives and pub- detain me -n this country against my lie documents and papers which may be wigheg } than the absolute necessities subject to your control, and which apper- of the geryice might require tain to the government of California, that « private letters in which I have entire 1 may receive them from your hands at eonfidence further inform me that the this place, the capital of the Territory. President has been pleased to direct that I have directions from the general-in- j ghould be permitted the choice of join- chief not to detain you in this country, . regiment in Mexico, or returning against your wishes, a moment longer directly to the United States. An applica- than the necessities of the service may tion which j had the honor to make to you require; and you will be at liberty to at the Ciudad de Log A leg for ig_ leave here after you have complied with gion to eed immediately to Mexico these instructions, and those in the order haying been rejected? and the duties of
the exploring expedition which had been Very respectfully, your obt servant, confided to my direction having been ter-
\ ^ . BNJ' * minated by yourself, I respectfully re- " Lieut.-Col. J. C. Fremont, Regiment of t that j now be relieyed of all
Mounted Riflemen, Commanding Bat- connection with the topographical party tahon of California Volunteers, Cm- whkh you haye taken under y(mr charg6j
and be permitted to return to the United States. Travelling with a small party
About a month later, he received the b a direct routej my knowledge of the following order from General Kearny: country and freedom from professional
business will enable me to reach the States " HEADQUARTERS, 10TH MILITARY DEPT., gome forty or fifty dayg ear]ier than your.
" MONTEREY, CAL., March 28. self ? which the present condition of affairs
" SIR, — This will be handed to you by and a long absence from my family make
Colonel Mason, 1st Dragoons, who goes to an object of great importance to me. the southern district, clothed by me with " It may not be improper to say to you
full authority to give such orders and in- that my journey will be made with private
structions upon all matters, both civil and means, and will not, therefore, occasion
226
KEARNY— KEELY
any expenditure to the government. I tenant-Colonel Fremont having performed have the honor to be, with much respect, the above duty, will consider himself your obedient servant, under arrest, and will then repair to
"J. C. FREMONT,
Washington City, and report himself to
"Lieutenant-Colonel, Mounted Riflemen, the adjutant-general of the army." . " Brig.-Gen. S. W. Kearny, Commanding, For Colonel Fremont's subsequent ac-
etc."
tions, see FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES.
To this request Colonel Fremont re- Kearny's Expedition and Conquest
of New Mexico. See KEARNY, STEPHEN
ceived the following reply:
GENERAL KEARNY TO COLONEL FREMONT.
WATTS.
Kearsarge, THE. Wrecked on Ronca- dor Reef, in Caribbean Sea, Feb. 2, 1894. See ALABAMA, THE.
Keeler, JAMES EDWARD, astronomer;
" CAMP NEAR NEW HELVETIA, " CALIFORNIA, June 14,
"SiR,— The request contained in your born in La Salle> I1Lj Sept 10> 1857;
communication to me of this date, to be graduated at Johns Hopkins University in
relieved from all connection with the 1881. accompanied Prof. Langley on the
topographical party (nineteen men), and Mount Whitney expedition; studied two
be permitted to return to the United years with Quincke, in Heidelberg, and
States with a small party made up by wjth Von Helmholz, in Berlin. He was ap-
your private means, cannot be granted, pointed assistant astronomer of the Lick
"I shall leave here on Wednesday, the Observatory in 1886, and when the ob-
10th instant, and I require of you to be servatory was transferred to the State
with your topographical party in my camp (June, 1888), he was made full astrono-
( which will probably be about 15 miles mer. He was director of the Allegheny
from here) on the evening of that day, Observatory in 1889-98, and on June 1,
and to continue with me to Missouri. 1398, was made director of the Lick Obser-
"Very respectfully, your obedient vator. Professor Keeler was a mem- servant,
ber of many American and foreign scien-
S. W. KEARNY,
"Brigadier-General. tific societies, among them the Royal " Lieutenant-Colonel Fremont, Regiment Astronomical Society of Great Britain, " Mounted Riflemen, New Helvetia." and in 1898 was awarded the Rumford General Kearny broke up his camp near medal of the American Academy of Arts Sutter's fort on the day after issuing this and Sciences. He wrote extensively for order, and set out for the United States, The Astrophyswal Journal and other tech- attended by Colonel Fremont, who was nical periodicals. He died on Mount Ham- treated, however, with deliberate dis- ilton' Cal" AuZ> 13' 1900' respect throughout the journey. The Keely JOHN WORRELL, mechanic; born party reached Fort Leavenworth about in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 3, 1837; was Aug. 22. On that day General Kearny a carpenter till 1872 Prior to that date sent for him, and directed Lieutenant he had become interested m music, claim- Wharton to read to him a copy of the first inS that the tuning-fork had suggested paragraph of an order he had just issued to hira a new motlve P™er' After ^ars of that date, as follows: of experiment he exhibited a machine
which appeared to have great power, its
" FORT LEAVENWORTH, Aug. 22, 1847. motion, according to him, being produced " Lieutenant - Colonel Fremont, of the neither by steam, electricity, nor compress- Regiment of Mounted Riflemen, will turn ed air, but by the vibrations of a violin over to the officers of the different de- bow. This machine was called the " Keely partments at this post, the horses, mules, motor," and in 1874 a stock company was and other public property in the use of established which contributed thousands the topographical party now under his of dollars to enable him to perfect his charge, for which receipts will be given, alleged discovery. From 1872 to 1891 he He will arrange the accounts of these built and rejected 129 different models; men (nineteen in number), so that they in 1881 a wealthy woman of Philadelphia can be paid at the earliest date. Lieu- built a new laboratory for him, and also
227
KEEN— KEITH
furnished a weekly salary that he might of Asa Trenchard and Edward A. Sothern continue his experiments. At various ex- that of Lord Dundreary, then a minor
hibitions he produced wonderful effects, character, which Mr. Sothern afterwards
but never revealed how these were ac- made the principal one in a new version
complished. After his death the whole of the play. In 1860 she brought out
scheme was examined, and it was claimed The Seven Sisters, which ran for 169
by many to be a fraud — that the machine nights. It was while her company was
was operated by a compressed-air motor playing Our American Cousin, at Ford's
in the cellar. He died in Philadelphia, Theatre, Washington, on April 14, 1865,
Pa., Nov. 18, 1898. that President Lincoln was fatally shot.
Keen, GREGORY BERNARD, librarian; She remained on the stage till within two
born in Philadelphia, Pa., March 3, 1844; years of her death, in Montclair, N. J.,
graduated at the University of Pennsyl- Nov. 4, 1873.
vania in 1861, and at the Divinity School Kegs, BATTLE OF THE. See HOPKINSON,
of the Protestant Episcopal Church, Phila- FRANCIS.
delphia, in 1866; became a Roman Catho- Keifer, JOSEPH WARREN, lawyer; born
lie in 1868; was librarian of the Uni- in Clark county, O., Jan. 30, 1836; edu-
versity of Pennsylvania in 1887-97; and cated at Antioch College; was admitted to
became librarian of the Historical Society the bar and began practice in Springfield,
of Pennsylvania in 1898. He is the editor O. In the Civil War he served in the
of the Pennsylvania Magazine of History Union army, rising from the rank of
and Biography, and the author of a num- major to colonel and brevet brigadier-gen-
ber of articles on The Descendants of eral and major-general. At the close of
Jb'ran Kyn, the Founder of Upland, and the war he declined the appointment of
the chapters on New Sweden and New Al- lieutenant-colonel of the 26th United
lion in the Narrative and Critical His- States Infantry. In 1868-69 he was a
tory of America, State Senator; in 1877-83 a Republican
Keenan, PETER, military officer; born Representative in Congress; and in 1881-
in York, N. Y., Nov. 9, 1834; was adopt- 83 speaker of the House. During the war
ed by a wealthy Philadelphia family; be- with Spain President McKinley appointed
came a captain in the 8th Pennsylvania him a major-general of volunteers. Since
Cavalry in 1861. After the rout of the 1873 he has been president of a national
llth Corps on the right wing at the bat- bank. In April, 1901, he published Sla-
tle of Chancellorsville, May 2, 1863, with very and Four Tears of War.
less than 500 men, he charged the Con- Keith, GEORGE, clergyman; born in
federates, taking them by complete sur- Aberdeen, Scotland, about 1645; belong-
prise, so that their advance was sufficient- ed to the Society of Friends ; came to East
ly checked until the National guns were Jersey; was surveyor-general in 1682;
got into position. This charge saved the and in 1689 taught school in Philadelphia.
National army from complete rout. He He wrote and spoke much in favor of the
was killed during the action. Quakers, and visited New England in their
Keene, LAURA, actress; born in Chelsea, interest; but about 1691 he established a London, England, in 1820; real name, sect who called themselves "Christian MARY Moss; made her first appearance Quakers." Keith was irritable, quarrel- on the stage in London, in 1845; was mar- some, and imperious. He finally left the ried to Henry W. Taylor in 1847, and to Quakers altogether; took orders in the John Lutz in 1857. She won her greatest Church of England; and died rector of successes in light comedy. She first ap- Edburton, Sussex, England, in 1715. peared in the United States at Wallack's Keith, SIR WILLIAM; born near Peter- Theatre, New York, in 1852, where she head, England, in 1680; appointed gov- subsequently took the management of the ernor of Pennsylvania and Delaware in Varieties Theatre, and later opened a 1717 by George I. at the request of the theatre under her name, which she man- principal inhabitants. He was the only aged till 1863. At this house, in 1858, she pre - Revolutionary governor who sym- first brought out Our American Cousin, pathized with the colonists in their strug- in which Joseph Jefferson took the part gles with the proprietaries or British £ov-
228
KELL— KELLEYSVILLE
crnment. He was superseded in his office away by the Hudson Bay Company. He
in 1726, and was elected a member of the was the author of a Geographical Memoir
colonial legislature. He returned to Eng- of Oregon, and .4 History of the Settle-
land in 1728, and projected a series of ment of Oregon and of the Interior of
colonial histories, of which that on Vir- Upper California, and of Persecutions and
ginia was the only one published. He died Afflictions of Forty Years' Continuance
in London, Nov. 18, 1749. Endured by the Author. He died in
Kell, JOHN MC!NTOSH, naval officer; Palmer, Mass., Jan. 17, 1874. born in Darien, Ga., Jan. 26, 1823; en- Kelley, HENRY B., jurist; born in tered the United States Naval Academy in Huntsville, Ala., in 1823; served through- 1841 ; served under Commodores Sloat and out the Mexican War as lieutenant of the Perry in California and Japan; joined the 14th U. S. V.; resigned in 1848; re- Confederate navy as executive officer of entered the army in 1855; resigned in the Sumter; transferred to the Alabama 1861 to enter the Confederate army. He in 1802 ; was in the fight with the Kear- was a judge in the Louisiana Court of sarge, but rescued by the English yacht Appeals from 1884 till his death at New Deerhound when the Alabama sank; pro- Orleans, June 16, 1894. moted captain C. S. N. He wrote Cruise Kelley, JAMES DOUGLAS JERROLD, naval and Combats of the Alabama in Battles officer; born in New York City, Dec. 25, and Leaders of the Civil War. He died 1847; graduated at the United States in Sunnyside, Ga., Oct. 5, 1900. Naval Academy in 1868; promoted ensign
Keller, HELEN ADAMS, deaf, dumb, and in 1869; master in 1870; lieutenant in
blind; born in Tuscumbia, Ala., June 27, 1872; lieutenant-commander in 1893; and
1880. She was sent to the Wright- commander in 1899. For a prize essay
Humason School in New York City when written in 1881 he received a gold medal
seven years of age, where she made rapid from the United States Naval Institute,
progress under her teacher, Miss Sullivan. During the war with Spain (1898) he was
In 1897 she was sent to the Arthur Gil- chairman of the board on auxiliary ves-
man School, and in 1899 she entered Rad- sels; and in 1900-1 was on duty in Chi-
cliffe College, where she studied Greek, nese waters. He is widely known by his
Latin, and the higher mathematics. This numerous writings on naval subjects. His
is probably the most wonderful instance publications include The Question of
in the history of education where seeming- Ships; Our Navy; A Desperate Chance;
ly insuperable difficulties have been sue- American Yachts; The Ship's Company;
cessfully surmounted. The Story of Coast Defence; American
Kelley, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, military Men-o'-War; The Navy of the United
officer ; born in New Hampton, N. H., April States, 1875-99, etc.
10, 1807; removed to western Virginia in Kelley, WILLIAM DARRAH, legislator; 1826. He entered the national army as born in Philadelphia, Pa., April 12, 1814; colonel of the 1st Virginia Regiment; took admitted to the bar in 1841; was a Free- part in the battle of Philippi, where he trade Democrat till 1848, when he entered was severely wounded; promoted brig- the Republican party, becoming a firm adier-general in 1861, major-general in abolitionist and protectionist. He was 1865. After the Civil War he was col- elected to Congress in 1860, and held a lector of internal revenue and examiner seat in that body for many years. He of pensions. He died in Oakland, Md., was the author of Slavery in the Terri- July 16, 1891. tories (an address) ; Address at the Col-
Kelley, HALL JACKSON, colonist; born ored Department of the House of Refuge; in Northwood, N. H., Feb. 28, 1790; grad- Reasons for Abandoning the Theory of uated at Middlebury College in 1813; be- Free-Trade and Adopting the Principle of came interested in colonizing Oregon, and Protection to American Industry; Letters influenced the Massachusetts legislature on Industrial and Financial Questions; to incorporate the " American Society for The New South, etc. He died in Washing- Encouraging the Settlement of the Oregon ton, D. C., Jan. 9, 1890. Territory." Later he conducted a number Kelleysville, BATTLE OF. See KELLY'S of settlers thither, but they were driven FORD.
229
KELLOGG— KELLY
Kellogg-, CLARA LOUISE, opera-singer; Territory in 18G1 ; colonel of the 7th Illi- born in Sumterville, S. C., July 12, 1842; riois United States Volunteers in 1861; removed to New York in 185G, and there collector in 1865; United States Senator received her musical education. She made from Louisiana in 1868; governor of her first appearance in New York as Louisiana, 1873-77; re-elected United Gilda, in Rigoletto, in 1861, and in Lon- States Senator in 1877; member of Con- don in Her Majesty's Theatre in 1867. gress, 1883-85.
She made tours through the United States Kelly, JAMES EDWARD, sculptor ; born
from 1868 till her reappearance in Lon- in New York' City, July 30, 1855; began
don in May, 1872. Returning to the studying art under Charles Parsons, of
United States, she sang in Italian opera the art department of Harper & Brothers,
for a season; organized an English opera in 1873, and subsequently at the Academy
company; then an Italian opera company of Design; and in 1878 began his career
(1876); married her manager, Carl Stra- as an illustrator in sculpture of person-
kosch, in 1887, and retired to private ages and events prominent in American
life. history by modelling the well - known
Kellogg, EDGAR ROMEYN, military offi- statuette of Sheridan's Ride, for which
cer ; born in New York City, March 25, the general posed. In the following year
1842; entered the army in April, 1861, as he made a portrait bust of Thomas A.
a sergeant in the 24th Ohio Infantry; was Edison with the first phonograph; and in
promoted to second lieutenant in October 1882 produced the Paul Revere statue,
following; then resigned and enlisted as During 1883-85 he was engaged on the
a private in the 16th United States In- five panels for the Monmouth Battle
fantry. He was promoted to first lieu- Monument, representing the Council of
tenant, Aug. 1, 1862; attained the rank War at Hopewell; Ramsey Defending His
of brigadier-general, Dec. 5, 1899, and was Guns; Washington Rallying His Troops;
retired for disabilities Dec. 16, 1899. In Molly Pitcher; and Wayne's Charge. In
the Civil War he greatly distinguished 1886 he completed Grant at Donelson, for
himself in the battle of Murfreesboro and which the general furnished sittings and
in the Atlanta campaign, and in the war details. For the Saratoga Monument he
with Spain (1898) he commanded the 10th produced the panels, Arnold Wounded in
United States Infantry in the battle of the Trenches; and Schuyler Transferring
San Juan Hill, near Santiago de Cuba, ft is Plans to Gates. For the National
on July 1. Cemetery at Gettysburg he was the sculp-
Kellogg, ELIJAH, clergyman; born in tor of General Deven and the 6th New
Portland, Maine, May 20, 1813; graduated York Cavalry and the Buford Monument,
at Bowdoin in 1840. He wrote many In 1891 he produced the colossal figure,
popular books for young people, and was The Call to Arms, for the Soldiers' Monu-
the author of the well-known Address of ment at Troy, N. Y. In 1895 he fur-
Spartacus to the Gladiators. He died in nished the Long Island panel, for the Sons
Harpsburg, Maine, March 17, 1901. of the Revolution; in 1897 the memorial
Kellogg, MARTIN, educator; born in of the battle of Harlem Heights on the
Vernon, 'Conn., March 15, 1828; graduated grounds of Columbia University, also for
at Yale College in 1850; went to Cali- the Sons of the Revolution; and in 1901
fornia as a Congregational clergyman; was engaged on a monument to commem-
was Professor of 'Latin in the old Cali- orate the defence of New Haven, for the
fornia College in 1859-69; and in 1869, Sons of the American Revolution. Besides
when the University of California was these works he has produced heads of the
founded, became Professor of Ancient Lan- principal commanders of the Civil War
guages there. He held the chair till 1893, from life, including Generals Grant, Sheri-
and was then president till 1899. He died dan, Sherman, Hancock, Stanley, Pleason-
in San Francisco, Cal., Aug. 26, 1903. ton, etc. ; a portrait bust of Admiral Wor-
Kellogg, WILLIAM PITT, governor of den; busts and statuettes from life of
Louisiana; born in Orwell, Vt., Dec. 8, Admiral Dewey, Rear- Admiral Sampson,
1831; admitted to the bar of Illinois in and Lieutenant Hobson ; and heads from
1850; appointed chief-justice of Nebraska life of the captains of Dewey's and Samp-
230
KELLY'S FORD— KEMPFF
LOUIS KEMPFF.
son's fleets, and of the principal army offi- each. When an attempt was made to send cers of the Spanish-American War, and this international force to Peking to res- an equestrian statue of Gen. Fitz-John cue the members of the foreign legations Porter. there, the Tsung-li-Yamen (or Chinese for-
Kelly's Ford, a locality on the Rappa- eign office) refused permission, but subse- hannock River in Virginia, which was the quently a portion of the allied troops, in- scene of several engagements between the National and Confederate forces during the Civil War. The first, on Aug. 20,
1862, was with the cavalry of the Army of Virginia; the second, on March 17,
1863, in which the 1st and 5th United States, the 3d, 4th, and 16th Pennsyl- vania, the 1st Rhode Island, the 6th Ohio, and the 4th New York cavalry regiments, and the 6th New York battery were engaged; the third, on Aug. 1-3, 1863, being a part of the engagements at Rappahannock and Brandy stations; and the fourth, Nov. 7, 1863, in which the 1st United States Sharp-shooters, the 40th New York, 1st and 20th Indiana, 3d and 5th Michigan, and the 110th Pennsylvania regiments, supported by the remainder of the 3d Corps of the Army of the Potomac, were engaged. On Jan. 27, 1864, the cavalry division of the Army of the Ohio
had an engagement at Fair Gardens, Tenn., eluding sixty-three American marines, otherwise known as French Broad or were sent by train to the capital, reach- Kelly's Ford. ing it on June 1. The troubles grew rap- Kempff, Louis, naval officer; born idly worse, and on June 17 the foreign ad- near Belleville, 111., Oct. 11, 1841; grad- mirals at Taku, with the exception of Ad- uated at the United States Naval Acad- miral Kempff, sent a demand for the emy in 1861 ; and was assigned to evacuation of the Taku forts by 2 P.M. the Vandalia on blockading duty off In answer to this demand the Chinese Charleston. While there he captured the opened fire upon the foreign war - ships schooner Henri/ Middleton, of Charleston, which had congregated in the harbor, and took it to New York. On Nov. 7 he The British, French, Russian, and Japa- participated in the battle at Port Royal, nese ships replied, and after seven hours S. C. He was made lieutenant in 1862. the forts surrendered. At first there was During the remainder of the Civil War he general regret among naval officers and served on the Wabash and other vessels others that Admiral Kempff had not of the Atlantic and Gulf squadrons; took taken part in the bombardment of the part in the bombardment of Sewell's forts. Later, however, he gave as his rea- Point, Va., in May, 1862; and in the re- sons that a state of war against China occupation of Norfolk, Va. In 1866 he did not exist; that such an attack would was promoted lieutenant-commander; in be legally an act of war; and that formal 1876, commander; in 1891, captain; and aggression by the foreign governments in 1899, rear-admiral. In 1900, when the would be regarded by the Chinese as con- Boxer troubles broke out in China, he stituting a state of war, would unite all was assigned to the command of the the Chinese against the powers, and in- American naval forces in Chinese waters, crease the difficulty of settling the He arrived at Taku on the Newark, May trouble. These reasons were found to be 28, and on the following day sent ashore in strict harmony with the policy of 108 marines. The other foreign war-ships the United States government. Admiral in the harbor also landed about 100 men Kempff's action was approved by his gov-
231
KENDALL— KENESAW MOUNTAINS
ernment, and was subsequently com- mended by many European statesmen.
Kendall, AMOS, statesman; born in Dunstable, Mass., Aug. 16, 1789; gradu- ated at Dartmouth in 1811; removed to Kentucky, and was admitted to the bar in 1814. For some time he was tutor in Henry Clay's family; subsequently editor of several papers, of which the Argus of Western America, published in Frank- fort, Ky., was the most influential; was Postmaster - General in 1835-40, during which time he freed that department of debt, besides introducing numerous re- forms. He published the Life of Andrew Jackson, Private, Military, and Civil. He died in Washington, D. C., Nov. 11, 1869. See KITCHEN CABINET.
Kendall, GEORGE WILKINS, journalist; born in Amherst (now Mount Vernon), N. H., Aug. 22, 1809; removed to New Or- leans in 1835, and with Francis A. Lums- den, founded the Picayune, the first cheap daily newspaper in that city. Later this paper became the best known in the South. His publications include Narrative of the
Texan Santa Fe Expedition; and The War between the United States and Mexico. He died in Oak Spring, Tex., Oct. 22, 1867. Kenesaw Mountains, ACTION NEAR. General Johnston, pursued by General Sherman, after evacuating Allatoona Pass, took a stand. At his back were the Big and Little Kenesaw mountains, within 3 miles of Marietta. With these ly- ing close together, Lost and Pine moun- tains formed a triangle. Confederate bat- teries covered their summits, and on the top of each Confederate signal-stations were placed. Thousands of men were busy in the forest casting up intrench- ments from base to base of these rugged hills in preparation for a great struggle. Sherman advanced to Big Shanty, and there made preparations to break through the Confederate works between Kenesaw and Pine mountains. Hooker was on the right and front of his line, Howard was on the left and front, and Palmer be- tween it and the railway. Under a heavy cannonade, the advance began, June 14, 1864. The Nationals pushed over the
VIEW OP KENESAW FROM PINE MOUNTAIN.
232
KENNAN— KENNEDY
rough country, fighting at almost every on his return lectured on that subject in step. That night the Confederates aban- the United States and England. In May, doned Pine Mountain, and took position 1898, he went to Cuba with the American in the intrencLments between Kenesaw National Red Cross Society. His works and Lost mountains. Upon the latter include Tent Life in Siberia; Siberia and eminence the Nationals advanced in a the Exile System; Campaigning in Cuba, heavy rain-storm, and on the 17th the Con- etc.
federates abandoned Lost Mountain and Kennebec River Expedition. General the long line of intrenchments connect- Washington sent Gen. Benedict Arnold to ing it with Kenesaw. Sherman continu- the Kennebec to co-operate with Mont- ally pressed them heavily, skirmishing in gomery in the Canadian expedition of dense forests, furrowed with ravines and 1775. Arnold, with 1,200 men, reached tangled with vines. Quebec and assaulted the town on Dec. 31.
From the top of Kenesaw Johnston MONTGOMERY (q. v.) was killed, and 400 could see the movements of the Nationals, Americans were captured. After a siege and from batteries on its summit could of three months, Arnold was driven away hurl plunging shot. The antagonists by Burgoyne.
struggled on; and finally General Hood Kennedy, JOHN PENDLETON, statesman sallied out of the Confederate intrench- and author; born in Baltimore, Md., Oct. ments with a strong force to break through 25, 1795; graduated at the University of Sherman's line between Thomas and Scho- Maryland in 1812; admitted to the bar in field. He was received with a terrible 1816; elected to the House of Delegates, return blow, which made him recoil in Maryland, in 1820; to the House of Repre- great confusion, leaving, in his retreat, sentatives in 1838 ; was a member of the his killed, wounded, and many prisoners, twenty-fifth, twenty-seventh, and twenty- This struggle is known in history as the eighth Congresses; elected speaker of the battle of the Kulp House. This repulse Maryland House of Delegates in 1846; ap- inspirited the Nationals, On June 27 pointed Secretary of the Navy under Pres- they made a furious assault on the Con- ident Fillmore in 1852. Among his works federate lines at two points south of are a Review of Mr. Cambreling's Free- Kenesaw, to break them, separate their Trade Report; A Memorial on Domestic forces, and destroy their army. The Na- Industry; A Report on the Commerce and tionals were repulsed, with an aggregate Navigation of the United States, by the loss of about 3,000 men. Among the killed Committee of Commerce, of which Mr. were Generals C. G. Harker and D. Me- Kennedy was chairman; and also a Re- Cook, and many valuable officers of lower port on the Warehouse System by the same grade were wounded. The loss of the committee; Life of William Wirt; Dis- Confederates, behind their breastworks, courses on the Life of William Wirt, and was slight. Sherman now disposed his George Calvert, the First Lord Baltimore. troops so as to seriously threaten John- Mr. Kennedy as an author is, however, best ston's rear. Turner's Ferry across the known by his novels, Swallow Barn; A Ghattahoochee was menaced, and the in- Sojourn in the Old Dominion; Horse-shoe tended effect was instantaneous. On the Robinson: A Tale of the Tory Ascendency; night of July 2 Johnston abandoned Kene- Rob of the Bowl, a Legend of St. Inigoes, saw and all his intrenchments, and when, a story of colonial Maryland life. He died at dawn (July 3), the Nationals stood on in Newport, R. I., Aug. 28, 1870. the crest of that mountain, they saw the Kennedy, WILLIAM, author; born near Confederates flying through and beyond Paisley, Scotland, Dec. 26, 1799; was made Marietta towards the Chattahoochee, in consul at Galveston, Tex., where he lived the direction of Atlanta. for many years, returning to England in
Kennan, GEORGE, author; born in Nor- 1847. He was the author of The Rise, walk, O., Feb. 16, 1845. In 1866-68 he Progress, and Prospects of the Republic directed the construction of the middle of Texas; and of a condensation of the division of the Russo-American telegraph same, entitled Texas, Its Geography, Nat- line. In 1885-86 he went to Siberia to ural History, and Topography, etc. He examine the Russian exile system; and died near London, England, in 1847.
233
KENT— KENTON
Kent, JACOB FORD, military officer; born in Philadelphia, Sept. 14, 1835; en- tered the army as second lieutenant of the 3d Infantry, in May, 1861. For gal- lantry at Marye's Heights he was pro- moted first lieutenant, and brevetted cap- tain and major; was promoted captain of the 3d Infantry in 1864; and for gallantry in the battle of Spottsylvania, and for distinguished services in the field during the war, was brevetted lieu- tenant-colonel and colonel. At the close of the war he was commissioned colonel of the 24th United States Infantry. On July 8, 1898, he was appointed a major- general of volunteers. During the cam- paign in Cuba he commanded the first division of the 5th Corps. On Oct. 4, 1898, he was promoted brigadier - gen- eral, U. S. A., and on Oct. 15 was retired at his own request.
Kent, JAMES, jurist; born in Phillips- town, N. Y., July 31, 1763; studied law
JAMES KENT.
with Egbert Benson; and began its prac- tice in 1787, at Poughkeepsie, N. Y. He was a member of the New York legislat- ure from 1790 to 1793, and became Pro- fessor of Law in Columbia College in 1793. Deeply versed in the doctrine of civil law, he was made a master in chan- cery in 1796; city recorder in 1797; judge of the Supreme Court in 1798; chief- justice in 1804; and was chancellor from 1814 to 1823. After taking a leading part in the State constitutional convention in 1821, he again became law professor in
Columbia College, and the lectures he there delivered form the basi? of his able Commentaries on the United States Con- stitution, published in 4 volumes. He was one of the clearest legal writers of his day. In 1828 he was elected president of the New York Historical Society. He passed his later years in revising and en- larging his Commentaries, and in giving opinions on legal subjects. He died in New York City, Dec. 12, 1847.
Kent Island Colony. In May, 1631, King Charles I. granted a license to Will- iam Claiborne " to traffic in those parts of America for which there was already no patent granted for sole trade." With the intention of monopolizing the Indian trade of Chesapeake Bay, Claiborne and his asso- ciates planted a small colony on Kent Island, situated in the centre of the prov- ince of Maryland, soon afterwards granted to Lord Baltimore. This grant and settle- ment gave much trouble to the proprietor of Maryland and the settlers there under his patent. See CLAIBORNE, WILLIAM.
Kenton, SIMON ; born in Fauquier coun- ty, Va., April 3, 1755. Supposing he had killed in an affray a rival in a love affair when he was sixteen years old, he fled to the wilderness west of the Alleghany Mountains, where he was the friend and companion of Daniel Boone in many dar- ing feats. He was in expeditions against the Indians, was captured by them, and taken to Detroit. Escaping from a Brit-
SIMON KENTON.
234
KENTUCKY
STATE SEAL OP KENTUCKY.
ish prison there in 1779, he distinguished ing stations. A great majority of the himself in resisting the invasion of Ken- people were loyal to the Union, but the tucky by the British and Indians in that governor was not, and the unfortunate year. Finally, after an expedition against position of neutrality which the latter, the Indians on the Miami, he settled with the Confederates, caused Kentucky (1784) near Maysville. He accompanied to assume brought upon her the miseries Wayne in his expedition in 1794. In 1805 he was seated near the Mud River, in Ohio, and was made brigadier-general of militia. In 1813 he served under Governor Shelby at the battle of the Thames. Beg- gared by lawsuits because of defective titles to lands, he lived in penury many years. In 1824 he appeared at Frankfort, Ky., in tattered clothes, and successfully appealed to the legislature to release the claim of the State to lands which were his. Congress afterwards allowed him a pen- sion. He died in Logan county, O., April 29, 1836.
Kentucky, STATE OF. In 1776 Ken- tucky was made a county of Virginia, and in 1777 the first court was held at Har- rodsburg. Conventions held at Danville in 1784-85 recommended a peaceable and con- stitutional separation from Virginia. In
1786 an act was passed by the Virginia of civil war. Steps were taken for the legislature complying with the desires of secession of the State, and for the or- Kentucky, and on June 1, 1792, it was ganization of a Confederate State govern- admitted into the Union as a State. Its ment, but failed. The State was scarred population at that time was about 75,000. by battles, invasions, and raids, and mar- For several years much uneasiness was tial law was proclaimed by President Lin- felt among the people of Kentucky on ac- coin, July 5, 1864. The civil authority count of Indian depredations and the free was restored Oct. 18, 1865. A convention navigation of the Mississippi River. These for revision of the State constitution, or- were settled satisfactorily by the purchase dered at the 1889 election by a majority of Louisiana in 1803. During the War of of 31,931, met at Frankfort, Sept. 8 of 1812 Kentucky took an active part, send- the same year. The new constitution was ing fully 7,000 men to the field; and after completed on April 11, submitted to the that war the State was undisturbed by people at the August election, and was any stirring events until the breaking out adopted by an overwhelming vote. It of the Civil War. A second constitution was published as the fundamental law took effect in 1800, a third in 1850. At of the State on Sept. 28, 1891. Popula- the beginning of the Civil War Kentucky tion in 1890, 1,858,635; in 1900, 2,147,174. assumed a position of neutrality, but it See UNITED STATES — KENTUCKY, in was really one of hostility to the Union, vol. ix. The governor refused to comply with the President's requisition for troops; but Lieut. William Nelson, of the navy, a native of the State, and then on ordnance duty at Washington, began to recruit for the National army; and towards the close Christopher Greenup. of July, 1861, he established Camp Dick Jj^aSby.'.'.' Robinson, in Garrard county, for the or- George Madison ganization of Kentucky volunteers. These John^dt'ir"8!1.1! flocked to this camp and to other recruit- Joseph Desha...
235
GOVERNORS.
1792 to 1796
1796 1804
1820 1824
1804 1808 1812 1816
1812
1816 1816 o 1820
1824
KENTUCKY, STATE OF
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GOVERNORS-Continued. try beyond the mountains westward of |
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Term. JN orth Carolina. In 1769 he returned to |
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Thomas Metcalfe |
1828 to 1832 ^TUI th Carolina and gave glowing accounts 1832 '| 1834 of the fertile country he had left. He 1836 « 1837 Pei*suaded Daniel Boone and four others 1837 " 1840 to go with him to explore it. Boone had 1844 " 1848 Become a great hunter and expert in 1848 " 1850 woodcraft. They reached the headwaters 1851 » 1855 of the Kentucky, and, from lofty hills, 1855 " 1859 beheld a vision of a magnificent valley, 1861 " 1863 covered with forests, stretching towards 1863 " 1867 the Ohio, and abounding in game of the I86818to7 1871 woods and waters of every kind. They 1871 " 1875 fought Indians — some of the tribes who 1879 " 1883 roamed over Kentucky as a common 1883 " 1887 hunting-ground. Boone was made a pris- 1891 » 1895 oner' but escaPed- He determined to 1896 " 1900 settle in the beautiful country between the upper Kentucky and Tennessee 1900 to rivers, and, after remaining a while the |
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John Breath itt |
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J T Morehead |
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James Clark |
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C A Wicklille |
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Robert P Letcher |
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William Owsley |
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John L Helm . . |
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Charles S Morehead |
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Beriah Magoffln |
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Thomas E. Bramlette . . |
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John W Stevenson |
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Preston H Leslie |
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James B McCrearv . . |
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Luke P Blackburn |
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J Proctor Kuott |
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j Y Brown |
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William 0 Bradley |
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WilliamS Taylor ... |
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William Goebel |
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J. C. W. Beckham |
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UNITED STATES SENATORS. sole white man in that region, he returned |
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Name. |
No. of Congress |
Term. tor his wife and children in 1771. Two |
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2d to 9th 2d " 4th 4th " 7th 7th " 9th 9th 9th 9th to llth 10th " 13th llth 12th to 13th 13th 13th to 14th 13th " 14th 14th " 19th 14th 15th 16th to 21st 16th 19th 21st to 24th 22d " 27th 24th " 30th 27th 30th 30th to 32d 31st " 32d 32d 32d to 33d 33d 34th to 37th 36th " 39th 37th 37th to 42d 39th " 40th 40th 42d 42d to 45th 43d " 46th 45th " 51st 46th " 49th 49th " 55th 51st " 52d 53d «« 56th 55th " 57th 57th " 58th " |
; years later he started with his own and 1 t <v& tO loUO .-» . - - ... 1792 " 1795 «ve other families for the paradise in 1801 " 1805 the wilderness. Driven back upon settle- 1805 " 1806 nients on the Clinch, he was detained a isoe " 1809 year and a half longer- He penetrated to 1807 " 1813 the Kentucky, and, on June 14, 1775, com- 1811 " 1814 l)leted a log fort on the site of the present 1814 Boonesboro. He soon brought his family 1813 l° 1815 there' and Planted the first permanent 1815 " 1825 settlement in Kentucky. Mrs. Boone and 181? " 1819 her daughters were the first white women 1819 «• 1829 who ever stood on the banks of the Ken- 1819^^1820 tucky River. 1829 to 1835 The precarious tenure by which places 1835 <"' 1848 that Were settled in Kentucky by Boone 1842 arid others were held, while the land was 1848 to 1849 subjected to bloody incursions by Ind- 1849 « 1852 ians> was changed after George Rogers 1852 Clarke's operations in Ohio had made 5218531885 the tribes there no longer invaders of the 1855 to 1861 soil south of that river. The number of 159 1861 18<5 "stations" began to multiply. A block- 1861 to 1872 house was built (April, 1779) on the site ISfi'i ** IftAft f • • 1868 « 1871 ot tne C1tv °* Lexington. By a law of 1872 «| 1873 Virginia (May, 1779), all persons who 1873 '« 1879 ^'ad se^tled west of the mountains before 1877 || 1890 June, 1778, were entitled to claim 400 1885 " 1897 acres °f land, without any payment; and 1890 «« 1893 they had a right of pre-emption to an ad- 1897 " 1903 Joinillg 1>QQO acres for a very small sum 1901 •« of money, while the whole region between I the Greene and Tennessee rivers was re- |
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John Edwards |
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Humphrey Marshall John Breckinridge |
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Henry Clay |
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John B. Thurston |
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John Pope |
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Henry Clay |
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George M Bibb |
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George Walker |
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William T Barry |
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Jessie Bledsoe |
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Isham Talbot |
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Martin D. Hardin John J Crittenden |
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Richard M. Johnson |
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George M Bibb |
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John J. Crittenden James T. Morehead Thomas Metcalfe |
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Joseph R. Underwood. . . Henry Clay |
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David Meriwether Archibald Dixon John B. Thompson John J Crittenden |
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Lazarus W. Powell .... |
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John C. Breckinridge.... Garrett Davis |
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James Guthrie |
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Thomas C. McCreery Willis B. Machen John W. Stevenson Thomas C. McCreery James B Beck |
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John S. Williams Joseph C. S. Blackburn. John G Carlisle |
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William Lindsey William J. Deboe Joseph C. S. Blackburn. . James B. McCreary |
Early Settlements. — In 1767 John Fin- served for military bounties. Settlements ley, an Indian trader, explored the coun- quite rapidly increased under this liberal
236
KENTUCKY, STATE OF
Virginia land system, and fourteen years free-labor and slave-labor border States to after its passage Kentucky had a popu- decide upon just compromises, and de- lation that entitled it to admission into clared their willingness to support the the Union as a State. national government, unless the incom- In Civil War Days. — The people were ing President should attempt to " coerce strongly attached to the Union, but its a State or States." The legislature,
DANIEL BOONS S FIRST SIGHT OF KENTUCKY.
governor (Beriah Magoffin) and leading which assembled about the same time,
politicians of his party in the State sym- was asked by the governor to declare, by
pathized with the Confederates. The ac- resolution, the " unconditional disappro-
tion of Kentucky was awaited with great bation " of the people of the State of the
anxiety throughout the Union. The gov- employment of force against " seceding
ernor at first opposed secession, for the States." On Jan. 22 the legislature ac-
people were decidedly hostile to revolu- cordingly resolved that the Kentuck-
tionary movements in the Gulf region; ians. united with their brethren of the
yet they as decidedly opposed what was South, would resist any invasion of the
called the " coercion of a sovereign soil of that section at all hazards and
State." At a State convention of Union to the last extremity. This action was
and Douglas men, held on Jan. 8, 1861, taken because the legislatures of several
it was resolved that the rights of Ken- free - labor States had offered troops for
tucky should be maintained in the Union, the use of the national government in
They were in favor of a convention of the enforcing the laws in " seceding States."
237
KENTUCKY, STATE OF
They decided against calling a conven- tion, and appointed delegates to the Peace Congress.
On April 18 a great Union meeting was held in Louisville, over which James Guthrie and other leading politicians of the State held controlling influence. At that meeting it was resolved that Ken- tucky reserved to herself " the right to choose her own position; and that, while her natural sympathies are with those who have a common interest in the pro- tection of slavery, she still acknowledges her loyalty and fealty to the government of the United States, which she will cheerfully render until that government becomes aggressive, tyrannical, and re- gardless of our rights in slave property." They declared that the States were the peers of the national government, and gave the world to understand that the latter should not be allowed to use " san- guinary or coercive measures to bring back the seceded States." They alluded to the Kentucky State Guard as the "bul- wark of the safety of the commonwealth, . . . pledged equally to fidelity to the United States and to Kentucky."
Early in the summer the governor de-
clared that arrangements had been made that neither National or Confederate troops should set foot on the soil of that State. The neutrality of Kentucky was respected many months. Pillow had urged the seizure of the bluff at Colum- bus, in western Kentucky, as an aid to him in his attempt to capture Cairo and Bird's Point, but the solemn assurance of the Confederate government that Ken- tucky neutrality should be respected re- strained him; but on Sept. 4, General (Bishop) Polk, with a considerable force, seized the strong position at Columbus, under the pretext that National forces were preparing to occupy that place. The Confederate Secretary of War publicly telegraphed to Polk to withdraw his troops; President Davis privately tele- graphed to him to hold on, saying, " The end justifies the means." So Columbus was held and fortified by the Confederates. General Grant, then in command of the district at Cairo, took military possession of Paducah, in northern Kentucky, with National troops, and the neutrality of Kentucky was no longer respected. The seizure of Columbus opened the way for the infliction upon the people of that
FIRST (PERMANENT) STATE-HOUSE, FRANKFORT, KT.
238
KENTUCKY, STATE OF
KENTUCKY KIVER. FROM HIGH BRIDGE.
State of the horrors of war. All Ken- tucky, for 100 miles south of the Ohio River, was made a military department, with Gen. Robert Anderson, the hero of Fort Sumter, for its commander.
Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston, was in command of the Confederate Western De- partment, which included southern and western Kentucky, then held by the Con- federates, and the State of Tennessee, with his headquarters at Nashyille. Un- der the shadow of his power the Con-
federates of Kentucky met in convention at Russellville, Oct. 29, 1861. They drew up a manifesto in which the grievances of Kentucky were recited, and the action of the loyal legislature was denounced. They passed an ordinance of secession, declared the State independent, organized a pro- visional government, chose George W. Johnston provisional governor, appointed delegates to the Confederate Congress at Richmond, and called Bowling Green the State capital. Fifty-one counties were
239
KENTUCKY, STATE OF
SITE OF THB LAST INDIAN SETTLEMENT IN KENTUCKY.
represented in that convention by about These troops were from States north- 200 men, without the sanction of the ward of the Ohio, and loyalists of Ken- people, tucky and Tennessee. They occupied an Late in 1861, the Confederates occupied irregular line across Kentucky, paral- a line of military posts across southern lei with that of the Confederates. Gen- Kentucky, from Cumberland Gap to Co- eral McCook led 50,000 men down the rail- lumbus, on the Mississippi River, a dis- road, and pushed the Confederate line to tance of nearly 400 miles. Don Carlos Bowling Green, after a sharp skirmish at Buell, major-general, had been appointed Mumfordsville, on the south side of the commander of the Department of the Ohio, Green River. In eastern Kentucky Col. with his headquarters at Louisville. There James A. Garfield struck (Jan. 7, 1862) he gathered a large force, with which he the Confederates, under Humphrey Mar- was enabled to strengthen various ad- shall, near Prestonburg, on the Big Sandy vanced posts and throw forward along the River, and dispersed them. This ended line of the Nashville and Louisville Rail- Marshall's military career, and Garfield's way a large force destined to break the services there won for him the commis- Confederate line. He had under his com- sion of a brigadier-general. On the 19th, mand 114,000 men, arranged in four col- General Thomas defeated Gen. George B. umns, commanded respectively by Brig.- Crittenden near Mill Spring, when Gen- Gens. A. McDowell McCook, O. M. eral Zollicoffer was slain and his troops Mitchel, G. H. Thomas, and T. L. Crit- driven into northwestern Tennessee. This tenden, acting as major-generals, and latter blow effectually severed the Con- aided by twenty brigade commanders, federate lines in Kentucky, and opened
240
KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS
the way by which the Confederates were co-States forming, as to itself, the other soon driven out of the State and also out party. That the government created by of Tennessee. The Confederate line was this compact was not made the exclusive paralyzed eastward of Bowling Green, and or final judge of the extent of the powers their chief fortifications and the bulk of delegated to itself; since that would have their troops were between Nashville made its discretion, and not the Constitu- and Bowling Green and the Mississippi, tion, the measure of its powers; but that On that line was strong Fort Donel- as in all other cases of compact among son, on the Cumberland River. Believ- parties having no common judge, each ing Beauregard to be a more dashing offi- party has an equal right to judge for it- cer than Johnston, the Confederates ap- self, as well of infractions as of the mode pointed him commander of the Western and measure of redress. Department, late in January, 1862, and II. Resolved, that the Constitution of he was succeeded in the command at Ma- the United States having delegated to Con- nassas by Gen. G. W. Smith, formerly of gress a power to punish treason, counter- New York City. feiting the securities and current coin of
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, the United States, piracies and felonies
THE. The Federal party in the United committed on the high seas, and offences
States determined to crush out by law the against the laws of nations, and no other
anti-Federalists who were bitterly attack- crimes whatever, and it being true as a
ing the administration. In 1798 they sue- general principle, and one of the amend-
ceeded in passing the Naturalization act ments to the Constitution having also de-
of June 18, the Alien acts of June 25, and declared " that the powers not delegated
July C, and the Sedition act of July 14. to the United States by the Constitution,
Virginia, New York, New Jersey, Penn- nor prohibited by it to the States, are re-
sylvania, and Kentucky petitioned Con- served to the States respectively, or to the
gress to repeal these laws. Of these, Ken- people," therefore also the same act of
tucky felt the most aggrieved, and on Congress passed on July 14, 1798, and en-
Nov. 8, 1798, John Breckinridge intro- titled "An act in addition to the act en-
duced the Kentucky resolutions, which titled an act for the punishment of cer-
were substantially drafted by Jefferson, tain crimes against the United States," as
These were adopted by the Lower House also the act passed on June 27, 1798, en-
on Nov. 10, by the Upper House on Nov. titled " An act to punish frauds com-
13, arid approved by the governor on mitted on the Bank of the United States "
Nov. 16. Copies were immediately print- (and all other of their acts which assume
ed and sent to the officials of all the other to create, define, or punish crimes other
States and to Congress. The following than those enumerated in the Constitu-
is the text of these resolutions: tion), are altogether void and of no force,
and that the power to create, define, and
I. Resolved, that the several States com- punish such other crimes is reserved, and
posing the United States of America are of right appertains solely and exclusively
not united on the principle of unlimited to the respective States, each within its
submission to their general government; own Territory.
but that by compact under the style and III. Resolved, that it is true as a gen- title of a Constitution for the United eral principle, and is also expressly de- States, and of amendments thereto, they clared by one of the amendments to the constituted a general government for Constitution, that " the powers not dele- special purposes, delegated to that govern- gated to the United States by the Consti- ment certain definite powers, reserving tution, nor prohibited by it to the States, each State to itself, the residuary mass are reserved to the States respectively or of right to their own self-government; and to the people"; and that no power over that whensoever the general government the freedom of religion, freedom of speech, assumes undelegated powers, its acts are or freedom of the press being delegated to unauthoritative, void, and are of no force, the United States by the Constitution, nor That to this compact each State acceded prohibited by it to the States, all law- as a State, and is an integral party, its ful powers respecting the same did of right v.— Q 241
KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS, THE
remain, and were reserved to the States, the act of the Congress of the United
or to the people; that thus was manifested States passed on June 22, 1798, en-
their determination to retain to them- titled " An act concerning aliens," which
selves the right of judging how far the assumes power over alien friends not
licentiousness of speech and of the press delegated by the Constitution, is not
may be abridged without lessening their law, but is altogether void and of no
freedom, and how far those abuses, which force.
cannot be separated from their use, V. Resolved, that in addition to the should be tolerated, rather than the use be general principle, as well as the express destroyed; and thus also they guarded declaration, that powers not delegated are against all abridgment by the United reserved, another and more special pro- States of the freedom of religious opinions vision inserted in the Constitution from and exercises, and retained to themselves abundant caution has declared " that the the right of protecting the same, as this migration or importation of such per- State, by a law passed on the general de- sons as any of the States now existing mand of its citizens, had already protected shall think proper to admit, shall not be them from all human restraint or inter- prohibited by the Congress prior to the ference; and that in addition to this gen- year 1808." That this commonwealth does eral principle and express declaration, an- admit the migration of alien friends other and more special provision has been described as the subject of said act con- made by one of the amendments to the cerning aliens; that a, provision against Constitution, which expressly declares prohibiting their migration is a pro- that " Congress shall make no law re- vision against all acts equivalent there- specting an establishment of religion, or to, or it would be nugatory; that to prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or remove them when migrated is equiva- abridging the freedom of speech, or of the lent to a prohibition of their migra- press," thereby guarding in the same sen- tion, and is therefore contrary to the tence, and under the same words, the free- said provision of the Constitution, and dom of religion, of speech, and of the press, void.
insomuch, that whatever violates either, VI. Resolved, that the imprisonment of throws down the sanctuary which covers a person under the protection of the laws the others, and that libels, falsehoods, and of this commonwealth on his failure to defamation, equally with heresy and false obey the simple order of the President to religion, are withheld from the cogni- depart out of the United States, as is un- zance of federal tribunals. That there- dertaken by the said act entitled " An act fore the act of the Congress of the concerning aliens," is contrary to the Con- United States, passed on July 14, 1798, stitution, one amendment to which has entitled " An act in addition to the act provided that " no person shall be deprived for the punishment of certain crimes of liberty without due process of law," and against the United States," which does that another having provided " that in all abridge the freedom of the press, is criminal prosecutions the accused shall not law, but is altogether void and of enjoy the right to a public trial by an no effect. impartial jury, to be informed of the nat- IV. Resolved, that alien friends are un- ure and cavise of the accusation, to be der the jurisdiction and protection of the confronted with the witnesses against him, laws of the State wherein they are; that to have compulsory process for obtaining no power over them has been delegated to witnesses in his favor, and to have the the United States, nor prohibited to the assistance of counsel for his defence," individual States distinct from their the same act undertaking to authorize the power over citizens; and it being true as President to remove a person out of the a general principle, and one of the amend- United States who is under the protection ments to the Constitution having also de- of the law, on his own suspicion, with- clared that " the powers not delegated to out accusation, without jury, without pub- the United States by the Constitution nor lie trial, without confrontation of the prohibited by it to the States are reserved witnesses against him, without having to the States respectively or to the people," witnesses in his favor, without defence,
242
KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS, THE
without counsel, is contrary to these pro- a repeal of the aforesaid unconstitutional
visions also of the Constitution, is there- and obnoxious acts.
fore not law but utterly void and of no IX. Resolved, lastly, that the governor
force. That transferring the power of of this commonwealth be, and is hereby
judging any person who is under the pro- authorized and requested to communicate
tection of the laws, from the courts to the the preceding resolutions to the legislat-
President of the United States, as is un- ures of the several States, to assure them
dertaken by the same act concerning aliens, that this commonwealth considers Union
is against the article of the Constitution for specified national purposes, and par-
which provides that "the judicial power ticularly for those specified in their late
of the United States shall be vested in federal compact, to be friendly to the
courts, the judges of which shall hold peace, happiness, and prosperity of all the
their offices during good behavior," and States; that faithful to that compact, ac-
that the said act is void for that reason cording to the plain intent and meaning
also; and it is further to be noted that in which it was understood and acceded
this transfer of judiciary powers is to that to by the several parties, it is sincerely
magistrate of the general government who anxious for its preservation ; that it does
already possesses all the executive, and also believe, that to take from the States
a qualified negative in all the legislative all the powers of self - government, and
power. transfer them to a general and consoli-
VII. Resolved, that the construction ap- dated government, without regard to the plied by the general government (as is special delegations and reservations sol- evinced by sundry of their proceedings) to emnly agreed to in that compact, is not those parts of the Constitution of the for the peace, happiness, or prosperity of United States which delegate to Congress these States. And that therefore this com- a power to lay and collect taxes, duties, monwealth is determined, as it doubts not imposts, and excises; to pay the debts its co-States are, tamely to submit to un- and provide for the common defence and delegated and consequently unlimited pow- general welfare of the United States, and ers in no man or body of men on earth; to make all laws which shall be necessary that if the acts before specified should and proper for carrying into execution the stand, these conclusions would flow from powers vested by the Constitution in the them; that the general government may government of the United States, or any place any act they think proper on the department thereof, goes to the destruc- list of crimes and punish it themselves, tion of all the limits prescribed to their whether enumerated or not enumerated by power by the Constitution. That words the Constitution as cognizable by them; meant by that instrument to be subsid- that they may transfer its cognizance to iary only to the execution of the limit- the President or any other person, who ed powers, ought not to be so construed may himself by the accuser, counsel, judge, as themselves to give unlimited powers, and jury, whose suspicions may be the nor a part so to be taken, as to destroy evidence, his order the sentence, his offi- the whole residue of the instrument, cer the executioner, and his breast the That the proceedings of the general gov- sole record of the transaction ; that a ernment, under color of these articles, will very numerous and valuable description be a fit and necessary subject for re- of the inhabitants of these States, being visal and correction at a time of greater by this precedent reduced as outlaws to tranquillity, while those specified in the the absolute dominion of one man, and preceding resolutions call for immediate the barrier of the Constitution thus swept redress. away from us all, no rampart now re-
VIII. Resolved, that the preceding reso- mains against the passions and the power lutions be transmitted to the Senators and of a majority of Congress, to protect from Representatives in Congress from this a like exportation or other more grievous commonwealth, who are hereby enjoined punishment the minority of the same to present the same to their respective body, the legislatures, judges, governors, Houses, and to use the best endeavors to and counsellors of the States, nor their procure at the next session of Congress, other peaceable inhabitants who may ven-
243
KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS, THE
ture to reclaim the constitutional rights ments on the acts concerning aliens, and and liberties of the States and people, or for the punishment of certain crimes who for other causes, good or bad, may hereinbefore specified, plainly declaring be obnoxious to the views or marked by whether these acts are or are not au- the suspicions of the President, or be thorized by the federal compact. And it thought dangerous to his or their elec- doubts not that their sense will be so an- tions or other interests, public or person- nounced as to prove their attachment un- al; that the friendless alien has indeed altered to limited government, whether been selected as the safest subject of a general or particular, and that the rights first experiment; but the citizen will soon and liberties of their co-States will be ex- follow, or rather has already followed, posed to no dangers by remaining em- for already has a sedition act marked him barked on a common bottom with their as its prey; that these and successive acts own; that they will concur with this of the same character, unless arrested on commonwealth in considering the said the threshold, may tend to drive these acts so palpably against the Constitution States into revolution and blood, and will as to amount to an undisguised declara- furnish new calumnies against Republican tion, that the compact is not meant to governments, and new pretexts for those be the measure of the powers of the gen- who wish it to be believed that men can- eral government, but that it will pro- not be governed but by a rod of iron ; that ceed in the exercise over these States of it would be a dangerous delusion were a all powers whatsoever; that they will view confidence in the men of our choice to this as seizing the rights of the States silence our fears for the safety of our and consolidating them in the hands of rights; that confidence is everywhere the the general government with a power as- paren^. of despotism; free government is sumed to bind the States (not merely in founded in jealousy and not in confi- cases made federal ), but in all cases what- dence; it is jealousy and not confidence soever, by laws made, not with their con- which prescribes limited constitutions to sent, but by others against their consent; bind down those whom we are obliged to that this would be to surrender the form trust with power; that our Constitution of government we have chosen, and to live has accordingly fixed the limits to which under one deriving its powers from its and no further our confidence may go; own will, and not from our authority; and let the honest advocate of confidence and that the co-States recurring to their read the Alien and Sedition acts, and say natural right in cases not made federal if the Constitution has not been wise in will concur in declaring these acts void fixing limits to the government it created, and of no force, and will each unite and whether we should be wise in destroy- with this commonwealth in requesting ing those limits. Let him say what the their repeal at the next session of Con- government is if it be not a tyranny, gress.
which the men of our choice have conferred Virginia affirmed substantially the same
on the President, and the President of our threatening doctrine, Dec. 21, 1798, more
choice has assented to and accepted over temperately and cautiously set forth in
the friendly strangers, to whom the mild resolutions drawn by Madison, as follows: spirit of our country and its laws had
pledged hospitality and protection; that Resolved, that the General Assembly the men of our choice have more respected of Virginia doth unequivocally express a the bare suspicions of the President than firm resolution to maintain and defend the solid rights of innocence, the claims the Constitution of the United States, and of justification, the -sacred force of truth, the constitution of this State, against ev- and the forms and subsistence of law and ery aggression, either foreign or domestic, justice. In questions of power, then, let and that they will support the govern- no more be heard of confidence in man, ment of the United States in all measures but bind him down from mischief by the warranted by the former, chains of the Constitution. That this That this Assembly most solemnly de- commonwealth does therefore call on its clares a warm attachment to the union of co-States for an expression of their senti- the States, to maintain which it pledges
244
KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS, THE
all its powers; and that for this end it is of free government, as well as the particu- their duty to watch over and oppose every lar organization and positive provisions of infraction of those principles which con- the federal Constitution; and the other stitute the only basis of that union, be- of which acts exercises, in like manner, a cause a faithful observance of them can power not delegated by the Constitution, alone secure its existence and the public but on the contrary expressly and positive- happiness. ]y forbidden by one of the amendments
That this Assembly doth explicitly and thereto; a power which more than any peremptorily declare that it views the pow- other ought to produce universal alarm, ers of the federal government, as result- because it is levelled against the right of ing from the compact to which the States freely examining public characters and are parties, as limited by the plain sense measures, and of free communication and intention of the instrument constitut- among the people thereon, which has never ing that compact ; as no further valid than been justly deemed the only effectual they are authorized by the grants enu- guardian of every other right, merated in that compact, and that in case That this State having, by its conven- of a deliberate, palpable, and dangerous tion which ratified the federal Constitu- exercise of other powers not granted by tion, expressly declared " that, among the said compact, the States who are par- other essential rights, the liberty of con- ties thereto have the right, and are in science and of the press cannot be can- duty bound, to interpose for arresting the celled, abridged, restrained, or modified by progress of the evil, and for maintaining any authority of the United States," and, within their respective limits the au- from its extreme anxiety to guard these thorities, rights, and liberties appertain- rights from every possible attack of ing to them. sophistry or ambition, having with other
That the General Assembly doth also States recommended an amendment for
express its deep regret that a spirit has, that purpose, which amendment was in
in sundry instances, been manifested by due time annexed to the Constitution, it
the federal government to enlarge its would mark a reproachful inconsistency
powers by forced constructions of the con- and criminal degeneracy, if an indifference
stitutional charter which defines them; were now shown to the most palpable vio-
and that indications have appeared of a lation of one of the rights thus declared
design to expound certain general phrases and secured, and to the establishment of
(which having been copies from the very a precedent which may be fatal to the
limited grant of powers in the former arti- other.
cles of confederation were the less liable That the good people of this common- to be misconstrued), so as to destroy the wealth having ever felt and continuing meaning and effect of the particular enu- to feel the most sincere affection to their meration, which necessarily explains and brethren of the other States, the truest limits the general phrases; so as to anxiety for establishing and perpetuating consolidate the States by degrees into the union of all, and the most scrupulous one sovereignty, the obvious tendency and fidelity to faiat Constitution which is the inevitable consequence of which would be pledge of mutual friendship, and the in- to transform the present republican sys- strument of mutual happiness, the Gen- tem of the United States into an abso- eral Assembly doth solemnly appeal to the lute or, at best, a mixed monarchy. like dispositions of the other States, in
That the General Assembly doth partic- confidence that they will concur with this
ularly protest against the palpable and commonwealth in declaring, as it does
alarming infractions of the Constitution, hereby declare, that the acts aforesaid
in the two late cases of the " Alien and Se- are unconstitutional, and that the neces-
dition acts," passed at the last session of sary and proper measures will be taken
Congress, the first of which exercises a by each for co - operating with this
power nowhere delegated to the federal State in maintaining unimpaired the
government, and which, by uniting legis- authorities, rights, and liberties reserved
lative and judicial powers to those of to the States respectively, or to the
executive, subverts the general principles people.
245
KEOKUK— KERB,
That the governor be desired to trans- the Virginia peninsula, early in 1862, it
mit a copy of the foregoing resolutions to was necessary to hold the Confederates in
the executive authority of each of the oth- check in the Shenandoah Valley (where
er States, with a request that the same they were led by " Stonewall " Jackson ) ,
may be communicated to the legislature in order to secure Washington, D. C.
thereof. General Lander, who had struck Jackson a
And that a copy be furnished to each of sharp blow at Blooming Gap, had died,
the Senators and Representatives repre- and was succeeded in command by Gen-
senting this State in the Congress of the eral Shields. Banks was then (February,
United States. 1862) in command of the 5th Corps.
The Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 were He sent Colonel Geary to reoccupy Har-
followed by another series in 1799, in per's Ferry, and took command there in
which the right of a sovereign State to person late in that month. He pushed
nullify obnoxious laws of the federal gov- Jackson back to Winchester, where he was
ernment was distinctly claimed. posted with about 8,000 men, when John-
The Resolutions of 1799 asserted " that ston evacuated Manassas, early in March, the principle and construction contended Then he retired up the valley, pursued by for by sundry of the State legislatures, Shields, who produced great consterna- that the general government is the exclu- tion among the Confederates. Shields sive judge of the nature of the powers found his antagonist too strong to war- delegated to it, stopped not short of des- rant an attack, and fell back to Winclies- potism — since the discretion of those who ter, closely pursued by cavalry under Colo- administer the government and not the nel Ashby. Banks repaired to Manassas Constitution would be the measure of after its evacuation, leaving Shields to their powers; that, the several States who guard the Shenandoah Valley. Near Win- formed that instrument, being sovereign Chester he had nearly 7,000 men (part of and independent, have the unquestionable them cavalry) and twenty- four guns well right to judge of the infraction; and, posted half a mile north of the village of that a nullification of those sovereign- Kernstown and 2y2 miles south of Win- ties of all unauthorized acts done under Chester. On March 22 Ashby's cavalry color of that instrument is the rightful drove in Shieds's pickets. Under cover of remedy." night Shields pushed on some troops, under
Keokuk, chief of the Sac and Fox Ind- Colonel Kimball, to Kernstown. A sharp
ians; born on Rock River, 111., about 1780; and severe battle ensued, in which Shields
was a strong friend of the whites, and by was badly wounded. The Confederates
his influence among his people averted a were repulsed at all points, and fled up
number of attacks which they had planned the valley, closely pursued by Banks, who
against the Americans. In 1832, when remained in that region to watch the Con-
his band was intent upon uniting with federates, while McClellan should move on
BLACK HAWK (q. v.) in an attack on the Richmond.
Americans, he held his warriors aloof and Kerr, MICHAEL CRAWFORD, statesman ;
even held in check Black Hawk himself, born in Titusville, Pa., March 15, 1827;
Later, he visited Washington, New York, graduated at the Louisville University in
etc. He died in Kansas in June, 1848. 1851; removed to Indiana in 1852, where
Kernan, FRANCIS, lawyer; born in he practised law. After filling various
Wayne, N. Y., Jan. 14, 1816; was gradu- State offices he was elected to Congress
ated at Georgetown College, Washington, in 1864 and served until 1872, when he
D. C., in 1836; admitted to the bar in was defeated for re-election by a small
1840; reporter of the New York Court of majority. He was returned to Congress
Appeals in 1854-57; elected to the legisla- in 1874, and elected speaker of the House,
ture in 1861, and to Congress in 1862; Dec. 6, 1875. He died in Rockbridge, Va.,
and was a Democratic United States Aug. 19, 1876.
Senator in 1875-81. He died in Utica, Kerr, ORPHEUS C. See NEWELL, ROB-
N. Y., Sept. 15, 1892. ERT HENRY.
Kernstown, BATTLE AT. When the Kerr, WILLIAM JASPER, educator; born
Army of the Potomac was transferred to in Richmond, Utah, Nov. 17, 1863; took
246
KETTEL— KEY
FRANCIS SCOTT KEY.
the normal course at the University of Frederick county, Md., Aug. 9, 1780; was Utah in 1882-84, and studied at Cornell a lawyer and poet, and, removing to University in 1890-91, and during the Washington, D. C., became district attor- summers of 1891-93. He was instructor ney. A collection of his poems was pub- in geology, physiology, and physics in Brigham Young College in 1887-88, and instructor in mathematics till 1892, when he became Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in the University of Utah, where he remained till 1894, when he was elected president of Brigham Young Col- lege.
Kettel, SAMUEL, editor; born in New- buryport, Mass., Aug. 5, 1800; became editor of the Boston Courier in 1848. His publications include Specimens of Ameri- can Poetry, with Critical and Biographical Notices; Personal Narrative of the First Voyage of Columbus, etc. He died in Maiden, Mass., Dec. 3, 1855.
Kettle Creek, BATTLE OF. Nearly 800 North and South Carolina Tories, led by Colonel Boyd, started to join the Brit- ish at Augusta, in February, 1779, deso- lating the upper country of the latter State on the way. When within two days' lished after his death, in Baltimore, Jan. march of Augusta they were attacked 11, 1843.
(Feb. 14), at Kettle Creek, by Col. An- The Star-Spangled Banner. — On the re- drew Pickens, with the militia of Ninety- turn of the British to their vessels after six, and, after a sharp fight, were de- the capture of Washington, they carried feated. Boyd and seventy of his men with them Dr. Beanes, an influential and were killed, and seventy-five were made well-known physician of Upper Marlboro, prisoners. Pickens lost thirty -eight His friends begged for his release, but men. Admiral Cockburn refused to give him up,
Key, DAVID MCKENDREE, jurist; born and sent him on board the flag-ship of in Green county, Tenn., Jan. 27, 1824; Admiral Cochrane. Key, then a resident passed his youth on a farm; gradu- of Georgetown, well known for his affa- ated at Hiwassee College, and admitted to bility of manner, was requested to go to the bar in 1850; and settled in Chat- tanooga to practise in 1853. He was a Democratic Presidential elector in 1856 and 1860; served throughout the Civil War in the Confederate army; was a member of the State constitutional con- vention in 1870; chancellor of the third chancery district of Tennessee from 1870* to 1875; and was elected United States
Senator in 1875, to fill a vacancy. He Cochrane as a solicitor for the release of was appointed Postmaster-General in the doctor. He consented, and the Presi- President Hayes's cabinet, in 1877; re- dent granted him permission. In corn- signed on becoming judge of the eastern pany with John S. Skinner, a well-known and middle districts of Tennessee, in citizen of Baltimore, he went in the car- 1880; and resigned the last appointment tel-ship Minden, under a flag of truce, in 1895. He died in Chattanooga, Tenn., They found the British ships at the mouth Feb. 3, 1900. of the Potomac, preparing to attack Balti-
Key, FRANCIS SCOTT, author; born in more. Cochrane agreed to release Beanes,
247
SIGNATURE OF FRANCIS SCOTT KKV.
KEY, FRANCIS SCOTT
KEYES— KICKAPOOS
but refused to allow him or his friends to 1848; admitted to the bar in 1862; con- return then. They were placed on board nected with the New York State banking the Surprise, where they were courteously department in 1865-73; and later resumed treated. When the fleet went up Patapsco law practice. His publications include Bay, they were sent back to the Minden, New York Court of Appeals Reports; His- with a guard of marines to prevent their tory of Savings-Banks in the United landing and conveying information to States; and New York Code of Public In- their countrymen. The Minden was an- struction. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., chored within sight of Fort McHenry, and Oct. 17, 1897.
from her decks the three friends observed Keyes, ERASMUS DARWIN, military
the fierce bombardment of the fort which officer; born in Brimfield, Mass., May 29,
soon ensued. It ceased before the dawn 1810; graduated at West Point in 1832,
(Sept. 14, 1814). The anxious Americans entered the artillery, and was made
did not know whether the fort had sur- assistant adjutant, with rank of captain,
rendered or not. They awaited the appear- in 1838. Becoming full captain in 1841,
ance of daylight with painful suspense, he was appointed instructor of artillery
In the dim light of the opening morning and cavalry at West Point in 1844. He
they saw through their glasses the star- did service against the Indians on the
spangled banner yet waving in triumph Pacific coast, and when the Civil War
over the fort, and soon learned the fate broke out was appointed (May, 1861),
of the land expedition against Baltimore colonel of infantry and brigadier-general
and preparations of the discomfited British of volunteers. At the battle of Bull
for speedy departure. When the fleet was Hun, in July, he commanded the first bri-
ready to sail, Key and his friends were re- gade in Taylor's division. Early in 1862
leased, and returned to the city. It was he was appointed commander of the 4th
during the excitement of the bombardment, Corps of the Army of the Potomac, and
and when pacing the deck of the Minden won the rank of major-general of volun-
between midnight and dawn, that Key teers and the brevet of brigadier-general,
composed the popular song, The Star- U. S. A., by his conduct in the peninsular
Spangled Banner, the first stanza of which campaign. He resigned May 6, 1864, and
expressed the feelings of thousands of eye- engaged in gold - mining. General Keyes
witnesses of the scene, and is reproduced published Fifty Years' Observation of
on the preceding page from the original Men and Events. He died in Nice, France,
manuscript. The rude substance of the Oct. 11, 1895.
song was written on the back of a Keystone State, the popular title for
letter which Key happened to have in the State of Pennsylvania, supposed to
his pocket. On the night after his re- have been given because of its central po-
turn to Baltimore he wrote it out in sition among the original thirteen States
full and read it to his uncle, Judge at the time of the formation of the na-
Nicholson, one of the defenders of the tional Constitution. In an arch formed
fort, and asked his opinion of it. The by the thirteen States Pennsylvania
pleased judge took it to the print- would, from its geographical position,
ing-office of Capt. Benjamin Edes, and form the keystone. The early certifi-
caused it to be printed in hand - bill cates of membership of the Tammany
form. Samuel Sands set up the song in Society have an arch composed of the
type, printed it, and distributed it among States, of which Pennsylvania is the key-
the citizens. It was first sung by Charles stone.
Durang, at a restaurant next door to Kickapoos, an Algonquian tribe found
the HolHday Street Theatre, Baltimore, by the French missionaries, towards the
to an assemblage of patriotic defenders close of the seventeenth century, on the
of Baltimore, and after that nightly at Wisconsin River. They were great rovers;
the theatre and everywhere in public and were closely allied to the Miamis; and in
private. 1712 joined the Foxes in an attack upon
Keyes, EMERSON WILLARD, lawyer; Detroit, and in wars long afterwards,
born in Jamestown, N. Y., June 30, 1828; They were reduced in 1747 to about eighty
graduated at the State Normal School in warriors, and when the English conquered
249
KIDD
Canada in 1763 there were about 100 Kickapoos on the Wabash. They joined Pontiac in his conspiracy, but soon made peace; and in 1779 they joined George Rogers Clarke in his expedition against the British in the Northwest. Showing hostility to the Americans, their settle- ment on the Wabash was desolated in 1791; but they were not absolutely sub- dued until the treaty at Greenville in 1795, after Wayne's decisive victory, when they ceded a part of their land for a small annuity. In the early part of the nine- teenth century the Kickapoos made other cessions of territory; and in 1811 they joined Tecumseh and fought the Amer- icans at Tippecanoe. In the War of 1812 they were the friends of the English; and afterwards a larger portion of them crossed the Mississippi and seated them- selves upon a tract of land on the Osage River. Some cultivated the soil, while others went southward as far as Texas, in roving bands, plundering on all sides. For some time Texas suffered by these inroads ; but in 1854 some of them, peaceably in- clined, settled in Kansas, when, becom- ing dissatisfied, many of them went off to Mexico, where they opposed the depreda- tions of the Apaches. In 1899 there were 237 Kickapoos at the Pottawattomie and Great Nehama agency in Kansas, and 246 Mexican Kickapoos at the Sac and Fox agency in Oklahoma.
Kidd, WILLIAM, navigator; born in Scotland, presumably in Greenock, about 1650; entered the merchant-marine ser- vice in his youth, and distinguished him- self as a privateersman against the French in the West Indies. He was active against the pirates that infested the wa- ters near New York, out of which port he sailed; and for his services the Assem- bly of the province gave him $750 in 1691. In 1695 a company for the suppression of piracy by privateering was organized in England. Among the shareholders in the enterprise were King William III., the Earl of Bellomont, Robert Livingston, of New York, and other men of wealth and influence. One-tenth of all the booty gained by privateering was to be set aside for the King, and the rest was to be divided among the shareholders. A new ship, of 287 tons, was bought, and named the Adventure Galley; and at the sugges-
tion of Livingston, who was then in Eng- land, Captain Kidd was appointed her commander and admitted as a shareholder. His commission bore the royal seal and signature. On April 3, 1696, he sailed from Plymouth, and arrived at New York about July 4. With his ship well pro- visioned, and with a crew of 154 men and boys, he sailed for Madagascar, the chief rendezvous of the pirates who infested the India seas.
In the course of a year or more rumors reached England that Kidd had turned pirate. At length the clamor became so loud that the royal shareholder in the en- terprise and his associates perceived the necessity of taking action, and an order was issued to all English colonial govern- ors to cause the arrest of Kidd wherever he might be found. In the spring of 1699 he appeared in the West Indies in a vessel loaded with treasure. Leaving her in a bay on the coast of Haiti in charge of his first officer and a part of the ship's com- pany, he sailed northward with forty men in a sloop, entered Long Island Sound, and at Oyster Bay took on board James Emott, a New York lawyer, and, landing him on Rhode Island, sent him to the Earl of Bellomont, then at Boston as governor of Massachusetts, to inquire how he (Kidd) would be received by his partner in the enterprise. During Emott's absence Kidd had buried some of his treasure, which he brought with the sloop, on Gar- diner's Island. Bellomont's answer was such that Kidd went to Boston, July 1, 1699, where he was arrested, sent to Eng- land, tried on a charge of piracy and mur- der, found guilty, and executed, May 24, 1701, protesting his innocence. It is ad- mitted that his trial was grossly unfair; and it is believed that Kidd was made a scape-goat to bear away the sins of men in high places. Earl Bellomont sent to Haiti for Kidd's ship, but it had been stripped by the men in charge; but he recovered the treasure buried on Gardiner's Island; also that which Kidd had with him on the sloop, amounting in the aggregate to about $70,000. Ever since Kidd's death there have been numerous at- tempts to discover places along the At- lantic and Gulf coasts where the pirate was believed to have secreted other treasure.
250
KIDDER-KIEFT
Kidder, FREDERICK, author; born in New Ipswich, N. H., April 16, 1804; en- gaged in business at different times in Boston, New York, and the South; and became widely known as an antiquarian authority. His publications include The History of New Ipswich, N. H., from Its First Grant in 1736 to 1852 (with Augus- tus A. Gould) ; The Expeditions of Capt. John Lovewell; Military Operations in Eastern Maine and Nova Scotia during the Revolution; History of the First New Hampshire Regiment in the War of the Revolution; and History of the Boston Massacre, March 5, 1110. He died in Melrose, Mass., Dec. 19, 1885.
Kieft, WILHELM, Dutch governor; born in Holland, about 1600. Little is known of him before his appearance at Manhat- tan on March 28, 1638. He seems to have been an unpopular dweller at Rochelle, France, where his effigy had been hung upon a gallows. De Vries, an active mar- iner, who knew him well, ranked him among the " great rascals " of his age. He was energetic, spiteful, and rapacious — the reverse of Van Twiller, his immediate pred- ecessor. Kieft began his administration by concentrating all executive power in his own hands; and he and his council pos- sessed such dignity, in their own estima- tion, that it became a high crime to ap- peal from their decision. He found public affairs in the capital of New Nether- land in a wretched condition, and put forth a strong hand to bring order out of confusion. Abuses abounded, and his measures of reform almost stripped the citizens of their privileges. Dilapidated Fort Amsterdam was repaired and new warehouses for the company were erected. He caused orchards to be planted, gardens to be cultivated, police ordinances to be framed and enforced, religion and morality to be fostered, and regular religious ser- vices to be publicly conducted. A spa- cious stone church was built within the fort, and the Connecticut architect hung in its wooden tower Spanish bells which had been captured at Porto Rico.
A more liberal policy in respect to the ownership of land caused the immigration to increase, and Cavaliers from Virginia and Puritans from New England were seen listening to Dominie Bogardus in his
fine pulpit in the new church. All that Kieft required of new settlers was an oath of fidelity and allegiance to the States- General of Holland. The demands for new homesteads caused Kieft to purchase lower Westchester and a large portion of Long Island. The encroaching Puritans on the east, and the Swedes on the Dela- ware, gave Kieft much concern, especially the latter, for Minuit, a former Dutch governor, was at their head. Kieft pro- tested against their " intrusion." Minuit laughed at him, and disregarded his threats. Very soon the energetic char- acter of the governor, manifested in well- doing, was as conspicuous in ill-doing. He allowed his fellow-traders with the Ind- ians to stupefy them with rum and cheat them; and he demanded tribute of furs, corn, and wampum from the tribes around Manhattan. They paid the tribute, but cursed the tyrant. Kieft saw their power and was afraid. Some swine were stolen from colonists on Staten Island, when Kieft, seeking an excuse for striking ter- ror to the hearts of those he had wronged, accused the Raritans of the crime, and sent armed men to chastise them. The River Indians grasped their hatchets and refused to pay tribute any longer. The hatred of all the savages was aroused. The people of New Amsterdam were alarmed, and quarrels between them and the governor were frequent and stormy. He wanted to make war on the Indians. The people refused to bear a musket or favor the crime. Unwilling to bear the responsibility, Kieft called an assembly of " masters and heads of families," in New Amsterdam, to consult upon public measures. Twelve discreet men were chosen (1641) to act for them; and this was the first representative as- sembly in New Netherland. War was deferred, and the twelve devised a plan for a municipal government for New Am- sterdam.
Kieft was alarmed, for he did not wish his own power abridged, and he made promises (but to be broken) of conces- sions of popular freedom on their giv- ing him consent to chastise the Indians in Westchester. It was reluctantly given, when the perfidious governor dissolved them, and forbade any popular assembly thereafter. In 1643 he caused a cruel
251
KILBOURNE— KILPATRICK
HUGH JUDSON KILPATRiCK.
massacre of fugitive Indians at HOBOKEN dier-general and major-general of volun- (q. v.). A fierce war was kindled. The teers, and the command of a division of friendly Long Island tribes joined their cavalry in the Army of the Potomac. He injured brethren, and the Dutch colony was very active in the campaign against was threatened with destruction. Help Atlanta in 1864, in Sherman's march to came from a Puritan, and the Indians were subdued. Kieft, despised by the colonists on whom he had brought ruin, humbly asked them to form a representa- tive council again. The people gladly did so, for they had lost all confidence in the governor. This concession was a pitiful trick of Kieft to foil the wrath of the colonists. He neglected the advice of the popular assembly, and sought by every means to fill his own coffers with gain against a day of reckoning which he perceived was near. The representa- tives of the people, finding his rule unen- durable, asked for the recall of Kieft be- fore the colony should be ruined. Their prayer was heeded, and the people cele- brated his departure by the firing of great guns. Some pugnacious burghers threatened the governor with personal chastisement when he should "take off the coat with which he was bedecked by
the lords, his masters." The prophecy the sea, and in his march through the of De Vries (1643) — "The murders in Carolinas to the surrender of Johnston, which you [Kieft] have shed so much For the latter campaign he was brevetted innocent blood will yet be avenged upon major-general U. S. A. In 1865-68 your own head" — was fulfilled. Kieft he was United States minister to Chile; sailed for Holland Aug. 16, 1647, in the in 1881 he was reappointed; and held the ship Princess, with more than $100,000 post till his death in Valparaiso, Dec. 4, of ill-gotten wealth. The vessel, by mis- 1881.
take, entered the Bristol channel, struck On Sunday morning, Feb. 28, 1864, Kil- a rock, and was wrecked on the coast of patrick, with 5,000 cavalry, picked from Wales, and Kieft was drowned. his own and the divisions of Merritt
Kilbourne, JOHN, author; born in and Gregg, crossed the Rapidan, swept Berlin, Conn., Aug. 7, 1787; graduated around to the right flank of Lee's army at Vermont University in 1810. His pub- by way of Spottsylvania Court - house, lications include Gazetteer of Vermont; and, pushing rapidly towards Richmond, Gazetteer of Ohio; a volume of Public struck the Virginia Central Railroad at Documents concerning the Ohio Canals; Beaver Dam station, where he had his a map of Ohio; and a School Geogra- first serious encounter with the Confed- phy. He died in Columbus, O., March 12, erates, under the Maryland leader, Brad- 1831. ley T. Johnson, whom he defeated. Then
Kilpatrick, HUGH JUDSON, military he struck across the South Anna, cut the officer; born near Deckertown, N. J., Fredericksburg and Richmond Railway, Jan. 14, 1836; graduated at West and on March 1 halted within 3 miles of Point in 1861; and first entered the ar- Richmond. His grand object was to tillery. He was wounded in the battle liberate the Union captives from Libby of Big Bethel (June, 1861), and in Sep- prison (see CONFEDERATE PRISONS). He tember was made lieutenant-colonel of was now within the outer line of its cavalry. His efficient services on all oc- defences, at which the Confederates had casions won for him the rank of briga- thrown down their arms and fled into
252
KIMBALL— KINDERGARTEN
the city. At Spottsylvania Court-house 1834; graduated at Bowdoin College in about 500 of his best men, led by Col. 1855; was admitted to the bar in 1858; Ulric Dahlgren, a dashing young officer, and began practice in North Berwick, Me. diverged from the main column for the In September, 1859, he was elected to the purpose of striking the James River Canal State legislature; in January, 1861, be- above Richmond, destroying as much of came clerk in the office of the second audi- it as possible, and, crossing the James tor of the treasury at Washington; and River, attacked the Confederate capital on in 1870 became chief clerk. He took the south simultaneously with the attack charge of the Revenue Marine Service in of Kilpatrick on the north. The object 1871, and in 1878 was appointed general of this move was to liberate the Union superintendent of the United States Life- prisoners at Belle Isle, on the James Saving Service. He represented the Unit- River, in front of Richmond. Kilpat- ed States in the international marine rick, disappointed in not hearing Dahl- conference in 1880. He is the author of gren's guns, and hard pressed by the Con- Organization and Methods of the United federates as he attempted to penetrate States Life-Saving Service. the second line of defences, withdrew Kindergarten, a system of education after a sharp fight, and halted 6 miles originated by Friedrich Wilhelm August from Richmond. He was pursued by the Froebel. The first school was opened at Confederates, with whom he skirmished, Blankenburg, Germany, but it was not and returned to his place of departure, until 1849 that the system was carried to Meanwhile Dahlgren, misled by a negro any effective extent in that country, and guide, failed to cross the James River, not until 1851 that it was introduced into but struck the outer line of fortifications England. The system rests upon the idea on the northern side of Richmond at that education in its earliest phases dark, March 2. In a conflict that ensued should depend upon the perceptive facul- the Nationals were repulsed, and they ties. Whatever there may be in a child retreated towards Chickahominy, hotly of instinct, desire, impulse, hope, or pur- pursued. Dahlgren and about 100 of his pose should at first be strengthened, men became separated from the rest. On Children from the ages of four to six are the evening of the 3d the young leader, admitted to the kindergarten and are in a conflict some distance from Rich- taught by means of toys, games, and sing- mond, was shot dead, and his men were ing. Only five kindergarten schools ex- made prisoners. isted in the United States prior to 1870.
General Sherman, when he heard of When the National Educational Associa-
Wheeler's raid, sent Kilpatrick, with tion met in Boston, Mass., in 1872, a com-
5.000 cavalry, during the night of Aug. mittee was appointed to examine the sys-
18, 1864, to strike the railway at West tern. This committee recommended its
Point, Ga., and break it to Fairborn, general adoption. When first introduced
and then to tear up the Macon road into this country it was entirely a pri-
thoroughly. When he reached the Macon vate undertaking; but later, when its suc-
road, near Jonesboro, he was confronted cess was proven, it began to be included
by Ross's Confederate cavalry. These he in the curriculum of public school educa-
routed, and drove through Jonesboro, tion. At the beginning of the twentieth
and just as he began tearing up the road century nearly every public school sys-
some cavalry came up from the south, tern, whether in city or town, had a kin-
and compelled him to desist and fly. He dergarten department in operation. In
swept around, and again struck the road recent years the growth of such schools
at Lovejoy's, where he was attacked by has been so rapid that a special course of
a larger force. Through these he dashed, training for teachers in kindergarten work
capturing and destroying a four-gun 6at- has been found necessary, and there are
tery, and sweeping around, reached head- several institutions that make a specialty
quarters on the 22d, with seventy pris- of this teacher-training. In 1900 the
oners. United States bureau of education esti-
Kimball, SUMNER INCREASE, executive mated the number of pupils in kinder- officer; born in Lebanon, Me., Sept. 2, gartens at 203,600.
253
KING
King, CHARLES, author; born in Al- bany, N. Y., Oct. 12, 1844; graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1866, and commissioned a second lieuten- ant in the 1st Artillery; promoted to first lieutenant in 1870; transferred to the 5th Cavalry in 1871; promoted captain in 1879; and in the same year resigned his commission. He was inspector-general of the Wisconsin National Guard in 1882-89; commissioned colonel of the 4th Regiment in 1890; and made adjutant-general in 1895. Early in 1898 he was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers for the war with Spain; served in the Philippines; and resigned Aug. 2, 1899. For many years he has been known best as " Captain King, the author." His publications, which have obtained wide celebrity, in- clude Famous and Decisive Battles; Be- tween the Lines; Under Fire; The Gen- eral's Double; A Trooper Galahad; Found in the Philippines, etc.
King, CLARENCE, geologist; born in Newport, R. I., Jan. 6, 1842; gradu- ated at the Sheffield School of Yale Col- lege in 1862, and joined the California geological survey in 1863. He made the paleontological discoveries which deter- mined the approximate age of gold-bearing rocks. In 1867-72 he led the expedition for the geological survey of the 40th par- allel. In the latter year he exposed the Arizona " diamond fields " deception. He suggested and organized the United States geological survey, and in 1878-81 wras its director. From 1881 he was engaged in special investigations. He wrote Syste- matic Geology; Mountaineering in Sierra Nevada, etc. He died in Phoenix, Ariz., Dec. 24, 1901.
King, HAMILTON, diplomatist; born in St. Johns, Newfoundland, June 4, 1852; graduated at Olivet College, Mich., in 1878; appointed United States minister resident and consul-general to Siam in January, 1898. He is the author of Out- lines of United States History, etc.
King, HORATIO, lawyer; born in Paris, Me., June, 21, 1811; received a common school education; studied law, and was admitted to the bar; became a clerk in the Post-office Department in Washington in 1839; was made first assistant Post- master-General in 1854, and was Post- master-General from Feb. 12 to March 7,
1861, during which time he introduced the official-penalty envelope. Later he engaged in the practice of his profession in Washington. He published Turning on the Light (a review of the administration of President Buchanan), etc. He died in Washington, D. C., May 20, 1897.
King, HORATIO COLLINS, lawyer; born in Portland, Me., Dec. 22, 1837; grad- uated at Dickinson College in 1858; ad- mitted to the bar in 1861 ; served in the National army in 1862-65; practised law till 1870; then engaged in journalism. He published King's Guide to Regimental Courts- Martial, and edited Proceedings of the Army of the Potomac.
King, JAMES WILSON, naval engineer; born in Maryland in 1818; entered the navy in 1844 as third assistant engineer; served through the Mexican War ; was pro- moted to chief engineer in 1852; was ap- pointed chief engineer of the navy-yard in New York in 1858; and chief engineer of the Atlantic blockading squadron in 1861. In 1869-73 he was chief of the bureau of steam engineering. He was retired in 1880. During his service he made many improvements in the construction and equipment of war vessels. His publi- cations include European Ships of War; The War Ships and Navies of the World.
King, JONAS, missionary; born in Haw- ley, Mass., July 29, 1792; graduated at Williams College in 1816, and at Andover Seminary in 1819. For some months he was engaged in missionary work in South Carolina; and he went to Palestine in the same work in 1824, where he remained about three years. In the fall of 1827 he was employed as missionary in the North- ern and Middle States, and in July, 1828, he entered upon the Greek mission. In 1829 he married a Greek lady, and remained in that country until his death, in Athens, May 22, 1869. Before 1867 he had trans- lated and printed, in modern Greek, five volumes of the American Tract Society's publications. He also published four vol- umes of his own works in that language. Mr. King was a most efficient missionary.
King, PRESTON, lawyer; born in Og- densburg, N. Y., Oct. 14, 1806; was gradu- ated at Union College and later admitted to the bar. He was a member of Congress in 1843-47 and in 1849-51; and a Re- publican United States Senator in 1857-
254
KING— KING'S DAUGHTERS AND SONS
63; and later resumed practice in New served in the legislature of his State. He
York City, where he died Nov. 12, 1865. was a member of Congress (1811-16), and
King, RUFUS, statesman; born in Scar- for two years (1816-18) was secretary of boro, Me., March 14, 1755; graduated at legation at Naples. On his return he be- Harvard in 1777; studied law with Theo- came a cotton-planter in Alabama, and philus Parsons in Newburyport, and in was United States Senator from 1819 to 1778 became aide-de-camp on General 1844, and from 1847 to 1853, being minis- Glover's staff, in the expedition against ter to France during 1844-46. Mr. King the British on Rhode Island. In 1785 he \vas elected Vice-President of the United was an earnest advocate of the absolute States in 1852, but died (in Cahawba, freedom of the slaves, to be secured by Ala., April 18, 1853) a few weeks after the operation of an act of Congress, mak- taking the oath of office at Havana, a ing such freedom a fundamental principle privilege accorded by a special act of of the Constitution. Mr. King and Gen- Congress.
eral Schuyler were chosen the first repre- King George's War. See GEORGE II.,
sentatives of New York in the national 1744-48.
Senate of 1789, under the new Constitu- King Philip's War. See MASSACHU-
tion. Mr. King was a leading Federalist. SETTS; PHILIP, KING.
From 1798 to 1804 he was American King William's War. See WILLIAM
minister to Great Britain; and in 1818 III.
he was sent to the United States Senate King's Bridge, spanning Spuyten Duy-
for the third time. He was an able leader vil Creek, New York City, was first
of the opposition to the admission of erected in the year 1691, and called " the
Missouri under the terms of the com- King's bridge." An unsuccessful attempt promise as a slave-labor State. In 1825 he accepted the ap- pointment of minister to Eng- land, but returned in feeble health the next year, and died in Jamaica, L. L, April 29, 1827.
King, THOMAS STARR, clergyman; born in New York City, Dec. 17, 1824; was a minister in the Universalist Church till 1848, and after- wards in the Unitarian Church. At the outbreak of the Civil
War he worked earnestly for the Union was made by Washington to cut off a
cause and for the United States Sanitary force of the British at this place on the
Commission. He was a popular lecturer night of July 2, 1781. See NEW YORK
and the author of The White Hills; Patri- CITY.
otism and Other Papers; etc. He died in King's College. See COLUMBIA UNI-
San Francisco, Cal., March 4, 1864. VERSITY.
King, WILLIAM HENRY, jurist; born in King's Daughters, a religious organ-
Fillmore City, Utah, June 3, 1863; re- ization founded in New York City, Jan.
ceived a collegiate education; began law 18, 1886. It is inter - denominational,
practice in 1887; was president of the and purposes to do whatever is possi-
Utah Senate; appointed associate justice ble through women for the cause of hu-
of the Utah Supreme Court in 1894; and manity. Any woman or girl who will
was a Democratic member of Congress in give small but regular contributions to
1896-98, declining renomination. Christian work is eligible to membership.
King, WILLIAM RUFUS, statesman ; born It has a large membership in the United
in Sampson county, N. C., April 7, 1786; States and Europe.
graduated at the University of North King's Daughters and Sons, INTER-
Carolina in 1803; practised law, and NATIONAL ORDER OF THE. See INTERNA-
255
KING'S BRIDGE IN 1860
KING'S FERRY— KING'S MOUNTAIN
TIONAL ORDER OF THE KING'S DAUGHTERS AND SONS.
King's Ferry, THE. Between Stony Point and Verplanck's Point, on the Hud- son River, just below the lower entrance to the Highlands, was an important crossing-place, known as the King's Ferry. It was by this ferry that the great route from the Eastern to the Middle States crossed the Hudson. It was defended by two forts — Stony Point on the west side, and Fort La- fayette, at Ver- planck's Point, on the east. Sir Henry Clinton r e- solved to seize OLD SIGN. tnis ferry and
its defences. On
the return of the expedition of Matthews and Collier from Virginia, Sir Henry ascended the Hudson with the same squadron and 6,000 soldiers. He landed his troops on both sides of the river, May 31, 1779, a few miles below the forts. The works on Stony Point were unfin-
the fort at Verplanck's Point, which, in- vested on the land side, was compelled to surrender, June 1, after a spirited resist- ance.
King's Mountain, BATTLE ON. Maj. Patrick Ferguson was sent by Lord Corn- wallis to embody the Tory militia among the mountains west of the Broad River. Many profligate men joined his standard, and he crossed the river at the Cherokee Ford, Oct. 1, 1780, and encamped among the hills of King's Mountain, near the line between North and South Carolina, with 1,500 men. Several corps of Whig militia, under Colonels Shelby, Sevier, Campbell, and others, united to oppose Ferguson, and on Oct. 7 they fell upon his camp among a cluster of high, wood- ed, gravelly hills of King's Mountain. A severe engagement ensued, and the Brit- ish forces were totally defeated. Fergu- son was slain, and 300 of his men were killed or wounded. The spoils of victory were 800 prisoners and 1,500 stand of arms. The loss of the Americans was twenty men. The event was to Cornwallis what the defeat of the British near Ben- nington was to Burgoyne. Among the prisoners were some of the most cruel
VIEW AT KING'S MOUNTAIN BATTLE-GROUND.
ished, and, on the approach of the British, Tories of the western Carolinas, who had were abandoned. Cannon were placed on executed the severe orders of Cornwallis. its outer works, and brought to bear on Ten of them, after a trial by " drum-head
256
KING'S PROVINCE— KINGSTON
court-martial," were hung on the limb of a great tulip-tree. On the spot where Ferguson fell, a small monument was erected to commemorate the event, and to the memory of some of the patriots killed in the battle.
The defeat of the British changed the aspects of the war in the South. It awed the Tories and encouraged the Whigs. The mustering of forces beyond the mountains to oppose his movements took Cornwallis by surprise. It quick- ened the North Carolina legislature into more vigorous action, and it caused a gen- eral uprising of the patriots of the South, and suddenly convinced their oppressor that his march through North Carolina to the conquest of Virginia was not to be a mere recreation. Met by North Caro-
MONUMENT ON K INK'S MOUNTAIN.
linians at Charlotte, he was compelled to fall back to the Catawba, and his experi- ence in that winter campaign was marked by great perplexities and disasters.
King's Province. In 1683 a new royal commission was named for the settlement of boundary disputes between Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Plymouth. Its mem- bers beiRg principally selected from Massa- chusetts and Connecticut, Rhode Island ob- jected to them as not disinterested; and when they proceeded to hold a session within the disputed territory, the Rhode Island Assembly met near by and forbade them to "hold court" within the juris- diction of the province. The commission adjourned to Boston, and reported to the King (1686) that the Narraganset coun- try (the southwestern continental half of the present State of Rhode Island) be-
longed to Connecticut; this domain was called the King's Province for a while, but was under the jurisdiction of Joseph Dudley, the temporary royal governor of Massachusetts. He proceeded to organ- ize there an independent government, and changed the names of the towns.
Kingston, the present county seat of Ulster county, N. Y., was settled by the Dutch and Huguenots. It is memorable in the United States as the place where the first constitution of New York was framed, in 1777, and the first legislature was con- vened under it; also as having been de- stroyed by a British marauding expedi- tion up the Hudson in the autumn of the same year.
Kingston, BURNING OF. Sir Henry Clinton's success in capturing Forts Clin- ton and Montgomery emboldened him to send a marauding expedition up the Hud- son to make a diversion in favor of Bur- goyne, hoping thereby to draw many troops from the army of Gates to defend the exposed country below. Early on the morning after the capture of the forts, Oct. 16, 1777, the boom and chain were severed, and a flying squadron of light- armed vessels under Sir James Wallace, bearing the whole of Sir Henry's land force, went up the river to devastate its shores. Sir Henry wrote a despatch to Burgoyne on a piece of tissue-paper, say- ing, " We are here, and nothing between us and Gates," enclosing it in a small, hollow bullet. The messenger was arrest- ed in Orange county as a spy. The mes- sage was found and the spy was hanged. The marauding force, meanwhile, spread havoc and consternation along the snores. The legislature of the newly organized State of New York were then in session at Kingston. The marauders went thither and burned the village, Oct. 7, the legis- lature having escaped with their papers. Then they crossed over to the village of Rhinebeck Flats, and went to Living- ston's Manor and applied the torch. There they heard of Burgoyne's defeat.
Kingston (N. C.). General Evans, with 6,000 Confederate troops, was de- feated by General Foster, with 10,000 National troops, Dec. 14, 1862. The Con- federates, under Bragg, were overtaken by Cox, of Schofield's army, and obliged to retire to Goldsboro, March 8-10, 1865.
V, — R
257
KINLOCK— KIBCHWET
Kinlock, FRANCIS, patriot; born in the War of 1812-15, during which he was Charleston, S. C., March 7, 1755; was engaged in the military service. He went educated in England. When the Revolu- to Chicago in 1845, where he died, Feb. tionary War broke out he returned to 24, 1851, the last survivor of the " Boston America and became a captain in the Con- Tea-Party."
tinental army; held a seat in the con- Kinston, the county seat of Lenoir, vention of 1787, voting for the adoption N. C., and an important shipping port for of the national Constitution. He was cotton and tobacco. On Dec. 14, 1862, the author of a Eulogy on George Wash- there was an engagement here in which ington, Esq., etc. He died in Charleston, Wessell's brigade of Peck's division and S. C., Feb. 8, 1826. the 1st, 2d, and 3d brigades of the 1st
Kinney, JONATHAN KENDRICK, lawyer; division of the Department of North Caro- born in Royalton, Vt., Oct. 26, 1843; re- lina took part; and on March 14, 1865, ceived a common school education; served the city was occupied by the National in the Civil War; became a lawyer in forces under General Schofield. 1875. He is the author of A Digest of Kip, WILLIAM INGRAHAM, clergyman; the Decisions of the Supreme Court of the born in New York City, Oct. 3, 1811; United States. graduated at Yale College in 1831, and
Kinnison, DAVID, patriot ; born in Old later at the General Theological Seminary ; Kingston, near Portsmouth, Me., Nov. was. ordained in the Protestant Episcopal 17, 1736. With a few neighbors at Leb- Church in 1835; elected bishop of Califor- anon, Conn, (where he was a farmer), nia in 1857. He was the author of Early he went to Boston and assisted in destroy- Jesuit Missions in America; The Olden
Time in New York, etc. He died in San Francisco, Cal., April 7, 1893.
Kirchhoff, CHARLES WILLIAM, en- gineer; born in San Francisco, Cal., March 28, 1854; graduated at the Royal School of Mines, Claus- thal, Germany, in 1874. Returning to the United States he was chemist of the Delaware Lead Refinery in Philadelphia in 1874-79; managing editor of the Engineering and Mining Journal in 1883-86; and for several years was connected with The Iron Age, of which he became editor-in- chief in 1899. Since 1883 he has been special agent of the United States Geological Survey for the col- lection of statistics of the production of lead, copper, and zinc. He was president of the American Institute of Mining Engineers in 1898-99.
Kirchwey, GEORGE W., educator; born in Detroit, Mich., July 3, 1855; graduated at Yale College in 1879; studied law in New Haven and DAVID KINNISON. Albany; was admitted to the bar in
Albany in 1881 ; and practised there
ing the tea destined for that port. Dur- for ten years. In 1889-91 he was dean ing the Revolutionary War he was in ac- of the Albany Law School, and in 1891 tive service, and in the latter part of it he became Professor of Law in Columbia was a prisoner among the Indians more University. He has edited a number of than a year and a half. He lived in dif- legal text-books; contributed frequently ferent places until the breaking out of to legal periodicals; and was one of the
258
KIRKLANI>— KITTANNING
revisers of Johnson's Universal Cyclopce- He labored with that nation as a inis-
dia in 1892-95.
sionary of religion and patriotism during
Kirkland, CAROLINE MATILDA STANS- the war, when the other tribes of that
BURY, author; born in New York City, confederacy, through the influence of
Jan. 12, 1801; settled in Clinton, N. Y., Brant and the Johnsons, had taken the
and there married Mr. Kirkland in 1827. opposite side. He accompanied Sullivan
Her publications include Western Clear- in his expedition against the Senecas in
ings; The Evening Book, or Sketches of 1779. Mr. Kirkland was the founder of
Western Life; Memoirs of Washington; Hamilton College. Having been granted
The Destiny of Our Country, etc. She by the government a tract of land 2 miles
died in New York City, April 6, 18G4. square in the present town of Kirkland,
Kirkland, JAMES HAMPTON, edu- Oneida co., N. Y., he removed there in
cator; born in Spartanburg, S. C., Sept. 1789.
9, 1859; graduated at Wofford College 1808. in 1877; held the chair of Greek and
He died in Clinton, N. Y., Feb. 28,
German in Wofford College in
Kirkwood, SAMUEL JORDAN, lawyer; 1881- born in Harford county, Md., Dec. 20,
83; and then went abroad to travel and 1813; removed to Ohio in 1835, and was study. Returning to the United States admitted to the bar of that State in 1843. in 1886, he became Professor of Latin in He removed to Iowa in 1855; was elected Vanderbilt University, where he remained governor in 1859 and 1861 ; United States till 1893, when he was elected chancellor. Senator in 1866; governor again in 1875; He is the editor of Satires and Epistles and United States Senator again in 1876, of Horace, and author of numerous mono- serving until 1881, when he was appointed graphs and of contributions to philological Secretary of the Interior; retired to reviews, etc. private life in 1882. He died in Iowa
Kirkland, SAMUEL, missionary; born City, la., Sept. 1, 1894. in Norwich, Conn., Dec. 1, 1741; grad- Kitchen Cabinet, an appellation in uated at Princeton in 1765. At the common use during the administration school of Rev. E. Wheelock, he learned of President Jackson, of which Francis the Mohawk language, and, by sojourns P. Blair and Amos Kendall were the re- among the Senecas, their language also, cipients. Blair was the editor of The After the affair at Lexington, the pro- Globe, the organ of the administration, vincial congress of Massachusetts re- and Kendall was one of its principal con- quested him to use his influence to secure tributors. These two men were frequent- ly consulted by the President as confi- dential advisers. To avoid observation when they called on him, they entered the President's dwelling by a back door. On this account the opposition party, who believed the advice of these two men caused Jackson to fill nearly all the of- fices with Democrats, after turning out the incumbents, called them in derision the "kitchen cabinet."
Kittanning, DESTRUCTION OF. In con- sequence of repeated injuries from the white people of Pennsylvania, the Dela- ware Indians had become bitterly hostile in 1756. They committed many depre- dations, and early in September Col. John Armstrong marched against the Indian SAMUEL KIRKLAND. town of Kittanning, on the Alleghany
River, about 45 miles northeast from
either the friendship or neutrality of the Pittsburg. He approached the village Six Nations. He was instrumental in at- stealthily, and fell upon the Indians furi- taching the Oneidas to the patriot cause, ously with about 300 men at 3 A.M.,
259
KITTKEDGE— KLONDIKE
Sept. 8, 1756. The Indians refusing the was honorably discharged from that
quarter which was offered them, Colonel service.
Armstrong ordered their wigwams to be Klondike, a region in the Northwest
set on fire. Their leader, Captain Jacobs, Territory of Canada, bordering on the Klon-
and his wife and son were killed. About dike and Yukon rivers. The first white peo-
forty Indians were destroyed, and eleven pie who visited the region went there in
English prisoners were released. the interest of the Hudson Bay Company.
MAIN STREET, DAWSON CITY, JULY, 1897.
Kittredge, ALFRED B., lawyer; born in ln 1873 the existence of gold in paying
Cheshire county, N. H., March 28, 1861; quantities was reported, in a region then
was graduated, at Yale College in 1882, supposed to be wholly within British Co-
and from its law school in 1885; and be- lumbia. Miners penetrated farther towards
gan practice in Sioux Falls, S. D. He the Yukon in 1882, and were successful in
was a member of the State Senate in placer mining along the Stewart and other
1889-93; and a Republican United States rivers. The first rush for the region be-
Senator in 1901-09. gan in 1887, when the Forty-Mile Creek
Klamath Indians, a tribe of North was discovered and coarse gold found
American Indians. In 1899 there were there. In the next year mining was start-
673 on a reservation at the Hoopa Valley (;d on the Forty-Mile Creek, and by 1897
agency in California, and 585 at the nearly all of the available gold had been
Klamath agency in Oregon. taken out. The first reports of the wealth
Kline, JACOB, military officer; born in Of the Klondike region proper were made
Pennsylvania, Nov. 5, 1840; was commis- by Indians. The first white man to enter
sioned first lieutenant in 1861 ; captain in the region was George W. Carmack, who
1864; major in 1887; lieutenant-colonel staked the first claim on Bonanza Creek,
in 1892; and colonel April 30, 1897. in August, 1896. Here $14,200 were se-
During the Civil War he was bre- cured in eight days by three men. On
vetted captain, April 7, 1862, for gallantry July 14, 1897, a steamer from the Klon-
at Shiloh, and major, Sept. 1, 1864, for dike arrived at San Francisco. On board
gallantry in the Atlanta campaign. On were forty miners, who had more than
May 27, 1898, he was appointed a $500,000 in gold dust, and there was $250,-
brigadier - general of volunteers for the 000 more for the Commercial Company,
war with Spain, and on March 15, 1899, After an assay it was found that the Klon-
260
KNAPP— KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE
dike gold was not as pure as that of Cali- fornia, there being combined with it a greater amount of iron, lead, etc. On July 17 of the same year a second steamer arrived at San Francisco, bringing sixty- eight miners, with $1,250,000 worth of gold. Immediately the " Klondike fever " became general, and so large was the num- ber of gold-seekers that the capacity of all the steamers running to St. Michael, Juneau, and Dyea was overtaxed. For a time it was feared that many of these gold- seekers would perish before the opening of the passes in the following spring on account of the lack of provisions. On June 13, 1898, by an act of the Canadian Parliament, the boundaries of Ungava, Keewatin, Franklin, Mackenzie, and Yukon were changed, and the Yukon region was constituted a separate territory, with an area of 198,300 square miles, 2,000 of which is water surface. In February, 1898, the United States Coast and Geo- detic Survey issued a new map of the Yukon River region. The map includes the territory between long. 38° and 166° W., and lat. 60° to 67° N. The Yukon Eiver is traced considerably beyond the Klondike region, and the portion within Alaska is very fully treated. The coun- try between Forty-Mile Post and Stewart River is also given with minute exactness. The results of military and scientific ex- plorations undertaken by the United States government in Alaska indicate that that Territory contains a larger amount of gold, besides other economic "min- erals," than the area popularly termed the "Klondike region." See ALASKA.
Knapp, SAMUEL LORENZO, author ; born in Newburyport, Mass., Jan. 19, 1783; graduated at Dartmouth College in 1804; became a lawyer; and was a commander on the coast defences in the War of 1812. His publications include Travels in North America ~by All Bey; Memoirs of Gen- eral Lafayette; American Biography; His- tory of the United States (a revision of John Hinton's edition) ; Memoir of the Life of Daniel Webster; Life of Aaron Burr; Life of Andrew Jackson, etc. He also edited The Library of American His- tory. He died in Hopkinton, Mass., July 8, 1838.
Knickerbocker, JOHN ; born in Schaght- icoke, N. Y., in 1749; inherited the Knick-
erbocker estates from his uncle, Herman Knickerbocker; served in the American smny in the Revolutionary War; after the war represented Rensselaer county in the New York legislature. He died at Schaghticoke in 1827. Washington Ir- ving's use of the name in his Knicker- bocker's History of New York has result- ed in its being used to describe the typical Dutch New York gentleman. Where New York City is personated in caricatures, the figure is that of " Father Knickerbocker."
Knights of Labor, the name assumed by a labor league having a membership in all parts of the United States and Canada, with an executive head styled " General Master Workman." Subser- vient to the central authority are numer- ous local organizations. The order claims the right and exercises the power of regu- lating the conditions of labor between em- ployers and the employed, having officers called "walking delegates," who enter in- dustrial establishments and order men and women to quit work, unless the conditions between them and their employers are satisfactory to the order. In 1903 the order claimed a membership of 40,000.
Knights of Pythias, a fraternal organ- ization founded in Washington, D. C., in 1864, having for its objects the exercise of friendship, charity, and benevolence. From an original membership of seventy-four it had grown to one of 562,327 in 1903, and so gained fourth place among the fraternal organizations of the country. The en- dowment rank (life insurance) had a membership of over 60,000, representing an endowment of $103,711,000.
Knights of the Golden Circle, the name of an organization founded for the overthrow of the government of the Unit- ed States. It was a secret society, and was first organized for action in the slave-labor States. The members were pledged to assist in the accomplishment of the designs of those who were intent upon the establishment of an empire within the limits of the Golden Circle. It was the soul of the filibustering move- ments in Central America and Cuba from 1850 to 1857; and, when these failed, the knights concentrated their energies for the accomplishment of their prime object — the destruction of the Union and the perpetuation of slavery. The subordinate
261
KNOWLTON— KNOW-NOTHING PARTY
i
organizations were called " castles." Formation; Fossil Flora of Alaska; Cata- When the secession movement began, these logue of the Cretaceous and Tertiary knights became specially active in Texas. Plants of North America, etc.; and is the When the disloyal peace faction made its editor of The Plant World. appearance in the North, an alliance be- Knowlton, MINER, military officer; tween the leading members of it and the born in Connecticut, in 1804; graduated Knights of the Golden Circle was formed, at the United States Military Academy in and the "order" became very numerous 1829; promoted captain in 1846; and and formidable in some of the free-labor served in the Mexican War. His pub- States, especially in the West. The late lications include Notes on Gunpowder, Benson J. Lossing, in New Orleans, in Cannon, and Projectiles, and he com- .April, 1861, heard a New York journalist piled Instructions and Regulations for tell a group of Confederates that he be- the Militia and Volunteers of the United longed to a secret order in that city, States. He was also one of the compilers 50,000 strong, who would sooner fight of Instructions for Field Artillery, which for the South than for the North. An was adopted by the War Department in army chaplain was told by a Confederate 1845. He died in Burlington, N. J., Dec. officer, just before the draft riot in New 25, 1870.
York, " You will be surprised at the num- Knowlton, THOMAS, military officer ; ber of friends we have in your very midst; born in West Boxford, Mass., Nov. 30. friends who, when the time comes, will 1740; was a soldier of the French and destroy your railroads, your telegraph Indian War, and assisted in the reduc- wires, your government stores and prop- tion of Havana in 1762. He was in the erty, and thus facilitate the glorious in- Ashford militia at Lexington, April 19, vasion [Lee's] now breaking you in 1775, and was selected as one of the fa- pieces." At about that time the knights tigue party to fortify Bunker Hill. In in the West held a meeting at Springfield, action there he fought bravely. A regi- 111. (June 10, 1863), when it was resolved ment of light infantry, which formed the to make the draft a pretext for revolu- van of the American army at New York, tion, and measures were accordingly was commanded by him, and he was corn- adopted. It was arranged that New York missioned lieutenant-colonel of a regiment should take the initiative. The plan was of rangers selected from the Connecticut for each State to assume its " indepen- troops. He fell in the battle of Harlem dent sovereignty." Morgan's raid in Indi- Plains, Sept. 16, 1776, and his character ana and Ohio was a part of the plan of was eulogized by Washington in general" that revolution. It was supposed that orders.
the Knights of the Golden Circle and the Know-nothing Party, a secret politi- members of the peace faction would rise cal party organized in 1853 for the pur- and join him by thousands; but in this pose mainly of opposing foreign citizen- he was mistaken. ship. As early as 1835 an attempt was Knowlton, FRANK HALL, botanist; made to originate some such movement- in born in Brandon, Vt., Sept. 2, 1860; New York City, where a foreign popula- graduated at Middlebury College, Ver- tion had already gained much strength, mont, and appointed an aid in the United This movement, however, ended in failure States National Museum in 1884; became before the election for mayor in 1837. assistant curator of botany in 1887; and The feeling, however, was again revived in assistant paleontologist of the United 1843, after the Democrats, who had been States Geological Survey in 1889. In successful in the election, gave the largest 1887-96 he was Professor of Botany in share of offices to foreign-born citizens. Columbia University. He wrote the bo- In the following year the same native tanical definitions for the Century Die- feeling was extended through New Jersey tionary and later had charge of the de- and to Philadelphia, where several riots partment of botany in the Standard Die- occurred between native and Irish citi- tionary, writing about 25,000 definitions zens. This agitation resulted in natives for the last work. He is the author of holding the majority of offices for several Fossil Wood and Lignite of the Potomac years. In 1852, however, when the sec-
262
KNOX
tional contest as to the extension of slave territory became so strong, and when the Democratic party was receiving reinforce- ments from immigrants, the old opposi- tion to foreigners again appeared; but this time in the form of a secret, oath- bound fraternity, whose objects were not even made known to its own members till they had reached the higher degrees. Whenever any questions were asked the members by outsiders they would say, " I don't know," and from this circumstance the popular name of " Know - nothings " was given them. In the elections of 1854 they appeared as a well-disciplined party, carrying Massachusetts and Delaware, and in the following year they polled 122,282 votes in New York State and made great strides in the South. In the Presidential campaign of 1856 the Know- nothing party was called the " American party " and presented Millard Fillmore as its candidate. As the great question of slavery then began to gain greater strength and to absorb a larger amount of public attention a lesser importance was given to nativism. The party reap- peared in 1860, under the name of the Constitutional Union party, and, failing to carry the South, soon disappeared from thepolitical field. See WISE, H. A.
Knox, HENRY, military officer; born in Boston, July 25, 1750; was of Scotch-
HKXRY KNOX.
Irish stock. He became a thriving book- seller in Boston, and married Lucy, daughter of Secretary Flucker. He be- longed to an artillery company when the Revolution began, and his skill as an en- gineer artillerist on the staff of Gen. Ar-
temas Ward attracted the attention of Washington. In November (1775) he was placed in command of the artillery, and was employed successfully in bringing can- non from captured forts on Lake Cham- plain and on the Canadian frontier to Cambridge, for the use of the besieging army. Knox was made a brigadier-gen- eral in December, 1776, and was the chief commander of the artillery of the main army throughout the whole war, being conspicuous in all the principal actions. He was one of the court of inquiry in Major Andrews case; was in command at West Point after hostilities had ceased, and arranged for the surrender of New York. At Knox's suggestion, the Society of the Cincinnati was established. He was Secretary of War before and after Washington became President of the United States (1781-95), and when he left office he settled at Thomaston, where he administered the most generous hos- pitality till his death, Oct. 25, 1806.
Knox, JOHN JAY, financier; born in Knoxboro, N. Y., March 19, 1828; grad- uated at Hamilton College in 1849, and engaged in banking. In 1866 he became connected with the Treasury Department in Washington; and in 1867 was appoint- ed deputy comptroller of the currency; and in 1872 became comptroller. He pre- pared a bill on coinage which was passed by Congress, and is known as the " Coin- age act of 1873." He retired from public life in 1884, when he became president of a bank in New York City. He was the author of United States Notes, or a His- tory of the Various Issues of Paper Money by the Government of the United States. He died in New York City, Feb. 9, 1892.
Knox, PHILANDER CHASE, lawyer; born in Brownsville, Pa., May 4, 1853; grad- uated at Mount Union College, Alli- ance, 0., in 1872; settled in Pittsburg, Pa., to study law, and was there admit- ted to the bar in 1875. Soon afterwards he was appointed assistant attorney of the United States for the western district of Pennsylvania; in 1877 he formed a part- nership with Judge J. H. Reed; and for several years was Andrew Carnegie's chief legal adviser. He became acquainted with President McKinley during his college days, and they afterwards remained close personal friends. On April 5, 1901, the
263
KNOX— KOBBE
President appointed Mr. Knox Attorney- tie of Brandywine in 1777, and in Mon- General of the United States to succeed mouth in 1778; and commanded an ex- John W. Griggs, resigned. Mr. Knox is a pedition to Springfield, N. J., in June, member of a number of clubs in Pittsburg, 1780. In the absence of Sir Henry Clin- New York, and Philadelphia; and in 1897 ton he was in command of the city of was elected president of the Pennsyl- New York. He died in Cassel, Dec. 7, vania Bar Association. 1800.
Knox, WILLIAM, author; born in Ire- Kobbe, WILLIAM A., military officer;
land in 1732; was provost-marshal in born in New York City, May 10, 1840;
Georgia in 1756-61, when he returned to entered the volunteer army as a private
England; and was under-secretary of in the 7th New York Regiment in 1862,
state for American affairs in 1770-83. and at the close of the Civil War was
His publications relating to the United mustered out of this service with the
States include A Letter to a Member of rank of captain in the 178th New York
Parliament; The Claims of the Colonies Infantry. On March 17, 1866, he was ap-
to an Exemption from Internal Taxes; pointed a second lieutenant in the 19th
The Present State of the Nation; and The United States Infantry; Feb. 5, 1872,
Controversy between Great Britain and was transferred to the 3d Artillery;
Pier Colonies Reviewed. He died in Baling, April 6, 1885, was promoted to captain;
England, Aug. 25, 1810. and March 8, 1898, to major. After join-
Knoxville, SIEGE OF. General Burn- ing the 3d Artillery he graduated at side, with the Army of the Ohio, occupied the Artillery School (1873). Soon after Knoxville, Sept. 3, 1863. The Confederate war was declared against Spain he was General Buckner, upon his advance, evacu- appointed colonel of the 35th United ated east Tennessee and joined Bragg at States Volunteer Infantry, and in October, Chattanooga. Early in November, Gen- 1899, was promoted to brigadier-general eral Longstreet, with 16,000 men, advanced of volunteers for service in the Malolos against Knoxville. On the 14th he crossed campaign in the Philippines. In Janu- the Tennessee. Burnside repulsed him on ary, 1900, he was given command of an the 16th at Campbell's Station, gaining expedition to the southern extremity of time to concentrate his army in Knoxville. Luzon. On the 18th of that month he Longstreet advanced, laid siege to the left Manila with his command in the trans- town, and assaulted it twice (Nov. 18 and ports Hancock and Garonne and the local 29), but was repulsed. Meantime Grant steamers Venus, JEolus, Salvadora, and had defeated Bragg at Chattanooga, and Castellano, which vessels were convoyed Sherman, with 25,000 men, was on the by the gunboats Nashville, Helena, and way to relieve Knoxville. Longstreet, Maraveles. On Jan. 20 all of these ves- compelled to raise the siege, retired up sels, in single file, proceeded slowly up the Holston River, but did not entire- Sorsogon Bay. When the expedition ly abandon east Tennessee until the reached Sorsogon that town had already next spring, when he again joined Lee in displayed flags of truce. During the next Virginia. few days the towns of Donsol, Bulan, Virac,
Knyphausen, BARON WILHELM VON, and Legaspi on Catanduanes Island were
military officer; born in Liitzberg, Ger- occupied. The only resistance was at Le-
many, Nov. 4, 1716; began his military ca- gaspi where five Americans were wounded,
reer in the Prussian service in 1734, and and forty-five dead and fifteen wounded
became a general in the army of Frederick insurgents were found. In this action the
the Great in 1775. He arrived in America shells from the Nashville set on fire and
in June, 1776, and was first engaged in bat- destroyed 8,000 bales of hemp. This dis-
tle here in that of Long Island in Au- trict of the Philippine Islands is noted
gust following, in which he commanded a as a large hemp-producing country. In
body of Hessian mercenaries. Knyphaus- March, following, General Kobb§ was ap-
en was in the battle of White Plains; pointed military governor of the province
assisted in the capture of Fort Washing- of Albay, Luzon, and of Catanduanes Isl-
ton, which was named by its captors Fort and, and also temporary governor of
Knyphausen; was conspicuous in the bat- the islands of Samas and Leyte; and soon
264
KOHL— KOREA
afterwards he opened the hemp ports to from the Shenandoah was fired on by commerce. On the reorganization of the the natives. This visit was also fruitless regular army in February, 1901, he was of results, and Commander Fabiger sailed appointed one of the new brigadier-gen- away. On April 10, 1870, Admiral Rod- erals. gers sailed from New York in the Colo- Kohl, JOHN GEORGE, traveller; born in rado to take command of the Asiatic Bremen, Germany, April 28, 1808; trav- squadron, which consisted of the flag-ship elled in the United States in 1854-58. His Colorado, forty-five guns; the steamship publications relating to the United States Monocacy, six guns, and the steamer include History of the Discovery of the Palos, two guns. Among the incidental United States Coast; History and Investi- results of the expedition was the careful gation of the Gulf Stream; Travels in the survey of an extensive part of the coast United States; History of the Two Oldest of Korea. The King of Korea was in- Charts in the New World; History of the formed of the approach of the expedition, Discovery of the Northeastern Coast of and sent three officials with a letter to America, and a number of lectures on the the Americans. The burden of this History of the Discovery of America. He epistle was that the Koreans wanted to was also the author of a Lecture on the be let alone, and that the crew of the Plan of a Chartographical Depot for the General Sherman had been killed for com- History and Geography of the American mitting piracy and murder. Up to that Continent. He died in Bremen, Germany, time the Korean authorities had practi- Oct. 28, 1878. cally denied all official knowledge of the Korea, WAR WITH. The trouble be- fate of the General Sherman and her tween the United States and Korea began crew. Other Korean delegations visited in 1866. A vessel named the General the squadron, all expressing themselves Sherman, bearing American papers, in as thoroughly satisfied with the peaceable that year made her last trip from Chee- character of the expedition, and willing Foo to Ping- Yang City in Korea, near that a survey of their coast and rivers which the ship was captured and de- should be made. The ships proceeded up stroyed, and her passengers and crew the Fleuve de Sel (Salt River), and on massacred. Official notice of this out- passing some of the forts were fired on rage was given to the United States by by the Korean forces, which numbered Admiral Bell, United States navy, then in about 2,000. The fire was returned, and command of the Asiatic squadron, whose in about ten minutes the forts were si- force, however, was insufficient to secure lenced and the enemy driven from them, redress from the hostile Koreans. Two The fire from the forts was severe, but years previous (1864) the Koreans had owing to the ignorance of the native gun- become involved with a Christian nation ners, only one man in the squadron was because of their having put to death wounded, and the only damage was a several French missionaries. The French leak in the Monocacy, which was soon re- had sent out an armed expedition, but paired. In this encounter the Palos and it was poorly prepared and badly con- the Monocacy were engaged, together ducted, and was compelled to retire, with several steam-launches of the sur- These circumstances greatly emboldened veying party. These craft rejoined Ad- the Koreans, so that in 1867, when Com- miral Rodgers, with the Benicia and the mander Shufeldt, with the United States Colorado, and an expedition was formed steamer Wachusett, visited Korea to to return and destroy the forts. This save, if any remained, the passengers force consisted of 945 men, with the Palos or crew of the General Sherman, he was and the Monocacy. June 11 the Ameri- able to accomplish nothing and had to cans destroyed the forts near the mouth return. It was learned later that two of the river, burned the neighboring survivors of the crew of the General Slier- houses, and continued to advance until man were in prison in Korea, and in they reached the forts which had opened 1868 Commander Fabiger, in the United fire on the expedition June 1. The States steamship Shenandoah, sailed for Americans stormed these forts, and in the Korea. In the course of this trip a boat first onset took them, with a loss of three
265
KOSCIUSZKO
killed and seven .wounded. Lieutenant McKee was killed as he entered the in- trenchments. The Korean commander-in- chief was killed in the combat, and the second officer in command was taken pris- oner, besides many other natives. Ad- miral Rodger s a few days later released the prisoners, whom the Korean authori- ties did not appear willing to receive. A formal protest against the war-like ac- tions of the Koreans was made by Mr. Low, the American minister. Documents found by the Americans showed that the Korean government had planned the sur- prise of the United States ships, and that the native rulers were astonished at the failure of their forts to annihilate the vessels at the first fire.
Kosciuszko, TADETJSZ (THADDEUS), pa- triot; born in Lithuania, Poland, Feb. 12, 1746; was of noble descent, and was edu- cated at the military academy at War- saw; also in France, at the expense of the Polish government. He entered the Polish army as captain, but a passion for the daughter of the marshal of Lithuania caused him to leave his country and offer bis services to the Americans. He ar- rived in 1776, with a note of introduction and recommendation to Washington by Dr. Franklin. "What do you seek here?" inquired the chief. " I come to fight as a volunteer for American independence," answered Kosciuszko. " What can you do?" asked Washington. "Try me," was the quick reply. He entered Washing- ton's military family, Oct. 18, 1776, as colonel of engineers. He planned the fortified camp of General Gates at Bemis's Heights, in 1777, and was the principal engineer in constructing the works at West Point, on the Hudson. Attached to Greene's army in the South, he was the engineer in the siege of NINETY-SIX (q. v. ), in June, 1781. For his services in the Continental army he received the thanks of Congress, the Order of the Cin- cinnati, and the brevet of brigadier-gen- eral. Returning to Poland, he fought against the Russians, under Poniatowski, in 1792; but the Polish patriots were de- feated, and Kosciuszko retired to Leipsic. Another rising of the Poles occurred in 1794, when Kosciuszko was placed at the head of the insurgents as dictator; and, with 5,000 peasants, armed mostly with
scythes, he routed nearly twice that num- ber of Russians at Raclawice, April 4. Committing the conduct of a provisional government to a national council, he marched against his enemies. In War- saw he was besieged by a combined army of Russians and Prussians. These, after
THADDEUS KOSCIUSZKO.
several bloody conflicts, were compelled by the Polish chief to raise the siege. Austria had joined the assailants of the Poles, and, with an army of 150,000 men, fell upon and crushed them (Oct. 10) at Macieowice. Kosciuszko fought gallantly, and fell covered with wounds, uttering the sadly prophetic words, afterwards ful- filled, "Finis Polonice!" He was made captive, and was imprisoned at St. Peters- burg until the accession of the Emperor Paul, who set him at liberty, and offered Kosciuszko his own sword. It was re- fused, the Polish patriot saying, " I have no need of a sword, since I have no coun- try to defend." In 1797 he visited the United States, where he was warmly wel- comed, and received, in addition to a pen- sion, a grant of land by Congress. He resided near Fontainebleau, in France; and when Bonaparte became Emperor, in 1806, he tried to enlist Kosciuszko in his schemes in relation to Poland. Kosciusz- ko refused to lend his services, except on condition of a guarantee of Polish freedom. He went to live in Solothurn, Switzerland, in 1816, where he was killed
266
KOSSUTH
by a fall from his horse over a precipice, church at Cracow. An elegant monument Oct. 15, 1817. The remains of this true of white marble was erected to his mem- nobleman of Poland lie beside those of ory at West Point by the cadet corps Sobicski and Poniatowski in the cathedral of 1828, at a cost of $5,000.
KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)
Kossuth., LAJOS (Louis), patriot; born friends. The United States government in Monok, Hungary, April 27, 1802; was sent the war-steamer Mississippi to bring in the Hungarian Diet in 1832-36; impris- him to the United States, and early in the oned for political reasons by the Austrian autumn of 1851 he embarked for this coun- government in 1837-40; re-elected to the try. While in exile in Turkey and in Diet in 1847 ; and became minister of prison, he employed his time in studying finance in the independent Hungarian min- living languages, and he was enabled to istry which Emperor Ferdinand was forced address the people of the West in the Eng- to grant in 1848. Later in that year the lish, German, French, and Italian Ian- Hungarians rose in insurrection against guages. He arrived at New York, Dec. 5, Austria; on April 14, 1849, the Diet de- 1851, accompanied by his wife. There he clared Hungary independent, and appoint- addressed public meetings and deputations ed Kossuth governor; on Aug. 11 follow- in various Northern cities, and in all his ing Kossuth resigned his functions to speeches he showed a most intimate knowl- General Gorge!; and, on the surrender of edge of American history and institutions, the latter two days afterwards, Kossuth His theme was a plea for sympathy and fled to Turkey, where he remained in exile substantial aid for his country, Hungary, till 1851. In 1851-52 he visited the United He wished to obtain the acknowledgment States and received a hearty welcome in of the claims of Hungary to independence,
and the interference of the United States and Great Britain, jointly, in behalf of the principle of non-intervention, which would allow the nations of Europe fair play in their renewed struggle for liberty. He constantly asserted that grand princi- ple that one nation has no right to inter- fere with the domestic concerns of an- other, and that all nations are bound to use their efforts to prevent such interfer- ence. The government of the United States, to which he appealed, assuming its traditional attitude of neutrality in all quarrels in Europe, declined to lend aid, excepting the moral power of expressed sympathy. Kossuth called for private contributions in aid of the struggle of his people for independence, and received more assurances of sympathy all the principal cities. Subsequently he than dollars, for there seemed to be a resided in London and in Turin, where he reaction in Europe, and the chance for died, March 20, 1894. Under the title of Hungarian independence appeared more Schriften aus der Emigration he published remote than ever. He arrived in Washing- his memoirs in 1881-82. ton at the close of December, and was re-
In the United States. — After his flight ceived by two United States Senators and to Turkey the Austrian government de- the marshal of the district. The Secre- manded his extradition. The United States tary of State (Daniel Webster) waited and England interfered, and he was al- upon him; so also did many members of lowed his freedom, with his family and Congress. On the 31st lie was presented
267
LOUIS KOSSUTH.
KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)
to President Fillmore by Mr. Webster, tice to believe that I rise not with any who received him cordially. On Jan. 5, pretension to eloquence within the Cradle 1852, he was introduced to the Senate, of American Liberty. If I were standing He entered the Senate chamber accom- upon the ruins of Prytaneum, and had to panied by Senators Cass and Seward. speak whence Demosthenes spoke, my General Shields introduced him. The tongue would refuse to obey, my words Senate adjourned, and the members all would die away upon my lips, and I would paid their personal respects to the dis- listen to the winds fraught with the dread- tinguished exile. He then visited the ful realization of his unheeded prophecies. House of Representatives, where he was Spirit of American eloquence, frown not warmly received by the speaker and most at my boldness that I dare abuse Shake- of the members. Then he was introduced speare's language in Faneuil Hall! It is to each member personally, and presented a strange fate, and not my choice. My to an immense crowd of ladies and gentle- tongue is fraught with a down-trodden na- men who had assembled. A congressional tion's wrongs. The justice of my cause is banquet was given him at the National my eloquence; but misfortune may ap- Hotel, at which W. R. King, president of proach the altar whence the flame arose the Senate, presided, Kossuth and Speaker which roused your fathers from degrada- Boyd being on his right hand, and Secre- tion to independence. I claim my people's tary Webster on his left. On that occa- share in the benefit of the laws of nature sion Kossuth delivered one of his most and of nature's God. I will nothing add effective speeches. Mr. Webster con- to the historical reputation of these walls ; eluded his remarks with the following but I dare hope not to sully them by ap- sentiment : " Hungarian independence, pealing to those maxims of truth the pro- Hungarian control of her own destinies, mulgation of which made often tremble and Hungary as a distinct nationality these walls from the thundering cheers of among the nations of Europe." After freemen, roused by the clarion sound of Kossuth's departure there were debates in inspired oratory.
Congress on propositions for the United " Cradle, of American Liberty " ; it is a
States to lend material aid to the people great name; but there is something in it
of Hungary, struggling for national in- which saddens my heart. You should not
dependence ; but the final determination say " American liberty." You should say
was that the United States should not " Liberty in America." Liberty should not
change its uniform policy of neutrality be either American or European — it should
in favor of Hungary. The cordial recep- be just *' liberty." God is God. He is
tion of Kossuth everywhere, and the mag- neither America's God nor Europe's God.
netic power of his eloquence over every He is God. So shall liberty be. " Ameri-
audience, were gratifying and wonderful, can liberty " has much the sound as if you
A contemporary wrote : " The circum- would say " American privilege." And
stances attending the reception of Kos- there is the rub. Look to history, and,
suth constituted one of the most extraor- when your heart saddens at the fact that
dinary spectacles the New World had ever liberty never yet was lasting in any corner
yet beheld." He returned to Europe in of the world and in any ag-e, you will find
July. the key of it in the gloomy truth that all
Speech in Faneuil Hall. — The following who yet were free regarded liberty as their is the first of three speeches made in Fan- privilege instead of regarding it as a prin- euil Hall, Boston, in April and May, this ciple. The nature of every privilege is ex- occasion being a public meeting. He had clusiveness; that of a principle is com- been welcomed to the State by Gov. municative. Liberty is a principle; its George S. Boutwell,to the Senate by Presi- community is its security; exclusiveness dent Henry Wilson, and to the House of is its doom.
Representatives by Speaker Nathaniel P. What is aristocracy? It is exclusive
Banks. A legislative banquet followed liberty; it is privilege; and aristocracy is
the delivery of the speech here given: doomed, because it is contrary to the des- tiny and welfare of man. Aristocracy
Ladies and Gentlemen, — Do me the jus- should vanish, not in the nations, but also
268
KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)
from among the nations. So long as tery of this rare circumstance, a man must that is not done, liberty will nowhere be see the people of New England and espe- lasting on earth. It is equally fatal to daily the people of Massachusetts, individuals as to nations to believe them- In what I have seen of New England selves beyond the reach of vicissitudes, there are two things the evidence of which To this proud reliance, and the isolation strikes the observer at every step — pros- resulting therefrom, more victims have perity and intelligence. I have seen fallen than to oppression by immediate ad- thousands assembled, following the noble versities. You have prodigiously grown impulses of generous hearts; almost the by your freedom of seventy-five years ; but entire population of every city, of every what is seventy-five years to take for a town, of every village where I passed, charter of immortality? No, no, my hum- gathered around me, throwing the flowers ble tongue tells the records of eternal of consolation in my thorny way. I can truth. A privilege never can be lasting, say I have seen the people here, and I Liberty restricted to one nation never can have looked at it with a keen eye, sharp- be sure. You may say, " We are the ened in the school of a toilsome life, prophets of God," but you shall not say, Well, I have seen not a single man bear- "God is only our God." The Jews have ing mark of that poverty upon himself said so, and the pride of Jerusalem lies in which in old Europe strikes the eye sadly the dust. Our Saviour taught all human- at every step. I have seen no ragged ity to say, " Our Father in heaven " ; and poor. I have seen not a single house his Jerusalem is lasting to the end of days, bearing the appearance of desolated pov- " There is a community in mankind's erty. The cheerfulness of a comfortable destiny." That was the greeting which I condition, the result of industry, spreads read on the arch of welcome on the Capi- over the land. One sees at a glance that tol Hill of Massachusetts. I pray to God the people work assiduously — not with the republic of America would weigh the the depressing thought just to get from eternal truth of those words, and act ac- day to day, by hard toil, through the cordingly. Liberty in America would then cares of a miserable life, but they work be sure to the end of time. But if you with the cheerful consciousness of sub- say "American liberty," and take that stantial happiness. And the second thing grammar for your policy, I dare say the which I could not fail to remark is the time will yet come when humanity will stamp of intelligence impressed upon the have to mourn over a new proof of the very eyes and outward appearance of the ancient truth, that without community people at large. I and my companions national freedom is never sure. You have seen that people in the factories, in should change " American liberty " into the workshops, in their houses, and in the " Liberty," then liberty would be forever streets, and could not fail a thousand sure in America, and that which found a times to think, " How intelligent that cradle in Faneuil Hall never would find a people looks." It is to such a people that coffin through all coming days. I like the orators of Faneuil Hall had to speak, not the word " cradle " connected with the and therein is the mystery of their suc- word " liberty." It has a scent of mortal- cess. They were not wiser than the pub- ity. But these are vain words, I know, lie spirit of their audience, but they were Though in the life of nations the spirits the eloquent interpreters of the people's of future be marching in present events, enlightened instinct.
visible to every reflecting mind, still those No man can force the harp of his own
who foretell them are charged with arro- individuality into the people's heart; but
gantly claiming the title of prophets, and every man may play upon the cords of
prophecies are never believed. However, his people's heart, who draws his in-
the cradle of American liberty is not only spiration from the people's instinct.
famous from the reputation of having been Well, I thank God for having seen the
always the lists of the most powerful elo- public spirit of the people of Massachu-
quence; it is still more conspicuous for setts bestowing its attention to the cause
having seen that eloquence attended by I plead, and pronouncing its verdict,
practical success. To understand the mys- After the spontaneous manifestations of
269
KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)
public opinion which I have met in Massa- I cannot express the emotion I felt ehusetts, there can be not the slightest when, standing on the steps of your capi- doubt that his Excellency, the high- tol, these words above my head, the peo- minded governor of Massachusetts, when pie of Massachusetts tendered me its he wrote his memorable address to the hand in the person of its chief magistrate, legislature, the joint committee of the The emotion which thrilled through my legislative assembly, after a careful and heart was something like that Lazarus candid consideration of the subject, not must have felt when the Saviour spoke only concurring in the views of the execu- to him, " Rise " ; and, when I looked up tive government, but elucidating them in with a tender tear of heartfelt gratitude a report, the irrefutable logic and elevated in my eyes, I saw the motto of Massachu- statesmanship of which will forever en- setts all along the capitol, "We seek dear the name of Hazewell to oppressed with the sword the mild quietness of nations, and the Senate of Massachusetts liberty." You have proved this motto not adopting the resolutions proposed by the to be an empty word. The heroic truth of legislative committee, in respect to the it is recorded in the annals of Faneuil question of national intervention — I say Hall; it is recorded on Bunker Hill; re- the spontaneous manifestation of public corded in the Declaration of Indepen- opinion leaves not the slightest doubt that dence. Having read that motto, coupled all these executive and legislative pro- with the acknowledgment of the principle ceedings not only met the full approbation that there is a community in the destiny of the people of Massachusetts, but were, of all humanity, I know what answer I in fact, nothing else but the solemn inter- have to take to those millions who look pretation of that public opinion of the with profound anxiety to America, people of Massachusetts. A spontaneous Gentlemen, the Mohammedans say that outburst of popular sentiments tells often the city of Bokhara receives not light more in a single word than all the skill from without, but is lustrous with its of elaborate eloquence could. I have met own light. I don't know much about Bok- that word. "We worship not the man, hara; but so much I know, that Boston but we worship the principle," shouted is the sun whence radiated the light of out a man in Worcester, amid the thun- resistance against oppression. And, from dering cheers of a countless multitude, what it has been my good fortune to ex- It was a word like those words of flame, perience in Boston, I have full reason to spoken in Faneuil Hall, out of which lib- believe that the sun which shone forth erty in America was born. That word is with such a bright lustre in the days of a revelation that the spirit of eternal truth oppression has not lost its lustre by free- and of present exigencies moves through dom and prosperity. Boston is the the people's heart. That word is teem- metropolis of Massachusetts, and Massa- ing with the destinies of America. chusetts has given its vote. It has given
Would to God that, in the leading it after having, with the penetrating sa- quarters, small party considerations gacity of its intelligence, looked atten- should never prevent the due appreciation tively into the subject, and fixed with of the people's instinctive sagacity! It is calm consideration its judgment there- with joyful consolation and heartfelt about. After having had so much to gratitude I own that of that fear I am speak, it was with infinite gratification forever relieved in respect to Massachu- I heard myself addressed in Brookfield, setts. Once more I have met the revela- Framingham, and several other places, tion of the truth that the people of with these words: "We know your coun- Massachusetts worship principles. I have try's history; we agree with your prin- met it on the front of your capitol, in ciples; we want no speech; just let us those words raised to the consolation of hear your voice, and then go on; we the oppressed world, by the constitutional trust and wish you may have other things authorities of Massachusetts, to the high to do than speak." Thus, having neither heaven, upon an arch of triumph, " Re- to tell my country's tale, because it is member that there is a community in man- known, nor having to argue about prin- kind's destiny," ciples, because they are agreed with, I
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KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)
am in the happy condition of being able to restrain myself to a few desultory re- marks about the nature of the difficulties I have to contend with in other quarters, that the people of Massachusetts may see upon what ground those stand who are following a direction contrary to the dis- tinctly pronounced opinion of Massachu- setts, in relation to the cause I plead.
Give me leave to mention that, having had an opportunity to converse with lead- ing men of the great political parties which are on the eve of an animated con- test for the Presidency — would it had been possible for me to have come to America either before that contest was engaged or after it will be decided! I came, unhappily, in a bad hour — I availed myself of that opportunity to be informed about what are considered to be the prin- cipal issues in case the one or the other party carries the prize; and, indeed, hav- ing got the information thereof, I could not forbear to exclaim, " But, my God, all these questions together cannot outweigh the all-overruling importance of foreign policy!" It is there, in the question of foreign policy, that the heart of the next future throbs. Security and danger, de- veloping prosperity, and its check, peace and war, tranquillity and embarrassment — yes, life and death will be weighed in the scale of foreign policy! It is evident things are come to the point where they have been in ancient Rome, when old Cato never spoke privately or publicly, about whatever topic, without closing his speech with these words, " However, my opinion is that Carthage must be destroyed," thus advertising his countrymen that there was one question outweighing in impor- tance all other questions, from which pub- lic attention should never for a moment be withdrawn. Such, in my opinion, is the condition of the world now. Car- thage and Rome had no place on earth together. Republican America and all- overwhelming Russian absolutism cannot much longer subsist together on earth. Russia active — America passive — there is an immense danger in that fact. It is like the avalanche in the Alps, which the noise of a bird's wing may move and thrust down with irresistible force, grow- ing every moment. I cannot but believe it were highly time to do as old Cato did,
and finish every speech with these words, " However, the law of nations should be maintained, and absolutism not permitted to become omnipotent." I could not for- bear to make these remarks, and the an- swer I got was, "That is all true and all right, and will be attended to when the election is over; but, after all, the party must come into power, and you know there are so many consid- erations— men want to be managed, and even prejudices spared, and so forth." And it is true, but it is sorrowful that it is true. That reminds me of what, in Schiller's Maria Stuart, Mortimer says to Lord Leicester, the all-mighty favorite of Elizabeth, "O God, what little steps has such a great lord to go at this court!" There is the first obstacle I have to meet with. This consolation, at least, I have — that the chief difficulty I have to contend with is neither lasting, nor an argument against the justice of my cause or against the righteousness of my principles. Just as the calumnies by which I am assailed can but harm my own self, but cannot im- pair the justice of my country's cause or weaken the property of my principles, so that difficulty, being just a difficulty and no argument, cannot change the public opinion of the people, which always cares more about principles than about wire- pullings.
The second difficulty I have to contend with is rather curious. Many a man has told me that, if I had only not fallen into the hands of the abolitionists and free- soilers, he would have supported me; and, had I landed somewhere in the South instead of New York, I would have met quite different things from that quarter. But, being supported by the free-soilers, of course I must be opposed by the South. On the other side I received a letter from which I beg leave to quote a few lines: " You are silent on the subject of slavery. Surrounded as you have been by slave- holders ever since you put your foot on English soil, if not during your whole voy- age from Constantinople — and ever since you have been in this country surrounded by them whose threats, promises, and flat- tery make the stoutest hearts succumb — your position has put me in mind of a scene described by the apostle of Jesus Christ when the devil took him up into a
271
KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)
high mountain," etc. Now, gentlemen, abandon the cause I plead only because thus being charged from one side with I mix not with the agitation of an in- being in the hands of abolitionists, and terior question is a greater injustice yet, from the other side with being in the because to discuss the question of foreign hands of the slave-holders, I indeed am at policy I have a right. My nation is an a loss what course to take, if these very object of that policy. We are interested contradictory charges were not giving me in it. But to mix with interior party the satisfaction to feel that I stand just movements I have no right, not being a where it is my duty to stand, on a truly citizen of the United States. American ground. The third difficulty which I meet, so
I must beg leave to say a few words far as I am told, is the opposition of the in that respect — the more because I could commercial interest. I have the agree- not escape vehement attacks for not com- able duty to say that this opposition, or, mitting myself, even in that respect, with rather, indifference, is only partial. I whatever interior party question. I have met several testimonials of the most claim the right for my people to regu- generous sympathy from gentlemen of late its own domestic concerns. I claim commerce. But if, upon the whole, it this as a law of nations, common to all should be really true that there is more humanity; and, because common to all, I coolness, or even opposition, in that quar- claim to see them protected by the United ter than in others, then I may say that States, not only because they have the there is an entire misapprehension of the power to defend what despots dare of- true commercial interests in it. I could fend, but also because it is the necessity say that it would be strange to see com- of their position to be a- power on earth, merce, and chiefly the commerce of a re- which they would not be if the law of na- public, indifferent to the spread of lib- tions can be changed, and the general eral institutions. That would be a sad condition of the world altered, without experience, teeming with incalculable mis- their vote. Now, that being my posi- fortunes, reserved to the nineteenth cen- tion and my cause, it would be the most tury. Until now history has recorded absurd inconsistency if I would offend that " commerce has been the most power- that principle which I claim and which I ful locomotive of principles and the most advocate. fruitful ally of civilization, intelligence,
And, O my God, have I not enough and of liberty." It was merchants whose
sorrows and cares to bear on these poor names are shining with immortal lustre
shoulders? Is it not astonishing that the from the most glorious pages of the
moral power of duties, and the iron will golden books of Venice, Genoa, etc. Com-
of my heart, sustain yet this shattered merce, republican commerce, raised single
frame? that I am desired yet to take up cities to the position of mighty powers
additional cares? If the cause I plead be on earth, and maintained them in that
just, if it be worthy of your sympathy, proud position for centuries; and surely it
and at the same time consistent with the was neither indifference nor opposition to
impartial considerations of your own republican principles by which they have
moral and material interests — which a thus ennobled the history of commerce
patriot should never disregard, not even and of humanity. I know full well that,
out of philanthropy — then why not weigh since the treasures of commerce took
that cause with the scale of its own value, their way into the coffers of despotism,
and not with a foreign one? Have I not in the shape of eternal loans, and capital
difficulties enough to contend with, that began to speculate upon the oppression
I am desired to increase them yet with of nations, a great change has occurred
my own hands? Father Mathew goes on in that respect.
preaching temperance, and he may be op- But, thanks to God, the commerce of
posed or supported on his own ground; America is not engaged in that direction,
but whoever imagined opposition to him hated by millions, cursed by humanity,
because, at the same time, he takes not Her commerce is still what it was in for-
into his hands to preach fortitude or mer times — the beneficent instrumentality
charity? And, indeed, to oppose or to of making mankind partake of all the
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KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)
fruits and comforts of the earth and of open the eyes in order that men of the
human industry. Here it is no paper specu- most ordinary common-sense become aware
lation upon the changes of despotism; of it, that the present condition of Europe
and, therefore, if the commercial inter- is too unnatural, too contrary to the vital
ests of republican America are considered interests of the countless millions, to en-
with that foresighted sagacity, without dure even for a short time. A crisis is
which there is no future and no security inevitable. No individual influence can
in them, I feel entirely sure that no partic- check it; no indifference or opposition can
ular interest can be more ambitious to prevent it. Even men like myself, concen-
see absolutism checked and freedom and trating the expectations and confidence of
democratic institutions developed in Eu- oppressed millions in themselves, have only
rope than the commerce of republican just enough power, if provided with the
America. It is no question of more or less requisite means, to keep the current in a
profit, it is a question of life and death sound direction, so that in its inevitable
to it. Commerce is the heel of Achilles, eruption it may not become dangerous to
the vulnerable point of America. Thither social order, which is indispensable to the
will, thither must be aimed the first blow security of person and property, without
of victorious absolutism. The instinct of which especially no commerce has any
self-preservation would lead absolutism to future at all. And that being the un-
strike that blow if its hatred and indigna- sophisticated condition of the world, and
tion would not lead to it. Air is not more a crisis being inevitable, I indeed cannot
indispensable to life than freedom and imagine how those who desire nothing
constitutional government in Europe to but peace and tranquillity can withhold
the commerce of America. their helping hands, that the inevitable
Though many things which I have seen crisis should not only be kept in a sound have, upon calm reflection, induced me to direction, but also carried down to a happy raise an humble word of warning against issue, capable to prevent the world from materialism, still I believe there was more boiling continually, like a volcano, and patriotic solicitude than reality in the fact insuring a lasting peace and a lasting that Washington and John Adams, at the tranquillity, never possible so long as the head of the War Department, complained great majority of nations are oppressed, of a predominating materialism (they but sure so soon as the nations are con- styled it avarice) which threatened the tent; and content they can only be when ruin of America. I believe that complaint they are free. Indeed, if reasonable logic would, even to-day, not be more founded has not yet forsaken the world, it is the than it was in the infant age of your re- men of peace, it is the men of commerce, public. Still, if there be any motive for to the support of whom I have a right to that complaint of your purest and best look. Others may support my cause out patriots — if the commerce of America of generosity — these must support me out would know, indeed, no better guiding star of considerate interest ; others may oppose than only the momentary profit of a cargo me out of egotism — American commerce, just floating over the Atlantic — I would in opposing me, would commit suicide, be even then at a loss how else to account Gentlemen, of such narrow nature are for the indifference of the commerce of the considerations which oppose my America in the cause of European liberty cause. Of equally narrow, inconsistent than by assuming that it is believed the scope are all the rest, with the enumera- present degraded condition of Europe may tion of which I will not abuse your kind endure, if only the popular agitations are indulgence. Compare with them the deprived of material means to disturb that broad basis of noble principles upon which which is satirically called tranquillity. the commonwealth of Massachusetts took
But such a supposition would, indeed, its stand in bestowing the important bene-
be the most obnoxious, the most dangerous fit of its support to my cause, and you
fallacy. As the old philosopher, being cannot forbear to feel proudly that the
questioned how he could prove the exist- spirit of old Massachusetts is still alive,
ence of God, answered, " By opening the entitled to claim that right in the coun-
eyes," just so nothing is necessary but to cils of the united republic which it had V.— s 273
KOSZTA— KU-KLUX KLAN
in the glorious days when, amid dan- and the elevation and education of the
gers, wavering resolutions, and partial de- colored race in the South, to prevent
spondency, Massachusetts took boldly the colored men from exercising the right of
lead to freedom and independence. suffrage, to maintain the rule of the Bour-
Those men of immortal memory, who, bon whites in the South, and to prevent
within these very walls, lighted with the the immigration of whites into the South
heavenly spark of their inspiration the from the North and the introduction of
torch of freedom in America, avowed for Northern industries; and all this was for
their object the welfare of mankind ; and, the alleged purpose of " redeeming the
when you raised the monument of Bun- South." The organization was divided
ker Hill, it was the genius of freedom into districts in each of the Southern
thrilling through the heart of Massachu- States; at the head of each division or
setts which made one of your distin- district was a grand officer, who, with
guished orators say that the days of your numerous assistants, was given power to
ancient glory will continue to rain influ- appoint the work and duty of each man
ence on the destinies of mankind to the in his division; and each member was
end of time. It is upon this inspiration bound under the most solemn oath.
I rely, in the name of my down-trodden Some of the devilish deeds of the mur-
country — to-day the martyr of mankind, derous Klan were brought to light by
to-morrow the battle-field of its destiny, the congressional investigation instituted,
Time draws nigh when either the influ- but no chronicle has yet appeared, nor
ence of Americans must be felt through- will any ever be able, to depict the hor-
out the world, or the position abandoned rors of the midnight warfare upon weak
to which you rose with gigantic vitality and helpless negroes and their families,
out of the blood of your martyrs. I have the outrages by men in ghostly disguises,
seen the genius of those glorious days the homes destroyed, and the general ter-
spreading its fiery wings of inspiration ror spread over the Southern States where
over the people of Massachusetts. I feel colored people were most thickly settled,
the spirit of olden times moving through The actions of the Ku-klux Klan in the
Faneuil Hall. Let me leave your hearts South were made the subject of heated
alone with the inspiration of history, debates in Congress, and on March 21,
Let me bear with me the heart-strength- 1871, a joint investigating committee was
cning conviction that I have seen Boston appointed. Two days afterwards, Presi-
still a radiating sun, as it was of yore, dent Grant sent the following message to
but risen so high on mankind's sky as both Houses: to spread its warming rays of elevated
patriotism far over the waves. American " To ™e Senate and House of Pepresenta-
patriotism of to-day is philanthropy for
thp wnrlH "A condition of affairs now exists in
some of the States of the Union rendering
irentlemen, 1 trust in God, I trust in life and property insecure, and the carrying
the destinies of humanity, and intrust °' the mails and the collection of the rev-
the hopes of oppressed Europe to the en«e dangerous. The proof that such a
. , . •.» condition of affairs exists in some localities
consistent energy of Massachusetts. is now before the Senate. That the power
Koszta, MARTIN. See NATTJRALIZA- to correct these evils is beyond the control
flON. °f the Senate authorities, T do not doubt ;
TTn viii^o- TTin-r v+- i • L- that the power of the executive of the United
Ku-klux Klan, a political organization 8tategi a^ting within the llm!ts of existing
founded, it is generally admitted, in the laws, is sufficient for present emergencies
State of Tennessee about the beginning of Is not clear- Therefore, I urgently recom-
the year 1868 From the month o, Janu- TSA*3SffV&^JSSftS;
ary to May it spread so rapidly all over liberty, and property, and the enforcement
the Southern States that, according to of law In a11 parts of the United States. It
some of the best authorities, by the mid- ma\bf, e*Pedient, *° Provide that such law
•IT e ,, . -Y as shall be passed in pursuance of this rec-
dle of the year the organization num- ommendation shall expire at the end of the
bered no fewer than 500,000 men. The next session of Congress. There is no other
objects of the Klan were to oppose the Sllb-iect on which I would recommend legis-
enforcement of the reconstruction acts lati°n during the present .,8£88!son GRANT»,
274
KU-KLUX KLAN
The result of the investigations was the the United States, or from discharging
passage by Congress of an act entitled the duties thereof, or by force, intimida-
" An act to enforce the provisions of the tion, or threat to induce any officer of
Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitu- the United States to leave any State, dis-
tion of the United States, and for other trict, or place where his duties as such
purposes," popularly known as " the officer might lawfully be performed, or to
Force bill," which was approved by the injure him in his person or property on
President April 20. This act was as fol- account of his lawful discharge of the
lows: duties of his office, or to injure his per-
" Force Ull " of 1811. — Be it enacted, son while engaged in the lawful discharge by the Senate and House of Representa- of the duties of his office, or to injure tives of the United States of America in his property so as to molest, interrupt, Congress assembled, that any person who hinder, or impede him in the discharge under color of any law, statute, ordinance, of his official duty, or by force, intimi- regulation, custom, or usage of any dation, or threat to deter any party or State, shall subject, or cause to be sub- witness in any court of the United States jected, any person within the jurisdic- from attending such court, or from testi- tion of the United States to the depri- fying in any matter pending in such court vation of any privileges or immunities fully, freely, and truthfully, or to in- secured by the Constitution of the United jure any such party or witness in his per- States, shall, any such law, statute, or- son or property on account of his hav- dinance, regulation, custom, or usage of ing so attended or testified, or by force, the State to the contrary notwithstand- intimidation, or threat to influence the ing, be liable to the party injured in any verdict, presentment, or indictment, of action at law, suit in equity, or other any juror or grand-juror in any court of proper proceeding for redress; such pro- the United States, or to injure such juror ceeding to be prosecuted in the several in his person or property on account of district or circuit courts of the United any verdict, presentment, or indictment, States, with and subject to the same rights lawfully assented to by him, or on ac- of appeal, review upon error, and other count of his being or having been such remedies provided in like cases in such juror, or shall conspire together, or go courts, under the provisions of the act in disguise upon the public highway or of the ninth of April, eighteen hundred upon the premises of another for the and sixty-six, entitled " An act to protect purpose, either directly or indirectly, of all persons in the United States in their depriving any person or any class of per- civil rights, and to furnish the means of sons of the equal protection of the laws, their vindication"; and the other reme- or of equal privileges or immunities dial laws of the United States which are under the laws, or for the purpose of in their nature applicable in such cases. preventing or hindering the constituted
Sec. 2. That if two or more persons authorities of any State from giving or within any State or Territory of the securing to all persons within such State United States shall conspire together to the equal protection of the laws, or shall overthrow, or to put down, or to destroy conspire together for the purpose of in by force the government of the United any manner impeding, hindering, obstruct- States, of to levy war against the ing, or defeating the due course of jus- United States, or to oppose by force the tice in any State or Territory, with m- authority of the government of the tent to deny to any citizen of the United United States, or by force, intimidation, States the due and equal protection of or threat to prevent, hinder, or delay the laws, or to injure any person in his the execution of any law of the United person or his property for lawfully en- States, or by force to seize, take or pos- forcing the right of any person or class sess any property of the United States, of persons to the equal protection of the contrary to the authority thereof, or by laws, or by force, intimidation, or threat force, intimidation, or threat to prevent to prevent any citizen of the United any person from accepting or holding any States lawfully entitled to vote from giv- offi'ce of trust or place of Confidence under ing his support or advocacy in a lawful
275
KU-KLUX KLAN
manner towards or in favor of the elec- secured by this act, and the constituted
tion of any lawfully qualified person as authorities of such State shall either be
an elector of President or Vice-President unable to protect, or shall, from any
of the United States, or as a member of cause, fail in or refuse protection of the
the Congress of the United States, or to people in such rights, such facts shall be
injure in any way any such citizen in his deemed a denial by such State of the equal
person or property on account of such protection of the laws to which they are
support or advocacy, each and every per- entitled under the Constitution of the
son so offending shall be deemed guilty United States; and in all such cases, or
of a high crime, and, upon conviction whenever any such insurrection, violence,
thereof in any district or circuit court of unlawful combination, or conspiracy shall
the United States, or district or supreme oppose or obstruct the laws of the United
court of any Territory of the United States or the due execution thereof, or im-
States having jurisdiction of similar of- pede or obstruct the due course of justice
fences, shall be punished by a fine not under the same, it shall be lawful for the
less than $500 nor more than $5,000, or President, and it shall be his duty, to
by imprisonment with or without hard take such measures, by the employment
labor, as the court may determine, for a of the militia or the land and naval forces
period of not less than six months nor of the United States, or of either, or by
more than six years, as the court may other means, as he may deem necessary
determine, or by both such fine and im- for the suppression of such insurrection,
prisonment as the court shall determine, domestic violence, or combinations; and
And if any one or more persons engaged any person who shall be arrested under
in any such conspiracy shall do, or cause the provision of this and the preceding
to be done, any act in furtherance of the section shall be delivered to the marshal
object of such conspiracy, whereby any of the proper district, to be dealt with ac-
person shall be injured in his person or cording to law.
property, or be deprived of having and Sec. 4. That whenever in any State or exercising any right or privilege of a citi- part of a State the unlawful combinations zen of the United States, the person so named in the preceding section of this act injured or deprived of such rights and shall be organized and armed, and so nu- privileges may have and maintain an ac- merous and powerful as to be able, by vio- tion for the recovery of damages occa- lence, to either overthrow or set at de- sioned by such injury or deprivation of fiance the constituted authorities of such rights and privileges against any one or State and of the United States within more of the persons engaged in such con- such State, or when the constituted spiracy, such action to be prosecuted in authorities are in complicity with, or shall the proper district or circuit court of the connive at the unlawful purposes of, such United States, with and subject to the powerful and armed combinations; and same right of appeal, review upon error, whenever, by reason of either or all of the and other remedies provided in like cases causes aforesaid, the conviction of such in such courts under the provision of the offenders and the preservation of the pub- act of April ninth, one thousand eight hun- lie safety shall become in such district im- dred and sixty-six, "An act to protect practicable, in every such case such corn- all persons in the United States in their binations shall be deemed a rebellion civil rights, and to furnish the means of against the government of the United their vindication." States, and during the continuance oi Sec. 3. That in all cases where insur- such rebellion, and within the limits of rection, domestic violence, unlawful com- the district which shall be so under the binations, or conspiracies in any State sway thereof, such limits to be prescribed shall so obstruct or hinder the execution by proclamation, it shall be lawful for the of the laws thereof, and of the United President of the United States, when in States, as to deprive any portion or class his judgment the public safety shall re- of the people of such State of any of the quire it, to suspend the privileges of the rights, privileges, or immunities, or pro- writ of habeas corpus, to the end that tection, named in the Constitution and such rebellion may be overthrown: Pro-
276
KU-KLUX KLAN— KUNZ
vided, that all the provisions of the sec- son or persons, by reasonable diligence,
ond section of an act entitled " An act could have prevented ; and such damages
relating to habeas corpus and regulating may be recovered in an action on the case
judicial proceedings in certain cases," ap- in the proper circuit court of the United
proved March third, eighteen hundred and States, and any number of persons guilty
sixty-three, which relate to the discharge of such wrongful neglect or refusal may be
of prisoners other than prisoners of war, joined as defendants in such action: Pro-
and to the penalty for refusing to obey vided, that such action shall be com-
the order of the court, shall be in full menced within one year after such cause
force so far as the same are applicable to of action shall have accrued; and if the
the provisions of this section: Provided death of any person shall be caused by
further, that the President shall first any such wrongful act and neglect, the
have made proclamation, as now provided legal representatives of such deceased
by law, commanding such insurgents to person shall have such action therefor,
disperse. And provided also, that the and may recover not exceeding five thou-
provisions of this section shall not be in sand dollars damages therein, for the
force after the end of the next regular benefit of the widow of such deceased per-
session of Congress. son, if any there be, or if there be no
Sec. 5. That no person shall be a grand widow, for the benefit of the next of kin
or petit juror in any court of the United of such deceased person.
States upon any inquiry, hearing, or trial Sec. 7. That nothing herein contained
of any suit, proceeding, or prosecution shall be construed to supersede or repeal
based upon or arising under the provi- any former act or law, except so far as
sions of this act who shall, in the judg- the same may be repugnant thereto; and
ment of the court, be in complicity with any offences heretofore committed against
any such combination or conspiracy; and the tenor of any former act shall be
every such juror shall, before entering upon prosecuted, and any proceeding already
any such inquiry, hearing, or trial, take and commenced for the prosecution thereof
subscribe an oath in open court that he shall be continued and completed, the
has never, directly or indirectly, coun- same as if this act had not been passed,
selled, advised, or voluntarily aided any except so far as the provisions of this
such combination or conspiracy; and each act may go to sustain and validate such
and every person who shall take this proceedings,
oath, and shall therein swear falsely, shall Approved, April 20, 1871.
be guilty of perjury, and shall be subject In October following President Grant
to the pains and penalties declared issued a proclamation calling on the mem-
against that crime, and the first section bers of illegal associations in nine coun-
of the act entitled "An act defining ad- ties in South Carolina to disperse and
ditional causes of challenge and prescrib- surrender their arms and disguises with-
ing an additional oath for grand and petit in five days. Five days afterwards an-
jurors in the United States courts," ap- other proclamation was issued suspend-
proved June seventeenth, eighteen hun- ing the privileges of the writ of habeas
dred and sixty-two, be, and the same is corpus in the counties named. Over 200
hereby, repealed. persons were arrested within a few days,
Sec. 6. That any person or persons hav- and the organization of the Ku - klux
ing knowledge that any of the wrongs Klan was practically overthrown by the
conspired to be done and mentioned in middle of the following January,
the second section of this act are about Kunz, GEORGE FREDERICK, gem expert;
to be committed, and having power to born in New York City, Sept. 29, 1856;
prevent, or aid in preventing, the same, was educated in public schools and at
shall neglect or refuse so to do, and such Cooper Union. In 1883 he was appointed
wrongful act shall be committed, such special agent of the United States Geo-
person or persons shall be liable to the logical Survey. He had charge of the
person injured, or his legal representa- department of mines in the Paris Expo-
tives, for all damages caused by any such sition of 1889, in the Kimberley Exposi-
wrongful act which such first-named per- tion of 1892, and in the World's Colum-
277
KTTN2— KYLE
bian Exposition of 1893, and was honorary logical Survey he has contributed the
special agent of mines in the Atlanta chapter on The Production of Precious
Exposition of 1895, and in the Omaha Stones to the annual report on Mineral
Exposition of 1898. He made a special Resources.
investigation of the occurrence of Ameri- Kyle, JAMES HENDERSON, statesman; can pearls for the United States Fish born in Xenia, O., Jan. 24, 1854; grad- Commission, in 1892-98, and was an uated at Oberlin College in 1878; removed honorary special agent to the commis- to South Dakota in 1890; member of the sioner-general of the United States to the State Senate, 1890; United States Sen- Paris Exposition of 1900. In 1889 he ator, 1891; re-elected, 1897. He was a was decorated by the French govern- leader in the FARMERS' ALLIANCE and ment officier de I' Academic. Since his POPULIST PARTIES (q. v.} . He died in appointment to the United States Geo- Aberdeen, S. D., July 1, 1901.
278 J
Labor, TNDUSTRIAL. Organizations of laboring 2nen for mutual protection and the advancement of their common interests are by no means new or peculiar to the United States. Tradesmen's guilds and societies were common in London several centuries ago; but it was not until 1870 that such organizations began to be for- midable and to have a national influence. The first trades-union in this country was established by the tailors in 1803. The first local union of printers was organized in 1831. The first organized movement against the employment of convict labor was made in a convention of mechanics in Utica, N. Y., in 1834. In 1845 the first industrial congress had a meeting in New York. From that time the progress of the labor movement, although at first imper- ceptibly slow, was assured. In 1869 a secret association of workingmen, known as the KNIGHTS OF LABOR (q. v.), was or- ganized at Philadelphia. Within a few years this association had its branches in every State of the Union, and enrolled many thousands of members. Many ef- forts were made at different times to effect a political organization of working- men, but owing to dissensions and differ- ences of opinion among those engaged in these movements, very little was accom- plished save indirectly through the influ- ence brought to bear upon the great politi- cal parties already in power.
In 1888 a department of labor was cre- ated by act of Congress, with headquarters in Washington, D. C. This department is under the control of a commissioner of labor, whose duty it is " to acquire and diffuse among the people of the United States useful information on subjects con- nected with labor, in the most general and comprehensive sense of that word, and es- pecially upon its relation to capital; the hours of labor; the earnings of laboring men and women; and the means of pro-
moting their material, social, intellectual, and moral prosperity." He is also espe- cially charged, in accordance with the gen- eral design and duties prescribed by the law, " at as early a date as possible, and whenever industrial changes shall make i\, essential, to ascertain the cost of produc- ing articles, at the time dutiable in tho United States, in leading countries where such articles are produced, by fully specified units of production, and under a classifi- cation showing the different elements of cost of such articles of production, in- cluding wages paid in such industries," etc. Besides the national Department of Labor, there are bureaus of statistics and labor in nearly all of the States, the principal objects of which are to col- lect and disseminate information on all matters of practical interest and value both to employers and employed. In 1886 most of the trades-unions in the United States, through their representatives in a convention at Columbus, O., united in a national organization called the American Federation of Labor. In 1903 this organ- ization comprised 1,823 Iwcal unions, with a total membership of 2,100,000, and em- braced more than seventy different trades.
Labor Legislation. — The following States have adopted laws prohibiting boycotting in terms: Colorado, Illinois, and Wisconsin.
The States and Territories having laws prohibiting blacklisting in terms are Ala- bama, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin.
The following States and Territories have laws which may be fairly construed as prohibiting boycotting: Alabama, Con- necticut, Florida, Georgia, Maine, Massa- chusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missis- sippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon,
279
LABOR, INDUSTRIAL
South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vermont, and stitute a day's work for all laborers or
Wisconsin. mechanics employed by or on behalf of
The following States and Territories the District of Columbia, have laws which may be fairly construed Idaho. — Eight hours' actual work con- as prohibiting blacklisting: Georgia, stitute a lawful day's work on all State, Michigan, New Hampshire, New York, county, and municipal works. Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Illinois. — Eight hours are a legal day's South Dakota. work in all mechanical employments, ex-
In the following States it is unlawful cept on farms, and when otherwise agreed ;
for any employer to exact an agreement does not apply to service by the day,
either written or verbal, from an employe week, or month, or prevent contracts for
not to join or become a member of any longer hours.
labor organization, as a condition of em- Indiana. — Eight hours of labor consti-
ployment: California, Colorado, Connec- tute a legal day's work for all classes of
ticut, Idaho, Indiana, Massachusetts, Min- mechanics, workingmen, and laborers, ex-
nesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, cepting those engaged in agricultural and
Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. domestic labor. Overwork by agreement
The following is a summary of the laws and for extra compensation is permitted, of those States that have adopted the The employment of persons under four- eight-hour work-limit: teen years of age for more than eight
California. — Eight hours of labor con- hours per day is absolutely prohibited,
stitute a day's work, unless it is other- Kansas. — Eight hours constitute a day's
wise expressly stipulated by the parties work for all laborers, mechanics, or other
to a contract. The time of service of all persons employed by or on behalf of the
laborers, workmen, and mechanics em- State or any county, city, township, or
ployed upon any public works of, or done other municipality.
for, the State, or for any political sub- Massachusetts. — Eight hours shall con- division thereof, whether the work is to stitute a day's work for all laborers, work- be done by contract or otherwise, is limit- men, and mechanics employed by or on ed and restricted to eight hours in any behalf of any city or town in the Corn- one calendar day, and a stipulation that momvealth.
no workman, laborer, or mechanic in the Missouri. — Eight hours constitute a
employ of the contractor or sub-contractor legal day's work. The law does not pre-
shall be required or permitted to work vent an agreement to work for a longer
more than eight hours in any one calen- or a shorter time and does not apply to
dar day, except in cases of extraordinary laborers and farm-hands in the service of
emergency, shall be contained in every farmers or others engaged in agriculture,
contract to which the State or any politi- Montana. — Eight hours constitute a
cal sub-division thereof is a party. In the legal day's work for persons engaged to
case of drivers, conductors, and gripmen operate or handle any first-motion or di-
of street-cars for the carriage of passen- rect-acting hoisting engine, or any geared
gers, a day's work consists of twelve or indirect-acting hoisting engine at any
hours. Employment of minor children mine employing fifteen or more men un-
for more than eight hours per day is ab- derground when the duties of firemen are
solutely prohibited, except in vinicultural performed by the persons so engaged ; also
or horticultural pursuits, or in domestic for any stationary engineer operating a
or household occupations. stationary engine developing fifty or more
Colorado. — Eight hours constitute a horse-power when such engineer has
day's work for all workmen employed by charge or control of a boiler or boilers in
the State, or any county, township, school addition to his other duties. The law ap-
district, municipality, or incorporated plies only to such steam plants as are in
town. continuous operation or are operated
Connecticut. — Eight hours of labor con- twenty or more hours in each twenty-four stitute a lawful day's work unless other- hours, and does not apply to persons run- wise agreed. ning any engine more than eight hours
District of Columbia. — Eight hours con- in each twenty-four for the purpose of
280
LABOR— LA BORDE
relieving another employe in case of any municipal corporation therein, for
sickness or other unforeseen cause. the performance of public work.
Nebraska. — Eight hours constitute a Tennessee. — Eight hours shall be a
legal day's work for all classes of me- day's work upon the highways, whether
chanics, servants, and laborers, except performed by convicts or free road hands,
those engaged in farm or domestic labor. Utah. — Eight hours constitute a day's
New Jersey. — Eight hours constitute work upon all public works and in all
a day's labor on any day whereon any underground mines or workings, smelters,
general or municipal election shall be and all other institutions for the reduc-
held. tion or refining of ores.
New York. — Eight hours constitute a Washington. — Eight hours in any
day's work for all classes of employes ex- calendar day shall constitute a day's work,
cept in farm or domestic labor. Overwork or any work done for the State, county, or
for extra pay is permitted, except upon municipality. In cases of extraordinary
work by or for the State or a municipal emergency, overtime may be worked for
corporation, or by contractors or sub- extra pay.
contractors therewith. The law applies West Virginia. — Eight hours shall con- to those employed by the State or munic- stitute a day's work for all laborers, ipality, or by persons contracting for workmen, and mechanics who may be em- State work, and each contract to which ployed by or on behalf of the State, the State or a municipal corporation is a Wisconsin. — In all engagements to party shall contain a stipulation that no labor in any manufacturing or mechani- workman, laborer, or mechanic in the em- cal business, where there is no express ploy of the contractor, sub-contractor, etc., contract to the contrary, a day's work shall be permitted or required to work shall consist of eight hours; but the law more than eight hours in any one calendar does not apply to contracts for labor day, except in cases of extraordinary emer- by the week, month, or year. In all gency. manufactories, workshops, or other places
Ohio. — Eight hours shall constitute a used for mechanical or manufacturing
day's work in all engagements to labor in purposes, the time of labor of children
any mechanical, manufacturing, or mining under the age of eighteen, and of women,
business, unless otherwise expressly stipu- shall not exceed eight hours in the day.
lated in the contract. But in case of con- Wyoming. — Eight hours' actual work
ductors, engineers, firemen, or trainmen constitute a legal day's work in all mines
of railroads, a day's work consists of ten and public works,
hours. United States. — Eight hours shall con-
Pennsylvania. — Eight hours of labor stitute a day's work for all laborers, work- shall be deemed and held to be a legal men, and mechanics who may be employed day's work in all cases of la.bor and service by or on behalf of the United States. See by the day where there is no agreement or AMERICAN NATIONAL ARBITRATION BOARD. contract to the contrary. This does not La Borde, MAXIMILIAN, educator; apply to farm or agricultural labor by the born in Edgefield, S. C., June 5, 1804; year, month, or week, to labor in factories, graduated at the South Carolina Col- Laundries, and renovating establishments, lege in 1821, and began the study of or to labor on street railways. law, but soon abandoned it and entered
Eight hours out of the twenty-four the South Carolina Medical College, grad- shall make and constitute a day's labor uating in 1826. For thirteen years he in penitentiaries and reformatory institu- practised in Edgefield, occasionally repre* tions receiving support from the State: senting his district in the legislature. In also for all mechanics, workmen, and 1836 he was editor of the Edgefield Ad- laborers in the employ of the State, or of vertiser, and two years later he was any municipal corporation therein, or elected secretary of state of South Caro- otherwise engaged on public works; this lina. His fine scholarship attracted pub- shall be deemed to apply to mechanics, lie attention, and in 1842 he was called workingmen, or laborers in the employ to the chair of logic and belles-lettres in of persons contracting with the State or his alma mater. He accepted the post,
281
LABOULAYE— LA COLLE MILL
and in 1845 he was transferred to the chair of metaphysics. His method of im- parting knowledge was chiefly oral, but, to assist others who preferred the use of text-books, he published a manual on physiology in 1855, which became very popular in the schools of the South. He also published an elaborate History of the South Carolina College, with Sketches of its Presidents and Professors. He died in Columbia, S. C., Nov. 6, 1873.
Laboulaye, EDOUARD RENE LEFEBVRE, author; born in Paris, France, Jan. 18, 1811; became a lawyer in 1842, and prac- tised in his native city. Later he be- came a prominent educator in France. He greatly admired the Constitution of the United States, and during the Civil War advocated the cause of the North. His works relating to the United States include Political History of the United States; The United States and France; Paris in America; and Memoirs of Frank- lin. He died in Paris, May 25, 1883.
La Cadie. See ACADIA.
Lacey, JOHN, military officer; born in Bucks county, Pa., Feb. 4, 1755; was of Quaker descent, but patriotically took command of a volunteer company, and be- came a captain in Wayne's regiment, with which he served in Canada. Becoming a
lieutenant-colonel of militia, he joined Potter's brigade at Whitemarsh, with about 400 men. Before he was twenty- three years old he was made a brigadier- general, and* was engaged in harassing duty while the British had command of Philadelphia. After the evacuation of that city by the British, he left military life and became active in the civil service of his State, being a member of the Penn- sylvania Assembly in 1778, and of the council in 1779. He again entered the military service, and from August, 1780, to October, 1781, was active at the head of a brigade of militia. Removing to New Jersey, he was for many years a county judge, and a member of the legis- lature. He died in New Mills, N. J., Feb. 17, 1814.
La Colle Mill, BATTLE AT. In the win- ter of 1813-14 an American force un- der General Wilkinson was encamped at French Mills (afterwards Fort Coving- ton) in Franklin county, N. Y. Early in 1814 a large portion of this force was withdrawn. A part were marched to Plattsburg. Soon afterwards, Feb. 28, a party of British soldiers advanced and destroyed some stores which the Ameri- cans had left behind. This invasion alarmed the whole frontier. Late in March
LACONIA— LACROSSE
General Wilkinson attempted another in- seen by Europeans when the French ex- vasion of Canada. He advanced up the plored the territory along the St. Law- western shore of Lake Champlain to the rence River and the Great Lakes, in the Canada frontier (March 30, 1814) with seventeenth century. Among the Algon- about 4,000 picked men. They soon en- quian Indians the game was not merely a countered British pickets, and drove them recreation, but a training school for young back. In the afternoon the Americans warriors, and they played it on the grassy came in sight of La Colle Mill, a heavy meadows in the summer time and on the stone structure, its windows barricaded ice in winter. They used a ball of stuffed with timbers, through which were loop- skin, and a bat like a hickory stick with holes for musketry. The British garrison a net of reindeer hide attached to the at the mill consisted of only about 200 curved part of it. The best-known Indian regulars, under Major Hancock. The ad- name of the game was baggataway. Its vance of Wilkinson's troops was com- present name was given to it by the nianded by Col. Isaac Clark and Major French settlers of Canada, because of the Forsyth. The artillery was under Cap- similarity of the stick used in the game, tain McPherson, and the reserves were in shape, to a bishop's crosier. Lacrosse commanded by Gen. Alexander Macomb. was adopted as a game by the white resi- Following Clark and Forsyth was Colonel dents of Canada about 1830, but it did Miller's regiment of 600 men. Aware that not gain much popularity till about 1860, reinforcements for the British were near, when the Montreal Lacrosse Club was Wilkinson ordered an immediate attack, organized. The game was first played in The fire upon the stone citadel was harm- England in 1867, when a gentleman of less, while the whole American line was Montreal took eighteen Indian players, of exposed to a galling fire. For a while the the Caughnawaga tribe, thither, who fight was desperate, when Major Hancock played it before large assemblies. The re- made a sortie from the mill, and after a suit was the organization of a number of furious contest they were driven back, lacrosse clubs in England and Scotland, Reinforcements came to the garrison, and and the game is now very popular there, after a conflict of two hours Wilkinson It was first introduced into the United was compelled to withdraw and abandon States about three years later, and the the invasion of Canada. first club in this country was the Mohawk Laconia, the name given by Gorges and Lacrosse Club, of Troy, N. Y. In 1879 Mason to the portion of New England the National Lacrosse Association was granted to them, extending from the Merri- organized here. In play there are twenty- mac to the Kennebec, and from the ocean four contestants, twelve on each side, with to the St. Lawrence. The proprietors in- the captains (not necessarily players), duced several merchants to join them in two umpires and a referee. The twenty- their adventure, and sent out a colony of four players are each provided with a fishermen, a part of whom settled at the crosse. The two captains are not allowed mouth of the Piscataqua, now Portsmouth, to carry a crosse, their official work on the N. H. Others settled on the site of Dover, field being simply to " coach " the play- 8 miles farther up the river. The Laconia ers. At each end of the field of play Company did not prosper, and the towns stands a goal, consisting of two posts, six were little more than fishing-stations. See feet high and six feet apart. These goals NEW HAMPSHIRE. must be at least 125. yards apart, other- La Corne, PIERRE, CHEVALIER DE, mili- wise there is no restrictive rule on the tary officer; was active in Canada from length or width of the field. The Indians 1720 to 1759, and had great influence over used a much larger field than any used in the Indians in connection with the Jesuit the game as adopted by white ball-play- missionaries. His intimate knowledge of era. The ball, which is of rubber, should the Indian language gave him great power, weigh not over four ounces nor measure and he was one of the most formidable more than eight inches in circumference, enemies of the English in Nova Scotia. The theory of the game is merely that Lacrosse. There is no doubt that this each side strives to send the ball through game is of Indian origin. It was first the goal of the other side, and the side
283
LADD— LA FABGE
that does this the most times within a spicuous part in organizing the American
specified period wins the match. The Peace Society, of which he was for many
players on each side stand to certain fixed years president. He wrote many essays
points. The ball must not be handled in in favor of peace, and edited the Friend
any way; it must be picked up, carried, of Peace and Harbinger of Peace news-
and thrown only by means of the crosse. papers, devoted to the cause. He went
This implement, as now used, is a bent so far as to deny the right to maintain
stick covered with netting. As before in- defensive war. He died in Portsmouth,
dicated, the game has become very popu- N. H., April 9, 1841.
lar in the United States, and as an evi- Ladue, JOSEPH, miner; born in Platts-
dence of the skill which American players burg, N. Y., in 1854. When twenty years
have attained in it, it may be stated that, old he went West, where he engaged in
on May 22, 1900, a student team of Ste- mining, becoming an expert. Subsequently
vens Institute of Technology, of Hoboken, he went to Alaska, and after remaining
N. J., defeated by a score of 6 to 4 the there about fifteen years discovered the
champion Canadian team of full-blooded Klondike gold-fields, which soon became
Iroquois Indians. famous all over the world. On June 23,
Ladd, GEORGE TRUMBULL, educator; 1897, he mapped out and founded Dawson
born in Painesville, O., Jan. 19, 1842 ; City, at the mouth of the Klondike River,
graduated at Western Reserve College on land which he had purchased from
and, in 1869, at Andover Theological the government for $1.25 an acre. He was
Seminary, where he lectured on Church also the organizer of the Joseph Ladue
polity and systematic theology in 1879-81. Gold Mining and Development Company,
In the latter year he became Professor of one of the largest in that line. He died
Philosophy at Yale University. He has in Schuyler Falls, N. Y., June 26,
also lectured several times at Harvard 1901.
University. In 1892 he went to Japan La Farge, JOHN, artist; born in New
and lectured on philosophy; and in 1899 York, March 31, 1835; took a course in
he again visited that country to in- architectural decoration, and then, under
duce Japanese students to come to the Couture and William M. Hunt, studied
United States. His publications include painting. He began his career by deco-
Principles of Church Polity; Doctrine of rative work and by painting religious
Sacred Scripture; What is the Bible? Ele- subjects; devoting his early years princi-
ments of Physiological Psychology; In- pally to painting flowers and landscapes
troduction to Philosophy; Primer of and to illustrating magazines and books.
Psychology; Philosophy of Mind; Phi- He next took up mural painting, nearly
losophy of Knowledge; Psychology, De- all of which was of a religious character.
scriptive and Explanatory; Outlines of Later he devoted his whole time to the
Descriptive Psychology; Essays on the making of stained glass windows, for
Higher Education, etc. which he invented the method known as
Ladd, HORATIO OLIVER, clergyman; born "American" in Europe. This method
in Hallowell, Me., Aug. 31, 1839; grad- entirely changed the old process of the
uated at Bowdoin College in 1859, and at glass stainer. His work in this line
Yale Theological School in 1863. He has been done principally in churches
established the University of New Mex- and residences in New York, Boston,
ico in 1881; was its president till 1899; Chicago, Philadelphia, Washington, and
and was a Congregational clergyman other cities, and probably his most not-
till 1891, when he entered the Protes- able achievements are the Battle Win-
tant Episcopal Church. His publications dow in the Harvard Memorial Hall, and
include The War ivith Mexico; The the Ames Memorial Window, in Easton,
Story of New Mexico; Ramona Days, Mass. He became a member of the Na-
etc. tional Academy of Design in 1869, and
Ladd, WILLIAM, philanthropist; born in 1900 was president of the Society
in Exeter, N. H., May 10, 1778; grad- of American Artists. He is author of
uated at Harvard in 1797; became an ac- Lectures on Art; Letters from Japan,
tive champion of peace and took a con- etc.
284
LAFAYETTE
Lafayette, MARIE JEAN PAUL ROCH ately addressed a letter to Congress, ask- YVES GILBERT MOTIER, MARQUIS DE, pa- ing leave to serve as a volunteer in the triot; born in Cavanac, Auvergne, France, Continental army without pay. In consid- Sept. 6, 1757. Left an heir to an immense eration of his zeal and illustrious family estate at the age of thirteen years, he re- and connections, that body gave him the ceived the best education that could be commission of major-general, July 31, and obtained, and at sixteen married a grand- Washington invited him to become a mem- daughter of the Duke de Noailles. He en- ber of his military family. He joined the tered the army as a captain of dragoons, Continental army near a house on Ne- and in the summer of 1776 he heard of the shaminy Creek in August. At that time struggles of the English-American colo- he was less than twenty years of age. nies. He immediately resolved to aid From that time until the close of the Rev- them. When he and other French officers were ready to embarK for America (1777), he was informed that the credit of the Continental Congress was so low that it could not furnish them a transport. The young enthusiast replied, " Then I will purchase one myself." He bought and secret- ly freighted a vessel, named the Victory, to carry himself, the veteran Baron de Kalb, and ten or twelve other French offi- cers across the Atlantic. While ; the vessel was in preparation for sailing, he made a visit to J England, where he was invited to visit the navy-yards. Too honorable to inspect the arma- ments of a people whose armies he was about to fight against, he declined, but thought it a good joke to be introduced to their King. He was then only nineteen years of age. The Victory sailed first to a Spanish port, where Lafayette received orders from the King to give up his expedition; but he dis- obeyed, and sailed for Amer- ica. The women of Paris applauded his olution he was the bosom friend of the heroism; the Queen gave him tokens of commander-in-chief and the untiring and her admiration; the people extolled him effective champion of the patriot cause in for his strong enthusiasm in a good cause; the field and at the Court of his native and to his young wife, who was about to country. He was ever ready to defend the become a mother a second time, he wrote honor of the Americans, from the Victory: "From love to me, be- To restrain British foragers and ma- come a good American; the welfare of rauders, who were plundering the country America is closely bound up with the wel- for some distance around Philadelphia in
LAFAYETTE IN 1777 (From a French print).
fare of mankind.'
the spring of 1778, Washington sent him
The party landed near Georgetown, S. out from Valley Forge, with about 2,100 C., April 19, 1777. They travelled by land men and five pieces of artillery, to cut off to Philadelphia, where Lafayette immedi- all communication between Philadelphia
285
LAFAYETTE, MAKQUIS DE
LAFAYETTE'S HEADQUARTERS NEAR CHADD'S FORD.
and the country, and to obtain informa- in 1787, when he boldly demanded the tion concerning a rumored intention of the convocation of the States-General, con- British to evacuate that city. Lafayette sisting of three orders — namely, the crossed the* Schuylkill, and took post at clergy, nobility, and commons — represen- Barren Hill, about half-way between Val- tatives of the whole nation. They had ley Forge and Philadelphia, occupying the not met since 1614, a period of 173 years. Lutheran The King (Louis XVI.) convened them
^^IM^. church there as on May 6, 1789. There were 308 ecclesi-
x^illfe- headquarters, astics, 285 nobles, and 621 deputies of the
General Howe third estate, or the "common people." In sent General July Lafayette was appointed commander- Grant to make in-chief of the National Guard. When a secret night the abolition of titles was decreed, he march to gain dropped his, and was known only as Gen- the rear of the era* Lafayette. He resigned his command marquis (May *n 1790, and in 1792 commanded one of 20), and the ^e armies sent to guard the frontiers of next morning France against the forces of monarchs Howe marched alarmed by the republican demonstrations with about 6,- in France. When the fierce Jacobins 000 men com- seized power the conservative Lafayette
manded by Clinton and Knyphaus'en, to was denounced and his arrest decreed, capture the young Frenchman and send He crossed the frontier, intending to take him to England. The marquis outgen- refuSe in Holland. The Austrians seized eralled the British, though they surprised him, and escaped across the Schuylkill. Howe was disappointed, for he was about to depart for England under a partial cloud of ministerial displeasure, and he hoped to close his career in America by some brilliant act.
After a short winter passage from Bos- ton to Brest, in February, 1779, Lafay- ette joined his family and friends in his native land. His offence in sailing for America in defiance of the King's com- mand was atoned for by a week's exile to Paris, and confinement in the house of his father-in-law. He was then received at Versailles, when the King gently rep- rimanded him, while the Queen eagerly sought information concerning America from his own lips. His fame made him the admired of Court society as well as of the populace of the French capital. The young marquis observed with alarm that everybody was talking of peace, while America was struggling with armed cham- pions of royalty, and he felt that the inde- pendence of the colonies was in peril. With great earnestness he pleaded for aid for the Americans, and was successful.
In 1784 he again visited the United States, and was everywhere received with tokens of affection and respect. He be- came a member of the Notables at Paris
I
LUTHERAN CHURCH,
BARREN HILT- QUARTERS.
LAFAYETTE'S HEAD-
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LAFAYETTE, MARQtTIS BE
him, and confined him in a dungeon five secretary he landed in New York, Aug. 15, years. For a long time no intelligence 1824, visited in succession the whole twen- of him reached his friends. Meanwhile ty-four States, and was everywhere received his wife had been imprisoned at Paris with demonstrations of love and respect, during the " Reign of Ter- ror," but had been set at liberty on the downfall of Robespierre. She hastened to Vienna, obtained a per- sonal interview with the Emperor, and gained per- mission to share the cap- tivity of her husband. Great exertions were made in Europe and America to obtain his release, but in vain, until Bonaparte, at the head of an army, demanded his release. He was set at liberty Aug. 25, 1797. Towards the end of 1799 he returned to his estate of La Grange, 40 miles from Paris. Bona- parte tried to bribe him with offered honors to en- ter public life again as senator. He refused with disdain; and when the
vote for making Bonaparte JB5R? '''TlBiT^'"^''
first consul for life was >v -.-. • •ffiFf llllKVHi^El ffir^-" --. : taken, Lafayette voted no, and told the ambitious general so in a letter, which ended their in- tercourse. When Bona- parte became Emperor, La- fayette took a seat in the Chamber of Deputies; and this stanch champion of constitutional government refused the offered bauble of a peerage. After the battle of Waterloo, Between Washington and Lafayette touched with sympathy for the fallen there had grown up a strong mutual affec- monarch, he offered him facilities for es- tion during their intercourse in the caping to America; but the Emperor, who scenes of the old war for independence, could not forgive Lafayette's former op- When at the seat of government in De- position, refused to accept the offer, and tober, 1824, while on his visit to the became a prisoner on St. Helena. In the United States, the marquis was conduct- French legislature Lafayette's voice was ed to Mount Vernon by George Washing- always in favor of liberal measures. In ton Parke Custis, the adopted son of 1824 the Congress of the United States Washington, with whom George W. La- requested President Monroe to invite fayette had lived in the mansion of Lafayette to America as a guest of the the great patriot while Lafayette was republic. He came, but declined the offer an exile from France and in a prison, of a ship. With his son and a private He was conveyed from the capital in a
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GENERAL LAFAYETTK. (After a painting by Peale.)
LAFAYETTE, MABQUIS DE
barge, accompanied by his son; John C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, and Mr. Custis; and at the shore at Mount Ver- non he was received by Lawrence Lewis, Washington's favorite nephew, and the family of Judge Bushrod Washington, who was then absent on official business. After visiting the mansion, where, forty years before, he took his last leave of the beloved patriot, the company proceeded to
ton's hair. He received it with emotion. The door of the vault was opened, and there were displayed the leaden caskets which contained the coffins of Washington and his wife, decorated with flowers. Lafayette entered, kissed the casket, and reverently retired. Lafayette spent fourteen months in America. He visited Andrew Jackson at the " Hermitage," and on his return to Washington his sixty-eighth birth-
LAFAYETTK AT THE HERMITAGE.
the tomb (the old one, on the brow of the day was celebrated at the White House, hill), where Custis presented the marquis He sailed for Europe Sept. 7, 1825, in the with a ring containing a lock of Washing- frigate Brandywine.
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LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS BE
LAFAYETTE'S TOMB.
During the revolution of 1830, that drove Charles X. from the throne, Lafayette was made commander-in-chief of the National Guard. He sacrificed his own republican preferences for the sake of peace and or- der, and placed Louis Philippe on the throne. He died the acknowledged chief of the con- stitutional party on the conti- nent of Europe, May 20, 1834. He received a magnificent pub- lic funeral, when his remains were conveyed to their resting- place in the cemetery of Pic- pus. The monument is about 8 feet square, with appropriate inscriptions in French. The cross seen in the picture stands over the grave of another.
The American Revolution. — The follow- 1776, and the memorable declaration of the ing is Lafayette's narrative of his service 4th of July reached France at the close with the American army during the of that same year.
Revolutionary War, from his Memoirs: After having crowned herself with lau-
rels and enriched herself with conquests,
You ask me at what period I first ex- after having become mistress of all seas, perienced my ardent love of liberty and and after having insulted all nations, glory? I recollect no time of my life England had turned her pride against anterior to my enthusiasm for anecdotes her own colonies. North America had of glorious deeds, and to my projects of long been displeasing to her: she wished travelling over the world to acquire fame, to add new vexations to former injuries, At eight years of age, my heart beat when and to destroy the most sacred privileges. I heard of an hyena that had done some The Americans, attached to the mother- injury, and caused still more alarm, in country, contented themselves at first with our neighborhood, and the hope of meet- merely uttering complaints. They only ing it was the object of all my walks, accused the ministry, and the whole na- When I arrived at college, nothing ever tion rose up against them. They were interrupted my studies, except my ardent termed insolent and rebellious, and at wish of studying without restraint. I length declared the enemies of their coun- never deserved to be chastised, but, in try: thus did the obstinacy of the King, spite of my usual gentleness, it would the violence of the ministers, and the ar- have been dangerous to have attempted to rogance of the English nation oblige thir- do so; and I recollect with pleasure that, teen of their colonies to render themselves when I was to describe in rhetoric a per- independent. Such a glorious cause had feet courser, I sacrificed the hope of ob- never before attracted the attention of taining a premium, and described the one mankind: it was the last struggle of Lib- who, on perceiving the whip, threw down crty; and had she then been vanquished, his rider. Republican anecdotes always neither hope nor asylum would have re- delighted me; and, when my new con- mained for her. The oppressors and op- nections wished to obtain for me a place pressed were to receive a powerful lesson; at Court, I did not hesitate displeasing the great work was to be accomplished, them to preserve my independence. I was or the rights of humanity were to fall be- in that frame of mind when I first learned neath its ruin. The destiny of France the troubles in America: they only be- and that of her rival were to be decided came thoroughly known in Europe in at the same moment: England was to V.— T 289
LAFAYETTE, MAEWIS DE
lose, with the new States, an important Deane was then at Paris; but the minis- commerce, of which she derived the sole ters feared to receive him, and his voice advantage, one-quarter of her subjects, was overpowered by the louder accents of who were constantly augmenting by a Lord Stormont. He despatched privately
to America some old arms, which were of little use, and some young officers, who did but little good, the whole directed by M. de Beau- marchais; and, when the English ambassador spoke to our Court, it denied having sent any cargoes, ordered those that were preparing to be discharged, and dis- missed irom our ports all American privateers. While wishing to ad- dress myself in a direct manner to Mr. Deane, I became the friend of Kalb, a German in our employ, who was apply- ing for service with the insurgents ( the expres- sion in use at the time), and who became my in- terpreter. He was the person sent by M. de Choiseul to examine the English colonies; and on his return he received rapid increase of population and by emi- some money, but never succeeded in gration from all parts of Europe — in a obtaining an audience, so little did that word, more than half of the most beau- minister in reality think of the revolution tiful portion of the British territory. But, whose retrograde movements some per- if she retained possession of her thirteen sons have inscribed to him! When I colonies, all was ended for our West In- presented to Mr: Deane my boyish face dies, our possessions in Asia and Africa, (for I was scarcely nineteen years of age), our maritime commerce, and consequently I spoke more of my ardor in the cause our navy and our political existence. than of my experience; but I dwelt much
(1776.) When I first learned the sub- upon the effect my departure would ex- ject of this quarrel, my heart espoused cite in France, and he signed our mutual warmly the cause of liberty, and I thought agreement. The secrecy with which this of nothing but of adding also the aid of negotiation and my preparations were my banner. Some circumstances, which made appears almost a miracle: family, it would be needless to relate, had taught friends, ministers, French spies and Eng- me to expect only obstacles in this case lish spies, all were kept completely in the from my own family: I depended, there- dark as to my intentions. Among my fore, solely upon myself; and I ventured discreet confidants, I owe much to M. to adopt for a device on my arms these du Boismartin, secretary of the Count words, " Cur won?" that they might de Broglie, and to the Count de Broglie equally serve as an encouragement to my- himself, whose affectionate heart, when self, and as a reply to others. Silas all his efforts to turn me from this proj-
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DESIGN ON THE HILT OF LAFAYETTE'S SWORD.
LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
ect had proved in vain, entered into my less generally known. I arrived in Lon- views with even paternal tenderness. don with M. de Poix; and I first paid
Preparations were making to send a ves- my respects to Bancroft, the American, sel to America, when very bad tidings ar- and afterwards to his British Majesty, rived from thence. New York, Long A youth of nineteen may be, perhaps Island, White Plains, Fort Washington, too fond of playing a trick upon the and the Jerseys had seen the American King he is going to fight with, of dan- forces successively destroyed by 33,000 cing at the house of Lord Germain, min- Englishmen or Germans. Three thousand ister for the English colonies, and at the Americans alone remained in arms, and house of Lord Rawdon, who had just re- these were closely pursued by General turned from New York, and of seeing at Howe. From that moment all the credit the opera that Clinton whom he was after- of the insurgents vanished: to obtain a wards to meet at Monmouth. But, while vessel for them was impossible. The en- I concealed my intentions, I openly voys themselves thought it right to ex- avowed my sentiments. I often defended press to me their own discouragement, and the Americans; I rejoiced at their suc- persuade me to abandon my project. I cess at Trenton; and my spirit of opposi- called upon Mr. Deane, and I thanked tion obtained for me an invitation to him for his frankness. " Until now, sir," breakfast with Lord Shelbourne. I re- said I, " you have only seen my ardor in fused the offers made me to visit the sea- your cause, and that may not prove at ports, the vessels fitting out against the present wholly useless. I shall purchase a ship to carry out your officers. We must feel confidence in the future, and it is especially in the hour of danger that I wish to share your fortune." My project was received with approbation; but it was necessary afterwards to find money, and to pur- chase and arm a vessel secretly: all this was ac- complished with the great- est despatch.
The period was, how- ever, approaching, which had been long fixed, for my taking a journey to England. I could not re- fuse to go without risking the discovery of my secret, and by consenting to take this journey I knew I could better conceal my preparations for a greater one. This last measure was also thought most expedient by MM. Frank- lin and Deane, for the doctor himself rebels, and everything that might be con- was then in France; and, although I strued into an abuse of confidence. At did not venture to go to his home, for the end of three weeks, when it became fear of being seen, I corresponded with necessary for me to return home, while him through M. Carmichael, an American refusing my uncle, the ambassador, to ac-
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OBVERSE SIHR OK UES1ON.
LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
company him to Court, I confided to him him; but a sign from him silenced her, my strong desire to take a trip to Paris, and her adroit fidelity turned away all He proposed saying that I was ill during suspicion. It was thus that M. de La- my absence. I should not have made use fayette rejoined his ship, April 26, 1777; of this stratagem myself, but I did nofc and on that same day, after six months' object to his doing so. anxiety and labor, he set sail for the
After having suffered dreadfully in the American continent.
channel, and being reminded, as a conso- (1777.) As soon as M. de Lafayette lation, how very short the voyage would had recovered from the effects of sea- be, I arrived at M. de Kalb's house in sickness, he studied the language and Paris, concealed myself three days at trade he was adopting. A heavy ship, Chaillot, saw a few of my friends and two bad cannon, and some guns could some Americans, and set out for Bor- not have escaped from the smallest deaux, where I was for some time un- privateer. In his present situation, he expectedly delayed. I took advantage of resolved rather to blow up the vessel than that delay to send to Paris, from whence to surrender. He concerted measures to the intelligence I received was by no achieve this end with a brave Dutchman means encouraging; but, as my mes- named Bedaulx, whose sole alternative, senger was followed on the road by one if taken, would have been the gibbet. The from the government, I lost not a rao- captain insisted upon stopping at the ment in setting sail, and the orders of islands; but government orders would my sovereign were only able to overtake wave been found there, and he followed me at Passage, a Spanish port, at which a direct course, less from choice than we stopped on our way. The letters from from compulsion. At 40 leagues from my own family were extremely violent, shore they were met by a small vessel, and those from the government were per- The captain turned pale, but the crew emptory. I was forbidden to proceed to were attached to M. de Lafayette, and the American continent under the penalty the officers were numerous: they made a of disobedience; I was enjoined to repair show of resistance. It turned out, fort- instantly to Marseilles, and await there unately, to be an American ship, whom further orders.* A sufficient number of they vainly endeavored to keep up with ; commentaries were not wanting upon the but scarcely had the former lost sight consequences of such an anathema, the °f M. de Lafayette's vessel, when it fell laws of the state, and the power and dis- in with two English frigates — and this pleasure of the government; but the grief is not the only time when the elements of his wife, who was pregnant, and the seemed bent on opposing M. de Lafayette, thoughts of his family and friends, had as if with the intention of saving him. far more effect upon M. de Lafayette. After having encountered for seven weeks As his vessel could no longer be stopped, various perils and chances, he arrived at he returned to Bordeaux to enter into a Georgetown, in Carolina. Ascending the justification of his own conduct; and, in river in a canoe, his foot touched at a declaration to M. de Fumel, he took length the American soil; and he swore upon himself all the consequences of his that he would conquer or perish in that present evasion. As the Court did not cause. Landing at midnight at Major deign to relax in its determination, he Huger's house, he found a vessel sailing wrote to M. de Maurepas that that f°r France, which appeared only waiting silence was a tacit consent, and his own for his letters. Several of the officers departure took place soon after that jok- landed, others remained on board, and all ing despatch. After having set out on hastened to proceed to Charlestown. the road to Marseilles, he retraced his This beautiful city is worthy of its in- steps, and, disguised as a' courier, he had habitants ; and everything there announced almost escaped all danger, when, at Saint not only comfort, but even luxury. With- Jean de Luz, a young girl recognized out knowing much of M. de Lafayette, the
Generals Howe, Moultrie, and Gulden re-
* Lafayette here changes his narrative from ceived him with the utmost kindness and the first to the third person. attention. The new works were shown
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him, and also that battery which Moultrie withstand so many various blows, General afterwards defended so extremely well, and Washington, leaving Putnam on the North which the English appear, we must ac- River, crossed over the Delaware, and en- knowledge, to have seized the only possible camped, with 11,000 men, within reach of means of destroying. Several adventurers, Philadelphia.
the refuse of the islands, endeavored vainly It was under these circumstances that to unite themselves to M. de Lafayette, M. de Lafayette first arrived in America; and to infuse into his mind their own feel- but the moment, although important to ings and prejudices. Having procured the common cause, was peculiarly unfavor* horses, he set out with six officers for Phil- able to strangers. The Americans were adelphia. His vessel had arrived; but it displeased with the pretensions, and dis- was no longer protected by fortune, and gusted with the conduct, of many French- on its return home it was lost on the bar men. The imprudent selections they had of Charlestown. To repair to the Congress in some cases made, the extreme boldness of the United States, M. de Lafayette rode of some foreign adventurers, the jealousy nearly 900 miles on horseback. Before of the army, and strong national preju- reaching the capital of Pennsylvania, he dices, all contributed to confound disin- was obliged to travel through the two terested zeal with private ambition, and Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and Dela- talents with quackery. Supported by the ware. While studying the language and promises which had been given by Mr. customs of the inhabitants, he observed Deane, a numerous band of foreigners be- also new productions of nature and new sieged the Congress. Their chief was a methods of cultivation. Vast forests and clever but very imprudent man; and, al- immense rivers combine to give to that though a good officer, his excessive vanity country an appearance of youth and amounted almost to madness. With M. de majesty. After a fatiguing journey of one Lafayette, Mr. Deane had sent out a fresh month he beheld at length that Philadel- detachment; and every day such crowds phia so well known in the present day, arrived that the Congress had finally and whose future grandeur Penn appeared adopted the plan of not listening to any to designate when he laid the first stone stranger. The coldness with which M. de of its foundation. Lafayette was received might have been
After having accomplished his noble taken as a dismissal ; but, without appear- manoeuvres at Trenton and Princeton, ing disconcerted by the manner in which General Washington had remained in his the deputies addressed him, he entreated camp at Middlebrook. The English, find- them to return to Congress, and read the ing themselves frustrated in their first following note:
hopes, combined to make a decisive cam- "After the sacrifices I have made, I paign. Burgoyne was already advancing have the right to exact two favors: one with 10,000 men, preceded by his procla- is, to serve at my own expense; the other mation and his savages. Ticonderoga, a is, to serve at first as volunteer." famous stand of arms, was abandoned by The style, to which they were so little Saint-Clair. He drew upon himself much accustomed, awakened their attention: public odium by this deed, but he saved the despatches from the envoys were read the only corps whom the militia could over; and, in a very flattering resolution, rally round. While the generals were the rank of major-general was granted to busied assembling that militia, the Con- M. de Lafayette. Among the various gress recalled them, sent Gates in their officers who accompanied him, several were place, and used all possible means to sup- strangers to him. He was interested, port him. At that same time the great however, for them all; and to those English army, of about 18,000 men, had whose services were not accepted an in- sailed from New York, and the two Howes demnity for their trouble was granted.
were uniting their forces for a secret en- Some months afterwards M. drowned
terprise. Rhode Island was occupied by himself in the Schuylkill, and the loss of an hostile corps; and General Clinton, that impetuous and imprudent man was who had remained at New York, was there perhaps a fortunate circumstance, preparing for an expedition. To be able to The two Howes having appeared before
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the capes of the Delaware, General Wash- plied M. de Lafayette; and that modest ington came to Philadelphia, and M. de tone, which was not common in Europeans. Lafayette beheld for the first time that produced a very good effect, great man. Although he was surrounded After having menaced the Delaware, by officers and citizens, it was impossible the English fleet again disappeared, and to mistake for a moment his majestic fig- during some days the Americans amused ure and deportment; nor was he less dis- themselves by making jokes at its ex- tinguished by the noble affability of his pense. These jokes, however, ceased when manner. M. de Lafayette accompanied it reappeared in the Chesapeake; and, in him in his examination of the fortifica- order to approach it more closely dur- tions. Invited by the general to establish ing the disembarkation, the patriot army himself in his house, he looked upon it crossed through the town. Their heads from that moment as his own: with this covered with green branches, and march- perfect ease and simplicity was formed the ing to the sound of drums and fifes, these tie that united two friends, whose confi- soldiers, in spite of their state of nudity, dence and attachments were to be cement- offered an agreeable spectacle to the eyes ed by the strongest interests of humanity, of all the citizens. General Washington The American army, stationed some was marching at their head, and M. de miles from Philadelphia, was waiting until Lafayette was by his side. The army the movements of the hostile army should stationed itself upon the heights of Wil- be decided: the general himself reviewed mington, and that of the enemy landed the troops. M. de Lafayette arrived there in the Elk River, at the bottom of Chesa- the same day. About 11,000 men, ill peake Bay. The very day they landed, armed, and still worse clothed, presented General Washington exposed himself to a strange spectacle to the eye of the young danger in the most imprudent manner. Frenchman. Their clothes were parti- After having reconnoitred for a long time colored, and many of them were almost the enemy's position, he was overtaken naked. The best clad wore hunting shirts, by a storm during a very dark night, large gray linen coats which were much entered a farm-house close to the hos- used in Carolina. As to their military tile army, and, from a reluctance to tactics, it will be sufficient to say that, change his own opinion, remained there for a regiment ranged in order of battle with General Greene, M. de Lafayette, to move forward on the right of its line, and their aide-de-camp; but, when at it was necessary for the left to make a daybreak he quitted the farm, he ac- continued counter-march. They were al- knowledged that any one traitor might ways arranged in two lines, the smallest have caused his ruin. Some days later men in the first line: no other distinction Sullivan's division joined the army, which as to height was ever observed. In spite augmented it in all to 13,000 men. This of these disadvantages, the soldiers were Major-General Sullivan made a good be- fine, and the officers zealous; virtue stood ginning, but a bad ending, in an intended in place of science, and each day added surprise on Staten Island, both to experience and discipline. Lord If, by making too extensive a plan of Stirling, more courageous than judicious, attack, the English committed a great another general, who was often intoxi- error, it must also be acknowledged that cated, and Greene, whose talents were the Americans were not irreproachable in only then known to his immediate friends, their manner of defence. Burgoyne, commanded as majors-general. General leading his army, with their heads bent Knox, who had changed the profession of upon the ground, into woods from whence bookseller to that of artillery officer, was he could not extricate them, dragged on, there also, and had himself formed other upon a single road, his numerous can- officers, and created an artillery. " We non and rich military equipages. Cer- must feel embarrassed," said General tain of not being attacked from behind, Washington, on his arrival, " to exhibit the Americans could dispute every step ourselves before an officer who has just they took; this kind of warfare at- quitted French troops." " It is to learn, tracted the militia, and Gates improved and not to teach, that I come hither," re- each day in strength. Every tree shel-
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tered a skilful rifleman; and the re- centre, was defended by batteries. It was sources offered by military tactics, and in that hardly examined station that, in the talents even of their chiefs, had be- obedience to a letter from Congress, the come useless to the English. The corps Americans awaited the battle. The even- left in New York could, it is true, laugh ing of Sept. 10 Howe advanced in two at the corps of Putnam, but it was too columns, and, by a very fine movement, feeble to- succor Burgoyne; and, instead the left column (about 8,000 men under of being able to secure his triumph, its Lord Cornwallis, with the grenadiers and own fate was even dependent upon his. guards) directed themselves towards the During that time Howe was only think- fords of Birmingham, 3 miles on our ing of Philadelphia, and it was at the ex- right: the other column continued its pense of the northern expedition that he road, and about nine o'clock in the morn- was repairing thither by an enormous ing it appeared on the other side of the circuit. But, on the other side, why were stream. The enemy was so near the skirts the English permitted to land so tranquil- of the wood that it was impossible to ly? Why was the moment .allowed to judge of his force: some time was lost in pass when their army was divided by the a mutual cannonading. General Washing- river Elk? Why in the South were so ton walked along his two lines, and was many false movements and so much hesi- received with acclamations which seemed tation displayed? Because the Americans to promise him success. The intelligence had hitherto had combats, but not bat- that was received of the movements of ties; because, instead of harassing an Cornwallis was both confused and contra- army and disputing hollows, they were dictory. Owing to the conformity of obliged to protect -an open city, and name between two roads that were of manoeuvre in a plain, close to an hostile equal length and parallel to each other, the army, who, by attacking them from be- best officers were mistaken in their reports, hind, might completely ruin them. Gen- The only musket-shots that had been fired eral Washington, had he followed the ad- were from Maxwell, who killed several of vice of the people, would have enclosed the enemy, but was driven back upon the his army in a city, and thus have in- left of the American army, across a ford trusted to one hazard the fate of Amer- by which he had before advanced. Three iea; but, while refusing to commit such thousand militia had been added to the an act of folly, he was obliged to make army, but they were placed in the rear some sacrifice,* and gratify the nation by to guard some still more distant militia, a battle. Europe even expected it; and, and took no part themselves in the action, although he had been created a dictator Such was the situation of the troops when for six months, the general thought he they learned the march of Lord Cornwal- ought to submit everything to the orders lis towards the scarcely known fords of of Congress and to the deliberations of a Birmingham: they then detached three council of war. divisions, forming about 5,000 men, un- After having advanced as far as Wil- der the Generals Sullivan, Stirling, and Ste- mington, the general had detached 1,000 phen. M. de Lafayette, as volunteer, had men under Maxwell, the most ancient always accompanied the general. The brigadier in the army. At the first left wing remaining in a state of tranquil- march of the English, he was beaten by lily, and the right appearing fated to their advance-guard near Christiana receive all the heavy blows, he obtained Bridge. During that time the army took permission to join Sullivan. At his ar- but an indifferent station at Newport, rival, which seemed to inspirit the troops, They then removed a little south, waited he found that, the enemy having crossed two days for the enemy, and at the mo- the ford, the corps of Sullivan had scarce- ment when these were marching upon ly had time to form itself on a line in their right wing, a nocturnal council of front of a thinly wooded forest. A few war decided that the army was to proceed moments after. Lord Cornwallis formed to the Brandywine. The stream bearing in the finest order. Advancing across the that name covered its front. The ford plain, his first line opened a brisk fire of called Chad's Ford, placed nearly in the musketry and artillery. The Americans
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returned the fire, and did much injury to about 12,000 men. Their losses had been the enemy; but, their right and left wings so considerable that their surgeons, and having given way, the generals and sev- those in the country, were found insuffi- eral officers joined the central division, in cient; and they requested the American which were M. de Lafayette and Stirling, army to supply them with some for their and of which 800 men were commanded in prisoners. If the enemy had marched to a most brilliant manner by Conway, an Derby, the army would have been cut up Irishman, in the service of France. By and destroyed. They lost an all - impor- separating that division from its two tant night; and this was perhaps their wings, and advancing through an open greatest fault during a war in which plain, in which they lost many men, the they committed so many errors, enemy united all his fire upon the centre: M. de Lafayette, having been conveyed the confusion became extreme; and it was by water to Philadelphia, was carefully while M. de Lafayette was rallying the attended to by the citizens, who were all troops that a ball passed through his leg. interested in his situation and extreme At that moment all those remaining on youth. That same evening the Congress the field gave way. M. de Lafayette was determined to quit the city. A vast num- indebted to Gimat, his aide-de-camp, for ber of the inhabitants deserted their own the happiness of getting upon his horse, hearths. Whole families, abandoning General Washington arrived from a dis- their possessions, and uncertain of the tance with fresh troops. M. de Lafayette future, took refuge in the mountains. M. was preparing to join him, when loss of de Lafayette was carried to Bristol in blood obliged him to stop and have his a boat; he there saw the fugitive Con- wound bandaged: he was even very near gress, who only assembled again on the being taken. Fugitives, cannon, and bag- other side of the Susquehanna. He was gage now crowded without order into the himself conducted to Bethlehem, a Mora- road leading to Chester. The general em- vian establishment, where the mild re- ployed the remaining daylight in check- ligion of the brotherhood, the community ing the enemy: some regiments behaved of fortune, education, and interests, extremely well, but the disorder was com- amongst that large and simple family, plete. During that time the ford of Chad formed a striking contrast to scenes of was forced, the cannon taken, and the blood and the convulsions occasioned by a Chester road became the common retreat civil war.
of the whole army. In the midst of that After the Brandywine defeat the two dreadful confusion, and during the dark- armies manoeuvred along the banks of the ness of the night, it was impossible to re- Schuylkill. General Washington still re- cover; but at Chester, 12 miles from mained on a height above the enemy, and the field of battle, they met with a bridge completely out of his reach; nor had which it was necessary to cross. M. de they again an opportunity of cutting him Lafayette occupied himself in arresting off. Waine, an American brigadier, was the fugitives. Some degree of order was detached to observe the English; but, re-established; the generals and the com- being surprised during the night, near mander-in-chief arrived; and he had lei- the White-Horse, by General Grey, he sure to have his wound dressed. lost there the greatest part of his corps. It was thus, at 26 miles from Phila- At length Howe crossed the Schuylkill at delphia, that the fate of that town was Swede's Ford, and Lord Cornwallis en- decided (llth September, 1777). The tered Philadelphia.
inhabitants had heard every cannon that In spite of the declaration of indepen-
was fired there. The two parties, assem- dence of the new States, everything there
bled in two distinct bands in all the bore the appearance of a civil war. The
squares and public places, had awaited names of Whig and Tory distinguished the
the event in silence. The last courier at republicans and royalists; the English
length arrived, and the friends of liberty army was still called the regular troops;
were thrown into consternation. The the British sovereign was always desig-
Americans had lost from 1,000 to 1,200 nated by the name of the King. Provinces,
men. Howe's army was composed of towns, and families were divided by the
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violence of party spirit: brothers, offi- cers in the two opposing armies, meeting by chance in their father's house, have seized their arms to fight with each other. Whilst, in all the rancor of their pride, the English committed horrible acts of license and cruelty, whilst dis- cipline dragged in her train those venal Germans who knew only how to kill, burn, and pillage, in that same army were seen regiments of Americans, who, trampling under foot their brethren, as- sisted in enslaving their wasted country, Each canton contained a still greater number whose sole object was to injure the friends of liberty and give informa- tion to those of despotism. To these inveterate Tories must be added the num- ber of those whom fear, private interest, or religion, rendered adverse to the war. If the Presbyterians, the children of Crom- well and Fairfax, detested royalty, the Luthcrans, who had sprung from it, were divided among themselves. The Quakers hated slaughter, but served willingly as guides to the royal troops. Insurrec- tions were by no means uncommon: near the enemy's stations, farmers often shot each other; robbers were even encouraged, The republican chiefs were exposed to great dangers when they travelled through the country. It was always necessary for them to declare that they should pass the night in one house, then take possession of another, barricade them- selves in it, and only sleep with their arms by their side. In the midst of these troubles, M. de Lafayette was no longer considered as a stranger: never was any adoption more complete than his own; and whilst, in the councils of war, he trembled when he considered that his voice (at twenty years of age) might decide the fate of two worlds, he was also initiated in those deliberations in which, by reassuring the Whigs, intimidating the Tories, supporting an ideal money, and redoubling their firmness in the hour of adversity, " the American chiefs con- ducted that revolution through so many obstacles.
[Here follow accounts of Lafayette's con-
Notwithstanding the success in the north, the situation of the Americans had never been more critical than at the pres- ent moment. A paper money, without any certain foundation, and unmixed with any specie, was both counterfeited by the enemy and discredited by their partisans. They feared to establish taxes, and had still less the power of levying them. The people, who had risen against the taxation of England, were astonished at paying still heavier taxes now; and the govern- ment was without any power to enforce them. On the other side, New York and Philadelphia were overstocked with gold and various merchandises: the threatened penalty of death could not stop a corn- munication that was but too easy. To refuse the payment of taxes, to depreciate the paper currency, and feed the enemy, was a certain method of attaining wealth : privations and misery were only expe- rienced by good citizens. Each proclama- tion of the English was supported by their seductions, their riches, and the intrigues of the Tories. Whilst a numerous garri- son lived sumptuously at New York, some hundreds of men, ill-clothed and ill-fed, wandered upon the shores of the Hudson. The army of Philadelphia, freshly re- cruited from Europe, abundantly sup- plied with everything they could require, consisted of 18,000 men: that of Valley Forge was successively reduced to 5,000 men ; and two marches on the fine Lan- caster road (on which road also was a chain of magazines), by establishing the English in the rear of their right flank, would have rendered their position un- tenable, from which, however, they had no means of retiring. The unfortunate sol- diers were in want of everything. They had neither coats, hats, shirts, nor shoes: their feet and legs froze till they became black, and it was often necessary to ampu- tate them. From want of money, they could neither obtain provisions nor any means of transport: the colonels were often reduced to two rations, and some- times even to one. The army frequently remained whole days without provisions, and the patient endurance of both soldiers and officers was a miracle which each mo-
and the establishment of the melancholy their misery prevented new engagements: headquarters at Valley Forge.] it was almost impossible to levy recruits;
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LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
it was easy to desert into the interior of wishes of the nation. Several impartial
the country. The sacred fire of liberty men had retired: several States had but
was not extinguished, it is true, and the one Representative, and in some cases not
majority of the citizens detested British even one. Party spirit was so strong
tyranny ; but the triumph of the north and that three years afterwards Congress still
the tranquillity of the south had lulled to felt the effects of it. Any great event,
sleep two - thirds of the continent. The however, would awaken their patriotism ;
remaining part was harassed by two and, when Burgoyne declared that his
armies; and throughout this revolution treaty had been broken, means were found
the greatest difficulty was that, in order to to stop the departure of his troops, which
conceal misfortunes from the enemy, it everything, even the few provisions for the
was necessary to conceal them from the transports, had foolishly betrayed. But
nation also; that, by awakening the one, all these divisions failed to produce the
information was likewise given to the greatest of calamities — the loss of the
other; and that fatal blows would have only man capable of conducting the revo-
been struck upon the weakest points be- lution.
fore democratic tardiness could have been Gates was at Yorktown, where he in- roused to support them. It was from spired respect by his manners, promises, this cause that during the whole war the and European acquirements. Amongst the real force of the army was always kept a deputies who united themselves to him profound secret. Even Congress was not may be numbered the Lees, Virginians, ene- apprised of it, and the generals were often mies of Washington, and the two Adamses, themselves deceived. General Washington Mifflin, quartermaster-general, aided him never placed unlimited confidence in any with his talents and brilliant eloquence, person, except in M. de Lafayette, because They required a name to bring forward in for him alone, perhaps, confidence sprung the plot, and they selected Conway, who from warm affection. As the situation fancied himself the chief of a party. To grew more critical, discipline became more praise Gates, with a certain portion of the necessary. In the course of his nocturnal continent and the troops, was a pretext rounds, in the midst of heavy snows, M. for speaking of themselves. The people de Lafayette was obliged to break some attach themselves to prosperous generals, negligent officers. He adopted in every and the commander-in-chief had been un- respect the American dress, habits, and successful. His own character inspired food. He wished to be more simple, fru- respect and affection; but Greene, Hamil- gal, and austere than the Americans them- ton, Knox, his best friends, were sadly selves. Brought up in the lap of luxury, defamed. The Tories fomented these dis- he suddenly changed his whole manner of sensions. The presidency of the war office, living; and his constitution bent itself to which had been created for Gates, restrict- privation as well as to fatigue. He al- ed the power of the general. This was ways took the liberty of freely writing his not the only inconvenience. A committee ideas to Congress, or, in imitation of the from Congress arrived at the camp, and prudence of the general, he gave his opin- the attack of Philadelphia was daringly ion to some members of a corps or State proposed. The most shrewd people did Assembly, that, being adopted by them, it not believe that Gates was the real object might be brought forward in the delibera- of this intrigue. Though a good officer, tions of Congress. he had not the power to assert himself. In addition to the difficulties which He would have given place to the famous lasted during the whole of the war the General Lee, then a prisoner of the Eng- winter of Valley Forge recalls others still lish, whose first care would have been to more painful. At Yorktown, behind the have made over to them his friends and all Susquehanna, Congress was divided into America.
two factions, which, in spite of their dis- Attached to the general, and still more
tinction of south and east, did not the so to the cause, M. de Lafayette did not
IPSS occasion a separation between mem- hesitate for a moment; and, in spite of
bers of the same State. The deputies sub- the caresses of one party, he remained
stituted their private intrigues for the faithful to the other whose ruin seemed
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LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
then impending. He saw and correspond- was anxious for his success; and the at- ed frequently with the general, and often tention of the other had become, to say discussed with him his own private situa- the least, somewhat occupied in the tion, and the effect that various meliora- struggle. If a spirit of emulation made tions in the army might produce. Having those connected with the Court desirous sent for his wife to the camp, the general of war, the rest of the nation supported preserved in his deportment the noble the young rebel, and followed with inter- composure which belongs to a strong and est all his movements; and it is well virtuous mind. " I have not sought for known that the rupture that ensued was this place," said he to M. de Lafayette: truly a national one. Some circumstances " if I am displeasing to the nation, I will relating to his departure having dis- retire; but until then I will oppose all in- pleased the Court of London, M. de La- trigues." fayette omitted nothing that could draw
(1778.) The 22d of January Congress more closely together the nations whose resolved that Canada should be entered, union he so ardently desired. The in- and the choice fell upon M. de Lafayette, credible prejudices of the Americans had The generals Conway and Stark were been augmented by the conduct of the placed under him. Hoping to intoxicate first Frenchmen who had joined them, and govern so young a commander, the These men gradually disappeared, and all war office, without consulting the com- those who remained were remarkable for mander-in-chief, wrote to him to go and talents, or at least for probity. They await his further instructions at Albany, became the friends of M. de Lafayette, But, after having won over Jby his argu- who sincerely sought out all the national ments the committee which Congress had prejudices of the Americans against his sent to the camp, M. de Lafayette hast- countrymen for the purpose of overcom- ened to Yorktown, and declared there " that ing them. Love and respect for the name he required circumstantial orders, a state- of Frenchmen animated his letters and ment of the means to be employed, the speeches, and he wished the affection certainty of not deceiving the Canadians, that was granted to him individually to an augmentation of generals, and rank become completely national. On the other for several Frenchmen, fully impressed," side, when writing to Europe, he denied he added, "with the various duties and the reports made by discontented advent- advantages they derived from their name; urers, by good officers who were piqued but the first condition he demanded was at not having been employed, and by not to be made, like Gates, independent those men who, serving themselves in the of General Washington." At Gates's own army, wished to be witty or amusing by house he braved the whole party, and the political contrasts they described in threw them into confusion by making their letters. But, without giving a cir- them drink the health of their general.* cumstantial account of what private in- fluence achieved, it is certain that en-
[Here follow accounts of Lafayette's ex- thusiasm for the cause and esteem for
pedttion to Albany and the Mohawk, and his '
return in the spring to Philadelphia, where its defenders, had electrified all France,
a short time after Silas Deane arrived with and that the affair of Saratoga decided
the treaty between France and the United the ministerial commotion; Bills of con- ciliation passed in the English House of
By quitting France in so public a man- Parliament, the five commissioners were
ner, M. de Lafayette had served the cause sent to offer far more than had been de-
of the Revolution. One portion of society manded until then. No longer waiting
to see how things would turn out, M. de
* After having thus declared himself, he Maurepas yielded to the public wish, and
wrote to Congress that " he could only ac- , . *_ . J. . . f , •• • . j
cept the command on condition of remain- what his luminous mind had projecte
ing subordinate to General Washington, of the more unchanging disposition of M.
being but considered as an officer detached de Vergennes put in execution. A treaty
tfoT,mhioi ^ch^^4Vc^£S Jf ^erously entered into with Frank-
would be but duplicates." These requests 1m, Deane, and Arthur Lee, and that
and all the others he made were granted. treaty was announced with more confi-
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LAFAYETTE, MABQTIIS DE
dence than had been for some time dis- M. de Lafayette addressed a polite let- played. But the war was not sufficiently ter to the French minister, and wrote also foreseen, or at least sufficient prepara- to the Congress that, " whilst he believed tions were not made. The most singular himself free, he had supported the cause fact is that, at the very period when the under the American banner; that his firm resistance of the Court of France country was now at war, and that his ser- had guided the conduct of two courts, vices were first due to her; that he hoped America had fallen herself into such a to return; and that he should always re- state of weakness that she was on the tain his zealous interest for the United very brink of ruin. The 2d of May the States." The Congress not only granted army made a bonfire; and M. de Lafay- him an unlimited leave of absence, but ette, ornamented with a white scarf, pro- added to it the most flattering expressions ceeded to the spot, accompanied by all of gratitude. It was resolved that a the French. Since the arrival of the con- sword, covered with emblems, should be ciliatory bills he had never ceased writing presented to him, in the name of the against the commission, and against every United States, by their minister in commissioner. The advances of these France: they wrote to the King; and the men were ill-received by Congress; and, Alliance, of thirty-six guns, their finest foreseeing a French co-operation, the ship, was chosen to carry him back to enemy began to think of quitting Phila- Europe. M. de Lafayette would neither delphia. receive from them anything farther, nor
allow them to ask any favor for him at
[Here follows the account of the battle ,-, „ *T. ••» j. AV «*
of Monmouth, after which Lafayette and the Court of France. But the Congress,
Washington " passed the night lying on the when proposing a co-operation in Canada,
same mantle, talking over the conduct of expressed its wish of seeing the arrange-
campaign.} *** ^^^ °f *** ^^ ^^ ment of the affair confided to him' This
project was afterwards deferred from the
Soon afterwards, during M. de Lafay- general's not entertaining hopes of its ul- ette's residence at Philadelphia, the com- timate success; but, although old preju- mission received its death-blow. Whilst dices were much softened — although the lie was breakfasting with the members of conduct of the admiral and the squadron Congress, the different measures proper to had excited universal approbation — the be pursued were frankly and cheerfully Congress, the general, and, in short, every discussed. The correspondence which took one, told M. de Lafayette that, in the place at that time is generally known, whole circuit of the thirteen States, ves- The Congress remained ever noble, firm, sels only were required, and that the ap- and faithful to its allies. Secretary pearance of a French corps would alarm Thomson, in his last letter to Sir Henry the nation. As M. de Lafayette was Clinton, informs him that " the Congress obliged to embark at Boston, he set out does not answer impertinent letters." To again on this journey of 400 miles. He conceal nothing from the people, all the hoped, also, that he should be able to proposals were invariably printed; but take leave of M. d'Estaing, who had able writers were employed in pointing offered to accompany him to the islands, out the errors they contained. In that and whose friendship and misfortunes af- happy country, where each man understood fected him as deeply as his active genius and attended to public affairs, the news- and patriotic courage excited his ad- papers became powerful instruments to miration.
aid the revolution. The same spirit was Heated by fatiguing journeys and over- also breathed from the pulpit, for the exertion, and still more by the grief he Bible in many places favors republican- had experienced at Rhode Island, and hav- ism. M. de Lafayette, having once re- ing afterwards labored hard, drunk freely, preached an Anglican minister with speak- and passed several sleepless nights at Phil- ing only of heaven, went to hear him adelphia, M. de Lafayette proceeded on preach the following Sunday, and the horseback, in a high state of fever, and words the execrable house of Hanover during a pelting autumnal rain. Fetes proved the docility of the minister. were given in compliment to him through-
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LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
out his journey, and he endeavored to strengthen himself with wine, tea, and rum; but at Fishkill, 8 miles from head- quarters, he was obliged to yield to the violence of an inflammatory fever. He was soon reduced to the last extremity, and the report of his approaching death distressed the army, by whom he was called the soldier's friend; and the whole nation were unanimous in expressing their good wishes and regrets for the mar- quis, the name by which he was exclusively designated. From the first moment, Cock- ran, director of the hospitals, left all his other occupations to attend to him alone. General Washington came every day to inquire after his friend; but, fearing to agitate him, he only conversed with the physician, and returned home with tearful eyes, and a heart oppressed with grief. Suffering acutely from a raging fever and violent headache, M. de Lafayette felt con- vinced that he was dying, but did not lose for a moment the clearness of his under- standing. Having taken measures to be apprised of the approach of death, he re- gretted that he could not hope again to see his country and the dearest objects of his affection. Far from foreseeing the happy, fate that awaited him, he would willingly have exchanged his future chance of life, in spite of his one-and-twenty years, for the certainty of living but for three months, on the condition of again seeing his friends and witnessing the happy termination of the American war. But to the assistance of medical art and the assiduous care of Dr. Cockran nature added the alarming, though salutary, rem- edy of an hemorrhage.
At the expiration of three months, M. de Lafayette's life was no longer in dan- ger: he was at length allowed to see the general, and think of public affairs. After having spent some days together, and spoken of their past labors, present situations, and future projects, General Washington and he took a tender and painful leave of each other. At the same time that the enemies of this great man have accused him of insensibility, they have acknowledged his tenderness for M. de Lafayette; and how is it possible that he should not have been warmly cherished by his disciple, he who, uniting all that is good to all that is great, is even more
sublime from his virtues than from his talents? Had he been a common soldier, he would have been the bravest in the ranks; had he been an obscure citizen, all his neighbors would have respected him. With a heart and mind equally correctly formed, he judged both of himself and circumstances with strict impartiality. Nature, whilst creating him expressly for that revolution, conferred an honor upon herself; and, to show her work to the greatest possible advantage, she consti- tuted it in such a peculiar manner that each distinct quality would have failed in producing the end required, had it not been sustained by all the others.
In spite of his extreme debility, M. de Lafayette, accompanied by his physician, repaired on horseback to Boston, where Madeira wine effectually restored his health. The crew of the Alliance was not complete, and the council offered to insti- tute a press; but M. de Lafayette would not consent to this method of obtaining sailors, and it was at length resolved to make up the required number by embark- ing some English deserters, together with some volunteers from among the prisoners. After he had written to Canada, and sent some necklaces to a few of the savage tribes, Brice and Nevil, his aides-de-camp, bore his farewell addresses to the Congress, the general, and his friends. The inhabi- tants of Boston, who had given him so many proofs of their kindness and atten- tion, renewed their marks of affection at his departure; and the Alliance sailed on the 1 1th of January. . . .*
When I saw the port of Brest receive and salute the banner which floated on my frigate, I recalled to mind the state of my country and of America, and my pe- culiar situation when I quitted France.
[Here follows the account of his warm welcome at Paris.]
Amidst the various tumultuous scenes that occupied my mind, I did not forget our revolution, of which the ultimate suc- cess still appeared uncertain. Accustomed to see great interests supported by slen- der means, I often said to myself that the expense of one fete would have organized the army of the United States; and, to
301
* The first person is here resumed.
LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
clothe that army, I would willingly, ac- civilized embattled legions of Europe — but
cording to the expression of M. de Maure- war to the knife; the war of Indian sav-
pas, have unfurnished the palace of Ver- ages, terrible to man, but more terrible to
sailles. the tender sex, and most terrible to help-
Eulogy by John Quincy Adams. — On less infancy. In defence of his country
Dec. 31, 1834, ex-President Adams deliv- against the ravages of such a war, Wash-
ered the following oration on the life and ington, in the dawn of manhood, had
services to America of Lafayette, in Wash- drawn his sword, as if Providence, with
ington, D. C.: deliberate purpose, had sanctified for him
the practice of war, all detestable and un-
On the 6th of September, 1757, Lafay- hallowed as it is, that he might, in a ette was born. The kings of France and cause, virtuous and exalted by its motive Britain were seated upon their thrones by and its end, be trained and fitted in a con- virtue of the principle of hereditary sue- genial school to march in after times the cession, variously modified and blended leader of heroes in the war of his country's with different forms of religious faith, independence.
and they were waging war against each At the time of the birth of Lafayette,
other, and exhausting the blood and treas- this war, which was to make him a
ure of their people for causes in which fatherless child, and in which Washing-
neither of the nations had any beneficial ton was laying broad and deep, in the
or lawful interest. defence and protection of his native land,
In this war the father of Lafayette fell the foundations of his unrivalled re- in the cause of his King, but not of his nown, was but in its early stage. It was country. He was an officer of an invading to continue five years longer, and was to army, the instrument of his sovereign's close with the total extinguishment of wanton ambition and lust of conquest, the colonial dominion of France on the The people of the electorate of Hanover continent of North America. The deep had done no wrong to him or to his coun- humiliation of France, and the trium- try. When his son came to an age capa- phant ascendency on this continent of her ble of understanding the irreparable loss rival, were the first results of this great that he had suffered, and to reflect upon national conflict. The complete expul- the causes of his father's fate, there was sion of France from North America no drop of consolation mingled in the cup, seemed to the superficial vision of men to from the consideration that he had died fix the British power over these extensive for his country. And when the youthful regions on foundations immovable as the mind was awakened to meditation upon everlasting hills.
the rights of mankind, the principles of Let us pass in imagination a period of
freedom, and theories of government, it only twenty years, and alight upon the
cannot be difficult to perceive, in the illus- borders of the River Brandywine. Wash-
trations of his own family records, the ington is commander-in-chief of the
source of that aversion to hereditary rule, armies of the United States of America;
perhaps the most distinguishing feature war is again raging in the heart of his
of his political opinions, and to which he native land; hostile armies of one and
adhered through all the vicissitudes of the same name, blood, and language, are
his life. arrayed for battle on the banks of the
In the same war, and at the same time, stream; and Philadelphia, where the
George Washington was armed, a loyal United States are in Congress assembled,
subject, in support of his King; but to him and whence their decree of independence
that was also the cause of his country, has gone forth, is the destined prize to
His commission was not in the army of the conflict of the day. Who is that tall,
George II., but issued under the authority slender youth, of foreign nir and aspect,
of the colony of Virginia, the province in scarcely emerged from the years of boy-
which he received his birth. On the bor- hood, and fresh from the walls of a col-
ders of that province, the war in its most lege; fighting, a volunteer, at the side of
horrid forms was waged — not a war of Washington, bleeding, unconsciously to
mercy, and of courtesy, like that of the himself, and rallying his men to secure
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LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS Dfi
the retreat of the scattered American the invasion of chartered rights — first by
ranks? It is Gilbert Motier de Lafay- argument and remonstrance, and finally,
ette, the son of the victim of Minden; by appeal to the sword. But with the
and he is bleeding in the cause of North war came the necessary exercise of sover-
American independence and of freedom. eign powers. The Declaration of Inde-
We pause one moment to inquire what pendence justified itself as the only pos-
was this cause of North American inde- sible remedy for insufferable wrongs. It
pendence, and what were the motives and seated itself upon the first foundations
inducements to the youthful stranger to of the law of nature, and the incontestable
devote himself, his life, and fortune to it. doctrine of human rights. There was no
The people of the British colonies in longer any question of the constitutional
North America, after a controversy of powers of the British Parliament, or of
ten years' duration with their sovereign violated colonial charters. Thenceforward
beyond the seas, upon an attempt by him the American nation supported its ex-
and his Parliament to tax them without istence by war; and the British nation,
their consent, had been constrained by by war, was contending for conquest. As,
necessity to declare themselves indepen- between the two parties, the single ques-
dent — to dissolve the tie of their allegiance tion at issue was independence — but in
to him — to renounce their right to his the confederate existence of the North
protection, and to assume their station American Union, Liberty — not only their
among the independent civilized nations own liberty, but the vital principle of
of the earth. This had been done with a liberty to the whole race of civilized man,
deliberation and solemnity unexampled in was involved.
the history of the world; done in the It was at this stage of the conflict, and midst of a civil war, differing in character immediately after the Declaration of In- from any of those which for centuries dependence, that it drew the attention, before had desolated Europe. The war and called into action the moral sen- had arisen upon a question between the sibilities and the intellectual faculties rights of the people and the powers of of Lafayette, then in the nineteenth year their government. The discussions, in of his age.
the progress of the controversy, had The war was revolutionary. It began opened to the contemplations of men the by the dissolution of the British govern- first foundations of civil society and of ment in the colonies; the people of which government. The war of independence were, by that operation left without any began by litigation upon a petty stamp government whatever. They were then at on paper, and a tax of threepence a one and the same time maintaining their pound upon tea ; but these broke up the independent national existence by war, and fountains of the great deep, and the forming new social compacts for their own deluge ensued. Had the British Parlia- government thenceforward. The construc- ment the right to tax the people of the tion of civil society; the extent and the colonies in another hemisphere, not repre- limitations of organized power; the es- sented in the imperial legislature? They tablishment of a system of government affirmed they had; the people of the colo- combining the greatest enlargement of nies insisted they had not. There were individual liberty with the most perfect ten years of pleading before they came preservation of public order, were the con- to an issue; and all the legitimate sources tinual occupations of every mind. The of power, and all the primitive elements consequences of this state of things to of freedom, were scrutinized, debated, the history of mankind, and especially analyzed, and elucidated before the of Europe, were foreseen by none. Eu- lighting of the torch of Ate, and her rope saw nothing but the war; a people cry of havoc upon letting slip the dogs struggling for liberty, and against op- of war. pression; and the people in every part of
When the day of conflict came, the issue Europe sympathized with the people of
of the contest was necessarily changed, the American colonies.
The people of the colonies had maintained With their governments it was not so.
the contest on the principle of resisting The people of the American colonies were
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LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
Insurgents; all governments abhor insur- rection. They were revolted colonists; the great maritime powers of Europe had colonies of their own, to which the ex- ample of resistance against oppression might be contagious. The American colo- nists were stigmatized in all the official acts of the British government as rebels; and rebellion to the governing part of mankind is as the sin of witchcraft. The governments of Europe, therefore, were at heart, on the side of the British gov- ernment in this war, and the people of Europe were on the side of the American people.
Lafayette, by his position and condition in life, was one of those who, governed by the ordinary impulses which influence and control the conduct of men, would have sided in sentiment with the royal cause.
Lafayette was born a subject of the most absolute and most splendid monarchy of Europe: and in the highest rank of her proud and chivalrous nobility. He had been educated at the college of the Uni- versity of Paris, founded by the royal munificence of Louis XIV., or Cardinal Richelieu. Left an orphan in early child- hood, with the inheritance of a princely fortune, he had been married at sixteen years of age to a daughter of the house of Noailles, the most distinguished family of the kingdom, scarcely deemed in public consideration inferior to that which wore the crown. He came into active life, at the change from boy to man, a husband and a father, in the full enjoyment of everything that avarice could covet, with a certain prospect before him of all that ambition could crave. Happy in his do- mestic affections, incapable, from the be- nignity of his nature, of envy, hatred, or revenge, a life of " ignoble ease and in- dolent repose " seemed to be that which nature and fortune had combined to pre- pare before him. To men of ordinary mould this condition would have led to a life of luxurious apathy and sensual in- dulgence. Such was the life into which, from the operation of the same causes, Louis XV. had sunk, with his household and Court, while Lafayette was rising to manhood surrounded by the contamina- tion of their example. Had his natural endowments been even of the higher and nobler order of such as adhere to virtue
even in the lap of prosperity and in the bosom of temptation, he might have lived and died a pattern of the nobility of France, to be classed, in after times, with the Turennes and the Montausiers of the age of Louis XIV., or with the Villars or the Lamoignons of the age immediately preceding his own.
But, as in the firmament of heaven that rolls over our heads there is, among the stars of the first magnitude, one so pre- eminent in splendor as, in the opinion of astronomers, to constitute a class by itself, so in the 1,400 years of the French mon- archy, among the multitudes of great and mighty men which it has evolved, the name of Lafayette stands unrivalled in the solitude of glory.
In entering upon the threshold of life a career was to open before him. He had the option of the court and the camp. An office was tendered to him in the house- hold of the King's brother, the Count de Provence, since successively a royal exile and a reinstated King. The servitude and inaction of a court had no charms for him; he preferred a commission in the army, and at the time of the Declaration of Independence was a captain of dragoons in garrison at Metz.
There, at an entertainment given by his relative, the Mare"chal de Broglie, the com- mandant of the place, to the Duke of Gloucester, brother to the British King, and then a transient traveller through that part of France, he learns, as an in- cident of intelligence received that morn- ing by the English prince from London, that the Congress of rebels at Philadelphia had issued a declaration of independence. A conversation ensues upon the causes which have contributed to produce this event, and upon the consequences which may be expected to flow from it. The imagination of Lafayette has caught across the Atlantic tide the spark emitted from the Declaration of Independence, his heart has kindled at the shock, and, be- fore he slumbers upon his pillow, he has resolved to devote his life and fortune to the cause.
You have before you the cause and the man. The self-devotion of Lafayette was twofold. First to the people, main- taining a bold and seemingly desperate struggle against oppression, and for na-
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LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
tional existence. Secondly, and chiefly, of returning to Europe, if his family or to the principles of their declaration, his King should recall him. which then first unfurled before his eyes Neither his family nor his King were the consecrated standard of human rights, willing that he should depart; nor had To that standard, without an instant of Mr. Deane the power, either to conclude hesitation, he repaired. Where it would this contract, or to furnish the means of lead him, it is scarcely probable that he his conveyance to America. Difficulties himself then foresaw. It was then rise up before him only to be dispersed, identical with the stars and stripes of and obstacles thicken only to be sur- the American Union, floating to the mounted. The day after the signing of breeze from the Hall of Independence, at the contract, Mr. Deane's agency was Philadelphia. Nor sordid avarice, nor superseded by the arrival of Dr. Ben- vulgar ambition, could point his foot- jamin Franklin and Arthur Lee as his steps to the pathway leading to that colleagues in commission; nor did they banner. To the love of ease or pleasure think themselves authorized to confirm nothing could be more repulsive. Some- his engagements. Lafayette is not to be thing may be allowed to the beatings of discouraged. The commissioners extenu- the youthful breast, which make ambi- ate nothing of the unpromising condition tion virtue, and something to the spirit of their cause. Mr. Deane avows his in- of military adventures imbibed from his ability to furnish him with a passage to profession, and which he felt in common the United States. " The more desperate with many others. France, Germany, the cause," says Lafayette, "the greater Poland, furnished to the armies of this need has it of my services; and, if Mr. Union, in our revolutionary struggle, no Deane has no vessel for my passage, I inconsiderable number of officers of high shall purchase one for myself, and will rank and distinguished merit. The names traverse the ocean with a selected com- of Pulaski and De Kalb are numbered pany of my own."
among the martyrs of our freedom, and Other impediments arise. His design
their ashes repose in our soil side by side becomes known to the British ambassador
with the canonized bones of Warren and at the Court of Versailles, who remon-
of Montgomery. To the virtues of Lafay- strates to the French government against
ette, a more protracted career and happier it. At his instance, orders are issued
earthly destiny were reserved. To the for the detention of the vessel purchased
moral principle of political action, the by the marquis and fitted out at Bor-
sacrifices jof no other man were compar- deaux, and for the arrest of his person,
able to his. Youth, health, fortune; the To elude the first of these orders, the ves-
favor of his King; the enjoyment of ease sel is removed from Bordeaux to the neigh-
and pleasure; even the choicest blessings boring port of Passage, within the do-
of domestic felicity — he gave them all for minion of Spain. The order for his own
toil and danger in a distant land, and arrest is executed; but, by stratagem and
an almost hopeless cause; but it was the disguise, he escapes from the custody of
cause of justice, and of the rights of those who have him in charge, and, be-
humankind. fore a second order can reach him, he is
The resolve is firmly fixed, and it now safe on the ocean wave, bound to the land
remains to be carried into execution. On of independence and of freedom.
Dec. 7, 1776, Silas Deane, then a secret The war of American Independence is
agent of the American Congress at Paris, closed. The people of the North Amer-
stipulates with the Marquis de Lafayette ican Confederation are in union, sover-
that he shall receive a commission, to eign and independent. Lafayette at
date from that day, of major-general in twenty-five years of age has lived the life
the army of the United States; and the of a patriarch, and illustrated the career
marquis stipulates, in return, to depart of a hero. Had his days upon earth been
when and how Mr. Deane shall judge then numbered, and had he then slept
proper, to serve the United States with with his fathers, illustrious as for cen-
all possible zeal, without pay or emolu- turies their names had been, his name, to
ment, reserving to himself only the liberty the end of time, would have transcended V.— U 305
LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
them all. Fortunate youth! fortunate be- ways active and ardent to serve the Unit- yond even the measure of his companions ed States, but no longer in their service in arms with whom he had achieved the as an officer. So transcendent had been glorious consummation of American In- his merits in the common cause, that, to dependence. His fame was all his own; reward them, the rule of progressive ad- not cheaply earned; not ignobly won. vancement in the armies of France was His fellow-soldiers had been the champions set aside for him. He received from the and defenders of their country. They minister of war a notification that from reaped for themselves, for their wives, the day of his retirement from the ser- their children, their posterity to the latest vice of the United States as a major- time the rewards of their dangers and general, at the close of the war, he should their toils. Lafayette had watched, and hold the same rank in the armies of labored, and fought, and bled, not for him- France, to date from the day of the capit- self, not for his family, not, in the first ulation of Lord Cornwallis. instance, even for his country. In the Henceforth he is a Frenchman, destined legendary tales of chivalry we read of to perform in the history of his country tournaments at which a foreign and un- a part as peculiarly his own, and not known knight suddenly presents himself, less glorious, than that which he had per- armed in complete steel, and, with the formed in the war of independence. A vizor down, enters the ring to contend with short period of profound peace followed the assembled flower of knighthood for the the great triumph of freedom. The de- prize of honor, to be awarded by the sire of Lafayette once more to see the hand of beauty; bears it in triumph away, land of his adoption and the associates and disappears from the astonished multi- of his glory, the fellow-soldiers who had tude of competitors and spectators of the become to him as brothers, and the friend feats of arms. But where in the rolls and patron of his youth, who had become of history, where in the fictions of ro- to him as a father; sympathizing with mance, where but in the life of Lafayette, their desire once more to see him — to see has been seen the noble stranger, flying, in their prosperity him who had come with the tribute of his name, his rank, to them in their affliction — induced him, his influence, his ease, his domestic bliss, in the year 1784, to pay a visit to the his treasure, his blood, to the relief of a United States.
suffering and distant land, in the hour of On Aug. 4, of that year, he landed her deepest calamity — baring his bosom at New York, and, in the space of to her foes; and not at the transient five months from that time, visited his pageantry of a tournament, but for a venerable friend at Mount Vernon, where succession of five years sharing all the he was then living in retirement, and vicissitudes of her fortunes; always eager traversed ten States of the Union, receiv- to appear at the post of danger — temper- ing everywhere, from their legislative as- ing the glow of youthful ardor with the semblies, from the municipal bodies of cold caution of a veteran commander; bold the cities and towns through which he and daring in action; prompt in execu- passed, from the officers of the army, his tion; rapid in pursuit; fertile in expe- late associates, now restored to the vir- dients; unattainable in retreat; often tues and occupations of private life, and exposed, but never surprised, never dis- even from the recent emigrants from Ire- concerted; eluding his enemy when within land, who had come to adopt for their his fancied grasp; bearing upon him with country the self-emancipated land, ad- irresistible sway when of force to cope dresses of gratulation and of joy, the with him in the conflict of arms? And effusions of hearts grateful in the enjoy- what is this but the diary of Lafayette, ment of the blessings for the possession from the day of his rallying the scattered of which they had been so largely in- fugitives of the Brandywine, insensible of debted to his exertions; and, finally, from the blood flowing from his wounds, to the the United States of America, in Congress storming of the redoubt at Yorktown? assembled, at Trenton.
Henceforth, as a public man, Lafayette On Dec. 9 it was resolved by that
is to be considered as a Frenchman, al- body that a committee, to consist of
306
LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
one member from each State, should government, and for ages to come rejoice be appointed to receive and, in the name the departed souls of its founders." of Congress, take leave of the mar- Fellow-citizens, ages have passed away quis. That they should be instructed since these words were spoken; but ages to assure him that Congress continued are the years of the existence of nations, to entertain the same high sense of his The founders of this immense temple of abilities and zeal to promote the welfare freedom have all departed, save here and of America, both here and in Europe, there a solitary exception, even while I which they had frequently expressed and speak, at the point of taking wing. The manifested on former occasions, and prayer of Lafayette is not yet consum- which the recent marks of his attention mated. Ages upon ages are still to pass to their commercial and other interests away before it can have its full accom- had perfectly confirmed. "That, as his plishment; and, for its full accomplish- uniform and unceasing attachment to this ment, his spirit, hovering over our heads, country has resembled that of a patriotic in more than echoes talks around these citizen, the United States regard him with walls. It repeats the prayer which from particular affection, and will not cease to his lips fifty years ago was at once a part- feel an interest in whatever may concern ing blessing and a prophecy; for, were it his honor and prosperity; and that their possible for the whole human race, now best and kindest wishes will always breathing the breath of life, to be assem- attend him." bled within this hall, your orator would,
And it was further resolved that a letter in your name and in that of your con- be written to his most Christian Majesty, stituents, appeal to them to testify for to be signed by his Excellency, the presi- your fathers of the last generation, that, dent of Congress, expressive of the high so far as has depended upon them, the sense which the United States, in Con- blessing of Lafayette has been prophecy, gress assembled, entertain of the zeal, Yes! this immense temple of freedom still talents, and meritorious services of the stands, a lesson to oppressors, an example Marquis de Lafayette, and recommend- to the oppressed, and a sanctuary for the ing him to the favor and patronage of his rights of mankind. Yes! with the smiles Majesty. of a benignant Providence, the splendor
The first of these resolutions was, on and prosperity of these happy United
the next day, carried into execution. At States have illustrated the blessings of
a solemn interview with the committee of their government, and, we may humbly
Congress, received in their hall, and ad- hope, have rejoiced the departed souls of
dressed by the chairman of their com- its founders. For the past your fathers
mittee, John Jay, the purport of these and you have been responsible. The
resolutions was communicated to him. charge of the future devolves upon you
He replied in terms of fervent sensibility and upon your children. The vestal fire
for the kindness manifested personally to of freedom is in your custody. May the
himself, and, with allusions to the situa- souls of its departed founders never be
tion, the prospects, and the duties of the called to witness its extinction by neg-
people of this country, he pointed out the lect, nor a soil upon the purity of its
great interests which he believed it indis- keepers!
pensable to their welfare that they should With this valedictory Lafayette took, as
cultivate and cherish. In the following he and those who heard him then be-
memorable sentences the ultimate objects lieved, a final leave of the people of the
of his solicitude are disclosed in a tone United States. He returned to France,
deeply solemn and impressive: and arrived at Paris on Jan. 25, 1785.
" May this immense temple of free- Such, legislators of the North American
dom," said he, " ever stand, a lesson to op- Confederate Union, was the life of Gil-
pressors, an example to the oppressed, a bert Motier de Lafayette, and the record
sanctuary for the rights of mankind ! and of his life is the delineation of his charac-
may these happy United States attain ter. Consider him as one human being
that complete splendor and prosperity of 1,000,000,000, his contemporaries on
which will illustrate the blessings of their the surface of the terraqueous globe.
307
LAFAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
Among that 1,000,000,000 seek for an object of comparison with him; assume for the standard of comparison all the virtues which exalt the character of man above that of the brute creation; take the ideal man, little lower than the angels; mark the qualities of mind and heart which entitle him to his station of pre-eminence in the scale of created beings, and inquire who, that lived in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries of the Christian era, combined in himself so many of those qualities, so little al- loyed with those which belong to that earthly vesture of decay in which the im- mortal spirit is enclosed, as Lafayette.
Pronounce him one of the first men of his age, and you have not yet done him justice. Try him by that test by which he sought in vain to stimulate the vulgar and selfish spirit of Napoleon; class him among the men who, to compare and seat themselves, must take in the compass of all ages; turn back your eyes upon the records of time; summon from the creation of the world to this day the mighty dead of every age and every clime — and where, among the race of merely mortal men, shall one be found, who, as the benefactor of his kind, shall claim to take precedence of Lafayette?
There have doubtless been, in all ages, men, whose discoveries or inventions, in the world of matter or of mind, have opened new avenues to the dominion of man over the material creation ; have in- creased his means or his faculties of en- joyment; have raised him in nearer ap- proximation to that higher and happier condition, the object of his hopes and aspirations in his present state of ex- istence.
Lafayette discovered no new principles of politics or of morals. He invented nothing in science. He disclosed no new phenomenon in the laws of nature. Born and educated in the highest order of feudal nobility, under the most absolute mon- archy of Europe, in possession of an af- fluent fortune, and master of himself and of all his capabilities, at the moment of attaining manhood, the principle of re- publican justice and of social equality took possession of his heart and mind, as if inspired from above. He devoted himself, his life, his fortune, his heredi-
tary honors, his towering ambition, his splendid hopes, all to the cause of liberty. He came to another hemisphere to defend her. He became one of the most effective champions of our independence; but, that once achieved, he returned to his own country, and thenceforward took no part in the controversies which have divided us. In the events of our Revolution, and in the forms of policy which we have adopted for the establishment and per- petuation of our freedom, Lafayette found the most perfect form of government. He wished to add nothing to it. He would gladly have abstracted nothing from it. Instead of the imaginary republic of Plato, or the Utopia of Sir Thomas More, he took a practical existing model, in actual operation here, and never attempt- ed or wished more than to apply it faith- fully to his own country.
It was not given to Moses to enter the promised land; but he saw it from the summit of Pisgah. It was not given to Lafayette to witness the consummation of his wishes in the establishment of a re- public, and the extinction of all heredi- tary rule in France. His principles were in advance of the age and hemisphere in which he lived. A Bourbon still reigns on the throne of France, and it is not for us to scrutinize the title by which he reigns. The principles of elective and hereditary power, blended in reluctant union in his person, like the red and white roses of York and Lancaster, may postpone to aftertime the last conflict to which they must ultimately come. The life of the patriarch was not long enough for the development of his whole political system. Its final accomplishment is in the womb of time.
The anticipation of this event is the more certain, from the consideration that all the principles for which Lafayette con- tended were practical. He never indulged himself in wild and fanciful speculations. The principle of hereditary power was, in his opinion, the bane of all republican lib- erty in Europe. Unable to extinguish it in the revolution of 1830, so far as con- cerned the chief magistracy of the nation, Lafayette had the satisfaction of seeing it abolished with reference to the peerage. A hereditary crown, stripped of the support which it may derive from an hereditary
308
LAFAYETTE— LA FOLLETTE
peerage, however compatible with Asiatic upon earth; and thenceforward, till the
despotism, is an anomaly in the history hour when the trump of the archangel
of the Christian world, and in the theory shall sound to announce that Time shall
of free government. There is no argument be no more, the name of Lafayette shall
producible against the existence of an stand enrolled high on the list of the pure
hereditary peerage but applies with ag- and disinterested benefactors of mankind,
gravated weight against the transmission See IRELAND, JOHN.
from sire to son of an hereditary crown. Lafitte, JEAN, adventurer; born in
The prejudices and passions of the people France about 1780. Early in 1800 he
of France rejected the principle of inherit- went to New Orleans, La., where for a
ed power in every station of public trust, time he engaged in the blacksmith busi-
excepting the first and highest of them ness. Later he and his brother, Pierre,
all; but there they clung to it, as did the became the leaders of the Corsairs, a
Israelites of old to the savory deities of band of smugglers who operated along
Egypt. the coast. The principal stronghold of
This is not the time or the place for a these buccaneers was on the island of
disquisition upon the comparative merits, Grand Terre, which commanded the pass
as a system of government, of a republic of Barataria. Several expeditions were
and a monarchy surrounded by republican sent to capture them, but through the
institutions. Upon this subject there is warnings of friends they escaped. In
among us no diversity of opinion, and if it 1814, when the British were planning to
should take the people of France another attack New Orleans, they were anxious
half-century of internal and external war, to secure the services of these outlaws,
of dazzling and delusive glories, of unpar- and sent Jean Lafitte a letter, in which
alleled triumphs, humiliating reverses, he was offered a captaincy in the British
and bitter disappointments, to settle it to navy and $30,000, with a pledge of pardon
their satisfaction, the ultimate result can for himself and men for past offences,
only bring them to the point where we reparation for losses, and further rewards
have stood from the day of the Declara- in land and money. If this invitation
tion of Independence — to the point where was not accepted, a threat was made that
Lafayette would have brought them, and the inhabitants of Barataria would be
to which he looked as a consummation annihilated. Lafitte told the bearer of
devoutly to be wished. this letter to return in ten days and he
Then, too, and then only, will be the would give him an answer. In the mean
time when the character of Lafayette will time he sent a communication containing
be appreciated at its true value through- this letter to the governor of Louisiana,
out the civilized world. When the princi- offering to join the American forces with
pie of hereditary dominion shall be extin- his followers if he and they were pardoned
guished in all the institutions of France; for their past offences. Governor Clai-
when government shall no longer be con- borne called a council, which decided that
sidered as property transmissible from the letters sent by Lafitte were forgeries,
sire to son, but as a trust committed for A little later an expedition was fitted out
a limited time, and then to return to the against Barataria, which took the place
people whence it came; as a burdensome completely by surprise. Jean and Pierre
duty to be discharged and not as a reward Lafitte, however, escaped and collected
to be abused; when a claim, any claim, to their scattered followers at Last Island,
political power by inheritance shall, in the close to the mouth of Bayou Lafourche.
estimation of the whole French people, be After the war Jean settled in Galveston,
held as it now is by the whole people of but in 1820 was driven out by the United
the North American Union — then will be States authorities, and went to Yucatan,
the time for contemplating the character where he died in 1826. of Lafayette, not merely in the events of La Follette, ROBERT MARION, lawyer;
his life, but in the full development of his born in Primrose, Wis., June 14, 1855 ;
intellectual conceptions, of his fervent as- was graduated at the University of Wis-
pirations, of the labors and perils and sac- consin in 1879 ; admitted to the bar in
rifices of his long and eventful career 1880; was a member of Congress in 1887-
309
LAIftLEY— LAMA&
01 ; and governor of Wisconsin in 1901-05. While in Congress he was a member of the Committee on Ways and Means which framed the McKinley tariff bill.
Laidley, THEODORE THADDEUS SOBIESKI, military officer; born in Guyandotte, Va., April 14, 1822; graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1842; served with distinction during the Mexican War. Just before the engagement at Cerro Gordo, with Lieut. Roswell S. Ripley, he was ordered to place an 8-inch howitzer in such a position as to enfilade the Mexicans from the right. He was the author of Ordnance Manual of 1861; Instructions in Rifle Practice, etc. He died in Palatka, Fla., April 4, 1886.
Lake. Special articles will be found under the respective names of the lakes, such as Borgne, Champlain, Erie, Huron, Michigan, Ontario, Superior, etc.
Lake George, BATTLE OF. See DIESKAU, L. A.; GEORGE, LAKE; JOHNSON, SIB WILLIAM.
Lake State, name popularly given to Michigan, which borders upon the four lakes, Superior, Huron, Michigan, and Erie. It is sometimes called the " Wol- verine State," from its formerly abound- ing with wolverines.
Lala, RAMON REYES, author; born in the city of Manila, Philippines, March 1, 1857 ; was educated at Singapore, at St. Xavier's College, Hong-Kong; at St. John's College, London; at the Civil Service Co - operative Society, London (business course), and at Neuchatel, Switzerland. After travelling extensively he returned to Manila and entered into business with his father. Later he was forced to leave home by Spanish oppression, and came to the United States, becoming the first naturalized Filipino- American citi- zen. Since his arrival in the United States he has lectured extensively on the people and country of his youth ; published The Philippine Islands; and contributed large- ly to periodicals on Filipino interests.
LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS
Lamar, Lucius QUINTUS CINCINNATUS, jurist; born in Putnam county, Ga., Sept. 1, 1825; graduated at Emory Col- lege in 1845; and was admitted to the bar in Macon. In 1847 he went to Ox- ford, Miss., where he began practice. Later, he was made Professor of Mathe- matics in' the State University, and also became an editorial writer on the South- ern Review. After a short service in these posts, he returned to Georgia, and in 1853-55 was a member of the legislat- ure. He then returned to Mississippi, where, in 1857 and 1859, he was elected to Congress. He resigned his seat in ]860, and was elected a delegate to the Mississippi secession convention. In 1861 he joined the Confederate army; in 1863- 64 was a representative of the Con- federacy in Europe, where he procured financial aid, but was unsuccessful in se- curing the recognition of the Southern Confederacy. After the war he became Professor, first of Political Economy and Social Science, in the Mississippi State University, and afterwards of Law. In 1872-76 he was a member of Congress. On April 27, 1874, he delivered an elo-
quent address on the death of Charles Sumner, far which he was highly praised, excepting by a few of his constituents, who, because of it, unsuccessfully en- deavored to prevent his re-election. In 1877 he was elected to the United States Senate, and there strongly opposed both the debasement and the inflation of the currency. His views upon this question were widely repudiated in his State, whose legislature formally called on him to change his views or resign his seat. Although he refused to obey his legis- lature in either respect, he was re-elected to the Senate in 1882 by a much larger majority than he received six years be- fore. In 1885 he was appointed Secretary of the Interior, and in 1887 an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He died in Vineville, Ga., Jan. 23, 1893.
On Feb. 15, 1878, he addressed the presi- dent of the Senate as follows:
Mr. President, having already ex- pressed my deliberate opinion at some length upon this very important measure now under consideration, I shall not tres-
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pass upon the attention of the Senate further. I have, however, one other duty to perform; a very painful one, I admit, but one which is none the less clear. I hold in my hand certain resolutions of the legislature of Mississippi, which I ask to have read.
[He then sent to the clerk's desk and had read the resolutions of the Mississippi legislature instructing their Senators to vote for the silver bill. Mr. Lamar, con- tinuing, said:]
Mr. President, between these resolu- tions and my convictions there is a great gulf; I cannot pass it. Of my love to the State of Mississippi I will not speak; my life alone can tell it. My gratitude for all the honor her people have done me no words can express; I am best proving it by doing, to-day, what I think their true interests and their character require me to do. During my life in that State it has been my privilege to assist the educa- tion of more than one generation of her youth; to have given the impulse to wave after wave of young manhood that has passed into the troubled sea of her social and political life. Upon them I have al- ways endeavored to impress the belief that truth was better than falsehood, hon- esty better than policy, courage better than cowardice.
To - day my lessons confront me. To- day I must be true or false, honest or cunning, faithful or unfaithful to my peo- ple even in this hour of their legislative displeasure and disapprobation. I cannot vote as these resolutions direct. I cannot and will not shirk the responsibility which my position imposes. My duty, as I see it, I will do, and I will vote against this bill. When that is done my respon- sibility is ended.
My reasons for my vote shall be given to my people. Then it will be for them to determine if adherence to my honest convictions has disqualified me from rep- resenting them — whether a difference of opinion upon a difficult and complicated subject, to which I have given patient, long-continued, conscientious study; to which I have brought entire honesty and singleness of purpose and upon which I have spent whatever ability God has given me, is now to separate us — whether this difference is to override that complete
union of thought, sympathy, and hope, which on all other, and, as I believe, even more important subjects binds us together. Before them I must stand or fall. But be their present decision what it may, I know that the time is not far distant when they will recognize my action to-day as wise and just, and, armed with honest convictions of my duty, I shall calmly await results, believing in the utterance of a great American who never trusted his countrymen in vain, that " truth is omnipotent and public justice certain."
The Race Problem. — On Aug. 2, 1876, he delivered a speech in the House of Repre- sentatives concerning the cause and cure of race troubles in the Southern States, from which the following extracts are taken:
I believe the apprehension growing out of the united Southern support of the Democratic party is wholly unfounded and should not stand in the way of the aspirations of a great people for progress and reform in their government. The idea that the South under any combina- tion of parties will ever again obtain the control of this giant republic and wield its destinies against the will of its mighty people is of all ideas the most visionary and baseless.
Sir, if such an idea has any effect what- ever with the North, no such hallucina- tion inflames the imagination of the South. The Southern people are a pros- trate people. They have been defeated in war, the humiliation and helplessness of defeat are theirs; while the North have reaped the rich results of a victorious war, and have interfused them into the very elements of the national life and con- stitution. Their institutions, political and social, have been destroyed as completely as if an earthquake had overwhelmed them; their agricultural industries are disorganized ; their fertile soil sterilized by an all-devouring taxation; their edu- cational institutions languishing; their population impoverished and so inferior in numbers as to place them in every de- partment of the government in such a hopeless minority that, so far from ruling the interests of other sections, they are impotent to protect a single interest or right of their own.
Sir, even if such a dream were in their
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minds, the occasion for it is gone. The safe in the hands of the Democratic party,
conflict in the past grew out of questions Whatever may be the future administra-
connected with slavery, its area, and the tion of this country, freedom, citizenship,
maintenance of its constitutional right, and suffrage are established institutions,
its political privileges, and its property embodied in the fundamental law, recog-
interests. These questions are eliminated nized in a-11 statutes, federal and State,
from the problem of American politics, enforced by courts, accepted and acted on
and with them have gone all the passions by the people. To say that these condi-
and antagonisms to which they gave rise, tions will be perilled by trusting them to
Nor is there any influence or incident con- the party which opposed their original es-
nected with their present condition which tablishment, is to contradict the philoso-
makes them not fully homogeneous with phy of history; and if acted upon would
the whole American people; nor anything, in every free government keep the admin-
except harsh and ungracious administra- istration of its affairs always in the hands
tion, to prevent their sympathy and iden- of one single party. There has not been
tity with the interest and destiny of the a single great measure in the constitu-
American nation. She feels that she must tional history of England, not a single
be either part of the nation or its prov- great reform, which after its establishment
ince; must be part of the government or by one party was not in the course of
held in duress under it. With her people time, and a very short period, placed in
national patriotism is a philosophy, a the hands of the party originally opposed
moral and political necessity. To obey the to it. Repeated instances might be given ;
laws of their country, and to recognize indeed, no instance to the contrary can be
its authority over themselves and their found. The repeal of the corn laws, the
society as a mere matter of force and great measures for law reform, the more
compulsion and fear, would be, as they recent measures of parliamentary reform
well know, degrading to their character, which brought England to the verge of
As Southern men, they well know that to revolution and came near sweeping from
keep up the high moral standard of a the English constitution the House of
high-spirited people obedience must ema- Lords, where the Tory party had its great-
nate from patriotic love and not from est strength, have by the suffrages of the
ignoble fear. Their very sectionalism, English people over and over again been
which has hitherto tended to insulation, placed in the hands of that Tory party
now identifies them with the national life with perfect confidence of security. In-
and makes them cultivate that wider and deed, it is considered the very highest
broader patriotism which is co-extensive policy, after securing reforms adopted
with the Union. They have no aspirations and pushed by the party of progress, to
not bounded by the horizon of that Union, mature and consolidate them by placing
no purpose adverse to the national in- them in the hands of the party of con-
stincts, no scheme that looks to the dis- servation and opposition. The Demo-
turbance of the elective franchise as it cratic party, when these measures were
exists in the Constitution. proposed, stood by the inviolability of the
In acting unitedly with the Democratic Constitution and opposed them on that
party they are simply obeying the impera- account. But these very principles of de-
tive law of self-preservation. It is not votion to the Constitution, which forced
that they desire to reverse the policy of that party into opposition, makes them
this government as fixed and fortified in now the safest custodians of those very
the fundamental law by the victorious innovations which by the vote of the
forces of the Union, but simply because people have become established parts of
they desire to escape from the practical the Constitution itself. . . . grievances and sufferings which the hos- Events have galloped upon this subject
tile and oppressive policy of the Republi- and both parties have been more or less
can party brings upon them. . . . the subjects of prodigious revolutions of
Equally unfounded, I think, sir, is the sentiment. It was but a short time since,
apprehension that the results of the war in 1861, that a Republican House of Rep-
as embodied in the Constitution are un- resentatives by a large majority adopted
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resolutions in favor of the enforcement of the fugitive slave provision of the Consti- tution and called upon the States to enact laws for remanding all fugitive slaves to their condition of servitude. It was but a few days prior to the publication of the proclamation of emancipation that the il- lustrious author of that historical docu- ment declared in a public letter that he would be in favor of establishing slavery if the doing so would save the Union. It was but a short time previous to the in- corporation of these great amendments into our Constitution that State after State in the North by overwhelming popu- lar majorities recorded what seemed to be an inflexible hostility to granting to this newly emancipated race any of the rights of citizenship. As late as 1865 the most distinguished war governors of the North were unequivocally opposed to the policy of incorporating the 4,000,000 emanci- pated slaves into the political system of the country and investing them with citi- zenship and the right of voting. . . .
Sir, I ask a patient, charitable consid- eration of the reply which it is my duty as a Southern Representative to make on this subject. I think, sir, if gentlemen will accompany me into an examination Of the causes which produced the present condition of things in the South, they will find that it does not grow out of any natural or necessary conflict of race or any desire to abridge the rights, political or personal, of any class of American citizens.
The first to which I would call atten- tion is the sudden incorporation into the political system of the South of an ele- ment, not only incongruous with the po- litical habitudes of our people and to the established conditions of their old societ/, but impossible except through time and education to be raised to that level of ordi- nary citizenship to which a century's training of freedom has elevated the white citizens of the country. The magnitude alone of this new element, 4,000,000 people made citizens, 800,000 of them voters, made such in the twinkling of an eye, was of itself sufficient to shock and shatter the political order of any commu- nity on earth.
Mr. Chairman, but a short time since when it was proposed to admit the dis-
tant and sparsely settled Territory of New Mexico into our federal community of States, the distinguished gentleman from Massachusetts [Mr. Hoar], who ad- dressed the House to-day so impressively and so earnestly, objected strenuously to the measure upon the ground that that feeble population of 120,000 inhabitants, largely composed of Mexicans and Ind- ians, because they could not read or speak the English language, was disquali- fied to exercise the privileges of citizen- ship, and should not therefore be ad- mitted into the community of American States. . . .
Sir, but the other day a distinguished Senator from the coast made a most striking protest against the further im- migration of Chinese into the community there, and still more recently both parties seemed to be vying with each other as to which should go furthest in preventing this admixture of the Mongolian race with ours. To illustrate the disturbing force of this measure, let us suppose that in the six New England States and the States of New York and New Jersey, whose population corresponds most nearly to that of our Southern States, in one night 4,000,000 of unaccustomed, incon- gruous population, such as Mexicans and Chinese, should be incorporated into the political system of those commonwealths, and by some paramount power outside of those States should be so compacted to- gether as to gain control of all the de- partments of their government, of all the offices, all the institutions, State and mu- nicipal— in a word, invested with the en- tire sovereignty of their body - politic, I ask you would not the repose of society be disturbed; would not all assurance of law, of healthful industry, of business ar- rangements and investments — would not all confidence give way to dismay and perplexity, to restless fears, wild pas- sions, and bloody scenes? Why^ sir, the more splendid their political civilization, the more complex their system of laws, and the more perfectly adjusted their social and economic forces, and the higher the moral tone of their society, the more hideous would be the ruin and the more refined the agony of the people subjected to such a catastrophe.
But the case as supposed is not as
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strong as the case which actually occurred no intellectual or moral qualifications,
in the Southern States. The 4,000,000 and that there is no difference between
people who by a scratch of the pen were an American freeman and an American
made citizens and crushed into our po- slave which may not be removed by a
litical system, the 800,000 voters and mere act of Congress." . . .
office-holders and legislators and magis- Now, sir, in a speech which this gentle-
trates, had just emerged from the imme- man made in Indiana before these people
morial condition of slaves. became invested with any political rights,
This fearful experiment was regarded here is his language:
by thinking men all over the world with " I believe that, in the case of 4,000,000 the profoundest concern and misgiving, slaves just freed from bondage, there It was viewed with disfavor by a large should be a period of probation and prep- majority even of the Republican party, aration before they are brought to the Its most able and its most extreme lead- exercise of political power. . . . What is ers looked upon it as committing society their condition? Perhaps not one in 500 to the sway of ignorance, servility, cor- — I might say one in 1,000 — can read, ruption, and tyranny; and such was their and perhaps not one in 500 is worth $5 sentiment until the conflict of the Repub- in property of any kind." lican party with President Johnson and Now, sir, notice the language of Mr. one other cause, which I shall notice be- Morton in the following sentences: fore I close, seemed to sweep away every " Can you conceive that a body of men, consideration of reason and justice. In white or black, who have been in this 1865, the year in which there was in the condition, and their ancestors before South certain legislation, which has been them, are qualified to be immediately the subject of much denunciation of the lifted from their present state into the South and the occasion and excuse for full exercise of power, not only to govern the oppressive and humiliating methods themselves and their neighbors, but to which have been applied to her people — take part in the government of the United I say, in that year Mr. O. P. Morton in a States? Can they be regarded as intelli- message to the legislature of Indiana used gent and independent voters? The mere the following language: state of fact furnishes the answer to the
" It is a fact so manifest that it should question. ... To say that such men — and
not be called in question by any, that a it is no fault of theirs; it is simply a
people who are just emerging from the misfortune and crime of this nation —
barbarism of slavery are not qualified to to say that such men, just emerged from
become a part of our political system slavery, are qualified for the exercise of
and take part not only in the government political power, is to make the strongest
of themselves and their neighbors, but of pro-slavery argument I ever heard. It
the whole United States. is to pay the highest compliment to the
" So far from believing that negro institution of slavery."
suffrage is a remedy for all of our na- Then he goes on with his objections to
tional ills, I doubt whether it is a remedy clothing the people with the rights of
for any, and rather believe that its en- citizenship and suffrage. Says he:
forcement by Congress would be more " The right to vote carries with it the
likely to subject the negro to a merciless right to hold office. You cannot say that
persecution than to confer upon him any the negro has a natural right to vote,
substantial benefit. but that he must vote for white men for
" By some it is thought that suffrage office."
is already cheap enough in this country; Then, after demonstrating that point,
and the immediate transfer of more than he makes this conclusion:
500,000 men from the bonds of slavery, " If you enfranchise all the negroes in
with all the ignorance and the degradation these States, you will have at least twen-
upon them which the slavery of genera- ty negro votes to one white vote, and in
tions upon Southern fields has produced, the work of reconstructing the States of
would be a declaration to the world that South Carolina, Alabama, and Florida
the exercise of American suffrage involves you will have a larger proportion — per-
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haps thirty colored votes to one white. Now, I ask you what is to be the effect of that? The first effect will be, you will have colored State governments."
After going into a long argument to prove this fact, he reaches this conclu- sion:
'• They will have colored governors and colored members of Congress and Sen- ators, and judges of the Supreme Court, etc. Very well; and suppose they do send colored Senators and Representatives to Congress, I have no doubt you will find men in the North who will be willing to sit beside them, and will not think themselves degraded by doing so. I have nothing to say to this. I am simply dis- cussing the political effect of it. In every State where there is a colored State gov- ernment, a negro for governor, and a negro for supreme judge, white emigra- tion will cease; there will be no more white emigration to any such State. You cannot find the most ardent anti- slavery man in Wayne county who will go and locate in a State that has a colored State government."
Now, sir, why ascribe to the conduct of the people of the South this exclusion of emigration when here is predicted be- forehand the result of the state of things which have occurred? Here is his con- clusion :
" I submit, then, however strongly and clearly we may admit the natural right of the negro — I submit it to the intelli- gence of the people that colored State governments are not desirable; that they will bring about results that are not to be hoped for; that finally they would threaten to bring about, and I believe would result in, a war of races."
Those are his predictions in 1865. Now, what is his remedy? Here it is:
" If I had the power I would arrange it in this way: I would give these men a probation and a preparation; I would give them time to acquire a little prop- erty and get a little education; time to learn something about the simplest forms of business and prepare themselves for the exercise of political power."
Well, sir, that looks amiable and friendly towards these men. But why put them under this system of probation? For the benefit of the race? In order to
elevate them? That is not the motive which upon that occasion he declared. Here is what he says:
" At the end of ten, fifteen or twenty years — "
Sir, that time has not elapsed. What would he do at the end of ten, fifteen or twenty years?
"At the end of ten, fifteen or twenty years let them come into the enjoyment of their political rights."
Why then?
"By that time these States will have been so completely filled up by emigration from the North and from Europe that the negroes will be in a permanent minor- ity."
There is his devotion to the colored race! Keep them ten, fifteen or twenty years out of the enjoyment of their po- litical rights, until under the influence of immigration the negroes shall be in a permanent minority!
That being his advice, it is strange, I repeat, that the people of the South, just returned from the war, all their so- ciety in ruins, full of wretchedness and disappointment, this race emancipated ly- ing upon their plantations, neither slave nor citizen and without any indication of the national sentiment that they were to become citizens; in disorder, without law — for the slave laws were abolished and they were at that time not within the provision of the civil code which ap- plied to the white race — is it strange, sir, that in improvising legislation which under this terrible pressure, this appal- ling calamity, these bewildering changes, which have followed one upon the other with such rapidity — is it strange that that system should have some of the in- cidents of the old system?
Sir, is it to be arrayed against them until the end of time as an evidence on their part of a purpose to remand that people to the servitude of slavery? Measure these people by what the senti- ment was at that time, and not by stand- ards you have erected at this time. It was not a system which was well advised or well executed, for, sir, it was repealed by the legislatures which passed it the very moment the public sentiment of the South could reach those who did pass it.
It is worthy of special attention that
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Governor Morton predicts the results of this policy which have actually followed its adoption. If, sir, that policy fur- nishes an adequate and inevitable cause of these disorders which he beforehand said it would do, why seek to attribute them, when they come, to a different cause? Why send investigating commit- tees to the South to charge them upon the murderous and rebellious purposes of the whites? . . .
The result of that conflict was that the federal government assumed, as a political necessity, the exclusive prerogative of re- constructing government in the South. The policy of reconstruction excluded the white race (on account of its suspected disloyalty) as the basis of the new order. But as the black race was considered as incompetent to manage the new structures built for them, military power, for the first time in the history of the American government, was employed as the force to put and keep in operation the machinery of civil government. I do not propose to discuss this policy, but simply to call special attention to one feature of it. All the measures in the furtherance of that policy, the Freedmen's Bureau, which cut all connection of the two races sheer asun- der, whose agents and officers were made judges to try and punish offences by the whites against the rights of freedmen, without jury or the right of judicial ap- peal; the act dividing the South without reference to State lines into military districts, and vesting the power of ap- pointing all civil officers in a commanding general; the acts for restoring civil gov- ernments— were all based upon this one idea of protecting the enfranchised black race against the wrongs anticipated from the disfranchised white race; and as a mat- ter of fact, therefore, this reconstruction legislation, as conceived and enforced, actu- ally arrayed the two races into distinct and opposing classes, and drew the color line as distinctly and perfectly as if such race distinction had been enjoined in the Constitution. The very first principle of government your new-made citizens saw in operation was the principle of race dis- crimination. The very first lesson in civil government which they learned was the proscription of the white race as an object of political distrust and resentment.
The strange spectacle of these two races locally intermingled, bound together by the strongest ties of interest and affec- tion, yet as completely separated politi- cally as if a deep gulf had sunk between them; the passions incident to party con- tests in which the contestants differ not in conviction, but in race, and now charged as one of the heavy items against the South, find their authorship and ori- gin in the legislation of the government and the action of its agents. One mo- ment's consideration will convince any fair mind of this. The measures devised for the sole benefit, protection, and ascen- dency of one race will surely command the support of that race; and if the same pol- icy disfranchises the other race, hurls it from its proud tradition into a condition rife with all the elements of humiliation, and deprives it even of its ancient guar- antees against the oppression of arbitrary power, the inevitable effect is, perforce, to drive that race into opposition to those measures. Thus, I repeat, by a policy which drew one race to its support and drove the other into opposition, the sep- aration of the two was produced without the voluntary agency of either and against the natural tendencies of both.
[Mr. Lamar here entered into a discus- sion of the Presidential election in Louisi- ana in 1876, and then continued:]
Sir, this race problem is capable of solu- tion. Two English statesmen such as Lord Derby and Earl Russell, or Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Disraeli, could agree upon a basis of settlement in three days; and we could do the same here but for the interposition of the passions of party in the contest for the power and emoluments of government. It could be settled in this District and throughout the South with- out abridging universal suffrage or subject- ing either race to the control of the other. Take the question out of national politics and it can be settled on a basis which would consolidate all the rights of the black man, make him free and equal with every citizen before the law, protected in the fruits of his labor, safe in his person, happy in his household, secure in the en- joyment of whatever he can acquire in fair competition, whether it be of fortune or fame, and thus secure to him a higher and better life than he now leads as the mis-
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guided and deluded constituency of dis- ment to the Democratic party, and in act- honest office-holders. ing with it for the time being, they only I have not intended to intimate that obey, as I said before, the imperious law the capacity of the black race for free- of self-preservation.
dom and the duties of citizenship should The motive which prompts their co- be determined by the considerations which operation is not the expectation of fill- I presented. The freedom of this race, ing cabinets and directing politics, but its citizenship, have not had a fair oppor- simply to get an administration which tunity for favorable development at the will not be unfriendly to them, an admin- South. Controlled through the author- istration which, in place of the appli- ity of the government by the worst men ances of force, subjugation, and domina- as they have been, it would be unjust tion, will give them amnesty, restoration to them to form any estimate of their to the privileges of American citizenship; capacity to meet the demands of their which will accord to their States the same high position by the events of the last equal rights with other States in this ten years. Union; equality of consideration, equal- Sir, we know that one great cause of ity of authority and jurisdiction over the jealousy with which the Southern their own affairs ; equality, sir, in exemp- people are regarded is the fact that they tion from the domination of their elections stand between the ambition of a party by the bayonet and by soldiers as the ir- and the glittering prizes of honor and resistible instruments of a revolting local emoluments and patronage which the con- despotism. Give them that, give them trol of the government for another four local self-government, and you will then years will give. I believe, sir, if they see at last what will be the dawn of could do so consistently with their consti- prosperity in all the industries and enter- tutional obligations, our people would prises of the North; you will see, sir, a willingly stand aloof and let the Northern true Southern renaissance, a real grand re- people settle the question of President construction of the South, in all the for themselves, upon the condition that elements of social order, strength, justice, there shall be no further intervention in and equality of all her people. Kising their local affairs. But, sir, they cannot from her confusion and distress, rejoic- abnegate their rights and duties as Amer- ing in her newly recovered liberty, pros- ican citizens and impose on themselves a perous, free, great, her sons and daugh- sullen and inactive incivism. They must ters of every race happy in her smile, she go forward and keep abreast with Amer- will greet your benignant republic in the ican progress and American destiny, and words of the inspired poet — take their share of the responsibility in « Thy gentleness hath made me great." the settlement of the questions in which
all parts of the country are alike in- Laxnar, MIRABEATJ BTJONAPAKTE, states-
terested man; born in Louisville, Ga., Aug. 16,
But it is asked why we are united in 1798; uncle of the preceding. In 1835 he
support of the Democratic party. A cele- went to Texas, and commanded the cav-
brated author in his work on political airy in the battle of San Jacmto, which
ethics says that in the history of all free secured the independence of the province,
countries there is no instance of a people He was attorney-general and secretary of
being unanimous in sentiment and action, the new State, and was elected its first
unless they were made so by the irami- vice-president in 1836, then holding the
nence of some great and common peril or rank of major-general. He was president
by the inspiration of some enthusiastic from 1838 to 1841, and in 1846 he joined
sentiment General Taylor in the invasion of Mexico.
The people of the South are not moved In 1858 he published the Columbus Jn-
by the latter. Even if the events of the quirer, a " State rights " journal. Just
war and the sufferings since the war had previous to his death, in Richmond, Tex.,
not, as they have done, crushed out all Dec. 19, 1859, he was United States mm-
their party" attachments, nearly one- half ister to Nicaragua and Costa Rica, the people of the South have no attach- Lamb, JOHN, artillery officer; born in
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LAMB— LANCASTER
JOHN LAMB.
New York City, Jan. 1, 1735; was one of Spicy; The Homes of America; The the most active of the Sons of Liberty, and Christmas Owl; Snow and Sunshine; Wall when the war for independence began he Street in History; Memorial of Dr. J. D. entered the military service. He was in Russ, etc. She died in New York City, command of the artillery in Montgomery's Jan. 2, 1893.
expedition into Canada, and during the Lamb, ROGER, military officer; born in
Dublin, Ireland, Jan. 17, 1756; joined the British army and fought against the colonies in the American Revolution; was twice taken prisoner, but escaped each time, bearing important news regarding the American troops to his superiors; was made adjutant to the Merchant Volunteers in New York about 1782. His publications, which are among the most valuable sources for the history of the Revolution- ary period, include A Journal of Occur- rences during the Late American War, and Memoir of My Own Life. He died in May, 1830.
Lamberville, JEAN DE. See JESUIT MISSIONS.
Lament, DANIEL SCOTT, statesman; born in Cortlandville, N. Y., Feb. 9, 1851 ;
siege of Quebec (Dec. 31, 1775) he was graduated at Union College; and en- wounded and made prisoner. The follow- gaged in journalism. In 1885-89 he was ing summer, as major of artillery, he was private secretary to President Cleveland, attached to the regiment of Knox; and and in 1893-97 was Secretary of War. he was commissioned colonel of the New On retiring from the last office he was York Artillery, Jan. 1, 1777. After doing elected vice - president of the Northern good service throughout the war, he ended Pacific Railway Company, his military career at Yorktown. At Lamson, CHARLES MARION, clergyman; about the close of the war he was elected born in North Hadley, Mass., May 16, to the New York Assembly; and Wash- 1843; graduated at Amherst College ington appointed him (1789) collector of and at Williston Seminary, Easthamp- the customs at the port of New York, ton, Mass.; and after holding several pas- which office he held until his death, May torates was elected president of the Amer- 31, 1800. ican Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Lamb, MARTHA JOAN READE NASH, Missions in 1897, succeeding Richard S. historian; born in Plainfield, Mass., Aug. Storrs, D.D. He died in St. Johnsbury, 13, 1829; was educated in the higher Vt., Aug. 8, 1899.
branches of English and the modern Ian- Lancaster, JOSEPH, educator; born in guages. In 1852 she married Charles A. London, Nov. 25, 1778; became interested Lamb and removed to Chicago, where she in educating poor children, for whom he aided in establishing the Home for the opened a school in South wark, in 1798, Friendless and Half - orphan Asylum. In and taught for scarcely any remuneration. 1863 she was secretary of the United The success of this led him to establish States Sanitary Commission Fair. Three similar schools in different parts of Eng- years later she went to New York City, land, on the plan of having the more ad- and from that time gave her whole atten- vanced pupils teach those in the lower tion to authorship. In 1883 she became classes. In 1818 he came to the United editor of the Magazine of American His- States, where his system had already tory. She belonged to about thirty his- been adopted in many schools, owing to torical and other societies. Her chief which fact he did not derive much finan- work is the History of the City of New cial benefit by the change. His pub- York. Her other publications include lications include Improvements in Edu-
318
LANCASTER— LANE
cation; Epitome of the Chief Events and ians at the treaty of Fort Stanwix.
Transactions of My Own Life, etc. He These schemes of land speculators were
died in New York City, Oct. 24, 1838. dissipated by the same cause that ar-
Lancaster, TREATY OF. At Lancaster, rested the completion of the VValpole
Pa., a treaty was made in 1744 between scheme.
the commissioners of Maryland and Vir- Lander, FREDERICK WEST, military ginia and the deputies of the Iroquois officer; born in Salem, Mass., Dec. 17, Confederacy, which, since their union 1821 ; studied civil engineering, and was with the Tuscaroras of North Carolina, employed by the government in conduct- had been called the Six Nations. That ing explorations across the continent. He treaty provided for the cession of all lands made two surveys to determine the prac- that were and should be claimed by the ticability of a railroad route to the Pa- Indians within the province of Virginia, cific. In the last, he alone of all the for the consideration of about $2,000. party returned alive. He surveyed and Their claimed lands in Maryland were, in constructed a great overland wagon-road, like manner, confirmed to Lord Baltimore, which had been recently completed when with definite limits. Thus did Great Brit- the Civil War broke out, when he was ain at once acquire and confirm its claims employed on secret missions to the South, to the basin of the Ohio, and, at the same On the staff of General McClellan he was time, secure protection to its northern very active in the vicinity of the upper frontier. Potomac. In a skirmish at Edwards's
Lance, WILLIAM, author; born in Ferry, after the disaster at BALL'S BLUFF
Charleston, S. C., in 1791; was educated (q. v.), he was wounded in the leg. In
in his native city and became a lawyer in January, 1862, he was on active duty, and
1812; served for a time as a member of repulsed a large Confederate force at Han-
the South Carolina legislature. He was cock, Va. Before his wound was healed he
the author of a Life of Washington (pub- made a brilliant dash, Feb. 14, 1862, on
lished in Latin). He died in Texas in Blooming Gap, for which the Secretary of
1840. War gave him special thanks. His health
Land Companies. After the treaty was evidently giving away, and he applied
at Fort Stanwix, the banks of the Kana- for temporary relief from military duty;
wha, flowing north at the foot of the great but, impatient, he prepared to make an-
Alleghany ridge into the Ohio, began to other attack on the Confederates, when he
attract settlers, and application was soon died in Paw Paw, Va., March 2, 1862.
made to the British government by a Landon, JUDSON STUART, jurist; born
company, of which Dr. Franklin, Sir Will- in Connecticut in 1832; was admitted to
iam Johnson, Walpole (a wealthy Lon- the bar; practised in Schenectady, N. Y.;
don banker), and others were members, and was elected justice of the Supreme
for that part of the newly acquired terri- Court of the fourth district of New
tory north of the Kanawha, and thence to York. He is the author of The Constitu-
the upper Ohio. They offered to refund tional History and Government of the
the whole amount (about $50,000) which United States.
the government had paid the Indians, and Lands, Public. See PUBLIC DOMAIN.
proposed the establishment of a new and Lane, ALFRED CHURCH, geologist;
separate colony there. This project was born in Boston, Jan. 29, 1863; gradu-
approved by Lord Hillsborough, secretary ated at Harvard University in 1883, and
of state for the colonies, and the ministry took an advanced course at Heidelberg,
finally agreed to it, but the troubles be- Germany. Returning to the United States
tween the parent government and her he was appointed an instructor of mathe-
children in America, then rapidly tend- matics in Harvard University, and later
ing towards open war, prevented a com- of petrography in the Michigan College of
pletion of the scheme. Such was the ori- Mines. Afterwards he was made assist-
gin of the "Walpole," or "Ohio Com- ant State Geologist of Michigan. He is
pany," the " Vandalia Company," and the author of part ii. of vol. v., and part i.
" Indiana Company," founded on a ces- of vol. vi. of Reports of the Geological
sion said to have been made by the Ind- Survey of Michigan. He has also writ-
319
LANE— LANGDELL
ten articles for The Outlook; The Popular with Sir Richard Granville, by Sir Wal- Scicnce Monthly, and technical periodi- ter Raleigh, to be governor of Virginia, eals. in 1585. After his return from Vir- Lane, HENRY SMITH, legislator; born ginia he was colonel in the expedition in Montgomery county, Ky., Feb. 24, o1 Norris and Drake against Portugal in 1811; removing to Indiana, was there ad- 1589, and in 1591 was mustermaster-gen- mitted to the bar; and was a member of eral in Ireland. He was knighted by the the legislature in 1837. He served one lord-deputy in 1593. Lane's administra- term in Congress (1841-43), and was tion as governor of Virginia was fruit- lieutenant-colonel of volunteers in the less of any good. By following the ex- war with Mexico. In 1860 he was elected ample of Grenville he exasperated the Ind- governor of Indiana, but, being chosen ians. Had he been kind and wise the United States Senator, he soon afterwards colony might have prospered; but he and resigned the governorship. He died in his followers were greedy for gold, and
Crawfordsville. Ind., June 11, 1881.
only Harriott, the historian, acted like a
Lane, JAMES HENRY, military officer; sensible Christian. Lane had the gold
born in Lawrenceburg, Ind., June 22, fever severely, and all trusted more to
1814; son of Amos Lane; was admitted fire-arms than to friendship to secure the
to the bar in 1840; served as a volunteer good-will of the Indians. Sometimes the
in the war with Mexico, commanding a latter were treated with cruelty, and a
brigade at Buena Vista; and, in 1848, was flame of vengeance was kindled and kept
elected lieutenant-governor of Indiana, alive. The Indians deceived the English
He served one term in Congress; settled with tales of gold-bearing regions near,
in Kansas, and was chosen its first and that the source of the Roanoke River
United States Senator. He served well was among rocks near the Pacific Ocean,
during the Civil War, and was again where the houses were lined with pearls,
elected United States Senator in 1865. Lane explored, found himself deceived,
He died near Leavenworth, Kan., July 1, and. returned. The Indians, who wanted
1866. to have the English dispersed in the
Lane, JOSEPH, military officer; born in forest, so as to exterminate them in de- Buncombe county, N. C., Dec. 14, 1801; tail, were discomfited. They looked with great-nephew of Joel Lane, the pioneer, awe upon the English with fire-arms, and, Going early to Indiana, he engaged in believing more were coming to take their business there, and was frequently a lands away from them, they determined member of the legislature between 1822 to slay them. Lane, satisfied that there and 1846. He served in the war against was a wide-spread conspiracy against the Mexico, in which he gained distinction; colony, struck the first blow. He invited rose to the rank of brigadier-general ; and King Wingina and his principal chiefs to was brevetted major-general. In 1848 he a friendly conference. They came, cou- was appointed governor of Oregon Terri- fidingly, without weapons. At a precon- tory, organized its government, was its certed signal Lane and his followers fell delegate in Congress from 1851 to 1859, upon and murdered the king and his and United States Senator from 1859 to companions. Thenceforth both parties 1861. He was again governor in 1863. stood on the defensive. The condition Mr. Lane was nominated for Vice-Presi- of the English became desperate. Their dent in 1860 on the Breckinridge ticket, supplies became exhausted, and none He died in Oregon, April 19, 1881. could be got from the natives; only from
Lane, SIR RALPH, colonial governor; the woods and waters could food be ob-
born in Northamptonshire, England, tained. The colony was on the verge of
about 1530; was son of Sir Ralph Lane, starvation and despair, when Sir Francis
and Maud, daughter of Lord Parr, uncle Drake, returning from a raid upon Span-
of Catharine Parr, one of the queens of ish towns, came to Roanoke Island. In
Henry VIII. He was equerry in the his ship the colonists gladly embarked for
Court of Queen Elizabeth; commanded England. Sir Ralph died in Ireland, in
troops in Ireland, first in 1569, and again 1604.
in 1583-84; and was sent from England Langdell, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS,
320
LANGDON— LANIEB
lawyer; born in Hillsboro county, N. H., terms of the Standard Dictionary. Her
May 22, 1826; studied at Harvard Col- works include The Ladies of the White
lege in 1848-49; engaged in teaching; House; The Hearth-stone, or Life at
graduated at the Harvard Law School Home; Chinese Gordon; Howard, The
in 1853, and practised in New York Christian Hero; The Buddhist Diet Book,
until 1870, when he was made Pro- etc.
fessor of Jurisprudence and dean of the Langley, JOHN WILLIAMS, educator;
law faculty at Harvard. In 1900 he re- born in Boston, Oct. 21, 1841; gradu-
signed his chair, owing to failing eye- ated at Harvard College in 1861; assist-
sight and advanced age. His works in- ant Professor of Physics in the United
elude Selections of Cases on the Law of States Naval Academy in 1867-70; Pro-
Contracts; Cases on Sales; Summary of fessor of Chemistry at the Western Uni-
Equity Pleading; Cases in Equity Plead- versity of Pennsylvania in 1871-74; and
ing, etc. Professor of Chemistry and Physics at the
Langdon, JOHN, statesman; born in University of Michigan in 1875-89. He
Portsmouth, N. H., in 1739; was a sue- became Professor of Electrical Engineer-
cessful merchant, and took an early and ing in the Case School of Applied Science
active part in the events preceding the in 1892. He is a member of several scien-
outbreak of the Revolutionary War. He tine organizations and the author of vari-
was a member of the Continental Congress ous scientific papers.
(1775-76), but in June, in the latter Langley, SAMUEL PIERPONT, astrono- year, he resigned his seat and became mer; born in Boston, Mass., Aug. 22, navy agent. He was speaker of the As- 1834; graduated at the Boston High sembly, and was ready to make any rea- School, and engaged in the practice of sonable sacrifice to promote the cause, architecture and civil engineering. In When means were needed to support a 1865 he was made an assistant at Har- New Hampshire regiment, he gave all his vard Observatory, and later became Pro- " hard money," pledged his plate, and ap- fessor of Mathematics in the United States plied to the same purpose the proceeds of Naval Academy. In 1867 he was selected seventy hogsheads of tobacco. He fur- for director of the Allegheny Observatory, nished means for raising a brigade of the where two years later he established the troops with which Stark gained the vie- system of railroad time service from ob- tory at Bennington. He was active in servatories, which soon went into general civil affairs, also, all through the war, use. He also made the bolometer, which serving in the Continental Congress and has been widely adopted, and other ap- his State legislature. In 1785 he was paratus. Professor Langley has made president of New Hampshire, and in 1787 many experiments on the problem of aerial was one of the framers of the federal navigation and firmly believes that a ma- Constitution. He was governor of his chine, not a balloon, can be created which State in 1788, and again from 1805 to will produce sufficient mechanical power 1811; was United States Senator from to support itself in the air and fly. He 1789 to 1801, and declined the office of founded the Astrophysical Observatory Secretary of the Navy (1811) and of and the National Zoological Park at Vice-President of the United States Washington. His works include The New (1812). He died in Portsmouth, Sept. Astronomy; Researches on Solar Heat; 18, 1819. Experiments in Aerodynamics, and nu- Langford, LAURA CARTER HOLLOWAY, merous other kindred works, and papers author ; born in Nashville, Tenn., in and articles in magazines. 1848; graduated at the Nasville Female Lanier, SIDNEY, poet; born in Macon, Academy; subsequently settled in New Ga., Feb. 3, 1842; graduated at Ogle- York City. She was twice married. For thorpe College in 1860; enlisted in the twelve years she was associate editor of Confederate army in 1861; took part in the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, and for nine the seven days' battles near Richmond; years president of the Brooklyn Seidl So- was captured while in command of a ciety of Music. She was co-editor with blockade-runner in 1863. In addition to Anton Seidl of the department of musical his poetical works, he wrote a History of V.— X 321
LANMAN— LA SALLE
Florida; The Boys' Froissart, etc. He years he was assistant instructor of math- died in Lynn, N. C., Sept. 7, 1881. ematics in the University of Virginia;
Lanman, CHARLES, author; born in was instructor in the Massachusetts In- Monroe, Mich., June 14, 1819; received an stitute of Technology in 1871-72; assist- academical education; spent ten years in ant Professor in 1872-75; since 1875 has a business house in New York City; and been Professor of Theoretical and Applied in 1845 became editor of the Gazette of Mechanics, and since 1883 has also had Monroe. He was editor of the Cincinnati charge of the department of mechanical Chronicle in 1846; of the Express in New engineering. He is a member of the York in 1847. He was chosen librarian British Association for the Advancement of the War Department in 1849, and li- of Science, American Society of Mechani- brarian of copyrights in 1850. He next be- cal Engineers, Boston Society of Civil En- came private secretary to Daniel Webster, gineers, American Mathematical Society, In 1855-57 he was librarian of the Depart- American Society of Naval Architects and ment of the Interior, and in 1871-82 was Marine Engineers, and of other scientific secretary of the Japanese legation at societies; and is a fellow of the American Washington. He was the first man to Society for the Advancement of Science, explore the Saguenay region in Canada, and the American Academy of Arts and and among the first to explore the moun- Sciences. Professor Lanza has published tains of North Carolina. His works in- Applied Mechanics and many scientific elude Essays for Summer Hours; Letters papers.
from a Landscape Painter; A Tour to Lamed, JOSEPHUS NELSON, author;
the River Saguenay; Private Life of born in Chatham, Ont., Canada, May 11,
Daniel Webster; Resources of America, 1836; received a public Bchool education
etc. He also compiled several works for in Buffalo; was on the editorial staff of
the Japanese government. He died in the Buffalo Express in 1859-72; superin-
Washington, D. C., March 4, 1895. tendent of education in that city in 1872-
Lanman, JAMES HENRY, author; born 73; superintendent of the Buffalo Library in Norwich, Conn., Dec. 4, 1812; became in 1877-97; and president of the Ameri- a lawyer and after several years' practice can Library Association in 1893-94. He in Norwich and New London, Conn., and is author of History for Ready Reference Baltimore, Md., he settled in New York and Talks About Labor. City and engaged in literary work. Later Larsen, LATJR, educator; born in he became interested in the State of Christiansand, Norway, Aug. 10, 1833; Michigan. His publications include His- graduated at the University of Chris- tory of Michigan, Civil and Topographical, tiania in 1850, and at its theological ue- which was afterwards published under partment in 1855, and entered the min- the title of History of Michigan from its istry of the Lutheran Church. He was Earliest Colonization to the Present minister in Pierce county, Wis., in 1857- Time, etc. He died in Middletown, Conn., 59; Norwegian Professor of Concordia Col- Jan. 10, 1887. lege and Seminary, St. Louis, in 1859-
Lanman, JOSEPH, naval officer; born 61; president of the Norwegian Lutheran
in Norwich, Conn., July 11, 1811; entered College since 1861; vice-president of the
the navy in 1825; became captain in. 1861, Norwegian Lutheran Synod in 1876-93;
and commodore in 1862. He commanded vice-president of the Synodical Conference
the frigate Minnesota in the North At- in 1879-82, and acting president part of
lantic squadron, in 1864-65, and had the the time; and editor of the church paper
ccmmand of the second division of Por- of the Norwegian Lutheran Synod in
ter's squadron in both attacks on Fort 1868-69.
Fisher. On Dec. 8, 1867, he was promoted La Salle, ROBERT CAVELIER, SIEUR DE,
to rear-admiral, and in May, 1872, he was explorer; born in Rouen, France, Nov. 22,
retired. He died in Norwich, March 13, 1643; in early life became a Jesuit, and
1874. thereby forfeited his patrimony. He after-
Lansdowne. See SHELBURNE. wards left the order, and went to Canada
Lanza, GAETANO, educator; born in as an adventurer in 1666. From the Sul-
Boston, Mass., Sept. 26, 1848. For two picians, seigneurs of Montreal, he ob-
322
LA SALLE, SIEUB DE
tained a grant of land and founded La- ohine. Tales of the wonders and riches of the wilderness inspired him with a de- sire to explore. With two Sulpicians, he went into the wilds of western New York, and afterwards went down the Ohio River as far as the site of Louisville. Governor Frontenac became his friend, and in the autumn of 1674 he went to France bear- ing a letter from the governor- general, strongly recommending him to Colbert, the French pre- mier. Honors and privileges were bestowed upon him at the French Court, and he was made govern- or of Fort Frontenac, erected on the site of Kingston, at the foot of Lake Ontario, which he great- ly strengthened, and gathered Indian settlers around it. He had very soon a squadron of four vessels on the lake, engaged in the fur-trade, and Fort Fronte- nac was made the centre of that traffic, in which he now largely engaged and sought the monop- oly. Conceiving a grand scheme of explorations and trade west- ward, perhaps to China, he went to France in 1678 and obtained permission to execute it. He was allowed to engage in explo- rations, build forts, and have the monopoly of the trade in buffalo- skins, during five years, but was forbidden to trade with tribes accustomed to take furs to Mon- treal. Henri de Tonti, a veteran Italian, joined him, and, with thirty mechanics and mariners, they sailed from Rochelle in the summer of 1678, and reached Fort Frontenac early in the autumn. De Tonti was sent farther west to establish a trading- post at the mouth of the Niagara River. He proceed- ed, also, to build a vessel above the great falls for traffic on Lake Erie, and named it the Griffin.
In August, 1679, La Salle sailed with De Tonti through the chain of lakes to Green Bay, in the northwestern portion of Lake Michigan. Creditors were press- ing him with claims, and he unlawfully gathered furs and sent them back in the Griffin to meet those claims. Then he pro- ceeded, with his party, in canoes, to the
mouth of the St. Joseph River, in south- western Michigan, where he established a trading-house and called it Fort Miami. Ascending the St. Joseph, he crossed to the Kankakee, and paddled down it until he reached an Illinois village, and, in January, 1C80, he began the establish- ment of a trading-post on the site of the present Peoria, 111., which he called Fort
ROBERT CAVELIER S1KUR DE LA SALLE.
Crevecoeur. Disappointed in the failure of the Griffin to make a return voyage with supplies, he put De Tonti in com- mand of the fort and despatched Hennc- pin and Acau to explore the Illinois to its mouth and the Mississippi northward. With five companions, La Salle started back for Canada, and from the mouth of the St. Joseph he crossed Michigan to a river flowing into the Detroit, and thence overland to Lake Erie. From its western end he navigated it in a canoe to Niagara, where he was satisfied that the Griffin had perished somewhere on the lakes. He also heard of the loss of a ship arriving from France with supplies. Settling as
323
LA SALLE— LAS CASAS
well as he could with his creditors, La in Louisiana and the conquest of the rich Salle, with a fresh party of twenty-three mining country in northern Mexico. A Frenchmen and eighteen New England Ind- patent was granted him, and he was made dians, with ten women and children, be- commandant of the vast territory from gan a return journey to Fort Cr6vecceur, the present State of Illinois to Mexico, with supplies. De Tonti had been driven and westward indefinitely. With 280 in- away by an attack on the Illinois settle- different persons he sailed from France ment of the Iroquois. The desertion of Aug. 1, 1684, with four ships; but dis- his men had compelled him to abandon putes between Beaujeu, the navigator of the fort and return to Green Bay. the squadron, and La Salle proved dis- La Salle and his party went down the astrous to the expedition. Touching at Illinois to its mouth, when he returned to Santo Domingo, they entered the Gulf of gather his followers and procure means Mexico, and, by miscalculations, passed for continuing his explorations. Late in the mouth of the Mississippi without December, 1681, he started from Fort knowing it. La Salle became satisfied of Miami with his expedition, coasted along this fact, but Beaujeu sailed obstinately the southern shore of Lake Michigan, as- on, and finally anchored off the entrance cended the Chicago River, crossed to the to Matagorda Bay. The colonists de- Illinois, descended to the Mississippi, and barked, but the store-ship containing most went down that stream until it separated of the supplies, was wrecked. Beaujeu, into three channels, which he explored to pleading a lack of provisions, deserted the Gulf of Mexico. La Salle named the La Salle, leaving him only a small vessel, great stream River Colbert, in compli- He cast up a fort, which he called St. ment to his patron at the Court of France. Louis, and attempted to till the soil ; but De Tonti explored the great middle chan- the Indians were hostile. Some of the nel. Then the whole company assembled settlers were killed, others perished from at a dry spot near the Gulf, and there disease and hardships, and, after making prepared a cross and a column, affixing some explorations of the country, the to the latter the arms of France and this party, at the end of the year, was re- inscription, " Louis the Great, King of duced to less than forty souls. France and Navarre, April 9, 1682." He Leaving half of them, including women also buried there a leaden plate, with a and children, La Salle set out, at the be- Latin inscription. The whole company ginning of 1688, to make his way to the then signed a proces verbal, in the follow- Illinois. His party consisted of his ing order: La Metarie (notary), De la brother, two nephews, and thirteen others, Salle, P. Zenobe (Re"collet missionary), some of whom were sullen and ripe for re- Henri de Tonti, Frangois de Bousvoudet, volt. Penetrating the present domain of Jean Bourdon, Sieur d'Autray, Jacques Texas to Trinity River, revolt broke Cauclois, Pierre You, Giles Mencret, Jean out, and the two ringleaders killed La Michel (surgeon), Jean Mas, Jean Du- Salle's nephew in a stealthy manner; and glignon, Nicholas de la Salle. La Salle when the great explorer turned back to formally proclaimed the whole valley of look for him, they shot him dead, March the Mississippi and the region of its 20, 1687. Nearly all of those who were tributaries a part of the French domin- left at Fort St. Louis were massacred by ions, and named the country Louisiana, in the Indians, and the remainder fell into compliment to the King. So was first the hands of the Spaniards, sent to drive planted the germ of the empire of the out the French. La Salle, lured by tales French in that region, which flourished in of an abundance of precious metals in the eighteenth century. New Mexico, had penetrated that country, . La Salle ascended the Mississippi the with a few followers, before leaving Fort next year, and returned to Quebec in No- St. Louis, but he was disappointed, vember, leaving Tonti in command in the Las Casas, BARTOLOME DE, missionary; west, with directions to meet him at the born in Seville, Spain, in 1474. His mouth of the Mississippi the following father was a companion of Columbus in year. Then he proceeded to France and his two earlier voyages, and in the sec- proposed to the government a settlement ond one he took this son, then a student
324
LAS CASAS— LATHROP
at Salamanca, with him. Eartolome ac- works, in Latin and Spanish. He died companied Columbus on his third and in Madrid, in July, 1506. fourth voyages, and, on his return, en- Las Guasimas, a town in Cuba, east tered the order of the Dominicans, that of Santiago, and between that city and he might become a missionary among the Siboney. It was here that the American natives of the new-found islands of the troops met their first serious opposition West. He went to Santo Domingo, and in the Santiago campaign of 1898. On was there ordained a priest, in 1510, and the night of June 23, after all the Ameri- gave the name to the island in compli- can forces had been landed at DAIQUIRI ment to his order. Las Casas was chap- (q. v. ), General Wheeler, accompanied by lain to Velasquez when the latter con- the brigade of Gen. Samuel M. B. Young, quered Cuba, and did much to alleviate marched from Siboney, and in the morn- the sufferings of the conquered natives, ing he was considerably in advance of the In 1515 he went to Spain to seek redress main army. Having ascertained from for them, and found a sympathizer in Cuban scouts that a Spanish force was Cardinal Ximenes, who became regent of intrenched at Las Guasimas, where two Spain the following year, and sent out roads running from Santiago met, he three monks to correct abuses. Their determined to drive them out. General services were not satisfactory, and, re- Young's regular cavalry had hardly come turning to Spain, Las Casas was appoint- in contact with the Spaniards when the ed " Universal Protector of the Indies." " Rough Riders," who were marching Seeing the few negroes who were in Santo along another route, were suddenly Domingo and Cuba growing robust while brought to a halt and a little confused laboring under the hot sun, he proposed by an unexpected volley with smokeless the introduction of negro slaves to relieve powder. They fell back, but rallied the more effeminate natives. This benevo- quickly. On the other side, the colored lent proposition gave rise to a lucrative cavalry, which had come up, forced a traffic, and a perversion of the purpose of ridge with unflinching courage, and the Las Casas, and he obtained from Charles enemy were compelled to retire a mile V. a grant of a large domain on the coast or more from their intrenchments. In of Venezuela, for the purpose of collecting the mean time, reinforcements were called a colony under his own guidance. This for, but before General Chaffee arrived project failed, and in 1527 he proceeded with the 2d Infantry, the troops men- to labor as a missionary among the Ind- tioned had put the Spaniards to utter ians in Nicaragua, Guatemala, Mexico, rout. In the engagement there were 964 and Peru. To reward him for his be- American soldiers, and about 500 Span- nevolent labors, his King appointed him ish. The Americans lost, in killed, Capt. bishop of Cuzco, a rich see; he declined Allyn K. Capron and fourteen men, and it, but accepted that of Chiapa, in Mex- had six officers and forty-six men wound- ico. The Spaniards were offended by his ed. The Spanish casualties were nine /eal in behalf of the Indians, and an offi- killed and twenty-seven wounded, cer of the Spanish Court undertook to Lathrop, GEORGE PARSONS, author; justify the conduct of the Spaniards born near Honolulu, Hawaii, Aug. 25, towards the natives. Las Casas, in self- 1851; son of Dr. George A. Lathrop, then defence, wrote a work upon the natives, United States consul in that city. He which contained many particulars of the was educated in private schools in New cruelties of the Spanish colonists. It was York City, and in Dresden, Germany; translated into several European Ian- began his literary career when twenty guages, and increased the hostilities of years of age; and continued at it with the colonists and offended the Church, indefatigable energy till the close of his He returned to Spain in 1551, after about life. He excelled both in poetry and fifty years of benevolent missionary labor, prose, and was a critic of high merit in and passed the remainder of his days in art and literature. He was also promi- a convent at Valladolid. There he com- nent as an editorial writer. He married pleted his General History of the Indies, Rose, a daughter of Nathaniel Hawthorne, published in 1875, and several other in 1871. His publications include A
325
LATHBOP— LA TOTJR
Study of Hawthorne; In the Distance; hand, and enthusiasm on the other, but
Rose and Roof • tree Poems; Newport; were tolerant towards those who dis-
Spanish Vistas; Behind Time; Libretto sen ted from them. They were, in fact,
of the Scarlet Letter; A Story of Courage, Low Churchmen with Arminian princi-
etc. He also edited the standard edition pies. These principles had penetrated
of Nathaniel Hawthorne's works. At dif- Massachusetts at the beginning of the
ferent times he was assistant editor of eighteenth century, as evinced by the or-
the Atlantic Monthly and the Boston ganization of the Brattle Street Church
Courier; and editor of the Providence in Boston. Their practice of what was
Visitor. He died in New York City, denominated the " half-way covenant " —
April 19, 1808. of admitting to the holy communion all
Lathrop, or Lothrop, JOHN, clergyman; persons not immoral in their lives; in-,
born in Norwich, Conn., May 17, 1740; deed, to all the privileges of church-mem-
graduated at Princeton College in 1763; borship — shocked the Mathers and others;
became pastor of the Old North Church and when, presently, Harvard College
in Boston, in 1768. At the beginning of passed under the control of the new party,
the Revolutionary War his church was theocracy in New England expired, and
demolished by the British. He then be- the absolute reign of theological rule was
came the assistant of Dr. Ebenezer Pern- at an end. The result on the intellectual
berton in the New Brick Church of Bos- history of New England was important,
ton, and when the latter died, in 1779, Some Independents attempted to estab-
he was chosen pastor of the united con- lish a Latitudinarian church at Wey-
gregations. He was the author of a Bio- mouth in 1639. The theocratic govern-
graphical Memoir of the Rev. John Lo- ment of Boston, zealous for the preser-
throp; and Compendious History of the vation of the purity of the faith, prompt-
Late War. He died in Boston, Mass., ly suppressed this movement. The in-
Jan. 4, 1816. tended pastor (Lenthall) was forced to
Lathrop, ROSE HAWTHORNE, author and make a humble apology, and soon found
philanthropist; born in Lenox, Mass., it expedient to take refuge in Rhode Isl-
May 20, 1851; daughter of Nathaniel and. Several laymen who had been ac-
Hawthorne, She received a common tive in the matter were heavily fined; one
school education, and, after her marriage was whipped, and one was disfranchised, to George Parsons Lathrop, became great- La Tour, CHARLES, proprietary gov-
ly interested in the condition of the poor ernor. When Acadia, or Nova Scotia,
of New York, and particularly destitute and was returned to the French (1632), it
diseased women who were unable to gain an was apportioned into provinces, under
entrance into any hospital. She established proprietary governors. To Razille, com-
a hospital for incurable cancer patients ex- mander-in-chief, was granted the southern
clusively, and has carried it on successfully, portion of the peninsula, and one of his
Her publications include Memories of Haw- lieutenants was Charles La Tour, to
thorne; A Story of Courage; etc. whom was assigned a large portion of the
Latiiner, ASBURY CHURCHILL, legis- territory. He and Seigneur D'Aulnay lator; born near Lowndesville, Abbeville Charissy (another lieutenant), who con- county, S. C., July 31, 1851; received a trolled a section extending westward to common-school education; removed to Bel- the Kennebec River, were both engaged ton, S. C., in 1880, and engaged in farm- in trade, and bitter quarrels arose be- ing. He was a member of Congress in tween them, on account of mutual (al- 1893-1903; and a Democratic United leged) infringements of rights. After the States Senator in 1903-09. death of Razille", D'Aulnay, an unscrupu-
Latitudinarians, a school of divines lous man, attempted to assume control
that sprang up among Protestants tow- of the whole country. He was a Roman
ards the close of the sixteenth century, Catholic; La Tour was a Protestant,
who attempted the delicate task of recon- Through the powerful influence at Court
ciling reason with revelation. They re- of Cardinal Richelieu, the King revoked
jected the authority of tradition. They the commission of La Tour, and ordered
declared against superstition on the one his arrest. The latter denied the
326
LA TOUR— LATROBE
tions of D'Aulnay, and refused to submit his men were absent from his fort, again
to arrest. With 500 men in vessels, besieged it. Madame La Tour determined
D'Aulnay appeared off the mouth of the to hold it to the last extremity. For
St. John River, in the spring of 1643, and three days the assailants were kept at bay.
blockaded La Tour in his fortified trad- On Easter Sunday a treacherous Swiss
ing-house. A ship was daily expected sentinel allowed the assailants to enter
from Rochelle, with a company of 140 the outer works. The brave woman rushed
emigrants, and might fall into the power to the ramparts with her handful of
of the blockading squadron. La Tour soldiers, and would have repulsed the be-
managed to give the vessel intimations siegers had not D'Aulnay, fearing the dis-
of danger, and under cover of night he grace of another defeat at the hands of a
and his wife were conveyed on board of woman, offered her honorable terms of
her, and sailed for Boston, to seek the aid capitulation.
of the colony of Massachusetts in defence Anxious to save the lives of her little of their rights. La Tour was permitted garrison, Madame La Tour yielded, when by Governor Winthrop to fit out a small the perfidious D'Aulnay violated his sol- naval and military force at Boston. He emn pledge. He caused every man of the chartered five vessels, mounting forty garrison to be hanged save one, whom he pieces of cannon, and procured eighty vol- made the executioner of his comrades, unteers for the land service and fifty The ruffians compelled the twice-betrayed sailors. When the armament appeared, Madame La Tour to witness these execu- D'Aulnay raised the blockade, ^ind sought tions, with a rope around her own neck, refuge under the guns of his own fort D'Aulnay pillaged the fort of all the at Port Royal, where two of his vessels property, amounting to $50,000, and re- were wrecked. La Tour would have capt- treated to Port Royal. La Tour was a ured that stronghold, had not the New ruined man, and wandered in exile on the Englanders left him before their term of shores of Newfoundland and in the wilds service had expired. around the southern shores of Hudson D'Aulnay sent a protest to Winthrop Bay. These disasters broke the -heart of against this violation of neutrality, and his brave wife, and she died. Retributive a copy of the order for La Tour's arrest, justice brought about changes in favor of A treaty of peace was concluded in 1644. La Tour. Four years after his property Meanwhile the intrepid Madame La Tour was wasted, D'Aulnay died in debt and was in England obtaining supplies for her disgrace. La Tour now came back from husband's fort. On her return, she was the wilderness, vindicated his character landed at Boston instead of the St. John, before his sovereign, was made lieutenant- as agreed upon. She brought action against governor of Acadia, and again recovered the captain of the vessel, and recovered his fort at St. John. He married the $10,000 damages, with which she pur- widow of his rival, and inherited his chased supplies and munitions of war for shattered estate, and prosperity once more the fort. It was put in a condition for a smiled upon the Huguenot; for his claim vigorous defence. During the temporary to extensive territorial rights in Acadia, absence of her husband, D'Aulnay laid by virtue of Sir William Alexander's siege to it. Madame La Tour conducted grant to his father, was recognized in an effective defence, attacking and dis- 1656. He soon afterwards died. Acadia abling a frigate and killing or wounding had then passed once more into the hands thirty - three of the assailants. The of the English.
baffled D'Aulnay was compelled to retire, Latrobe, JOHN HAZLEIIURST BONEVAL,
greatly mortified. La Tour, meanwhile, lawyer; born in Philadelphia, Pa., May 4,
continued to receive stores and munitions 1803; was admitted to the bar in 1825
from New England, notwithstanding the and practised for more than sixty years,
treaty of neutrality. In reprisal, D'Aul- He became identified with the American
nay seized and confiscated a Boston vessel, Colonization Society in 1824, and was
and this source of supply for La Tour deeply interested in the work of that body
was cut off. In the spring of 1647 D'Aul- for many years. With General Harper
nay, hearing that La Tour and most of he drew up the first map of Liberia, and
327
LATTER-DAY SAINTS— LAURENS
was largely instrumental in securing the ter of General McDougall, on whose staff establishment of the Maryland colony in he served. He was also in Washington's that country. He is also known through military family. He was judge-advocate the invention of the famous " Baltimore at the court of inquiry in Major Andre's heater," which came into general use in case; was a member of Congress in 1785- the United States. His publications in- 86; State Senator in 1789; and member elude The Capitol and Washington at the of the Congress from 1789 to 1793. He Beginning of the Present Century (an was also judge of the United States dis- address) ; Scott's Infantry and Rifle Tac- trict court of New York from 1794 to tics; Picture of Baltimore; History of 1796, and of the United States Supreme Mason and Dixon's Line; History of Court from 1796 to 1800. He died in Maryland in Liberia; Reminiscences of New York in November, 1810. West Point in 1818 to 1822, etc. He died Laurens, HENRY, statesman; born in in Baltimore, Md., Sept. 11, 1891. Charleston, S. C., in 1724; was of Hugue-
Latter-Day Saints. See MORMONS. not descent, and was educated in London
Laudonniere, RENE GOULAINE DE, colo- for mercantile business, in which he ac- nist; born in France; first came to Amer- quired a large fortune. He opposed Brit- ica in 1562 with the Huguenot colony ish aggressions with speech and in writ- under Ribault. In the spring of 1564 he ing, and pamphlets which he published was sent by Coligni with three ships to displayed remarkable legal ability. He assist the first colony, but finding the Ribault settlement abandoned, went to Florida and built Fort Caroline on the St. Johns River. In the onslaught made upon the French colony by the Spaniards, Sept. 21, 1565, Laudonniere escaped. He wrote a history of the Florida enterprise, and died in France after 1586.
Laughlin, JAMES LAURENCE, political economist; born in Deerfield, O., April 2, 1850; graduated at Harvard Univer- sity in 1873; was an instructor in Hop- kinson's Classical School, Boston, in 1873- 78; instructor of political economy in Harvard in 1878-83; then assistant pro- fessor of that study there; professor of the same in Cornell University in 1890- 92; in the latter year became head Pro- fessor of Political Economy in the Univer- sity of Chicago. In 1894-95 he prepared a scheme of monetary reform for the gov- ernment of San Domingo, which later HENRY LAUREXS. adopted it. He was a member of the
monetary commission appointed in 1897 was engaged in a military campaign by the Indianapolis Monetary Conference, against the Cherokees. In 1770 he retired He is the author of Mill's Political from business, and went to Europe the Economy Abridged and Added To; Study next year to superintend the education of of Political Economy; History of Bimetal- his sons; and in England he did what he lism in the United States; Facts About could to persuade the government to be Money; and Elements of Political Econ- just towards the Americans. On his ar- omy. He is the editor of the Journal of rival at Charleston, late in 1774, he was Political Economy. chosen president of the Provincial Con-
Laurance, JOHN, jurist; born in Corn- gress and of the council of safety. In wall, England, in 1750; came to New 1776 he was sent as a delegate to Con- York in 1767, where he was admitted to gress, and was president of that body for the bar in 1772, and married the daugh- a little more than a year from Nov. 1,
328
LAUBENS— LAUZUN
1777. Receiving the appointment of min- lenged Gen. Charles Lee for speaking dis-
ister to Holland in 1779, he sailed in the paragingly of the chief. They fought, and
Congress packet Mercury, and on Sept. 3, he severely wounded Lee. In the battles
1780, she was captured by the frigate at the Brandy wine and Germantown Lau- Vesta off the banks of Newfoundland, rens was particularly distinguished; and Laurens cast his papers overboard, but afterwards, at Savannah and at Charles- they were recovered by a sailor, and the ton and Yorktown, he performed prodigies minister was taken to London. After an of valor. At the latter place he was con- examination before the privy council spicuous at the storming of a battery, Laurens was committed to the Tower on and was the first to enter it and receive a charge of high treason, where he was the sword of the commander. For months kept in close confinement more than a his indefatigable activity caused the con- year. He was cruelly deprived of pen, finement of the British in Charleston; and ink, and paper, and the converse of finally, at the very close of the struggle, friends. Twice he was approached with he too carelessly exposed himself in a offers of pardon and liberty if he would trifling skirmish near the Combahee, S. C., serve the ministry, and each time the and was slain, Aug. 27, 1782. In the offer was indignantly rejected by him. autumn of 1780, when the finances of He was finally released, and at the re- the United States were exhausted, he quest of Lord Shelburne he went to was sent to France to solicit a loan. France, to assist in negotiations then While earnestly pressing his suit with making for peace. Among his papers re- Vergennes, the French minister, one covered from the sea was a plan for a day, that gentleman said that the King treaty with Holland; also several letters had every disposition to favor the which disclosed the existing friendship of United States. This patronizing expres- the States-General for the Americans, sion kindled the indignation of the young The British ministry were irritated by diplomatist, and he replied, with em- these documents and the subsequent re- phasis, "Favor, sir! The respect which fusal of Holland to disclaim the act of I owe to my country will not admit the Van Berkel, and Great Britain declared term. Say that the obligation is mutual, war against that republic. In December, and I will acknowledge it. But, as the
1781, Laurens was appointed one of the last argument I shall offer to your excel- commissioners to negotiate for peace with lency, the sword which I now wear in de- Great Britain. In November, 1782, he fence of France as well as my own coun- signed a preliminary treaty at Paris, with try, unless the succor I solicit is imme- Franklin and Jay, when he returned home, diately accorded,! may be compelled, with- and passed the remainder of his life in in a short time, to draw against France agricultural pursuits. He died in Charles- as a British subject." This had the de- ton, Dec. 8, 1792, and, in accordance with sired effect, for France dreaded the sub- an injunction in his will, his body was jugation of the colonies, or a reconcilia- wrapped in cloths and burned — the first tion with the mother-country. Present- act of cremation in the United States. ly a subsidy of $1,200,000, and a further
Laurens, JOHN, military officer; born sum as a loan, were granted. The French
in Charleston, S. C., in 1753; son of the minister also gave a guarantee for a
preceding. Liberally educated in Eng- Dutch loan of about $2,000,000.
land, he returned to his native State just Lauzun, ARMAND Louis DE GOUTANT,
as the Revolutionary War was kindling Due DE, military officer; born in Paris,
(1775), when he entered the army as an April 15, 1747; had led an expedition
aide to Washington, and frequently acted successfully against Senegal and Gambia
as secretary. Expert in the French and in 1779, and came to America with Rocham-
German languages, he was Washington's beau in 1780, in command of a force known
chief medium of communication with the as " Lauzun's Legion/' with which he took
foreign officers in the service. He was a part in the siege of Yorktown. Returning
patriotic and brave soldier under all cir- to France, he became a deputy of the
cumstances, and was devoted to the com- nobles in the States-General, and in 1792
mander-in-chief. On one occasion he chal- was general-in-chief of the Army of the
329
LAW— LAWRENCE
Rhine. In 1793 he commanded the Army inary Adviser; Text-Book of Veterinary of the Coasts of Rochelle. He did good Medicine, etc.
service for his employers in the French Law, JOHN, financier; born in Edin- burgh, Scotland, in April, 1671. With others, he established, in Paris, the Banque Generale, in May, 1716. Notes were accepted in payment for taxes, and they even commanded a premium over specie. About the same time he secured control of the French territory in Amer- ica called Louisiana. In 1717 the Com- pagnie d'Occident was incorporated for the purposes of trade and colonization. This enterprise became known as " The Mississippi Scheme." For two or three years the Compagnie des Indes greatly prospered, and Law became a man of wide power. On Jan. 5, 1720, he was appointed comptroller-general of finances, and in the following month the bank and company were combined. The over-issue of paper money, however, and the hostility of the government produced a disaster, and in May, 1720, the company fell to pieces. The property of Law was confiscated, and he was forced to leave France. In De- cember of the same year he was offered the control of Russia's finances, but he refused to accept. In 1721-25 he lived in England, and then went to Venice, where he died in poverty, May 21, 1729.
Lawrence, ABBOTT, diplomatist; born in Groton, Mass., Dec. 16, 1792; brother of Amos Lawrence; was apprenticed to his brother, a merchant and importer of Bos- Revolution; but when he persistently re- ton; associated with him in introducing quested leave to resign his commission cotton manufacture in New England, es- the irritated leaders sent him to the pecially in Lowell, in 1830; member of scaffold, where he was beheaded, Dec. 31, Congress in 1834-36 and 1839-40; ap- 1793. pointed a special commissioner to Great
Law, JAMES, veterinary surgeon; born Britain to settle the northeastern boun- in Edinburgh, Scotland, Feb. 13, 1838; dary question in 1842, and negotiated with was educated at the veterinary schools' Lord Ashburton a satisfactory agreement; of Edinburgh, Paris, Lyons, and London; president of the company which built the was Professor of Anatomy and Materia manufacturing city of Lawrence, Mass.; Medica in the Edinburgh New Veterinary minister to Great Britain in 1849-52; and College in 1860-65; Professor of Veter- founder of the Lawrence Scientific School inary Science in Cornell University in of Harvard College. He died in Boston, 1868-96; and, later, became Director of Mass., Aug. 18, 1855.
the New York State Veterinary College Lawrence, EUGENE, author; born in and Professor of the Principles and Prac- New York City, Oct. 10, 1823; graduated tice of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary at the New York University, and became Sanitary Science, and Veterinary Thera- a lawyer. Subsequently he relinquished peutics at Cornell. His publications in- law and devoted himself to literature, elude General and Descriptive Anatomy He published Lives of British Historians; of Domestic Animals; Farmers' Veter- Historical Studies; The Mystery of Co-
330
LOUIS DE GOUTANT LAUZCN.
LAWRENCE
Iambus; Columbus and his Contempora- ries, etc. He died in Augusta, Me., March 15, 1894.
Lawrence, JAMES, naval officer; born in Burlington, N. J., Oct. 1, 1781. His
JAMES LAWRENCE.
father was a lawyer and distinguished loyalist during the Revolutionary War. James entered the navy as a midshipman, Sept. 4, 1798, and in the spring of 1802 was promoted to lieutenant. In the schooner Enterprise, he took a distinguished part in the destruction of the frigate PHILADELPHIA (q. v.) , in the harbor of Tripoli. In 1810 he was promoted to master-commander; and on Feb. 24, 1813, the Hornet, of which he was commander, fought and conquered the British Peacock (see HORNET), which sank before all her" prisoners could be taken out of her. In March, 1813, he was commissioned captain, and took command of the frigate Chesapeake in May. On June 1 the Chesapeake fought the frigate Shannon, and was beaten. Captain Lawrence was mortally wounded, and died June 6. His remains were con- veyed to New York, where a public funeral was held. The remains were then buried in Trinity Church bury- ing-ground, and soon after the war
the corporation of New York erected an elegant marble monument over the grave. It became dilapidated in time, and in 1847 the corporation of Trinity Church caused the remains to be removed to a place near the southeast corner of the church, a few feet from Broadway, and a mausoleum of brown freestone to be erected there in commemoration of both Lawrence and his lieutenant, Ludlow. The chapeau, coat, and sword of Captain Law- rence are now in the possession of the New Jersey Historical Society.
Through the influence of the peace fac- tion in Massachusetts, the Senate of that State passed a resolution, June 15, 1813, which Mr. Grundy denounced as " moral treason." The legislature had passed resolutions of thanks to Hull, Decatur, and Bainbridge, and a proposition was submitted for a similar vote to Lawrence (then dead) for his gallantry in the capt- ure of the Peacock. A committee of the Senate, of which Josiah Quincy was chair- man, reported adversely to it, and a pre- amble and resolution was accordingly adopted. The former declared that simi- lar attentions already given to military and naval officers engaged in a like ser- vice had " given great discontent to many of the good people of the commonwealth, it being considered by them as an en- couragement and excitement of the con-
THE LAWKKXCE AND I.tTDI.OW MONTMKXT.
331
LAWRENCE— LAWTON
tinuance of the present unjust, unneces- Commentary on the Elements of Interna*
sary, and iniquitous war." The resolu- tional Law; Study of International Law
tion was as follows: "Resolved, as the on Marriage; The Treaty of Washington;
sense of the State of Massachusetts, that, The Indirect Claims of the United States
in a war like the present, waged without under the Treaty of Washington of May
justifiable cause, and prosecuted in a man- 8, 1871, as Submitted to the Tribunal of
ner which indicates that conquest and am- Arbitration at Geneva; Belligerent and
bition are its real motives, it is not be- Sovereign Rights as Regards Neutrals
coming a moral and religious people to during the War of Secession, etc. He died
express any approbation of military or in New York City, March 26, 1881.
naval exploits which are not immediately Lawson, JOHN, historian; born in
connected with a defence of our sea-coast Scotland; came to America with the ap-
and soil." pointment of surveyor - general for North
Lawrence, SACKING OF. See KANSAS. Carolina. He was the author of A New
Lawrence, WILLIAM, jurist; born in Voyage to Carolina, containing the Exact
Mount Pleasant, O., June 26, 1819; grad- Description and Natural History of that
uated at Franklin College in 1838, and Country; and a Journal of a Thousand
at the Cincinnati Law School in 1840, Miles travelled through Several Nations
and in the latter year was admitted of Indians, etc. He was killed by the
to the bar. In 1845-46 he was prosecut- Indians on Neuse River, N. C., in 1712.
ing attorney for Logan county, and in Lawson, THOMAS, military officer ; born
1846-54 a member of the legislature. In in Virginia in 1781; became surgeon's
1857-64 he was judge of the court of com- mate in the United States army in 1811;
mon pleas; in 1865-77 a Representative in was made surgeon-general, with the rank
Congress; and in 1880-85 first comptroller of colonel, in 1836. In the War with
of the United States Treasury. His publi- Mexico he was chief medical officer of
cations include Ohio Reports, Vol. XX.; the United States army, and was brevetted
Law of Claims Against Governments; brigadier-general in 1848 for distinguish -
Organization of the Treasury Depart- ed services. He published Report on SicJc-
mcnt; Law of Impeachable Crimes; ness and Mortality, United States Army,
Causes of the Rebellion; Life and Ser- 1819-39, etc. He died in Norfolk, Va.,
vices of John Sherman; Law of Religious May 15, 1861.
Societies; Memorials to Congress for Lawton, HENRY WARE, military officer;
Wool Tariff, etc. born in Manhattan, O., March 17, 1843;
Lawrence, WILLIAM BEACH, jurist; was brought up in Indiana; and at the
born in New York City, Oct. 23, 1800; beginning of the Civil War, before he was
graduated at Columbia College in 1818, eighteen years old, he entered the army
and was admitted to the bar in 1823. as sergeant of the 9th Indiana Infantry.
He greatly distinguished himself by his In August following he was commissioned
masterful treatment of several important first lieutenant in the 30th Indiana In-
points of international law in 1873, when fantry; in May, 1862, was promoted to
he appeared before the American and captain; in November, 1865, to lieuten-
British international tribunal in Wash- ant-colonel; and on March 13, 1865, was
ington in the Circassian case. In brevetted colonel for distinguished services
securing a reversal of the United States in the field, especially before Atlanta. He
Supreme Court's decision in favor of was commissioned second lieutenant in
his clients, he accomplished what no other the 41st United States Infantry, July 28,
lawyer had ever done in the history of the 1866; promoted first lieutenant, July 31,
country. His publications include The 1867; transferred to the 24th United
History of Louisiana; Bank of the United States Infantry, Nov. 11, 1869; transferred
States; Institutions of the United States; to the 4th United States Cavalry, Jan. 1,
Inquiry into the Causes of the Public Dis- 1871; promoted captain, March 20, 1879;
tress; History of the Negotiations in Ref- major and inspector-general, Sept. 17,
erence to the Eastern and Northeastern 1888; and lieutenant-colonel in the same
Boundaries of the United States; Bio- department, Feb. 12, 1889. He greatly
graphical Memoir of Albert Gallatin; distinguished himself in several of the
332
LAWTON, HENRY WARE
severest Indian campaigns in the history nient, with the view of capturing Agui- of the army, crowning his many signal naldo, marching along the road between achievements with the capture of Geroni- Bacoor and Imus, and so northward. He mo and his band of hostile Apaches in everywhere drove the enemy before him 188G. After the declaration of war and" captured a number of towns. On against Spain in 1898, he was appointed Oct. 19 he reached Arayat, and shortly a brigadier-general of volunteers, May 4, after made his headquarters at Cabana- and major-general, July 8 following; and tuan, from which place he became active in the regular army was promoted colonel in scattering the insurgents through the and inspector - general, July 7 of that surrounding country. During November year. In the early part of the his movements in the pursuit of Aguinal- campaign against Santiago he had do were remarkably rapid, and surprised charge of the forward movement of veteran soldiers, as military operations the American troops, and further dis- were deemed impossible during the long tinguished himself by the capture of EL rainy season. On Dec. 1 he was at Tayng, CANEY (q. v.) after a notable engagement and on the 16th left Manila for San with the Spaniards, for which he was Mateo. Here, during an engagement on given the two stars. On Jan. 19, 1899, he the 19th, he was on the firing-line. Being
6 feet 3 inches in height, and attired in full uniform, he was a conspicuous target for the insurgent sharp-shooters. Hardly had his staff officers warned him of his danger when he suddenly cried, " I am shot," and fell dead.' In the early part of 1900 his remains were brought back to his native country, and buried with distin- guished official honors. The sympathies of the public were so strong for his widow and children that a movement was started to raise funds to provide for their future, and within a very few weeks about $100,- 000 was secured.
Soon after his death an extract from a private letter was published, in which ap- peared the following sentence: "If I am shot by a Filipino bullet, it might as well HENRY WARE LAWTON. come from one of my own men." The pe-
culiar phrase attracted considerable at-
was sent to the Philippines, and soon tention, especially in the early part of the after his arrival at Manila he began Presidential campaign of 1900. The letter active operations against the Filipino in- was written in Manila on Oct. 6, 1899, to surgents, and met with remarkable sue- John Barrett, ex-minister to Siam, then in cess by adopting the tactics he had fol- New York City. The following extract lowed in his campaigns against the Ind- from the letter gives the full setting of ians. On April 10 he captured Santa the mysterious sentence above quoted, Cruz, a Filipino stronghold. His next and affords another evidence that the con- erigagement was at San Rafael, where a tinuation of the insurrection was due to large number of the insurgents were hid- direct encouragement from the United den on all sides in the jungle. Had it States:
not been for his experience in Indian war- " I agree with you that mistakes have fare the Americans would have suffered been made here, but I would to God that great loss. On May 15 he captured San the whole truth of this whole Philippine Isidro, which at that time was the in- situation could be known by every one in surgent capital. On June 1 he was given America. I wish the people could know the command of the defences of Manila, it as I know it, and as you know it. I and in October began an offensive move- agree that if the real facts in connection
333
LAY— LEAR
with this story, inspiration and condi- falo, N. Y., Jan. 14, 1832; joined the
tions of this insurrection and the hostile United States navy in July, 1862, as a
ruptures, local and eternal, such as the second assistant engineer. He invented
Katipunan revolutionary society and the torpedo with which LIEUT. WILLIAM
juntas that now encourage the enemy, B. CUSHING (q. v.) sank the Confederate
as well as the actual possibilities of these ram Albemarle. In 1867 he designed the
Philippine Islands and people and their Lay submarine torpedo-boat, which was
relation to this great East, which you later purchased by the United States gov-
have set forth so ably, could be under- ernment. He died in New York City,
stood at home in America, we would hear April 17, 1899.
no more political talk of unjust shoot- Leach, ABBY, educator; born in Brock- ing of government, into the Filipinos or ton, Mass., May 28, 1855; was educated in of unwise threats of hauling down our Boston and at Leipsic; took private flag in the Philippines. courses with different professors at Har-
" You are right. Some of us have modi- vard University; was instrumental in the fied our views since we first came, and if organization of Radcliffe College; and be- these so-called anti-imperialists of Bos- came Professor of Greek in Vassar Col- ton would honestly ascertain the truth on lege. She is vice-president of the Amer- the ground here, and not in distant Amer- ican Philological Association, and a mem- ica, they, whom I dislike to believe to be ber of the Archseological Society; and other than honest men misinformed, of the committee of management of the would be convinced of the error of their American school at Athens, Greece, exaggerated statements and conclusions Leach, FRANK WILLING, lawyer; born and of the cruel and unfortunate effect of in Cape May, N. J., Aug. 25, 1855; was their publications here. admitted to the bar in Philadelphia in
" It is kind of you to caution me about 1877. He is the author of several chap- exposure under fire, but if I am shot by ters in Scharff and Westcott's History of a Filipino bullet, it might as well come Philadelphia; and The Signers of the Dec- from one of my own men. These are laration of Independence: their Ancestors strong words, and yet I say them because and Descendants.
I know from my own observation, con- Lead, a valuable mineral found in vari-
firmed by the stories of captured Filipino ous parts of the world and in the United
prisoners, that the continuance of fighting States in Colorado, Idaho, Utah, Missouri,
is chiefly due to reports that are sent Kansas, Wisconsin, Montana, and Illinois,
out from America and circulated among In the calendar year 1899 the total pro-,
those ignorant natives by the leaders, duction in the United States was 304,392
who know better." short tons, and the net production of re-
Lay, BENJAMIN, philanthropist; born fined lead was 210,500 short tons. The in Colchester, England, in 1681 ; came to following is a brief history of the lead in- the United States and settled in Abing- dustry in the United States: It was first ton, Pa. He was one of the first anti- discovered in the Mississippi Valley by slavery advocates. In order to express Le Sueur in 1700-1, but not mined till his feeling against the owners of slaves, 1788, when Julien Dubuque staked a claim he once filled a bladder with blood and near the present site of Dubuque, la. carried it into a Quaker meeting, where The mining of lead, however, did not be- in the presence of the worshippers he come general till 1826-27, and all the lo- pierced it with a sword which he had calities where the mineral had been dis- concealed under his coat, and, sprinkling covered were not thrown open for sale the blood on the persons nearest to him, till 1847.
cried, " Thus shall God shed the blood League, UNION. See UNION LEAGUE.
of those who enslave their fellow-creat- Lear, TOBIAS, diplomatist; born in
ures." He was the author of All Slave- Portsmouth, N. H., Sept. 19, 1762;
keepers, that Keep the Innocent in Bond- graduated at Harvard in 1783, and be-
age, Apostates. He died in Abington, came private secretary to Washington in
Pa., in 1760. 1785. The latter remembered Mr. Lear
Lay, JOHN L., inventor; born in Buf- liberally in his will. In 1801 he was
334
LEARNED— LEAVITT
American consul-general in Santo Domin- erected prior to the Civil War, and the go, and from 1804 to 1812 held the same war college, or school of application, was office at Algiers. Mr. Lear was an ac- established by an order issued by Gen- countant in the War Department at the eral Sherman in 1881. The original pur- time of his death, in Washington, D. C., pose of the school was to give a course Oct. 10, 1816. of instruction in military matters to
Learned, EBENEZER, military officer; officers of the army not graduates of the born in 1721 ; was a captain in the French United States Military Academy. Sub- and Indian War, and hastened to Cam- sequently, the scope of the school was bridge with militia on the day after the gradually enlarged, and its present work afl'air at Lexington. His health failed, is based on general orders issued in 1888. and he wished to retire from the service The curriculum includes the following in 1776, but he was retained; and in the subjects: Tactics, strategy, surveying, battle of Stillwater he commanded the military topography, field fortification, centre of the American army, with the field engineering, constitutional law, in- rank of brigadier-general. His health ternational law, military law, photog- still declining, he retired from the army raphy, building superintendence, signal- March 24, 1778. He was then with the ling, ordnance and gunnery, military hy- army at Valley Forge. In 1795 his name giene, and the drill regulations of in- was placed on the pension list. He died fantry, cavalry, and artillery. The in Oxford, Mass., April 1, 1801. young officers ordered to school for in-
Leary, RICHARD PHILLIPS, naval offi- struction are selected from among the cer; born in Baltimore, Md. ; gradu- lieutenants of infantry and cavalry, and ated at the United States Naval Acad- the number was originally limited to one emy in 1860; became ensign in October, from each regiment, but this proportion 1863; master in May, 1866; lieutenant was later increased. The commandant is in February, 1867; lieutenant-commander a colonel, and majors, captains, and lieu- in March, 1868; commander in June, tenants who are graduates of West Point 1882; and captain in April, 1897. During constitute his staff of instruction. The 1863-65 he served on the blockading course is of two years' duration, and, for squadron off* Charleston, S. C. In 1888 convenience, the school is divided into six he was senior naval officer at Samoa departments, comprising the foregoing during the revolution in which the branches of study. Connected with the Tamasese government was overthrown, school is an amusement hall and a post In recognition of his meritorious services mess, or club building, where most of the at that time, the Maryland legislature students live. Prior to June 30, 1895, voted him a gold medal. In 1897-98 he the United States government maintained was in command of the cruiser San Fran- a military prison at the fort, but in that cisco, which convoyed to the United year that feature was changed to the States the New Orleans, the American United States penitentiary. Fort Leaven- name of one of two vessels built for the worth has been a point both of military Brazilian government in London and pur- importance and of historical interest for chased by the United States immediately many years. In the present days of peace before the declaration of war against it is most widely known for the school for Spain. He was the first American gov- officers maintained there, ernor of the island of Guam. He was re- Leavitt, JOSHUA, editor; born in lieved of this post at his own request, in Heath, Mass., Sept. 8, 1794; graduated at April, 1900. He died in Chelsea, Mass., Yale in 1814; admitted to the bar in Dec. 27, 1901. See AGANA; GUAM. 1819, but shortly abandoned his profession
Leavenworth, FORT, a military reser- to study theology at the Yale Divinity
vation and garrisoned post in the suburbs School. He was the editor of the Sailor's
of Leavenworth, Kan.; formerly noted as Magazine, New York, and was the editor
one of the largest interior fortifications and proprietor of the Evangelist, a re-
ot' the country, and latterly as the seat ligious newspaper which he established in
of an army officers' war college and of a 1831. Mr. Leavitt was an ardent aboli-
United States penitentiary. The fort was tionist and temperance advocate. He was
335
LECHFORD— LEE
one of the founders of the New York Anti- his last voyage around the world as cor- Slavery Society, and was the editor of the poral of marines. He vainly tried to set Emancipator and of the Chronicle, the on foot a trading expedition to the north- first daily anti-slavery paper. In 1848 he west coast of North America, and went became a part proprietor and editor of to Europe in 1784. He started on a jour- the Independent. He died in Brooklyn, ney through the northern part of Europe N. Y., Jan. 16, 1873. and Asia and across Bering Strait to
Lechford, THOMAS, author; born in America in 1786-87. He walked around
London, about 1590; removed to Boston the whole coast of the Gulf of Bothnia,
in 1638; was the first lawyer to practise reaching St. Petersburg in the latter part
in New England; returned to England in of March, 1787, without money, shoes, or
1641. He was the author of Plaine stockings. He had journeyed 1,400 miles
Dealing, or News from New England, and on foot in less than seven weeks. Thence
New England's Advice to Old England, he went to Siberia, but was arrested at
He died in England, probably about 1644. Irkutsk in February, 1788, conducted to
Lecompton Constitution, THE. See the frontiers of Poland, and there dis-
KANSAS; YANCEY, W. L. missed with an intimation that if he re-
Le Conte, JOSEPH, geologist; born in turned into Russia he would be hanged.
Liberty county, Ga., Feb. 26, 1823; grad- The cause of his arrest was the jealousy
uated at the University of Georgia, in of the Russian-American Trading Com-
1841, and later at the College of Physi- pany. Going back to London, Ledyard ac-
cians and Surgeons in New York City; cepted an offer to engage in the explora-
settled in Macon, Ga., to practise medi- tion of the interior of Africa. He left
cine; studied at the Lawrence Scientific England in June, 1788, and at Cairo,
School of Harvard in 1850-51; and in Egypt, was attacked by a disease which
the latter year went with Agassiz to ended his life, Jan. 17, 1789. Florida on an exploring expedition. He Lee, ANN, founder of the American
was appointed Professor of Natural Society of Shakers; born in Manchester,
Science in Oglethorpe College in 1852, and England, Feb. 29, 1736; was a cook in a
in the following year became Professor public institution when she married a
of Geology and Natural History in the blacksmith named Stanley. In 1758 she
University of Georgia. During 1857-69 he joined the Shakers in England. The so-
was Professor of Chemistry and Geology ciety had just been formed by James and
in the College of South Carolina. In Jane Wardley, Quakers. About 1770 she
1862-63 he was a chemist in the Con- began to "prophesy" against the wicked -
fedsrate laboratory for the manufacture ness of marriage as the "root of all hu-
of medicines, and in 1864-65 held a sim- man depravity," and resumed her maiden
ilar post in the nitre and mining bureau, name of Lee. She came to America with
In 1869 he was called to the chair of some followers in 1774, and in 1776 they
Natural History and Geology in the Uni- established themselves at Niskayuna, near
versity of California. Professor Le Conte Watervliet, where she was the recognized
is the author of Religion and Science; leader of the sect. Being opposed to war,
Elements of Geology; Sight: an Exposi- she was suspected of being a British
tion of the Principles of Monocular and emissary, and, being charged with high
Binocular Vision; Compend of Geology; treason, was imprisoned at Albany and
and Evolution: its Nature, its Evidences, Poughkeepsie until released by Governor
and its Relation. He died in the Yosemite Clinton in 1777, when she returned to
'Valley, Cal., July 6, 1901. Watervliet, and there her followers great-
Ledyard, JOHN, explorer; born in Gro- ly increased. During a religious revival
ton, Conn., in 1751: was educated at in New Lebanon (since in Columbia
Dartmouth College for a missionary to county, N. Y.) in 1780 many persons were
the Indians, and spent several months converted to the doctrines of Ann Lee,
among the Six Nations. Having a resist- and the now flourishing Society of Shakers
less desire for travel, he shipped at New of New Lebanon was founded. She and
London as a common sailor, and from some of her followers made missionary
England accompanied Captain Cook in tours into New England with considerable
330
LEE
success from 1781 to 1783, and so greatly were her spiritual gifts manifested that she was acknowledged a mother in Christ — the incarnation of the feminine essence of God. She was called " Mother Ann " and " Ann the Word." She died in Water- vliet, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1784.
Lee, ARTHUR, diplomatist; born in Stratford, Westmoreland co., Va., Dec. 20, 1740. Educated in Europe, and taking the degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1765, he began practice in Williamsburg, Va. He afterwards studied law in England, and wrote political essays that gained him the acquaintance of Dr. Johnson, Burke, and other eminent men. He was admitted to the bar in 1770, and appointed the alternative of Dr. Franklin as agent of the Massachusetts Assembly, in case of the disability or absence of the latter. For his services to that State he received 4.000 acres of land in 1784. In 1775 Dr. Lee was appointed London correspondent of Congress, and in 1776 he was one of the commissioners of Congress sent to France to negotiate for supplies and a treaty; but the ambition of Lee produced discord, and his misrepresentations caused one of the commissioners — SILAS DEANE (q. v.) — to be recalled. Lee was subsequently a member of Congress, of the Virginia As- sembly, a commissioner to treat with the Northern Indians, and a member of the treasury board from 1-785 to 1789, when he retired from public life. He was patri- otic, but of a jealous and melancholy tem- perament. He died in Urbana, Middlesex co., Va., Dec. 12, 1792.
Lee, CHARLES, military officer; born in Dernhall, Cheshire, England, in 1731; was the son of a British officer, and entered the army at a very early age, having held a commission when eleven years old. At twenty he was a lieutenant in the 44th Regiment, and accompanied the troops sent to America in 1754, where he saw considerable service during the ensuing six years. His regiment participated in the battle on the Monongahela, where Braddock was defeated. That was Lee's first practical experience of warfare. He served in the campaigns from 1756 to the conquest of Canada in 1760, when he re- turned to England with a captain's com- mission, and was promoted to major of the 103d Regiment, which was disbanded
in 1763, and Lee continued a major on half-pay until 1772, when he was made fieutenant-colonel on half-pay. He had served with distinction in Portugal, but was not promoted in rank, probably be-
CHARLES LEE.
cause of the sharpness and volubility of his tongue concerning the shortcomings of his superior officers. On visiting the Continent after he was put on the half- pay list, he was made an aide-de-camp of King Stanislaus of Poland. He went to England in 1766, where he failed in his attempts to obtain promotion, and re- turned to Poland, where he Avas made a major-general, and afterwards served a short time in the Russian army. Finally, Lee made his way to America, where he claimed to be the author of the Letters of Junius.
He was boastful, restless, impulsive, quarrelsome, egotistical, ironical in ex- pression, and illiberal in his judgment of others. His restlessness caused the Mo- hawks, who adopted him, to give him a name signifying " boiling water." He espoused the cause of the American re- publicans, and when the Continental army was organized he was chosen second major-general under Washington, which he accepted on condition that the Congress should advance him $30,000 as indemnity for any losses he might sustain by con- fiscation of his property in England.
V. — Y
337
LEE, CHARLES
Through his boasting he became extreme- ly overrated by the Americans of all classes. He was simply an unprincipled and utterly selfish soldier of fortune. His censoriousness, and his jealousy of Wash- ington, whose position he aspired to, made him very mischievous, and finally he played the part of a traitor to the cause, without actual discovery of proof (though
always suspected) until many years after- wards (see page 340). Made a prisoner in New Jersey late in 1776, he was not ex- changed until early in 1778. His behavior at the battle of Monmouth in June of that year caused Washington to address him sharply. Offended at the words, Lee wrote a disrespectful letter to the commander- in-chief on the day after. Dissatisfied
WASHINGTON REBUKING GENERAL LEE AT THE BATTLE OF MONMODTH.
338
LEE, CHARLES
with Washington's reply, he wrote a still Lee contented himself with giving several
more disrespectful one. Lee was arrested orders for preparing for a retreat. A
and tried by court-martial for disobedi- better soldier than he commanded the
ence of orders; for having made an un- garrison. It was the brave and calm
necessary, shameful, and disorderly re- Colonel Moultrie, who was unmoved by
treat; and for disrespect to the com- the evidences of alarm in the mind of
mander-in-chicf in the two letters. He de- the boastful Lee. Had the will of the lat-
fended himself with much ability. The ter prevailed, the fort, city, and province
court acquitted him of a part of the would undoubtedly have fallen into the
charges, but found him guilty of the rest, hands of the enemy.
and sentenced him to be suspended from Lee, having received his $30,000 in- service in the army for one year. The demnity from Congress, was anxious for Congress confirmed the sentence. peace. At Annapolis, on his way north,
He then retired to his estate in Vir- he promised to use his great influence ginia, where he wrote Queries, Political in bringing about a reconciliation, and and Military, the design of which was to whenever he found willing and sym- cast a slur upon the character and mili- pathizing listeners in Pennsylvania and tary conduct of Washington. In a rude New Jersey he was free in his denuncia- cabin of one apartment and little furni- tion of the Americans for continuing the ture he lived " more like a hermit than contest. He was decidedly opposed to inde- a citizen of the world," surrounded by his pendence. At Princeton, in a communi- dogs and his books. Just as his time of cation to Congress, he proposed to that suspension had expired he heard that Con- body to authorize an offer to open a gress was about to deprive him of his negotiation with Lord Howe on his own commission, when, in a fit of anger, he terms. Finding that he could not per- wrote an abusive letter to the President, suade the Americans to submit to become and his immediate dismissal from the slaves, he performed treasonable acts with army was the consequence. Wearied of a hope of accomplishing his ends. He solitude, he visited Philadelphia in the wrote to Congress from Perth Amboy fall of 1782, with a view to making sale (Oct. 12, 1776) that Howe would not at- of his estate. There he was attacked by tack Washington, but would infallibly pro- fever, and died within five days (Oct. 2, ceed against Philadelphia; and he sought 1782), exclaiming in his last moments, to weaken the Continental army by di- " Stand by me, my brave grenadiers!" viding it, by inducing Congress to order In his will, after bequeathing his "soul Washington to send a part of his army to the Almighty and his body to the to Trenton. At that very moment Howe earth," he directed that his remains was moving against Washington. (See should not " be buried in any church or page 340. )
church-yard, or within a mile of any Pres- While the British were desolating New
byterian or Anabaptist meeting-house; Jersey (November, 1776), and Washing-
for," he said, " since I have resided in ton, with his handful of troops, was pow-
this country, I have kept so much bad erless to prevent them, Lee, with a large
company when living that I do not choose reinforcement, persistently lingered on the
to continue it when dead." He was buried "way. He had been urged by Washing-
in Christ Church-yard, Philadelphia, with ton, when the retreat from Hackensack
military honors. began, to join him, but he steadily re-
When, in June, 1776, the British were fused. Now the commander-in-chief en- about to attack Fort Sullivan, in the har- treated him to obey. Philadelphia was in bor of Charleston, Lee, who had been sent danger, and the chief wrote, " Do come on ; south to take command of troops there, your arrival, without delay, may be the went to the fort, and, after a brief in- means of saving a city." Lee continued spection, declared it not tenable for " half to persistently disobey every order of the an hour." It was " a slaughter-pen." He chief. His reputation was at its zenith, proposed to Governor Eutledge to with- The Americans were infatuated — a de- draw the garrison from the fort without lusion which, in the light of subsequent striking a blow. Rutledge refused, and history, seems very strange. He was aim-
339
LEE, CHARLES
ing at the chief command, and he did all picious circumstances. A letter which he
he dared, by insinuations and false reports, had just written to Gates contained dis-
to disparage Washington in the estima- paraging remarks on Washington's mili-
tion of the Congress and the people. With tary character. His tender treatment by
unparalleled insolence (which was not re- Howe, who at first regarded him as a de-
buked), he wrote to Dr. Rush, a member serter from the British army, was a mat-
of Congress : " Your apathy amazes me ; ter of wonder ; and when, after he had
you make me mad. Let me not talk vain- been exchanged and had rejoined the army
ly: had I the power, I could do you much at Valley Forge (1778), he was required
good, might I but dictate one week. Did to take the oath of allegiance with some
none of the Congress ever read Roman other officers, he at first refused. His per-
history?" His letters at that juncture sistence in opposing any interference with
show his predetermination to disobey or- the march of Clinton across New Jersey,
ders and act as he pleased with the troops and his extraordinary conduct on the field
which had been intrusted to him. at Monmouth, could not be explained by
On the morning of Dec. 13, 1776, Lee any reason excepting incapacity or treach-
was captured at an inn at Baskingridge, ery. Indeed, Washington was warned
N. J., where he was lodging, nearly 3 against Lee the night before that battle
miles from his army. Lee had just fin- by a Virginian captain who believed him
ished a letter to General Gates, in which to be treacherous. Three-fourths of a
he had spoken disparagingly of Washing- century after his death a document was
ton, when Colonel Harcourt, at the head found among Sir William Howe's papers
of a British scouting party, surrounded endorsed " Mr. Lee's Plan, 29th March,
the house and made him a prisoner. He 1777," in the handwriting of Henry
had gone out of the house, on hearing a Strachy, Howe's secretary. The writing
tumult, unarmed, bareheaded, in slippers, within was in Lee's own hand, and it em-
without a coat, in a blanket-cloak, his bodied a plan of operations by the British
shirt-collar open, and his linen much fleet and army which it was thought was
soiled, and gave himself up. In this best calculated to insure the subjugation
plight he was hurried, on horseback, to of the colonies. It was upon this plan
the camp of Cornwallis, at New Bruns- that Howe acted in going to the Chesa-
wick, and was sent by him to New York. peake in the summer of 1777, instead of
The conduct of General Lee at several up the Hudson River to assist Burgoyne,
periods during the war was inexplicable, and so ruined the latter general. This
He was disappointed in not being made document cast a flood of light upon the
the commander-in-chief of the Continental character and conduct of Lee during the
forces, and continually showed a censori- Revolution, and proved beyond cavil that
ous spirit towards Washington and others he was a traitor to the cause which he
which were injurious to the service. His professed to serve. This document and
abilities were greatly overrated, and later circumstantial evidence of his treason are
in the conflict there were thoughtful men given in a small volume by George H.
who regarded his profession of devotion to Moore, LL.D., entitled The Treason of
the American cause with suspicion. In Charles Lee.
1775 he corresponded with Burgoyne, his Through false pretensions, as well as old commander in Europe, while in Bos- misrepresentations and misapprehensions, ton. In the summer of 1776, when at the Americans had unbounded confidence Charleston, he tried to induce Colonel in Lee, and many were in favor of mak- Moultrie to abandon Fort Sullivan when ing him commander-in-chief of the Con- it was attacked by land and water. In tinental army at the time Washington was the autumn of that year he persistently appointed. Indeed, he expected the honor, disobeyed the orders of Washington to and was disappointed and surprised be- join the army, with a large force under cause he did not receive it. He had been his command, while it was retreating be- in military training from his boyhood, and fore Lord Cornwallis, and he was taken represented himself as well versed in the prisoner at a house far away from his science of war. He was better understood in camp, in New Jersey, under very sus- England. " From what I know of him,"
340
LEE
wrote Sir Joseph Yorke, then British min- under Ewell, in the Confederate army, ister at The Hague, " he is the worst pres- From September, 1861, to July, 1862, he ent which could be made to any army." was lieutenant-colonel and colonel of the And so he proved to the Americans. He 1st Virginia Cavalry, with which he took was selfish in the extreme. Soured against part in all the movements of the Army of his government, he had sought employ- Northern Virginia. He was then pro- mcnt anywhere as a mere military ad- moted brigadier-general, and, on Sept. 3, venturer. He was continually seeking in- 1863, major-general. From March, 1865, timate relations with British officers — until he surrendered to General Meade, at writing to Burgoyne, Sir Henry Clinton, Farmville, he commanded the whole and others — while ostensibly fighting cavalry corps of the Army of Northern against them in favor of the American Virginia. In 1886-90 he was governor of cause. Even while disobedient, quarrel- Virginia. In 1896 President Cleveland some, and inefficient, the Americans did not appointed him United States consul-gen- lose faith in him, nor suspect that in his eral at Havana, where he served till war movements during the flight of the army was declared against Spain. In May, under Washington from the Hudson to the 1898, President McKinley appointed him Delaware (1776), and in his movements a major-general of volunteers; in Decem- at the battle of Monmouth, he was seeking ber following he became governor of the to betray them. But such was the case. province of Havana; lie was appointed Lee, CHARLES, jurist; born in 1758; brigadier-general, Feb. 11, 1901; and was delegate to the Continental Congress; retired March 2, following. He died in United States Attorney - General, 1795- Washington, D. C., April 28, 1905. 1801 ; declined President Jefferson's offer Lee, FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT, signer of the of justice of the United States Supreme Declaration of Independence; born in Court. He died in Fauquier county, Va., Stratford, Westmoreland co., Va., Oct. June 24, 1815. 14, 1734; brother of Richard Henry and
Lee, FITZHUOH, military officer; born Arthur Lee. In 1765 he was a member in Clermont, Va., Nov. 19, 1835; nephew of the Virginia House of Burgesses, and of Gen. Robert E. Lee; graduated at held that post until 1772. He was in the the United States Military Academy in Continental Congress from 1775 to 1779,
and was active and efficient in framing the Articles of Confederation. He was afterwards a State Senator. He died in Richmond, Va., April 3, 1797.
Lee, HENRY, military officer; born in Leesylvania, Westmoreland co., Va., Jan. 29, 1756; graduated at Princeton in 1773. His mother was Mary Bland, the " lowland beauty," whose charms inspired Washington in his youth. He was a cap- tain in Eland's cavalry in 1776, and joined the main army in September, 1777. " Lee's Legion " was one of the most ac- tive and efficient of the cavalry corps of the Continental army, and it was Wash- ington's body-guard in the battle of Ger- mantown. In 1778 he was made a major, in independent command, first of two companies of horse, and then of three, with a small body of infantry. With 1856, and entered the army as second these he surprised the British post at lieutenant of the 2d Cavalry. In 1860 Paulus's Hook, in July, 1779. With the he was appointed instructor of cavalry at commission of lieutenant-colonel, he West Point, and in 1861 he resigned his joined General Greene in the South, and commission to become adjutant-general was active and efficient in the Southern
341
FITZHfGH LEE.
LEE, HENRY
campaigns. Soon after the battle of Eutaw Springs, Major Lee retired from the service, married, and settled at Strat- ford. He was a delegate to Congress in 1786, and advocated the adoption of the national Constitution in the Virginia
General Lee delivered the following funeral oration on Washington before the two Houses of Congress:
HENRY LEK.
convention. Lee was in the Virginia legislature; and when militia were called out to suppress the whiskey insurrec- tion, he was placed in command of them. He was in Congress at the time of Wash- ington's death, and was appointed by that body to deliver the funeral oration at Philadelphia (see below). While he was in a debtor's prison he wrote his Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department of the United States. Lee was in Balti- more at the time of the newspaper riot, in 1.814, and in his endeavors to suppress it received injuries from which he never recovered. He was much beloved by Washington for his many noble qualities; arid Greene said, " No man, in the progress of the Southern campaign, had equal merit with Lee." He died on Cum- berland Island, Ga., March 25, 1818. George Washington. — On Dec. 26, 1799,
In obedience to your will, I rise, your humble organ, with the hope of executing a part of the system of public mourning which you have been pleased to adopt, commemora- tive of the death of the most illustrious and most beloved per- sonage this country has ever pro- duced ; and which, while it trans- mits to posterity your sense of the awful event, faintly repre- sents your knowledge of the con- summate excellence you so cor- dially honor.
Desperate, indeed, is any at- tempt on earth to meet corre- spondingly this dispensation of Heaven; for, while with pious resignation we submit to the will of an all-gracious Providence, we can never cease lamenting, in our finite view of Omnipotent Wis- dom, the heart-rending privation for which our nation weeps. When the civilized world shakes to its centre; when every mo- ment gives birth to strange and momentous changes; when our peaceful quarter of the globe, exempt as it happily has been from any share in the slaughter of the human race, may yet be compelled to abandon her pacific policy, and to risk the doleful casualties of war; what limit is there to the extent of our loss? None within the reach of my words to express; none which your feelings will not dis- avow.
The founder of our federate republic — our bulwark in war, our guide in peace, is no more! Oh, that this were but ques- tionable! Hope, the comforter of the wretched, would pour into our agonizing hearts its balmy dew. But, alas! there is no hope for us; our Washington is re- moved forever! Possessing the stoutest frame and purest mind, he had passed nearly to his sixty-eighth year in the en- joyment of high health, when, habituated by his care of us to neglect himself, a slight cold, disregarded, became incon- venient on Friday, oppressive on Satur-
342
LEE, HENRY
day, and, defying every medical inter- furiously with floating ice, forbade the position, before the morning of Sunday approach of man. Washington, self - col- put an end to the best of men. An end, lected, viewed the tremendous scene. His did I say? His fame survives! bounded country called. Unappalled by surround- only by the limits of the earth, and by ing dangers, he passed to the hostile shore; the extent of the human mind. He sur- he fought; he conquered. The morning vives in our hearts — in the growing sun cheered the American world. Our knowledge of our children — in the affec- country rose on the event; and her daunt- tion of the good throughout the world, less chief, pursuing his blow, completed in And when our monuments shall be done the lawns of Princeton what his vast soul away; when nations now existing shall be had conceived on the shores of Delaware, no more; when even our young and far- Thence to the strong grounds of Mor- spreading empire shall have perished; ristown he led his small but gallant band; still will our Washington's glory unfaded and through an eventful winter, by the shine, and die not, until love of virtue high efforts of his genius, whose matchless cease on earth, or earth itself sinks into force was measurable only by the growth chaos! of difficulties, he held in check formidable
How, my fellow-citizens, shall I single hostile legions, conducted by a chief ex- to your grateful hearts his pre-eminent perienced in the art of war, and famed worth? Where shall I begin, in opening for his valor on the ever memorable to your view a character throughout heights of Abraham, where fell Wolfe, sublime? Shall I speak of his warlike Montcalm, and since, our much lamented achievements, all springing from obedience Montgomery; all covered with glory. In to his country's will, all directed to his this fortunate interval, produced by his country's good? masterly conduct, our fathers, ourselves,
Will you go with me to the banks of animated by his resistless example, rallied the Monongahela, to see your youthful around our country's standard, and con- Washington supporting, in the dismal tinued to follow her beloved chief through hour of Indian victory, the ill-fated Brad- the various and trying scenes to which dock, and saving, by his judgment and the destinies of our Union led. by his valor, the remains of a defeated Who is there that has forgotten the army, pressed by the conquering savage vales of Brandywine, the fields of Ger- foe? or when, oppressed America nobly mantown, or the plains of Monmouth? resolving to risk her all in defence of her Everywhere present, wants of every kind violated rights, he was elevated by the obstructing, numerous and valiant armies unanimous voice of Congress to the* com- encountering, himself a host, he assuaged niand of her armies? Will you follow our sufferings, limited our privations, and him to the high grounds of Boston, where, upheld our tottering republic. Shall I to an undisciplined, courageous, and virtu- display to you the spread of the fire of ous yeomanry, his presence gave the sta- his soul, by rehearsing the praises of the bility of system, and infused the invinci- hero of Saratoga, and his much loved com- bility of love of country? Or shall I carry peer of the Carolinas? No; our Washing- you to the painful scenes of Long Island, ton wears not borrowed glory. To Gates, Work Island, and New Jersey, when, com- to Greene, he gave without reserve the ap- bating superior and gallant armies, aided plause due to their eminent merit; and by powerful fleets, and led by chiefs high long may the chiefs of Saratoga and of in the roll of fame, he stood the bulwark Eutaws receive the grateful respect of a of our safety, undismayed by disaster, grateful people.
Unchanged by change of fortune? Or will Moving in his own orbit, he imparted you view him in the precarious fields of heat and light to his most distant satel- Trenton, where deep gloom, unnerving lites; and combining the physical and every arm, reigned triumphant through moral force of all within his sphere, with our thinned, worn down, unaided ranks — irresistible weight he took his course, himself unmoved? Dreadful was the commiserating folly, disdaining vice, dis- night. It was about this time of winter, maying treason, and invigorating despond- The storm raged. The Delaware, rolling ency; until the auspicious hour arrived,
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when, united with the intrepid forces of a potent and magnanimous ally, he brought to submission the since conqueror of In- dia; thus finishing his long career of mili- tary glory with a lustre corresponding to his great name, and, in this his last act of war, affixing the seal of fate to our nation's birth.
To the horrid din of battle sweet peace succeeded; and our virtuous chief, mind- ful only of the common good, in a mo- ment tempting personal aggrandizement, hushed the discontents of growing sedi- tion, and, surrendering his power into the hands from which he had received it, con- verted his sword into a ploughshare; teaching an admiring world that to be truly great you must be truly good.
Were I to stop here, the picture would be incomplete, and the task imposed un- finished. Great as was our Washington in war, and as much as did that greatness contribute to produce the American re- public, it is not in war alone his pre-emi- nence stands conspicuous. His various talents, combining all the capacities of a statesman with those of a soldier, fitted him alike to guide the councils and the armies of our nation. Scarcely had he rested from his martial toils, while his invaluable parental advice was still sound- ing in our ears, when he, who had been our shield and our sword, was called forth to act a less splendid, but more im- portant part.
Possessing a clear and penetrating mind, a strong and sound judgment, calm- ness and temper for deliberation, with invincible firmness and perseverance in resolutions maturely formed; drawing in- formation from all ; acting from himself, with incorruptible integrity and unvary- ing patriotism; his own superiority and the public confidence alike marked him as the man designed by Heaven to lead in the great political as well as military events which have distinguished the era of his life.
The finger of an over-ruling Providence, pointing at Washington, was neither mis- taken or unobserved, when, to realize the vast hopes to which our revolution had given birth, a change of political system became indispensable.
How novel, how grand the spectacle! Independent States stretched over an im-
mense territory, and known only by com- mon difficulty, clinging to their union as the rock of their safety; deciding, by frank comparison of their relative condi- tion, to rear on that rock, under the guid- ance of reason, a common government, through whose commanding protection, liberty and order, with their long train of blessings, should be safe to themselves, and the sure inheritance of their pos- terity.
This arduous task devolved on citizens selected by the people, from knowledge of their wisdom and confidence in their vir- tue. In this august assembly of sages and of patriots, Washington of course was found; and, as if acknowledged to be most wise where all were wise, with one voice he was declared their chief. How well he merited this rare distinction, how faithful were the labors of him- self and his compatriots, the work of their hands, and our union, strength, and prosperity, the fruits of that work, best attest.
But to have essentially aided in pre- senting to his country this consummation of our hopes, neither satisfied the claims of his fellow-citizens on his talents, nor those duties which the possession of those talents imposed. Heaven had not infused into his mind such an uncommon share of its ethereal spirit to remain unemployed, nor bestowed on him his genius unaccom- panied with the corresponding duty of de- voting it to the common good. To have framed a Constitution was showing only, without realizing, the general happiness. This great work remained to be done; and America, steadfast in her preference, with one voice summoned her beloved Washington, unpractised as he was in the duties of civil administration, to execute this last act in the completion of the na- tional felicity. Obedient to her call, he assumed the high office with that self- distrust peculiar to his innate modesty, the constant attendant of pre-eminent vir- tue. What was the burst of joy through our anxious land on this exhilarating event is known to us all. The aged, the young, the brave, the fair, rivalled each other in demonstrations of their grati- tude: and this high-wrought, delightful scene was heightened in its effect by the singular contest between the zeal of the
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bestowers and the avoidance of the re- ceiver of the honors bestowed.
Commencing his administration, what heart is not charmed with the recollec- tion of the pure and wise principles an- nounced by himself, as the basis of his political life? He best understood the in- dissoluble union between virtue and hap- piness, between duty and advantage, be- tween the genuine maxims of an honest and magnanimous policy, and the solid rewards of public prosperity and indi- vidual felicity. Watching with an equal and comprehensive eye over this great as- semblage of communities and interests, he laid the foundations of our national policy in the unerring, immutable prin- ciples of morality, based on religion, ex- emplifying the pre-eminence of a free gov- ernment by all the attributes which win the affections of its citizens, or command the respect of the world.
" O fortunatos nimium, sua fl bona norint !"
arm, under the orders of the gallant Wayne, the American eagle soared trium- phant through distant forests. Peace fol- lowed victory; and the melioration of the condition of the enemy followed peace. Godlike virtue! which uplifts even the subdued savage.
To the second he opposed himself. New and delicate was the conjuncture, and great was the stake. Soon did his pene- trating mind discern and seize the only course, continuing to us all the felicity enjoyed. He issued his proclamation of neutrality. This index to his whole sub- sequent conduct was sanctioned by the ap- probation of both Houses of Congress, and by the approving voice of the people.
To this sublime policy he inviolably ad- hered, unmoved by foreign intrusion, un- shaken by domestic turbulence.
" Justum et tenacem propositi virum, Non civium ardor prava jubentium, Non vultus instantis tyranni, Mente quatit solida."
Leading through the complicated diffi- Maintaining his pacific system at the
culties produced by previous obligations expense of no duty, America, faithful to
and conflicting interests, seconded by sue- herself, and unstained in her honor, con-
ceeding Houses of Congress, enlightened tinued to enjoy the delights of peace,
and patriotic, he surmounted all original while afflicted Europe mourns in every
obstruction, and brightened the path of quarter under the accumulated miseries
our national felicity. of an unexampled war; miseries in which
The Presidential term expiring, his so- our happy country must have shared, had
licitude to exchange exaltation for humil- not our pre-eminent Washington been as
ity returned with a force increased with firm in council as he was brave in the
increase of age; and he had prepared his field.
Farewell Address to his countrymen, pro- Pursuing steadfastly his course, he held claiming his intention, when the united safe the public happiness, preventing for- interposition of all around him, enforced eign war, and quelling internal discord, by the eventful prospects of the epoch, till the revolving period of a third elec- produced a further sacrifice of inclination tion approached, when he executed his in- to duty. The election of President fol- terrupted, but inextinguishable desire of lowed; and Washington, by the unani- returning to the humble walks of private mous vote of the nation, was called to re- life.
sume the chief magistracy. What a The promulgation of his fixed resolution wonderful fixture of confidence! Which stopped the anxious wishes of an affection- attracts most our admiration, a people ate people from adding a third unanimous so correct, or a citizen combining an as- testimonial of their unabated confidence semblage of talents forbidding rivalry, in the man so long enthroned in their and stifling even envy itself? Such a na- hearts. When before was affection like tion ought to be happy ; such a chief must this exhibited on earth ? Turn over the be forever revered. records of ancient Greece; review the an-
War, long menaced by the Indian tribes, nals of mighty Rome; examine the vol-
now broke out; and the terrible conflict, umes of modern Europe — you search in
deluging Europe with blood, began to shed vain. America and her Washington only
its baneful influence over our happy land, afford the dignified exemplification.
To the first, outstretching his invincible The illustrious personage called by the
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LEE
national voice in succession to the ardu- ous office of guiding a free people had new difficulties to encounter. The amicable effort of -settling our difficulties with France, begun by Washington, and pur- sued by his successor in virtue as in station, proving abortive, America took measures of self-defence. No sooner was the public mind roused by a prospect of danger, than every eye was turned to the friend of all, though secluded from public view, and gray in public service. The virtuous veteran, following his plough, re- ceived the unexpected summons with min- gled emotions of indignation at the un- merited ill treatment of his country, and of a determination once more to risk his all in her defence.
The annunciation of these feelings in his affecting letter to the President, ac- cepting the command of the army, con- cludes his official conduct.
First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen, he was sec- ond to none in the humble and endearing scenes of private life. Pious, just, hu- mane, temperate, and sincere; uniform, dignified, and commanding, his example was as edifying to all around him as were the effects of that example lasting.
To his equals he was condescending, to his inferiors kind, and to the dear object of his affections exemplarily tender. Cor- rect throughout, vice shuddered in his presence, and virtue always felt his foster- ing hand. The purity of his private char- acter gave effulgence to his public virtues.
His last scene comported with the whole tenor of his life. Although in extreme pain, not a sigh, not a groan escaped him ; and with undisturbed serenity he closed his well-spent life. Such was the man America has lost! Such was the man for whom our nation mourns.
Methinks I see his august image, and hear, falling from his venerable lips, these deep sinking words:
" Cease, Sons of America, lamenting our separation. Go on, and confirm by your wisdom the fruits of our joint coun- cils, joint efforts, and common dangers. Reverence religion; diffuse knowledge throughout your land; patronize the arts and sciences; let liberty and order be in- separable companions; control party spirit, the bane of free government; ob-
serve good faith to, and cultivate peace with all nations; shut up every avenue to foreign influence; contract rather than extend national connection; rely on your- selves only: be American in thought and deed. Thus will you give immortality to that union, which was the constant ob- ject of my terrestrial labors; thus will you preserve undisturbed to the latest posterity the felicity of a people to me most dear; and thus will you supply (if my happiness is now aught to you) the only vacancy in the round of pure bliss high Heaven bestows."
Lee, HENRY, banker; born in Boston, Mass., Sept. 2, 1817; graduated at Har- vard College in 1836; served during the Civil War on the staff of Gov. John A. Andrew; subsequently became a member of the banking-house of Lee, Higginson & Co. He was the author of The Militia of the United States. He died in 1898.
Lee, RICHARD HENRY, statesman; born in Stratford, Westmoreland co., Va., Jan. 20, 1732; was educated in England, and returned to America at the age of nine- teen. In 1756 he was appointed justice of the peace, and entered the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1757, where he was
RICHARD HENRY LEE.
distinguished as a debater and a clear po- litical writer. Mr. Lee supported Patrick Henry's resolutions, and was among the foremost men in Virginia in forming and
346
LEE
putting in motion the machinery against royal oppression and parliamentary rule. He was a delegate to the first Congress (1774), was a member of all the leading committees, and wrote the memorial of Congress to the people of British America. In 1775 he wrote the second address of Congress to the people of Great Britain; and from his seat in that body, in June, 1776, he offered the famous resolution which declared the English-American colonies to be " free and independent States." It is said that his speech on
that occasion was a brilliant display of eloquence. Leaving Congress in June, 1777, he was again in that body in 1778-80, 1784-85, and 1786-87. In 1784 he was chosen president of Congress, but retired at the end of the year. Mr. Lee was op- posed to the national Constitution, be- cause it superseded State supremacy, but he was a supporter of Washington's administration, and was United States Senator from Virginia from 1789 to 1792. He died in Chantilly, Va., June 19, 1794.
LEE, ROBERT EDWARD
Lee, ROBERT EDWARD, military officer; born in Stratford, Westmoreland co., Va., Jan. 19, 1807; son of Gen. Henry Lee; graduated at the United States Military Academy, second in his class, in 1829. Entering the engineer corps, he became captain in July, 1838, and was chief en- gineer of General Wool's brigade in the \var with Mexico. At the close of that war he had earned three brevets — major, lieutenant-colonel, and colonel; and he was a great favorite with General Scott. From Sept. 3, 1852, to March 3, 1855, he was superintendent of the Military Acad- emy. In the latter year he was promoted to lieutenant-colonel of cavalry, and in March, 1861, to colonel. Accepting the doctrine of State supremacy when Vir- ginia passed an ordinance of secession, in April, 1861, Lee went to Richmond, ac- cepted (April 22, 1861) the command of the forces in that commonwealth, and re- signed his commission in the National army. In accepting the office of com- mander of the Virginia forces, he said: " Trusting in Almighty God, an approv- ing conscience, and the aid of my fellow- citizens, I devote myself to the aid of my native State, in whose behalf alone will I ever draw my sword." Lee's services had always been very acceptable to his govern- ment. He was an officer of fine culture, a soldier brave and discreet, and an en- gineer of great skill. He had superintend- ed the construction and repairs of the forts at the entrance to the harbor of New York after 1841, and was a member of the board of engineers of the Atlantic coast defence. He had married, in 1832,
Mary, daughter of G. W. P. Custis, the adopted son of Washington, and by her, in 1857, he became possessor of the estate of Arlington, opposite Georgetown, on the Potomac, and the " White House " estate, on the Pamunkey. He was in command of a regiment of cavalry in Texas in 1860, and towards the close of that year he obtained leave of absence and returned home, where he was when appointed to the command of the Virginia forces.
For a while he did not have a separate command in the field, and for more than a year did not fill any important place in the Confederate army. He was nominally superintendent of fortifications at Rich- mond and elsewhere, and was the military adviser of President Jefferson Davis and o£ the Confederate Secretary of War. When Gen. Joseph E. Johnston was wounded (May 31, 1862), in the battle of Seven Pines, near Richmond, the com- mand of the Confederate army of North- ern Virginia was given to Lee, June 3, and on the 26th of that month he began the series of conflicts before Richmond known as the Seven Days' Battles. He was finally compelled to surrender his army to General Grant at Appomattox Court- house, April 9, 1865, on most generous terms for himself and his followers. He had been appointed general-in-chief of the Confederate armies in February preced- ing. After the war he retired to private life, refusing even to attend public gather- ings of any kind. In October, 1865, he accepted the presidency of Washington College (now Washington and Lee Uni- versity), at Lexington, Va., which he held
347
LEE, ROBERT EDWARD
until his death, Oct. 12, 1870. Lee's sons Cox, Schenck, and Benham. The bellig- — G. W. Custis, W. II. F., and Robert E. events remained in sight of each other — all served as officers in the Confederate for about three weeks. Wise, then under army. His eldest son, G. W. C. Lee, was Lee's command, was recalled to Rich- chosen president of the college on the mond. Lee's campaign in western Vir- death of his father. ginia was regarded by the Confederate In the summer of 1861 General Reyn- government as a failure, and he, too, was olds had been left by Rosecrans to con- soon afterwards recalled and sent to front General Lee in the Cheat Mountain South Carolina, where he planned and region. Lee was then in chief command partially constructed the coast defensive in western Virginia. He had sent Gen- works. See CHARLESTON. eral Floyd to drive the Nationals out of After his disastrous experience at the Kanawha Valley, but the latter was Gettysburg (July 1, 2, and 3, 1863), Gen- defeated (Sept. 11) at Carnifex Ferry, eral Lee began a retreat for Virginia on and fled to Big Sewell Mountain. Reyn- the night of the 5th, having previously olds's command consisted of Indiana and sent forward his enormous wagon-trains Ohio troops. With them he held the and sick and wounded men. Sedgwick's roads and passes of the mountains of corps and Kilpatrick's cavalry were sent the more westerly ranges of the Alle- in pursuit. Sedgwick overtook the Con- ghany chain. His headquarters were at federate rear-guard at a pass in the South Cheat Mountain pass, and Lee's were at Mountain range, but was recalled, and Huntersville, in Pocahontas county. It the whole army, having rested, were put was evident early in September, by the in motion for a flank movement through activity of Lee's scouts, that he was pre- the lower passes of South Mountain. But paring to strike a blow somewhere. It the movement was so tardy that when was finally made clear that he was about Meade overtook Lee (July 12) he was to strike the Nationals at Elk Water, at strongly intrenched on the banks of the the western foot of Cheat Mountain. His Potomac, near Williamsport, waiting for object evidently was to secure the great a flood in the river, caused by recent Cheat Mountain pass, and have free com- rains, to subside. While Meade was pre- munication with the Shenandoah Valley, paring to attack Lee, the latter escaped For this purpose he marched from Hun- over the river. General Hill's rear-guard tersville, in the night of Sept. 11, to make had been struck by Kilpatrick, and lost a simultaneous attack on Elk Water, the 125 men killed and 1,500 made prisoners, pass, and a station of Indiana troops on Kilpatrick's loss was 105 men. Thus the summit, under Colonel Kimball. ended, in utter discomfiture and repulse, About 5,000 Confederates, under General Lee's second formidable invasion of Mary- Anderson, of Tennessee, attempted to take land.
the summit and the pass, but were re- Lee's Final Struggle. — While the Con- pulsed. On the 12th Lee advanced in federates were leaving Richmond, Lee's heavy force upon Elk Water, but was army was withdrawing from Petersburg, driven back. He was satisfied that his He hoped to conduct his army to Danville, plan for seizing and destroying Reynolds's on the southern borders of Virginia, army and opening a way to the Ohio had whither his government had fled. He ap- failed, and he hastened to join Floyd on pointed Amelia Court-house as the point Big Sewell Mountain, between the forks for the concentration of his army. There of the Kanawha. In the encounters dur- his forces would reach the Danville Rail- ing two or three days, Reynolds lost ten way, and thereafter use it in their flight men killed, fourteen wounded, and sixty- into North Carolina. At the time when four made prisoners. The Confederates he sent his despatch for the evacuation of lost about 100 killed and wounded, and Richmond he ordered commissary and ninety prisoners. The joint forces of Lee quartermaster's stores to be sent from and Floyd, on Big Sewell Mountain, num- Danville to Amelia Court - house for the bered about 20,000 men, and there they use of his army. They were promptly were confronted by 10,000 Nationals, forwarded; but when the officer in charge under Rosecrans, assisted by Generals reached Amelia Court - house he received
348
GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE. 349
LEE, ROBERT EDWARD
orders from Richmond to hasten thither veterans becoming prisoners. With his
with his train. The stupid fellow obeyed, dreadfully shattered army, Lee crossed
but took with him the supplies. The gov- the Appomattox that night (April 6 and
ernment, in its flight, occupied the whole 7) at Farmville, setting fire to bridges be-
train. The stores were left at Richmond hind him. They were not all consumed,
and destroyed in the conflagrations. Lee The Nationals crossed and captured
was almost hopeless when he discovered eighteen guns abandoned by a rear-guard,
this calamity, for it threatened his army Lee's troops and animals were perishing
with starvation. He knew that Grant, for want of food. Thousands let their
for the sake of celerity in pursuit, would muskets fall because they were too weak
break up his army into detachments; and to carry them and walk. Lee would not
Lee hoped, by a bountifully supplied army listen to a proposition of his officers to
well in hand, to fall upon these frag- give up the contest, and resolved to make
ments and cut up the National army in further efforts to escape. Nearly the
detail. Now he was compelled to detach whole of Grant's army joined in vigorous
nearly one-half of his army to forage pursuit of the Confederates, and Lee
for supplies to keep his forces from surrendered at Appomattox Court-house,
starving. April 9, 1865.
Grant, meanwhile, had taken possession Terms of the Surrender. — The follow- of Petersburg, and his army moved in vig- ing is the correspondence that passed be- orous pursuit. Sheridan's cavalry and tween Generals Grant and Lee, which re- Warren's corps struck the Danville Rail- suited in the surrender of the army of the way (April 4, 1865) at Jetersville, 7 miles latter: southwest of Amelia Court-house. Some j4 of his cavalry then pushed on to Burkes- "April 7. ville Station, at the junction of that road .
with the Southside Railway. Sheridan ^ R' E'Lee> gander, C. 8 A.: now stood squarely across Lee's pathway SIB —The result of the last week must of retreat, and held possession of his chief c°nvince you of the hopelessness of fur- channel of supplies from Lynchburg and ther resistance on the part of the Army Danville. Lee attempted to escape by of Northern Virginia in this struggle. I way of Farmville. Sheridan sent General feel that jt 1S so> and reSard li as m^ Davies on a reconnoissance, who found duty to shift from myself the responsibility part of Lee's army moving westward of an? further effusion of blood by ask- ( April 5), his cavalry escorting a train inS of y°u the surrender of that portion of 180 wagons. Davies fell upon the of the Confederate States army known as escort, captured many men and five guns, the Arm^ of Northern Virginia, and destroyed the wagons. Lee's accom- " VeiT respectfully, your obedient ser- panying infantry had pressed Davies for vant' U- S> GRANT> a while, but, reinforced by Generals Gregg " Lieutenant-General, Commanding Armies and Smith, he extricated himself. On the of the United States." morning of the" 6th nearly the whole of
the Army of the Potomac were at Jeters- H.
ville, and moved upon Amelia Court-house. " April 7.
Sheridan discovered Lee's army moving "GENERAL, — I have received your note
rapidly westward, and made a rapid pur- of this date. Though not entirely of the
suit, in three columns. Great efforts were opinion you express of the hopelessness
made to check Lee's retreat. He was of further resistance on the part of the
smitten severely at Sailor's Creek, a small Army of Northern Virginia, I reciprocate
tributary of the Appomattox, where an- your desire to avoid useless effusion of
other train of 400 wagons, sixteen guns, blood, and, therefore, before considering
and many men were captured. By this your proposition, ask the terms you will
blow Swell's corps, following the train, offer on condition of its surrender,
was cut off from Lee's main army. Very " R. E. LEE, General,
soon afterwards that corps was captured, " To Lieut.-Gen. U. 8. Grant, Commanding
Ewell and four other generals and 6,000 Armies of the United States."
350
LEE, ROBERT EDWARD
III. V.
" April 8. " April 9.
"To Gen. R. E. Lee, Commanding Con- " General R. E. Lee, Commanding C. S. A.: federate States Army: "GENERAL, — Your note of yesterday is
" GENERAL, — Your note of last even- received. As I have no authority to treat ing, in reply to mine of same date, ask- on the subject of peace, the meeting pro- ing the conditions on which I will accept posed for 10 A.M. to-day could lead to the surrender of the Army of Northern no good. I will state, however, general, Virginia, is just received. that I am equally anxious for peace with
" In reply, I would say that, peace be- yourself ; and the whole North entertain
ing my first desire, there is but one con- the same feeling. The terms upon which
dition that I insist upon — viz.: peace can be had are well understood.
" That the men surrendered shall be By the South laying down their arms they
disqualified for taking up arms against will hasten that most desirable event,
the government of the United States un- save thousands of human lives, and hun-
til properly exchanged. dreds of millions of property not yet de-
"I will meet you, or designate offi- stroyed.
cers to meet any officers you may name " Sincerely hoping that all our difficul-
for the same purpose, at any point agree- ties may be settled without the loss of
able to you, for the purpose of arranging another life, I subscribe myself, definitely the terms upon which the sur- "Very respectfully, your obedient ser-
render of the Army of Northern Virginia vant, U. S. GRANT,
will be received. " Lieutenant-General, U. S. A."
"Very respectfully, your obedient ser- vant, U. S. GRANT, VL " Lieutenant-General, Commanding Armies APri1 9> 18b5'
of the United States." " GENERAL, — I received your note of this
morning on the picket-line, whither I had
IV. come to meet you and ascertain definite- " April 8. ly what terms were embraced in your
" GENERAL, — I received, at a late hour, proposition of yesterday with reference to
your note of to-day in answer to mine of the surrender of this army, yesterday. " I now request an interview in ac-
" I did not intend to propose the sur- cordance with the offer contained in your
render of the Army of Northern Virginia, letter of yesterday for that purpose, but to ask the terms of your proposition. " Very respectfully, your obedient ser-
To be frank, I do not think the emer- vant, R. E. LEE, General,
gency has arisen to call for the surrender. " To Lieutenant -General Grant, Command- But, as the restoration of peace should ing United States Armies." be the sole object of all, I desire to know
whether your proposals would tend to VII.
that end. "April 9.
" I cannot, therefore, meet you with a " General R. E. Lee, Commanding Con- view to surrender the Army of Northern federate States Armies:
Virginia, but so far as your proposition " "Your note of this date is but this
may affect the Confederate States forces moment (11.50 A.M.) received. under my command, and lead to the " In consequence of my having passed
restoration of peace, I should be pleased from the Richmond and Lynchburg road
to meet you at 10 A.M. to-morrow on the to the Farmville and Lynchburg road,
old stage-road to Richmond, between the I am at this writing about 4 miles west
picket-lines of the two armies. of Walter's Church, and will push forward
"Very respectfully, your obedient ser- to the front for the purpose of meeting
vant, R. E. LEE, you.
" General, Confederate States Armies. " Notice sent to me on this road where
" To Lieutenant - General Grant, Com- you wish the interview to take place will
manding Armies of the United States." meet me.
351
LEE, ROBERT EDWARD
" Very respectfully, your obedient ser- vant,
" U. S. GRANT, Lieutenant-General."
VIII.
" APPOMATTOX COURT-HOUSE,
" April 9, 1865. " Gen. R. E. Lee, Commanding G. 8. A. :
" hi accordance with the substance of my letter to you of the 8th inst., I pro-
of the officers, nor their private horses or baggage.
" This done, each officer and man will bo allowed to return to their homes, not to be disturbed by United States authority so long as they observe their parole and the laws in force where they may reside.
" Very respectfully, "U. S. GRANT, Lieutenant-General."
" HEADQUARTERS " ARMY OF NORTHERN VIRGINIA,
" April 9, 1865. " Lieut. -Gen. U. S. Grant, Commanding
U. 8. A.:
" GENERAL, — I have received your letter of this date, containing the terms of sur- render of the Army of Northern Virginia, as proposed by you. As they are substan- tially the same as those expressed in your letter of the 8th inst., they are accepted. I will proceed to designate the proper officers to carry the stipulations into ef- fect.
" Very respectfully, your obedient ser- vant, R. E. LEE, General."
On the day of the surrender General Lee addressed the following farewell to the Army of Northern Virginia:
" HEADQUARTERS " ARMY OF NORTHERN VIRGINIA,
" April 10, 1865.
CHAIR IN WHICH GENERAL LEE SAT WHEN SIGNING THB " Aftei> f°Ur VeaTS °f ardUOUS Service,
SURRENDER. marked by unsurpassed courage and forti-
tude, the Army of Northern Virginia has
pose to receive the surrender of the Army been compelled to yield to overwhelming of Northern Virginia on the following numbers and resources.
terms, to wit:
" Rolls of all the officers and men to be made in duplicate, one copy to be given to an officer designated by me, the other to be retained by such officers as you may designate.
" The officers to give their individual parole not to take arms against the gov- ernment of the United States until prop- erly exchanged; and each company or regimental commander to sign a like parole for the men of their commands.
" The arms, artillery, and public prop- erty to be parked and stacked, and turned over to the officers appointed by me to re- ceive them.
" This will not embrace the side-arms
352
I need not tell the survivors of so
TABLE ON WHICH THE SURRENDER WAS SIGHED
LEE, ROBERT EDWARD
GKNERAL LEE LEAVING AFTER THE SURRENDER.
many hard-fought battles, who have re- vices have endeared them to their coun-
mained steadfast to the last, that I have trymen.
consented to this result from no distrust " By the terms of agreement, officers and of them; but feeling that valor and de- men can return to their homes, and re- votion could accomplish nothing that main there until exchanged, could compensate for the loss that would " You will take with you the satisfac- have attended the continuation of the tion that proceeds from the conscious- contest, I have determined to avoid the ness of duty faithfully performed; and I useless sacrifice of those whose past ser- earnestly pray that a merciful God will v. — z 353
LEE
extend to you His blessing and protec- at the time of surrender on the 9th in-
tlon. stant.
" With an unceasing admiration of your " (Signed)
constancy and devotion to your country, "JOHN GIBBON, Major-General Volun-
and a grateful remembrance of your kind teers.
and generous consideration of myself, I "CHARLES GRIFFIN, Brevet Major -Gen-
111 /I TTrfcll Q-n 0 flfrkrt-f is\-nrk 4- f\ -F. •»-,»,,. -,-w-^l 1 -I -r-r Q TT
M. MERRITT, Brevet Major-General. J. LONGSTREET, Lieutenant-General. J. B. GORDON, Major-General. W. N. PENDLETON, Brigadier-General and Chief of Artillery."
bid you an affectionate farewell.
"R. E. LEE, General."
At the final act of surrender, General Lee was not present. It was executed by commissioners designated for the pur- pose, who acceded to the following agree- ment:
" APPOMATTOX COURT-HOUSE, VA.,
" April 10, 1865. "Agreement entered into this day, in
The following is a copy of the parole signed by General Lee and his staff- officers :
, " We> the undersigned, prisoners of war
regard to the surrender of the Army of belonging to the Army of Northern Vir- Northern Virginia to the United States ginia, having been this day surrendered authorities. by Gen. R. E. Lee, commanding said army,
" First. The troops shall march by to Lieutenant-General Grant, commanding brigades and detachments to a designated the armies of the United States, do hereby point; stack their arms; deposit their giye our solemn parole of honor that we flags, sabres, pistols, etc.; and from wiH not hereafter serve in the armies of thence march to their homes, under the Confederate States, or in any military charge of their officers, superintended by capacity whatsoever against the United their respective division and corps com- States of America, or render aid to the manders, officers retaining their side-arms enemies of the latter, until properly ex- and the authorized number of private changed in such manner as shall be mutu- horses. ally approved by the relative authorities.
" Second. All public horses, and pub- lic property of all kinds, to be turned over to staff-officers to be designated by the United States authorities.
" Third. Such transportation as may be agreed upon as necessary for the trans- portation of the private baggage of offi-
- E- LEE, General. w- H. TAYLOR, Lieutenant-Colonel and Assistant Adjutant-General. CHAS. S. VENEABLE, Lieutenant-Colonel and Assistant Adjutant - General. CHAS. MARSHALL, Lieutenant - Colonel and Assistant Adjutant - General.
cers will be allowed to accompany the " H. E. PRATON, Lieutenant-Colonel and
officers, to be turned over, at the end of Inspector-General.
the trip, to the nearest United States " GILES BROOKE, Major and Acting As-
quartermaster, receipts being taken for sistant Surgeon-General.
the same. " H. S. YOUNG, Assistant Adjutant - Gen-
" Fourth. Couriers and mounted men of era^
the artillery and cavalry, whose horses " Done at Appomattox Court-house, Va.
this ninth (9) day of April, 1865."
are their own private property, will be allowed to retain them.
"Fifth. The surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia shall be construed to
^parole WaS co^tersigned as follows :
/lY^nT^ Q??"™ ^ ^ include all the forces operating with that ' &turbe* b7 United States authorities as
army on the 8th instant, the date of the °ng RS ^ °bf rve their parole and the
commencement of the negotiations for laWS m f°rCG whf™ the^ mav reside-
surrender, except such bodies of cavalry « n ,
as actually made. their escape previous to ^f?1' and Assistant Provost -Mar- the surrender; and except, also, such
pieces of artillery as were more than Lee, STEPHEN DILL, educator; born in
20 miles from Appomattox Court-house Charleston, S. C., Sept. 22 1833; grad-
354
LEE
uated at the United States Military Academy in 1854, and was first lieutenant of the 4th Artillery till 1861, serving also as quartermaster for three years. He afterwards entered the Confederate army as captain and was promoted to lieuten- ant-general. He commanded the Confed- erates at Chickasaw Bayou, Miss., where Sherman was defeated, and in the battles of Tupelo, Miss. ; Jonesboro, Ga. ; At- lanta, Ga.; Nashville, Franklin, etc., and took part in the operations around Rich- mond. After the war he became a planter in Mississippi. In 1870 he was a member of the Mississippi State Senate; in 1890 was a delegate to the constitutional con- vention of Mississippi; and since 1880 has been president of the Mississippi Agri- cultural and Mechanical College.
Lee, THOMAS LTJDWELL, statesman, born in Stratford, Westmoreland co., Va., in 1730; a brother of Richard Henry Lee. During the preliminary movements of the Revolutionary War he was conspic- uous as a lawyer and patriot. He was a member of the committee of safety, and in the Virginia convention, in May, 1776, was on the committee to draft a declaration of rights and a plan of a State government. On the organization of that government, he was appointed one of the five revisers, and was also elected one of the five judges of the General Court. He died in 1777.
Lee, WILLIAM, diplomatist; born in Stratford, Va., in 1737; brother of Rich- ard Henry and Arthur ; was agent for Vir- ginia in London, and became a merchant there. The city of London being over- whelmingly Whig in politics, William Lee was elected sheriff of that city and Mid- dlesex county in 1773. In 1775 he was chosen alderman, but on the breaking out of the war in America retired .o France. Congress appointed him commercial agent at Nantes at the beginning of 1777, and he was afterwards American minister at The Hague. Mr. Lee was also agent in Berlin and Vienna, but was recalled in 1779. In 1778 Jan de Neufville, an Am- sterdam merchant, procured a loan to the Americans from Holland, through his house, and, to negotiate for it, gained permission of the burgomasters of Am- sterdam to meet Lee at Aix-la-Chapelle. There they arranged terms for a com-
mercial convention proper to be entered into between the two republics. When Lee communicated this project to the American commissioners at Paris, they (having been much annoyed by the in- termeddling of his brother Arthur) re- minded him that the authority for treating with the States-General belonged exclusively to them. Congress took no notice of his negotiations with De Neuf- ville, and soon afterwards dismissed him from their service. Lee died in Green Spring, Va., June 27, 1795.
Lee, FORT, a Revolutionary War de- fensive post on the west bank of the Hudson River, opposite New York City. Early on the morning of Nov. 20, 1776, Corn wall is crossed the Hudson from Dobb's Ferry to Closter's Landing, 5 miles above Fort Lee, and with a force about 6,000 strong, including artillery, climbed a steep, rocky pathway up a gorge in the Palisades, unobserved by Greene. A farmer awoke that officer from slumber in the morning twilight, in time for him to escape from imminent peril. He fled in haste from Fort Lee, with the garrison of 2,000 men, leaving cannon, tents, stores, and camp equipage behind. He barely escaped capture. Washington, apprised of the danger, so well covered his retreat that less than 100 stragglers were made prisoners.
Lee, THE. Early in 1775, Washington conceived that the readiest way to obtain supplies for the army was the fitting-out of armed vessels for intercepting those sent from England to Boston. He caused six armed schooners to be prepared for this purpose, which cruised off the New Eng- land coasts. One of these, the Lee, Cap- tain Manley, captured, Nov. 29, 1775, the brig Nancy, an ordnance vessel from Woolwich, containing a large brass mor- tar, several pieces of brass cannon, a large quantity of small - arms and ammu- nition, and an abundance of things for the use of camps and artillery. Within ten days afterwards the Lee captured three British store-ships and a brig from An- tigua laden with rum. In less than five days after the last-mentioned capture sev- eral other store-ships fell into the hands of Manley, and so the Continental army was supplied with materials intended for the British army in Boston.
355
LEESBURG— LEISLEK
Leesburg, BATTLE OF. See BALL'S — Dutch, Huguenots, and English— con- BLUFF. stituted Leisler " captain of the fort,"
Legal Holidays. See HOLIDAYS, LEGAL, and invested him with the power of corn- Legal Tender. See CURRENCY; Fi- mander-in-chief until orders should arrive NANCES; GREENBACKS. from the new monarchs. He was, in-
Legare, HUGH SWINTON; born in deed, the popular governor of the prov- Charleston, S. C., Jan. 2, 1789; graduated ince. The New Englanders applauded at the College of South Carolina in 1814; the movement. Leisler proclaimed Will- elected to the State legislature in 1820, iam and Mary at the sound of the trump- and in 1830 elected attorney-general of et, and sent a letter to the King giving the State. Mr. Legare was one of the an account of his doings. Nicholson, editors of the Southern Review. In perceiving the support which the people 1837 he was elected a Representative in of New York and New England gave to Congress, and in 1841 was appointed At- Leisler, departed for England; and the torney-General of the United States, and members of his council withdrew to Al- in 1843 Secretary of State. He died in bany, where, acknowledging allegiance to Boston, Mass., June 2, 1843. William and Mary, they claimed to be
Leisler, JACOB, military officer; born the true governors of the colony, and de- in Frankfort, Germany; was of Huguenot nounced Leisler as an "arch-rebel." descent, and came to America in 1660. Leisler's son-in-law, Jacob Milborne, had Settling first in Albany, he soon became just returned from Holland, and was sent a trader in New York City. While on a to Albany with some soldiers to defend voyage to Europe in 1678, he, with seven the place against an expected attack from others, was captured by Turkish corsairs, Canada; but the old council there re- and they were ransomed at a high price, fused to give up the fort to Milborne. In 1683 he was appointed a commissioner The people of Albany obtained aid from of the court of admiralty in New York Connecticut, Milborne having withdrawn City. Democracy had then taken firm root to avoid bloodshed. Soon after this a among the people in New York, and when letter, addressed to " such as for the time news of the accession of William and being administer affairs," was received at Mary reached the city the people were New York, enclosing a commission as much excited by it. The military force governor for Nicholson. As the latter was of the city consisted of five military com- on the ocean, Leisler assumed the title panics, of which Nicholas Bayard, a mem- of lieutenant-governor, construing the ber of the governor's council, was colonel, King's letter as a confirmation of his au- and Leisler wa-s senior captain. The thority. He called an assembly to pro- people were zealous Protestants. A vide means for carrying on war with Roman Catholic collector appointed by Canada.
King James had been retained in place, Leaving Leisler's letter unanswered, and a rumor spread of a horrible plot and King William commissioned Col. Henry intended massacre by the opponents of Sloughter governor of New York, and the deposed monarch. A crowd of citi- sent an independent company of regular zens, followed by the five militia com- soldiers, under Captain Ingoldsby (Janu- panies, surrounded the house of Leisler ary, 1691), for the defence of the province, and induced him to lead a movement for Influenced by the enemies of Leisler, In- the seizure of the fort. Bayard at- goldsby claimed the temporary adminis- tcmpted to disperse them, but was com- tration of affairs, and the possession of pelled to fly for his life. A distinct line the fort, by virtue of his commission from was soon drawn between the aristocrats, the King. Leisler refused compliance with headed by Bayard, Livingston, and others, the demand, but proclaimed Sloughter's and the democrats, led by Leisler. The appointment, and ordered Ingoldsby's fort was seized, with the public money in troops to be quartered in the city. There it. Nicholson, Andres's lieutenant, de- was great excitement in the city between manded the money and was treated with the aristocracy and democracy. Bayard disdain. and others of the old council were in
A committee of safety of ten members prison. Leisler was, for a time, besieged
356
LELAND— LELAND STANFORD, JUNIOR, UNIVERSITY
in the fort, and some lives were lost; and because he refused to give up the fort at the iirst summons of Ingoldsby, Sloughter, on his arrival) instigated by the friends of Bayard and others, caused the demo- cratic governor and his council to be ar- rested.
Bayard and others of the old council, having been released, were sworn members of Sloughter's council, and a special court was organized to try the prisoners. Leis- ler and Milborne, denying the jurisdiction of the court, refused to plead. They were tried, nevertheless, and found guilty: but Sloughter hesitated to order their execu- tion, preferring to await the King's de- cision in the matter. Leisler's enemies burned with a desire for revenge. The Assembly, also composed of his enemies, refused to recommend a temporary re- prieve. At a dinner-party given for the purpose, Sloughter, made drunk with liquor, was persuaded to sign the death- warrant. The revel was continued until morning for fear Sloughter, sober, might recall the warrant; and before he had re- covered his senses Leisler and Milborne were taken from their weeping wives and children (May 16, 1691) and hurried to the scaffold, erected near the lower end of the present City Hall Park. A drizzly rain was falling. A sullen crowd of citi- zens were spectators of the sad scene. Among them were Robert Livingston and others of Leisler's bitter enemies. The prisoners protested their loyalty and in- nocence of the charge to the last. Mil- borne said on the scaffold, " Robert Liv- ingston, for this I will implead thee at the bar of God!" It was nothing less than a judicial murder. Some years afterwards the attainder which the crime with which they were charged had placed upon the victims was reversed by act of Parliament, and their estates were restored to their families.
Leland, CHARLES GODFREY, author; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Aug. 15, 1824; graduated at Princeton in 1845; took advanced courses at the universities of Heidelberg, Munich, and Paris; and, returning to the United States, was admitted to the bar, and practised in Phil- adelphia till 1853. He then entered jour- nalism, and was at different times an edi- tor on the New York Times; Philadelphia
Evening Bulletin; Vanity Fair; Phila- delphia Press; Knickerbocker Magazine; and Continental Magazine. During 1869- 80 he lived in London. Returning to the United States, he was the first to estab- lish industrial education, based on the minor arts, as a branch of public school teaching. Later his system spread to England, Austria-Hungary, and other countries. He discovered the " Shelta " language, which was spoken by the Celtic tinkers, and was the famous lost lan- guage of the Irish bards, and his dis- covery was verified by Kuno Meyer, from manuscripts 1,000 years old. His publi- cations include Hans Breitmann's Bal- lads; France, Alsace, and Lorraine; Life of Abraham Lincoln; Industrial Work in Schools (United States Bureau of Educa- tion) ; One Hundred Profitable Arts; Etruscan - Roman Remains; Algonquian Legends; and many other works.
Leland Stanford, Junior, Univer- sity, the most generously endowed educa- tional institution in the world, was opened for the reception of students in 1891. It is situated at Palo Alto, a short distance south of San Francisco, and was founded by Senator Leland Stanford as a memo- rial to his son, Leland Stanford, Jr. The property which Senator Stanford set apart for its maintenance was valued at $20,000,000. His widow has since in- creased the amount of endowment, and in 1899 it represented a total of $45,000,000. The buildings were constructed without regard to their cost, and are nowhere surpassed in beauty and fitness. Many of them are of yellow sandstone, and the Moorish style of architecture has been followed in their construction. The courses of instruction embrace almost every department of study imaginable, and provide a complete system of educa- tion from the kindergarten to the post- graduate course. There are not only schools of agriculture, machine-shops, and laboratories for the study of the applied sciences, but there are colleges of art, of law, of medicine, and of music. The first president of the institution was Dr. David S. Jordan, formerly president of the State University of Indiana. At the close of the school year 1903 the univer- sity had 130 professors and instructors; 1,400 students in all departments; 80,000
357
LE MERCIER— LE MOYNE
volumes in its library; and 1,200 gradu- ates.
Le Mercier, FRANCIS JOSEPH. See JESUIT MISSIONS.
Lemmon, JOHN GILL, botanist; born in Lima, Mich., Jan. 2, 1832; received a normal school education; engaged in teaching; entered the University of Michigan, but left it to join the 4th .Michigan Cavalry, June 8, 1862; was captured in August, 1864; and became an Andersonville prisoner. In 1866 he went to California, where he engaged in botanical exploration. In 1880 he mar- ried SARA ALLEN PLTJMMER, herself a botanist, and together they explored the Pacific coast from Mexico to British Columbia, in search of specimens. He be- came a specialist in forestry, and for four years was botanist of the California State board of forestry. He has added several kinds of trees and numerous species of plants to accepted classifications. His publications include Recollections of Rebel Prisons; Ferns of the Pacific; Dis- covery of .the Potato • Handbook of West American Cone-Bearers, etc. His wife is author of Marine Algce of the West, and Western Ferns.
Le Moine, SAUVOLLE, royal governor; born in Montreal in 1671 ; accompanied the brothers Iberville and Bienville in their expedition to the mouth of the Mis- sissippi River, and was appointed the first governor of Louisiana in 1699. He was of feeble constitution; possessed brilliant talents, a remarkably fine personal appear- ance, and a large fortune. Racine pro- nounced him a poet; Bossuet predicted that he would become a great orator; and Villars called him a " marshal in em- bryo." These promises were unfulfilled. He died in Biloxi, Miss., July 22, 1701.
Le Moyne, FRANCIS JULIUS, physician; born in Washington, Pa., Sept. 4, 1798; received a collegiate education, and studied medicine in Philadelphia, and began prac- tice in his native town in 1822. He be- came a strong abolitionist in 1835; was the first nominee for Vice-President of the Liberty party, but declined to serve. Later he was several times the candidate of that party for governor of Pennsyl- vania. He is best known, however, through his advocacy of cremation. In 1876 he built the first crematory in the United
States, near Washington, Pa. He died in Washington, Pa., Oct. 14, 1879.
Le Moyne, SAMUEL. See JESUIT MIS- SIONS.
Le Moyne, the name of a distinguished Canadian family, members of which bore conspicuous parts in early American his- tory. They were descended from Charles of Normandy, who died in Montreal, Can- ada, in 1683. He went to Canada in 1641, where he became a famous Indian fighter. In 1668 Louis XIV. made him seigneur of Longueil, and subsequently of Chateau- gay. He had eleven sons, of whom BIEN- VILLE and IBERVILLE (qq. v.) were the most eminent.
CHARLES, first Sieur de Longueil, was born in Montreal, Dec. 10, 1656; died there, June 8, 1729. He was made a lieu- tenant - general of regulars in the royal army of France, and, returning to Can- ada, built churches and a fort at Lon- gueil. He fought the English assailants of Quebec under Phipps in 1690, and was made baron and governor of Montreal in 1700. Becoming commandant-general of Canada, he prepared to meet the expedi- tion against Quebec under Walker in 1711. In 1720 he was governor of Three Rivers, and again of Montreal in 1724. His in- fluence over the Indians was very great, and in 1726 the Senecas allowed him to rebuild Fort Niagara.
PAUL, Sieur de Maricourt, who was born in Montreal, Dec. 15, 1663, and died there March 21, 1704, distinguished himself under his brother Iberville in Hudson Bay. He commanded an expedition against the Iroquois, made peace with them in 1701, and acquired great influ- ence over them.
JOSEPH, Sieur de Se"rigny, was born in Montreal in July, 1668; died in Roche- fort, France, in 1734. In 1694 and 1697 he commanded squadrons to assist his brother Iberville in Hudson Bay, and brought over emigrants to Louisiana in a squadron to found a colony there. In 1718-19 he surveyed the coasts there, and took part in expeditions against the Span- iards at Pensacola and in Mobile Bay. In 1720 he commanded a ship-of-the-line, and died a rear-admiral of the royal navy. He was also governor of Rochefort at the time of his death, having been appointed in 1723.
358
LEND-A-HAND CLUBS— LESLIE
ANTOINE, Sieur de Chateaugay, was born books many rare manuscripts, mosaics,
in Montreal, July 7, 1683; died in Roche- statues, etc., he founded Lenox Library,
fort, France, March 21, 1747. He be- which, with its endowment, represented
longed to the royal army, and came with a value of $2,000,000. This institution
colonists to Louisiana in 1704, serving is now a part of the NEW YORK PUBLIC
under Iberville there against the English. LIBRARY (q. v.). He died in New York
He was made chief commandant of Louisi- City, Feb. 17, 1890.
ana in 1717, and King's lieutenant in the Lescarbot, MARC, author; born in
colony and knight of St. Louis in 1718. Vervins, France, in 1590. When, in 1606,
He was in command of Pensacola in 1719; Poutrincourt, who founded Port Royal,
a prisoner of war for a while afterwards in Acadia, returned from France with a
to the Spaniards; governor of Martinique; company of artisans and laborers, he was
and, returning to France in 1744, became accompanied by Lescarbot, who had then
governor of lie Royale, or Cape Breton, in become known as a lawyer, poet, and writ-
1745. er of a History of New France, published
Lend - a - Hand Clubs, organizations in 1609. He came to assist Poutrincourt
that originated in 1871 from Edward in establishing his colony on a firm basis.
Everett Kale's famous book, Ten Times While Champlain and De Monts were
One is Ten, published during the previous looking for a milder climate farther south,
year. Any club or society of people of Lescarbot took charge of the fort. With
whatever name may become a lend-a-hand great energy he planted, builded, and
club if it accepts the Wadsworth mottoes wrote rhymes, and infused into his subor-
from the story, Ten Times One is Ten. dinates some of his own energy. When
These mottoes are: Champlain returned, he was greeted by a
theatrical masque, composed by the poet,
"Loo* Z^aTnd'To"' back, »' whi<* Neptune and his Tritons wel-
Look out and not in, corned the mariner. The dreary winter
Lend a hand." that followed was enlivened by the estab- lishment of an " Order of Good Times "
Each lend-a-hand club makes its own by Lescarbot, the duties of the members
constitution and chooses its own line of consisting in the preparation of good
work without interference from the cen- cheer daily for the table. In the spring
tral office. the colonists were summoned to France
L'Enfant, PETER CHARLES, engineer; by a revocation of their charter. Lescar-
born in France in 1755; came to Amer- bot died about 1630.
ica with Lafayette and entered the Con- Leslie, ALEXANDER, military officer; tinental army as an engineer in 1777. born in England about 1740; came to He was made a captain in February, 1778; Boston with General Howe in 1775; was was severely wounded at the siege of made a major in June, 1759; a lieutenant- Savannah in 1779; served under the im- colonel in 1762; and was a brigadier- mediate command of Washington after- general when he came to America. In the wards; and was made a major in May, battle of Long Island, in 1776, he com- 1783. The "order," or jewel, of the So- manded the light infantry, and was in ciety of the Cincinnati was designed by the battle of Harlem Plains in September, Major L'Enfant. He was also author of and of White Plains in October following, the plan of the city of Washington. In General Leslie accompanied Sir Henry 1812 he was appointed Professor of Engi- Clinton against Charleston in April and neering at West Point, but declined. He May, 1780. In October he took possession died in Prince George's county, Md., June of Portsmouth, Va., with 3,000 troops, but 14, 1825. soon hastened to join Cornwallis in the
Lenox, JAMES, philanthropist; born in Carolinas, which he did in December. In New York City, Aug. 19, 1800; fell heir the battle of Guilford, he commanded the to a fortune of several millions of dollars right wing. General Leslie was in corn- in 1839. He was deeply interested in col- mand at Charleston at the close of hos- lecting rare books, including many on tilities. He died in England, Dec. 27, American history. After adding to these 1794.
359
LESSEES— LEWIS
Lesseps, FERDINAND MARIE, VISCOUNT votes. He is vice-president of the Amer- DE. See PANAMA CANAL. ican Baptist Publication Society; presi-
Lester, CHARLES EDWARDS, author ; born dent of the board of trustees of the in Griswold, Conn., July 15, 1815. His Southern Baptist Theological Seminary; publications include Life and Voyages of and Has been at the head of other chari- Americus Vespucius; Life of Charles table and religious organizations. Sumner; Our First Hundred Years; Lever-more, CHARLES HERBERT, educa- America's Advancement; History of the tor; born in Mansfield, Conn., Oct. 15, United States, in Five Great Periods; etc. 1856; graduated at Yale College in He died in Detroit, Mich., in 1890. 1879; became Professor of History in the
Letcher, JOHN, lawyer; born in Lexing- University of California in 1886, and held ton, Va., March 29, 1813; was graduated the same chair in the Massachusetts In- at Randolph-Macon College in 1833; ad- stitute of Technology in 1888-93. He was mitted to the bar in 1839, and practised made president of Adelphi College, in his native town; was a member of Brooklyn, in 1896. His publications in- Congress in 1852-59; and governor of Vir- elude The Republic of New Haven; Syl- ginia in 1860-64. While he was governor labus of Lectures upon Political History the State legislature passed its secession since 1815, etc.
ordinance, and, without waiting for it to Levy, URIAH PHILLIPS, naval officer; be voted on by the people, he turned over born in Pennsylvania about 1795; joined the entire forces of the State to the Con- the navy in 1812, and was assigned to duty federacy. He died in Lexington, Va., Jan. on the Argus. When that vessel was capt- 26, 1884. ured he was held a prisoner for two
Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer, years; was promoted captain in March, See DICKINSON, JOHN. 1844. He wrote a Manual of Internal
Letters of Marque. See MARQUE AND Rules and Regulations for Men-of-War REPRISAL, LETTERS OF. He died in New York City, March 22,
Leutze, EMANUEL, artist; born in 1862.
Gmiind, Wiirtemburg, May 24, 1816; was Lewis, ANDREW, military officer; born brought to the United States during in- in Donegal, Ireland, in 1730, of a Hugue- fancy. His paintings include Columbus not family which came to Virginia in Before the Council of Salamanca; Colum- 1732. Andrew was a volunteer to take bus in Chains; Columbus Before the possession of the Ohio region in 1754; Queen; Landing of the Norsemen in Amer- was with Washington; and was major of ica; Washington Crossing the Delaware; a Virginian regiment at Braddock's de- Washington at Monmouth; Washington at feat. In the expedition under Major the Battle of Monongahela; News from Grant, in 1758, he was made prisoner and Lexington; Sergeant Jasper; Washington taken to Montreal. In 1768 he was a com- at Princeton; Lafayette in Prison at 01- missioner to treat with the Indians at Fort mutz Visited by His Relatives; etc. In Stanwix; was appointed a brigadier-gen- 1860 he was chosen by the United States eral in 1774, and on Oct. 10, that year, he government to make a large mural paint- fought a severe battle with a formidable ing on one of the staircases in the Capitol, Indian force at Point Pleasant, and gained entitled Westward the Star of Empire a victory. In the Virginia House of Bur- Takes Its Way. He died in Washington, gesses, and in the field, he was a bold D. C., July 18, 1868. patriot. A colonel in the army, he com-
Levees. See MISSISSIPPI RIVER (Mod- manded the Virginia troops that drove ern Improvements). Lord Dunmore from Virginian waters.
Levering, JOSHUA, prohibitionist; In that expedition he caught a cold, from born in Baltimore, Md., Sept. 12, 1845; the effects of which he died, in Bedford was first a Democrat, and then a Prohi- county, Sept. 26, 1781. His four brothers bitionist. In 1896 he was the candidate — Samuel, Thomas, Charles, and William of the National Prohibition party for — were all distinguished in military an- President of the United States, with Hale nals. His statue occupies one of the Johnson for Vice-President. The ticket pedestals around Crawford's Washington received 132,007 popular but no electoral monument at Richmond.
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LEWIS
Lewis, CHARLES B., humorist; born in Ohio in 1842; graduated at Michigan Agricultural College, In 1869 he began writing for the Detroit Free Press. He soon became widely known as a humorist and as a descriptive writer. His contri- butions to the Free Press soon ran its circulation from 5,000 to 250,000 copies. Most of his newspaper work was pub- lished under the pen - name of " M. Quad." His other publications include Field, Fort, and Fleet; A Sketch Book of the Civil War; The Lime-Kiln Club; Sawcd-Off Sketches; Mr. and Mrs. Bow- ser; Quad's Odds; and a number of plays.
Lewis, FRANCIS, signer of the Declara- tion of Independence; born in Llandaff, Wales, in March, 1713; educated at West- minster School, he became a merchant, and emigrated to America in 1734. He was aide to Colonel Mercer after the capture of Oswego by the French in 1757, and was, with other prisoners, taken to Canada
and thence to France. For his services the British government gave him 5,000 acres of land. Patriotic and active, he was a member of the Stamp Act Congress in 1765. He was a delegate from New York in the Continental Congress from 1775 to 1779. Settled on Long Island, which abounded with Tories, he suffered much from the destruction of his property by this class of citizens. They caused the death of his wife by brutally confining her in a prison for several months. To his patriotism he sacrificed most of his property, and died poor, in New York City, Dec. 30, 1802.
Lewis, LAWRENCE, lawyer; born in Philadelphia, Pa., June 20, 1857; grad- uated at the University of Pennsylva- nia in 1876, and was admitted to the bar in 1879. His publications include Courts of Pennsylvania in the Seventeenth Cen- tury; History of the Bank of North America; Memoir of Edward Shippen, Chief-Justice of Pennsylvania.
LEWIS, MEBIWETHEB
Lewis, MERI WETHER. On Aug. 18, 1813, Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to Paul Allen, of Philadelphia, gave the following review of the life and work of this dis- tinguished explorer:
Sir, — In compliance with the request conveyed in your letter of May 25, I have endeavored to obtain, from the relations and friends of the late Governor Lewis, information of such incidents of his life as might be not unacceptable to those who may read the narrative of his Western dis- coveries. The ordinary occurrences of a private life, and those, also, while acting in a subordinate sphere in the army in a time of peace, are not deemed sufficiently interesting to occupy the public attention; but a general account of his parentage, with such smaller incidents as marked his early character, are briefly noted, and to these are added, as being peculiarly within my own knowledge, whatever related to the public mission, of which an account is now to be published. The result of my inquiries and recollections shall now be offered, to be enlarged or abridged as you may think best, or otherwise to be used
with the materials you may have collected from other sources.
Meriwether Lewis, late governor of Louisiana, was born on Aug. 18, 1774, near the town of Charlottesville, in the county of Albemarle, in Virginia, of one of the distinguished families of that State. John Lewis, one of his father's uncles, was a member of the King's council before the Revolution. An- other of them, Fielding Lewis, married a sister of General Washington. His father, William Lewis, was the youngest of five sons of Col. Robert Lewis, of Albe- marle, the fourth of whom, Charles, was one of the early patriots who stepped for- ward in the commencement of the Revolu- tion, and commanded one of the regiments first raised in Virginia, and placed on Continental establishment. Happily situ- ated at home, with a wife and young fam- ily, and a fortune placing him at ease, he left all to aid in the liberation of his country from foreign usurpations, then first unmasking their ultimate end and aim. His good sense, integrity, bravery, enterprise, and remarkable bodily powers marked him as an officer of great prorn-
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ise; but he unfortunately died early in even in infancy for enterprise, boldness, the Revolution. Nicholas Lewis, the sec- and discretion. When only eight years of ond of his father's brothers, commanded age he habitually went out, in the dead of a regiment of militia in the successful ex- night, alone with his dogs, into the forest, pedition of 1776 against the Cherokee Ind- to hunt the raccoon and opossum, which, ians, who, seduced by the agents of the seeking their food in the night, can then
only be taken. In this exercise, no season or circumstance could obstruct his pur- pose— plunging through the winter's snows and frozen streams in pursuit of his ob- ject.
At thirteen he was put to the Latin school, and continued at that until eigh- teen, when he returned to his mother, and entered on the cares of his farm, hav- ing, as well as a younger brother, been left by his father with a competency for all the correct and comfortable purposes of temperate life. His talent for ob- servation, which had led him to an ac- curate knowledge of the plants and ani- mals of his own country, would have dis- tinguished him as a farmer; but, at the age of twenty, yielding to the ardor of youth and a passion for more dazzling pursuits, he engaged as a volunteer in the body of militia which were called out by General Washington on occasion of the discontents produced by the excise taxes British government to take up the hatchet in the western parts of the United States, against us, had committed great havoc on and from that situation he was removed our Southern frontier by murdering and to the regular service as a lieutenant in scalping helpless women and children, the line. At twenty- three he was pro- according to their cruel and cowardly moted to a captaincy; and, always attract- principles of warfare. The chastisement ing the first attention where punctuality they then received closed the history of and fidelity were requisite, he was ap- their wars, and prepared them for receiv- pointed paymaster to his regiment. About ing the elements of civilization, which, this time a circumstance occurred which, zealously inculcated by the present gov- leading to the transaction which is the ernment of the United States, have ren- subject of this book, will justify a recur- dered them an industrious, peaceable, and rence to its original idea. While I re- happy people. This member of the family sided in Paris, John Ledyard, of Connecti- of Lewises, whose bravery was so usefully cut, arrived there, well known in the proved on this occasion, was endeared to United States for energy of body and all who knew him by his inflexible probity, mind. He had accompanied Captain courteous disposition, benevolent heart, Cook on his voyage to the Pacific Ocean, and engaging modesty and manners. He and distinguished himself on that voy- was the umpire of all the private differ- age by his intrepidity. Being of a roam- ences of his county — selected always by ing disposition, he was now panting for both parties. He was also the guardian some new enterprise. His immediate ob- of Meriwether Lewis, of whom we are now ject at Paris was to engage a mercantile to speak, and who had lost his father at an company in the fur-trade of the western early age. He continued some years under coast of America, in which, however, he the fostering care of a tender mother of failed. I then proposed to him to go by the respectable family 6f Meriwethers, of land to Kamchatka, cross in some of the the same county, and was remarkable Russian vessels to Nootka Sound, fall
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LEWIS, MERIWETHER
down into the latitude of the Missouri, obtain for him the execution of that ob- and penetrate to, and through, that to ject. I told him it was proposed that the the United States. He eagerly seized the person engaged should be attended by a idea, and only asked to be assured of the single companion only, to avoid exciting permission of the Russian government. I alarm among the Indians. This did not interested in obtaining that M. de Simou- deter him ; but Mr. Andr6 Michaux, a lin, minister plenipotentiary of the Em- professed botanist, author of the Flora press at Paris, but more especially the Boreali- Americana, and of the Histoire Baron de Grimm, minister plenipotenti- des Chesnes d'Amerique, offering his ser- ary of Saxe-Gotha, her more special agent vices, they were accepted. He received and correspondent there in matters not his instructions; and, when he had reached immediately diplomatic. Her permission Kentucky in the prosecution of his jour- was obtained, and an assurance of protec- ney, he was overtaken by an order from tion while the course of the voyage should the minister of France, then at Phila- be through her territories. Ledyard set delphia, to relinquish the expedition, out from Paris, and arrived at St. Peters- and to pursue elsewhere the botanical burg after the Empress had left that inquiries on which he was employed place to pass the winter, I think, at Mos- by that government; and thus failed cow. the second attempt for exploring that
His finances not permitting him to region.
make unnecessary stay at St. Peters- In 1803 the act for establishing trad- burg, he left it with a passport from one ing- houses with the Indian tribes being of the ministers, and at 200 miles from about to expire, some modifications of Kamchatka was obliged to take up his it were recommended to Congress by a winter - quarters. He was preparing, in confidential message of Jan. 18, and an the spring, to resume his journey, when he extension of its views to the Indians on was arrested by an officer of the Empress, the Missouri. In order to prepare the who by this time had changed her mind, way, the message proposed the sending and forbidden his proceeding. He was put an exploring party to trace the Missouri into a close carriage, and conveyed day to its source; to cross the highlands, and and night, without ever stopping, till they follow the best water communication reached Poland, where he was set down which offered itself from thence to the and left to himself. The fatigue of this Pacific Ocean. Congress approved the journey broke down his constitution; and proposition, and voted a sum of money for when he returned to Paris his bodily carrying it into execution. Captain Lewis, strength was much impaired. His mind, who had then been nearly two years however, remained firm; and he after this with me as private secretary, immediately undertook the journey to Egypt. I re- renewed his solicitations to have the di- ceived a letter from him, full of sanguine rection of the party. I had now had hopes, dated at Cairo, Nov. 15, 1788, opportunities of knowing him intimately, the day before he was to set out for the Of courage undaunted; possessing a firm- head of the Nile, on which day, how- ness and perseverance of purpose which ever, he ended his career and life; and nothing but impossibilities could divert thus failed the first attempt to explore from its direction; careful as a father the western part of our northern conti- of those committed to his charge, yet nent. steady in the maintenance of order and
In 1792 I proposed to the American discipline; intimate with the Indian char- Philosophical Society that we should set acter, customs, and principles; habituat- on foot a subscription to engage some ed to the hunting life; guarded, by exact competent person to explore that region observation of the vegetables and ani- in the opposite direction; that is, by as- mals of his own country, against losing cending the Missouri, crossing the Stony time in the description of objects already Mountains, and descending the nearest possessed; honest, disinterested, liberal, river to the Pacific. Captain Lewis, being of sound understanding, and a fidelity to then stationed at Charlottesville, on the truth so scrupulous that whatever he recruiting service, warmly solicited me to should report would be as certain as if
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LEWIS, MERIWETHER
seen by ourselves — with all these qualifica- been already provided. Light articles tions, as if selected and implanted by for barter and presents among the Ind- nature in one body for this express pur- ians, arms for your attendants, say for pose, I could have no hesitation in con- from ten to twelve men, boats, tents, and tiding the enterprise to him. To fill up other travelling apparatus, with ammuni- the measure desired, he wanted nothing tion, medicine, surgical instruments, and but a greater familiarity with the techni- provisions, you will have prepared, with cal language of the natural sciences and such aids as the Secretary at War can readiness in the astronomical observa- yield in his department; and from him tions necessary for the geography of his also you will receive authority to engage route. To acquire these he repaired im- among our troops, by voluntary agree- mediately to Philadelphia, and placed rnent, the number of attendants above himself under the tutorage of the dis- mentioned, over whom you, as their com- tinguished professors of that place, who, manding officer, are invested with all the with a zeal and emulation enkindled by powers the laws give in such a case, o.n ardent devotion to science, communi- " As your movements while within the cated to him freely the information limits of the United States will be better requisite for the purposes of the journey, directed by occasional communications, While attending, too, at Lancaster, the adapted to circumstances as they rise, fabrication of the arms with which he they will not be noticed here. What fol- chose that his men should be provided, he lows will respect your proceedings after had the benefit of daily communication your departure from the United States. with Mr. Andrew Ellicot, whose experience " Your mission has been communicated in astronomical observation, and practice to the ministers here from France, Spain, of it in the woods, enabled him to apprise and Great Britain, and through them to Captain Lewis of the wants and difficul- their governments, and such assurances ties he would encounter, and of the sub- given them as to its objects as we trust stitutes and resources offered by a wood- will satisfy them. The country of Louisi- land and uninhabited country. ana having been ceded by Spain to France,
Deeming it necessary he should have the passport you have from the minister
some person with him of known compe-- of France, the representative of the pres-
tenee to the direction of the enterprise, in ent sovereign of the country, will be a
the event of accident to himself, he pro- protection with all its subjects; and that
posed William Clarke, brother of Gen. from the minister of England will entitle
George Rogers Clarke, who was approved, you to the friendly aid of any traders of
and, with that view, received a commission that allegiance with whom you happen to
of captain. meet.
In April, 1803, a draft of his in- "The object of your mission is to ex-
structions were sent to Captain Lewis, plore the Missouri River, and such princi-
and on June 20 they were signed in the pal streams of it as, by its course and
following form: communication with the waters of the Pa-
" To Meriwether Lewis, Esq., captain of cific Ocean, whether the Columbia, Ore-
the 1st Regiment of Infantry of the Unit- gon, Colorado, or any other river, may
ed States of America: offer the most direct and practicable
" Your situation as secretary of the water communication across the continent I'resident of the United States has made for the purposes of commerce, you acquainted with the objects of my " Beginning at the mouth of the Mis- confidential message of Jan. 18, 1803, to souri, you will take observations of lati- the legislature; you have seen the act tude and longitude at all remarkable they passed, which, though expressed in points on the river, and especially at the general terms, was meant to sanction mouths of rivers, at rapids, at islands, those objects, and you are appointed to and other places and objects distinguished carry them into execution. by such natural marks and characters, of
" Instruments for ascertaining, by celes- a durable kind, as that they may with
tial observations, the geography of the certainty be recognized hereafter. The
country, through which you will pass have courses of the river between these points
3G4
LEWIS, MERIWETHER
of observation may be supplied by the compass, the log-line, and by time, cor- rected by the observations themselves. The variations of the needle, too, in differ- ent places should be noticed.
" The interesting points of the portage between the heads of the Missouri and of the water offering the best communication with the Pacific Ocean, should also be fixed by observation, and the course of that water to the ocean in the same man- ner as that of the Missouri.
" Your observations are to be taken with great pains and accuracy; to be en- tered distinctly and intelligibly for others as well as yourself; to comprehend all the elements necessary, with the aid of the usual tables, to fix the latitude and longitude of the places at which they were taken; and are to be rendered to the War Office, for the purpose of having the cal- culations made concurrently by proper persons within the United States. Sev- eral copies of these, as well as of your other notes, should be made at leisure times, and put into the care of the most trustworthy of your attendants to guard, by multiplying them, against the acciden- tal losses to which they will be exposed. A further guard would be that one of these copies be on the cuticular mem- branes of the paper-birch, as less liable to injury from damp than common pa- per.
" The commerce which may be carried on with the people inhabiting the line you will pursue renders a knowledge of those people important. You will therefore endeavor to make yourself acquainted, as far as a diligent pursuit of your journey shall admit, with the names of the nations and their numbers;
" The extent and limits of their posses- sions ;
" Their relations with other tribes or nations ;
" Their language, traditions, monu- ments ;
" Their ordinary occupations in agri- culture, fishing, hunting, war, arts, and the implements for these;
" Their food, clothing, and domestic ac- commodations ;
" The diseases prevalent among them, and the remedies they use;
" Moral and physical circumstances
which distinguish them from the tribes we know;
" Peculiarities in their laws, customs, and dispositions;
" And articles of commerce they may need or furnish, and to what extent.
" And, considering the interest which every nation has in extending and strengthening the authority of reason and justice among the people around them, it will be useful to acquire what knowledge you can of the state of morality, religion, and information among them, as it may better enable those who may endeavor to civilize and instruct them to adapt their measures to the existing notions and practices of those on whom they are to operate.
" Other objects worthy of notice will be—
" The soil and face of the country, its growth and vegetable productions, espe- cially those not of the United States;
" The animals of the country generally, and especially those not known in the United States;
" The remains and accounts of any which may be deemed rare or extinct;
" The mineral productions of every kind, but more particularly metals, limestone, pit-coal, and saltpetre, salines and min- eral waters, noting the temperature of the last, and such circumstances as may in- dicate their character;
"'Volcanic appearances ;
" Climate as characterized by the ther- mometer, by the proportion of rainy, cloudy, and clear days; by lightning, hail, snow, ice; by the access and recess of frost; by the winds prevailing at different seasons; the dates at which particular plants put forth or lose their flower or leaf; times of appearance of particular birds, reptiles, or insects.
" Although your route will be along the channel of the Missouri, yet you will en- deavor to inform yourself, by inquiry, of the character and extent of the country watered by its branches, and especially on its southern side. The North River, or Rio Bravo, which runs into the Gulf of Mexico, and the North River, or Rio Colo- rado, which runs into the Gulf of Califor- nia, are understood to be the principal streams heading opposite to the waters of the Missouri, and running southwardly.
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LEWIS, MERIWETHER
Whether the dividing-grounds between the Missouri and them are mountains or flat lands, what are their distance from the Missouri, the character of the interme- diate country, and the people inhabiting it, are worthy of particular inquiry. The northern waters of the Missouri are less to be inquired after, because they have been ascertained to a considerable degree, and are still in a course of ascertainment by English traders and travellers; but, if you can learn anything certain of the most northern source of the Mississippi, and of its position relatively to the Lake of the Woods, it will be interesting to us. Some account, too, of the path of the Canadian traders from the Mississippi, at the mouth of the Ouisconsing to where it strikes the Missouri, and of the soil and rivers in its course, is desirable.
" In all your intercourse with the na- tives, treat them in the most friendly and conciliatory manner which their own con- duct will admit; allay all jealousies as to the object of your journey; satisfy them of its innocence; make them acquainted with the position, extent, character, peace- able and commercial dispositions of the United States, of our wish to be neigh- borly, friendly, and useful to them, and of our disposition to a commercial inter- course with them; confer with them on the points most convenient as mutual em- poriums and the articles of most desir- able interchange for them and us. If a few of their influential chiefs, within prac- ticable distance, wish to visit us, arrange such a visit with them, and furnish them with authority to call on our officers on their entering the United States, to have them conveyed to this place at the public expense. If any of them should wish to have some of their young people brought up with us, and taught such arts as may be useful to them, we will receive, in- struct, and take care of them. Such a mission, whether of influential chiefs or of young people, would give some security to your own party. Carry with you some matter of the kine-pox, inform those of them with whom you may be of its effi- cacy as a preservative from the small-pox, and instruct and encourage them in the use of it. This may be especially done wherever you winter.
" As it is impossible for us to foresee
in what manner you will be received by those people, whether with hospitality or hostility, so is it impossible to prescribe the exact degree of perseverance with which you are to pursue your journey. We value too much the lives of citizens to offer them to probable destruction. Your numbers will be sufficient to secure you against the unauthorized opposition of individuals or of small parties; but, if a superior force, authorized or not author- ized by a nation, should be arrayed against your further passage, and inflexi- bly determined to arrest it, you must de- cline its further pursuit and return. In the loss of yourselves we should lose also the information you will have acquired. By returning safely with that, you may enable us to renew the essay with better- calculated means. To your own discre- tion, therefore, must be left the degree of danger you may risk and the point at which you should decline, only saying, we wish you to err on the side of your safety, and to bring back your party safe, even if it be with less information.
" As far up the Missouri as the white settlements extend, an intercourse will probably be found to exist between them and the Spanish posts of St. Louis op- posite Cahokia, or St. Genevieve opposite Kaskaskia. From still farther up the river the traders may furnish a convey- ance for letters. Beyond that you may perhaps be able to engage Indians to bring letters for the government to Cahokia or Kaskaskia, on promising that they shall there receive such special compensation as you shall have stipulated with them. Avail yourself of these means to com- municate to us, at seasonable intervals, a copy of your journal, notes, and observa- tions of every kind, putting into cipher whatever might do injury if betrayed.
" Should you reach the Pacific Ocean, inform yourself of the circumstances which may decide whether the furs of those parts may not be collected as ad- vantageously at the head of the Missouri (convenient as is supposed to the waters of the Colorado and Oregon or Columbia) as at Nootka Sound, or any other point of that coast; and that trade be consequent- ly conducted through the Missouri and United States more beneficially than by the circumnavigation now practised.
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LEWIS, MERIWETHER
" On your arrival on that coast, en- failure of the enterprise, you are hereby deavor to learn if there be any port within authorized, by any instrument signed and your reach frequented by the sea vessels written in your own hand, to name the of any nation, and to send two of your person among them who shall succeed to trusty people back by sea, in such way as the command on your decease, and by like shall appear practicable, with a copy of instruments to change the nomination, your notes; and should you be of opinion from time to time, as further experience that the return of your party by the way of the characters accompanying you shall they went will be imminently dangerous, point out superior fitness; and all the then ship the whole, and return by sea, powers and authorities given to yourself by the way either of Cape Horn or the are, in the event of your death, trans- Cape of Good Hope, as you shall be able, f erred to, and vested in, the successor so As you will be without money, clothes, or named, and further power to him and his provisions, you must endeavor to use the successors, in like manner to name each credit of the United States to obtain them, his successor, who, on the death of his for which purpose open letters of credit predecessor, shall be invested with all shall be furnished you, authorizing you to the powers and authorities given to your- draw on the executive of the United self. Given under my hand at the city States, or any of its officers, in any part of Washington, this twentieth day of of the world, on which drafts can be June, 1803. THOMAS JEFFERSON, disposed of, and to apply with our recom- " President of the United States of mendations to the consuls, agents, mer- America."
chants, or citizens of any nation with While these things were going on here,
which we have intercourse, assuring them, the country of Louisiana, lately ceded
in our name, that any aids they may fur- by Spain to France, had been the subject
nish you shall be honorably repaid, and of negotiation at Paris between us and
on demand. Our consuls, Thomas Hewes, this last power, and had actually been
at Batavia, in Java, William Buchanan, transferred to us by treaties executed at
in the Isles of France and Bourbon, and Paris on April 30. This information,
John Elmslie, at the Cape of Good Hope, received about the first day of July, in-
will be able to supply your necessities by creased infinitely the interest we felt in
drafts on us. the expedition, and lessened the appre-
" Should you find it safe to return by hensions of interruption from other pow- the way you go, after sending two of your ers. Everything in this quarter being party round by sea, or with your whole now prepared, Captain Lewis left Wash- party, if no conveyance by sea can be ington on July 5, 1803, and proceeded to found, do so, making such observations on Pittsburg, where other articles had been your return as may serve to supply, cor- ordered to be provided for him. The men, rect, or confirm those made on your out- too, were to be selected from the military ward journey. stations on the Ohio. Delays of prepa-
" On re-entering the United States and ration, difficulties of navigation down the reaching a place of safety, discharge any Ohio, and other untoward obstructions, of your attendants who may desire and retarded his arrival at Cahokia until the deserve it, procuring for them immediate season was so far advanced as to render payment of all arrears of pay and cloth- it prudent to suspend his entering the ing which may have incurred since their Missouri before the ice should break up, departure, and assure them that they in the succeeding spring, shall be recommended to the liberality of From this time his journal, now pub- the legislature for the grant of a soldier's lished, will give the history of his jour- portion of land each, as proposed in my ney to and from the Pacific Ocean, until message to Congress, and repair yourself, his return to St. Louis on Sept. 23, with your papers, to the seat of govern- 1806. Never did a similar event excite ment. more joy through the United States. The
" To provide, on the accident of your humblest of its citizens had taken a live- death, against anarchy, dispersion, and the ly interest in the issue of this journey, consequent danger to your party, and total and looked forward with impatience for
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LEWIS, MERIWETHEB,
the information it would furnish. Their returned upon him with redoubled vigor,
anxieties, too, for the safety of the corps and began seriously to alarm his friends,
had been kept in a state of excitement by lie was in a paroxysm of one of these
lugubrious rumors, circulated from time when his affairs rendered it necessary for
to time on uncertain authorities, and un- him to go to Washington. He proceeded
contradicted by letters or other direct in- to the Chickasaw Bluffs, where he arrived
formation, from the time they had left on Sept. 16, 1809, with a view of continu-
the Mandan towns, on their ascent up ing his journey thence by water. Mr.
the river in April of the preceding year, Neely, agent of the United States with
1805, until their actual return to St. the Chickasaw Indians, arriving there two
Louis. days after, found him extremely indis-
II was in the middle of February, 1807, posed, and betraying at times some symp-
before Captain Lewis, with his compan- toms of a derangement of mind. The
ion, Captain Clarke, reached the city of rumors of a war with England, and ap-
Washington, where Congress was then in prehensions that he might lose the papers
session. That body granted the two chiefs he was bringing on, among which were
and their followers the donation of lands the vouchers of his public accounts and
which they had been encouraged to ex- the journals and papers of his Western
pect in reward of their toil and dangers, expedition, induced him here to change
Captain Lewis was soon afterwards ap- his mind, and to take his course by land
pointed governor of Louisiana, and Cap- through the Chickasaw country. Al-
tain Clarke a general of its militia, and though he appeared somewhat relieved,
agent of the United States for Indian af- Mr. Neely kindly determined to accom-
fairs in that department. pany and watch over him. Unfortunate-
A considerable time intervened before ly, at their encampment, after having
the governor's arrival at St. Louis. He passed the Tennessee one day's journey,
found the territory distracted by feuds they lost two horses, which obliging Mr.
and contentions among the officers of the Neely to halt for their recovery, the gov-
government, and the people themselves ernor proceeded, under a promise to wait
divided by these into factions and parties, for him at the house of the first white
He determined at once to take no side with inhabitant on his road. He stopped at
either, but to use every endeavor to con- the house of a Mr. Grinder, who not
ciliate and harmonize them. The even- being at home, his wife, alarmed at the
handed justice he administered to all symptoms of derangement she discovered,
soon established a respect for his person gave him up the house, and retired
and authority; and perseverance and time to rest herself in an out-house, the
wore down animosities, and reunited the governor's and Neely's servants lodg-
citizens again into one family. ing in another. About three o'clock in
Governor Lewis had, from early life, the night he did the deed which plunged
been subject to hypochondriac affections, his friends into affliction and deprived
It was a constitutional disposition in all his country of one of her most valued
the nearer branches of the family of his citizens, whose valor and intelligence
name, and was more immediately in- would have been now employed in aveng-
herited by him from his father. They ing the wrongs of his country, and in
had not, however, been so strong as to emulating by land the splendid deeds
give uneasiness to his family. While he which have honored her arms on the
lived with me in Washington, I observed ocean. It lost, too, to the nation the
at times sensible depressions of mind; benefit of receiving from his own hand
but, knowing their constitutional source, the narrative now offered them of his
I estimated their course by what I had sufferings and successes, in endeavoring
seen in the family. During his Western to extend for them the boundaries of
expedition the constant exertion which science, and to present to their knowl-
that required of all the faculties of body edge that vast and fertile country which
and mind suspended these distressing their sons are destined to fill with arts,
affections; but, after his establishment at with science, with freedom and happi-
St. Louis in sedentary occupations, they ness.
368
LEWIS— LEXINGTON AND CONCORD
To this melancholy close of the life of graduated at Haverford College in 1888. one whom posterity will declare not to He became instructor of legal history in have lived in vain I have only to add the University of Pennsylvania in 1891; that all the facts I have stated are either was lecturer on economics in Haverford known to myself or communicated by his College in 1890-96, and then became dean family or others, for whose truth I have of the law department of the University no hesitation to make myself responsible; of Pennsylvania. He has edited new and I conclude with tendering you the editions of Wharton's Criminal Law; assurances of my respect and considera- Greenleaf's Evidence, and Blackstone's tion. Commentaries) and also the American
Lewis, MORGAN, jurist; born in New Law Register, and a Digest of Decisions York City, Oct. 16, 1754; son of Francis of the United States Supreme Court and Lewis; graduated at Princeton in 1773. Circuit Court of Appeals. He was the He studied law with John Jay, and join- co-editor of the Digest of Decisions and ed the army at Cambridge in June, 1775. Encyclopaedia of Pennsylvania Law, and He was on the staff of General Gates of Pepper & Lewis's Digest of Statutes of with the rank of colonel in January, Pennsylvania. He is author of Federal 1776, and soon afterwards became quar- Power Over Commerce and Its Effect on termaster-general of the Northern army. State Action; Our Sheep and the Tariff, He was active during the war, and at etc.
its close was admitted to the bar, and Lexington and Concord. In the early practised in Dutchess county, N. Y. He spring of 1775, General Gage had between was a judge of the court of common 3,000 and 4,000 troops in Boston, and felt pleas and of the superior court of the strong in the presence of rebellious utter- State in 1792, being, the year before, at- ances that filled the air. He observed torney-general. He was chief-justice in with concern the gathering of munitions 1801, and governor from 1804 to 1807. of war by the colonists. Informed that a In 1812 he was appointed quartermaster- considerable quantity had been deposited general with the rank of brigadier-general, at Concord, a village about 16 miles from and was promoted to major-general in Boston, he planned a secret expedition to 1813. He was active on the Niagara seize or destroy them. Towards midnight, frontier in 1814, and was placed in com- on April 18, he sent 800 men, under Lieu- mand of the defences of the city of New tenant-Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, York. After the war he devoted himself to execute his designs. The vigilant pa- to literature and agriculture. In 1832 triots had discovered the secret, and were he delivered the address on the cen- on the alert, and when the expedition tennial of Washington's birth before the moved to cross the Charles River, Paul city authorities, and in 1835 became Revere, one of the most active of the Sons president of the New York Historical So- of Liberty in Boston, had preceded them, ciety. He died in New York City, April and was on his way towards Concord 7, 1844. to arouse the inhabitants and the min-
Lewis, THEODORE HAYES, archaeologist; ute-men. Soon afterwards church bells, born in Richmond, Va., Dec. 15, 1854; re- musketry, and cannon spread the alarm ceived a common school education, and over the country; and when, at dawn, engaged in explorations and archaeological April 19, Pitcairn, with the advanced surveys in the Mississippi basin in 1880. guard, reached Lexington, a little village The results of his investigations are pub- 6 miles from Concord, he found seventy lished in the American Journal of Archce- determined men, under Capt. Jonas ology ; the American Antiquarian; the Parker, drawn up on the green to oppose American Naturalist; The Archceologist ; him. Pitcairn rode forward and shouted, Magazine of American History; Apple- "Disperse! disperse, you rebels! Down ton's Annual Cyclopaedia, etc. He is with your arms, and disperse!" They re- also the author of Tracts for Archceolo- fused obedience, and he ordered his men gists. to fire. The order was obeyed, and the
Lewis, WILLIAM DRAPER, lawyer; born Revolutionary War was thus begun, in Philadelphia, Pa., April 27, 1867; Eight minute-men — good citizens of Mas- V. — 2 A 369
LEXINGTON AND CONCORD
BATTLE OF LEXINGTON.
sachusetts — were killed, several others were wounded, and the remainder were dispersed. It was now sunrise. On that occasion Jonathan Harrington, a youth of seventeen years, played the fife.
The British then pressed forward tow- ards Concord. The citizens there had been aroused by a horseman from Lexing-
ton, and the militia were nocking towards the town from every direction. The stores were hastily removed to a place of con- cealment, in carts and other vehicles, by men, women, and children. The Middle- sex farmers, armed with every conceivable kind of fire-arms, were drawn up in battle array in defence of their homes and their
370
LEXINGTON AND CONCORD
chartered rights. Major Buttrick and bee, Newfoundland, Boston, or Georgia Adj. Joseph Hosmer took the chief com- were detained — the latter colony not hav- mand. The British had reached the North ing yet sent delegates to the Continental Bridge. Colonel Barrett, then in com- Congress. The New - Yorkers addressed a mand of the whole, gave the word to letter to the mayor and aldermen of Lon- march, and a determined force, under don — from whom Boston, in its distress, Major Buttrick, pressed forward to op- had received sympathy and aid — declaring pose the invaders, who were beginning to that all the horrors of civil war could not destroy the bridge. The minute-men were compel the colonists to submit to taxa- fired upon by the British, when a full vol- tion by the British Parliament. The in- ley was returned by the patriots. Some habitants of Philadelphia followed those of the invaders fell; the others retreated, of the city of New York. Those of New They had destroyed only a few stores in Jersey took possession of the provincial the village. The invaders were terribly treasury, containing about $50,000, to use smitten by the gathering minute-men on for their own defence. The news reached their retreat towards Lexington. Shots Baltimore in six days, when the people came, with deadly aim, from behind fences, seized the provincial magazine, contain- stone - walls, and trees. The gathering ing about 1,500 stand of arms, and stop- yeomanry swarmed from the woods and fields, from farm- houses and hamlets. They at- tacked from ambush and in the open highway. It was evident to the Britons that the whole country was aroused. The heat was intense; the dust intoler- able. The 800 men must have perished or been captured had not a reinforcement, under Lord Percy, met and relieved them near Lexington. After a brief rest, the whole body, 1,800 strong, retreated, and were ter- ribly assailed along the whole 10 miles to their shelter at Charlestown, narrowly escaping 700 Essex militia, under Colonel Pickering, marching to strike their flank. Under the guns of British war vessels, the remnant of the detachment rested that night, and passed over to Bos- ton the next morning. During the expedition the British lost, in killed, wounded, and missing, 273 men ; the Americans lost 103. When news of the affair at Lexington and Concord went over the land, the people were every- where aroused to action, and never before nor afterwards was there so unanimous a determina- tion to resist British oppression. In waver- ped all exports to the fishing-islands, to ing New York there was unity at once, and such of the islands as had not joined the the custom-house was immediately closed, confederacy, and to the British army and and all vessels preparing to sail for Que- navy at Boston. In Virginia a provincial
371
LEXINGTON
BATTLE-GROUND AT CONCORD.
convention was held, which took measures Col. J. C. Davis, and Gen. John Pope
for the defence of the colony. was coming down from the country north-
Lexington (Mo.), SIEGE OF. After ward of the Missouri River. Mulligan
the drawn battle at Wilson's Creek, in was hopeful, for he expected some of these
1861, General McCulloch found his as- troops every moment. Day after day and
sumption of authority so offensive to the night after night his men worked to
Missourians that he left the State. Gen- strengthen the position, and Price's 20,-
eral Price called upon the Confederates 000 men were kept at bay. Finally, on
to fill up his shattered ranks. They re- the 17th, the Confederates were reinforced,
sponded with alacrity, and at the middle and their number was swelled to 25,000.
of August he moved northward, in the di- Then Price cut off the communication of
rection of Lexington. It occupied an im- the garrison with the town, their chief
portant position, and was garrisoned with source of water supply. The next day he
less than 3,000 troops, under Col. James took possession of the town, closed up the
A. Mulligan. His troops had only forty garrison, and began a vigorous siege. For
rounds of cartridges each, six small brass seventy-two hours Mulligan and his little
cannon, and two howitzers. The latter band sustained it, amid burning sun-heat
were useless, because there were no shells, by day and suffocating smoke at all times,
On the morning of Sept. 11 Price ap- until ammunition and provisions were ex-
peared at a point 3 miles from Lex- hausted, and on the morning of the 20th
ington. Hourly expecting reinforcements, he was compelled to surrender. The loss
Mulligan resolved to defy the overwhelm- of this post was severely felt, and Fre-
ing force of the enemy with the means mont, resolving to retrieve it, at once put
at his command. Price moved forward, in motion 20,000 men to drive Price and
drove in the National pickets, and opened a his followers out of Missouri. The Na-
cannonade on Mulligan's hastily construct- tional loss in men was forty killed and
ed works. Very soon some outworks were 120 wounded; the Confederates lost
captured, after fierce struggles, but the twenty-five killed and seventy-five wound-
defence was bravely maintained through- ed. Mulligan and his officers were held
out the day. prisoners of war; the men were paroled.
Price was anxious, for he knew that The spoils were six cannon, two mortars,
there was a large Union force near under 3.000 muskets, 750 horses, wagons, teams,
372
L'HOMMEDIETJ— LIBERAL REPUBLICAN PARTY
etc., and $100,000 worth of commissary from the regular Republican party, and
stores. A week before the arrival of was composed of men who had gone from
Mulligan at Lexington, Governor Jackson the Democratic to the Republican party
and his legislature had held a session when the former assumed an aggressive
there, and had deposited $800,000 in gold pro-slavery attitude, and also the Repub-
coin in the bank. They quitted it so licans who had become dissatisfied with
precipitately that they left this money the reconstruction policy of their party,
and the seal behind, which fell into Mulli- The movement began to assume consider-
BATTLE OP LKXINGTON, MO.
gan's hands. These treasures Price re- able strength in 1867, when coercive
covered. measures were deemed necessary by the
L'Homxnedieu. EZRA, lawyer; born in Republican party to maintain the new
Southold, L. I., Aug. 30, 1734; graduated political rights of the negroes in the
at Yale College in 1754. He was of South. The passage and enforcement of
Huguenot descent; a delegate to the the so-called "Force bill" (see Ku-
New York Provincial Congress from 1775 KLUX KLAN), on April 20, 1871, increased
to 1778; assisted in the formation of the the movement to such an extent that
first constitution of the State of New organization only seemed necessary to
York; was a member of the Continental make it a telling power. A union of
Congress at different times from 1779 to " Liberal Republicans " and Democrats
1788; a State Senator and regent of the was effected in Missouri in 1870-71. Its
University of the State of New York from leading principles were a reform of the
1787 till his death, Sept. 28, 1811. tariff and the civil service, universal
Libby Prison. See CONFEDERATE suffrage, universal amnesty, and the
PRISONS. cessation of " unconstitutional laws to
Liberal Republican Party, a short- cure Ku-klux disorders, irreligion, or in- lived political organization that sprang temperance." On May 1, 1872, this fusion
373
LIBERIA
held a national convention in Cincinnati, \vhich nominated Horace Greeley, of New York, for President, and B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri, for Vice-President. On July 9 the Democratic National Convention adopted the platform and candidates of the Cincinnati convention, and in the en- suing election the ticket of Greeley and Brown was overwhelmingly defeated. The party really became disintegrated before the election, but after that event its dis- solution was rapid, and by 1876 there were only a few men in Congress who cared to acknowledge that they were Lib- eral Republicans. See GREELEY, HORACE.
Liberia, a republic on the west coast of Africa; a product of the American Col- onization Society. The republic has an area of about 14,300 square miles, and a population estimated at 1,068,000, all of the African race. Of these, 18,000 are na- tives of America, and the remainder aboriginal inhabitants. The land along the coast is sterile, but in the interior is well wooded and fertile. As in all equa- torial regions, there are two seasons in the year, the wet and the dry. The wet season begins with June and ends with October, during which time the rain falls almost daily. During the seven months of the dry season rain is rare. The aver- age temperature of the rainy season is 76°, and of the dry season 84°. Through- out the year the mercury never falls below 60°, and seldom rises above 90° in the shade; but during the hottest months, from January to March, the heat is some- what mitigated by the constant breezes. The climate, both on account of the heat and miasma in the air, is deadly to the white man, and very trying to the black man who has been born and reared in temperate regions, but the native African has but few diseases, and often lives to a great age. It must be noted, however, that during recent years the climate has been greatly improved by drainage, and the fatal " African fever " is now less fre- quent in Liberia than anywhere on the adjoining coasts. All tropical fruits and vegetables grow luxuriantly, and the prin- cipal exports are coffee, palm - oil, caout- chouc, dye-woods, arrow-root, sugar, cocoa, ginger, rice, hides, and ivory. Some de- posits of minerals exist, but they are not worked to any extent. On the hills of
the interior cattle are raised profitably, and the native wild animals have been nearly all killed or driven into the wild surrounding country. The government of Liberia is modelled on that of the United States, and consists of a president, elected for two years; a congress, composed of a senate of eight members, elected for four years; and a house of representatives of thirteen members, elected for two years; also a supreme court. The president has a cabinet of six members, appointed as in the United States. Slavery is forbidden in the republic, military service is obli- gatory on all citizens between the ages of sixteen and fifty, and the right of suf- frage can only be exercised by those own- ing real estate. None but citizens can hold real estate, and only negroes can be citizens. The state of Liberia is divided into four counties, and these again into townships. There are a number of small towns, but the only large place is Mon- rovia, the capital, a city of about 13,000 inhabitants. The republic of Liberia owes its origin to the American Coloniza- tion Society, which was organized about 1811, and in 1817 sent a committee to the coast of Africa to select a site for a colony of freed negroes. The Sherbro Islands were first chosen, but the first colony sent out, in 1820, not being satisfied there, was removed to Cape Mesurado in 1822. Here a limited territory was purchased from the natives, which was subse- quently enlarged by further purchases. At first the government was carried on by the officers of the Colonization So- ciety, but gradually the share of the people in their own rule was made greater. A declaration of independence was made by the colonists in 1847, and a constitution adopted. The first president was Joseph Jenkins Roberts, who served for four terms. The republic was imme- diately recognized as a sovereign state by Great Britain, and later by various Con- tinental powers, but the United States did not grant it this honor until 1861. In August, 1871, the republic laid the foun- dation of a public debt by contracting a loan of $500,000 at 7 per cent, interest, to be redeemed in fifteen years. This money was borrowed in England by the president of the republic, and the charge that he had appropriated a large part of it to his
374
LIBERTY
own use caused a popular revolt on his return, which removed him from office and caused his imprisonment. No interest has been paid on the public debt since 1874. It cannot be said that Liberia has been a suc- cess, socially or politically. The negroes in the United States do not seem to take much interest in it, and immigration to its shores is but slight. The government is but feebly administered, and there is much internal disorder. For all this, it is only fair to add that the state shows an appreciation of education and religion, and a desire to stand well in the opinion of civilized nations. A number of mis- sions have been carried on among the aboriginal inhabitants of Liberia for many years. The American Methodist Episco- pal mission dates from 1833, the Ameri- can Episcopal mission from 1834, and the American Baptists from 1835. Others have been later established.
In August, 1898, an arrangement for the settlement of the foreign debt was undertaken, but at the time of writing nothing practical had been accomplished. The ordinary revenue of the republic has been for years insufficient to meet the cost of administration, and the republic has an internal debt, the interest on which largely exceeds the principal. In 1898 the Liberians sought closer relations with the United States government, with the ultimate view of being better able to re- sist an alleged threatened movement on the part of Germany and Great Britain to secure possession of their territory for their own trade aggrandizement.
Liberty, SONG OF, the title of a song that was sung throughout the colonies for several years before the Revolutionary War broke out. It was very popular, for it touched the hearts of the people at that
time. It was published in Bickerstaff's Boston Almanac for 1770, with the music as given below. The Almanac for that year contained on its title-page a rude type-metal engraving of a likeness of James Otis. The portrait of the patriot is supported by Liberty on one side and Hercules on the other.
" Come swallow your bumpers, ye Tories, and
roar, That the Sons of fair Freedom are hamper'd
once more ; But know that no Cutthroats our spirits
can tame, Nor a host of Oppressors shall smother the
flame.
" In Freedom we're born, and, like Sons of the brave,
Will never surrender, But swear to defend her, And scorn to survive if unable to save.
" Our grandsires, bless'd heroes, we'll give
them a tear,
Nor sully their honors by stooping to fear ; Through deaths and through dangers their
Trophies they won,
We dare be their Rivals, nor will be out- done.
" In Freedom we're born, etc.
" Let tyrants and minions presume to de- spise,
Encroach on our RIGHTS, and make FREE- DOM their prize ;
The fruits of their rapine they never shall keep,
Though vengeance may nod, yet how short is her sleep.
" In Freedom we're born, etc.
" The tree which proud Haman for Mordecai
rear'd Stands recorded, that virtue endanger'd is
spared ; The rogues, whom no bounds and no laws
can restrain, Must be stripp'd of their honors and
humbled again.
" In Freedom we're born, etc.
m
m
m
m
^
FAG SIMILE OF THE MUSIC OP THE "SONG OF LIBERTY."
375
LIBERTY BELL— LIBERTY CAP
" Our wives and our babes, still protected,
shall know Those who dare to be free shall forever
be so; On these arms and these hearts they may
safely rely,
For in freedom we'll live, or like Heroes we'll die.
" In Freedom we're born, etc.
" Ye insolent Tyrants ! who wish to enthrall ; Ye Minions, ye Placemen, Pimps, Pen- sioners, all ; How short is your triumph, how feeble
your trust,
Your honor must wither and nod to the dust.
" In Freedom we're born, etc.
" When oppress'd and approach'd, our KING
we implore, Still firmly persuaded our RIGHTS he'll
restore ; When our hearts beat to arms to defend
a just right,
Our monarch rules there, and forbids us to fight.
" In Freedom we're born, etc.
44 Not the glitter of arms nor the dread of
a fray
Could make us submit to their chains for a day ;
the inhabitants thereof. Lev. xxv. 10." When the British forces approached Phil- adelphia, in 1777, the bell was taken down and carried to Allentown, to prevent its falling into the hands of the en- emy. In 1781 it was placed in the brick tower of the State- house, below the original bel- fry, which, be- ing of wood, had become de- cayed. For more than fifty years the bell partici- pated in the LIBERTY BULL. celebrations of
the anniversary
of the Declaration of Independence, when it was cracked while ringing. An effort was made to restore its tone by sawing the crack wider, but it was un- successful. The bell was removed from
your fall.
" In Freedom we're born, etc.
with amaze and
All ages shall speak
plause Of the prudence we
our cause ; Assured of our safety,
reigns, Whose free, loyal subjects
to chains.
" In Freedom we're born, etc.
amaze
show in support BRUNSWICK still are strangers
Withheld by affection, on Britons we call, its place in the tower to a lower story, and fierce conflict which threatens oniv use(j on occasions of extraordinary
public sorrow. Subsequently it was placed on the original timbers in the vestibule ap- of the State-house, and in 1873 it was . suspended where all visitors might see it, immediately beneath where a larger bell proclaims the passing hours. In 1893 it was taken to Chicago and exhibited at the World's Columbian Exposition, and on its journey to and from that city it was greeted at the railroad stations with pa- triotic demonstrations.
Liberty Boys. See SONS OF LIBERTY. Liberty Cap. The liberty cap is of Phrygian origin. The Phrygians were a people from the shores of the Euxine Sea, and they conquered and took possession of the entire eastern part of Asia Minor. To Liberty Bell. In the old State-house in distinguish themselves from the natives, the Philadelphia is the famous bell that rang conquerors wore a close-fitting cap and had out, in conjunction with human voices, the it stamped on their coins. The Romans joyful tidings of the Declaration of Inde- took the fashion of wearing caps from pendence, in July, 1776. It was cast by the Phrygians, but they were only worn by Pass & Stow, Philadelphia, and was hung freedmen. When a slave was set free, a in the belfry of the State-house early in red cap called the pileus was put on his June, 1753. It weighed 2,080 pounds, head, and this was a token of his manu- and around it, near its top, were cast the mission. When Saturnius took the capi- words, prophetic of its destiny, " Proclaim tol in 263, he had a cap set up on the top liberty throughout all the land, unto all of a spear as a promise of liberty to all
376
" Then join hand in hand, brave AMERICANS
all,
To be free is to live, to be slaves is to fall ; Has the land such a dastard as scorns not
a LORD,
Who dreads not a fetter much more than a sword?
" In Freedom we're born," etc.
LIBERTY-CAP CENT— LIBERTY POLES
slaves who would join him. Marius used around them " SUCCESS TO THE UNITED the same expedient to incite the slaves to STATES."
take arms with him against Sylla. When Liberty Enlightening the World. Caesar was murdered, the conspirators car- See BARTIIOLDI, FREDERIC AUGUSTE. ried a cap on a spear, as a token of the Liberty Hall. See LIBERTY TREE. liberty of Rome, and a medal was struck Liberty Party, a political organization with the same device on this occasion, that grew out of the influence of societies which is still extant. The statue of the formed for effecting the abolition of sla- Goddessof Liberty on the Aventine Hill car- very throughout the republic. It origi- ried in her hand a cap as an emblem of nated about 1844. The prime article of freedom. In England the same symbol its political creed was opposition to Af- was adopted, and Britannia was pictured rican slavery. The party cared not carrying the cap on a spear. It was first whether a man was called Whig or Demo- used in the United States as one of the crat; if he would declare his unalterable devices on the flag of the Philadelphia opposition to slavery, slave-holders, and Light - horse Guards, a company of mi- the friends of slave-holders, it gave him litia organized some time prior to the the cordial right hand of fellowship. A Revolution. On Aug. 31, 1775, the com- man less true to the faith was not admit- mittee of safety, at Philadelphia, passed ted within the pale of the party. It con- a resolution providing a seal for the use tained, in proportion to its numbers, more of the board, " to be engraved with a cap men of wealth, talent, and personal worth of liberty and the motto, ' This is my than any other party. It was opposed to right, and I will defend it.' " During the annexation of Texas, for it regarded the French Revolution the Jacobins made that as a scheme of the slave-holders to much use of this emblem, and it is some- extend their domain and political power, times supposed that this country took it The party could not vote for Mr. Polk, from France, but this idea is an erroneous for he was favorable to that annexation; one. The symbol was not used in France it could not vote for Mr. Clay, for he was until 1790, whereas in this country it was a slave-holder; so it nominated James G. not only used much earlier in the in- Birney (who had formerly been a slave- stances mentioned, but was also put on holder in Kentucky, but, from con- American coins in 1783. The Jacobin cap scientious motives, had emancipated his of France was red. The British liberty slaves and migrated to Michigan) for cap was blue with a white border. The President of the United States. It polled American is blue with a border of gilt quite a large number of votes. In 1848 stars on white. the Liberty party was merged into the
Liberty-cap Cent. It was about three Free - soil party, and supported Mr. Van years after a mint for the coinage of Buren for the Presidency, money for the United States was author- Liberty Poles. The SONS OF LIBER- TY (q. v.) erected tall flag - staffs, with the Phrygian " cap of Liberty " on the top, as rallying-places in the open air. They were first erected in cities; after- wards they were set up in the rural dis- tricts wherein republicanism prevailed. On the King's birthday, in New York (June 4, 1766), there were great rejoic- ings on account of the repeal of the ked that the act went into operation, and STAMP ACT ( q. v.). Governor Sir Henry in the interval several of the coins called Moore presided at a public dinner at the *' specimens/' now so scarce, were struck. " King's Arms " (near the foot of Broad- Among the most rare is the " liberty- cap way). On the same day the Sons of Lib- cent," having a profile and the name of erty feasted at their headquarters at Washington on one side, and on the other Montagne's (on Broadway, near Murray a liberty-cap in the centre, with rays of Street), and, by permission of the gov- light emanating from it, and the words ernor, erected a mast (which afterwards
377
LIHKRTY-OAP CENT.
LIBERTY POLES— LIBERTY TREE
they called a liberty pole) between the Whigs until the British took possession
site of the City Hall and Broadway, in of the city in 1776, when the notorious
front of Warren Street, on which were Provost-Marshal Cunningham (who, it is
inscribed the words, "To his most said, had been whipped at its foot) had
gracious Majesty George III., Mr. Pitt, it hewn down.
and Liberty." British soldiers were then Liberty Tree. The original Liberty in the city. The doings of the Sons of Tree, in Boston, was not on Boston Corn- Liberty so annoyed the officers of the mon. It was the largest one of a grove crown that thirty-six days after the lib- of beautiful elms which stood in Hanover erty pole was erected with so much har- Square, at the corner of Orange (now mony, it was cut down by the insolent Washington) and Essex streets, opposite troops (Aug. 16, 1766). The people re- the present Boyleston Market. Its exact erected it the next evening in the face site is marked by a building, on the front of the armed mercenaries. A little more of which is a relief figure of the tree in than a month afterwards the soldiers again granite and the inscription " Sons of Lib- prostrated it, and again the people up- erty — 1766. Independence of Our Coun- raised it, and from its top they flung the try — 1776." This elm was called " Liberty British banner to the breeze. The next Tree " because the Sons of Liberty held spring the people met at the " mast " to their meetings under it, and the ground celebrate the anniversary of the repeal below was called " Liberty Hall." The (March 18), and inaugurated it by erect- first meeting of this society was held there ing a " liberty pole," which the soldiery some time in 1765. A pole fastened to the cut down that night. The people again trunk of the tree rose far above the top- erected it, bound with hoops of iron, and most branch, and a red flag floating from it placed a guard there, when soldiers came was an understood signal to call together with loaded muskets, fired two random the fearless Sons of Liberty. This society shots into the headquarters of the Sons held many meetings here during the next of Liberty ( Montagne's ) , and attempted ten years, and placards addressed to the to drive the people away. Fearful retalia- people were nailed to the tree, and in- tion would have followed but for the re- scribed banners were suspended from its pression of aggressive acts by the soldiers, limbs. They had a- board fastened to the by order of the governor. On the King's tree with the inscription, " This tree was birthday, 1767, the soldiers made an un- planted in 1614, and pruned by order of successful attempt to prostrate the liberty the Sons of Liberty, Feb. 14, 1776." On pole; but at midnight, June 16, 1770, Nov. 20, 1767, a seditious handbill was armed men came from the barracks, fixed to the tree, exhorting the Sons of hewed it down, sawed it to pieces, and Liberty to rise and fight against the piled it in front of Montagne's. The per- country's oppressors; it declared that they petrators were discovered, the bells of would be joined by legions of their coun- St. George's Chapel, in Beekman Street, trymen, that the tyrant would be driven were rung, and early the next morning from the land, and generations to come 3.000 people stood around the stump of would bless them, while if they neglected the pole. There they passed strong reso- this opportunity to free their country lutions of a determination to maintain they would be cursed to all eternity. In their liberties at all hazards. For three June, 1768, a red flag was raised over the days intense excitement continued, and tree, and a second appeal to the Sons of in frequent affrays with the citizens the Liberty to rise against the British was soldiers were worsted. A severe conflict affixed in the form of a handbill to its occurred on Golden Hill (Cliff Street, be- trunk. The anniversary of the rising tween Fulton Street and Maiden Lane), against the Stamp Act was observed Aug. when several of the soldiers were dis- 14, 1773, by a meeting under this tree, armed. Quiet was soon restored. The On Nov. 3 following there was an immense people erected another pole upon ground gathering under this tree again, at which purchased on Broadway, near Warren a resolution was passed concerning the tea- Street, and this fifth liberty pole remained ships which were known to be on their untouched as a rallying-place for the way to Boston, ordering the consignees
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of the cargoes not to sell them on Amer- Liberty were, therefore, made in secret ican soil, but to return them promptly to during the next two years, but the Liberty London in the same vessels in which they Tree retained its name, and probably wit- had been shipped. The ultimate result of nessed more than one midnight meeting, this meeting was the " Boston Tea-party " In the winter of 1775-76 the British sol- of Dec. 6, 1773, when 340 chests of tea diery, to whom the popular name of this were poured into the waters of the bay. tree rendered it an object of hatred, cut In May, 1774, British troops under Gage down this magnificent elm and converted were quartered in Boston, the port was it into fourteen cords of fire-wood. This closed, and all public meetings were for- act of destruction was greatly resented by bidden. The gatherings of the Sons of the people.
LIBRARIES, FREE PUBLIC
Libraries, FREE PUBLIC. Free libraries maintaining such commissions. New have existed for less than half a century. York State, in its system of travelling Their establishment assumed that books libraries, has gone further still in sup- are beneficial: but it involved also the as- plementing initial aid with a continuing sertion that it is the proper function of supply of books, and even photographs government to supply books to such of and lantern slides, purchased by the State, its citizens as may require them at the and distributed through the Regents of expense of the community as a whole. the State University from Albany to the
Herbert Putnam, librarian of Congress, remotest hamlet.
writes as follows: The first stage of all such legislation is
an enabling act — authorizing the estab-
Libraries of this special type do not lishment of a library by the local author- yet form the major portion of the insti- ities; the next is an act encouraging such tutions supplying books on a large scale establishment by bounties; and New to groups of persons. Under the head of Hampshire has reached a third by a law " Public, Society, and School Libraries," actually mandatory, requiring the local these institutions in the United States ag- authorities to establish free libraries in gregate 8,000 in number, with 35,000,000 proportion to their means and the popu- volumes, with $34,000,000 invested in lation to be served. This seems to mark buildings, with $17,000,000 of endow- the high-water mark of confidence in the ments, and with over $6,000,000 of annual utility of these institutions. It indicates income. Of these the free public libraries that free public libraries are to be ranked supported by general taxation number less with the common schools, as institutions than 2,000, with 10,000,000 volumes, and indispensable to good citizenship, whose with less than $3,500,000 of annual in- establishment the State must for its own come. They are, however, increasing with protection require.
disproportionate and amazing rapidity. So the movement has progressed, until
In Massachusetts, but ten of the 353 now these 2,000 public libraries combined
cities and towns, but three-fourths of one are sending out each year over 30,000,000
per cent, of the inhabitants, now lack them, books, to do their work for good or ill
One hundred and ten library buildings in the homes of the United States. The
there have been the gift of individuals. No entire 2,000 result from one conviction
form of private memorial is now more and a uniform purpose. Yet among
popular; no form of municipal expenditure them there is every variety in scope and in
meets with readier assent. Nor are the organization. There is the hamlet library
initiative and the expenditure left wholly of a hundred volumes, open for a couple
to local enterprises. The Commonwealth of hours each week in some farm-house,
itself takes part : extending, through a under a volunteer custodian, maintained
State Commission, State aid in the form by the town, but enlisting private con-
of books and continuing counsel. And tribution through bazaars and sociables,
Massachusetts is but one of eight States sending out its books by the local pro-
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READING-ROOM IN THE LENOX LIBRARY, NEW YORK CITY.
vision dealer to its remote and scattered the city and reached daily by its delivery constituents. There is the library of the wagons; with 700,000 books; and aecom- great city, with elaborate equipment and modations for over 2,000 readers at one complex organization to meet a vast and time; including in its equipment such complex need. Such a library as you special departments as a bindery and a may find at Chicago; a city which, printing-office; requiring for its adminis- though it has two great endowed refer- tration over 250 employe's, and for its ence libraries, still considers its 1,500,000 maintenance each year $250,000, in ad- people entitled to a municipal library, dition to the proceeds of endowments; with a $2,000,000 building, studded with and representing in its buildings, books, costly mosaics, and aided by forty and equipment an investment of over branches and stations in bringing the $5,000,000, the interest on which, at 4 book nearer each home. Or such a li- per cent., added to the expenditure for brary as exists at Boston; organized as a maintenance, is equivalent to an annual city department, under trustees appoint- burden of $450,000 for its creation and ed by the mayor, maintained, like the support,
schools, or the police, or the fire depart- When this function was first proposed
ment, by general taxation, with a central for a municipality, the argument used was
building which has cost the city $2,500,- that in this country books had come to be
000, with ten branch libraries and seven- the principal instruments of education;
teen delivery stations scattered through that the community was already support-
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LIBRARIES, FREE PUBLIC
ing a public school system; that this sys- tem brought a youth to the threshold of education and there left him; that it qualified him to use books, but did noth- ing to put books within his reach; and finally that it was " of paramount impor- tance that the means of general informa- tion should be so diffused that the largest possible number of persons should be in- duced to read and understand questions going down to the very foundations of social order, which are constantly pre- senting themselves, and which we, as a people, are constantly required to decide, and do decide, either ignorantly or wise- ly."
A glance at the libraries now in opera- tion in the United States shows that the ends proposed for them fall far short of the service which they actually perform. They begin with the child before he leaves the school ; while he is still in his element- ary studies they furnish him with books which stir his imagination, and bring the teaching of the text - books into relation with art and with life. They thus help to render more vivid the formal studies pursued; but they also prepare the child to become an intelligent constituent here- after. This work cannot begin too early, for four - fifths of the children pass out into active life without reaching the high schools. It need not be deferred, for now the number is almost countless of books that touch with imagination and charm of style even the most elementary sub- jects; and the library can add illustra- tions which through the eye convey an impression of the largest subjects in the most elemental way.
If the library begins with the citizen earlier than was foreseen, it is prepared to accompany him further than was thought necessary. It responds not only to the needs of the general reader, but also to those of the student and even, to the extent of its means, to those of the scholars engaged in special research. The maintenance of universities at the com- mon expense is familiar in the West; it is less so in the East. And there is still contention that institutions for highly specialized instruction should not be charged upon the community as a whole. But no one has questioned the propriety of charging upon the community the sup-
port of a library whose leading purpose may be the encouragement of the higher scholarship.
Finally, to the services just described the public library has added another: the supply of books for purposes purely recre- ative. This service, if anticipated, was certainly not explicitly argued for; nor was it implied in Edward Everett's pre- diction that the public library would prove the " intellectual common " of the community. The common that Mr. Ever- ett had in mind was a pasturage, not a base-ball ground, or lovers' walk, or a loafing-place for tramps.
But as regards certain of the books cus- tomarily supplied, the ordinary public library of to-day is furnishing recreation rather than instruction. In fact, if we look at the history of free public libraries in this country, we find that the one point of practice on which they have been criti- cised is the supply of merely recreative literature. The protest has come from thoughtful persons, and it means some- thing, lightly as it has been waved aside.
The excuse that used to be given for the supply of inferior books was that they would entice to the use of the better books. There was to be reached a mass of persons of inferior taste and imperfect education. These persons must be introduced grad- ually to an acquaintance with the better class of reading through the medium of the familiar. And, at all events, it was better that they should read something than not read at all.
I am not quite so confident of the re- generating virtue of mere printed matter, as such ; and I am confident that the read- ing of a book inferior in style and taste debases the taste, and that the book which sets forth, even with power, a false view of society does harm to the reader, and is so far an injury to the community of which he is part. But even granting the premises, the conclusion is doubtful. We do not deliberately furnish poor art at public expense because there is a portion of the public which cannot appreciate the better. Nor when the best is offered, without apology, does the uncultured pub- lic in fact complain that it is too "ad- vanced." Thousands of " ordinary " peo- ple come to see and enjoy the Abbey and Chavannes and Sargent decorations in the
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Boston Public Library. No one has yet complained that the paintings are too ad- vanced for him. The best of art is not too good for the least of men, provided he can be influenced at all. Nor are the best of books too good for him, provided he can be influenced at all, and provided they are permitted, as are the pictures, to make their appeal directly. They must not be secluded behind catalogues and formal paraphernalia. The practice which admit- ted the scholar to the shelves, and limited the general reader to the catalogues, gave the best opportunity to him who least
ferior in quality, the more modern public library seeks to attract by the freest pos- sible access to books of the best quality. Not that this practice is universal. But the opinion and tendency are in this safe direction.
However, quality assumed, the general question as to the reading of recreative literature remains. What shall we say of the fact that 60 per cent, of the circula- tion of the free public libraries still con- sists of fiction?
In the first place, that this percentage takes no account of reference use, which
THE BOSTON PUBLIC LIRRARY.
needed it. The modern practice sets be- fore the reader least familiar with good titles a selection of good looks. It places them on open shelves, where he may han- dle them without formality. The result is, almost invariably, that he is attracted to a book in advance of his previous tastes. Perhaps a chance paragraph ap- peals to some experience or ambition, or an illustration stirs his imagination. The books themselves draw him outside of his previous limitations.
In the place, therefore, of books in-
is almost wholly of serious literature; second, that as to home use the ratio in circulation of fiction to serious literature does not represent a similar ratio of triv- ial to serious service. Fiction is the small coin of literature. It must circu- late more rapidly to represent the same volume of real business done. A volume of fiction may be issued, returned, and re- issued three times, while a biography or history or work of science is issued once. It will then count 75 per cent, in the cir- culation, But the serious book has dur-
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ing the entire period been out in the hands in 1819, that is not to be found in them
of the reader; and the service which it now?
has performed — the period of attention But a large portion of latter-day fiction
which it has occupied — equals that of the is fiction with a purpose; another way of
novel in its three issues. And, finally, saying that it is a work of art composed
there is to be considered the influence of for the dissemination of doctrine. This
the best fiction towards general culture (if element promotes it at once to the dignity
the library is not merely to inform, but of a treatise, a new view of politics, a
also to cultivate) in broadening the sym- new criticism of social conditions, a new
pathies, giving a larger tolerance, a kind- creed. Here is something that concerns
Her humanity, a more intelligent helpful- the student of sociology. And surely his
ness, in affording the rest that is in itself needs are worthy of prompt response.
an equipment for work, and the distrac- In fact, his needs and the general curi-
tion that may save from impulse to evil, osity do get prompt response, and the new
However, the amount of fiction circu- novels are freely bought. How freely I
lated in proportion to the total work of have recently sought to ascertain. I
the library is on the average steadily de- asked of some seventy libraries their
creasing. At the same time the quality yearly expenditure for current fiction in
is improving; in part through critical proportion to their total expenditure for
selection, in part as a happy result of the books. The returns show an average of
fact that the inferior novels are also, as from 10 to 15 per cent. In one case the
a rule, inferior books, so poorly manu- amount reached 50 per cent., in others it
factured that libraries cannot afford to fell as low as 2 per cent. The ratio for
buy them. fiction in general is much higher on the
But there is standard fiction and cur- average; but fiction in general includes
rent fiction, and it is the current fiction Scott and Thackeray and other standards,
that constitutes by itself a special prob- an ample supply of which would not usu-
lem still perplexing. It is a problem that ally be questioned. At Providence and at
concerns not the uneducated child, nor Worcester, two of the most active and
the illiterate adult; it is caused by the popular of public libraries, the purchases
people of intelligent education who are of fiction, current and standard, formed
eager to read the latest novel by Mr. X. in a single year but 7 and 11 per cent.,
or Mrs. Y. while it is still the latest novel respectively, of the entire expenditure for
by Mr. X. or Mrs. Y. It is being talked books.
about at dinner and afternoon tea. Well- At Boston there were selected but 178
informed people are reading it; to read it titles of current fiction (out of nearly
is a social necessity. 600 read and considered). But some
The reason that presses the public dozen copies were bought of each title,
library to supply promptly every most re- so that the entire purchase reached 2,300
cent book in the domain of scientific volumes, and cost about $2,300. This
literature is apparent enough. Such lit- was about QV2 per cent, on a total ex-
erature contributes facts which are the pcnditure for books of $34,000. At St.
data for action. But novels in general Louis the practice is to buy but two copies
belong to the literature of power. Their out of the general funds to be circulated
purpose is not to furnish information, but free. Nearly 100 more are added which
to give pleasure. Literature of this sort are rented out, and thus pay for them-
adds no new fact, nor is it superseded, nor selves.
does it lose any of its value by lapse of The statistics do not seem to show time. To assume that it does would be that the initial expenditure for current to assume that beauty of form could be- fiction is very alarming. But the pur- come obsolete. This is not so in paint- chase price of these books is but a frac- ing, in sculpture, in architecture. Why tion of the expense of handling them, should it be so in prose fiction, in poetry, They cannot be supplied in adequate in the drama? Was there, in fact, an quantities; for while the frenzy of curi- sesthetic value in the Canterbury Tales osity persists, an adequate supply is be- in 1380, in Hamlet in 1602, in Ivanhoe yond the resources of any library. But
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LIBRARIES, FREE PUBLIC
since the attempt to supply is futile, the supply it in book form at the public ex- pretence is injurious. The presence of pense?
the titles in the catalogues misleads the But as to a certain percentage of cur- reader into a multitude of applications rent light literature, there is an embar- \vhich are a heavy expense to the library, rassment that I have not touched. It is without benefit to him. And the acquisi- the embarrassment of making selection tion of the single book means to the li- without giving offence. All cannot be brary the expense of handling 100 applica- bought. A choice must be made. With tions for it which are futile to one that reference to standard literature, author i- can be honored. In this sense a current tative judgment is not difficult to obtain, novel involves perhaps 100 times the ex- But here there has been no lapse of time pense of any other book in being supplied to balance opinion. An anticipatory esti- to but the same number of readers. mate must be attempted, and attempted
The British Museum acquires the new by the library itself.
novels as published; but it withholds Now, if the library decide against
them from readers until five years after the book it is very likely held to blame
their date of publication. It is my per- for " dictating " to its readers. " It is
sonal belief that a one-year limitation of one thing," says a journal, commenting
this sort adopted by our free libraries gen- on a certain adverse decision — " it is one
erally would relieve them of anxiety and thing to consider this novel pernicious,
expense, and their readers of inconven- but it is another and more serious thing
ience and delusion. for the foremost library in the country,
But as regards current light literature maintained at public expense, to deny to
in general, it is worth while to consider a large and respectable portion of the pub-
whether the responsibility of public lie an opportunity to judge for itself
libraries has not been modified by the whether the work of a man of (this au-
growth and diffusion of the newspaper tbor's) calibre is pernicious or not." and periodical press. In 1850, when the The author in this case was, of course,
free public library was started, the num- not Mr. X., but rather Mr. A., an already
ber of newspapers and periodicals pub- known quantity.
lished in the United States was about So a library is not to be permitted to
2,500; now it is nearly 20,000. The total apply a judgment of its own! It is not
annual issues have increased from 400,- protected by the fact that this judgment
000,000 to over 4,500,000,000 copies. coincides with the judgment of profes-
The ordinary daily of 1850 contained sional critics — so far, at least, as these
perhaps a single column of literary mat- may be ascertained. The author may have
ter. To-day it contains, for the same turned perverse and written a book dis-
price, seven columns. In 1850 it gave no tinctly bad. Yet this book is to be bought
space to fiction; now it offers Kipling, and supplied to enable each member of
Howells, Stockton, Bret Harte, Anthony the public to form a judgment of his own
Hope, Crockett, Bourget. and many others upon it. And it is to be so bought out of
of the best of the contemporary writers public funds intrusted to the library for
of fiction. educational purposes. Censorship has to
Then there are the cheap magazines, us an ugly sound; but does the library act which tender a half - dozen stories for the as censor when it declares a book beyond price of a cigar or a bodkin. There its province? Does it dictate what the are, also, the cheap " libraries," which people shall read when it says, " We de- have flooded the United States with en- cline to buy this book for you with public gaging literature available to almost any funds?" purse. This is a question which is far larger
In short, conditions have altered. A than the selection or rejection of a novel
vast mass of light literature is now or two. It involves the whole question of
cheaply accessible to the individual which authority, and it concerns not merely the
formerly could be acquired only painfully, extremes, but the varying degrees of worth
or at great expense. Why, then, should in literature. Most departments of edu-
the public libraries struggle longer to cational work are founded upon princi-
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pies, cautiously ascertained, and sys- inculcate the lesson of tried truths as tematically adhered to. Their consistent against untried fancies in matter of opin- maintenance upon principle is the easier ion affecting the social order. It thus because each other such department deals throws its influence in favor of the estab- with a special constituency, limited either lished order of things. But its right, nay, in age or perhaps in sex, or at least in its duty, to do this is unquestioned. Nor purpose, and one which accepts as author- is it regarded as disparaging the opinion itative the system provided for it. The which it does not teach, free public library, however, has to satisfy But a public library is not so exempt. In a constituency practically unlimited, in- addition to the doctrine which is accepted, eluding every age and both sexes, whose it is held to have a duty to the opinion intellectual need ranges from that of the which is struggling for recognition. As most illiterate to that of the most highly to minority opinion, it is not so much a accomplished, whose education in books university as a forum. Nay, it is to give ranges from that of the person who has every advantage to minority opinion, for never entered a library to that of the — in our resentment of intolerance — mi- scholar whose life has been a perpetual nority opinion is not merely tolerated, it training in the use of a library; the as- is pampered.
sertive classes, the bashful classes. And Now, it is not for libraries or librarians if towards this vast and heterogeneous to act as censors and denounce this or constituency it seeks to assume the posi- that publication. Yet it is to be remem- tion of an educator, it finds that its au- bered that a library which circulates a thority is not one which the constituents book helps to promulgate the doctrine themselves are unanimously willing to which the book contains. And if public concede. Each constituent deems himself libraries circulate books which teach rest- not a beneficiary accepting some service, less, irreverent, or revolutionary doctrines, but a proprietor demanding it. Now, they offer us the incongruity of a munic- within each community there are persons ipality aiding in the propagation of ideas who would have every kind of printed which are subversive of social order, matter published. If, therefore, a public On the other hand, if there is to be ex- library is simply to respond to the demands elusion on such grounds, where is the line of its readers, we must have, instead of an of exclusion to be drawn? Shall we say educational system devised by experts and at doctrines which, if carried into action, administered with reference to general would be criminal under the law? Would principles, a system fluctuating with each the public rest content with this? eccentric requirement of individuals, in- Moreover, the principle of exclusion ac- definite in number, various in taste and cepted, who is to apply it? Whose judg- culture, inexpert, except as each may be ment shall determine whether the par- competent to judge his own need, incapa- ticular book does or does not offend? ble of expression in the aggregate, and as Shall the library determine? But will it individuals without responsibility for the not then be "dictating" to its readers? general results. Will it not be unduly discriminating
If, on the other hand, an authority is against a certain class of opinion when it to be vested in the library, what limits has undertaken to represent impartially shall it set upon itself, upon what prin- all shades of opinion? Will it not offend ciples of discrimination shall it proceed, the remonstrant against the existing order in what directions may it expediently of things who has a grievance, and, there- control ? I but state the problem. I fore, a right to be heard ; and the defender shall not endeavor to answer it. But it of the existing order of things who must is one of the most important involved in know the new opinion in order to combat the relation of the public library to the it; and the student of sociology whose community. curiosity reaches all extremes and regards
From such questions an ordinary educa- them simply as phenomena upon which
tional institution stands aloof. It is con- he is entitled to be informed?
tent to represent the judgment of the I believe that it will. And yet I do not
majority in matter of morality and to see how the library can escape exercising V. — 2 B 385
LIBRARIES, FREE PUBLIC
judgment. For there is no other respon- no single agency is perhaps so potent as
sible authority which can be brought to our public libraries.
exercise it. We must then expect numer- The public libraries deem themselves ous decisions which will offend a portion the allies of formal educational processes; of the community. They will usually be on but also the direct educators of that part the conservative side — of exclusion. And of the community not subject to the for- it is for those who believe that a public mal processes. It is this latter responsi- library should be a conservative influ- bility which has led them to attempt a ence in the community to see that it broader service than the mere supply of has the authority and is protected in its books. A book is not the only nor nee- exercise, essarily the most effective vehicle for
Not that in respect of the violent books conveying knowledge. There are illus- there is great injury in present conditions, trations which more directly convey an In the public libraries of to-day there impression, and often as fully state a exists, no doubt, material sufficiently fact. And photographs and process re- anarchic to upset society, if it could have productions are now part of the equip- its will upon society. The fact is, that ment of a public library almost as con- though there is plenty in literature that ventional as books. Within the past year is incendiary, there is little in our com- 10,000 such have been added to the col- munity that is inflammable. lection of the Boston Public Library; not
The good that the libraries do is obvi- as works of art (they are for the most
ous and acknowledged. They represent part cheap silver prints and the Art
the accumulated experience of mankind Museum is but 100 feet distant) ;
brought to our service. They are the cus- nor merely as aids to the study of the
todians of whatever is most worthy of fine arts and the useful arts, but also as
preservation in our own life and litera- convenient auxiliaries to the study of his-
ture. They are the natural depositories tory, of literature, and of institutions,
of what we have of memorial and of rec- And they are used by individuals and
ords; the original entries of legislation by classes not as a substitute for the text,
and of achievement. They must render but as helping to render vivid the lesson
history available; they must adequately of the text.
exhibit science: they may help to refine With these go lectures in exposition, by the best examples in each art, and in Every building of importance recently de- this they may also contribute to the in- signed for the uses of a public library in- dustrial life of the community by educat- eludes an art-gallery and a lecture-hall, ing the artisan into an artist, his craft What an immense augmentation of func- into an art. And through record and de- tion this implies! It implies that the scription of processes and inventions they library is no longer merely an aggregate may contribute to the foundations of of books, each passive within rigid limits; great industries. They touch the com- but that it is an active agent having under munity as a whole as perhaps does no its control material which is kept plastic other single organized agency for good, and which it moulds into incredibly varied They offer to the shyest ignorance equal- shapes to suit incredibly varied needs, ity with the most confident scholarship, The experience of the Boston Public and demand no formal preliminary which Library shows that in the case of books might abash ignorance. each increase of facilities creates an in-
They have a profound duty — not gen- creased demand. The trustees of 1852 erally appreciated — to help render homo- boasted that they were providing for as geneous the very heterogeneous elements many as fifty readers at a time; the trus- of our population. Thirty per cent, of tees of 1887 thought themselves venture- it has come to us from an alien life and some in providing for 500 readers at a alien institutions. One - third of the time; and within a month after the new people in our six leading cities are of building was opened it was forced to ac- foreign birth; 71 per cent, were either commodate over 700 at a time. Every born abroad or born of foreign parentage, week over 30,000 persons enter the Gen- In the assimilation of this foreign element tral Library building, and every year
386
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
1,200,000 volumes are drawn for home use by the 65,000 card-holders. Yet these fig- ures represent still but a portion of the persons to be reached and the work to be done. Nor can facilities for distribution keep pace with the need. For a city of a half-million people spread over an area of 40 square miles adequate library facilities cannot ever be provided. A municipality which even approximates the adequate in providing buildings, equip- ment, administration, and general litera- ture at the public expense must still look to private gift for the specialized material necessary to a great reference collection. That the Boston Public Library is next to the British Museum in Shakespeariana is, to be sure, the result of a special ex- penditure by the city. But the larger part of its special collections which have given it distinction as a great scholar's library has come from private gift; the Ticknor collection of Spanish literature, the Bowditch collection of mathematics, the Chamberlain collection of autographs, the Brown collection of music, and many ethers. And a city which erects for its public library a building which is monu- mental is puttting forward the most at- tractive invitation to private gift. The gifts which have come to Boston as the direct result of the new building have al- ready reached a twelfth of its cost.
With proper organization and a liberal co-operation between municipal and pri- vate effort the opportunities for service are almost limitless. The risk is the greater of attempts at service either legal- ly inappropriate or practically inexpe- dient, and the risk is not lessened by a popular appreciation which is more enthu- siastic than it is apt to be discriminating. There is, therefore, the greater need of discrimination on the part of the library itself and of an authority which will pro- tect its exercise. This authority can be conferred only by intelligent public opin- ion on the part of those who are capable of appreciating constitutional limitations.
Library of Congress. The Library of Congress was establshed in 1800; destroy- ed in 1814 by the burning of the Capitol; afterwards replenished by the purchase by Congress of the library of ex-President Jefferson, 6,760 volumes (cost, $23,950) ; in 1851, 35,000 volumes destroyed by fire;
387
in 1852, partially replenished by an ap- propriation of $75,000; increased (1) by regular appropriations by Congress; (2) by deposits under the copyright law; (3) by gifts and exchanges; (4) by the ex- changes of the Smithsonian Institution, the library of which (40,000 volumes) was, in 1866, deposited in the Library of Congress, with the stipulation that future accessions should follow it. Fifty sets of government publications are placed at the service of the Library of Congress for in- ternational exchanges through the Smith- sonian. Other special accessions have been: The Peter Force collection (22,529 volumes, 37,000 pamphlets) purchased, 1867, cost $100,000; the (Count) Rocham- beau collection (manuscript) purchased, 1883, cost $20,000; the Toner collection (24,484 volumes, numerous pamphlets) gift in 1882 of Dr. Joseph M. Toner; the Hubbard collection ( engravings ) , gift in 1898 of Mrs. Gardiner G. Hubbard.
The collection in the main library is the largest single collection on the West- ern Hemisphere. It comprises about 1,000,- 000 printed books and pamphlets, 27,300 manuscripts, 55,700 maps and charts, 294,- 000 pieces of music, and upward of 84,- 800 photographs, prints, engravings, and lithographs. Of the printed books, prob- ably one-third are duplicates. The law library, of 103,200 volumes (which re- mains at the Capitol), is not included in the above.
The main collection is rich in federal documents, history, political science, juris- prudence, and Americana in general, in- cluding important files of American news- papers and original manuscripts (colonial, revolutionary, and formative periods ) . The exhibition cases on the second floor contain many rare books, including the Records of the Virginia Company.
The Smithsonian deposit is strong in scientific works, and includes the largest assemblage of the transactions of learned societies which exists in this country.
In 1897 the main collection was removed from the Capitol to the building erected for it under the acts of Congress, approved April 15, 1886; Oct. 2, 1888, and March 2, 1899, at a cost of $6,347,000 (limit by law, $6,500,000), exclusive of the land, which cost $585,000. The architects who furnished the original designs were John
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS— LIBBER
THE CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY.
L. Smithmeyer and Paul J. Pelz. By the act of Oct. 2, 1888, before the foundations were laid, Thomas L. Casey, chief of en- gineers of the army, was placed in charge of the construction of the building, and the architectural details were worked out by Paul J. Pelz and Edward P. Casey. Upon the death of General Casey, in March, 1896, the entire charge of the construction devolved upon Bernard B,. Green, General Casey's assistant, and under his super- intendence the building was completed in February, 1897; and opened to the public in November of the same year. The build- ing occupies 3% acres upon a site of 10 acres, at a distance of 1,270 feet east of the Capitol, and is the largest and most magnificent library building in the world. In the decorations some forty painters and sculptors are represented — all American citizens. The floor space is 326,195 square feet, or nearly 8 acres. The book stacks contain about 45 miles of shelving, afford- ing space for 2,200,000 volumes. Were the long corridors, now used in part for ex-
hibition purposes, completely shelved, the building would accommodate over 4,000,- 000 volumes. The library contains a read- ing-room for the blind, open daily.
Lick, JAMES, philanthropist; born in Fredericksburg, Pa., Aug. 25, 1796. In 1847 he settled in San Francisco and made in- vestments in real estate, by which he be- came very wealthy. In 1874 he placed his property in the hands of trustees, to be devoted to public purposes. He died in San Francisco, Cal., Oct. 1, 1876. His bequests amounted to more than $1,500,- 000, and included $700,000 for an observa- tory to be connected with the University of California. This was erected on Mount Hamilton.
Lieber, FRANCIS, publicist; born in Berlin, Germany, March 18, 1800; joined the Prussian army in 1815 as a volunteer; fought in the battles of Ligny and Water- loo, and was severely wounded in the assault on Namur. He studied at the University of Jena, was persecuted for his republicanism, and in 1821 went to Greece
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LIEBER
to take part in the struggle of its people for independence. He suffered much there. Retiring to Italy, he passed nearly two years in the family of Niebuhr, then Prus- sian ambassador at Rome. Returning to Germany in 1824, he was imprisoned, and while confined he wrote a collection of poems, which, on his release, were pub- lished at Berlin under the name of Franz Arnold. After spending about two years in England, he came to the United States in 1827, settling in Boston. He edited the Encyclopaedia Americana, in 13 vol- umes, published in Philadelphia between 1829 and 1833. He lectured on history and politics in the larger cities of the Union. In New York his facile pen was busy translating from the French and German. In 1832 he translated De Beau- mont and De Tocqueville on the peniten- tiary system in the United States, and soon afterwards, on invitation of the trustees of Girard College, furnished a plan of instruction for that institution, which was published at Philadelphia in 1834. In 1835 he published Recollections of Nicbuhr and Letters to a Gentleman in Germany, and the same year was ap- pointed Professor of History and Political
Economy in the South Carolina College at Columbia, S. C., where he remained until 1856. He was appointed to the same professorship in Columbia College,
New York City, in 1857, and afterwards accepted the chair of Political Science in the law school of that institution, which he filled till his death, Oct. 2, 1872.
Dr. Lieber had a very versatile mind, and whatever subject he grasped he han- dled it skilfully as a trained philosopher. In 1838 he published A Manual of Politi- cal Ethics, which was adopted as a text- book in the higher institutions of learn- ing; and he wrote several essays on legal subjects. Special branches of civil polity and civil administration engaged his at- tention, and on these subjects he wrote earnestly and wisely, especially on penal legislation. He wrote some valuable pa- pers in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, and his addresses (published) on anniversary and other special occasions were numerous. While in the South he had warmly combated the doctrine of State supremacy, and when the Civil War broke out he was one of the most earnest and persistent supporters of the government. In 1863 he was one of the founders of the " Loyal Publication So- ciety." More than 100 pamphlets were published under his supervision, of which ten were written by himself. He wrote, at the request of the general-in-chief (Hal- leek), Guerilla Parties, considered with Reference to the Law and Usages of War, which was often quoted in Europe during the Franco - German War, and his In- structions for the Government of the Ar- mies of the United States in the Field was directed by the President to be promul- gated in a general order (No. 100) of the War Department. Numerous essays on public subjects followed. He was an advocate for free-trade, and wrote vigor- ously on the subject. In 1865 he was appointed superintendent of a bureau at Washington for the preservation of the records of the Confederate government, and in 1870 was chosen by the govern- ments of the United States and Mexico as arbitrator in important cases pending between the two countries. This work was unfinished at his death.
Lieber, GUIDO NORMAN, military offi- cer; born in Columbia, S. C., May 21. 1837; graduated at the South Carolina College in 1856, and at the Harvard Law School in 1859; entered the National army in 1861 ; promoted major and judge-
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LIBBER— LIGHT-HOUSE
advocate in 1862; and later was appointed a branch of the Treasury Department, es- Professor of Law at the United States tablished for the salvage of life and prop- Military Academy. In 1895 he became erty in disasters to shipping. Its establish- judge-advocate-general of the United ment was the outcome of the sentiment States army. His publications include aroused by the fearful disasters on the Remarks on the Army Regulations; The Atlantic coast, and particularly those Use of the Army in Aid of the Civil along the shores of Long Island and New Power, etc. Jersey during the period of 1800-50. In
Lieber, OSCAR MONTGOMERY, geologist; 1848, after some especially distressing born in Boston, Mass., Sept. 8, 1830; son wrecks had occurred, an appropriation of Francis Lieber. Educated at the best of $10,000 was made to provide means German universities, he reached a high for lessening losses, and eight buildings place as a writer on geology, chemistry, were erected and equipped along the and kindred subjects, and at the age of dangerous part of the New Jersey coast.
For a time these and other stations shortly after estab- lished were with- out regular crews, but so apparent did this need become that a trained crew was provided for each station. Since 1871 the ser- vice has been rapidly extended under liberal ap- propriations by Congress. In 1900 the life-saving dis-
twenty was State Geologist of Mississippi, tricts extended over 10,000 miles of ocean, In 1854-55 he was engaged in a geological gulf, and lake coasts. The service has a survey of Alabama, and from 1856 to general superintendent and an assistant 1860 held the post of mineralogical, geo- superintendent stationed at Washington, logical, and agricultural surveyor of South and a local superintendent for each dis- Carolina. Serving in the Confederate trict. The following is a summary of the army, he died of wounds received in the operations of the service in the year battle of Williamsburg, in Richmond, Va., 1902-03: June 27, 1862.
Life-guard, WASHINGTON'S. A corps, Number of disasters ............. 607
varying at different times from sixty to ™ of proper* in—..... £031 130
LIFE-SAVING MEDAL.
250 men, was formed in the spring of 1776. value of property lost .......... $1,169,105
The men, not less than 5 feet 9 inches nor Number of persons involved more than 5 feet 10 inches in height, were Number of persons lost
selected from the Continental army for Number of shipwrecked persons
J
succored at stations
4,337 24
1,086
57
. .. ,. , ...........
moral and personal perfections, to protect Number of days> succor afforaed..
the person, baggage, and papers of the Number of vessels totally lost ____ commander-in-chief. The last survivor, Uzal Knapp, of Orange county, N. Y., died The total appropriation for the fiscal in January, 1856, and was buried at the vear was $1,783,830: and the total expen- foot of the flag-staff in front of Wash- diture, $1,593,619, leaving a balance of ington's headquarters at Newburg, on the $190,211.
Hudson. See fac-simile signatures on Light-house, a structure built on the
pages 392 and 393. coast or shore of navigable waters, and
Life-saving Service, UNITED STATES, furnished for the purpose of indicating a
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LIGONIA— LI HUNG CHANG
point of danger or to serve as a guide. The following is a brief summary of light- houses in the United States:
First coast light erected in 1673
First light-house built on Little Brew- ster Island, Boston Harbor 1715-16
The United States government accepted cession of all light-houses Aug. 7, 1789
Control vested in commissioner of the revenue May, 1792
Restored to Secretary of Treas- ury April 6, 1802
Vested again in the commis- sioner July 24, 1813
Vested in the fifth auditor of the treasury July 1, 1820
Naval commission on light-house ap- pointed in 1837
Congressional investigation of light- house management, resulting in im- provements 1838-43
Navy commission sent to inspect Eu- ropean systems in 1845
Fresnel system authorized March 3, 1851
First light - house board ap- pointed May 21, 1851
Fresnel system generally introduced
in 1852
Permanent light-house board author- ized Aug. 31, 1852
Board organized Oct. 8, 1852
At the close of the fiscal year 1900 there were under the control of the light-house establishment: Light-houses and lighted beacons, 1,243; light-vessels in position, 44; light-vessels for relief, 8; electric and gas buoys in position, 82; fog-signals op- erated by steam or hot air, 172; fog- signals operated by clock-work, 221 ; post- lights on Western rivers, 1,396; day or unlighted beacons, 475; whistling-buoys in position, 73; bell-buoys in position, 120.
Ligonia, PROVINCE OF. At about the time of the beginning of the civil war in England, in which Sir Ferdinando Gor- ges took sides with the King, Alexander Rigby, a republican member of Parlia- ment, purchased the old patent of Ligonia (Maine), and sent out George Cleves to take possession. Cleves had been an agent in that region for Gorges and Sir William Alexander. This claim was re- sisted by Gorges's agents, and Cleves at- tempted to gain the assistance of the New England Confederacy by proposing to make Ligonia a member of that alliance. The dispute went on some time, until final- ly the parliamentary commissioners for plantations confirmed Rigby's title, and the coast of Maine, from the Kennebec
to the Saco, was erected into the province of Ligonia, Maine being then restricted to the tract from the Saco to the Pis- cataqua. See MAINE.
Li Hung Chang, statesman; born in the province of Ngan-hwuy, China, Feb. 16, 1823; attained the highest percentage among 40,000 students in the imperial ex- aminations when twenty years old; and was appointed a compiler in the Hanlin College and in the imperial printing-office. He served with much distinction in the Taiping rebellion of 1860, having charge of the final campaign which crushed the revolt; was created viceroy of the United Countries in 1865; and conquered the Nienfei rebellion in 1868. In 1870 he was appointed viceroy of Chih-li and Sen- ior Grand Secretary of State, and the same year was divested of his various titles for not having assisted the general in command at the time of the Tien- tsin massacre. Soon afterwards, however, he was relieved of his punishment and was appointed Grand Chancellor. Subsequent- ly he was appointed viceroy of the metro- politan provinces of Pechili, and so be- came virtually the chief administrator of the Chinese Empire. After the war between China and Japan he was a com- missioner to negotiate peace, and after the allied army had rescued the foreign
LI HUXG CHANG.
391
representatives in Peking, in 1900, he was the chief plenipotentiary to arrange with the interested powers the details of peace
LILITJOKALANI— LINCOLN
arid indemnity. For two or three years been annexed to the United States. In prior to the Boxer outbreak (see CHINA), March, 1900, an attempt was made in the and while Great Britain and Kussia were United States Senate to grant her a lump striving for supremacy in their relations sum of $20,000 and an annual pension with China, he was accused of being strongly pro-Russian. In 1896 he visit- ed the United States, bearing a special message to the President. Earl Li, with Prince Ching, are the representatives of China in the negotiations following the occupation of Peking by the European powers, Japan, and the United States.
Liliuokalani, LYDIA KAMEKEHA, ex- Queen of the Hawaiian Islands; born in Honolulu, Dec. 2, 1838; married John O. Dominis, a native of the United States (died Aug. 26, 1891) ; became vice-regent when King Kalakaua left Hawaii on his trip to the United States; and after his
death in San Francisco she was proclaimed LYDIA J^MEKEHA LILICJOKALANI.
Queen, Jan. 29, 1891. On Jan. 30, 1892,
she was dethroned because of her efforts of $10,000 for the rest of her life as a to restore absolute monarchy and abolish compensation for the loss of her royal the constitution of 1887. Although Presi- allowances, but the effort failed, and in dent Cleveland favored her restoration March, 1901, a bill to give her a yearly to the throne, all her endeavors in that pension of $12,000 passed its first read- direction were futile, and a provisional ing in the Hawaiian legislature, all polit- government was set up. A little later ical parties being pledged to give the pen- she came to the United States, and re- sion. See HAWAII.
mained here till August, 1898, when she Limitations, STATUTES OF. See IN- returned to Hawaii. The islands had then TEREST LAWS.
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
Lincoln, ABRAHAM, sixteenth President meetings. He was elected to Congress of the United States, was born in Hardin in 1847, and was there distinguished for county, Ky., Feb. 12, 1809. His ancestors his outspoken anti-slavery views. In 1858 were Quakers in Berks county, Pa. His he was a candidate for United States Sen- parents, born in Virginia, emigrated to ator. His opponent, Judge Douglas, won Kentucky, and in 1816 went to Indiana, the prize from the legislature, though Having had about one year's schooling Mr. Lincoln received 4,000 more votes of in the aggregate, he went as a hired hand the people than his opponent. In 1860 on a flat-boat to New Orleans when he and 1864 he was elected President of the was nineteen years of age. He made United States. Ordinances of secession himself so useful to his employer that he and the beginning of civil war followed gave him charge as clerk of a store his first election. He conducted the affairs and mill at New Salem, 111. He com- of the nation with great wisdom through manded a company in the Black Hawk the four years of the Civil War, and just War. Appointed postmaster at Salem, he as it closed was assassinated at the na- began to study law, was admitted to tional capital, dying April 15, 1865. practice in 1836, and began his career as His Journey to the Capital. — The Presi- a lawyer at Springfield. He rose rapidly dent-elect left his home in Springfield, 111., in his profession, became a leader of the Feb. 11, 1861, for Washington, D. C., ac- Whig party in Illinois, and was a popu- companied by a few personal and political lar though homely speaker at political friends. To the crowd at the railway
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station, evidently impressed with the ground that I think is right — right for solemn responsibility laid on him, he said: the North, for the South, for the East, " A duty devolves on me which is, per- for the West, and for the whole country." haps, greater than that which has devolved Mr. Lincoln was received by the municipal upon any man since the days of Wash- authorities of New York City at the City ington. He never could have succeeded Hall, where Mayor Wood, who had re- except for the aid of Divine Providence, cently set forth the advantages that tho upon which he at all times relied. I feel commercial mart would derive from its that I cannot succeed without the same secession from all government, admon- divine aid which sustained him, and on ished the President-elect that it was his the same Almighty Being I place my duty " to so conduct public affairs as to reliance for support; and I hope you, my preserve the Union." Mr. Lincoln arrived friends, will all pray that I may receive in Philadelphia Feb. 21, where he was in- that divine assistance without which I formed of a plan in Baltimore to assas- cunnot succeed, but with which success sinate him, on his way through that city is certain." The journey then undertaken was performed at about the same time that Jefferson Davis, the elected President of the Southern Confederacy, was on his way from his home to the capital of the Confederacy. Lincoln made a long journey of hun- dreds of miles through Illi- nois, Indiana, Ohio, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, and Mary- land, everywhere greeted with demonstrations of pro- found respect, and speaking to the crowds who came out to see him words full of cheerfulness, kindness, for- bearance, and tenderness. Common prudence counselled him to say little or nothing on the grave affairs of state, but occasionally words would drop from his lips that clear- ly indicated his views and in- tentions. He often alluded to the condition to Washington, of the country. "It is my intention," he ing (Washington's birthday) he hoisted said at Pittsburg, " to give this subject all the national flag, with his own hands, the consideration I possibly can before spe- over the old State-house, in the presence cially deciding in regard to it, so that of a vast multitude of citizens. In his when I do speak I may be as nearly right speech on that occasion he referred to the as possible. I hope I may say nothing Declaration of Independence, adopted and in opposition to the spirit of the Con- signed in that building, and said that stitution, contrary to the integrity of the it was the sentiment of perfect freedom Union, or which will prove inimical to the to all contained in that document which liberties of the people or the peace of the had kept the Union together so long, and whole country." At the Astor House, in promised the same blessing, in due time, New York, he said to a multitude who to all men. " If this country," he said, greeted him : " When the time does come " cannot be saved by this principle, I for me to speak, I shall then take the was about to say I would rather be assas-
395
SPOT WHERE THE CABIN STOOD IN WHICH LINCOLN WAS BORN.
On the following morn-
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
THK LINCOLN HOME, FARMINGTON, ILL.
sinated on this spot than surrender it. I have said nothing but what I am willing to live by, and, if it be the pleasure of Almighty God, die by." His friends be- lieved his life would be in danger if he car- ried out the prescribed plan of his jour- ney to visit Harrisburg, and thence direct through Baltimore to Washington. But he persisted in keeping his engagement, and went on to Harrisburg. Meanwhile revelations had been made that convinced his friends that he would be assassinated if the whole plan should be carried out, and he was persuaded to go back to Philadelphia that night, and so on to Washington, instead of waiting until the next day. He passed through Baltimore unobserved, and arrived in Washington early on the morning of Feb. 26.
The Passage through Baltimore. — His movements at that time gave currency to many absurd and untruthful stories. Mr. Lincoln gave, orally, to the late Benson J. Lossing, early in December, substantially the following narrative of the affair:
"I arrived at Philadelphia on the 21st. I agreed to stop overnight, and on the following morning hoist the flag over In- dependence Hall. In the evening there was a great crowd where I received my friends, at the Continental Hotel. Mr. Judd, a warm personal friend from Chi- cago, sent for me to come to his room. 1 went, and found there Mr. Pinkerton, a skilful police detective, also from Chi- cago, who had been employed for some days in Baltimore watching or search- ing for suspicious persons there. Pinker- ton informed me that a plan had been laid for my assassination, the exact time when I expected to go through Balti- more being publicly known. He was well informed as to the plan, but did not know that the conspirators would have pluck enough to execute it. He urged me to go right through with him to Washington that night. I didn't like that. I had made engagements to visit Harrisburg and go from there to Baltimore, and I resolved to do so. I
396
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
could not believe that there was a plot to murder me. I made arrangements, how- ever, with Mr. Judd for my return to Philadelphia the next night, if I should be convinced that there was danger in going through Baltimore. I told him that if I should meet at Harrisburg, as I had at other places, a delegation to go with me to the next place (then Balti- more), I should feel safe and go on. When I was making my way back to my room, through crowds of people, I met Frederick Seward. We went together to my room, when he told me that he had been sent, at the instance of his father and General Scott, to inform me that their de- tectives in Baltimore had discovered a plot there to assassinate me. They knew nothing of Pinkerton's movements. I now believed such a plot to be in existence. The next morning I raised the flag over Independence Hall, and then went on to Harrisburg with Mr. Sumner, Major (now General) Hunter, Mr. Judd, Mr. Lamon, and others. There I met the legislature
and people, dined, and waited until the time appointed for me to leave ( six o'clock in the evening). In the mean time Mr. Judd had so secured the telegraph that no communication could pass to Baltimore and give the conspirators knowledge of a change in my plans. In New York some friend had given me a new beaver hat, in u box, and in it had placed a soft wool hat. I had never worn one of the latter in my life. I had this box in my room. Having informed a very few friends of the secret of my new movements, and the cause, I put on an old overcoat that I had with me, and, putting the soft hat in my pocket, I walked out of the house at a back door, bareheaded, without exciting any special curiosity. Then I put on the soft hat and joined my friends without being recognized by strangers, for I was not the same man. Sumner and Hunter wished to accompany me. I said, 'No; you are known, and your presence might betray me. I will only take Lamon [afterwards marshal of the District of
THE DEMOCRATIC CONVENTION, I860, 397
DESK ON WHICH LINCOLN WROTE HIS FIRST INACGDRAL ADDRESS.
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
Columbia, whom nobody knew] and Mr. asserting the policy of restricting the in- Judd.' Sumner and Hunter felt hurt, cumbency of the Presidential office to one We went back to Philadelphia, and found term; a fourth recommending the election a message there from Pinkerton [who had of President directly by the people ; a fifth returned to Baltimore] that the conspira- tors had held their final meeting that evening, and it was doubtful whether they had nerve enough to attempt the execu- tion of their purpose. I went on, how- ever, as the arrangement had been made, in a special train. We were a long time in the station at Baltimore. I heard peo- ple talking around, but no one par- ticularly observed me. At an early hour on Saturday morning [Feb. 23], at about the time I was expected to leave Harris- burg, I arrived in Washington." Mr. Lincoln was received at the railway sta- tion by Mr. Washburne, member of Con- gress from Illinois, and taken to Willard's Hotel.
The Gettysburg Speech. — At the dedi- proposing to commit the business of " re- cation of the National Cemetery on the construction " to the people ; and a sixth Gettysburg battle-field, Nov. 19, 1863, Mr. enjoining the duty of confiscating the Lincoln delivered his immortal speech, property of the Confederates and giving which will be found in the article on it to the Union soldiers and actual set- GETTYSBURG. tiers. They nominated Gen. John C. Fr£-
His Re-election. — In the administration roont for President, and Gen. John Coch- party were men who deprecated the cau- rane for Vice-President. These nominees tious policy of Mr. Lincoln and were op- afterwards withdrew. The Union National posed to his re-election. They held a nom- Convention assembled at Baltimore June inating convention at Cleveland, O., May 7, wherein all the States and Territories 31, 1864. It was composed of about 350 were represented by delegates, excepting persons, very few of whom were regularly those in the Confederacy. Their " plat- chosen delegates. They were called " the form of principles " was equally strong in radical men of the nation." They adopted support of national honor, national free- a " platform of principles," consisting of dom, the emancipation of the slaves and thirteen resolutions, among which was one the perpetuation of their freedom, the
Monroe Doctrine, etc. It was the regular Republican Convention. It endorsed the acts of the administration, and nominated Abraham Lincoln for President and An- drew Johnson for Vice-President. The Democratic National Convention met at Chicago, Aug. 29. Horatio Seymour, of New York, was its chairman, and, in his opening address on taking the chair, he expressed sentiments of extreme hostility to the policy of the administration, and condemnatory of the war for the preserva- tion of the Union. They adopted a " plat- form of principles," composed of six reso- proposing an amendment to the Constitu- lutions. It declared the fidelity of the tion to prevent the re-establishment of Democratic party to the Union; that the slavery; another declaring the wisdom of war was a failure, and that "humanity, the MONROE DOCTRINE (q. v.) ; a third liberty, and the public welfare " demanded
398
LINCOLN'S INKSTAND.
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
its immediate cessation; that the govern- ment, through its military power, had interfered with elections in four of the late slave-labor States, and was, conse- quently, guilty of revolutionary action, which should be resisted; that the govern- ment had been guilty of unwarrantable
soldiers should receive " all the care and protection and kindness" which they de- served. Gen. George B. McClellan, who had been relieved from military duty about twenty months before, was nomi- nated for President, and George H. Pendle- ton, of Ohio, for Vice-President. The OP-
PASSAGE OP THE AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION PROHIBITING SLAVERY.
usurpations (which were specified), and also been guilty of a shameful disregard of duty respecting the exchange of prison- ers and the relief of its suffering captives. The resolutions closed with an assurance that the Democratic party extended its sympathy to the Union soldiers, and that, in the event of their obtaining power, the
posing parties carried on the canvass with great vigor during the autumn. The real practical issue was expressed in two words — Union and Disunion. Mr. Lincoln was re-elected by an unprecedented majority in the electoral college. His opponent — General McClellan — received the votes only of the two late slave-labor States of Dela-
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
ware and Kentucky and the State of New Jersey. The soldiers in the army gave 121,000 votes for Lincoln and 35,050 for McClellan, or three to one in favor of the former. They did not regard the war in which they were struggling as a " failure." The freedmen rejoiced at the result, for they regarded it as the seal of their sure deliverance, for there was a wonderful power slumbering behind that vote.
President Lincoln's Cabinets. — On the day after his first inauguration (March 5, 1861), President Lincoln nominated the following gentlemen as his constitu- tional advisers: William H. Seward, of New York, Secretary of State; Salmon P. Chase, of Ohio, Secretary of the Treas- ury; Simon Cameron, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of War; Gideon Welles, of Con- necticut, Secretary of the Navy; Caleb Smith, of Indiana, Secretary of the In- terior; Montgomery Blair, of Maryland, Postmaster - General ; and Edward Bates, of Missouri, Attorney - General. These were immediately confirmed by the Sen- ate. At the beginning of his second ad- ministration he retained his cabinet — namely, W. H. Seward, Secretary of State ;
Hugh McCulloch, Secretary of the Treas- ury; Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War; Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy; William Dennison, Postmaster-Gen- eral; J. P. Usher, Secretary of the In- terior; James Speed, Attorney-General. There had been previously some changes in his cabinet. At the request of the President, Montgomery Blair had resigned the office of Postmaster-General, and was succeeded by Mr. Dennison, of Ohio. On the death of Chief-Justice Taney, Salmon P. Chase had been made his successor, and the place of the latter in the cabinet had been filled by Hugh McCulloch.
Assassination of the President. — On the morning of April 14, 1865, General Grant arrived in Washington, and attended a meeting of the cabinet at eleven o'clock. An arrangement was made at the close of the meeting for the President and the general to attend Ford's Theatre in the evening, and a box was en- gaged. The general was called to New York, and did not attend. The Presi- dent, with Mrs. Lincoln and a little party, was there. Mr. Lincoln was seated in a high - backed chair. The play was Our
DIAGRAM OP BOX OCCUPIED BY PRESIDENT LINCOLN IN THEATRE.
[0 Dark corridor leading from the dress-circle to box.— H. Entrance to corridor.— I. The bar used by Booth to prevent entrance from without.— J. Dress-circle.— K. The parquette.— I,. The foot-lights.— M. The stage.— F. Open door to the President's box. — G. Closed door. — N. Place where Booth vaulted over to the stage below. A, B, C, D, E. Chairs and settee. —A. President Lincoln; B. Mrs. Lincoln; C. Major Rathbone ; D. Miss Harris ; E. Mrs. Ira Harris.]
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American Cousin; and just before its President died the next morning, April close, at a little past ten o'clock, John 15. Booth was pursued and overtaken Wilkes Booth, an actor, entered the Presi- in Virginia, concealed in a barn. He re- dent's box, closed and fastened the door fused to surrender. The barn was set on
=^=- ^^zr.----^^-^-
FORD'S THEATRE, WHERE LINCOLN WAS ASSASSINATED.
behind him, and, with a derringer pistol in one hand and a dagger in the other, he rested the former on the back of the chair occupied by the President and shot him. The ball entered behind his ear, pass- ed through his brain, and lodged near one of his eyes. The President lived nine hours afterwards, but in an insensible state. The assassin was seized by Major Rath- bone, who was in the box. Booth dropped his pistol, struck Rath bone on the arm with his dagger, tore away from his grasp, rushed to the front of the box with the gleaming weapon in his hand, and, shout- ing "Sic semper tyrannis!" ("So may it always be with tyrants!" — the motto on the seal of Virginia), leaped upon the stage. He was booted and spurred for a night ride. One of his spurs caught in the flag, and he fell. Rising, he turned to the audience and said, " The South is avenged!" and then escaped by a back door. There he mounted a horse which a boy had held for him, fled across the Ana- costa, and found temporary refuge among sympathizing friends in Maryland. The
fire, and the assassin was shot by a- ser- geant. The President's body was em- balmed and taken back to his home in Springfield by almost the same route as he went to the capital more than four years before. Everywhere loyal people of the land were his sincere mourners. Foreign governments and distinguished men expressed their grief and sympathy, and French Democrats testified their ap- preciation of his character and services by causing a magnificent gold medal to be struck and presented to the President's widow. It is about four inches in diam- eter. One side bears a profile, in relief, of Mr. Lincoln, surrounded by the words, in French, " Dedicated by the French Democracy. A. Lincoln, twice elected President of the United States." On the reverse is an altar, bearing the following inscription, also in French : " Lincoln, Honest Man. Abolished Slavery, Re-estab- lished the Union, and Saved the Republic, without Veiling the Statue of Liberty. He was Assassinated the 14th of April, 1865." Below all are the words: " Liberty,
v. — 2c
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LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
Equality, and Fraternity." On one side speech of Senator Douglas, which is given of the altar stands winged Victory, with in full in the article on that statesman, her right hand resting upon a sword and and the reply of Abraham Lincoln, which her left holding a civic wreath. On the here follows, constitute what is known as other side stand two emancipated slaves the first Douglas and Lincoln debate. It — the younger, a lad, offering a palm was opened in Ottawa, 111., Aug. 21, 1858. branch, and the elder pointing him to the
American eagle, bearing the shield, the My fellow-citizens, when a man hears olive-branch, and the lightning, with the himself somewhat misrepresented, it pro- motto of the Union. The older freedman vokes him — at least, I find it so with
myself, but, when misrepresenta- tion becomes very gross and palpa- ble, it is more apt to amuse him. The first thing I see fit to notice is the fact that Judge Douglas al- leges, after running through the history of the old Democratic and the old Whig parties, that Judge Trumbull and myself made an ar- rangement in 1854 by which I was to have the place of General Shields in the United States Senate, and Judge Trumbull was to have the place of Judge Douglas. Now all I have to say upon that subject is that I think no man — not even Judge Douglas — can prove it, be- cause it is not true. I have no doubt he is " conscientious " in say- ing it. As to those resolutions that he took such a length of time to read, as being the platform of the Republican party in 1854, I say I never had anything to do with them; and I think Trumbull never had. Judge Douglas cannot show that either of us ever did have any- thing to do with them. I believe this is true about those resolu- tions. There was a call for a convention to form a Republican party at Springfield; and I think that my friend Mr. Love joy, who is here upon this stand, had a hand in it. I think this is true; and I think, if he will remember accurately, he will be able to recol- lect that he tried to get me into it, and I would not go in. I believe it holds the musket of the militia-man. Near is also true that I went away from Spring- them are the emblems of industry and field, when the convention was in session, progress. Over the altar is a triangle, to attend court in Tazewell county. It is emblematic of trinity — the trinity of true they did place my name, though with- man's inalienable rights — liberty, equal- cut authority, upon the committee, and ity, and fraternity. afterwards wrote me to attend the meet-
Reply to Stephen A. Douglas. — The ing of the committee; but I refused to do
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HOtTSE IN WHICH LINCOLN DIED.
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
MEDAL FROM THE FRENCH DEMOCRATS.
so, and I never had anything to do with at that time in selling out and abolition- that organization. This is the plain truth izing the Old Whig party, I hope you about all that matter of the resolutions. will permit me to read a part of a print- Now, about this story that Judge Doug- ed speech that I made then at Peoria, las tells of Trumbull bargaining to sell which will show altogether a different out the old Democratic party, and Lin- view of the position I took in that con- coin agreeing to sell out the Old Whig test of 1854. [Voice: "Put on your party, I have the means of knowing about specs."] Yes, sir, I am obliged to do so. that: Judge Douglas cannot have; and I I am no longer a young man. know there is no substance to it what- " This is the repeal of the Missouri ever. Yet I have no doubt he is " con- Compromise. The foregoing history may scientious " about it. I know that, after not be precisely accurate in every par- Mr. Xovejoy got into the legislature that ticular; but I am sure it is sufficiently winter, he complained of me that I had so for all the uses I shall attempt to told all the Old Whigs of his district make of it, and in it we have before us that the Old Whig party was good enough the chief materials enabling us to cor- for them, and some of them voted against rectly judge whether the repeal of the him because I told them so. Now I have Missouri Compromise is right or wrong, no means of totally disproving such " I think and shall try to show that charges as this which the judge makes, it is wrong — wrong in its direct effect, A man cannot prove a negative; but he letting slavery into Kansas and Nebraska, has a right to claim that, when a man and wrong in its prospective principle, makes an affirmative charge, he must allowing it to spread to every other part offer some proof to show the truth of of the wide world where men can be what he says. I certainly cannot intro- found inclined to take it. duce testimony to show the negative about " This declared indifference, but, as I things; but I have a right to claim must think, covert real zeal for the spread that, if a man says he knows a thing, of slavery, I cannot but hate. I hate it then he must show how he knows it. I because of the monstrous injustice of slav- always have a right to claim this, and it ery itself. I hate it because it deprives is not satisfactory to me that he may be our republican example of its just influ- " conscientious " on the subject. ence in the world; enables the enemies Now, gentlemen, I hate to waste my of free institutions, with plausibility, to time on such things, but in regard to that taunt us as hypocrites; causes the real general abolition tilt that Judge Douglas friends of freedom to doubt our sincerity, makes when he says that I was engaged and especially because it forces so many
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LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
really good men among ourselves into an open war with the very fundamental principles of civil liberty — criticising the Declaration of Independence, and insisting that there is no right principle of action but self-interest.
"Before proceeding, let me say I think I have no prejudice against the Southern people. They are just what we would
be in their situation. If slavery did not now exist among them, they would not introduce it. If it did now exist among us, we should not instantly give it up. This I believe of the masses North and South. Doubtless there are individuals on both sides who would not hold slaves under any circumstances; and others who would gladly introduce slavery anew if
THE LINCOLN MONUMENT IN OAK RIDGB CEMETERY, SPRINGFIELD, ILL.
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LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
it were out of existence. We know that likely to carry a free man into slavery
some Southern men do free their slaves, than our ordinary criminal laws are to
go North, and become tip-top abolition- hang an innocent one.
ists; while some Northern ones go South, "But all this, to my judgment, fur-
und become most cruel slave-masters. nishes no more excuse for permitting
" When Southern people tell us they slavery to go into our own free territory
are no more responsible for the origin of than it would for reviving the African
slavery than we are, I acknowledge the slave-trade by law. The law which for-
fact. When it is said that the institu- bids the bringing of slaves from Africa,
tion exists, and that it is very difficult and that which has so long forbidden
to get rid of it in any satisfactory way, I the taking of them to Nebraska, can
can understand and appreciate the say- hardly be distinguished on any moral
ing. I surely will not blame them for principle; and the repeal of the former
not doing what I should not know how could find quite as plausible excuses as
to do myself. If all earthly power were that of the latter."
given me, I should not know what to do I have reason to know that Judge as to the existing institution. My first Douglas knows that I said this. I think impulse would be to free all the slaves, he has the answer here to one of the and send them to Liberia — to their own questions he put to me. I do not mean native land. But a moment's reflection to allow him to catechise me unless he would convince me that, whatever of pays back for it in kind. I will not an- high hope (as I think there is) there swer questions, one after another, unless may be in this in the long run, its sud- he reciprocates; but as he has made this den execution is impossible. If they inquiry, and I have answered it before, were all landed there in a day, they would he has got it without my getting any- all perish in the next ten days; and there thing in return. He has got my answer are not surplus shipping and surplus on the fugitive-slave law. money enough in the world to carry them Now, gentlemen, I don't want to read there in many times ten days. What at any great length; but this is the true then? Free them all, and keep them complexion of all I have ever said in re- am ong us as underlings? Is it quite cer- gard to the institution of slavery and the tain that this betters their condition? black race. This is the whole of it; and I think I would not hold one in slavery, anything that argues me into his idea of at any rate; yet the point is not clear perfect social and political equality with enough to me to denounce people upon, the negro is but a specious and fantastic What next? Free them, and make them arrangement of words, by which a man politically and socially our equals? My can prove a horse-chestnut to be a chest- own feelings will not admit of this ; and nut horse. I will say here, while upon this if mine would, we well know that those subject, that I have no purpose, either of the great mass of white people will directly or indirectly, to interfere with not. Whether this feeling accords with the institution of slavery in the States justice and sound judgment is not the where it exists. I believe I have no law- sole question, if, indeed, it is any part ful right to do so, and I have no inclina- of it. A universal feeling, whether well tion to do so. I have no purpose to intro- or ill founded, cannot be safely disregard- duce political and social equality between ed. We cannot make them equals. It the white and the black races. There is a does seem to me that systems of gradual physical difference between the two which, emancipation might be adopted; but, for in my judgment, will probably forever their tardiness in this, I will not under- forbid their living together upon the foot- take to judge our brethren in the South, ing of perfect equality; and, inasmuch as
" When they remind us of their con- it becomes a necessity that there must be
stitutional rights, I acknowledge them, a difference, I, as well as Judge Douglas,
not grudgingly, but fully and fairly; and am in favor of the race to which I be-
I would give them any legislation for long having the superior position. I have
the reclaiming of their fugitives which never said anything to the contrary, but
should not, in its stringency, be more I hold that, notwithstanding all this,
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there is no reason in the world why the negro is not entitled to all the natural rights enumerated in the Declaration of Independence — the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. I hold that he is as much entitled to these as the white man. I agree with Judge Douglas he is not my equal in many respects — certainly not in color, perhaps not in moral or intellectual endowment. But in the right to eat the bread, without the leave of anybody else, which his own hand earns,
ing opposed our soldiers who were fight- ing in the Mexican War. The judge did not make his charge very distinctly; but I tell you what he can prove, by referring to the record. You remember I was an Old Whig; and, whenever the Democratic party tried to get me to vote that the war had been righteously begun by the Presi- dent, I would not do it. But, whenever they asked for any money or land- war- rants or anything to pay the soldiers there, during all that time, I gave the
CHAMBER OF ILLINOIS HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. (In which Lincoln made his first speech in opposition to Douglas.)
he is my equal and the equal of Judge Doug- las, and the equal of every living man.
Now I pass on to consider one or two more of these little follies. The judge is wofully at fault about his early friend Lincoln being a " grocery-keeper." I don't think that it would be a great sin if I had been; but he is mistaken. Lin- coln never kept a grocery anywhere in the world. It is true that Lincoln did work the latter part of one winter in a little still-house up at the head of a hollow. And so I think my friend, the judge, is equally at fault when he charges me at the time when I was in Congress of hav-
same vote that Judge Douglas did. You can think as you please as to whether that was consistent. Such is the truth; and the judge has the right to make all he can out of it. But when he, by a general charge, conveys the idea that I withheld supplies from the soldiers who were fight- ing in the Mexican War, or did anything else to hinder the soldiers, he is, to say the least, grossly and altogether mistaken, as a consultation of the records will prove to him. As I have not used up so much of my time as I had supposed, I will dwell a little longer upon one or two of these minor topics upon which the judge has
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spoken. He has read from my speech in Springfield in which I say that " a house divided against itself cannot stand." Does the judge say it can stand? I don't know whether he does or not. The judge does not seem to be attending to me just now, but I would like to know if it is his opinion that a house divided against itself can stand. If he does, then there is a question of veracity, not between him and me, but between the judge and an author- ity of a somewhat higher character.
Now, my friends, I ask your attention to this matter for the purpose of saying something seriously. I know that the judge may readily enough agree with me that the maxim which was put forth by the Saviour is true, but he may allege that 1 misapply it; and the judge has a right to urge that in my application I do mis- apply it, and then I have a right to show that I do not misapply it. When he un- dertakes to say that because I think this nation, so far as the question of slavery is concerned, will all become one thing or all the other, I am in favor of bringing about a dead uniformity in the various States in all their institutions, he argues erroneously. The great variety of the local institutions in the States, springing from differences in the soil, differences in the face of the country and in the climate, are bonds of union. They do not make " a house divided against itself," but they make a house united. If they produce in cne section of the country what is called for by the wants of another section, and this other section can supply the wants of the first, they are not matters of discord, but bonds of union — true bonds of union. But can this question of slavery be con- sidered as among these varieties in the institutions of the country? I leave it to you to say whether, in the history of our government, this institution of slavery has not always failed to be a bond of union, and, on the contrary, been an apple of dis- cord and an element of division in the house. I ask you to consider whether, so long as the moral constitution of men's minds shall continue to be the same, after this generation and assemblage shall sink into the grave, and another race shall arise with the same moral and intellectual development we have — whether, if that in- stitution is standing in the same irritat-
407
ing position in which it now is, it will not continue an element of division?
If so, then I have a right to say that, in regard to this question, the Union is a house divided against itself; and when the judge reminds me that I have often said to him that the institution of slavery has existed for eighty years in some States, and yet it does not exist in some others, I agree to the fact, and I account for it by looking at the position in which our fathers originally placed it — restrict- ing it from the new Territories where it had not gone, and legislating to cut off its source by the abrogation of the slave-trade, thus putting the seal of legislation against its spread. The public mind did rest in the belief that it was in the course of ulti- mate extinction. But, lately, I think — and in this I charge nothing on the judge's motives — lately, I think that he, and those acting with him, have placed that institution on a new basis, which looks to the perpetuity and nationaliza- tion of slavery. And, while it is placed upon this new basis, I say, and I have said, that I believe we shall not have peace upon the question until the oppo- nents of slavery arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction; or, on the other hand, that its advocates will push it forward until it shall become alike lawful in all the States, old as well as new, North as well as South. Now I be- lieve, if we could arrest the spread, and place it where Washington and Jefferson and Madison placed it, it would be in the course of ultimate extinction, and the public mind would, as for eighty years past, believe that it was in the course of ultimate extinction. The crisis would be past, and the institution might be let alone for a hundred years — if it should live so long — in the States where it exists, yet it would be going out of existence in the way best for both the black and the white races. [A voice : " Then do you re- pudiate popular sovereignty?"] Well, then, let us talk about popular sovereign- ty! What is popular sovereignty? Is it the right of the people to have slavery or not have it, as they see fit, in the Terri- tories? I will state — and I have an able man to watch me — my understanding is
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
that popular sovereignty, as now applied policy, and therefore he set about study- to the question of slavery, does allow the ing the subject upon original principles, people of a Territory to have slavery if and upon original principles he got up they want to, but does not allow them the Nebraska bill! I am fighting it upon not to have it if they do not want it. I these " original principles " — fighting it do not mean that, if this vast concourse in the Jeffersonian, Washingtonian, and of people were in a Territory ef the United Madisonian fashion.
States, any one of them would be obliged Now, my friends, I wish you to attend
to have a slave if he did not want one; for a little while to one or two other things
but I do say that, as I understand the in that Springfield speech. My main ob-
Dred Scott decision, if any one man wants ject was to show, so far as my humble
slaves, all the rest have no way of keep- ability was capable of showing to the
ing that one man from holding them. people of this country, what I believed
When I made my speech at Springfield, was the truth — that there was a tend-
of which the judge complains, and from ency, if not a conspiracy, among those
which he quotes, I really was not think- who have engineered this slavery question
ing of the things which he ascribes to for the last four or five years, to make
me at all. I had no thought in the world slavery perpetual and universal in this
that I was doing anything to bring about nation. Having made that speech prin-
a war between the free and slave States, cipally for that object, after arranging
T had no thought in the world that I was the evidences that I thought tended to
doing anything to bring about a politi- prove my proposition, I concluded with
cal and social equality of the black and this bit of comment:
white races. It never occurred to me " We cannot absolutely know that these that I was doing anything or favoring exact adaptations are the result of pre- anything to reduce to a dead uniformity concert; but, when we see a lot of framed all the local institutions of the various timbers, different portions of which we States. But I must say, in all fairness know have been gotten out at different to him, if he thinks I am doing something times and places, and by different work- which leads to these bad results, it is none men — Stephen, Franklin, Roger, and the better that I did not mean it. It is James, for instance — and when we see just as fatal to the country, if I have these timbers joined together, and see any influence in producing it, whether I they exactly make the frame of a house or intend it or not. But can it be true that a mill, all the tenons and mortises ex- placing this institution upon the original actly fitting, and all the lengths and pro- basis — the basis upon which our fathers portions of the different pieces exactly placed it — can have any tendency to set adapted to their respective places, and the Northern and the Southern States at not a piece too many or too few — not war with one another, or' that it can have omitting even the scaffolding — or if a any tendency to make the people of Ver- single piece be lacking, we see the place mont raise sugar-cane because they raise in the frame exactly fitted and prepared it in Louisiana, or that it can compel the to yet bring such piece in — in such a people of Illinois to cut pine logs on the case we feel it impossible not to believe Grand Prairie where they will not grow, that Stephen and Franklin and Roger because they cut pine logs in Maine, where and James all understood one another they do grow? The judge says this is a from the beginning, and all worked upon new principle started in regard to this a common plan or draft drawn before the question. Does the judge claim that he is first blow was struck." working on the plan of the founders of \\Jhen my friend, Judge Douglas, came the government? I think he says in some to Chicago on the 9th of July, this of his speeches — indeed, I have one here speech having been delivered on the 16th now — that he saw evidence of a policy of June, he made an harangue there in to allow slavery to be south of a certain which he took hold of this speech ot line, while north of it it should be ex- mine, showing that he had carefully eluded; and he saw an indisposition on read it; and, while he paid no atten- the part of the country to stand upon that tion to this matter at all, but com-
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plimented me as being a "kind, amiable, and intelligent gentleman," notwithstand- ing I had said this, he goes on and de- duces, or draws out, from my speech this tendency of mine to set the States at war with one another, to make all the institutions uniform, and set the niggers and white people to marry together. Then, as the judge had complimented me with these pleasant titles (I must confess to my weakness ) , I was a little " taken " ; for it came from a great man. I was not very much accustomed to flattery, and it came the sweeter to me. I was rather like the Hoosier with the gingerbread, when he said he reckoned he loved it bet- ter than any other man, and got less of it. As the judge had so flattered me, I could not make up my mind that he meant to deal unfairly with me. So I went to work to show him that he misunderstood the whole scope of my speech, and that I really never intended to set the people at war with one another. As an illustra- tion, the next time I met him, which was at Springfield, I used this expression, that I claimed no right under the Constitu- tion, nor had T any inclination, to enter into the slave States and interfere with the institutions of slavery. He says upon that, Lincoln will not enter into the slave States, but will go to the banks of the Ohio, on this side, and shoot over! He runs on, step by step, in the horse-chest- nut style of argument, until in the Spring- field speech he says, " Unless he shall be successful in firing his batteries until he shall have extinguished slavery in all the States, the Union shall be dissolved." Now I don't think that was exactly the way to treat "a kind, amiable, intelli- gent gentleman." I know, if I had asked the judge to show when or where it was I had said that, if I didn't succeed in fir- ing into the slave States until slavery should be extinguished, the Union should be dissolved, he could not have shown it. I understand what he would do. He would say, " I don't mean to quote from you, but this was the result of what you say." But I have the right to ask, and I do ask now, Did you not put it in such a form that an ordinary reader or listener would take it as an expression from me? In a speech at Springfield, on the night of the 17th, I thought I might as well
409
attend to my business a little; and I re- called his attention as well as I could to this charge of conspiracy to nationalize slavery. I called his attention to the fact that he had acknowledged in my hear- ing twice that he had carefully read the speech; and, in the language of the law- yers, as he had twice read the speech, and still had put in no plea or answer, I took a default on him. I insisted that I had a right then to renew that charge of conspiracy. Ten days afterwards I met the judge at Clinton — that is to say, I was on the ground, but not in the dis- cussion— and heard him make a speech. Then he comes in with his plea to this charge, for the first time; and his plea when put in, as well as I can recollect it, amounted to this: that he never had any talk with Judge Taney or the President of the United States with regard to the Dred Scott decision before it was made; I (Lincoln) ought to know that the man who makes a charge without knowing it to be true falsifies as much as he who knowingly tells a falsehood; and, lastly, that he would pronounce the whole thing a falsehood; but he would make no per- sonal application of the charge of false- hood, not because of any regard for the " kind, amiable, intelligent gentleman," but because of his own personal self-re- spect! I have understood since then (but [turning to Judge Douglas] will not hold the judge to it if he is not willing) that he has broken through the " self-respect," and has got to saying the thing out. The judge nods to me that it is so. It is fortunate for me that I can keep as good- humored as I do when the judge acknowl- edges that he has been trying to make a question of veracity with me. I know the judge is a great man, while I am only a small man; but I feel that I have got him. I demur to that plea. I waive all objections that it was not filed till after default was taken, and demur to it upon the merits. What if Judge Douglas never did talk with Chief-Justice Taney and the President before the Dred Scott de- cision was made; does it follow that he could not have had as perfect an under- standing without talking as with it? I am not disposed to stand upon my legal advantage. I am disposed to take his denial as being like an answer in chan-
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
eery, that he neither had any knowledge, information, nor belief in the existence of such a conspiracy. I am disposed to take his answer as being as broad as though he had put it in these words. And now, I ask, even if he had done so, have not I a right to prove it on him, and to offer the evidence of more than two wit- nesses by. whom to prove it; and, if the evidence proves the existence of the con- spiracy, does his broad answer, denying all knowledge, information, or belief, dis- turb the fact? It can only show that he was used by conspirators, and was not a leader of them.
Now in regard to his reminding me of the moral rule that persons who tell what they do not know to be true falsify as much as those who knowingly tell false- hoods. I remember the rule, and it must be borne in mind that in what I have read to you I do not say that I know such a conspiracy to exist. To that I reply, I believe it. If the judge says that I do not believe it, then he says what he does not know, and falls within his own rule that he who asserts a thing which he does not know to be true falsifies as much as he who knowingly tells a falsehood. I want to call your attention to a little discus- sion on that branch of the case, and the evidence which brought my mind to the conclusion which I expressed as my be- lief. If, in arraying that evidence, I had stated anything which was false or erro- neous, it needed but that Judge Douglas should point it out, and I would have taken it back with all the kindness in the world. I do not deal in that way. If I have brought forward anything not a fact, if he will point it out, it will not even ruffle me to take it back. But, if he will not point out anything erroneous in the evidence, is it not rather for him to show by a comparison of the evidence that I have reasoned falsely than to call the " kind, amiable, intelligent gentleman " a liar? If I have reasoned to a false con- clusion, it is the vocation of an able de- bater to show by argument that I have wandered to an erroneous conclusion. I want to ask your attention to a portion of the Nebraska bill which Judge Douglas has quoted: " It being the true intent and meaning of this act not to legislate sla- very into any Territory or State, nor to
exclude it therefrom, but to leave the peo- ple thereof perfectly free to form and regulate their domestic institutions in their own way, subject only to the Con- stitution of the United States." There- upon Judge Douglas and others began to argue in favor of " popular sovereignty " — the right of the people to have slaves if they wanted them, and to exclude slavery if they did not want them. " But," said, in substance, a Senator from Ohio (Mr. Chase, I believe), "we more than suspect that you do not mean to allow the people to exclude slavery if they wish to; and, if you do mean it, accept an amendment which I propose expressly authorizing the people to exclude slavery." I believe I have the amendment here before me, which was offered, and under which the people of the Territory, through their proper representatives, might, if they saw fit, prohibit the existence of slavery therein. And now I state it as a fact, to be taken back if there is any mistake about it, that Judge Douglas and those acting with him voted that amendment down. I now think that those men who voted it down had a real reason for doing so. They know what that reason was. It looks to us, since we have seen the Dred Scott decision pronounced, holding that, "under the Constitution," the people can- not exclude slavery — I say it looks to out- siders, poor, simple, " amiable, intelligent gentlemen," as though the niche was left as a place to put that Dred Scott decision in — a niche which would have been spoiled by adopting the amendment. And now I say again, if this was not the reason, it will avail the judge much more to calmly and good-humoredly point out to these people what that other reason was for voting the amendment down than swell- ing himself up to vociferate that he may be provoked to call somebody a liar.
Again, there is in that same quotation from the Nebraska bill this clause : " It being the true intent and meaning of this bill not to legislate slavery into any Ter- ritory or State." I have always been puzzled to know what business the word " State " had in that connection. Judge Douglas knows. He put it there. He knows what he put it there for. We out- siders cannot say what he put it there for. The law they were passing was not
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about States, and was not making pro- dinary for the last two or three months
vision for States. What was it placed that I think it well enough to make some
there for? After seeing the Dred Scott allusion to it. It has read me out of the
decision, which holds that the people can- Democratic party every other day, at
not exclude slavery from a Territory, if least for two or three months, and keeps
another Dred Scott decision shall come, reading me out, and, as if it had not
holding that they cannot exclude it from succeeded, still continues to read me
a State, we shall discover that, when ae out, using such terms as ' traitor,' * rene-
word was originally put there, it was in gade/ 'deserter,' and other kinds of po-
view of something which was to come in lite epithets of that nature. Sir, I have
due time, we shall see that it was the no vindication to make of my Democracy
other half of something. I now say again, against the Washington Union or any
if there is any different reason for put- other newspaper. I am willing to allow
ting it there, Judge Douglas, in a good- my history and actions for the last twenty
humored way, without calling anybody a years to speak for themselves as to my
liar, can tell what the reason was. political principles and my fidelity to
When the judge spoke at Clinton, he political obligations. The Washington
came very near making a charge of false- Union has a personal grievance. When
hood against me. He used, as I found it the editor was nominated for public
printed in a newspaper, which, I remem- printer, I declined to vote for him, and
ber, was very nearly like the real speech, stated that at some time I might give
the following language: my reasons for doing so. Since I de-
"I did not answer the charge [of con- clined to give that vote, this scurrilous spiracy] before for the reason that I did abuse, these vindictive and constant at- not suppose there was a man in America tacks, have been repeated almost daily with a heart so corrupt as to believe such on me. Will my friend from Michigan a charge could be true. I have too much read the article to which I allude?" respect for Mr. Lincoln to suppose he is This is a part of the speech. You must serious in making the charge." excuse me from reading the entire article " I confess this is rather a curious view, of the Washington Union, as Mr. Stuart that out of respect for me he should con- read it for Mr. Douglas. The judge goes sider I was making what I deemed rather on and sums up, as I think, correctly: a grave charge in fun. I confess it strikes " Mr. President, you here find several me rather strangely. But I let it pass, distinct propositions advanced boldly by As the judge did not for a moment be- the Washington Union editorially, and ap- lieve that there was a man in America parently authoritatively; and any man whose heart was so " corrupt " as to make who questions any of them is denounced such a charge, and as he places me among as an abolitionist, a free-soiler, a fanatic, the "men in America" who have hearts The propositions are, first, that the pri- base enough to make such a charge, I mary object of all government at its hope he will excuse me if I hunt out an- original institution is the protection of other charge very like this; and, if it person and property; second, that the should turn out that in hunting I should Constitution of the United States declares find that other, and it should turn out that the citizens of each State shall be to be Judge Douglas himself who made it, entitled to all the privileges and immuni- I hope he will reconsider this question ties of citizens in the several States; and of the deep corruption of heart he has that, therefore, thirdly, all State laws, thought fit to ascribe to me. In Judge whether organic or otherwise, which pro- Douglas's speech of March 22, 1858, which hibit the citizens of one State from set- I hold in my hand, he says: tling in another with their slave prop-
" In this connection there is another erty, and especially declaring it forfeited,
topic to which I desire to allude. I sel- are direct violations of the original inten-
dom refer to the course of newspapers or tion of the government and Constitution
notice the articles which they publish in of the United States; and, fourth, that
regard to myself; but the course of the the emancipation of the slaves of the
Washington Union has been so extraor- Northern States was a gross outrage on
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LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
the rights of property, inasmuch as it read all of the portion I desire to comment
was involuntarily done on the part of upon. What is this charge that the judge
the owner. thinks I must have a very corrupt heart
" Remember that this article was pub- v to make ? It was a purpose on the part
lished in the Union on the 17th of No- of certain high functionaries to make it
vember, and on the 18th appeared the impossible for the people of one State to
first article giving the adhesion of the prohibit the people of any other State
Union to the Lecompton constitution. It from entering it with their " property,"
was in these words: so called, and making it a slave State.
" ' Kansas and her constitution. The In other words, it was a charge imply-
vexed question is settled. The problem ing a design to make the institution of
is solved. The dead point of danger is slavery national. And now I ask your at-
passed. All serious trouble to Kansas tention to what Judge Douglas has him-
affairs is over and gone.' self done here. I know that he made
" And a column nearly of the same that part of the speech as a reason why
sort. Then, when you come to look into he had refused to vote for a certain man
the Lecompton constitution, you find the for public printer; but, when we get at
same doctrine incorporated in it which it, the charge itself is the very one I
was put forth editorially in the Union, made against him, that he thinks I am
What is it? so corrupt for uttering. Now, whom
"'Art. 7, Sec. 1. The right of property does he make that charge against? Does
is before and higher than any constitu- he make it against that newspaper editor
tional sanction; and the right of the merely? No; he says it is identical in
owner of a slave to such slave and its spirit with the Lecompton constitution,
increase is the same and as inviolable as and so the framers of that constitution
the right of the owner of any property are brought in with the editor of the
whatever/ newspaper in that " fatal blow being
'* Then, in the schedule is a provision struck." He did not call it a " con- that the constitution may be amended spiracy." In his language it is a " fatal after 1864 by a two-thirds vote. blow being struck." And, if the words
" ' But no alteration shall be made to carry the meaning better when changed
affect the right of property in the owner- from a " conspiracy " into a " fatal blow
ship of slaves.' being struck," I will change my expres-
" It will be seen by these clauses in sion, and call it " fatal blow being
the Lecompton constitution that they are struck." We see the charge is made not
identical in spirit with the authoritative merely against the editor of the Union,
article in the Washington Union of the but all the framers of the Lecompton
day previous to its endorsement of this constitution; and not only so, but the
constitution." article was an authoritative article. By
I pass over some portions of the speech, whose authority? Is there any question
and I hope that any one who feels in- but that he means it was by the au-
terested in this matter will read the en- thority of the President and his cabinet
tire section of the speech, and see whether — the administration? Is there any sort
1 do the judge an injustice. He proceeds: of question but that he means to make
"When I saw that article in the Union that charge? Then there are the editors
of the 17th of November, followed by the of the Union, the framers of the Le-
glorification of the Lecompton constitu- compton constitution, the President of the
tion on the 18th of November, and this United States and his cabinet, and all
clause in the constitution asserting the the supporters of the Lecompton constitu-
doctrine that a State has no right to tion in Congress and out of Congress, who
prohibit slavery within its limits, I saw are all involved in this " fatal blow being
that there was a fatal blow being struck struck." I commend to Judge Douglas's
at the sovereignty of the States of this consideration the question of how cor-
Union." rupt a man's heart must be to make
I stop the quotation there, again re- such a charge!
questing that it may all be read. I have Now, my friends, I have but one branch
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of the subject, in the little time I have left, to which to call your attention; and, as I shall come to a close at the end of that branch, it is probable that I shall not occupy quite all the time allotted to me. Although on these questions I would like to talk twice as long as I have, I could not enter upon another head and discuss it properly without running over my time. I ask the attention of the people here as- sembled and elsewhere to the course that Judge Douglas is pursuing every day as bearing upon this question of making slavery national. Not going back to the records, but taking the speeches he makes, the speeches he made yesterday and day before, and makes constantly all over the country — I ask your attention to them. In the first place, what is necessary to make the institution national? Not war. There is no danger that the people of Kentucky will shoulder their muskets, and, with a young nigger stuck on every bayonet, march into Illinois and force them upon us. There is no danger of our going over there and making war upon them. Then what is necessary for the nationalization of slavery? It is simply the next Dred Scott decision. It is merely for the Supreme Court- to decide that no State under the Constitution can exclude it, just as they have already decided that under the Constitution neither Congress nor the Territorial legislature can do it. When that is decided and acquiesced in, the whole thing is done. This being true, and this being the way, as I think, that slavery is to be made national, let us con- sider what Judge Douglas is doing every day to that end. In the first place, let us see what influence he is exerting on public sentiment. In this and like communities, public sentiment is everything. With pub- lic sentiment, nothing can fail; without it, nothing can succeed. Consequently, he who moulds public sentiment goes deeper than he who enacts statutes or pronounces decisions. He makes statutes and de- cisions possible or impossible to be exe- cuted. This must be borne in mind, as also the additional fact that Judge Doug- las is a man of vast that it is enough for fess to believe anything when they once find out that Judge Douglas professes to believe it. Consider also
the attitude he occupies at the head of a large party — a party which he claims has a majority of all the voters in the country. This man sticks to a decision which for- bids the people of a Territory to exclude slavery, and he does so not because he says it is right in itself — he does not give any opinion on that — but because it has been decided by the court; and, being decided by the court, he is, and you are, bound to take it in your political action as law — not that he judges at all of its merits, but because a decision of the court is to him a " Thus saith the Lord." He places it on that ground alone, and you will bear in mind that thus committing himself unre- servedly to this decision commits him to the next one just as firmly as to this. He did not commit himself on account of the merit or demerit of the decision, but it is a "Thus saith the Lord." The next decision, as much as this, will be a " Thus saith the Lord." There is nothing that can divert or turn him away from this de- cision. It is nothing that I point out to him that his great prototype, General Jackson, did not believe in the binding force of decisions. It is nothing to him that Jefferson did not so believe. I have said that I have often heard him approve of Jackson's course in disregarding the decision of the Supreme Court pronounc- ing a national bank constitutional. He says I did not hear him say so. He denies the accuracy of my recollection. I say he ought to know better than I; but I will make no question about this thing, though it still seems to me that I heard him say it twenty times. I will tell him, though, that he now claims to stand on the Cincinnati platform, which affirms that Congress cannot charter a national bank, in the teeth of that old standing de- cision that Congress can charter a bank. And I remind him of another piece of his- tory on the question of respect for judicial decisions, and it is a piece of Illinois his- tory, belonging to a time when a large party to which Judge Douglas belonged were displeased with a decision of the Su- preme Court of Illinois, because they had
influence, so great decided that a governor could not remove many men to pro- a Secretary of State. You will find the whole story in Ford's History of Illinois, and I know that Judge Douglas will not deny that he was then in favor of orer-
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slaughing that decision by the mode of add- ing five new judges, so as to vote down the four old ones. Not only so, but it ended in the judge's sitting down on the very bench as one of the five new judges to break down the four old ones. It was in this way precisely that he got his title of judge. Now, when the judge tells me that men appointed conditionally to sit as mem- bers of a court will have to be catechised beforehand upon some subject, I say, " You know, judge ; you have tried it." When he says a court of this kind will lose the confidence of all men, will be pros- tituted and disgraced by such a proceed- ing, I say, "You know best, judge; you have been through the mill."
But I cannot shake Judge Douglas's teeth loose from the Dred Scott decision. Like some obstinate animal (I mean no disrespect) that will hang on when he has once got his teeth fixed, you may cut off a leg or you may tear away an arm, still he will not relax his hold. And so I may point out to the judge, and say that he is bespattered all over, from the beginning of his political life to the present time, with attacks upon judicial decisions — I may cut off limb after limb of his public record, and strive to wrench from him a single dictum of the court, yet I cannot divert him from it. He hangs to the last to the Dred Scott decision. These things show there is a purpose strong as death and eternity for which he adheres to this decision, and for which he will adhere to all other decisions of the same court. [A Hibernian : " Give us something besides Drid Scott."] Yes ; no doubt you want to hear something that don't hurt. Now, having spoken of the Dred Scott decision, one more word, and I am done. Henry Clay, my ~beau ideal of a statesman, the man for whom I fought all my humble life — Henry Clay once said of a class of men who would repress all tendencies to liberty and ultimate emancipation that they must, if they would do this, go back to the era of our independence, and muzzle the cannon which thunders its annual joy- ous return; they must blow out the moral lights around us ; they must penetrate the human soul, and eradicate there the love of liberty; and then, and not till then, could they perpetuate slavery in this country. To my thinking, Judge Douglas
is, by his example and vast influence, doing that very thing in this community when he says that the negro has noth- ing in the Declaration of Independence. Henry Clay plainly understood the con- trary. Judge Douglas is going back to the era of our Revolution, and to the ex- tent of his ability muzzling the cannon which thunders its annual joyous return. When he invites any people, willing to have slavery, to establish it, he is blowing out the moral lights around us. When he says he " cares not whether slavery is voted down or voted up " — that it is a sacred right of self-government — he is, in my judgment, penetrating the human soul, and eradicating the light of reason and the love of liberty in this American peo- ple. And now I will only say that when, by all these means and appliances, Judge Douglas shall succeed in bringing public sentiment to an exact accordance with his own views — when these vast assemblages shall echo back all these sentiments — when they shall come to repeat his views and to avow his principles, and to say all that he says on these mighty questions — then it needs only the formality of the second Dred Scott decision, which he en- dorses in advance, to make slavery alike lawful in all the States — old as well as new, North as well as South.
Cooper Institute Address. — On Feb. 27, 1860, Mr. Lincoln delivered the follow- ing address in Cooper Institute, New York City:
Mr. President and fellow-citizens of New York, — The facts with which I shall deal this evening are mainly old and fa- miliar; nor is there anything new in the general use I shall make of them. If there shall be any novelty, it will be in the mode of presenting the facts, and the inferences and observations following that presentation. In his speech last autumn at Columbus, Ohio, as reported in the New York Times, Senator Douglas said:
"Our fathers, when they framed the government under which we live, under- stood this question just as well, and even better than we do now."
I fully endorse this, and I adopt it as a text for this discourse. I so adopt it because it furnishes a precise and an agreed starting-point for a discussion be-
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tween Republicans and that wing of the gress, and voted on that question. Of Democracy headed by Senator Douglas, these Roger Sherman, Thomas Mifflin, and It simply leaves the inquiry: What was Hugh Williamson voted for the prohibi- the understanding those fathers had of tion, thus showing that, in their under- the question mentioned? standing, no line dividing local from
What is the frame of government under federal authority, nor anything else, prop- which we live? The answer must be, erly forbade the federal government to " The Constitution of the United States." control as to slavery in federal territory. That Constitution consists of the original, The other of the four, James McHenry, framed in 1787, and under which the pres- voted against the prohibition, showing ent government first went into operation, that for some cause he thought it im- and twelve subsequently framed amend- proper to vote for it.
ments, the first ten of which were framed In 1787, still before the Constitution, in 1789. but while the convention was in session
Who were our fathers that framed the framing it, and while the Northwestern Constitution? I suppose the "thirty- Territory still was the only Territory nine" who signed the original instrument owned by the United States, the same may be fairly called our fathers who question of prohibiting slavery in the Ter- framed that part of the present govern- ritory again came before the Congress of ment. It is almost exactly true to say the Confederation; and two more of the they framed it, and it is altogether true " thirty-nine " who afterwards signed the to say they fairly represented the opinion Constitution were in that Congress, and and sentiment of the whole nation at voted on the question. They were Will- that time. Their names, being familiar iam Blount and William Few; and they to nearly all, and accessible to quite all, both voted for the prohibition — thus show- need not now be repeated. ing that in their understanding no line
I take these " thirty-nine," for the pres- dividing local from federal authority, ent, as being " our fathers who framed nor anything else, properly forbade the the government under which we live." federal government to control as to sla- What is the question which, according to very in federal territory. This time the the text, those fathers understood " just prohibition became a law, being part of as well, and even better, than we do what is now well known as the ordinance now?" of '87.
It is this: Does the proper division of The question of federal control of sla- local from federal authority, or anything very in the Territories seems not to have in the Constitution, forbid our federal been directly before the convention which government to control as to slavery in our framed the original Constitution ; and federal Territories? hence it is not recorded that the " thirty-
Upon this, Senator Douglas holds the nine," or any of them, while engaged on affirmative, and Republicans the negative, that instrument, expressed any opinion This affirmation and denial form an issue; on that precise question, and this issue — this question — is precisely In 1789, by the first Congress which what the text declares our fathers under- sat under the Constitution, an act was stood "better than we." Let us now in- passed to enforce the ordinance of '87, in- quire whether the " thirty-nine," or any eluding the prohibition of slavery in the of them, ever acted upon this question: Northwestern Territory. The bill for and if they did, how they acted upon it — tins act was reported by one of the how they expressed that better under- " thirty-nine " — Thomas Fitzsimmons, standing. In 1784, three years before the then a member of the House of Repre- Constitution, the United States then own- sentatives from Pennsylvania. It went ing the Northwestern Territory and no through all its stages without a word other, the Congress of the Confederation of opposition, and finally passed both had before them the question of prohib- branches without ayes and nays, which is iting slavery in that Territory; and four equivalent to a unanimous passage. In of the " thirty - nine " who afterwards this Congress there were sixteen of the framed the Constitution were in that Con- thirty-nine fathers who framed the origi-
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nal Constitution. They were John Lang- ham Baldwin. They all probably voted don, Nicholas Gilman, William S. Johnson, for it. Certainly they would have placed Roger Sherman, Robert Morris, Thomas their opposition to it upon record if, in Fitzsimmons, William Few, Abraham their understanding, any line dividing Baldwin, Rufus King, William Paterson, local from federal authority, or anything George Clymer, Richard Bassett, George in the Constitution, properly forbade the Read, Pierce Butler, Daniel Carroll, and federal government to control as to James Madison. slavery in federal territory.
This shows that, in their understand- In 1803 the federal government pur- ing no line dividing local from federal chased the Louisiana country. Our authority, nor anything in the Constitu- former territorial acquisitions came from tion, properly forbade Congress to pro- certain of our own States; but this hibit slavery in the federal territory; Louisiana country was acquired from a else both their fidelity to correct princi- foreign nation. In 1804 Congress gave pie and their oath to support the Consti- a territorial organization to that part tution would have constrained them to of it which now constitutes the State oppose the prohibition. of Louisiana. New Orleans, lying with-
Again, George Washington, another of in that part, was an old and compara- the "thirty-nine," was then President of tively large city. There were other con- the United States, and as such approved siderable towns and settlements, and and signed the bill, thus completing its slavery was extensively and thoroughly validity as a law, and thus showing that, intermingled with the people. Congress in his understanding, no line dividing did not, in the territorial act, prohibit local from federal authority, nor anything slavery; but they did interfere with it — in the Constitution, forbade the federal take control of it — in a more marked government to control as to slavery in and extensive way than they did in the federal territory. case of Mississippi. The substance of the
No great while after the adoption of provision therein made in relation to the original Constitution, North Caro- slaves was :
lina ceded to the federal government the 1st. That no slave should be imported country now constituting the State of into the Territory from foreign parts. Tennessee; and a few years later Georgia 2d. That no slave should be carried ceded that which now constitutes the into it who had been imported into the States of Mississippi and Alabama. In United States since the first day of May, both deeds of cession it was made a con- 1798.
dition by the ceding States that the fed- 3d. That no slave should be carried into eral government should not prohibit it except by the owner, and for his own slavery in the ceded country. Besides use as a settler; the penalty in all the this, slavery was then actually in the cases being a fine upon the violator of ceded country. Under these circum- the law and freedom to the slave, stances, Congress on taking charge of This act also was passed without ayes these countries, did not absolutely pro- or nays. In the Congress which passed hibit slavery within them. But they did it there were two of the " thirty-nine." interfere with it — take control of it — They were Abraham Baldwin and Jona- even there, to a certain extent. In 1798 than Dayton. As stated in the case of Congress organized the Territory of Mississippi, it is probable they both voted Mississippi. In the act of organization for it. They would not have allowed it they prohibited the bringing of slaves to pass without recording their opposi- into the Territory from any place with- tion to it if, in their understanding, it out the United States, by fine, and giving violated either the line properly dividing freedom to slaves so brought. This act local from federal authority or any pro- passed both branches of Congress without vision of the Constitution, yeas and nays. In that Congress were In 1819-20 came and passed the Mis- three of the " thirty-nine " who framed souri question. Many votes were taken, the original Constitution. They were by yeas and nays, in both branches of John Langdon, George Read, and Abra- Congress, upon the various phases of the
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general question. Two of the " thirty- federal Territories, in the instances in
nine" — Rufus King and Charles Pinck- which they acted upon the question. But
ncy — were members of that Congress, for what reasons they so voted is not
Mr. King steadily voted for slavery pro- known. They may have done so because
hibition and against all compromises, they thought a proper division of local
By this, Mr. King showed that, in his from federal authority, or some provision
understanding, no line dividing local from or principle of the Constitution, stood in
federal authority, nor anything in the the way; or they may, without any such
Constitution, was violated by Congress question, have voted against the prohibi-
pvohibiting slavery in federal territory; tion on what appeared to them to be suffi-
wliile Mr. Pinckney, by his votes, showed cient grounds of expediency. No one who
that, in his understanding, there was some has sworn to support the Constitution can
sufficient reason for opposing such prohi- conscientiously vote for what he under-
bition in that case. stands to be an unconstitutional measure,
The cases I have mentioned are the however expedient he may think it; but
only acts of the " thirty-nine," or of any one may and ought to vote against a
of them, upon the direct issue which I measure which he deems constitutional
have been able to discover. if, at the same time, he deems it inexpe-
To enumerate the persons who thus dient. It, therefore, would be unsafe to
acted as being four in 1784, two in 1787, set down even the two who voted against
seventeen in 1789, three in 1798, two in the prohibition as having done so because,
1804, and two in 1819-20, there would in their understanding, any proper di-
be thirty of them. But this would be vision of local from federal authority, or
counting John Langdon, Roger Sherman, anything in the Constitution, forbade the
William Few, Rufus King, and George federal government to control as to slavery
Read each twice, and Abraham Baldwin in federal territory.
three times. The true number of those The remaining sixteen of the " thirty-
of the " thirty-nine " whom I have shown nine," so far as I have discovered, have
to have acted upon the question which, left no record of their understanding upon
by the text, they understood better than the direct question of federal control of
we, is twenty- three, leaving sixteen not slavery in the federal territories. But
shown to have acted upon it in any way. there is much reason to believe that their
Here, then, we have twenty-three out understanding upon that question would
of our thirty-nine fathers " who framed not have appeared different from that of
the government under which we live " their twenty-three compeers, had it been
who have, upon their official responsibil- manifested at all.
ity and their corporal oaths, acted upon For the purpose of adhering rigidly to
the very question which the text affirms the text, I have purposely omitted what-
they " understood just as well, and even ever understanding may have been mani-
better than we do now"; and twenty-one fested by any person, however distin-
of them — a clear majority of the whole guished, other than the thirty-nine fathers
" thirty-nine " — so acting upon it as to who framed the original Constitution ;
make them guilty of gross political im- and, for the same reason, I have also omit-
propriety and wilful perjury if, in their ted whatever understanding may have been
understanding, any proper division be- manifested by any of the " thirty-nine,"
tween local and federal authority, or even on any other phase of the general
anything in the Constitution they had question of slavery. If we should look
made themselves, and sworn to support, into their acts and declarations on those
forbade the federal government to con- other phases, as the foreign slave-trade,
trol as to slavery in the federal Terri- and the morality and policy of slavery gen-
tories. Thus the twenty-one acted; and, erally, it would appear to us that on the
as actions speak louder than words, so direct question of federal control of sla-
actions under such responsibility speak very in federal Territories, the sixteen, if
still louder. they had acted at all, would probably
Two of the twenty-three voted against have acted just as the twenty-three did.
congressional prohibition of slavery in the Among that sixteen were several of the v.— 2 D 417
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
most noted anti-slavery men of those the same time within the session, had times — as Dr. Franklin, Alexander Hamil- under consideration, and in progress tow- ton, and Gouverneur Morris — while there ards maturity, these constitutional was not one now known to have been amendments, and this act prohibiting sla- otherwise, unless it may be John Rutledge, very in all the territory the nation then of South Carolina. owned. The constitutional amendments
The sum of the whole is that of our were introduced before, and passed after, thirty-nine fathers who framed the origi- the act enforcing the ordinance of '87 ; so nal Constitution, twenty-one — a clear ma- that, during the whole pendency of the jority of the whole — certainly understood act to enforce the ordinance, the con- that no proper division of local from fed- stitutional amendments were also pending, eral authority, nor any part of the Consti- The seventy-six members of that Con- tution, forbade the federal government to gress, including sixteen of the framers of control slavery in the federal Territories; the original Constitution, as before stated, while all the rest had probably the same were pre-eminently our fathers who understanding. Such, unquestionably, was framed that part of " the government the understanding of our fathers who under which we live " which is now claim- framed the original Constitution; and the ed as forbidding the federal government text affirms that they understood the ques- to control slavery in the federal Terri- tion " better than we." tories.
But, so far, I have been consider ing. the Is it not a little presumptuous in any understanding of the question manifested one at this day to affirm that the two by the framers of the original Constitu- things which that Congress deliberately tion. In and by the original instrument, framed, and carried to maturity at the a mode was provided for amending it; same time, are absolutely inconsistent and, as I have already stated, the present with each other? And does not such frame of " the government under which affirmation become impudently absurd we live " consists of that original, and when coupled with the other affirmation, twelve amendatory articles framed and from the same mouth, that those who did adopted since. Those who now insist that the two things alleged to be inconsistent, federal control of slavery in federal Terri- understood whether they really were incon- tories violates the Constitution, point us sistent better than we — better than he to the provisions which they suppose it who affirms that they are inconsistent? thus violates; and, as I understand, they It is surely safe to assume that the all fix upon provisions in these amenda- thirty-nine framers of the original Con- tory articles, and not in the original in- stitution, and the seventy - six members strument. The Supreme Court, in the of the Congress which framed the amend- Dred Scott case, plant themselves upon ments thereto, taken together, do certainly the fifth amendment, which provides that include those who may be fairly called no person shall be deprived of " life, lib- " our fathers who framed the government erty, or property without due process of under which we live." And so assuming, law"; while Senator Douglas and his pe- I defy any man to show that any one of culiar adherents plant themselves upon them ever, in his whole life, declared that, the tenth amendment, providing that " the in his understanding, any proper division powers not delegated to the United States of local from federal authority, or any by the Constitution " " are reserved to the part of the Constitution, forbade the fed- States respectively, or to the people." eral government to control as to slavery
Now, it so happens that these amend- in the federal Territories. I go a step ments were framed by the first Congress further. I defy any one to show that any which sat under the Constitution — the living man in the whole world ever did, identical Congress which passed the act, prior to the beginning of the present cen- already mentioned, enforcing the prohibi- tury (and I might almost say prior to the tion of slavery in the Northwestern Terri- beginning of the last half of the present tory. Not only was it the same Congress, century), declare that, in his understand- but they were the identical, same individ- ing, any proper division of local from fed- ual men who, at the same session, and at eral authority, or any part of the Consti-
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LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
tution, forbade the federal government to responsibility by asserting that they
control as to slavery in the federal Terri- " understood the question just as well,
tories. To those who now so declare I and even better, than we do now."
give not only " our fathers who framed But enough ! Let all who believe that
the government under which we live," but " our fathers who framed the government
with them all other living men within the under which we live understood this
century in which it was framed, among question just as well, and even better,
whom to search, and they shall not be able than we do now," speak as they spoke,
to find the evidence of a single man agree- and act as they acted upon it. This is all
ing with them. Republicans ask — all Republicans desire
Now, and here, let me guard a little — in relation to slavery. As those fathers
against being misunderstood. I do not marked it, so let it be again marked, as
mean to say we are bound to follow im- an evil not to be extended, but to be
plicitly in whatever our fathers did. To tolerated and protected only because of
do so would be to discard all the lights of and so far as its actual presence among
current experience — to reject all progress, us makes that toleration and protection
all improvement. What I do say is that, a necessity. Let all the guarantees those
if we would supplant the opinions and fathers gave it be not grudgingly, but
policy of our fathers in any case, we fully and fairly, maintained. For this
should do so upon evidence so conclusive, Republicans contend, and with this, so
and argument so clear, that even their far as I know or believe, they will be
great authority, fairly considered and content.
weighed, cannot stand; and most surely And now, if they would listen — as I
not in a case whereof we ourselves declare suppose they will not — I would address
they understood the question better than a few words to the Southern people,
we. I would say to them: You consider
If any man at this day sincerely be- yourselves a reasonable and a just people; lieves that a proper division of local from and I consider that in the general quali- federal authority, or any part of the Con- ties of reason and justice you are not in- stitution, forbids the federal government ferior to any other people. Still, when to control as to slavery in the federal you speak of us Republicans, you do so Territories, he is right to say so, and to only to denounce us as reptiles, or, at the enforce his position by all truthful evi- best, as no better than outlaws. You will dence and fair argument which he can. grant a hearing to pirates or murderers, But he has no right to mislead others, but nothing like it to " Black Republi- who have less access to history, and less cans." In all your contentions with one leisure to study it, into the false belief another, each of you deems an uncondi- that " our fathers who framed the gov- tional condemnation of " Black Republi- ernment under which we live " were of canism " as the first thing to be attended the same opinion — thus substituting to. Indeed, such condemnation of us falsehood and deception for truthful evi- seems to be an indispensable prerequisite dence and fair argument. If any man at — license, so to speak — among you to be this day sincerely believes " our fathers admitted or permitted to speak at all. who framed the government under which Now can you or not be prevailed upon to we live " used and applied principles, in pause and to consider whether this is other cases, which ought to have led them quite just to us, or even to yourselves? to understand that a proper division of Bring forward your charges and specifica- local from federal authority, or some part tions, and then be patient long enough to of the Constitution, forbids the federal hear us deny or justify, government to control as to slavery in You say we are sectional. We deny it. the federal Territories, he is right to say That makes an issue; and the burden of so. But he should, at the same time, proof is upon you. You produce your brave the responsibility of declaring that, proof; and what is it? Why, that our in his opinion, he understands their prin- party has no existence in your section — ciples better than they did themselves; gets no votes in your section. The fact and especially should he not shirk that is substantially true; but does it prove
419
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
the issue? If it does, then in case we should at some time have a confederacy
should, without change of principle, begin of free States.
to get votes in your section, we should Bearing this in mind, and seeing that
thereby cease to be sectional. You can- sectionalism has since arisen upon this
not escape this conclusion; and yet are same subject, is that warning a weapon
you willing to abide by it? If you are, in your hands against us, or in our hands
you will probably soon find that we have against you? Could Washington himself
ceased to be sectional, for we shall get speak, would he cast* the blame of that
votes in your section this very year. You sectionalism upon us, who sustain his
will then begin to discover, as the truth policy, or upon you, who repudiate it?
plainly is, that your proof does not touch We respect that warning of Washington,
the issue. The fact that we get no votes in and we commend it to you, together with
your section is a fact of your making, his example pointing to the right a>ppli-
and not of ours. And if there be fault cation of it.
in that fact, that fault is primarily yours, But you say you are conservative — emi- and remains so until you show that we re- nently conservative — while we are revolu- pel you by some wrong principle or prac- tionary, destructive, or something of the tice. If we do repel you by any wrong sort. What is conservatism? Is it not principle or practice, the fault is ours; adherence to the old and tried, against but this brings you to where you ought the new and untried? We stick to, con- to have started — to a discussion of the tend for, the identical old policy on the right or wrong of our principle. If our point in controversy which was adopted principle, put in practice, would wrong by " our fathers who framed the gov- your section for the benefit of ours, or for ernment under which we live " ; while you any other object, then our principle, and with one accord reject, and scout, and spit we with it, are sectional, and are justly op- upon that old policy, and insist upon sub- posed and denounced as such. Meet us, stituting something new. True, you dis- then, on the question of whether our prin- agree among yourselves as to what that, ciple, put in practice, would wrong your substitute shall be. You are divided on section; and so meet us as if it were pos- new propositions and plans, but you are sible that something may be said on our unanimous in rejecting and denounc- side. Do you accept the challenge? No! ing the old policy of the fathers. Some Then you really believe that the principle of you are for reviving the foreign which " our fathers who framed the gov- slave - trade ; some for a congressional ernment under which we live" thought slave-code for the Territories; some for so clearly right as to adopt it, and in- Congress forbidding the Territories to dorse it again and again, upon their prohibit slavery within their limits; some official oaths, is in fact so clearly wrong for maintaining slavery in the Territories as to demand your condemnation without through the judiciary; some for the "gur- a moment's consideration. reat pur-rinciple " that " if one man would Some of you delight to flaunt in our enslave another, no third man should ob- /aces the warning against sectional par- ject," fantastically called " popular sov- ties given by Washington in his Fare- ereignty"; but never a man among you well Address. Less than eight years be- is in favor of federal prohibition of sla- fore Washington gave that warning, he very in federal Territories, according to had, as President of the United States, the practice of "our fathers who framed approved and signed an act of Congress the government under which we live." enforcing the prohibition of slavery in Not one of all your various plans can the Northwestern Territory, which act show a precedent or an advocate in the embodied the policy of the government century within which our government upon that subject up to and at the very originated. Consider, then, whether your moment he penned that warning; and claim of conservatism for yourselves, and about one year after he penned it, he your charge of destructiveness against us, wrote Lafayette that he considered that are based on the most clear and stable prohibition a wise measure, expressing foundations.
in the same connection his hope that we Again, you say we have made the
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slavery question more prominent than it against any interference whatever with
formerly was. We deny it. We admit your slaves, or with you about your
that it is more prominent, but we deny slaves. Surely this aoes not encourage
that we made it so. It was not we, but them to revolt. True, we do, in common
you, who discarded the old policy of the with " our fathers who framed the gov-
fathers. We resisted, and still resist, ernment under which we live," declare our
your innovation ; and thence comes,, the belief that slavery is wrong ; but the slaves
greater prominence" of the question, do not hear us declare even this. For
Would you have that question reduced anything we say or do, the slaves would
to its former proportions? Go back to scarcely know there is a Republican
that old policy. What has been will be party. I believe they would not, in fact,
again under the same conditions. If you generally know it but for your misrepre-
would have the peace of the old times, sentations of us in their hearing. In
readopt the precepts and policy of the your political contests among yourselves,
old times. each faction charges the other with sym-
You charge that we stir up insurrec- pathy with Black Republicanism; and
tions among your slaves. We deny it; then, to give point to the charge, defines
arid what is your proof? Harper's Black Republicanism to simply- be in-
Ferry! John Brown! John Brown was surrection, blood and thunder among the
no Republican; and you have failed to slaves.
implicate a single Republican in his Har- Slave insurrections are no more com-
per's Ferry enterprise. If any member mon now than they were before the Re-
of our party is guilty in that matter, publican party was organized. What in-
you know it, or you do not know it. If duced the Southampton insurrection,
you do know it, you are inexcusable for twenty-eight years ago, in which at least
not designating the man and proving three times as many lives were lost as
the fact. If you do not know it, you are at Harper's Ferry? You can scarcely
inexcusable for asserting it, and espe- stretch your very elastic fancy to the
daily for persisting in the assertion after conclusion that Southampton was " got
you have tried and failed to make the up by Black Republicanism." In the
proof. You need not be told that persist- present state of things in the United
ing in a charge which one does not know States, I do not think a general, or even
to be true is simply malicious slander. a very extensive, slave insurrection is pos-
Some of you admit that no Republican sible. The indispensable concert of action designedly aided or encouraged the Har- cannot be attained. The slaves have no per's Ferry affair, but still insist that our means of rapid communication; nor can doctrines and declarations necessarily incendiary freemen, black or white, sup- lead to such results. We do not believe ply it. The explosive materials are every- it. We know we hold no doctrine, and where in parcels; but there neither are, make no declaration, which were not held nor can be supplied, the indispensable cori- to and made by " our fathers who framed necting trains.
the government under which we live." Much is said by Southern people about
You never dealt fairly by us in relation the affection of slaves for their masters
to this affair. When it occurred, some and mistresses; and a part of it, at least,
important State elections were near at is true. A plot for an uprising could
hand, and you were in evident glee with scarcely be devised and communicated to
the belief that, by charging the blame twenty individuals before some one of
upon us, you could get an advantage of them, to save the life of a favorite master
us in those elections. The elections came, or mistress, would divulge it. This is the
and your expectations were not quite rule; and the slave revolution in Haiti
fulfilled. Every Republican man knew was not an exception to it, but a case oc-
that, as to himself at least, your charge curring under peculiar circumstances,
was a slander, and he was not much in- The gunpowder plot of British history,
clined by it to cast his vote in your favor, though not connected with slaves, was
Republican doctrines and declarations are more in point. In that case only about
accompanied with a continual protest twenty were admitted to the secret; and
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yet one of them, in his anxiety to save a friend, betrayed the plot to that friend, and, by consequence, averted the calamity. Occasional poisonings from the kitchen and open or stealthy assassinations in the field, and local revolts extending to a score or so, will continue to occur as the natural results of slavery; but no general insurrection of slaves, as I think, can happen in this country for a long time. Whoever much fears, or much hopes, for such an event will be alike disappointed.
In the language of Mr. Jefferson, uttered many years ago, " It is still in our power to direct the process of emancipation and deportation peaceably, and in such slow degrees, as that the evil will wear off in- sensibly; and their places be, pari passu, filled up by free white laborers. If, on the contrary, it is left to force itself on, human nature must shudder at the pros- pect held up."
Mr. Jefferson did not mean to say, nor do I, that the power of emancipation is in the federal government. He spoke of Virginia; and, as to the power of eman- cipation, I speak of the slave - holding States only. The federal government, however, as we insist, has the power of restraining the extension of the institu- tion— the power to insure that a slave insurrection shall never occur on any American soil which is now free from slavery.
John Brown's effort was peculiar. It was not a slave insurrection. It was an attempt by white men to get up a revolt among slaves, in which the slaves refused to participate. In fact, it was so absurd that the slaves, with all their ignorance, saw plainly enough it could not succeed. That affair, in its philosophy, corresponds with the many attempts, related in his- tory, at the assassination of kings and emperors. An enthusiast broods over the oppression of a people till he fancies him- self commissioned by Heaven to liberate them. He ventures the attempt, which ends in little else than his own execution. Orsini's attempt on Louis Napoleon and John Brown's attempt at Harper's Ferry were, in their philosophy, precisely the same. The eagerness to cast blame on old England in the one case and on New England in the other, does not disprove the sameness of the two things.
And how much Would it avail you, if you could, by the use of John Brown, Help- er's Book, and the like, break up the Re- publican organization? Human action can be modified to some extent, but hu- man nature cannot be changed. There is a judgment and a feeling against slavery in this nation which cast at least a mill- ion and a half of votes. You cannot destroy that judgment and feeling — that sentiment — by breaking up the political organization which rallies around it. You can scarcely scatter and disperse an army which has been formed into order in the face of your heaviest fire; but if you could, how much would you gain by forc- ing the sentiment which created it out of the peaceful channel of the ballot-box into some other channel ? What would that other channel probably be? Would the number of John Browns be lessened or enlarged by the operation?
But you will break up the Union rather than submit to a denial of your con- stitutional rights.
That has a somewhat reckless sound; but it would be palliated, if not fully jus- tified, were we proposing, by the mere force of numbers, to deprive you of some right plainly written down in the Con- stitution. But we are proposing no such thing.
When you make these declarations you have a specific and well-understood allu- sion to an assumed constitutional right of yours to take slaves into the federal Ter- ritories, and to hold them there as prop- erty. But no such right is specifically written in the Constitution. That instru- ment is literally silent about any such right. We, on the contrary, deny that such a right has any existence in the Con- stitution, even by implication.
Your purpose, then, plainly stated, is that you will destroy the government un- less you be allowed to construe and force the Constitution as you please, on all points in dispute between you and us. You will rule or ruin in all events.
This, plainly stated, is your language. Perhaps you will say the Supreme Court has decided the disputed constitutional question in your favor. Not quite so. But waiving the lawyer's distinction be- tween dictum and decision, the court has decided the question for you in a sort of
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way. The court has substantially said, it And then it is to be remembered that is your constitutional right to take slaves " our fathers who framed the government into the federal Territories, and to hold under which we live " — the men who made them there as property. When I say the the Constitution — decided this same con- decision was made in a sort of way, I stitutional question in our favor long ago: mean it was made in a divided court, by decided it without division among them- a bare majority of the judges, and they selves when making 'the decision; without not quite agreeing with one another in the division among themselves about the mean- reasons for making it; that it is so made ing of it after it was made, and, so far as as that its avowed supporters disagree any evidence is left, without basing it with one another about its meaning, and upon any misstatement of facts, that it was mainly based upon a mistaken Under all these circumstances, do you statement of fact — the statement in the really feel yourselves justified to break up opinion that " the right of property in a this government unless such a court de- slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed cision as yours shall be at once submitted in the Constitution." to as a conclusive and final rule of politi-
An inspection of the Constitution will cal action? But you will not abide the
show that the right of property in a slave election of a Republican President! In
is not " distinctly and expressly affirmed " that supposed event, you say, you will
in it. Bear in mind, the judges do not destroy the Union ; and then, you say, the
pledge their judicial opinion that such great crime of having destroyed it will
right is impliedly affirmed in the Constitu- be upon us! That is cool. A highway-
tion; but they pledge their veracity that man holds a pistol to my ear, and mutters
it is " distinctly and expressly " affirmed through his teeth, " Stand and deliver, or
there — " distinctly," that is, not mingled I shall kill you, and then you will be a
with anything else — " expressly," that is, murderer ! "
in words meaning just that, without the To be sure, what the robber demanded
aid of any inference, and susceptible of no of me — my money — was my own; and I
other meaning. had a clear right to keep it; but it was
If they had only pledged their judicial no more my own than my vote is my own;
opinion that such right is affirmed in the and the threat of death to me, to extort
instrument by implication, it would be my money, and the threat of destruction
open to others to show that neither the to the Union, to extort my vote, can «
word " slave " nor " slavery " is to be scarcely be distinguished in principle, found in the Constitution, nor the word A few words now to Republicans. It
" property " even, in any connection with is exceedingly desirable that all parts of
language alluding to the things slave, or this great confederacy shall be at peace
slavery; and that wherever in that instru- and in harmony one with another. Let
ment the slave is alluded to, he is called us Republicans do our part to have it so.
a " person " ; and wherever his master's Even though much provoked, let us do
legal right in relation to him is alluded nothing through passion and ill temper,
to, it is spoken of as " service or labor Even though the Southern people will
which may be due " — as a debt payable in not so much as listen to us, let us calmly
service or labor. Also it would be open to consider their demands, and yield to them
show, by contemporaneous history, that if, in our deliberate view of our duty, we
this mode of alluding to slaves and sla- possibly can. Judging by all they say
very, instead of speaking of them, was em- and do, and by the subject and nature of
ployed on purpose to exclude from the their controversy with us, let us deter-
Constitution the idea that there could be mine, if we can, what will satisfy them, property in man. Will they be satisfied if the Territories
To show all this is easy and certain. be unconditionally surrendered to them?
When this obvious mistake of the judges We know they will not. In all their pres-
shall be brought to their notice, is it not ent complaints against us, the Territories
reasonable to expect that they will with- are scarcely mentioned. Invasions and
draw the mistaken statemont, and recon- insurrections are the rage now. Will it
sider the conclusion based upon it? satisfy them if, in the future, we have
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nothing to do with invasions and insur- with more solemn emphasis than do all rections? We know it will not. We so other sayings against it; and when all know, because we know we never had any- these other sayings shall have been si- thing to do with invasions and insurrec- lenced, the overthrow of these constitu- tions; and yet this total abstaining does tions will be demanded, and nothing be not exempt us from the charge and the left to resist the demand. It is nothing denunciation. to the contrary that chey do not demand
The question recurs, What will satisfy the whole of this just now. Demanding
them? Simply this: we must not only what they do, and for the reason they do,
let them alone, but we must somehow con- they can voluntarily stop nowhere short
vince them that we do let them alone, of this consummation. Holding, as they
This, we know by experience, is no easy do, that slavery is morally right and
task. We have been so trying to con- socially elevating, they cannot cease to
vince them from the very beginning of demand a full national recognition of it
our organization, but with no success, as a legal right and a social blessing. In all our platforms and speeches we have Nor can we justifiably withhold this
constantly protested our purpose to let on any ground save our conviction that
them alone; but this has had no ten- slavery is wrong. If slavery is right, all
dency to convince them. Alike unavailing words, acts, laws, and constitutions
to convince them is the fact that they against it are themselves wrong, and
have never detected a man of us in any should be silenced and swept away. If
attempt to disturb them. it is right, we cannot justly object to
These natural and apparently adequate its nationality — its universality; if it is
means all failing, what will convince wrong, they cannot justly insist upon
them? This, and this only: cease to its extension — its enlargement. All they
call slavery wrong, and join them ask we could readily grant, if we thought
in calling it right. And this must be slavery right; all we ask they could as
done thoroughly — done in acts as well as readily grant, if they thought it wrong.
in words. Silence will not be tolerated — Their thinking it right and our thinking
we must place ourselves avowedly with it wrong is the precise fact upon which
them. Senator Douglas's new sedition depends the whole controversy. Thinking
law must be enacted and enforced, sup- it right, as they do, they are not to
* pressing all declarations that slavery is blame for desiring its full recognition as
wrong, whether made in politics, in being right; but thinking it wrong, as
presses, in pulpits, or in private. We we do, can we yield to them? Can we
must arrest and return their fugitive cast our votes with their view, and against
slaves with greedy pleasure. We must our own? In view of our moral, social,
pull down our free-State constitutions, and political responsibilities, can we do
The whole atmosphere must be disinfected this?
from all taint of opposition to slavery, Wrong as we think slavery is, we can
before they will cease to believe that all yet afford to let it alone where it is, be-
their troubles proceed from us. cause that much is due to the necessity
I am quite aware they do not state arising from its actual presence in the
their case precisely in this way. Most nation; but can we, while our votes will
of them would probably say to us, " Let prevent it, allow it to spread into the
us alone; do nothing to us, and say what national Territories, and to overrun us
you please about slavery." But we do here in these free States? If our sense
let them alone — have never disturbed of duty forbids this, then let us stand by
them — so that, after all, it is what we our duty fearlessly and effectively. Let
say which dissatisfies them. They will us be diverted by none of those sophistical
continue to accuse us of doing, until we contrivances wherewith we are so indus-
cease saying. triously plied and belabored — contrivances
I am also aware they have not as yet such as groping for some middle ground
in terms demanded the overthrow of our between the right and the wrong: vain
free-State constitutions. Yet those con- as the search for a man who should be
stitutions declare the wrong of slavery neither a living man nor a dead man;
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LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
such as a policy of " don't care " on a ques- tion about which all true men do care; such as Union appeals beseeching true Union men to yield to Disunionists, re- versing the divine rule, and calling, not the sinners, but the righteous, to repent- ance; such as invocations to Washington, imploring men to unsay what Washing- ton said and undo what Washington did.
Neither let us be slandered from our duty by false accusations against us, nor frightened from it by menaces of destruc- tion to the government, nor of dungeons to ourselves. Let us have faith that right makes might, and in that faith let us to the end dare to do our duty as we under- stand it.
President Lincoln's First Inaugural Address :
Fellow - citizens of the United States, — In compliance with a custom as old aa
the government itself, I appear before you to address you briefly, and to take in your presence the oath prescribed by the Con- stitution of the United States to be taken by the President " before he enters on the execution of his office."
I do not consider it necessary at pres- ent for me to discuss those matters of administration about which there is no special anxiety or excitement.
Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that, by the accession of a Republican administra- tion, their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now ad- dresses you. I do but quote from one
PRESIDENT LINCOLN MAKING HIS FIRST INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
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of those speeches when I declare that giver is the law. All members of Con- " 1 have no purpose, directly or indi- gress swear their support to the whole rectly, to interfere with the institution Constitution — to this provision as much of slavery in the States where it exists, as any other. To the proposition, then, 1 believe I have no lawful right to do so, that slaves, whose cases come within the and I have no inclination to do so." terms of this clause, " shall be delivered Those who nominated and elected me did up," their oaths are unanimous. Now, so with full knowledge that I had made if they would make the effort in good this and many similar declarations, -and temper, could they not, with nearly equal had never recanted them. And more unanimity, frame and pass a law by than this, they placed in the platform means of which to keep good that unani- for my acceptance, and as a law to them- mous oath?
selves and me, the clear and emphatic There is some difference of opinion resolution which I now read: whether this clause should be enforced by
"Resolved, that the maintenance in- national or by State authority; but surely violate of the rights of the States, and that difference is not a very material one. especially the right of each State to order If the slave is to be surrendered, it can be and control its own domestic institutions of but little consequence to him, or to according to its own judgment exclu- others, by which authority it is done. And sively, is essential to the balance of power should any one, in any case, be content on which the perfection and endurance that his oath shall go unkept, on a mere of our political fabric depend, and we unsubstantial controversy as to how it denounce the lawless invasion by armed shall be kept?
force of the soil of any State or Terri- Again, in any law upon the subject, tory, no matter under what pretext, as ought not all the safeguards of liberty among the gravest of crimes." known in civilized and human jurispru-
I now reiterate these sentiments, and, dence to be introduced, so that a free man in doing so, I only press upon the public be not, in any case, surrendered as a slave? attention the most exclusive evidence of And might it not be well, at the same which the case is susceptible, that the time, to provide by law for the enforce- property, peace, and security of no sec- ment of that clause in the Constitution tion are to be in any wise endangered which guarantees that " the citizens of by the now incoming administration. I each State shall be entitled to all privi- add, too, that all the protection which, leges and immunities of citizens in the consistently with the Constitution and the several States " ?
laws, can be given will be cheerfully given I shall take the official oath to-day with to all the States, when lawfully demanded, no mental reservation, and with no pur- for whatever cause — as cheerfully to one pose to construe the Constitution or laws section as to another. by any hypercritical rule. And while I
There is much controversy about the do not choose now to specify particular delivering up of fugitives from service acts of Congress as proper to be enforced, or labor. The clause I now read is as I do suggest that it will be much safer plainly written in the Constitution as for all, both in official and private sta- any other of its provisions: tions, to conform to and abide by all those
"No person held to service or labor acts which stand unrepealed than to vio- in one State, under the laws thereof, late any of them, trusting to find im- escaping into another, shall, in conse- munity in having them held to be uncon- quence of any law or regulation therein, stitutional.
be discharged from such service or labor, It is seventy-two years since the first in- but shall be delivered up on claim of the auguration of a President under our na- party to whom such service or labor may tional Constitution. During that period be due." fifteen different and greatly distinguished
It is scarcely questioned that this pro- citizens have, in succession, administered vision was intended by those who made it the executive branch of the government, for the reclaiming of what we call fugi- They have conducted it through many tive slaves; and the intention of the law- perils, and generally with great success.
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
Yet, with all this scope for precedent, I now enter upon the same task for the brief constitutional term of four years under great and peculiar difficulty. A disrup- tion of the federal Union, heretofore only mentioned, is now formidably attempted.
1 hold that, in contemplation of univer- sal law and of the Constitution, the union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the funda- mental law of all national governments. It is safe to assert that no government proper ever had a provision in its organic law for its own termination. Continue to execute all the express provisions of our national government, and the Union will endure forever — it being impossible to de- stroy it except by some action not pro- vided for in the instrument itself.
Again, if the United States be not a government proper, but an association of States in the nature of contract merely, can it, as a contract, be peaceably unmade by less than all the parties who made it? One party to a contract may violate it — break it, so to speak; but does it not re- quire all to lawfully rescind it?
Descending from these general princi- ples, we find the proposition that, in legal contemplation, the Union is perpetual confirmed by the history of the Union it- self. The Union is much older than the Constitution. It was formed, in fact, by the articles of association in 1774. It was matured and continued by the Decla- ration of Independence in 1776. It was further matured, and the faith of all the then thirteen States expressly plighted and engaged that it should be perpetual, by the articles of confederation in 1778. And, finally, in 1787, one of the declared objects for ordaining and establishing the Constitution was " to form a more perfect Union."
But if destruction of the Union, by one, or by a part only, of the States be law- fully possible, the Union is less perfect than before, the Constitution having lost the vital element of perpetuity.
It follows from these views that no State, upon its own mere motion, can law- fully get out of the Union; that resolves and ordinances to that effect are legally void; and that acts of violence within any State or States, against the authority of the United States, are insurrectionary.
427
or revolutionary, according to circum- stances.
I, therefore, consider that, in view of the Constitution and the laws, the Union is unbroken, and to the extent of my ability I shall take care, as the Constitu- tion itself expressly enjoins upon me, that the laws of the Union be faithfully exe- cuted in all the States. Doing this I deem to be only a simple duty on my part; and I shall perform it, so far as practicable, unless my rightful masters, the American people, shall withhold the requisite means, or, in some authoritative manner, direct the contrary; I trust this will not be re- garded as a menace, but only as the di- rect purpose of the Union that it will con- stitutionally defend and maintain itself.
In doing this there need be no blood- shed or violence; and there shall be none, unless it be forced upon the national au- thority. The power confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the gov- ernment, and to collect the duties and imposts ; but beyond what be necessary for these objects, there will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people anywhere. Where hostility to the United States in any interior locality shall be so great and universal as to pre- vent competent resident citizens from holding the federal offices, there will be no attempt to force obnoxious strangers among the people for that object. While the strict legal right may exist in the government to enforce the exercise of these offices, the attempt to do so would be so irritating, and so nearly impracti- cable withal, I deem it better to forego, for the time, the uses of such offices.
The mails, unless repelled, will continue to be furnished in all parts of the Union. So far as possible, the people everywhere shall have that sense of perfect security which is most favorable to calm thought and reflection. The course here indicated will be followed, unless current events and experience shall show a modification or change to be proper, and in every case and exigency my best discretion will be exercised, according to circumstances actu- ally existing, and with a view and a hope of a peaceful solution of the national troubles, and the restoration of fraternal sympathies and affections.
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
That there are persons in one section divide upon them into majorities and mi- or another who seek to destroy the Union norities. If the minority will not acquiesce, at all events, and are glad of any pre- the majority must, or the government text to do it, I will neither affirm nor must cease. There is no other alterna- deny; but if there be such, I need ad- tive; for continuing the government is dvess no word to them. To those, how- acquiescence on one side or the other. If ever, who really love the Union, may I a minority in such case will secede rather not speak ? than acquiesce, they make a precedent Before entering upon so grave a mat- which, in turn, will divide and ruin them; ter as the destruction of our national fab- for a minority of their own will secede ric, with all its benefits, its memories, and from them whenever a majority refuses its hopes, would it not be wise to ascertain to be controlled by such minority. For precisely why we do it? Will you hazard instance, why may not any portion of a so desperate a step while there is any pos- new confederacy, a year or two hence, sibility that any portion of the ills you fly arbitrarily secede again, precisely as por- from have no real existence? Will you, tions of the present Union now claim to while the certain ills you fly to are greater secede from it ? All who cherish dis- than all the real ones you fly from — will union sentiments are now being educated you risk the commission of so fearful a to the exact temper of doing this, mistake? Is there such perfect identity of in- All profess to be content in the Union, terests among the States to compose a if all constitutional rights can be main- new Union, as to produce harmony only, tained. Is it true, then, that any right, and prevent renewed secession? plainly written in the Constitution, has Plainly, the central idea of secession is been denied? I think not. Happily the the essence of anarchy. A majority held human mind is so constituted that no in restraint by constitutional checks and party can reach to the audacity of doing limitations, and always changing easily this. Think, if you can, of a single in- with deliberate changes of popular opin- stance in which a plainly written pro- ions and sentiments, is the only true vision of the Constitution has ever been sovereign of a free people. Whoever re- denied. If, by the mere force of num- jects it does, of necessity, fly to anarchy bers, a majority should deprive a mi- or to despotism. Unanimity is impos- nority of any clearly written constitu- sible; the rule of a minority, as a per- tional right, it might, in a moral point manent arrangement, is wholly inadmis- of view, justify revolution — certainly sible; so that, rejecting the majority would if such right were a vital one. But principle, anarchy or despotism, in some such is not our case. All the vital rights form, is all that is left, of minorities and of individuals are so I do not forget the position assumed plainly assured to them by affirmations by some, that constitutional questions and negations, guarantees and prohi- are to be decided by the Supreme Court; bitions in the Constitution, that contro- nor do I deny that such decisions must be versies never arise concerning them. But binding, in any case, upon the parties to no organic law can ever be framed with a suit, while they are also entitled to very a provision specifically applicable to every high respect and consideration in all par- question which may occur in practical ad- allel cases, by all other departments of ministration. No foresight can anticipate, the government. And while it is obvi- nor any document of reasonable length ously possible that such decisions may be contain, express provisions for all possible erroneous in any given case, still, the evil questions. Shall fugitives from labor be effect following it being limited to that surrendered by national or by State au- particular case, with the chance that it thority? The Constitution does not ex- may be overruled, and never become a pressly say. May Congress prohibit precedent for other cases, can better be slavery in the Territories? The Consti- borne than could the evils of a different tution does not expressly say. practice. At the same time, the candid From questions of this class spring all citizen must confess that if the policy of our constitutional controversies, and we the government upon vital questions af-
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LINCOLN, ABRAHAM:
footing the whole people is to be irre- fighting, the identical old questions, as to vocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme terms of intercourse, are again upon you. Court, the instant they are made in ordi- This country, with its institutions, be- nary litigations between parties in per- longs to the people who inhabit it. When- sonal actions, the people will have ceased ever they shall grow weary of the exist- to be their own rulers, having to that ing government, they can exercise their extent practically resigned their govern- constitutional right of amending it, or inent into the hands of that eminent their revolutionary right to dismember or tribunal. overthrow it. I cannot be ignorant of the
Nor is there in this view any assault fact that many worthy and patriotic citi- upon the court or the judges. It is a zens are desirous of having the national duty from which they may not shrink to Constitution amended. While I make no decide cases properly brought before them, recommendation of amendment, I fully and it is no fault of theirs if others seek recognize the rightful authority of the to turn their decisions to political pur- people over the whole subject to be exer- poses. One section of our country be- cised in either of the modes prescribed in lieves slavery is right, and ought to be the instrument itself, and I should, under extended. This is the only substantial existing circumstances, favor, rather than dispute. The fugitive - slave clause of the oppose, a fair opportunity being afforded Constitution, and the law for the suppres- the people to act upon it. I will venture sion of the foreign slave-trade, are each to add that to me the convention mode as well enforced, perhaps, as any law can seems preferable, in that it allows amend- ever be in a community where the moral ment to originate with the people them- sense of the people imperfectly supports selves, instead of only permitting them to the law itself. The great body of the peo- take or reject propositions originated by pie abide by the dry legal obligation in others, not especially chosen for the pur- both cases, and a few break over in each, pose, and which might not be precisely This, I think, cannot be perfectly cured; such as they would wish to either accept and it would be worse, in both cases, after or refuse. I understand a proposed the separation of the sections than before, amendment to the Constitution — which The foreign slave-trade, now imperfectly amendment, however, I have not seen — has suppressed, would be ultimately revived, passed Congress, to the effect that the without restriction, in one section, while federal government shall never interfere fugitive slaves, now only partially sur- with the domestic institutions of the rendered, would not be surrendered at all States, including that of persons held to by the others. service. To avoid misconstruction of
Physically speaking, we cannot sepa- what I have said, I depart from my pur- rate. We cannot remove our respective pose not to speak of particular amend- sections from each other, nor build an im- ments, so far as to say that, holding such passable wall between them. A husband a provision now to be implied constitu- and wife may be divorced, and go out of tional law, I have no objections to its the presence and beyond the reach of each being made express and irrevocable, other ; but the different parts of our coun- The chief magistrate derives all his try cannot do this. They cannot but re- authority from the people, and they have main face to face; and intercourse, either conferred none upon him to fix terms for amiable or hostile, must continue between the separation of the States. The people them. It is impossible, then, to make themselves can do this also if they choose, that intercourse more advantageous or but the executive, as such, has nothing to more satisfactory after separation than do with it. His duty is to administer the before. Can aliens make treaties easier present government as it came to his than friends can make laws? Can trea- hands, and to transmit it, unimpaired by ties be more faithfully enforced between him, to his successor.
aliens than laws among friends? Sup- Why should there not be a patient con- pose you go to war, you cannot fight fidence in the ultimate justice of the peo- always, and when after much loss on both pie? Is there any better or equal hope sides, and no gain on either, you cease in the world? In our present differences,
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LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
Is either party without faith of being stretching from every battle-field and
in the right? If the Almighty Ruler of patriot grave to every living heart and
Nations, with His eternal truth and jus- hearthstone, all over this broad land, will
tice, be on your side of the North, or yet swell the chorus of the Union, when
on yours of the South, that truth and that again touched, as surely they will be, by
justice will surely prevail, by the judg- the better angels of our nature,
ment of this great tribunal of the Aineri- President Lincoln's Second Inaugural
can people. Speech:
By the frame of the government under
which we live, the same people have Fellow-countrymen, — At this second ap- wisely given their public servants but pearing to take the oath of the Presi- little power for mischief, and have, with dential office, there is less occasion for equal wisdom, provided for the return an extended address than there was at of that little to their own hands at very first. Then a statement, somewhat in de- short intervals. While the people retain tail, of a course to be pursued, seemed their virtue and vigilance, no administra- very fitting and proper. Now, at the expi- tion, by any extreme of wickedness or ration of four years, during which public folly, can very seriously injure the govern- declarations have been constantly called ment in the short space of four years. forth on every point and phase of the great
My countrymen, one and all, think contest which still absorbs the attention
calmly and well upon this whole sub- and engrosses the energies of the nation,
ject. Nothing valuable can be lost by little that is new could be presented,
taking time. If there be an object to The progress of our arms, upon which
hurry any of you in hot haste to a step all else chiefly depends, is as well known to
which you would never take deliberately, the public as to myself; and it is, I trust,
that object will be frustrated by taking reasonably satisfactory and encouraging
time; but no good object can be frus- to all. With high hope for the future, no
trated by it. Such of you as are now prediction in regard to it is ventured,
dissatisfied still have the old Constitution On the occasion corresponding to this
unimpaired, and, on the sensitive point, four years ago, all thoughts were anxious-
the laws of your own framing under it; ly directed to an impending civil war. All
while the new administration will have dreaded it, all sought to avoid it. While
no immediate power, if it would, to the inaugural address was being delivered
change either. If it were admitted that from this place, devoted altogether ia>
you who are dissatisfied hold the right saving the Union without war, insurgent
Bide in the dispute, there is still no agents were in the city seeking to destroy
single good reason for precipitate action, it with war — seeking to dissolve the Union
Intelligence, patriotism, Christianity, and and divide the effects by negotiation.
a firm reliance on Him who has never Both parties deprecated war, but one of
yet forsaken this favored land are still them would make war rather than let the
competent to adjust, in the best way, all nation survive, and the other would ac-
our present difficulty. cept war rather than let it perish; and
In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow- the war came. One-eighth of the whole countrymen, and not in mine, is the mo- population were colored slaves, not dis- mentous issue of civil war. The govern- tributed generally over the Union, but ment will not assail you. You can have localized in the southern part of it. no conflict without being yourselves the These slaves constituted a peculiar and aggressors. You have no oath registered powerful interest. All knew that this fa- in heaven to destroy the government; terest was somehow the cause of the war. while I shall have the most solemn one To strengthen, perpetuate, and extend to " preserve, protect, and defend " it. this interest was the object for which the
I am loath to close. We are not insurgents would rend the Union by war, enemies, but friends. We must not be while the government claimed no right to enemies. Though passion may have do more than to restrict the territorial en- strained, it must not break, our bonds of largement of it.
affection. The mystic chords of memory, Neither party expected for the war the
430
LINCOLN
magnitude or the duration which it has already attained. Neither anticipated that the cause of the conflict might cease when, or even before, the conflict itself should cease. Each looked for an easier triumph, and a result less fundamental and astounding. Both read the same Bible and pray to the same God, and each invokes His aid against the other. It may seem strange that any men should dare to ask a just God's assistance in wringing their bread from the sweat of other men's faces; but let us judge not, that we be not judged. The prayer of both could not be answered. That of neither has been answered fully. The Al- mighty has His own purposes. " Woe unto the world because of offences, for it must needs be that offences come, but woe to that man by whom the offence cometh." If we shall suppose that Amer- ican slavery is one of those offences which, in tht providence of God, must needs come, but which having continued through His appointed time, He now wills to re- move, and that He gives to both North and South this terrible war as the woe due to those by whom the offence came — shall we discern there any departure from those divine attributes which the believ- ers in a living God always ascribe to Him? Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray, that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet if God wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondsman's 250 years of unrequit- ed toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword; as was said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said, that " the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous al- together."
With malice towards none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphans; to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and a lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations.
See also BANCROFT, GEORGE, EMANCI- PATION PROCLAMATIONS; GETTYSBURG.
Lincoln, BENJAMIN, military officer;
born in Hingham, Mass., Jan. 24, 1733; engaged in farming; was a firm and active patriot; and was a major-general of mili- tia when the Revolutionary War broke
BKXJAMIM LINtOLX.
out. In June, 1776, he commanded an ex- pedition that cleared Boston Harbor of British vessels, and in February, 1777, was appointed a major-general in the Con- tinental army. His services were varied and important all through the war, and at the surrender of Yorktown he received the sword of the defeated Cornwallis. From that time (October, 1781) until 1784 he was Secretary of War, and re- ceived a vote of thanks from Congress on his retirement. In 1787 he commanded the troops which suppressed Shays's in- surrection. In that year he was chosen lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts, and from 1789 to 1808 he was collector of the port of Boston. He was fond of literary and scientific pursuits. He died in Hing- ham, May 9, 1810.
Lincoln, LEVI, statesman; born in Hingham, Mass., May 15, 1749; grad- uated at Harvard in 1772; member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1796 and a State Senator in 1797. In 1800 he was elected to Congress and served until Feb. 6, 1801, when he was appointed Attorney-General of the United States, and for a short period was acting
431
LINCOLN— LIPPITT
ain. After the death of George M. Pull-
Secretary of State. He died in Worcester, nental army in the following year; and Mass., April 14, 1820. was actively engaged as educator and
Lincoln, ROBERT TODD, lawyer; born in minister till within a few years of his Springfield, 111., Aug. 1, 1843; eldest son death. He was the author of Signs of the of Abraham Lincoln; graduated at Har- Times; a Funeral Eulogy on General vard College in 1864; studied at its Washington, etc. He died in Albany, Law School, but left to enter the army, N. Y., Jan. 8, 1808.
acting as assistant adjutant-general on Lipan Indians, a branch of the Atha- the staff of General Grant. He resumed bascas. For a long time they roamed the study of law in Chicago, where he was from the banks of the Rio Grande and the admitted to the bar in 18G7. In 1881-85 Chihuahua to the land of the Comanches. he was Secretary of War, and in 1889-93 They made war on the Spanish frontiers was United States minister to Great Brit- and desolated mission stations. Having
learned many Spanish words and advanced somewhat in civilization, they became al- lies of Mexican partisans in the revolu- tions in that country; and when Texas be- came an independent state the Lipans roamed over it from Austin to Corpus Christi, but plundered only the Mexicans, generally. At the close of the war be- tween Mexico and the United States (1848) they began war in Texas, and for a while they desolated the frontier settle- ments. The remnant has since retired to Mexico.
Lippard, GEORGE, author; born near Yellow Springs, Pa., April 10, 1822. His publications include Legends of the Revo- lution; New York — Its Upper Ten and Lower Million; The Quaker City; Wash- ington and His Generals, etc. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 9, 1854.
Lippincott, SARA JANE ( pen - name
man, in 1897, for whose company he had GRACE GREENWOOD), author; born in been counsel, he was made acting president Pompey, N. Y., Sept. 23, 1823; married of the Pullman Palace Car Company. Leander K. Lippincott in 1853. Her books
Linderman, HENRY RICHARD, financier; include Greemvood Leaves; Stories and born in Lehman, Pa., Dec. 26, 1825; set- Legends of Travel; New Life in New tied in Philadelphia in 1853; was head Lands; Victoria, Queen of England; Rec- clerk in the United States Mint in that ords of Five Years; Recollections of My city in 1855-64, and director in 1867-69. Childhood; etc. She died in New Rochelle, He aided JOHN JAY KNOX (q. v.) in fram- N. Y., April 20, 1904.
ing "The Coinage Act of 1873," which in- Lippitt, FRANCIS JAMES, lawyer; born eluded all the coinage laws of the United in Providence, R. I., July 19, 1812; States, with amendments. After this he graduated at Brown College in 1830; was had supervision of all the assay offices and a captain in the 1st New York Volunteers mints in the United States. He was au- in the Mexican War ; served in the Civil thor of Money and Legal Tender in the War, becoming colonel of the 2d Cali- United States. He died in Washington, fornia Infantry and brevet brigadier-gen- D. C., Jan. 27, 1879. eral. His publications include Treatise on
Linn, WILLIAM, clergyman; born in the Tactical Use of the Three Arms; Shippensburg, Pa., Feb. 27, 1752; gradu- Treatise on Intrenchments ; Special Oper- ated at Princeton College in 1772, and was ations of War; Field Service in War; ordained in the Presbyterian Church in Criminal Law in Massachusetts; etc. He 1775; served as chaplain in the Conti- died in Washington, D. C., Sept. 27, 1902.
432
ROBERT TODD LINCOLN.
LIPTON— LITTLE BOCK
Lipton, SIB THOMAS JOHNSTONE, mer- born in Philadelphia, Sept. 21, 1840; chant; born in Glasgow of Irish parent- graduated at the University of Pennsyl- age. He owns vast tea estates in Ceylon; vania in 1861; professor in Dickinson Col- is president of the Thomas J. Lipton lege in 1874-85; in Syracuse University Company, pork packers, in Chicago, and in 1885-91; and in Garrett Biblical In- proprietor of the Lipton Refrigerator Car stitute in 1891-99; then became presi- lines of that city. These interests often dent of the latter institution. He has bring him to the United States, but he is written much both for American and Eng- best known here as the owner of the lish periodicals, and was the Fernley yachts Erin and Shamrock, and especially lecturer to the British Methodist Episco- in connection with the latter, with which pal Conference for 1900. he competed in the fall of 1899 for the Littlehales, GEORGE W., cartographer; AMERICA'S CUP (q. v.) with the Ameri- born in Schuylkill county, Pa., Oct. 14, can yacht, Columbia, by which the race 1860; was graduated at the United States was won. During this contest he won Naval Academy in 1883; became chief of hosts of American friends by his fairness chart construction for the United States and geniality. In October, 1900, he sent navy. He aided in founding the Interna- another challenge to the New York Yacht tional Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism, Club for a race to take place in the fall of which he became associate editor. His of 1901. Sir Thomas is a man of un- publications include The Development of bounded generosity to British benevolent Great Circle Sailing; The Methods and interests. In 1898 he sent a check for $10,- Results of the Survey of Lower Call- 000 for the relief of the sick and wounded fornia; Submarine Cables; The Magnetic American soldiers of the war with Spain, Dip or Inclination, etc. and in 1900 he gave the New York Yacht Little Bock, CAPTURE OF. In the sum- Club $1,000 for a prize cup for the sea- mer of 1863 Gen. Frederick Steele organ- son's races. ized an expedition at Helena for the seiz-
Liscum, EMERSON H., military officer ; ure of the capital of Arkansas. His forces born in Vermont, July 16, 1841. In the there, early in August, reached about Civil War he served as corporal in the 1st 12,000 men, with forty pieces of cannon. Vermont Infantry from May to August, These moved Aug. 10. They pushed back 1861; enlisted as private in the 12th General Marmaduke, who confronted United States Infantry Feb. 1, 1863; was them; and early in September they moved transferred to the 30th Infantry as first on the State capital, in two columns, led lieutenant; promoted captain of the 25th by Generals Steele and Davidson, having Infantry March 26, 1867; assigned to the been reinforced. Gen. Sterling Price was 19th Infantry July 5, 1870; promoted in chief command of the Confederates. At major of the 22d Infantry May 4, 1892; Bayou Fourche", on the south side of the lieutenant-colonel of the 24th Infantry river, Davidson was confronted by Mar- May 26, 1896; and colonel of the 9th maduke, and, after a sharp struggle for Infantry April 25, 1899. In the war with two hours, the Confederates fell back tow- Spain (1898) he went to Cuba, and took ards the city. At the same time Steele part in the battle of San Juan Hill, where was moving in a parallel line on the north he was wounded. He was appointed a side of the river. When the Nationals brigadier-general of volunteers July 12, reached Little Rock the Confederates had 1898, and was honorably discharged at abandoned it, and on the evening of Sept. the close of that year. From Cuba he 10 the city and its military appurtenances was sent with his regiment to the Philip- were surrendered to Davidson by the civil pines, where he remained till June 27, authorities. The troops had fled to Arka- 1900, when he was ordered to China, delphia, on the Washita River. When He landed at Taku, proceeded to Tien- the National troops entered the city eight tsin, and in the attempt of the allies to steamboats, fired by the retreating Con- capture the latter city he was shot dead federates, were in flames. In his cam- at the head of the American troops, July paign of forty days Steele lost about 100 13, 1900. men, killed, wounded, and prisoners, and
Little, CHARLES JOSEPH, educator; captured about 1,000 prisoners. The Na- V.— 2 E 433
LITTLE TURTLE— LIVINGSTON
tional loss by sickness was very heavy — not less than 2,000 men.
Little Turtle, ME-CHE-CUN-NA-QUA, chief of the Miami Indians; received In- structions in a Jesuit school in Canada, it is believed, and was remarkable for his mental vigor and great common - sense. Little Turtle was a brave and skilful mili- tary leader. He commanded at the defeat of Generals Harmar and St. Clair, the former in October, 1790, and the latter in November, 1791. He was present in the fight with Wayne at Fallen Timbers. The chief, who spoke of Wayne as "the chief who never sleeps," urged his people to make peace with such a formidable warrior. He was one of the signers at the treaty of Greenville. Early in 1797 he visited President Washington at Phil- adelphia. There Kosciuszko, then on a visit to the United States, gave Little Turtle a pair of elegant pistols. Ho died in Fort Wayne, Ind., July 14, 1812.
Livermore, GEORGE, antiquarian; born in Cambridge, Mass., July 10, 1809; re- ceived a common-school education; was greatly interested in historical research. He published numerous essays, includ- ing The New England Primer; Public Libraries; An Historical Research Re- specting the opinions of the Founders of the Republic on Negroes as Slaves,
as Citizens, and as Soldiers, etc. He died in Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 30, 1865.
Livermore, MARY ASHTON, reformer; born in Boston, Mass., Dec. 19, 1821; married Daniel P. Livermore in 1845; was appointed agent of the northwestern branch of the United States Sanitary Commission in 1862. After the close of the war she became famous as a lecturer, both in the United States and abroad, her most popular subjects being What Shall We Do with Our Daughters; Women of the War; and The Moral Heroism of the Temperance Reform. She was also ac- tive in the woman-suffrage and temper- ance movements. Among her publications are Pen Pictures; and Thirty Years Too Late.
Livingston, BROCKHOLST, jurist; born in New York City, Nov. 26, 1757; grad- uated at Princeton in 1774; served in the Revolutionary War until 1779, attaining the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In that year he was appointed private secretary to John Jay, who represented the United States in Europe. After the war he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1783, and in 1806 was appointed an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court. He served until his death, in Washington, D. C., March 19, 1823.
LIVINGSTON, EDWARD
Livingston, EDWARD, statesman; born abroad. In the battle of New Orleans in Clermont, Columbia co., N. Y., May he acted as aide to General Jackson. He 26, 1764; graduated at Princeton in represented Louisiana in Congress from 1781; and began the practice of law in 1823 to 1829; was United States Senator New York City in 1785. He soon ac- from 1829 to 1831; Secretary of State quired a high reputation as an advocate, from 1831 to 1833; and then minister to A Republican in politics, he became a France until the close of 1835. He had member of Congress in 1795, and served been chosen a member of the French until 1801. Jefferson appointed him Academy, and at his death an elegant United States district-attorney for New eulogy upon his life and works was pro- York in 1801, and the same year he was nounced before that body by Mignot. At chosen mayor of the city. Through the the time of his death, in Rhinebeck, N. Y., misconduct of a clerk, Mr. Livingston be- May 23, 1836, he owned and occupied came a public defaulter. He went to the mansion and estate of " Montgomery New Orleans, had great professional sue- Place," at Rhinebeck, built by his sister, cess, and paid every dollar he owed the Mrs. General Montgomery. He was the government. Livingston prepared a code youngest brother of Chancellor Living- of judicial procedure for Louisiana, which ston.
gained for him great fame at home and Capital Punishment. — The following is
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the text of his memorable plea for the the individual as of the society, the right abolition of capital punishment: to continue the existence given by God
to man, and, by the nature of man, to
Existence was the first gift of Omnip- the social state in which he was formed otence to man — existence accompanied to live; and the correspondent mutual not only by the instinct to preserve it, and duty of the individual and of the society to perpetuate the species, but with a is to defend this right; but when the social (not merely a gregarious) dispo- right is given, the means to enforce it sition, which led so early to the forma- must, in natural as well as positive law,
be admitted to be also given. If, then, both individuals and the society have the right to preserve their several existence, and are, moreover, under the reciprocal duty to defend it when attacked, it fol- lows that, if one or the other is threat- ened with destruction, which cannot be averted but by taking the life of the as- sailant, the right — nay, more, the duty — • to take it exists: the irresistible impulse of nature indicates the right she has conferred, and her first great law shows that life may be taken in self-defence. It is true the aggressor has the same right to exist; but if this right were sacred while he was attempting to destroy that of another, there would be coexisting two equal and conflicting rights, which is a contradiction in terms. The right, therefore, I speak of, is proved; but both in the individual and in society it is strict- ly defensive — it can only be exerted dur- ing that period when the danger lasts, by which I mean the question is, which tion of societies that, unless we carry our of the two shall exist, the aggressor or imagination back to the first created the party attacked — whether this be an being, it is scarcely possible to imagine, individual or the society? Before this and certainly impossible to trace, any crisis has arrived, or after it has passed, other state than that of the social — it is it is no longer self-defence, and then their found wherever men are found, and must right to enjoy existence would be co- have existed as soon as the number of existent and equal, but not conflicting, the species were sufficiently multiplied to and for one to deprive the other of it produce it. Man, then, being created for would be, of course, unjust, society, the Creator of man must have in- Therefore, the positions with which I tended that it should be preserved; and, set out seem to be proved: That the right as He acts by general laws, not by spe- to inflict death exists, but that it must be cial interference (except in the cases in self-defence, either of individual or so- which religion directs us to believe), all cial existence; and that it is limited to the primitive society, as well as the indi- case where no other alternative remains to viduals of which it is composed, must prevent the threatened destruction, have been endowed with certain rights In order to judge whether there is any and correspondent duties, anterior in necessity for calling this abstract right time, and paramount in authority, to any into action, we must recollect the duty that may be formed by mutual consent, imposed upon society of protecting its The first of these rights, perhaps members, deprived, if we have argued cor- the only one that will not admit rectly, from the social nature of man, in- of dispute, is, as well on the part of dependent of any implied contract. While
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we can imagine society to be in so rude but this can only be done by preserving and imperfect a state as to render the that of the individuals which compose it. performance of this duty impossible with- It has, then, duties as well as rights; but out taking the life of the aggressor, we these are wisely ordered to be inseparable, must concede the right. But is there any Society cannot exert its right of self-pres- such state of society? Certainly none in ervation without, by the same act, per- the civilized world, and our laws are made forming its duty in the preservation of its for civilized man. Imprisonment is an members. Whenever any of those things obvious and effectual alternative; there- which are the objects of the association, fore, in civilized society, in the usual life, liberty, or property, are assailed, the course of events, we can never suppose it force of the whole social body must be ex- necessary, and of course never lawful; erted for its preservation; and this col- and even among the most savage hordes, lective force, in the case of the individual where the means of detention might be attack, must in ordinary cases be suffi- supposed wanting, banishment, for the cient to repel it without the sacrifice of most part, would take away the neces- life; but in extraordinary cases, when the sity of inflicting death. An active force of the assailants is so great as to imagination, indeed, might create cases induce them to persevere in a manner that and situations in which the necessity reduces the struggle to one for existence, might possibly exist; but if there are any then the law of self-defence applies, such, and they are sufficiently probable But there may be a period in which in- to justify an exception in the law, they dividual rights may be injured before the should be stated as such, and they would associated power can interfere. In these then confirm the rule. But, by a per- cases, as the nature of society does not de- versity of reasoning in those who advocate prive the individual of his rights, but only this species of punishment, they put the comes in to aid in their preservation, he exception in the place of the rule, and, may defend his person or property against what is worse, an exception of which the illegal violence by a force sufficient to re- possibility is doubtful. pel that with which he is assailed. This It may be observed that I have taken results clearly from the right to property, the preservation of life as the only case in to whatever source we may refer it; and which even necessity could give the right from that of personal inviolability, which to take life, and that for the simple reason is (under certain restrictions imposed by that this is the only case in which the two nature itself) indubitably a natural right, natural rights of equal importance can be As the injury threatened may not admit balanced, and in which the scale must of compensation, the individual may use preponderate in favor of him who endeav- force to prevent the aggression; and if ors to destroy. The only true foundation that used by the assailant endangers his for the right of inflicting death is the life the question then again becomes one preservation of existence. This gift of of self - defence, and the same reasoning our Creator seems, by the universal desire applies which was used to show the right to preserve it which He has infused into of taking life in that case. But where every part of His animal creation, to be the individual attacked can, either by intended as the only one which He did not his own- physical force, or by the aid intend to place at our disposal. But, it of the society to which he belongs, de- may be said, what becomes of our other fend himself or his property, when the rights? Are personal liberty, personal in- attack is not of such a nature as to jeop- violability, and private property to be ardize his own existence in the defence held at the will of any strong invader? 'of them — if he take the life of the ag- How are these to be defended, if you re- gressor under these circumstances, he strain the right to take life to the single takes it without necessity, and conse- case of defence against an attack upon quently without right. This is the ex- existence ? To this it is answered : Society tent to which the natural law of self-de- being a natural state, those who compose fence allows an individual to go in put- it have collectively natural rights. The ting another to death. May any associa- first is that of preserving its existence; tion of individuals inflict it for any other
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cause, and under any other circumstance? has been proved not to be just; and if Society has the right only to defend that neither just nor necessary, can it be expe- which the individuals who compose it dient? To be necessary, it must be shown have a right to defend, or to defend itself that the lives of the citizens and the exist- — that is to say, its own existence — and ence of society cannot be preserved without to destroy any individual or any other it. But can this be maintained in the face society which shall attempt its destruction, of so many proofs? Egypt, for twenty But this, as in the case of individuals, years, during the reign of Sabaco — Rome, must be only while the attempt is mak- for 250 years — Tuscany, for more than ing, and when there is no other means to twenty-five — Russia, for twenty-one, dur- defeat it. And it is in that sense only ing the reign of Elizabeth — are so many that I understand the word so often used, proofs to the contrary. Nay, if those so often abused, so little understood — ne- are right who tell you that the penal cessity. It exists between nations during laws of Spain were abrogated by the war, or a nation and one of its compo- transfer, this State (Louisiana) it- nent parts in a rebellion or insurrection — self gives an unanswerable proof that between individuals during the moment of no such necessity exists; for if an attempt against life which cannot those laws were not in force, it is otherwise be repelled; but between society very clear that there were none impos- and individuals, organized as the former ing the penalty of death from the time now is, with all the means of repression of the transfer, in December, 1803, to and self - defence at its command, never. May 5, 1805, when our first penal law I come then to the conclusion, in which was passed. Yet, during that period, I desire most explicitly to be understood, when national prejudices ran high— that although the right to punish with when one government had abandoned and death might be abstractly conceded to the other had not yet established its au- exist in certain societies, and under cer- thority — there was not, I believe, a single tain circumstances which might make it instance of murder, or of any attempt necessary, yet, composed as society now to destroy the order of society; so that is, these circumstances cannot reasonably one argument or the other must be given be even supposed to occur; that, there- up. Either the Spanish law existed, or fore, no necessity, and of course no right, we ourselves furnished a proof that a to inflict death as a punishment does nation may exist in peace without the exist. punishment of death. Societies have, There is also great force in the reason- then, existed without it. In those so- ings which have been used to rebut that cieties, therefore, it was not necessary, which founds the right to take life for Is there anything in the state of ours crimes on an original contract, made by that makes it so? It has not, as far as individuals on the first formation of so- I have observed, been even suggested, ciety: 1. That no such contract is proved, But, if not absolutely necessary, have its or can be well imagined. 2. That if it advocates even the poor pretext that it is were, it would be limited to the case of de- convenient ; that the crimes for which it fence. The parties to such contract could is reserved diminish under its operation only give to the society those rights which in a greater proportion than those which they individually had; their only right incur a different punishment? The re- over the life of another is to defend their verse is the melancholy truth. Murder, own. They can give that to society, and and those attempts to murder which are they can give no more. In this case, also, capitally punished, have increased in therefore, the right resolves itself into some of the United States to a degree that of doing what is necessary for pres- that not only creates general alarm, but, ervation. The great inquiry then recurs, by the atrocity with which they are per- ls the punishment of death in any civil- petrated, fix a stain on the national char- ized society necessary for the preserva- acter which it will be extremely difficult tion either of the lives of its citizens indi- to efface. I might rely, for this fact, vidually or of their social collective on the general impression which every rights? If it be not necessary, I hope it member of the body I address must have
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on this subject; but, as the result is escaped, or the jail would have over- capable of being demonstrated by figures, flowed.
1 pray their attention to the tables an- " In the evening, as one Thomas Burn,
nexed to this report, in which, although who was employed as a weaver in a fac-
they are far from being as complete as tory near Lancaster, was going home, he
could be wished, they will see an increase was met by one Wilson, with whom he
of those crimes that demonstrates, if had some previous misunderstanding,
anything can do it, the inefficiency of the when Wilson drew a knife and gave him
means adopted, and so strangely persist- divers stabs, in sundry places, which are
ed in, of repressing them. The small considered mortal. Wilson was appre-
number of executions, compared with the hended and committed to jail, and had
well-authenticated instances of the crime, the same irons put on him which had
shows that the severity of the punishment scarcely been laid off long enough by
increases the chances of acquittal, and Lechler to get cold."
the idle curiosity which draws so many History presents to us the magic glass thousands to witness the exhibition of on which, by looking at past, we may dis- human sufferings at the executions — the cern future, events. It is folly not to levity with which the spectacle is be- read; it is perversity not to follow its les- held — demonstrates its demoralizing and sons. If the hemlock had not been heart-hardening effects, while the crimes brewed for felons in Athens, would the committed at the very moment of the fatal cup have been drained by Socrates? example intended to deter from the com- If the people had not been familiarized to mission show how entirely ineffectual it scenes of judicial homicide, would France is. One instance of this is so remark- or England have been disgraced by the able that I cannot omit its detail. In useless murder of Louis or of Charles? the year 1822 a person named John Lech- If the punishment of death had not been ler was executed at Lancaster, in Penn- sanctioned by the ordinary laws of those sylvania, for an atrocious murder. The kingdoms, would the one have been del- execution was, as usual, witnessed by an uged with the blood of innocence, of immense multitude; and of the salu- worth, of patriotism, and of science, in tary effect it had on their feelings and her revolution? Would the best and morals we may judge from the following noblest lives of the other have been lost extract from a newspaper, printed in on the scaffold in her civil broils? Would the neighborhood, the material facts her lovely and calumniated queen, the which are stated in it having been since virtuous Malesherbes, the learned Condor- confirmed to me, by unquestionable au- cet; would religion, personified in the thority. pious ministers of the altar, courage and "It has long," says the judicious honor, in the host of high-minded nobles, editor, "been a controverted point and science, in its worthy representative, whether public executions, by the parade Lavoisier; would the daily hecatomb of with which they are conducted, do not loyalty and worth — would all have been operate on the vicious part of the com- immolated by the stroke of the guillotine? rmmity more as incitements to, than ex- or Russell and Sidney, and the long suc- amples deterring from, crime. What has cession of victims of party and tyranny, taken place in Lancaster would lead one by the axe? The fires of Smithfield would to believe that the spectacle of a public not have blazed, nor, after the lapse of execution produces less reformation ages, should we yet shudder at the names than criminal propensity. While an old of St. Bartholomew if the ordinary eccle- offence was atoned for, more than a dozen siastical law had not usurped the attri- new ones were committed, and some of butes of divine vengeance, and, by the the capital grade. Twenty-eight persons sacrilegious and absurd doctrine that of- were committed to jail on Friday night, fences against the Deity were to be pun- for divers offences, at Lancaster, such as ished with death, given a pretext to murder, larceny, assault and battery, these atrocities. Nor, in the awful and etc. ; besides, many gentlemen lost their mysterious scene on Mount Calvary, would pocket-books, where the pickpockets that agony have been inflicted if, by the
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daily sight of the cross, as an instrument of justice, the Jews had not been pre- pared to make it one of their sacrilegious rage. But there is no end of the exam- ples which crowd upon the memory to show the length to which the exercise of this power, by the law, has carried the dreadful abuse of it under the semblance of justice. Every nation has wept over the graves of patriots, heroes, and mar- tyrs, sacrificed by its own fury. Every age has had its annals of blood.
But not to resort to the danger of the examples in times of trouble and dis- sension, advert once more to that which was formerly urged, and to which I must again hereafter return — that which at- tends its regular practice in peace — the ir- remediable nature of this punishment, when error, popular prejudice, or false or mistaken testimony has caused its in- fliction to be ordered upon the innocent — a case by no means of so rare occurrence as may be imagined. It is not intended to enter into a detail of those which I have myself collected; they are not few, although they must necessarily bear a small proportion to those which were not within my reach. The author of a book of high authority on evidence has brought together several cases which are well au- thenticated. In France, in the short space of one year, I have gathered from the public papers that seven cases oc- curred in which persons condemned to death by the primary courts and assizes have been acquitted by the sentence of a superior tribunal, on a reversal of the sentence. In other States of our Union, these cases are not uncommon. With us the organizations of our courts prevent the correction of any error, either in law or in fact, by a superior tribunal. But everywhere it is matter of surprise that any cases should be discovered of these fatal mistakes. The unfortunate sub- jects of them are, for the most part, friendless; generally their lives must have been vicious, or suspicion would not have fastened on them; and men of good character sometimes think it disreputable to show an interest for such men, or to examine critically into the circumstances of their case. They are deserted by their connections, if they have any — friends they have none. They are condemned —
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executed — forgotten; and in a few days it would seem that the same earth which covered their bodies has buried all re- membrance of them, and all doubts of their innocence or guilt. It is, then, not unreasonable to suppose that many more such cases have existed than those which have fortuitously been brought to light. Would you retain a punishment that, in the common course of events, must be ir- remediably inflicted, at times, on the in- nocent, even if it secured the punishment of the guilty? But that is far from be- ing the effect. While you cannot, in par- ticular cases, avoid its falling upon in- nocence, that very cause, from the imper- fection of all testimony, will make it favorable to the escape of the guilty; and the maxim so often quoted on this oc- casion will no longer be perverted in or- der to effect a compromise between the conscience of the juror and the severity of the law when your punishments are such only as admit of remission when they have been found to be unjustly im- posed.
Other arguments, not less forcible — other authorities, equally respectable — might be adduced to show the ill effects of this spe- cies of punishment; but the many topics that are still before me in this report oblige me to pursue this one no further than to inquire what good can be ex- pected or what present advantage is de- rived from retaining this punishment? Our legislation surrendered it without a struggle in all cases, at first, but murder, attempt to murder, rape, and servile in- surrection; and afterwards extended it to a species of aggravated burglary. Now, as these cases are those only in which it has been deemed expedient to retain this punishment, as it has been abandoned in all others, the serious inquiry presents it- self, why it was retained in these, or why abandoned in the others? Its inefficiency, or some of the other objections to it, must have been apparent in all the other numer- ous offences in which it has been dispensed with, or it would certainly have been re- tained, or restored. Taking this acknowl- edged inefficiency in the numerous cases for the basis of the argument, let us in- quire whether there is anything which makes it peculiarly adapted to the enumer- ated crimes which it is unjust or inex-
LIVINGSTON, EDWARD
pedient to apply to any of the others ? progresses in a ratio of three to one of that We have three modes of discovering the of the population; and we should not for- truth on this subject: by reasoning from get, in making this calculation, the im- the general effects of particular motives portant and alarming fact that numerous on human actions; by analogy, or judg- instances of homicide and attempts to kill ing from the effects in one case to the occur which are rarely followed by prose' probable effects in another; or by experi- cution, and more rarely still by convic- ence of the effect on the particular case. tion.
The general reasoning upon the justice We have seen a deliberate murder com- and efficacy of the punishment will not be mitted in the very crowd assembled to repeated here, but it is referred to as enjoy the spectacle of a murderer's death; being conclusive as to all offences, and and do we still talk of its force as an admitting of no exceptions that would example? In defiance of your menaced apply to murder, or either of the three punishment, homicide stalks abroad and other cases in which our laws inflict it. raises its bloody hand, at noonday, in If we reason from analogy, we should say your crowded streets; and, when arrested the only argument ever used in favor of in its career, takes shelter under the ex- death as a punishment is that the awful ample of your laws, and is protected, by example it presents will deter from the their very severity, from punishment, commission of the offence; but by your Try the efficacy of milder punishments; abandonment of it in all cases but these they have succeeded. Your own statutes you acknowledge it has no efficacy there. — all those of every State in the Union — Analogy, therefore, would lead us to the prove that they have succeeded in other conclusion that, if it was useless in the offences; try the great experiment on many cases, it would be so in the few. But this also. Be consistent ; restore capital it is acknowledged that no analogy or any punishment in other crimes, or abolish mode of reasoning — no theory, however it in this. Do not fear that the murder- plausible — ought to influence when contra- ers from all quarters of the earth, se- dicted by experience. You have tried this duced by the mildness of your penal code, remedy, and found it ineffectual. The will choose this as the theatre of their crimes to which you have applied it are exploits. On this point we have a most decreasing in number and atrocity under persuasive example. In Tuscany, as we its influence! If so, it would be impru- have seen, neither murder nor any other dent to make any change, even under the crime was punished with death for more most favorable prospects that the new sys- than twenty years, during which time we tern would be equally efficient. Let us try have not only the official declaration of it by this test. For the first three years the sovereign, that " all crimes had di- after the transfer of the province there minished, and those of an atrocious nat- was not a single execution or conviction ure had become extremely rare," but the of either of these crimes. In the course, authority of the venerable Franklin for however, of the first six years four Ind- these conclusive facts: that in Tuscany, ians, residing within the limits of the where murder was not punished with State, made an attack on some of the set- death, only five had been committed in tiers, and were given up by the tribe, or twenty years, while in Rome, where that arrested and condemned; and two were punishment is inflicted with great pomp executed as for murder, and one negro was and parade, sixty murders were commit- condemned and executed for insurrection, ted in the short space of three months, In the next six years there were ten con- in the city and its vicinity. "It is re- victions; in the succeeding four, to the markable," he adds to this account, "that month of January, 1822, fourteen; so we the manners, principles, and religion of find the number of convictions for the the inhabitants of Tuscany and of Rome enumerated crimes have nearly doubled in are exactly the same. The abolition of every period of six years, in the face of death alone, as a punishment for murder, this efficient penalty. But the population produced this difference in the moral of the State doubles only once in twenty character of the two nations." From this years; therefore the increase of this crime it would appear, rather that the murder-
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ers of Tuscany were invited by the se- or control; but, by the indulgence of vere punishments in the neighboring ter- either feeling, every good end of punish- ritories of Rome, than those of Rome were nient is totally defeated, attracted into Tuscany by their abo- I cannot, I ought not to dismiss this lition. We have nothing to apprehend, subject without once more pressing on then, from this measure ; and if any ill the most serious consideration of the legis- efl'ects should follow the experiment, it lature an argument which every new view is but too easy to return to the system of it convinces me is important, and, if of extermination. we listen to the voice of conscience, con- One argument — the ferocious character elusive — the irremediable nature of this impressed on the people by this punish- punishment. Until men acquire new facul- ment, which was insisted on in the first ties, and are enabled to decide upon inno- report — has been so strongly illustrated cence or guilt without the aid of fallible by a subsequent event in Pennsylvania, and corruptible human evidence, so long that I cannot omit stating it. After the will the risk be incurred of condemning execution of Lechler had gratified the the innocent. Were the consequence felt people about York and Lancaster with the as deeply as it ought to be, would there spectacle of his death, and had produced be an advocate for that punishment which, its proper complement of homicide and applied in such case, has all the conse- other crimes, a poor wretch was con- quences of the most atrocious murder to demned to suffer the same fate, for a the innocent sufferers — worse than the similar offence, in another part of the worst murderer? He stabs, or strikes, or State, where the people had not yet been poisons, and the victim dies — he dies un- indulged with such a spectacle. They, also, conscious of the blow, without being made collected by thousands and tens of thou- a spectacle to satisfy ferocious curiosity, sands. The victim was brought out. All and without the torture of leaving his the eyes in the living mass that sur- dearest friends doubtful of his innocence, rounded the gibbet were fixed on his or seeing them abandon him under the countenance; and they waited, with strong conviction of his guilt. He dies, and his desire, the expected signal for launching death is like one of those inevitable him into eternity. There was a delay, chances to which all mortals are subject. They grew impatient. It was prolonged, His family are distressed, but not dis- and they were outrageous; cries like those honored; his death is lamented by his which precede the tardy rising of the cur- friends, and, if his life deserved it, hon- tain in a theatre were heard. Impatient ored by his country. But the death in- for the delight they expected in seeing a flicted by such laws — the murder of the fellow-creature die, they raised a ferocious innocent under its holy forms — has no cry. But when it was at last announced such mitigating circumstances. Slow in that a reprieve had left them no hope of its approach, uncertain in its stroke, its witnessing his agonies, their fury knew victim feels not only the sickness of the no bounds; and the poor maniac — for it heart that arises from the alternation of was discovered that he was insane — was hope and fear until his doom is pro- with difficulty snatched, by the officers nounced; but when that becomes inev- of justice, from the fate which the most itable — alone, the tenant of a dungeon violent among them seemed determined to during every moment that the lenity of inflict. the law prolongs his life — he is made to This is not an overcharged picture; the feel all those anticipations, worse than same savage feeling has been more than a thousand deaths. The consciousness of once exhibited in different parts of the innocence, that which is our support Union, and will always be produced by under other miseries, is here converted public executions, unless it is replaced by into a source of bitter anguish, when it the equally dangerous feeling of ad- is found to be no protection from infamy miration and interest for the sufferer, and death; and when the ties which con- Which of the two is to prevail depends nected him to his country, his friends, his on circumstances totally out of the power family, are torn asunder, no consoling re- of the law-giver or the judge to foresee flection mitigates the misery of that mo-
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LIVINGSTON", EDWARD
ment. He leaves unmerited infamy to his nocence, made in tones which no art could children; a name stamped with dishonor imitate, and listened with awe to the to their surviving parent, and bows down dreadful adjuration poured forth by one the gray heads of his own with sorrow to of these victims with an energy and so- the grave. As he walks from his dun- lemnity that seemed superhuman, sum- geon, he sees the thousands who have moning his false accuser and his mistaken come to gaze upon his last agony. He judge to meet him before the throne of mounts the fatal tree, and a life of inno- God. Such an appeal to the high tribunal cence is closed by a death of dishonor, which never errs, and before which he This is no picture of the imagination, who made it was in a few hours to ap- Would to God it were! Would to God pear, was calculated to create a belief of that, if death must be inflicted, some his innocence; that belief was changed sure means might be discovered of mak- into certainty. The perjury of the wit- ing it fall upon the guilty. These things ness was discovered, and he fled. from the have happened. These legal murders have infamy that awaited him, but it was too been committed! and who were the pri- late for any other effect than to add one mary causes of the crime ? Who authorized more example to the many that preceded a punishment which, once inflicted, could it of the danger, and, I may add, impiety, never be remitted to the innocent? Who of using this attribute of the divine tied the cord, or let fall the axe upon the power without the infallibility that can guiltless head? Not the executioner, the alone properly direct it. And this objec- vile instrument who is hired to do the tion alone, did none of the other cogent work of death, not the jury who con- reasons against capital punishment exist — victs, or the judge who condemns — not this alone would make me hail the decree the law which sanctions these errors; but for its abolition as an event so honorable the legislators who make the law — those to my country, and so consoling to hu- who, having the power, did not repeal it. manity, as to be cheaply purchased by the These are the persons responsible to their labor of a life.
country, their consciences, and their God. I cannot quit this part of the subject These horrors not only have happened, without submitting to the General As- but they must be repeated ; the same sembly the opinion of one whose authority causes will produce the same effects, would justify an experiment even more The innocent have suffered the death of hazardous than this, but whose arguments the guilty; the innocent will suffer. We are as convincing as his name is respect- know it. The horrible truth stares us in able. They are not the opinions of one the face. We dare not deny, and cannot whom the cant, which is used to cover the evade it. A word, while it saves the in- ignorance of the day, would call a the- nocent, will secure the punishment of the orist, but a man whose whole life was guilty, and shall we hesitate to pronounce spent in the useful and honorable func- it? Shall we content ourselves with our tions of the highest magistracy, whose own imagined exemption from this fate, name is always mentioned with reverence, and shut our ears to the cries of justice and whose doctrines are quoted as author- and humanity? Shall " sen&ibility (as ity wherever the true principles of legal has been finely observed) sleep in the lap knowledge are regarded. Hear the ven- of luxury," and not awake at the voice of erable D'Aguesseau :
wretchedness? I urge this point with "Who would believe that a first im-
more earnestness, because I have wit- pression may sometimes decide a question
nessed more than one condemnation under of life and death? A fatal mass of cir-
false instructions of law, or perjured or cumstances, which seem as if fate had
mistaken testimony; sentences that would collected them together for the ruin of
now have been reversed if the unfortunate an unfortunate wretch, a crowd of mute
sufferers were within reach of mercy. I witnesses (and, from that character, more
have seen in the gloom and silence of the dangerous), depose against innocence;
dungeon the deep concentrated expression they prejudice the judge; his indignation
of indignity which contended with grief; is roused; his zeal contributes to seduce
have heard the earnest assertions of in- him. Losing the character of judge in
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LIVINGSTON
that of the accuser, he looks only to that things, is disgraceful to a freeman and which is evidence of guilt, and he sacri- a Roman citizen." Yet the Romans were fices to his own reasonings the man whom not very remarkable for a pusillanimous he would have saved had he listened only fear of death. In the age of which I to the proofs of the law. An unforeseen speak, they did not want the excitement event sometimes shows that innocence has of capital punishment to induce them to sunk under the weight of conjectures, and die for their country. On the contrary, falsifies the conclusions which circum- it might, perhaps, be plausibly argued stances had induced the magistrate to that the servile disposition, which dis- dvaw. Truth lifts up the veil with which graced the latter ages of the republic, probability had enveloped her; but she was in some measure caused by the appears too late! The blood of the inno- change, which made the sacrifice of life cent cries aloud for vengeance against the the expiation of crime, instead of the prejudice of his judge; and the magis- consummation and proof of patriotic de- trate passes the rest of his life deploring votion.
a misfortune which his repentance cannot Conscious of having been guilty of repair." much repetition, and certain that I have
The earnestness for this reform is some- weakened, by my version of them, argu- times reproached to its advocates as pro- ments much better used by others, I am ceeding from a childish fear, that magni- yet fearful of having omitted many things fies the apprehension of that which we that might have an effect in convincing know is appointed to us all. Not so. any one of those to whom this report is The value of life is not overrated in the addressed. The firm religious belief I argument. There are occasions in which have of the truth of the doctrine I ad- the risk of its loss must be incurred; vance, contrasted with the sense of my in, which the certainty of death must be incapacity to enforce it upon others, must encountered with firmness and compos- have produced obscurity where the in- ure. These occasions are presented by terests of humanity require there should patriotism, in defence of our country and be light, and confusion where the per- our country's rights; by benevolence, in formance of my great duty demands the rescue of another from danger; by order. But the truth will appear in religion, whenever persecution offers the spite of these obstacles. From the midst martyr's crown to the faithful; and it is of the cloud, with which human imper- not known, or believed, that those who fections has surrounded her, her voice, propose to abolish death as a punishment like that of the Almighty from the either fear it as a natural event, or shun Mount, will be heard reiterating to na- its encounter when required by duty, more tions, as well as to individuals, the great than those who think it ought to be re- command, " Thou shalt not kill." tained. He who preserved the life of a Livingston, HENRY BEEKMAN, military Roman citizen was entitled to a more officer; born in Clermont, N. Y., Nov. 9, honorable recompense than the daring 1750; was a brother of Chancellor and soldier who ventured his own by first Edward Livingston. In 1775 he raised a mounting the breach. The civic was pre- company, with which he accompanied his ferred to the mural crown. The Romans, brother-in-law, General Montgomery, to during the best period of their history, Canada, where he performed excellent ser- reduced this abolition to practice, vice, and was voted a sword by Congress " Far," said their great orator, endeavor- for his skill and bravery at Chambly. He ing, in a corrupted age, to restore the was with Montgomery at the siege of ancient feeling on the subject — " far from Quebec. In 1776 he was aide to General us be the punishment of death — its min- Schuyler, and late in that year he was pro- isters, its instruments. Remove them, moted to colonel. He was with Sullivan not only from their actual operation on in Rhode Island, and was in the battle of our bodies, but banish them from our Quaker Hill. He resigned in 1779. After eyes, our ears, our thoughts ; for, not the war he became attorney-general, judge, only the executions, but the apprehension, and chief-justice of the State of New York, the existence, the very mention of these Colonel Livingston was a general in the
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LIVINGSTON
War of 1812, and was president of the in 1759, in which he was one of the corn- New York Society of the Cincinnati. He mittee of correspondence with the colonial died in Rhinebeck, N. Y., Nov. 5, 1831. agent in England, Edmund Burke. Liv- Livingston, HENRY BROCKHOLST, ju- ings ton opposed the taxation- schemes of rist; born in New York City, Nov. 26, 1757; Parliament, and was unseated by a Tory son of Gov. William Livingston, of New majority in 1769, when the controversy Jersey; was attached to the staff of Gen- between Great Britain and her colonies eral Schuyler in 1776, and afterwards to ran high. He was a member of the first that of General Arnold, and was a partici- Congress (1774), and held a seat in that pant in the capture of Burgoyne. He was body until his death, when their session promoted to colonel. In 1779 he accom- was held at York, the British having pos- panied John Jay to the Spanish Court as session of Philadelphia. Mr. Livingston his private secretary, and on his return was associated with Lee and Jay in the he studied law, and became eminent in his preparation of the two state papers put profession. In January, 1802, he was made forth by the first Congress, and was very judge of the Supreme Court of New York, active on the most important committees He died in Washington, March 19, 1823. in Congress. He founded the professorship Livingston, JAMES, military officer; of divinity at Yale College in 1746; was born in Canada, March 27, 1747; possessed one of the founders of the New York So- some influence with the Canadians, and ciety Library; and also aided materially became colonel of a regiment of Canadian in the establishment of King's College, refugees, and, with them, joined General now Columbia University. He patrioti- Montgomery. With these Livingston capt- cally sold a part of his property to sustain ured Fort Chambly, at the rapids of the the public credit with its proceeds just be- Sorel, and he participated in the attack on fore his death, in York, Pa., June 12, 1778. Quebec. He was also in the battle of Livingston, ROBERT, legislator; born Bemis's Heights, and served throughout in Ancrum, Scotland, Dec. 13, 1634; emi- the Revolutionary War. He died in Sara- grated to America in 1673, first settling toga county, N. Y., Nov. 29, 1832. in Charlestown, Mass., and afterwards re- Livingston, JOHN HENRY, clergyman; moving to Albany, N. Y. He possessed born at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., May 30, a bold, adventurous spirit, and was soon 1746; graduated at Yale College in in public employment at Albany, where, 1762; and studied theology at Utrecht, in 1683, he married Alida, widow of Rev. Holland, where he was ordained by the Nicholas van Rensselaer, and daughter Classis of Amsterdam. While in Holland of Philip Pietersen van Schuyler. She he successfully worked for the indepen- brought him considerable wealth, with dence of the American Dutch Reformed which he purchased a large landed estate Church from the Dutch Classis. He set- on the east bank of the Hudson. Its tied as a pastor in New York; but when boundary commenced about 5 miles that city was taken possession of by the south of the site of the city of Hudson, British he went on foot to Albany, and and extended 12 miles along the river, thence to Kingston, and finally to Pough- and eastward to the line between the keepsie, whence, at the close of the war, States of New York and Massachusetts, he returned to New York. He was held The area widened as it extended eastward, in high esteem by his denomination; and so that, on its eastern boundary, the in 1807 was chosen president of Queen's tract was nearly 20 miles in width. In (now Rutgers) College, at New Bruns- 1686 Thomas Dongan, governor of New wick, N. J., which post he held until his York, granted Livingston a patent for this
death, Jan. 20, 1825. Livingston, PHILIP,
domain, which comprised over 120,000 signer of the acres. It was the largest landed estate in
Declaration of Independence; born in Al- the province, excepting that of Van Rens-
bany, N. Y., Jan. 15, 1716; graduated selaer. Five or six thousand acres of it
at Yale College in 1737; became a promi- were purchased for the use of the pala-
nent merchant in the city of New York; tines who came over with Governor
was an alderman there from 1754 to 1758; Hunter in 1700, which tract still bears
and a member of the Provincial Assembly the name of Germantown, given to it at
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LIVINGSTON
that time. In 1715 the grant of the Liv- Governor Shirley, a Review of the Mill- ingston Manor, given by Dongan, was tary Operations in North America from confirmed by royal authority, and full 1153 to April 14, 1756, in a Letter to a manorial privileges were given to the Nobleman. The following year he was proprietor. The lord of the manor exer- elected a member of the New York Assem- cised moderate judicial functions within bly. Having purchased land in Elizabeth- his domain, and had the privilege of elect- town, N. J., he built a fine mansion there, ing a representative to the General As- which he called " Liberty Hall," and re- sembly of the colony and two constables, moved there in 1773. He early espoused This manor occupied a portion of Colum- the cause of the oppressed colonies, and bia and Dutchess counties. Robert died in Albany, April 20, 1725.
Livingston, ROBERT R., statesman; born in New York City, Nov. 27, 1747; graduated at King's College in 1765; practised law successfully in New York, and was made recorder of the city in 1773. Of this office he was deprived early in 1775, because of his espousal of the patriot cause. He was elected to the Con- tinental Congress in 1775, and was one of the committee appointed to draft a declaration of independence, but his neces- sary absence from Congress prevented his signing it. On the organization of the State of New York under a constitution, he was appointed chancellor, and held that post until 1801. In 1780 he was again a member of Congress, and was Secretary for Foreign Affairs from 1781 to 1783. Mr. Livingston was a member of the con- vention of New York which adopted the national Constitution, and voted for it. Minister plenipotentiary to France, from
1801 to 1804, he secured the cession of WILLIAM LIVINGSTON.
LOUISIANA (q. v.) to the United States.
He was the coadjutor of Fulton in per- was a representative of New Jersey in the fecting the system of steam navigation, first Continental Congress (1774). He He died in Clermont, N. Y., Feb. 26, 1813. was again a delegate to that body in 1775, See STEAMBOAT, INVENTION OF. but was soon called (June 5) to command
Livingston, WILLIAM, governor; born the militia of New Jersey, with the coin- in Albany, N. Y., Nov. 30, 1723; was an mission of brigadier-general. After Will- eminent member of the bar of both New iam Franklin was deposed in 1776, Liv- York and New Jersey. With William ingston succeeded him as governor of New Smith he published the first Digest of the Jersey. Mr. Livingston was a delegate Colonial Laws, in 1752. For a while he to the convention which framed the published the Independent Reflector, national Constitution. He died in Eliza- Thoroughly educated at Yale College, he bethtown, N. J., July 25, 1790. possessed many solid as well as brilliant Lloyd, HENRY DEMOREST, publicist; attainments in law and literature, and born in New York City, May 1, 1847; was an elegant and facile writer. Behind was graduated at Columbia College; lect- the mask of anonymity, Mr. Livingston ured on political economy in the city dealt heavy blows in favor of Presby- schools; admitted to the bar in 1869; terianism, and against Episcopacy, in his assistant-secretary American Free Trade weekly periodical, first published late in League in 1869-72; editorial writer on 1752. In 1757 he published, in defence of the Chicago Tribune in 1872-85; and was
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LLOYD— LOCKWOOD
subsequently engaged in writing and lect- uring on economic and social questions. His publications include Every Man His Own Voter (1871); A Strike of Million- aires against Miners (1890); Wealth vs. Commomvcalth (1894); Labor Go-Partner- ship (1898); A Country ivithout Strikes (1900) ; Newest England (1900) ; etc. He died in Winnetka, 111., Sept. 28, 1903.
Lloyd, JAMES, legislator; born in Bos- ton, Mass., in 1769; was graduated at Harvard College in 1787; was Federalist United States Senator, succeeding John Quincy Adams, in 1808-13, and again, succeeding Harrison Gray Otis, in 1822- 26; resigned each time; removed to Phila- delphia, Pa. He died in New York City, April 5, 1831.
Locke, DAVIS Ross (pen name PETRO- LEUM V. NASBY), satirist; born in Vestal, N. Y., Sept. 20, 1833; was successively editor and publisher of the Plymouth Ad- vertiser, Mansfield Herald, Bucyrus Jour- nal, and Findlay Jeffersonian in 1852-60. He later became proprietor and editor of the Toledo Blade, in which were published his famous Nasby Letters. In 1871 he became managing editor of the Evening Mail in New York City. Among his pub- lications are Ekkoes from Kentucky; Sioingin' Round the Cirkle; The Moral History of America's Life Struggle; The Morals of Abou "ben Adhem; etc. He died in Toledo, O., Feb. 15, 1888.
Locke, JOHN; born in Wrington, Somer- setshire, Aug. 29, 1632. His father was a parliamentary captain. His first public employment was as secretary in a diplo- matic mission to the Court of Branden- burg in 1664. While pursuing philosoph- ical studies in 1667, he became acquainted with Lord Ashley (afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury), and by his medical skill ad- vised a surgical operation that saved his lordship's life. By him Locke was intro- duced to the most distinguished states- men ,of the time. He superintended the education of Ashley's son, and assisted him in preparing a scheme of govern- ment for the Carolinas ( see FUNDAMENTAL CONSTITUTIONS) . When Ashley (then Earl of Shaftesbury) was accused of trea- son (1683), he fled to Holland, and Locke followed him. Locke had held various public offices, but now he remained quietly in Holland until after the revolution
(1688), when he returned to England in the same vessel that bore the Princess Mary thither. Locke's principal work was an Essay on the Human Understanding, published twenty years after it was be- gun. He died in Essex county, England, Oct. 28, 1704.
Lockhart, CLINTON, educator; born in Loverington, 111., Feb. 21, 1858; grad- uated at the Kentucky University in 1886; held pastorates in Kentucky in 1885-92; was professor in Ann Arbor in 1893-94; president of Columbia College, Kentucky, in 1894-95; and became presi- dent of Christian University, Canton, Mo., in 1895. He is president of the Missouri Christian Ministerial Association, and author of Laws of Interpretation, and Critical Commentary on Book of Nahum.
Lockwood, BELVA ANN BENNETT, lawyer; born in Royalton, N. Y., Oct. 24, 1830; graduated at Genesee Col- lege, Lima, N. Y.; married in 1848, Uriah H. McNall (died 1853), taught school in 1857-68, and married Dr. Ezekiel Lockwood in the latter year. She began the study of law in Washington; was ad- mitted to the bar in 1873, and began prac- tice before the Supreme Court and the Court of Claims in 1879. Afterwards she became prominent in the temperance, peace, and woman's suffrage movements. In 1888 she was nominated by the Equal Rights party for President of the United States. She represented the United States at the international congress of charities and corrections in Geneva, Swit- zerland, in 1896, and for several years was secretary of the American branch of the International Peace Bureau.
Lockwood, DANIEL NEWTON, lawyer; born in Hamburg, N. Y., June 1, 1844; was graduated at Union College in 1865; admitted to the bar of the New York Supreme Court in 1866; settled in Buffa- lo; district-attorney for Erie county in 1874-77; member of Congress in 1877-79 and 1891-95; United States attorney for the Northern District of New York in 1886-89; and was appointed president of the board of general managers of the Pan- American Exposition in 1901.
Lockwood, HENRY HAYES, educator; born in Kent county, Del., Aug. 17, 1814; graduated at the United States Mili- tary Academy and assigned to the artil-
446
LOCO-FOCO PABTY— LODGE
lery in 1836, and after serving in the Seminole War resigned and engaged in farming till 1841. Subsequently he was appointed Professor of Mathematics at the United States Naval Academy; served on the frigate United States at the capture of Monterey, Cal., in October, 1842. Re- turning, he served at the naval asylum in Philadelphia until 1845, when he be- came Professor of Natural and Experi- mental Philosophy in the Naval Academy; was transferred to the chair of Field Artil- lery and Infantry Tactics in 1851, and occupied the chair of Astronomy and Gunnery till 1866. During the Civil War he served both on land and sea, entering the Union army as colonel of the 1st Delaware Regiment and rising to briga- dier-general of volunteers. In 1864 he commanded the Middle Department, with headquarters at Baltimore. He was mus- tered out of the volunteer service at the close of the war, and returned to the Naval Academy, where he was Professor of Natural Philosophy till 1871. In 1871- 76 he served at the National Observatory; and in the latter year was retired. Pro- fessor Lockwood has written several books on naval subjects, and is author of Manual for Naval Batteries; Exercises in Small - Arms and Field Artillery Ar- ranged for Naval Service, etc.
Loco-foco Party, the name originally applied to a faction of the Democratic party. At a meeting in Tammany Hall, New York, in 1834, there was great di- versity of sentiment upon certain ques- tions. The conservative chairman and his friends, perceiving the radical movement to be strong, determined to defeat it by a sort of coup d'etat. To dissolve the meet- ing, the chairman left his seat and the lights were all extinguished, but the radi- cals rekindled the lights with " loco-foco," or friction, matches, reorganized the meet- ing, and carried their measures ; and it finally became a popular designation of the whole Democratic party in the Union.
Lodge, HENRY CABOT, legislator and author; born in Boston, May 12, 1850; graduated at Harvard University in 1871, and at the Harvard Law School in 1875; was admitted to the Suffolk bar in 1876; edited North American Review in 1873-76, and the International Review in 1879-81; was a Republican Represent-
ative in Congress in 1886-93, when he was elected United States Senator j re- elected, 1899. Among his publications are A Short History of the English Colo- nies in America; Alexander Hamilton; Daniel Webster; Studies in History, etc. Since his entrance into political life he has been a stalwart Republican, and on the questions of the war with Spain and the events growing therefrom he has
HENRY CABOT LODGE.
given President McKinley's administra- tion a hearty and effective support. Be- sides the following speeches, see ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL.
Restriction of Immigration. — In 1896 Senator Lodge introduced into the Senate a bill to restrict the flood of immigra- tion, the most striking feature of which was the provision of an educational quali- fication, requiring that every alien here- after landing in the ports of the United States should be able to read and write the language of his native country. The test to ascertain the intelligence of candi- dates for citizenship in this great repub- lic was to be applied as follows:
" The inspection officers shall be fur- nished with copies of the Constitution of the United States, printed on numbered uniform pasteboard slips, each contain- ing five lines of said Constitution in the various languages of the immigrants, in double small-pica type. These slips shall be kept in boxes made for that purpose, and so constructed as to conceal the slips
447
LODGE, HENRY CABOT
from view, each box to contain slips of necessary machinery could not be pro- but one language, and the immigrant may vided; that it would lead to many seri- designate the language in which he pre- ous questions with foreign governments, fers the test shall be made. Each im- and that it could not be properly and migrant shall be required to draw one of justly enforced.
said slips from the box, and read, and The third method was to exclude all im- afterwards write out, in full view of the migrants who could neither read nor immigration officers, the five lines printed write, and this is the plan which was thereon. Each slip shall be returned to adopted by the committee, and which is the box immediately after the test is fin- embodied in this bill. In their report the ished, and the contents of the box shall committee have shown by statistics, which be shaken up by an inspection officer be- have been collected and tabulated with fore another drawing is made. The im- great care, the immigrants who would be migrant failing to read and write out the affected by the illiteracy test. It is slip thus drawn by him shall be returned found, in the first place, that the illit- to the country from which he came at eracy test will bear most heavily upon the the expense of the steamship or railroad Italians, Russians, Poles, Hungarians, company which brought him, as now pro- Greeks, and Asiatics, and very lightly, or vided by law. The inspection officers shall not at all, upon English - speaking immi- keep in each box, at all times, a full grants, or Germans, Scandinavians, and number of said printed pasteboard slips, French. In other words, the races most and, in the case of each excluded immi- affected by the illiteracy test are those grant, shall keep a certified memorandum whose immigration to this country has of the number of the slip which the said begun within the last twenty years and immigrant failed to read or copy out in swelled rapidly to enormous proportions, writing." races with which the English-speaking
In support of his bill, Senator Lodge people have never hitherto assimilated, made an argument, of which the sub- and which are most alien to the great joined is the substance: body of the people of the United States.
There can be no doubt that there is a On the other hand, immigrants from the very earnest desire on the part of the United Kingdom and of those races which American people to restrict further and are most closely related to the English- much more extensively than has yet been speaking people, and who with the Eng- done foreign immigration to the United lish-speaking people themselves founded States. Three methods of obtaining this the American colonies and built up the further restriction have been widely dis- United States, are affected but little by cussed of late years, and in various forms the proposed test.
have been brought to the attention of The statistics prepared by the commit- Congress. The first was the imposition of tee show further that the immigrants a capitation tax on all immigrants. There excluded by the illiteracy test are those can be no doubt as to the effectiveness who remain for the most part in con- of this method if the tax is made suffi- gested masses in our great cities. They ciently heavy. But although exclusion by furnish a large proportion of the popu- a tax would be thorough, it would be un- lation of the slums. It also appears from discriminating, and your committee did investigations which have been made that not feel that the time had yet come for the immigrants who would be shut out its application. The second scheme was by the illiteracy test are those who bring to restrict immigration by requiring con- least money to the country and come most sular certification of immigrants. This quickly upon private or public charity plan has been much advocated, and if it for support. The classes now excluded were possible to carry it out thoroughly, by law — the criminals, the diseased, and to add very largely to the number of the paupers, and the contract labor- our consuls in order to do so, it would ers — are furnished chiefly by the same no doubt be effective and beneficial. But races as those affected by the test of il- the committee was satisfied that consular literacy. The same is true as to those im- certification was unpractical; that the migrants who come to this country for a
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LODGE, HENRY CABOT
brief season and return to their native different origin, with whom the English- land, taking with them the money they speaking people have never hitherto been have earned in the United States. There assimilated or brought in contact, have is no more hurtful and undesirable class suddenly begun to immigrate to the Unit- of immigrants from every point of view ed States in large numbers. Russians, than these " birds of passage," and the Hungarians, Poles, Bohemians, Italians, tables show that the races furnishing the Greeks, and even Asiatics, whose immi- largest number of " birds of passage " gration to America was almost unknown have also the greatest proportion of il- twenty years ago, have, during the last literates. twenty years, poured in in steadily in-
There is no one thing which does so creasing numbers, until now they nearly much to bring about a reduction of wages equal the immigration of those races kin- and to injure the American wage-earner dred in blood or speech, or both, by whom as the unlimited introduction of cheap the United States has hitherto been built foreign labor through unrestricted immi- up and the American people formed, gration. Statistics show that the change This momentous fact is the one which in the race character of our immigration confronts us to-day, and, if continued, it has been accompanied by a corresponding carries with it future consequences far decline in its quality. The number of deeper than any other event of our times. skilled mechanics and of persons trained It involves, in a word, nothing less than to some occupation or pursuit has fallen the possibility of a great and perilous off, while the number of those without oc- change in the very fabric of our race, cupation or training — that is, who are to- When we speak of a race we do not tally unskilled — has risen in our recent mean its expressions in art or in lan- irnmigration to enormous proportions, guage, or its achievements in knowledge. This low, unskilled labor is the most dead- We mean the moral and intellectual ly enemy of the American wage - earner, characters which, in their association, and does more than anything else towards make the soul of a race, and which repre- lowering his wages and forcing down his sent the product of all its past, the in- standard of living. An attempt was made, heritance of all its ancestors, and the with the general assent of both political motives of all its conduct. The men of parties, to meet this crying evil some each race possess an indestructible stock years ago by the passage of what are of ideas, traditions, sentiments, modes of known as the contract-labor laws. That thought, an unconscious inheritance from legislation was excellent in intention, but their ancestors, upon which argument has has proved of but little value in practice, no effect. What make a race are their It is perfectly clear after the experience mental, and, above all, their moral char- of several years that the only relief which acteristics, the slow growth and accumu- can come to the American wage - earner lations of centuries of toil and conflict, from the competition of low-class immi- It is on the moral qualities of the Eng- grant labor must be by general laws, re- lish-speaking race that our history, our stricting the total amount of immigration, victories, and all our future rest. There framed in such a way as to affect most is only one way in which you can lower strongly those elements of the immigra- those qualities or weaken those character- tion which furnish the low, unskilled, and istics, and that is by breeding them out. ignorant foreign labor. If a lower race mixes with a higher in
The injury of unrestricted immigra- sufficient numbers, history teaches us
tion to American wages and American that the lower race will prevail. The
standards of living is sufficiently plain, lower race will absorb the higher, not the
and is bad enough, but the danger which higher the lower, where the two strains
this immigration threatens to the qual- approach equality in numbers. In other
ity of our citizenship is far worse. While words, there is a limit to the capacity
the people who for 250 years have been of any race for assimilating and elevat-
migrating to America have continued to ing an inferior race, and when you begin
furnish large numbers of immigrants to to pour in in unlimited numbers people
the United States, other races of totally of alien or lower races of less social effi- V.— 2 F 449
LODGE, HENRY CABOT
ciency and less moral force, you are run- ning the most frightful risk that any people can r\in. The lowering of a great race means not only its own decline, but that of human civilization.
The danger has begun. It is small as yet, comparatively speaking, but it is large enough to warn us to act while there is yet time, and when it can be done easily and efficiently. There lies the peril at the portals of our land; there is pressing in the tide of unrestricted im- migration. The time has certainly come, if not to stop, at least to check, to sift, and to restrict those immigrants.
Problem of the Philippines. — On March 7, 1900, Senator Lodge delivered a speech in the Senate on the new relations of the United States in the East, substantially as follows: _
The questions -involved in the future management of these islands, and in our policy in the Far East, are of a nature to demand the highest and the most sagacious statesmanship. I have always thought with Webster that party politics should cease " at the water's edge." He spoke only in reference to our relations with foreign nations, but I think we might well apply his patriotic principle to our dealings with our own insular possessions, both in the Atlantic and the Pacific. The Philippines should be an American question, not the sport of par- ties or the subject of party creeds. The responsibility for them rests upon the American people, not upon the Demo- cratic or American party. If we fail in dealing with them, we shall all alike suffer from the failure; and if we sue- ceed, the honor and the profit will re- dound in the end to the glory and the benefit of all. This view, no doubt, seems visionary. It certainly ought not to be so, and in time I believe it will be accepted, Unfortunately, it is not the case to-day.
One of the great political parties of the country has seen fit to make what is called " an issue " of the Philippines. They have no alternative policy to propose which does not fall to pieces as soon as it is stated. A large and important part of their membership, North and South, is heartily in favor of expansion, because they are Americans, and have not only
patriotism but an intelligent perception of their own interests. They are the tra- ditional party of expansion — the party which first went beyond seas and tried to annex Hawaii, which plotted for years to annex Cuba, which have in our past acqui- sitions of territory their one great and enduring monument. In their new wander- ings they have developed a highly corn- mendable, if somewhat hysterical, tender- ness for the rights of men with dark skins dwelling in the islands of the Pa- cific, in pleasing contrast to the harsh in- difference which they have always mani- fested towards those American citizens who " wear the shadowed livery of the burnished sun" within the boundaries of the United States. The Democratic party has for years been the advocate of free- trade and increased exports, but now they shudder at our gaining control of the Pacific and developing our commerce with the East. Ready in their opposition to protection to open our markets to the free competition of all the tropical, all the cheapest labor of the world, they are now filled with horror at the thought of admit- ting to our markets that small fragment of the world's cheap labor contained in the Philippine Islands — something which neither Republicans nor any one else think for one moment of doing. Heedless of their past and of their best traditions, careless of their inconsistencies, utterly regardless of the obvious commercial in- terests of the South, which they control ; totally indifferent to the wishes and be- liefs of a large portion of their member- ship and to the advice and example of some of their most patriotic, most loyal, and most courageous leaders, to whom all honor is due, the managers of the Demo- cratic organization have decided to oppose the retention of the Philippines and our policy of trade expansion in the East, for which those islands supply the corner- stone. Their reason appears to be the highly sagacious one that it is always wise to oppose whatever the Republicans advo- cate, without regard to the merits of the policy or to the circumstances which gave it birth. I will make no comment upon this theory of political action, except to say that it has seemed for a long time exceedingly congenial to the intelligence of the Democratic party, and that it may
450
LODGE, HENRY CABOT
perhaps account for the fact that since 1860 they have only held for eight years a brief and ineffective power.
As an American I regret that our oppo- nents should insist on making a party question of this new and far-reaching problem, so fraught with great promise of good, both to ourselves and to others. As a party man and as a Republican I can only rejoice. Once more our opponents insist we shall be the only political party devoted to American policies. As the standard of expansion once so strongly held by their great predecessors drops from their nerveless hands we take it up, and invite the American people to march with it. We offer our policy to the Ameri- can people, to Democrats and to Republi- cans, as an American policy, alike in duty and honor, in morals and in interest, as one not of scepticism and doubt, but of hope and faith in ourselves and in the future, as becomes a great young nation, which has not yet learned to use the art of retreat or to speak with the accents of despair. In 1804 the party which op- posed expansion went down in utter wreck before the man who, interpreting aright the instincts, the hopes, and the spirit of the American people, made the Louisiana purchase. We make the same appeal in behalf of our American policies. We have made the appeal before, and won, as we deserved to win. We shall not fail now.
Before explaining our policy I should be glad, as a preliminary, to state the policy proposed by our opponents, so that I could contrast our own with it, but I have thus far been unable to discover what their policy is. No doubt it exists, no doubt it is beautiful, but, like many beautiful things, it seems to the average searcher after truth both diaphanous and elusive. We have had presented to us, it is true, the policy desired by Aguinaldo and his followers, that we should acknowl- edge him as a government, enforce his rule upon the other eighty-three tribes, and upon all the other islands, and then protect him from foreign interference. This plan, which would involve us in end- less wars with the natives and keep us embroiled with other nations, loads us with responsibility without power, and falls into ruin and absurdity the moment it is stated. Another proposition is that
we should treat the Philippines as we treat Cuba. That is precisely what we are doing. But what is really meant by this demand is not that we should treat the Philippines as we treat Cuba, but that we should make them a promise as to the future. And that is what every prop- osition made by those opposed to the Re- publican party comes down to, a promise as to the future. We are to put down in- surrection and disorder, and hold the isl- ands temporarily without the consent of the governed, but simultaneously we are to make large promises as to the future which will look well in print, and keep insurrection and disorder alive.
The resolutions offered by Senators on the other side, and the tenor of their speeches, are all of this description. They present no policy, but invite us to make promises. Promises are neither action nor policy, and, in the form of legislation, are a grave mistake. Those which involve us in pledges of independence have the additional disadvantage of being the one sure means of keeping alive war and dis- order in the islands. Those who offer them or urge them proceed on the assump- tion that you can deal with an Asiatic in the same manner and expect from him the same results as from a European or an American. This shows, it seems to me, a fatal misconception. The Asiatic mind and habit of thought are utterly different from ours. Words or acts which to us would show generosity and kindness, and would bring peace and order, to an Asiatic mean simply weakness and timid- ity and are to him an incentive to riot, resistance, and bloodshed. Promises of this kind, therefore, are neither effective action nor intelligent policy, but the sure breeders of war. If we must abandon the Philippines, let us abandon them frankly. If we mean to turn them over to domestic anarchy or foreign control, let us do it squarely. If we are to retain them, let us deal manfully with the problems as they arise. But do not indulge in the un- speakable cruelty of making promises, which our successors may be unable or unwilling to fulfil, and which will serve merely to light the flames of war once more, and bring death to hundreds of natives and to scores of American sol- diers. Let us not attempt in such a sit-
451
LODGE, HENRY CABOT
nation, and with such, responsibilities, to mortgage an unknown future and give bonds to fate which will be redeemed in blood.
The policy we offer, on the other hand, is simple and straightforward. We be- lieve in the frank acceptance of existing facts, and in dealing with them as they are and not on a theory of what they might or ought to be. We accept the fact that the Philippine Islands are ours to- day, and that we are responsible for them before the world. The next fact is that there is a war in those islands which, with its chief in hiding, and no semblance of a government, has now degenerated into mere guerilla fighting and brigandage. Our immediate duty, therefore, is to sup- press this disorder, put an end to fighting, and restore peace and order. That is what we are doing. That is all we are called upon to do in order to meet the de- mands of the living present. Beyond this we ought not to go by a legislative act, except to make such provision that there may be no delay in re-establishing civil government when the war ends. The question of our constitutional right and power to govern those islands in any way we please I shall not discuss. Not only is it still in the future, but if authority is lacking, the Constitution gives full right and authority to hold and govern the Philippines without making them either economically or politically part of our system, neither of which they should ever be. When our great chief - justice, John Marshall — magnum et venerabile nomen — declared in the Cherokee case that the United States could have under its con- trol, exercised by treaty or the laws of Congress, a " domestic and dependent nation," I think he solved the question of our constitutional relations to the Philip- pines. Further than the acts and the policy, which I have just stated, I can only give my own opinion and belief as to the future, and as to the course to be pursued in the Philippines. I hope and believe that we shall retain the islands, and that peace and order once restored we shall and should re-establish civil govern- ment, beginning with the towns and vil- lages, where the inhabitants are able to manage their own affairs. We should give them honest administration, and
452
prompt and efficient courts. We should see to it there is entire protection to per- sons and property, in order to encourage the development of the islands by the as- surance of safety to investors of capital. All men should be protected in the free exercise of their religion, and the doors thrown open to missionaries of all Chris- tian sects. The land which belongs to the people, and of which they have been robbed in the past, should be returned to them and their titles made secure. We should inaugurate and carry forward, in the most earnest and liberal way, a com- prehensive system of popular education. Finally, while we bring prosperity to the islands by developing their resources, we should, as rapidly as conditions will per- mit, bestow upon them self-government and home rule. Such, in outline, is the policy which I believe can be and will be pursued towards the Philippines. It will require time, patience, honesty, and abil- ity for its completion, but it is thoroughly practicable and reasonable.
The foundation of it all is the retention of the islands by the United States, and it is to that question that I desire to ad- dress myself. I shall not argue our title to the islands by the law of nations, for it is perfect. No other nation has ever questioned it. It is too plain a propo- sition to warrant the waste of time and words upon it. Equally plain is our riglit under the Constitution, by a treaty which is the supreme law of the land, to hold those islands. I will not argue this point nor the entire legality of all that the President has done in accordance with his constitutional power and with the law passed by Congress at the last session, which recognized the necessity of an increased army in order to cope with the existing insurrection. The opposition rests its weight on grounds widely dif- ferent from these. They assert that on moral grounds we have no right to take or retain the Philippines, and that as a matter of expediency our whole Eastern policy was a costly mistake. I traverse both assertions. I deny both propositions. 1 believe we are in the Philippines as righteously as we are there rightfully and legally. I believe that to abandon the isl- ands, or to leave them now, would be a wrong to humanity, a dereliction of duty,
LOGAN
a base betrayal of the Filipinos who have in that region. Logan's speech was trans- supported us, led by the best men of lated into English, and was pronounced Luzon, and in the highest degree con- inimitable for eloquence and pathos, trary to sound morals. As to expedi- Logan fought the white people desper- ency, the arguments in favor of the ately afterwards, when occasion offered, retention of the Philippines seem to in the West. At a council held at Detroit, me so overwhelming that I should re- in 1780, while maddened by strong drink, gard their loss as a calamity to our he felled his wife by a heavy blow. Sup- trade and commerce, and to all our busi- posing he had killed her, he fled. Over- ness interests, so great that no man can taken by a troop of Indians on the south- measure it. ern shore of Lake Erie, he supposed them Logan (Indian name, TA-GA-JUTE), to be avengers, and frantically declared Cayuga chief; born in Shamokin, Pa., that he would slay the whole party. As about 1725; received his English name be leaped from his horse he was shot from James Logan, secretary of the prov- dead.
ince of Pennsylvania; went beyond the Logan, BENJAMIN, pioneer; born in
Alleghanies before 1767; and in 1772, Augusta county, Va., about 1752; re-
Heckewelder, the Moravian missionary, moved to the banks of the Holston when
met him on the Beaver River, and observed twenty-one years old, and bought a farm
his great mental capacity. His family and married. He became a sergeant in
were massacred by a- party of white Bouquet's expedition, and in 1774 was in
people in the spring of 1774, which was Dunmore's expedition. Removing to Ken-
the occasion of his celebrated speech after tucky in 1775, in 1776 he took his fam-
the defeat of the Indians at Point Pleas- ily to Logan's Fort, near Harrodsburg.
ant. He was invited to a conference with There he was attacked by a large force
Lord Dunmore on the Scioto. He refused of Indians, but they were repulsed. He
to have any friendly intercourse with a was second in command of an expedition
white man, but sent by the messenger against the Indians at Chillicothe, under
(Col. John Gibson, who married his sis- Colonel Bowman, in July, 1779. In 1788
ter) the following remarkable speech to he conducted an expedition against the
the council : " I appeal to any white man Northwestern tribes, burning their vil-
to say if he ever entered Logan's cabin lages and destroying their crops. In 1792
hungry and he gave him no meat; if he he was a member of the convention that
ever came cold and naked and he clothed framed the first constitution for Ken-
him not. During the course of the last tucky. He died in Shelby county, Ky.,
long and bloody war, Logan remained Dec. 11, 1802.
idle in his cabin, an advocate for peace. Logan, JAMES, statesman; born in Such was my love for the whites, that my Lurgan, Ireland, Oct. 20, 1674; was an countrymen pointed as they passed and accomplished scholar and linguist. In said, ' Logan is the friend of the white 1699 he accepted the invitation of Will- man.' I had even thought to have lived iam Penn to become the secretary of his with you but for the injuries of one man. province of Pennsylvania; and when the Colonel Cresap, the last spring, in cold proprietor returned to England in 1701, blood and unprovoked, murdered all the he left Logan intrusted with important relations of Logan, not even sparing my executive offices, which he filled with zeal, women and children. This called on me ability, and good judgment. He was for revenge. I have sought it. I have chief-justice of the province. On the killed many. I have fully glutted my death of Gordon (1736), so long the vengeance. For my country, I rejoice at faithful guardian of the proprietor's the beams of peace. But do not harbor rights, Logan, as president of the coun- the thought ^hat mine is the joy of fear, cil, administered the government for two Logan never felt fear. He will not turn years. Logan was always the friend of on his heel to save his life. Who is there the Indians. At his death, near Phila- to mourn for Logan? Not one!" Logan delphia, Oct. 31, 1751, he left his valu- was mistaken ; it was not Cresap who led able library of 2,000 volumes to the city the band of assassins. He was not then of Philadelphia.
453
LOGAN
Logan, JOHN ALEXANDER, statesman; born in Jackson county, 111., Feb. 9, 1826; received a common school education; served in the Mexican War, rising from the rank of private to that of lieutenant and quartermaster. He was admitted to the practice of law in 1852; was in the Illinois legislature, and in Congress from 1859 to 1862. He was a private in a
JOHN ALEXANDER LOGAN.
Michigan regiment at the battle of Bull Run (July, 1861) ; returned to Illinois and raised the 31st Illinois Infantry, of which he was commissioned colonel; was wounded at Fort Donelson; and the fol- lowing month (March, 1862) was made a brigadier-general. In April of the same year he was promoted to major-general, and commanded a division in the Vicks- burg and Atlanta campaigns (1863-64). He was one of the most successful volun- teer generals. He was again elected to Congress in 1866 and remained in the House till March 4, 1871, when he entered the Senate, having been elected to suc- ceed Richard Yates. At the expiration of this term in 1877 he was defeated for re- election; but in 1879 he was a successful candidate, and held this seat by re-elec- tion in 1885 till his death. In 1884 he was the Republican candidate for Vice- President of the United States on the un- successful ticket headed by James G-. Blaine. He died in Washington, D. C., Dec. 26, 1886.
General Logan was an aggressive and
effective speaker, and during his service in the United States Senate his voice was heard discussing fearlessly all important measures. Between 1867 and the begin- ning of 1886, his most notable speeches, in the House and Senate were on Recon- struction; The Impeachment of President Johnson; Principles of the Democratic Party; Vindication of President Grant Against the Attack of Charles Sumner; The Ku-Klux in Louisiana; The Equali- sation of Bounties, etc.; The Power of the Government to Enforce the United States Laws; and the one declaring his belief that Gen. Fitz-John Porter had been just- ly condemned.
The Case of Fitz-John Porter. — Under the title of GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (q. v.), is given General Grant's conclu- sions on the celebrated case of General Porter after a re-examination of the facts bearing on it. General Logan, who had opposed in the Senate the bill to restore General Porter to the army, made the fol- lowing reply to General Grant:
I dislike very much to enter into any discussion with General Grant on matters pertaining to military movements, as I must do so knowing I am contesting ground with a man of great military re- nown. But inasmuch as General Grant has so recently changed his opinion on this subject, after having the case before him when general of the army and during eight years while President of the United States, based upon Porter's own state- ment of the case, and after careful exami- nation of the case concluded that he was guilty, and having more than once im- pressed his then opinion upon my mind, which very strongly confirmed me in my own conclusions of Porter's guilt, there- fore, I take it that the general's gener- osity will be sufficient to pardon me if I shall now differ with him and trust my own judgment in the case, instead of ac- cepting his present conclusions — especially when I feel confident that I can clearly demonstrate that his present opinions are based upon a misapprehension of the facts as they did exist and were understood by those understanding them at the time.
But that there may be a proper under- standing of the question in dispute, it may be necessary to understand something
454
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
in reference to the positions occupied by the opposing forces. General Pope, being in command of the Army of Virginia, had withdrawn from his former line of operations, and had begun his movements against Jackson on the evening of the day on which he sent the first order to Fitz- John Porter.
General Hooker's division of Heintzel- man's corps having moved along the rail- road from Warrenton Junction towards Manassas Junction, meeting Ewell's di- vision of Jackson's force at Bristoe Sta- tion in the evening, a sharp engagement ensued, in which Hooker drove Ewell in the direction of Manassas Junction.
General Pope's headquarters were with this division. In his rear, at Warrenton Junction, was Porter's command (the 5th Army Corps). Anticipating an attack from the Confederate forces on the morn- ing of the 28th, Hooker's command being out of ammunition at the time, and in order that he might be prepared for this attack, and also that he might have his troops up and well in hand — inasmuch as he desired to send a portion of his forces in the direction of Gainesville and on to Thoroughfare Gap, so as to impede the ad- vance of Longstreet, who was then march- ing rapidly to join Jackson — Pope issued the following imperative order to General Porter at 6.30 P.M., and sent the same by Capt. Drake De Kay, one of his (Pope's) staff officers.
The order is in the following language:
" HEADQUARTERS ARMY OF VIRGINIA, " BRISTOE STATION, Aug. 27, 1862 — 6.30 P.M. " GENERAL, — The major-general command- Ing directs that you start at one o'clock to- night, and come forward with your whole corps, or such part of it as is with you, so as to be here by daylight to-morrow morn- ing. Hooker has had a very severe action with the enemy, with a loss of about 300 killed and wounded. The enemy has been driven back, but is retiring along the rail- road. We must drive him from Manassas, and clear the country between that place and Gainesville, where McDowell is. If Morell has not joined you, send word to him to push forward immediately ; also send word to Banks to hurry forward with all speed to take your place at Warrenton Junction. It is necessary, on all accounts, that you should be here by daylight. I send an officer with this despatch who will con- duct you to this place. Be sure to send word to Banks, who is on the road from Fayette- yille, probably In the direction of Bealeton.
Say to Banks, also, that he had best run back the railroad trains to this side of Cedar Run. If he is not with you, write him to that effect.
"By command of Major-General Pope.
" GEORGE D. RDGGLES, " Colonel and Chief of Staff. " Maj.-Gen. F.-J. Porter, Warrenton Junction. " P. S. — If Banks is not at Warrenton Junction, leave a regiment of infantry and two pieces of artillery as a guard till he comes up, with instructions to follow you immediately. If Banks is not at the Junc- tion, instruct Colonel Cleary to run the trains back to this side of Cedar Run, and post a regiment and section of artillery with it. " By command of Major-General Pope.
" GEORGE D. RUGGLES, " Colonel and Chief of Staff."
When this order was delivered Capt. Drake De Kay was instructed to remain with Porter and direct him on the road to Bristoe Station, a distance of about 9 miles. This order was delivered to Gen- eral Porter (as Capt. Drake De Kay testifies) at about 9.30 P.M. General Porter decided not to move at one o'clock, as directed, but at three o'clock on the morning of the 28th; but, in fact, did not move from his tent, as the evi- dence shows, or move his troops, until after sunrise on the morning of the 28th. General Grant justifies Porter in the dis- obedience of this order, because, he says, Porter's troops had been marching that day, were fatigued, the night was dark, the road was blockaded, and that he show- ed his order to the leading generals, and because they said his troops were tired he did not obey the order.
General Grant further says:
"He (meaning Porter) was entirely justified in exercising his own judgment in the matter, because the order shows that he was not to take part in any battle when he arrived there, but was to pursue a fleeing enemy. He did not leave the commanding general in ignorance of his proposed delay, nor of the reasons for it, but at once sent a request that the general commanding should send back cavalry and clear the road near him of encumbrances, so that the march might be unobstruct- ed."
General Grant also sayg that " a literal obedience to the order of Aug. 27 was a physical impossibility. It is further shown that General Porter was desirous of obey- ing it literally so far as it was practicable,
455
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
but was prevailed upon by his leading General Grant's statement that " the
generals not to do so." road was a bad road, in bad condition,
General Grant also says : " If the almost impassable, outside of being full night had been clear, and the road an of wagons," is not supported by the testi-
open one, there would not have been so mony. The evidence of those who passed
much justification," and, continuing, he over the road is positive to the effect that
describes the road as being in a " terrible the road was in good condition ; that there
condition — almost impassable." was a railroad open from Warrenton Junc-
I am very much surprised at this state- tion to Bristoe Station, on which infantry
ment of General Grant's, inasmuch as he troops could have marched; that there
goes far beyond the evidence in the case was a road on either side of the railroad,
to justify the disobedience of said order plain, open, and passable. The evidence
by Porter. further shows that when General Pope
The evidence in the case shows that a sent this order to General Porter, he
great portion of Porter's troops had been (Pope) at the same time rode up to Gen-
in camp at Warrenton Junction from eral Myers (the chief quartermaster hav-
11 o'clock in the morning, where they ing charge of the trains ), and notified him
had been resting during the whole day. that Porter would march on that road
The evidence does not show that the gen- that night, and that he must clear it of
erals could not obey the order, but that wagons and all impediments so that there
they only complained that the troops were would be no obstruction to the march,
tired and fatigued. This, General Grant The evidence further shows that at the
knows, as a military man, is an excuse time the order was delivered to General
common in any army, that troops are Porter the wagons were going into park
fatigued when they are ordered to march off the road; that they did go into park,
either in the night or at any other time and that from the time (one o'clock) in the
when they desire to rest. And he knows, morning that he was ordered to march
further, that it is not an excuse justified there was no obstruction whatever on the
by any one in time of necessity when an road; and that the road was kept clear
order can be obeyed. until after daylight on the morning of the
General Grant says that Porter wanted 28th, at which time General Porter's or- to obey the order, because he sent two ders required him to be at Bristoe Sta- men to General Pope, a distance of 9 tion, but that the wagons left the "park miles, to ask Pope to clear the road for on the supposition that the troops had him. I would like to ask General Grant passed, and they did again enter the road if during his command of armies he. had after daylight on the 28th, and that the issued an order to one of his commanding only obstruction that there was to his generals to move his troops and that com- march was the road being obstructed after manding general had sent back word to the time he was to have been at Bristoe General Grant to "clear the road for Station; that he did not move his com- him" so that he might move, what kind mand the next morning until after these of an answer he would have given that parked trains had commenced pulling out general? into the road to move to Bristoe Station.
The troops that Pope was with had been As regards the darkness of the night, if fighting that day. Does General Grant General Grant has read the evidence care- pretend to say that they were in better fully he will find that other troops moved condition to " clear the road " than the that same night — in fact, were moving all troops of Porter that were to march on night — not only troops belonging to the the road? Did he ever know an instance Union army under Pope, but that the of a commanding general of a corps ask- whole Confederate army under Jackson, ing the commanding general of the army composed of 32,000 men, moved on that to " clear the wagons out of the road " so night, with all their wagons and baggage, that he himself could march, when he had from Centreville to the position which they the very troops marching along the road held on the 29th, the day of the battle, whose duty it was to perform that office I would like General Grant to answer for themselves? the question how it was that the whole
456
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
Confederate army could move a distance Porter did not arrive at Bristoe Station equal, if not greater, than that which until after ten o'clock the next day. Gen- Porter was ordered to move, and take their eral Grant says : " Under the circum- positions during that night to defend stances, his order (meaning Pope's) re- themselves against the assault of Pope's quired of the troops an impossibility that army, and that Porter, who was expected was quite evident to Porter."
In what is this statement justified? miles along the road Certainly not by any knowledge that Gen- had been removed or eral Grant had of the ground over which Porter was to march, any more than any
to take part in that battle, could not move the distance of 9 when the wagons parked out of his way?
General Grant well knows that marches one else who reads the evidence; certainly
have to be made under great difficulty not on account of the road; not on ac-
where the commanding officer is prepar- count of its being obstructed; not on ac-
ing for action, either night or day, rain count of the condition of the troops, as
or shine, and I know of many instances some of them had been resting from ten
that I could mention where troops under o'clock that day until that time; certainly
General Grant, especially in the Western not on account of the distance, and on no
army, moved through storm, rain, and account whatever, as disclosed by the evi-
in the night, whether light or dark, and dence in the case, except an indisposition
I could give an instance where troops were on the part of General Porter to support
moved under his command where they had General Pope in fighting that battle,
to make their road as they went — making For the purpose of showing that which
bridges also — and never heard of an officer was working in Fitz-John Porter's mind,
that was ordered to move under that direc- as well as showing his feeling of contempt
tion having to send to the general of the for Pope and McDowell, I will here give
army for " cavalry to clear the road of two letters to show his animus at the time
wagons for the infantry to march on." and to show the unkind terms in which he
General Grant says that Porter could expressed his distrust of the capacity of exercise his discretion about obeying this his superior commander, and in order to order strictly, for the reason that he was show that he had no intention of faith- not ordered there to fight, but merely to fully serving under Pope, "pursue the enemy." It will not do to In the first letter he speaks of the say this, for the very order itself notifies enemy having captured all of Pope's Porter that he must be there at daylight, clothing, and McDowell's also, including for the reason that he wanted to drive McDowell's liquors, when it is a well- Jackson's army out of that part of the known fact that the enemy did not capt- country. Does any one suspect or believe ure Pope's or McDowell's clothing, nor that an army of 32,000 could be driven out could they capture McDowell's whiskey, of that part of the country without fight- as it was equally well known in the ing? But what is the difference? Porter army and by all his acquaintances that could neither fight nor harm the enemy he never used liquor in his life of any unless he got there to do it. Not only so, kind. This letter is as follows: but it was not an order in which the gen- eral had a right to exercise his discretion; it was an imperative order to move at
, , , . -v j A. -L 4. more 11 itUL uis iiieuiuiue, mimiuuiunjij,
one o'clock in the morning, and to be at and baggage at Kelly.s Foi!d. can you
Bristoe Station by daylight." have it hauled to Fredericksburg and stored?
There could be no misunderstanding of His wagons were all sent to you for grain and
the order, and under the circumstances ™(<«- ls' £««» ^^CavT^
there was no excuse for not obeying it. except what has been sent to Gainesville. I
The facts are, there was no attempt made will get them to you after a while. Every-
to obey it, and the evidence through the thing here is all sixes and sevens, and I find
whole case shows that Porter did not in- ^^^^^SSSSTS
tend to obey that or any other order |tseift in compliance with orders. The army
strictly, but intended to obey only in such has not three days' provisions. The enemy
a way as to impede the progress of Pope, captured all Pope's and other clothing ; and
457
" WARRENTON, 27th— P.M. To General Burnside:
Morell left his medicine, ammunition,
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
from McDowell the same, including liquors. No guards accompanying the trains, and small ones guard bridges. The wagons are rolling on, and I shall be here to-morrow. Good-night.
" F.-J. POBTBB, Major-General."
Following this was a letter to General Burnside, at Falmouth, Va., at four o'clock P.M. :
"WABBENTON JUNCTION,
"Aug. 27, 1862 — 1 P.M. " GENERAL BURNSIDE, Falmouth, — I send you the last order from General Pope, which indicates the future as well as the present. Wagons are rolling along rapidly to the rear, as if a mighty power was propelling them. I see no cause for alarm, though I think this order may cause it. McDowell moves on Gainesville, where Sigel now is. The latter got to Buckland Bridge in time to put out the fire and kick the enemy, who is pursu- ing his route unmolested to the Shenandoah, or Loudoun county. The forces are Long- street's, A. P. Hill's, Jackson's, Whiting's, Ewell's, and Anderson's (late Huger's) divi- sions. Longstreet is said by a deserter to be very strong. They have much artillery and long wagon-trains. The raid on the rail- road was near Cedar Run, and made by a regiment of Infantry, two squadrons of cavalry, and a section of artillery. The place was guarded by nearly three regiments of infantry and some cavalry. They routed the guard, captured a train and many men, de- stroyed the bridge, and retired leisurely down the road towards Manassas. It can easily be repaired. No troops are coming up, except new troops, that I can hear of. Sturgis Is here with two regiments. Four were cut off by the raid. The positions of the troops are given in the order. No enemy in our original front. A letter of General Lee, seized when Stuart's assistant adjutant-gen- eral was taken, directs Stuart to leave a squadron only to watch in front of Hanover Junction, etc. Everything has moved up north. I find a vast difference between these troops and ours. But I suppose they were new, as they to-day burned their clothes, etc., when there was not the least cause. I hear that they are much disorganized, and needed some good troops to give them heart and, I think, head. We are working now to get behind Bull Run, and, I presume, will be there in a few days, if strategy don't use us up. The strategy is magnificent and tactics in the inverse proportion. I would like some of my ambulances. I would like, also, to be ordered to return to Fredericks- burg and push towards Hanover, or, with a large force, to strike at Orange Court-house. I wish Sumner was at Washington and up near the Monocacy with good batteries. I do not doubt the enemy have large amounts of supplies provided for them, and I believe they have a contempt for this Army of Virginia. I wish myself away from it, with all our old Army of the Potomac, and so do our com- panions. I was informed to-day by the best
authority that, in opposition to General Pope's views, this army was pushed out to save the Army of the Potomac, an army that could take the best care of itself. Pope says he long since wanted to go behind the Oc- coquan. I am in great need of ambulances, and the officers need medicines, which, for want of transportation, were left behind. I hear many of the sick of my corps are in houses on the road very sick. I think there is no fear of the enemy crossing the Rap- pahannock. The cavalry are all in the ad- vance of the rebel army. At Kelly's and Barnett's fords much property was left, in consequence of the wagons going down for grain, etc. If you can push up the grain to-night, please do so, direct to this place. There is no grain here to-day, or anywhere, and this army is wretchedly supplied in that line. Pope says he never could get enough. Most of this is private. F.-J. PORTER.
" But if you can get me away, please do so. Make what use of this you choose, so It does good. F.-J. P."
This was written on the evening that Porter received the order to support Gen- eral Pope, in which he gives the most dis- couraging account possible of Pope's movements, for no other purpose, in my judgment, than to demoralize the army and bring Pope into disrepute among the officers. He says, " The strategy is mag- nificent and tactics in the inverse pro- portion," showing his utter contempt for the ability of his commanding officers. In the conclusion of his letter he begs, "Please." Do what? Please get me out of this. Out of what?
He had not yet received his orders to move or to fight, and what does he want to get out of? Out of the Army of Vir- ginia? I suppose out from the command of General Pope, and to bring about such influence as would put Pope under the ban of his officers, so that he might be relieved and probably McClellan put back in command. This letter shows that he started in, after receiving his very first order from Pope, with criticisms of the army and the general commanding, his movements, his positions, and of every- thing in connection with what he had to do in commanding the same.
He begged to be taken away, saying to Burnside to do what he wished with the letter, so that it would do good. What did he mean by that, unless he was in a conspiracy against Pope, and deter- mined not only to disobey him, but to assist in destroying him? No officer liv-
458
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
ing ever had the confidence or affection of General Grant, in my judgment, to such an extent that if he had written such a letter about him (Grant), criti- cising him and his movements, and show- ing a determination not to support him, he could have stayed in the army of General Grant fifteen minutes without being ar- rested and punished. Even the board that tried to furnish reasons for acquit- ting Porter could not help but condemn him for his criticisms of his commanding officer. Yet General Grant speaks of him suffering through prejudice, without being guilty of any act of insubordina- tion. How he can do this is a mystery and a wonder to me. It is a well-known fact, recorded both in ancient and modern history, that many of the greatest battles have been fought after night marches, and if General Grant will take the pains to ex- amine the history of wars, down to the very present day, he will find this to be true.
General Grant doubtless remembers, from his readings, that the Athenian gen- eral, Demosthenes, led the Athenians against the Syracusans in the night-time, and was successful after having been de- feated in the daytime. He will find, too, that Alexander the Great, prior to the battle of Arbela, made his long march at night, starting at dark and arriving on the high ground overlooking the camp of Darius at daylight. He will also find in the battle of Metaurus, where Nero, Lir- ius, and Porcius succeeded in taking Has- drubal, the Carthagenian, marches made by these Romans were successfully made after night. Also his reading will tell him that, at the battle of Saratoga, Colonel Brooks after night turned Bur- goyne's right, and Burgoyne had to es- cape by withdrawing his whole force. He will also find that the assault on and the capture of Stony Point, on July 15, 1779, was made at twelve o'clock at night by Anthony Wayne.
He will find also that George Washing- ton crossed the Delaware in small boats on the night of Dec. 25, 1776, when the ice was gorging, floating, and crushing everywhere, and on the 26th the sur- render of Colonel Rolf was made. Would General Grant pretend to compare the march that Porter was required to make in the night-time with the crossing of the
Delaware when the stream was gorged with ice? He will see also that on the night of Aug. 29, 1776, Washington with- drew from the front of the enemy and crossed over from Long Island to New York over a broad river.
General Grant well remembers the pass- ing of Vicksburg on a dark, foggy night in small steamers, old and unsafe, under the rain of shot and shell, as pouring down from the heavens. He will remember the march made the night before the battle of Thompson's Hill, where many troops were moved in the darkness of night. I myself marched my division from " Hard Times Landing " to Bruinsburg, a dis- tance of 8 miles, in the night-time — crossing the river in a boat at daylight — marched to the field of battle, and was on the field, a distance of 12 miles, by twelve o'clock that day.
General Grant will remember that Gen- eral McPherson's corps, after marching the greater part of the day to the sound of General Sherman's guns at the battle of Jackson, moved that night at one o'clock under orders from General Grant, march- ing 22 miles over a muddy road, and by twelve o'clock next day was formed in line of battle and confronting the enemy.
These things, however, were done under orders from General Grant, whose orders were always observed.
Suppose his officers had taken it upon themselves to determine the manner of obeying imperative commands, how long does any one suppose they would have kept their commands? And suppose Gen- eral Grant's justification of the disobe- dience of orders, as he has stated it now in defence of Porter, had been published by him (Grant) to his armies and been so understood by his generals, does any one suppose by such discipline he would ever have made the success he did and become the hero he is? No, sir! His officers did not stop to write letters of criticism against him. They obeyed his orders and fought the enemy with a good will. If they failed to obey his orders they failed to retain their commands longer under him.
The general's present justification of the disobedience of a peremptory order, if followed out by generals, would make any army a mob, and the commanding
459
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
general a laughing - stock. It would au- railroad cut. Longstreet was marching
thorize every officer, down to the lower down through Thoroughfare Gap to
officers in rank, to determine how and Gainesville, to the support of Jackson,
when they would act under orders. Pope was moving his force to the front
George Washington, who is not yet for- and left of Jackson; his right near Sud-
gotten in this country as a leader of an ley Springs; his left running up the
army, issued the following order to his Warrenton, Gainesville, and Centreville
army, and until now I have never heard pike, extending his left beyond the right
its correctness disputed by any military flank of Jackson, on and up the pike be-
man: yond Groveton. Pope issued an order at
" It is not for every officer to know the three o'clock A.M. for Porter to move at day- principles upon which every order is is- light to Centreville. This order being a sued, and to judge how they may or may verbal order, Porter did not obey it, but, not be dispensed with or suspended, but instead of moving, he was in his camp their duty to carry it into execution with at six o'clock A.M., one hour after sim- the utmost punctuality and exactness, rise, writing another letter to General They are to consider that military move- Burnside criticising the movements of ments are like the working of a clock, jind the general commanding. General Pope, they will go quickly, readily, and easier in the mean time, finding that Longstreet if every officer does his duty, but without was moving to the support of Jackson, it be as easily disordered, because neglect and that Porter was still not moving, from any one, like the stopping of a changed his order and put it in writing wheel, disorders the whole. The general to Porter, to avoid any excuse on Porter's therefore expects that every officer will part. The order was in the following duly consider the importance of the ob- language: servation. Their own reputation and the
duty they owe to their country claims it " "^SS^E
of them, and earnestly calls upon them to „ To Ma,.Oen_ m^ohn Porter:
" Push forward with your corps and King's
This order was issued at General Wash- division, which you will take with you, upon
ington's headquarters on Oct. 10, 1777, at Gainesville. I am following the enemy down
TaomptmiTiff tne Warrenton turnpike. Be expeditious or
... , you will lose muph.
This much I have said, based upon un- ,,JOHN popB^ Major-General Commanding." disputed testimony, in answer to Gen- eral Grant's justification of Porter's dis- This order was handed to General Por- obedience of Pope's order of 6.30 P.M., ter about nine o'clock. His troops were then Aug. 27, 1862. ready to move. Let me ask: How did he
I now desire to examine the position obey this order? He states in his own of General Grant in his justification of testimony, before the McDowell court of Porter in the disobedience of what is inquiry, that he did not move until ten known as the "4.30 P.M. order of the o'clock. His line of march was on the 29th," delivered to Porter by Capt. Doug- road from Manassas Station across Daw- las Pope; but, in order to get a bet- kins's Branch to Gainesville, passing some ter understanding of this part of the 2 miles to the left of Groveton, the whole case, it will be necessary to take up the distance being 8 miles. He moved slowly orders issued to Porter prior to the and leisurely, and arrived at Dawkins's " 4.30 order." In doing so, I propose to Branch at twelve o'clock, a distance of 5 show that he not only disobeyed the miles. By this time Longstreet had his " 4.30 order," but all that preceded it. command between Gainesville and Grove- The situation was about as follows: ton, forming his line on Pageland Lane,
Jackson, with the Confederate army, to the right and rear of Jackson, his right
was behind the Independent and Manas- resting on the old Manassas Gap Rail-
sas Gap Railroad cut, which contemplated road, which lay between the Warrenton
road was to connect with the old Manas- and Centreville turnpike, and the road
sas Gap Railroad at Gainesville, his left on which Porter was marching, his
at Sudley Springs, his line following the ( Longstreet's ) right not coming nearer
460
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
than about one-half mile of the route flank, that were then attacking Jackson,
over which Porter would march to Gaines- His front was entirely in a different direc-
ville. In fact, if Porter had moved for- tion from Porter's.
ward, his command would have come If Porter had moved forward from Daw- square upon Longstreet's right flank. kins's Branch he would have attacked
At Dawkins's Branch, General Me- Longstreet on his right flank and in
Dowell came up to the head of Porter's rear, and, no matter how many troops
column, having what is known as the Longstreet had, Porter would have had
joint order, or an order to McDowell and an open road behind him. Whether he
1'orter both to proceed to Gainesville, could have whipped Longstreet or not is
Here Porter had halted, and insisted that not the question. He could have forced
the enemy were in his immediate front. I/ongstreet's whole command to change
He put out a few skirmishers and stopped front and face about, throwing their left
his whole command, stretching along the clear around and fronting the east instead
road back to Bethel Chapel, nearly 3 of the north, and during that movement
miles, and remained in that position the he would have had the opportunity of
whole day. At this point McDowell striking him heavily in the flank and
showed Porter the joint order to proceed doubling his forces up, forcing him to
to Gainesville, at the same time giving withdraw his whole force from attacking
him the information sent to Pope by Bu- Pope on his (Pope's) left flank. If Por-
ford, of the passage of the fifteen regi- ter could not have been successful, he had
ments of infantry and 1,500 cavalry the open road behind him upon which to
through Gainesville that morning. This retreat. General Grant says that Porter
was the only information that Porter had was left with 10,000 men. If General
on the subject of Longstreet's forces, as Grant will examine the report he will find
stated by himself. McDowell, finding that King's division was no part of Por-
that it was impossible to pass Porter's ter's command; withdrawing it did not
forces in the road with his command, reduce his own force, or the force that
went back and took his command on a he had reported as under his command
road off to the right, reaching out to the that morning. His own report shows that
rear of Pope's forces that were then en- he had about 13,000 men.
gaged in battle. He marched, and arrived in I would like to put this question to
time to put his forces in action, and fought General Grant: On his own showing Gen-
them until nine o'clock that evening. cral Grant says that Pope had 33,000 men
General Grant says : " And now it is confronting Jackson. Jackson had 22,000 known by others, as it was known by men. Porter had 10,000 men. Long- Porter at the time, that Longstreet, with street's own report shows that a large some 25,000 men, was in position con- portion of his force was attacking Pope's fronting Porter by twelve o'clock on Aug. left in front of Jackson. Add the 25,000, 29, four and a half hours before the men of Longstreet to Jackson's 22,000, 4.30 order was written." Upon what this and it would make the Confederate army statement of General Grant is based it 47,000 strong. Adding Porter's 10,000 is impossible for me to understand. In men, Grant's estimate, to Pope's 33,000, the first place, Porter did not know that would have made 43,000 men contending Longstreet was there with 25,000 men, against 47,000 men. But take Porter's nor did he know, unless he made a false report (morning report) showing that he statement, anything about the force ex- had 13,000 men, which with Pope's 33,000 cept what General McDowell told him would make 46,000 men on Pope's side and was his information received from General 47,000 men on the Confederate side. As Buford. Nor was Longstreet confronting a military man, would General Grant not Porter. He was 2V3 miles away from Por- say, no matter where the attack was made ter; was not on the same road that Porter by Porter, it would have been using 46,000 was, but was forming west of the old men against 47,000 men, instead of using Manassas Railroad, on Pageland Lane, 33,000 men against 47,000 men? to the right rear of Jackson's forces, front- In all battles General Grant well knows ing the forces under Pope, on Pope's left that men are not formed in one straight
461
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
line, or attacked in one place; but the at- tacks are made wherever the enemy is found, and wherever there is a position for attacking, and will he say that a flank attack is not the best attack that one army can make upon another, un- less the rear is left open to attack? Will he contend (as he has in his article) that the intention was that Porter should attack Jackson on his left, when he was directed to attack the enemy in the flank? Does he consider Longstreet's command any less the enemy than Jackson's com- mand?
General Longstreet in his report of that battle to General Lee states that:
" About four o'clock in the afternoon the enemy began to press forward against General Jackson's position. Wilcox's bri- gades were moved back to their former position, and Hood's two brigades, sup- ported by Evans, were quickly thrust for- ward to the attack. At the same time Wilcox's three brigades made a like ad- vance, as also Hunton's brigade of Kem- per's command."
Now we will see how many troops there were. Wilcox had three brigades and Hood two brigades, Evans one, and Hun- ton one. Seven brigades of Longstreet's command (besides his artillery), that were formed in battery and playing furi- ously upon Pope's left in the direction of Groveton, and at four o'clock were attack- ing Pope's left at that very time, and they were not withdrawn, but continued the onslaught. At five o'clock (one hour later), General Porter received the "4.30 order" to attack the enemy's right and rear at once. At this very moment when he was ordered to attack the larger por- tion of Longstreet's forces were engaged against Pope's forces in front of Jackson, leaving but a small force back under Longstreet for the protection of the flank of the army. Will General Grant pre- tend to say, as a military man, that this attack at that time if made by Porter would have been a failure? His troops were rested, had been lying on the road, had not been in action, had not been formed in line of battle; but listening to the sound of the guns of the enemy during the whole time. General Grant says (speaking of Porter) :
" Thus left alone, facing superior num-
bers advantageously posted, and ignorant of the needs of Pope, if indeed he had any, Porter had necessarily to bide McDowell's arrival on his right. In the mean time, his duty was manifestly to engage Long- street's attention and prevent him from moving against Pope, especially while Mc- Dowell was out of support of both Pope and Porter."
If General Grant has examined the evi- dence carefully, he will find that Porter faced no such numbers; there was noth- ing in his front during the day except cavalry pickets, except at one time when Jones's brigade moved down on another road, on a higher position, where they could look at Porter, and fired a few shots from two pieces of light artillery, forc- ing Porter to have his men hide in the brush (which the evidence shows) to keep from being seen.
His duty, General Grant says, was to purposely engage Longstreet's attention. I presume he does not mean that Pope should have done this by not moving for- ward, either to attack or under pretext of attacking, nor by moving all his troops to Dawkins's Branch, nor by allowing them to lie along the road a distance of 3 miles under cover of woods with arms stacked. How did he engage his atten- tion? Did he engage his attention so as to prevent nearly the whole force of Long- street from attacking Pope's left flank and forcing it back? Certainly not, if the evidence is to be believed; certainly not, if Longstreet reported the truth. But the truth is, instead of Porter's engaging Longstreet's attention, General Stuart's report shows clearly that a few cavalry- men engaged Porter's attention.
In Porter's report of that day's opera- tions he says that the dust on the road in his front was so heavy that it was evi- dent to his mind a large force was moving against him. Stuart (a Confederate gen- eral) says in his report (and it seems that General Grant takes the statements of Confederates for their numbers, and he ought consequently to accept all they say) that he fooled Porter that day, and kept him from attacking Longstreet's right flank, by having some brush tied to mules' tails and dragging them up and down the road to make dust, and this dust made by brush was the "large force" that Porter
462
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
found in his front on the road leading chosen position before he could have moved
from Manassas Station to Gainesville. upon the flank of the enemy as the order
It seems that General Grant has fallen directed."
into the same error by insisting in his ar- Thus General Grant puts Porter square- tide that Longstreet's force was in front ly in front of Longstreet with his 25,000 of Porter, when it was not at any time men, and says that he could not have in his front, or near his front, or facing obeyed the order without first whipping his front. General Grant says that the Longstreet's 25,000 with 10,000 men. He court-martial that tried Porter made a would have had to have done that and mistake. He says that the "4.30 order" then turned around and attacked Jack- ordering Porter to attack at once contem- son on the right flank. I admit this plated the attacking of Jackson's forces would have been requiring too much of a on the right flank, and " that no doubt man whose movements were like those of this was in the mind of the court and of General Porter; but I would ask General the commanding general." General Grant Grant to explain how it is that Long- falls into error here again. General Pope street shows that he had seven brigades had the information at nine o'clock in the at this time attacking Pope's left flank, morning that a force had passed through yet he (Grant) says that Porter would Gainesville (fifteen regiments of infantry have had to whip the whole 25,000. He and 1,500 cavalry), and when he issued (Porter) was certainly not required to the order to Porter in the morning it was whip any one. He was only required to to meet the force that he knew to be com- attack the right flank of the enemy, and ing in that direction, but whether he knew the right flank of the enemy was the right it when he issued his order in the morn- flank of Longstreet's command. He was ing is immaterial, as he had the informa- part of the enemy, his flank being in the tion early that day. After receiving this direction of Porter.
information, as a general he knew that General Grant says : " He was 3 miles
the force coming down the road was com- away from Jackson's flank." If so, then
ing to Jackson's right and rear so as to why not attack Longstreet, whose flank
attack him on the left flank ; and when he was sticking out in air where Porter could
issued the "4.30 order," how can General have attacked it, as it was the only flank
Grant say that he (Pope) had not con- that presented itself where he could at-
templated the attack of Longstreet on the tack. How, then, was he to construe the
right flank, when he claims that Porter order? Was he to order his men to at-
himself knew that Longstreet was resting tack Jackson, when the order did not say
his right flank in his (Porter's) direc- so? Was he to say, "Longstreet's flank
tion, and there was nothing in sight that is sticking out there, I can see it, but I
he could attack except the right flank am not to attack that! He is not the
of Longstreet? enemy! The order says to attack the
General Grant makes a plan, draws enemy." Will he say that does not mean
lines, and puts Jackson's 22,000 men fac- to attack Longstreet? This is the logic
ing Pope's 33,000, and places on this line of General Grant's position.
Porter squarely fronting Longstreet's General Grant also assumes that to
25,000 men, when he must know, if he has have attacked under that order would
examined the evidence, that no such posi- have taken Porter until nine o'clock, inas-
tions were occupied during that day by much as he would have had to make dispo-
the forces of Longstreet and Porter. Gen- sition of some of his troops, issue orders,
eral Grant says: etc. How is it possible that it would
" As shown by this diagram, Porter was have required so much time when he was
not in a position to attack the right flank sent out there that morning for the pur-
of Jackson, because he was at least 3 pose of fighting? What orders would he
miles away and not across his flank, as have been obliged to issue except to move
shown in the first diagram. With Long- the troops forward to the position of the
street's presence, to have obeyed that order flank and put them in line? And, as he
he would have been obliged with 10,000 moved up the road, with his troops fol-
men to have defeated 25,000 men in a lowing, one regiment right after the
463
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
other, and faced them to the flank of the enemy, he would have been in line for bat- tle. These men lay there for a whole day prepared ( as Grant says ) at twelve o'clock for the attack on the enemy. Does General Grant come in now and say it would have taken him from five until nine o'clock to have made an attack, when his troops were in readiness to do so, as Por- ter himself claims they were, at twelve o'clock on that day, and as General Grant also claims?
Let us contrast also the action of Porter with that of General McDowell, who, as the evidence proves, moved in line of bat- tle and attacked the enemy at six o'clock, and McDowell's forces, with others along the line of Pope, were engaged in battle until nine o'clock at night. Could not Porter have fought his troops at this hour as well as General McDowell and other officers did theirs? Was he to be a special exception to all rules of warfare? Is he to be excused for everything he failed to do, while others did the things he failed in?
I wish to call General Grant's attention to one little thing which occurred during the war, under his command. He remem- bers the march that McPherson's troops made in the night from Jackson to Baker's Creek. Does he not remember that while Pemberton, with nearly his whole army, was attacking Hovey's division, my divi- sion was moved in on the right of Hovey, and Crocker supporting Hovey, these three divisions receiving nearly the whole force of Pemberton's 30,000 men? Does he not remember of one small brigade sent by me (with his assent) down through a strip of wood, a distance of a mile or a mile and a half away from the balance of the force, getting in on the left flank of Pemberton's army? Does he not remem- ber that that one little brigade of not more than 2,000 men attacked the left flank of Pemberton's army, and that the latter be- came so panic-stricken that the whole army fled, and we captured all the artil- lery and drove them that night across Black River? If a brigade of 2,000 men could do all this by striking the flank of the enemy, what does General Grant think Porter with his corps could have done by striking Longstreet in flank on that after- noon?
There may be this difference, however: General Grant will remember that his generals were in earnest, and supported him in all things that he required. The evidence shows that after Porter received this " 4.30 order " a movement was made across Dawkins's Branch by some of his troops, and the general officer, while plac- ing his troops in position as though going to move in the direction of Longstreet's flank, looked around to see where the other troops were, and found they were all re- tiring. The evidence shows that they not only did not advance, or attempt to do so other than what I have stated, but that they retired, and that some of Porter's command — to wit, one brigade, returned to Centreville that night, a distance of several miles.
The evidence shows that Porter did not attempt to communicate with Pope during the day, but that all three of the notes that he sent during the day in reference to position, etc., were sent to McDowell and King. At the time that Pope issued his order to Porter it was expected that Porter would move forward, and McDow- ell's command would also attack at the same time. McDowell's command did at- tack, and Longstreet's forces poured down upon the left flank of Pope and forced them back, and instead, as I have said, of Porter's attacking or moving to the front, he moved to the rear.
In order to show that Porter not only failed to obey orders, but that he attempt- ed to demoralize the army, I herewith in- sert a note sent to General McDowell by him, which was received at Pope's head- quarters at five o'clock, as noted in Gen- eral Heintzelman's minutes of the battle kept that day. General Heintzelman says in his minutes : " General Porter reports the enemy is driving him back, and he is retiring on Manassas." This was received just at or about the time that McDowell was going into action with his division. Here is the note received at Pope's head- quarters:
" GENERAL MCDOWELL, — Failed in getting Morell over to you. After wandering about the woods for a time I withdrew him, and while doing so artillery opened upon us. The fire of the enemy having advanced and ours retired, have determined to withdraw to Manassas. I have attempted to communicate with McDowell and Sigel, but my messengers
464
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
have run into the enemy. They have gather- those men could not have possibly gotten
ed artillery, and cavalry and infantry, and into th t fi ht . during that en-
the advancing masses of dust show the enemy g" * *
coming in force. I am now going to the g^gement without being utterly destroyed,
head of the column to see what is passing You will see from the facts I have
and how affairs are going, and I will com- stated that General Porter did not only
*** **" *" ***** **** disobe^ the 6'30 order of the 27th> but
F.-J. PORTER, Major-General." disobeyed the three o'clock order of the
morning of the 29th, which directed him
In this note he says: "I withdrew, and to move on to Centreville; that he dis- while doing so artillery opened upon us, obeyed the order delivered to him about and the fire of the enemy having advanced nine o'clock on the morning of the 29th, and ours retired, / have determined to ordering him to push forward to Gaines- withdraw to Manassas" (Manassas be- ville, in not leaving until ten o'clock ; that ing the station from which he started that he disobeyed it in not pushing forward ; morning, 5 miles to the rear). What that he utterly disobeyed the 4.30 order artillery opened upon him? Two small directing him to attack the enemy's right pieces that I have mentioned before. One flank; and, in fact, that he obeyed no or- section of a battery fired a few shots at der in any proper military sense that was about three o'clock, when his men were given to him, from the first order on the directed to put themselves under cover to night of the 27th up to and through the keep the enemy from discovering them, engagement of the 29th. General Smith, No attack was made upon him. He made who is now a paymaster of the army, in a no attack upon any one, and yet he says, conversation with Pope, on the morning " I have determined to withdraw to Ma- of the 29th, told General Pope that Gen- nassas," showing that at the very time eral Porter would fail him in that bat- that Pope was in the height of the engage- tie. Gen. Ben Roberts did the same thing, ment the whole corps of Porter, covering Porter did fail him, utterly disobeying his left flank, was probably then on the his orders, so that General Pope was con- retreat, strained to issue an order on the night
He says further that " they have gath- of the 29th in the following words : ered artillerv, and cavalry, and infantry,
and the advancing .asses of dust show " *£S£ZlS£S», upon reee.pt *
the enemy coming in force." Now, the this order> the precise hour of which you will
evidence shows that no enemy came in his acknowledge, you will march your command
front except what I have mentioned here- to the field of battle of to-day, and report to
tofore; that no attack was made on him j£jj> •£»»£ •^*£5*\? ££
no movement in force was made against strictly with this order, and be present on
him, and that but one brigade ever showed the field within three hours after its re-
itself during the whole day, and that did ception or after daybreak to-morrow morn- not advance upon him.
The evidence does show that the dust he And General Grant further says that
mentioned was produced by dragging he considers the facts given before the
brush up and down the road, and in no Schofield board "fully exonerated Porter
other Way; showing that he had decided of the charge of disobedience of the 4.30
not to fight, but was determined that Pope order, and also in his lukewarmness in
should lose that battle. By his conduct supporting the commanding general."
one might easily conclude that he was How he can make this last statement I
seeking to produce a panic in the army; cannot understand. I will here insert a
and, while a portion of his command were paragraph from a letter of George B.
retreating back, not only to Manassas, but McClellan, major-general, written on Sept.
to Centreville, Pope's " 33,000 men were 1, 1862, at 5.30 P.M., to Major-General
fighting the whole combined army of 47,- Porter at Centreville, commanding the
000, with probably the exception of a few 5th Corps : " I ask you, for my sake, that
brigades, and the battle raged until, some of the country, and of all the old Army
reports say, nine o'clock, others ten o'clock, of the Potomac, that you and all friends
at night. Yet General Grant insists that will lend the fullest and most cordial co- U.— 2 Q 465
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
operation to General Pope in all the oper- $70,000 out of the treasury of the United ations now going on." States for no act performed, for no duty
I merely put this in to ask the question done, for no service rendered, except the of General Grant whether or not McClellan failure in performance of his duty on himself does not show from the writing of Aug. 20, 1862. General Grant ought this note to General Porter that he did to know whether Porter was dismiss- not believe that he (Porter) was cordially ed or not from the army on what co-operating with General Pope? This he considers "mistaken evidence"; that note was written three days after the bat- he was dismissed and put out of the army, tie, and yet General Grant says he is fully his place was filled, and he has been a exonerated from the imputation of luke- citizen ever since, is to-day a citizen and warmness in his support of General Pope, not a soldier. I know of no rule of law, The sworn testimony of a man named Lord no rule of justice, that would give this shows that General Porter told him to General Porter or to any other man (Lord) that he was not loyal, and had dismissed from the army. This rule not been loyal to Pope, and all the facts would establish a precedent that would collated show this statement to be true, pay money back to every man dismissed Porter, with his troops — 13,000 men un- from the army that might ever afterwards der arms — lay the whole day within 2% be placed back again, whether dismissed miles of a battle raging where the artillery at the beginning of the war for disloyalty and musketry did not cease during the or not, if they could get up testimony such whole time. as is wanted. Some have been put back
I would like to know when a similar into the army by act of Congress since, case has occurred? He ought to have and, under this rule of General Grant's, moved and fought without orders to do they could come and claim pay for the so, but he did not move; he did not fight whole time they have been out of the even with orders to do so. A better ex- army, saying that they were not disloyal cuse for not doing so must be found. and were improperly dismissed. Every
I now wish to call attention to another officer that may be convicted for miscon- proposition of General Grant's which is duct in office, civil or military, and re- equally as astounding as anything in ref- moved from office, if afterwards, on exam- erence to Porter's conduct. Speaking of ination of the evidence, he obtains a deci- Porter, he says that " twenty years of sion that he was improperly dismissed, on the best part of his life have been con- this proposition would he be entitled to pay sumed in trying to have his name and his while he was out of office? A proposition reputation restored before his country- of this kind and a principle of this sort men. In his application now before Con- should not be entertained for a moment, gress he asks only that he may be restored and I am very much surprised to find a to the rolls of the army, with the rank suggestion of this kind coming from the that he would have if the court-martial pen of General Grant, had never been held. This, in my judg- I believe I have answered fully the ment, is a very simple part of what is pos- propositions laid down by General Grant sible to do in this case and of what ought in justification of Fitz-John Porter, and to be done. General Porter should, in the merely wish to add that, after twenty way of partial restoration, be declared by years have passed and the country has Congress to have been convicted by mis- been raked and scraped for some kind of taken testimony, and therefore not to have flimsy testimony for an excuse to restore been out of the army. This would make this man to the army, no such testimony him a major-general of volunteers until has been found. The effort to vindicate the date might be fixed for his muster-out Porter at the expense of the reputations of that rank, after which he would be con- of such men as General Garfield, General tinued as a colonel of infantry and brevet Hunter, and their associates, all honorable brigadier-general of the United States gentlemen, who found him guilty, and army from the date of the act when he also to cloud the reputation of Abraham could be placed on the retired list." Lincoln, who approved the findings, can-
This proposition would give him over not succeed.
466
LONDON COMPANY
This is asking too much, even though it be asked by such men as General Grant.
London Company, THE. Twenty years after Raleigh's first attempt to es- tablish a colony in America, Richard Hak- luyt, prebendary of Westminster, incited several gentlemen, some of them personal friends of Raleigh, to petition King James I. to grant them a patent for planting colonies in North America. Raleigh's grant was made void by his attainder. There was not an Englishman to be found in America then, and there was only one permanent settlement north of Mexico, that of St. Augustine. The pe- tition was received by the King, and on April 10, 1606, James issued letters-pat- ent to Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Somers, Richard Hakluyt, Edward Maria Wingfield, and others, granting to them a territory extending from lat. 34° to 45° N., together with all the islands in the ocean within 100 miles of the coast. The object of the patent was " to make habi- tations and plantations," and to form colonies by sending English people into that portion of America " commonly called Virginia, with the hope of Christianizing and civilizing the pagans there." The ter- ritory was divided into two districts, called, respectively, North and South Vir- ginia. A supreme government of the do- main was vested in a council, resident in England, to be named by the King, to be governed by laws which he should pre- scribe, and subordinate jurisdiction was committed to a council resident in Vir- ginia. All the rights of citizenship were to be guaranteed to the colonists; besides this they would possess no political rights. Homage and rent were the prime condi- tions of the charter — rent in the form of one-fifth of the net profits arising from mines of precious metals.
The charter had not the feature of a free government ; for, to the emigrants, not a single elective franchise, or a right to self-government, was conceded. They were to be governed by a commercial corpora- tion, of which they were not allowed to be members, and even in matters of divine worship they had no choice. The doctrine and ritual of the Church of England were to be the established theology and mode of worship in the American colonies, and no dissent was allowed. The colonists were
467
permitted to coin money for their own use, to import necessaries from England free of duty for seven years, and to take meas- ures for repelling enemies. The proprie- tors of each section were invested with the right of property in the lands extending along the coast 50 miles each way from the point first settled respectively, and back 100 miles from the coast. To an as- sociation of " noblemen, gentlemen, and merchants," chiefly residing in London, was granted a charter for the settlement of South Virginia. This was known as the " London Company." A similar char- ter was granted to "knights, gentlemen, and merchants," of Plymouth, Bristol, and other places in the west of England, and this was known as the " Plymouth Com- pany."
The King prepared a code of laws for the colonists, in which kindness to the Indians, regular preaching of the Gospel, and teaching religion to the pagans were enjoined ; also providing for the well- ordering of a civil community. Under this charter, and laws and instructions from the King, presented in November, 1606, the London Company sent three ships with emigrants from the Thames, on Dec. 20, under the command of Captain Newport, and they landed on the banks of the James River in May, 1607. The company desired more the immediate profits from precious metals discovered than to found a commonwealth. Indeed, the class of men they sent over were total- ly unfit for such a noble service. The disappointed company demanded impossi- bilities. In 1608 they sent word to the colonists that, if they did not send them commodities sufficient to pay the charges of the voyage in which their demand was sent ($10,000); a "lump of gold, the product of Virginia; assurance of having found a passage to the Pacific Ocean, and also one of the lost colony sent to Roan- oke," they should be "left in Virginia as banished men." To this absurd demand and threat Captain Smith made a spir- ited answer, in which he implored them to send better emigrants if they expected the fruits of industry.
The company now sought strength by influential alliances, and they succeeded in associating with them wealthy and powerful men in the kingdom. In the
LONDON COMPANY— LONG
spring of 1609 the company was composed of twenty-one peers, several bishops, ninety-eight knights, and a multitude of professional men, "gentlemen," and mer- chants. They thus obtained great influ- ence in Parliament, and in May, 1609, they procured a new charter, under the title of " The Treasurer and Company of Ad- venturers and Planters of the City of Lon- don for the First Colony in Virginia," by which the border of the domain was ex- tended, by a grant of new territory, north- ward to Chesapeake Bay; the offices of president and council in Virginia were abolished, and all laws for the government of the colony were to be passed by the supreme council in England, and adminis- tered by persons appointed by that body. The colonists were really vassals, without any recognized power to remove the yoke from their necks. The rule of the ap- pointed governor was absolute, and they were compelled to share a certain portion of their net earnings with the proprietors.
In 1612 a third charter was obtained by the London Company, by which the control of the King in their affairs was annulled, the supreme council was abol- ished, and the whole company, sitting as a -democratic assembly, elected the officers and ordained laws for the colonists, who remained without political rights. In spite of their disabilities, the Virginians flourished under the new order of things. The seeds of representative government were then sown, and in 1621 the company gave the colonists a written constitution that conferred the privilege of the elec- tive franchise in a limited degree. The King, in May, 1623, appointed a commis- sion to examine the transactions of the corporation from the beginning and to re- port to the privy council. All their char- ters, books, and papers were seized; two of the principal officers were arrested, and all letters from the colony were inter- cepted and taken to the privy council. Captain Smith's testimony was damaging to the company.
The report was kept a secret until the company received a notice from the King and privy council (October, 1623) that it was judged that the misfortunes to Virginia had been occasioned by their mis- management, and that the sovereign had determined to revoke the old charter and
issue a new one which would concentrate the power of government in a few hands. The astonished company indignantly re- fused to sanction the stigma affixed to their conduct by this order, or to consent to a change in the popular form of their government. They declared themselves prepared to defend their rights against any measures the King might decide on. Incensed by their audacity, James directed a writ of quo warranto to be issued against the company, to try the validity of the charter in the court of King's Bench. The company, hopeless of obtaining justice in that court, appealed to the House of Com- mons for redress. They sympathized with the company, but their session was too near its close to allow them to enter into inquiries. The exasperated King launched a proclamation, July 4, 1624, suppressing the courts of the company and committing the temporary management of colonial af- fairs to members of the privy council. The contest resulted in the vacation of the charter, by order of the court of King's Bench, the dissolution of the Lon- don Company, and Virginia becoming a royal province. It had been an unprofitable speculation for the members of the com- pany.
Londonderry, MABQUIS OF. See SHEL- BUBNE.
Long, CHESTER I., lawyer; born in Perry county, Pa., Oct. 12, 1860; received an academic education; removed to Paola, Kan., in 1879; and was admitted to the bar in 1885; and began practice in Medi- cine Lodge. He was a member of the State Senate in 1889-93, and of Congress in 1895-97 and 1899-1903; and a United States Senator in 1903-09.
Long, ELI, military officer; born in Woodford county, Ky., June 16, 1837; was educated at a military school in Frankfort, Ky. ; and in 1856 was appointed a second lieutenant in the 1st United States Caval- ry. He served in campaigns against the Indians, and in May, 1861, was made cap- tain. He did good service throughout the Civil War, rising rapidly until he com- manded a division; in March, 1865, he was brevetted major-general of volunteers ; and in August, 1867, was retired with the rank of major-general, United States army, be- cause of wounds received in action. Gen- eral Long's most brilliant exploit was the
LONG— LONGFELLOW
capture by cavalry of Selma, Ala., April 2, 1865. Selma was defended by earth- works intended to resist infantry. Thirty pieces of artillery in position, with a gar- rison of about 3,000 of General Forrest's cavalry, and 2,000 militia. The works were taken within a half-hour after the advance was sounded. Three hundred and twenty officers and men out of 1,250 en- gaged were killed and wounded, and 2,700 prisoners, 200 pieces of artillery, and a vast amount of war materials were the results of the capture of this place. He died in New York, Jan. 5, 1903.
Long', JOHN DAVIS, lawyer; born in Buekfield, Me., Oct. 27, 1838; graduated ul Harvard College in 1857; taught school
JOHN DAVIS LONG.
till 1859; was admitted to the bar in 1861; settled in Boston; and afterwards removed to Hingham. In 1875-78 he was a member of the State legislature; and in the last two years of this period was speaker of the House. He was elected governor in 1879, 1880, and 1881 ; and was a Representative in Congress in 1883-89. At the beginning of President McKinley's first administration Mr. Long was ap- pointed Secretary of the Navy, a post to which he was reappointed by the Presi- dent, March 5, 1901, and which he resigned May 1, 1902. He has published The Re- publican Party (1892), and a transla- tion of Vergil's Acneid.
Long, PIERCE, legislator; born in Ports- mouth, N. H., in 1739: was a member of the Provincial Congress of New Hamp-
469
shire in 1775, and became colonel of a icgiment, which ^e commanded in the re- treat from Ticoiu. roga in July, 1777. He defeated a pursuing British force at Fort Anne, and was serving as a volunteer at the time of the surrender of Burgoyne. Colonel Long was in Congress from 1784 to 1786; a State councillor from 1786 to 1789; and collector of the port of Ports- mouth at the time of his death, April 3, 1789.
Long, ROBERT CAREY, architect; born about 1819; after practising in Baltimore for several years settled in New York City in 1848. He was the author of Aztec Ar- chitecture; Ancient Architecture of Amer- ica, etc. He died in New York City in July, 1849.
Longfellow, HENRY WADSWORTH, poet; born in Portland, Me., Feb. 27, 1807; was a descendant of William Longfellow, of Newbury, Mass., and on his mother's side of John Alden, a passenger on the May- flower; and graduated at Bowdoin Col- lege in 1825. He studied law a short time, when he received the appointment of Professor of Modern Languages in his alma mater. To better fit himself for the duties, he spent three years and a half in Europe, and assumed his office in 1829. In 1835 he was chosen Professor of Belles- Lettres in Harvard, and again he made a pilgrimage to Europe to make himself fa- miliar with Continental literature. For nearly twenty years he was a professor in Harvard College, retiring from that post in 1854, and pursued the task of literary composition in his fine old mansion at Cambridge, which Washington had used for his headquarters in 1775-76. He first wrote timidly for literary periodicals, and the first seven articles in a collection pub- lished in 1857 were written before he was nineteen years of age. Among these is his exquisite Hymn of the Moravian Nuns. He also wrote prose essays for the North American Review and other periodicals. An analytical list of Mr. Longfellow's works may be found in Allibone's Critical Dictionary of English Literature, etc. Some of Mr. Longfellow's later poems are translations from the modern lan- guages of Europe, and these are models. "As a translator," says a critic, "he has succeeded admirably in preserving the spirit of the originals, and as a
LONGFELLOW— LONG ISLAND
HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW.
poet he appeals to the universal affec- tions of humanity by the thoughts and im- ages derived from original perceptions of nature and life." As an indication of the popularity of Mr. Longfellow, the sales of his poetical compositions had amounted in 1857 (when he was fifty years of age) to 293,000 copies, and his prose produc- tions to 32,550 copies. Since that time the number has probably been increased to 500,000. The sales in England, where he is as popular as in America have been very large. His translation of Dante, in 3 volumes (1867-70) is regarded by good judges as the best in the English language. He died in Cambridge, March 24, 1882.
Longfellow, STEPHEN, lawyer; born in Gorham, Me., June 23, 1775; father of Henry W. Longfellow; graduated at Har- vard, and was admitted to the bar in 1801. In 1814 he was a delegate to the Hartford Convention, and was a member of Congress from 1823 to 1825. In 1834 he was president of the Maine Historical Society. He died in Portland, Me., Aug. 2, 1849.
4;
Long Island. Some of the inhabitants of Lynn, Mass., finding themselves strait- ened for land, went to Long Island in search of a plantation. They bargained for a tract near the west end with Lord Stirling's agent and with the natives. The jealous Dutch sent a force to take posses- sion of the land, and set up the arms of the Prince of Orange. Soon afterwards a dozen of the English company began to erect buildings there, and took down the Dutch arms and placed the effigy of an ugly Indian in its place. The Dutch, pro- voked, sent some soldiers, who brought off the Englishmen and imprisoned them; but they were released after a few days, hav- ing taken an oath of allegiance to the stadtholder. The adventurers now moved to the east end of the island, and, to the number of forty families, settled the town of Southampton. Rev. Mr. Pierson, with several of the company at Lynn, formed a church, and all went to Southampton, where he became their pastor. There they formed a civil government in 1640. The same year a large tract of land on Long Island was purchased of the Indians for the Connecticut colony, and settlements were begun there. The tract was on the north part of the island, in the vicinity of Oyster Bay. Connecticut colonists be- gan to settle there, but were driven back by Kieft, the Dutch governor, because they appeared within sight of his residence. The inhabitants of Connecticut immediate- ly seized the fort just below Hartford, and obliged the Dutch to recede within 10 miles of the Hudson River. The eight men selected by the people of New Amster- dam as a council made some provision for defence against the Indians in the autumn of 1643. They equipped a large force of soldiers, of whom fifty were Englishmen, under John Underbill, the Massachusetts leader, who had fought the PEQUOD IND- IANS (q. v.). In the succeeding winter, suffering dreadfully from the hostile Ind- ians, some English families who had moved from Stamford, Conn., to Hemp- stead, L. I., were exposed to forays by the Canarsie Indians, and begged for troops to protect them. The governor and the eight men sent 120 soldiers, who surprised and sacked the Indian villages and killed more than 100 warriors. Two of the Ind- ians were taken to Manhattan and cruellv 0
LONG ISLAND
tortured to death. This was soon fol- lowed by another expedition against the Indians at Stamford and Greenwich. Underbill, with a force 150 strong of Dutch and English, inarched through deep snow in February, 1644, to attack the principal Indian village there. The moon shone brightly, but the savages had been warned, and were on the ground 700 in number. They were also protected by rude fortifications. Steadily the Dutch and English moved upon them, and nearly 200 Indians were slain. After a while Underbill succeeded in setting fire to the village. The slaughter was dreadful. Only
were poorly equipped, very little disci- plined, distracted by sectional jealousies, and, in the New England troops especially, there was so much democratic freedom that there was little subordination. On the whole, it presented a very unpromising force with which to oppose the British veterans, greater in numbers, then pre- paring to invade Long Island and attempt the capture of New York and Washing- ton's army. General Howe had been rein- forced by Hessians, the troops under Clin- ton from Charleston, and others, making a total force of about 24,000, encamped on Staten Island. Admiral Howe sent some
MAP OP THE OPERATIONS ON LONG ISLAND.
eight of the 700 Indians escaped, while armed ships up the Hudson to reconnoitre the assailants had only fifteen wounded, and take soundings. They passed the bat- When, a few days afterwards, the victors teries at Fort Washington and elsewhere, arrived at Manhattan, a day of thanks- and, having narrowly escaped some fire- giving was held. ships and accomplished their errand, they On Aug. 1, 1776, the army of Washing- returned to the fleet. Divining the pur- ton at New York did not exceed 20,000 pose of the British, Washington sent a men, of whom one-fifth were sick and as considerable force, under General Greene, many were absent on detached duty. Soon to Long Island, who cast up strong in- afterwards 7,000 militia reinforced him, trenchments back of Brooklyn; but he and later on a few more came. But they was soon compelled to retire, on account
471
LONG ISLAND
THE BRITISH FLEET IN THE LOWER BAY.
of sickness, and leave the command to ent Greenwood Cemetery) had been
General Sullivan. There was a range of driven in. He immediately sent General
thickly wooded hills, extending from the Lord Stirling with some Delaware
Narrows to Jamaica, through which sev- and Maryland troops to repulse the
eral roads passed; while another extend- invaders. He was followed by General
ed near the shores of the bay, from the Parsons with some Connecticut troops. Be-
Narrows to Brooklyn. These passes yond Gowanus Creek, Stirling found him-
through the hills were imperfectly guard- self confronted by overwhelming numbers
ed by Sullivan, when, on the morning of under General Grant, with some of Howe's
Aug. 22, about 15,000 British and German ships on his right flank. At the same
troops landed on the western end of Long lime the Germans, under De Heister and
Island and prepared to move forward. Knyphausen, were moving to force their
Washington sent reinforcements to Sulli- way at the pass farther eastward (now
van, and General Putnam was placed in in Prospect Park) ; while Howe, with the
chief command on the island, with instruc- main body of the British, under Clinton
tions to thoroughly guard the passes in the and Cornwallis, was pressing towards the
hills. The whole American force on the Bedford and Jamaica passes to gain the
island did not exceed 8,000 men, and 2,500 rear of the Americans. Putnam had neg-
of these were sent to guard the passes, lected to guard the latter pass. When,
On the 26th the British moved forward, at eight o'clock, the invaders had reached
under the chief command of Sir Henry those passes, not more than 4,000 men
Clinton and Lord Cornwallis, followed by were out of the lines at Brooklyn; and,
the Germans, under General de Heister. instead of ordering Stirling to fall back
The combined forces formed a thoroughly from almost certain destruction, he al-
disciplined army. It was obvious that lowed Sullivan to go out with a few
they intended to gain the rear of the troops and take command at the pass be-
Americans by the Bedford and Jamaica low (now in Prospect Park), not nearly
passes. At three o'clock on the morning of so important. The consequence was that,
the 27th word reached Putnam that his while Sullivan was fighting the Germans,
pickets at the lower pass (below the pres- Clinton had gained his rear and fell upon
472
LONG ISLAND
him. It was a surprise. Sullivan was driven back upon the Germans. After a severe hand-to-hand fight, and seeing no chance for success or an orderly retreat, Sullivan ordered his men to shift for themselves. Some fought through the at- tacking lines; some fled to the woods; and many were made prisoners; while Sulli- van, hidden in a field of corn, was capt- ured. Stirling and his party were now Ihe only unbroken body of Americans in the field, and they fought with spirit four hours. Then, hopeless of receiving re- inforcements, and seeing a strong body of the British approaching his flank and rear, he ordered a retreat. The bridge across Gowanus Creek (on the border of which he was fighting, near where the old mill stood in 1850) was in flames, and his
troops were compelled to wade the water and the oozy morass. Even that passage was about to be cut off by the enemy, led by Cornwallis. Quickly ordering the Delaware and Maryland troops to ford the creek and morass with some German prisoners, he, with the remainder, fought Cornwallis desperately until all the others had crossed excepting seven, who were drowned. No longer able to resist the press- ure, Stirling and his men were made prison- ers. The loss of the Americans did not ex- ceed 1,000, of whom one-half were prisoners. Howe did not follow up his advantage, but allowed the American army on Long Isl- and to retreat in safety to New York.
This retreat was unsuspected by the British leaders on land and water until it was too late to pursue. A Tory woman
LORD STIRLING'S LAST STAND AROUND TUB COKTELYOU HOUSK. 473
LONG PARLIAMENT— LONGWORTH
living near the ferry sent her negro ser- vant to inform the British of the retreat.
BROWER'S MILL IN 1850
He encountered a German sentinel, who could not understand a word he said, and would not let him pass. Before six o'clock (Aug. 30, 1776) 9,000 American soldiers, with their baggage and munitions of war, excepting some heavy artillery, had cross- ed the East River from Long Island to Manhattan, or New York, Island. When Howe perceived this he became greatly enraged, took possession of the deserted camp, moved his army eastward, its ad- vance being at Flushing, and prepared to seize the city of New York with the Ameri- can troops in it.
Long Parliament, THE. Charles I. of England, who attempted to rule that realm without a Parliament, was com- pelled, in 1640, to call one, which became a long-existing body, and one of the most remarkable in the history of England. It first met Nov. 3, 1640, and was dissolved by Cromwell April 20, 1653. A large num- ber of its members were Puritans, and almost all of them were opposed to the tyrannous measures of the King. They entered at once on the redress of griev- ances, and in the course of eighteen months assumed the entire political control and authority of the kingdom. Among their earlier acts was a resolution that the Eng- lish-American colonists should enjoy all their liberties according to their patents. Exercising equal liberality towards Eng- lish subjects at home caused almost a total cessation of emigration to America. About 25,000 British emigrants had then been re- ceived in America, and east of the Hudson River were then twelve independent com- munities, comprising not less than fifty towns or distinct settlements.
Longstreet, JAMES, military officer; born in Edgefield district, S. C., Jan. 8, 1821; graduated at West Point in 1842; served in the war against Mexico (1846- 48), in which he was severely wound- ed; and was distinguished for bra- very. He held the rank of major in the United States army when the Civil War broke out, and, joining the Confederates, was made a brigadier-general in their army in October, 1861. All through the Civil War he was regarded as one of the ablest of the Confederate military lead- ers, and as Lee's " right hand," attaining the rank of lieutenant-general. After the close of the war he became a Republican. He was appointed minister to Turkey in 1880, and United States commissioner of
JAMES LONGSTREET.
Pacific railroads in 1897. He died in Gainesville, Ga., Jan. 2, 1904.
Longwoods, BATTLE OF. Captain Holmes, of the 24th United States In- fantry, proceeded, Feb. 27, 1814, with a party of about 160 rangers and mounted men against some of the British posts in Upper Canada. At Longwoods, on the Thames, he had a very sharp battle, on March 4, with the British, who, after an hour of hard fighting, ordered a retreat. Their loss was sixty-five killed and wound- ed, besides Indians. The loss of the Americans was seven men.
Long-worth, NICHOLAS, viniculturist ; born in Newark, N. J., Jan. 16, 1782; in early life was a clerk in a store in South
474
LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN
Carolina, but removed to Cincinnati at the age of twenty-one years, when that place was not much more than a hamlet. He studied law, which he practised there for twenty-five years, and invested money in lands, long since covered by the rapid- ly growing city. He finally turned his attention to the cultivation of grapes, first raising foreign vines and then the native Catawba and Isabella. He pro- duced very fine wine from the latter. At one time he had 200 acres of vineyard and a wine-house. He published Buchan- an's Treatise on the Grape, with an Ap- pendix on Strawberry Culture. He died in Cincinnati, Feb. 10, 18G3.
Lookout Mountain, BATTLE ON. Gen. W. T. Sherman arrived near Chattanooga
quarter, Hooker was ordered to attack them on the northern face of Lookout Mountain. His entire force consisted of nearly 10,000 men. The main Confed- erate force was encamped in a hollow half-way up the mountain, and the sum- mit was held by several brigades. Their pickets held a continuous line along Lookout Creek, with reserves in the val- ley. Hooker moved to the attack on the morning of Nov. 24. Geary, supported by Cruft, marched to Wauhatchie and crossed Lookout Creek there, while the rest of the troops crossed in front of the Confederates on temporary bridges. A heavy mist enveloped mountain and plain. Geary crossed at eight o'clock, seized a picket-guard of forty men, and extend-
TOP OF LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN, SUNRISE, NOVEMBER 25, 1863.
late in November, 1863. It was impor- ed his line to the foot of the mountain, tant to get his army over the river with- Gross's brigade seized the bridge below out being discovered. To attract the chief the railway crossing,* and T. J. Wood's attention of the Confederates in another brigade crossed half a mile above. Two
475
LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN, BATTLE ON
batteries had been planted on a hill near, rather, a cumulus cloud) that hid the
and by eleven o'clock Hooker was endeavor- combatants from view, was fierce. It was,
ing to drive the Confederates from the literally, a "battle in the clouds." At
mountain. His adversary in immediate considerably past noon the plateau was
CONFEDERATE BATTERY ON THE TOP OP LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN.
command before him was General Wal- thall. Hooker's guns all opened at once on the breastworks and rifle-pits along the steep wooded acclivity. The brigades just mentioned formed a junction, and, sweeping everything before them, captured the rifle-pits, allowing but few men to escape up the mountain. At the same time the troops scaled the rugged heights, cutting their way through felled trees, and driving the Confederates from the hollow to a plateau well up towards the crest and forcing them around towards the Chattanooga Valley. At the same time Freeland's brigade was rolling them up on the flank. The struggle on the mountain-sides, in a dense fog (or,
cleared, and the Confederates were flying in confusion down the precipitous ravines and rugged slopes towards the Chat- tanooga Valley. All the morning, while the battle was raging, so thick was the cloud on the mountain that only at in- tervals could the straining eyes of spec- tators at Chattanooga and on Orchard Knob, listening to the thunders of the artillery, catch a glimpse of the lines and banners. Hooker established his line on the easterly face of the mountain; so that, by an enfilading fire, he completely commanded the Confederate defences, stretching across the Chattanooga Valley to Missionary Ridge. A National battery on Moccasin Point, 1,500 feet below the
476
LOOMIS— LOSSING
crest of Lookout Mountain, had dis- 1821, of which he was president for twelve
mounted a gun in a battery on that crest, years. He was one of the founders of the
Loomis, FRANCIS B., diplomatist; born New York and Erie Railroad, and presi-
in Marietta, O., July 27, 1861 ; gradu- dent of the same for many years. He was
ated at Marietta College in 1883; entered a strong advocate of the "free-banking
journalism on the New York Tribune; system," which became a law in New York
was State librarian of Ohio in 1886-90; in 1838. His publications include Credit,
United States consul at Etienne, France, Currency, and Ban-king; A Letter on Na-
in 1890-93; and editor-in-chief of the tional Currency; Six Letters on the Neces-
Cincinnati Daily Tribune in 1893-97. In sity and Practicality of a National Cur-
the latter year he was appointed United rency; and many works of a religious nat-
States minister to Venezuela, where he ure. He died in Piermont, N. Y., June
negotiated an extradition treaty, and ar- 3, 1871.
ranged for reciprocity and parcels-post Loring, CHARLES GREELEY, lawyer;
conventions. His persistency in demand- born in Boston, Mass., May 2, 1794;
ing the payment of various large sums graduated at Harvard College in 1812.
due to American citizens prior to pay- He was the author of Neutral Relations
ments due other foreigners, according to between the United States and England,
a pledge by President Castro, led to and Life of William Sturgis. He died in
strained relations between the United Beverly, Mass., Oct. 8, 1868.
States and Venezuela in 1901. For sev- Loring, JOSHUA, naval officer; born in
eral months his residence at Caracas was Boston, Mass., in 1716; was appointed a
rendered exceedingly unpleasant by news- captain in the royal navy in 1757, and in
paper and other attacks upon him. The the French and Indian War was a naval
United States government sustained Mr. commander in the operations on Lakes
Loomis in his official actions, and, on Champlain and Ontario, accompanying
March 30, recalled him to Washington, os- Amherst to Montreal in 1760. He died in
tensibly to give the State Department a Highgate, England, in 1781.
clearer view of the unfriendly issues that Loring, WILLIAM WING, military offi-
had been raised between the two govern- cer; born in Wilmington, N. C., Dec. 4,
ments. 1818; commanded a detachment of volun-
Lopez, NARCISO, military officer; born teers in Florida (1835-42), and after-
ip Caracas, Venezuela, in 1799; was a wards mounted riflemen in the war against
merchant in early life. He first sided Mexico, where he lost an arm, and was
with the revolutionists in 1814, but after- brevetted colonel. He was afterwards colo-
\vards enlisted in the Spanish army, and nel of a regiment fighting the Indians in
was a colonel in 1822. He went to Cuba, New Mexico. He left the army, joined the
and became conspicuous as a liberal in Confederates, was made a brigadier-gen-
politics. Going to Spain, he became a eral, and afterwards major-general. He
senator for Seville, which office he re- served later in the army of the Khedive
signed because delegates from Cuba were in Egypt, becoming a general of division,
not admitted. On his return to Cuba he He died in New York City, Dec. 30, 1886.
was in the employ of the government for General Loring published A Confederate
a while, but in 1849 he came to the United Soldier in Egypt.
States and organized a force for revolu- Lossing, BENSON JOHN, historian ; born
tionizing Cuba and effecting its indepen- in Beekman, Dutchess co., N. Y., Feb. 12,
dence. He failed in an attempted invasion, 1813. Self-educated, a watch-maker, edi-
and, landing again in Cuba with an in- tor, and wood - engraver, he devoted his
vading force, was captured and garroted attention to the pictorial side of history,
in Havana, Sept. 1, 1851. especially to the antiquities of his own
Lord, ELEAZAR, financier; born in region, the Hudson Valley. His chief
Franklin, Conn., Sept. 9, 1788; studied work was the Pictorial Field-Book of the
theology for five years, but never held a Revolution, published in 1850-52. He
charge owing to bad eyesight; settled in wrote also Pictorial Field-Books of the
New York City in 1815, where he establish- War of 1812 and the Civil War, an illus-
ed the Manhattan Insurance Company in trated book on the Hudson, histories of the
477
LOST CAUSE— LOTJDOUN
United States, historical biographies, and Loubat, JOSEPH FLORIMUND, Due DE, the Cyclopaedia of American History. His philanthropist; born in New York City, great service was the preservation of the Jan. 21, 1831; fell heir to a large fort- " local color " in many noted episodes of une, much of which he has given to pub- the early history. He died near Dover lie institutions, including $1,000,000 to Co- Plains, N. Y., June 3, 1891. lumbia University for its library; gifts to
Lost Cause, THE, a phrase employed in the Roman Catholic Church, etc. His title the Southern States to indicate the un- was conferred upon him in 1893 by the successful attempt to establish the Con- pope. He is the author of Narrative of federate States of America in 1861-65, the Mission to Russia in 1866 by G. V. otherwise known as the Civil War in the Fox; and Medallic History of the United United States. States
Lost Colony, THE. John White, whom Loudon, FORT. A defensive work on Sir Walter Raleigh sent to Virginia with the Tennessee River, built in 1750. Also some colonists, to be their governor, had the name of a fort built in 1752 near with him his daughter, Mrs. Eleanore Winchester, Va., intended for the protec- Dare, mother of Virginia. White went tion of the town.
back to England for supplies, and was Loudoun, JOHN CAMPBELL, FOURTH detained a long time. When he returned EARL OF, military officer; born in Scot- to Roanoke Island, the colony he had left land in 1705; was appointed governor of there had disappeared. With nineteen Virginia and commander-in-chief of the men, in two boats, he went in search of them. The colonists had agreed with White, when he left for England, to write c.r carve on the trees or posts of the dooro the name of the place to which they had emigrated, if they should leave, for they were then preparing to go to a place 50 miles into the interior. It was also agreed, in case they should be in dis- tress, that they would carve a cross over the letters. As White and his friends ascended the bank at the site of the set- tlement, they found carved upon the trunk of a tree, in fair Roman letters, CROATAN, but, to their great comfort they saw no sign of distress. The houses had been taken down, and the place strongly pali- saded. They determined to sail for Croatan the next morning. A tempest arose, the ship parted her cables, their provisions and fresh water were scanty, and they concluded to sail to the West Indies, remain there through the winter, and go to Croatan in the spring. But they were compelled to return to England. British forces in America in 1756. Leav? The colony was never heard of afterwards, ing his lieutenant, Dinwiddie, to govern It is asserted that some of the Hatteras the province, he paid attention to military Indians, of a subsequent generation, had affairs, in which his indolence, indecision, light complexions, and their faces re- and general inefficiency were most con- sembled the English type, and it is sup- spicuous, and worked disasters. Franklin posed the colony became amalgamated with said of him : " He is like little St. George the Hatteras tribe on the eastern coast of on the sign-boards, always on horseback, North Carolina. but never goes forward." He was recalled
Lost Prince, THE. See WILLIAMS, in 1757, and returned to England. In ELEAZAB. 1758 he was made lieutenant-general, and
478
LOUIS XVI.
in 1770 general. He died in Scotland, of Louis XV. and of a daughter of Fred- April 27, 1782. erick Augustus, King of Poland and Elec-
According to his instructions, the Earl tor of Saxony. His father dying in 1765, of Loudoun demanded of the authorities he became heir presumptive to the throne of New York City free quarters for him- of France, which he ascended on May 10, self, his officers, and 1,000 men. "Your 1774, with the beautiful Marie Antoinette, demand is contrary to the laws of Eng- Archduchess of Austria, whom he married land and the liberties of America," said in May, 1770, as his Queen. Louis was the mayor of the city. " Free quarters amiable, fond of simple enjoyments, and are everywhere usual. I assert it on my was beloved by his people. Through bad honor, which is the highest evidence you advisers and the wickedness of dema- can require," answered the haughty earl, gogues, he was placed in seeming opposi- The mayor was firm, and Loudoun deter- tion to the people when his heart was mined to make New York an example for really with them, and the madmen of the rest of the continent. When the citi- France, who ruled the realm during the zens, by the lips of the mayor, pleaded Reign of Terror, brought both Louis and their rights as Englishmen, his lordship, his beautiful Queen to the scaffold. They with a vulgar oath, said to the magistrate, went through the farce of a trial after " If you don't billet my officers upon free quarters this day, I'll order here all the troops under my command, and billet them myself upon the city." A subscrip- tion for the purpose was raised, the offi- cers were billeted on the city, and there Loudoun won his first victory. A similar contest, with a similar result, occurred in Philadelphia, and there Loudoun won his second and last victory in America.
When the Earl, on July 9, 1757, had as- sembled his whole armament, consisting of 10,000 soldiers, sixteen ships-of-the- line, several frigates, and many transports, for an attack on LOUISBURG (q. v.), it was believed an immediate assault would be made. The troops were landed, and set at work levelling the earth and cultivat- ing a vegetable garden; and in these la- bors and in the exercise of sham- fights almost a month was spent. The army be- came dispirited, and its officers exasper- arraigning the King on a charge of trea- ated. One day, when Maj. - Gen. Lord son, found him guilty, of course, and be- Charles Hay was sitting under a tree near headed him by the guillotine, with ac- the sea-shore discussing army matters with companiments of vulgar cruelty, in Paris, his fellow-officers, he said: "See how the Jan. 21, 1793. His death was seriously power of England is held in chains by mourned. He was weak, but not wicked, imbecility! With such ships and such His friends dared not make any public men as we have here, led by an energetic demonstrations of grief, or even of at- and competent commander, Cape Breton tachment, at the time. A small eom- and its fortresses might have been a part memorative medal of brass was struck, of the British Empire a month ago." and secretly circulated. These were For these brave words Lord Hay was ar- cherished by the loyalists with great af- rested by Loudoun, sent to England, tried fection. Upon this medal — over a funeral by court-martial, and acquitted of all urn from which a crown and sceptre had blame. fallen — were the significant words, " Sol
Louis XVI., KING OF FRANCE; born in regni abiit" ("The sun of the kingdom Versailles, Aug. 23, 1754; was a grandson has departed"). King Louis was closely
479
LOUISBUJRG
identified with the Americans in their army of 3,250 men was enlisted, transports struggle for independence, consenting, were procured, and an ample quantity of through the influence of his chief minister, hills of credit issued to pay the expense.
Massachusetts provided ten armed vessels. The chief command of the expedition was given to William Pepper ell, of Maine. Whitefield, who was then making his third preaching tour throughout the colonies, successfully advocated the expedition, and suggested the motto of the New Hamp- shire regimental flag — " Nil desperandum Chrlsto duce" ("Nothing is to be de- LOUIS xvi. MEMORIAL MEDAL. spaired of with Christ for a leader " ) . It
assumed the character of an anti-papist
Vergennes, to give material aid, and make crusade. One of the chaplains, a disciple a treaty of friendship and alliance with of Whitefield, carried a hatchet, provided them. Personally, he despised republi- to hew down all images in the French cans, and could never hear with patience churches. " Louisburg must be subdued," Dr. Franklin spoken of in words of praise, was the thought of the New-Englanders. while his Queen was a great admirer of Commodore Warren, in the West Indies, the philosopher and statesman. refused to co-operate with his fleet until
Louisburg. The fortress of Louisburg, he received express orders to do so. The on the Island of Cape Breton, was built expedition sailed from Boston, April 4, by the French soon after the treaty of 1745, and at Canseau they were unexpect- Utrecht, in 1713. Its cost was great, its edly joined by Warren on May 9. The strength enormous, and so long as the combined forces (4,000 troops) landed, French held it it was a source of annoy- April 30, at Gabarus Bay, not far from ance to New England and of support to Louisburg, and their sudden appearance Canada. When, in 1746, France declared there was the first intimation the French war against Great Britain Governor Shir- had of the near approach of danger. Con- ley, of Massachusetts, perceived the great sternation prevailed in the fortress and importance of driving the French from it. town. The cannon on shore, commanded He proposed to the Massachusetts legis- by Richard Gridley, were dragged, with lature the bold project of attempting its provisions, on sledges, over a morass; capture, and after some hesitation a co- trenches were dug, batteries were erected, lonial expedition for the purpose was au- and a regular siege was commenced on thorized, Jan. 25, 1745, by a vote of a May 1 (N. S.). Commodore Warren capt- majority of one. A circular letter, solicit- tired a French man-of-war of sixty-four ing aid, was sent to all the colonies as far guns, with over 500 men and a large quan- south as Pennsylvania. The latter voted tity of stores for the garrison. Other £4,000 currency, to purchase provisions. English vessels of war arrived, and the New Jersey furnished £2,000 towards the fleet and army prepared to make a final expedition, but declined to furnish any and combined' assault. The French, de- men. The New York Assembly contributed spairing of receiving any aid from France, £3,000 currency, but Governor Clinton surrendered the fortress and town of Lou- sent, besides, a quantity of provisions pur- igburg and the island of Cape Breton to chased by private subscription ,n ". ten 18- the English on June 17, after a siege of pounders from the public magazine. Con- forty-eight days. The island of St. John necticut voted 500 men, led by Roger was also surrendered. The capitulation Wolcott, who was appointed second in com- included 650 soldiers of the garrison and mand of the expedition. Rhode Island and 1.300 inhabitants of the town of Louis- New Hampshire each raised a regiment of burg, all of whom were to be shipped to 300 men. As was to be expected, the chief France. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle burden of the expedition was borne by (Aachen), in 1748, the British government Massachusetts. Much interest was mani- restored Louisburg and Cape Breton to the tested everywhere. In seven weeks an French.,
480
LOUISIANA
The capture of Louisburg was Lord Lou- land provinces raised 15,000 men. Bos- doun'a first care in the campaign of 1757. cawen arrived at Halifax early in May, lie found himself at the head of 0,000 pro- with about forty armed vessels, bearing vincials on June 1. He sailed from New a land force of over 12,000 men, under York on the 20th, and arrived at Halifax General Amherst as chief, and General on the 30th, where he was joined by Ad- Wolfe as his lieutenant. The armament miral Holborne, with a powerful naval left Halifax May 28, and the troops land- armament and 5,000 troops from England, ed on the shores of Gabarus Bay, June 8, The combined forces were about to sail without much opposition, within a short for Louisburg when information reached distance of the fort. Alarmed by this un- Loudoun that 6,000 troops were in the expected and powerful display, the French fortress there, and that a French fleet, almost immediately deserted their out- larger than that of the English, was lying posts, and retired within the fortress and in that harbor. The latter had gained this the town. They made a vigorous resistance position while the indolent Loudoun was to the besiegers for almost fifty days, moving with his accustomed slowness. The When all the shipping in the harbor was enterprise was abandoned, and Loudoun lost to the French, they surrendered the returned to New York (Aug. 31) with in- town, the fort, the islands of Cape Breton telligence that had met him on the way of and St. John (now Prince Edward), and defeat and disgrace to the English arms in their dependencies, July 20, 1758. The the north. garrison became prisoners of war. The
The zeal of the New Englanders, in spoils of victory were more than 5,000 1758, in raising a force for a second at- prisoners and a large amount of muni- tack on Louisburg was intense. Massa- tions of war. The garrison lost about chusetts voted 7,000 men, besides 600 1,500 men, and the town was made a ruin, maintained for frontier defence. The ad- So ended the attempts of the French to vances made by the province during that settle in and near the Gulf of St. Law- year were not less than $1,000,000. Con- rence. That region passed into the perma- necticut voted 5,000 men, and New Hamp- nent possession of the English. With the shire and Rhode Island furnished 1,000 fall of Louisburg the power of France in more between them. The people were America began to wane, and its decline alive with enthusiasm, and the New Eng- was rapid.
LOUISIANA, STATE OP
Louisiana, STATE OF, was first visited Union as the State of Louisiana April bv La Salle, who discovered the mouth 8, 1812, and the name of the latter was of the Mississippi (1691), and took pos- changed, June 4, 1812, to Missouri. At session of the country in the name of the close of 1814 Louisiana was invaded Louis, King of France. Settlements were by British troops, but they were speedily soon afterwards formed. In 1712 Louis driven away. As soon as the election of XIV. named the region Louisiana, in honor Mr. Lincoln was known, the governor of of himself, and granted it to M. Crozat. Louisiana took measures looking to the The territory was granted to " The West- secession of the State from the Union. A ern Company" in 1717. The French convention assembled, Jan. 8, 1861, and remained in possession until 1762, when on the 26th passed an ordinance of seces- they ceded it to Spain. In 1800 it was sion. The public property of the national retroceded to France, and in 1803 it was government was seized by the State au- bought from the latter by the United thorities. In the spring of 1862 an ex- States for $15,000,000, and the American pedition under General Butler and Ad- flag was first raised in New Orleans on miral Farragut captured all the defences Dec. 20, 1803. In 1804 the territory was on the Mississippi below New Orleans, divided into two governments — namely, and took possession of the city. The " Territory of Orleans " and " District of State became the theatre of stormy events Louisiana?' The former entered the during the Civil War. On Dec. 4, 1862, V.— 2 H 481
LOUISIANA, STATE OF
two congressional districts, under the United States Senators. The Fifteenth control of National troops, were permitted Amendment was ratified by the same body to elect delegates to Congress, and Benja- March 1, 1869.
min F. Flanders and Michael Hahn were In 1903 the State had an assessed prop- chosen and took their seats. Local erty valuation of $336,118,348; and, March courts were organized under military 1, 1904, a total bonded debt of $11,108,300, rule, and in November, 1862, a pro- a floating debt of $1,139,778, and an un- visional court for the State was or- recognized debt of $3,953,000. The popu- ganized by the President. In April, lation in 1890 was 1,118,587; in 1900, 1863, he appointed judges of the Supreme 1,381,625.
Court. Late in 1863 an election of State In October, 1698, King William sent officers was held in a portion of Louisiana, three ships to take possession of the Mis- Michael Hahn was elected governor and sissippi River, and prepare for planting a inaugurated March 4, 1864, and on the colony of French Protestants on its bor- 15th was made military governor likewise, ders. Nothing came of it. In the same In April a convention adopted a constitu- month Iberville and others sailed for the tion abolishing slavery and providing for same river, and planted the seeds of the education of both races, which was French dominion there, ratified in September, when five Congress- The first settlement in Louisiana was men (Unionists) were chosen. The legis- made at Biloxi (now in Mississippi) in
1699. In 1702 there were settlements be- gun on Dauphin Island and at Mobile, now in Alabama. The French govern- ment, wishing to promote more rapid set- tlements in that region, granted (1712) the whole province, with a monopoly of trade, to Anthony Crozat, a wealthy French merchant, who expected large profits from mines and trade with Mexico. Crozat contracted to send ships from France, with goods and emigrants, every year ; and he was entitled to import a cargo of negro slaves annually. The French government also agreed to pay $10,000 a year for the civil and military establishments. Crozat established a trading-house on the site of Montgomery, on the Alabama River, and another at Natchitoches, on the Red River. Fort Rosalie was built on the site of Natchez,
lature ratified the Thirteenth Amendment about which a town soon grew up, the to the national Constitution, but the Sen- oldest on the lower Mississippi. Crozat ators and Representatives of Louisiana made ineffectual attempts to open a trade were not admitted to seats in Congress, with Mexico, and the intercourse by sea and the State was placed under military was prohibited after the war. After five rule in 1867, Louisiana and Texas consti- years of large outlay and small returns, tuting one military district. Early in Crozat resigned his patent (1717); but 1868 a convention in New Orleans formed other speculators soon filled his place, a State constitution, which was ratified on The Mississippi Company (see LAW, April 17 and 18, and Henry C. Warmouth JOHN) was granted the monopoly of all (Republican) was elected governor. By trade with Louisiana for twenty-five act of Congress, June 25, 1868, Louisiana years. They attempted to introduce 6,000 delegates were admitted to seats in that white people and half as many negroes, body. Soon afterwards the State legis- and private individuals to whom grants lature ratified the Fourteenth Amendment of land had been made also sent out colo- to the national Constitution and chose nists. Law, having 12 square miles of
482
STATE SEAL, OP LOUISIANA.
LOUISIANA, STATE OF
land in Arkansas, undertook to settle the leans, to the United States, and thus re- domain with 1,500 Germans. The Mis- move all cause for irritation between the sissippi Company resigned Louisiana to two governments, the crown in 1732. Negotiations with this end in view were
On Oct. 21, 1764, the King of France speedily made by Mr. Livingston, assisted gave orders to his director-general and by Mr. Monroe. Their instructions asked commandant for Louisiana to deliver up for the cession of the island of New Or- to the King of Spain all the French pos- leans and the Floridas, and that the Mis- sessions in North America not already sissippi should be divided by a line that ceded to Great Britain. These orders were should put the city of New Orleans with- given in consequence of an act passed at in the territory of the United States, thus Fontainebleau on Nov. 3, 1762, by which securing the free navigation of that river, the French King ceded to the King of To the surprise of the American minister, Spain, and to his successors, " the whole it was announced by Marbois, Bonaparte's country known as Louisiana, together with representative, that he would treat for New Orleans, and the island on which the the sale of the whole of Louisiana. Bo- said city is situated," and of another act naparte had already experienced serious passed at the Escurial on Nov. 13, in the difficulties in the way of securing French same year, by which his Catholic Majesty colonial dominion, especially in the West accepted that cession. Indies. He also needed troops at home and
When Bonaparte became actual ruler of money to carry on the war with England, France as First Consul he felt an ardent rather than far-off territory held by a desire to re-establish the colonial empire doubtful tenure. " Irresolution and de- of his country, and with that view he ob- liberation," said the First Consul to Mar- tained from Spain (1800) the retrocession bois, "are no longer in season. I renounce of Louisiana. Bonaparte had formed a Louisiana. It is not only New Orleans plan for taking immediate possession of that I will cede; it is the whole colony, New Orleans by an armed expedition, without any reservation. I know the price Livingston, the American minister in of what I abandon, and I have sufficiently France, advised his government of this ex- proved the importance that I attach to pedition, and declared that it would not this province, since my first diplomatic act only oppress American commerce on the with Spain had for its object the recovery Mississippi, but that attempts would be of it. I renounce it with the greatest made to seize Natchez and to carry out the regret. To attempt to retain it would plan of Genet and his successors in cor- be folly. I direct you to negotiate this rupting the Western people and dismem- affair with the envoys of the United bering the Union. Before the letter of States." In less than a fortnight after Livingston had been received, the Spanish the beginning of negotiations in France, intendant at New Orleans, as if anticipat- a treaty was signed (April 30, 1803) by ing the wishes of Bonaparte, had issued a Robert R. Livingston and James Monroe proclamation interdicting the privilege se- on the part of the United States, and cured to the Americans by the treaty of Barbe1 Marbois on the part of France, 1795 of depositing merchandise at New by which the United States came into Orleans. This interruption of their com- possession of a vast, and to some extent roerce on the great river produced a great undefined, domain, containing a mixed commotion in the West. It was in this free population of 85,000 white people and excited state of the public mind that the 40,000 negro slaves, for the sum of $15,- Seventh Congress assembled (Dec. 7, 1802) 000,000. Livingston and Marbois had for its second session, and the state of af- been personal acquaintances for about a fairs in the Southwest occupied their quarter of a century. " We have lived earnest attention. President Jefferson, long," said Livingston to Marbois, as he alive to the interests, independence, and arose after signing the treaty, " but this power of his country, wrote an able letter is the noblest work of our whole lives, to Livingston, suggesting that France The treaty which we have just signed has might be willing to cede a portion of Lou- not been obtained by art or force; equally isiana, especially the island of New Or- advantageous to the two contracting par-
483
LOUISIANA, STATE OF
ties, it will change vast solitudes into lations (see LAFITTE, JEAN), but the peo-
ftourishing districts. From this day the pie did; and they held a large meeting in
United States take their place among the New Orleans (Sept. 16), where they were
powers of the first rank; the English lose eloquently addressed by EDWARD LIVING-
all exclusive influence in the affairs of STON (q. v.) , who urged the inhabitants
America." With equally prophetic vision, to make speedy preparations for repelling
Bonaparte said to Marbois, a few days invasion. They appointed a committee of
after the negotiation was signed, " I would safety, composed of distinguished citizens
that France should enjoy this unexpect- of New Orleans, of which Livingston was
ed capital [75,000,000 francs], that it may chairman. Governor Claiborne, who also
be employed in works beneficial to her believed Lafitte's story, sent copies of the
marine." The invasion of England, and British papers to Jackson, then at Mobile,
the prostration of her maritime superior- Then the latter issued a vigorous counter-
ity, was then Bonaparte's pet project, proclamation, and proceeded to break up
" This accession of territory," he con- the nest of motley enemies at Pensacola.
tinned, exultingly, " strengthens forever Finally, there were such omens of a
the power of the United States, and I speedy invasion of Louisiana that appeals
have just given to England a maritime to Jackson were repeated, and he left
rival that will sooner or later humble her Mobile for New Orleans on Nov. 21.
pride" The centennial of the Louisiana The patriotic governor had called the
Purchase is to be commemorated by a legislature together as early as Oct. 5,
fair to be held in ST. Louis (q. v.) in but there was neither union, harmony,
1^03. nor confidence. The people, alarmed, com-
The Americans claimed that the boun- plained of the legislature; that body com- dary between Louisiana and Mexico was plained of the governor; and Claiborne the Rio Grande, while the Spaniards lim- complained of both the legislature and iled the territory acquired from France the people. Money and credit were equally to a narrow strip along the western bank wanting, and ammunition was very scarce, of the Mississippi. Both sides had hither- There was no effective naval force in the to regarded the Sabine as a sort of pro- adjacent waters; and only two small mi- visional boundary; but the Spanish com- litia regiments and a weak battalion of mander in Texas crossed that river with uniformed volunteers, commanded by a body of irregular cavalry, in 1805, and Major Plauche", a gallant Creole, composed occupied the settlement at Bayou Pierre, the military force for repelling invasion on the Red River, a few miles above or defending the city. In every aspect Natchitoches, the westernmost American the situation was most gloomy when Jack- military station. It was deemed necessary son arrived. His advent was hailed with to repel this aggression, and orders were joy. "Jackson's come! Jackson's come!" sent to General Wilkinson, at St. Louis, went from lip to lip. He did not rest for then commander-in-chief of the American a moment. He at once organized the army and governor of the District of feeble military force in the city; took Louisiana, to reinforce, from posts in his measures for obstructing the large bayous, territory, the 500 regulars in the Orleans whose waters formed convenient communi- Territory, and himself to take the com- cation between the city and the Gulf of mand, to drive back the Spaniards. Wil- Mexico; and proceeded to inspect and kinson went to the Sabine, and made a strengthen the fortifications in the vicin- peaceful arrangement that stopped the ity, and to erect new ones. Fort St. invasion. It was at this crisis that Burr's Philip, below the city, was his main reli- mysterious enterprise was undertaken, ance for preventing a passage of the Brit- See BURR, AARON. ish ships. The expected invaders soon ap-
When Jackson returned to Mobile, Nov. peared. In fifty vessels of all sizes 7,000
11, 1814, after driving the British from land troops were borne over the Gulf of
Pensacola, he received messages from New Mexico from the island of Jamaica in the
Orleans urging him to hasten to the de- direction of New Orleans, and sighted the
fence of that city. The government offi- northern coast of the Gulf, a little east
fials did not give credit to Lafitte's reve- of Lake Borgne, on Dec. 9, Music, danc-
484
LOUISIANA, STATE OF
ing, theatrical performances, and hilarity of every kind had been indulged in during the voyage, every man feeling that the conquest of Louisiana would be an easy task. The wives of many officers were with them, anticipating great pleasure in the western world. Believing the Ameri- cans to be profoundly ignorant of the ex- pedition, they anchored at the entrance to Lake Borgne, and prepared small vessels for the transportation of troops over the shallow waters, to take New Orleans by surprise. They did not dream of the fatal revelations of Lafitte. Two gunboats, sent out towards Mobile Bay to catch intelli- gence of the coming armament, discovered the great fleet Dec. 10, and hastened to re- port the fact to Lieut. Thomas Ap Catesby Jones, in command of a small flotilla at the entrance of Lake Borgne, to prevent the British from landing troops. Jones's flotilla was encountered by the British (much to their astonishment) on the 13th. The British fleet was under the command of Admiral Cochrane, and many of the troops were those which had been engaged in the invasion of Maryland. It would not do to attempt to land troops while the waters of the lake were patrolled by Amer- ican gunboats, and so Cochrane sent sixty barges, nearly all carrying a carronade in the bow, and with six oars on each side, and all well filled with armed volunteers from the fleet, to capture or destroy Jones's flotilla. The latter was composed of an armed sloop (the flag-ship), a tender, and five gunboats, with an aggregate of twenty-three guns and 182 men. The British barges contained 1,200 men. On the morning of Dec. 14 an encounter took place, which the little flotilla sus- tained against overwhelming numbers for about an hour, when it was compelled to surrender. The British had now complete control of Lake Borgne. The transports, filled with troops, entered, and the latter were conveyed in barges to Pea Island, where General Keane organized his forces for future operations. Learning from some Spanish residents of New Orleans that therji was a bayou navigable for large barcfea to within a short distance of the Mississippi River, just below New Orleans, Cochrane sent a party to explore it. They followed this bayou (the Bienvenu) and a canal across Villere's plantation, and
when they reported favorably about one- third of the troops were taken through these watercourses. At the head of the layou the active Lieutenant-Colonel Thorn- ton, with a detachment, surrounded the house of General Villere, the commandant of a division of Louisiana militia, and made him prisoner; but he soon escaped, and, hastening to New Orleans, gave warn- ing of the invasion to General Jackson. General Keane, a gallant Irish officer, the commander-in-chief of the British land- forces, was with this advance party, with several of his officers, and felt confident that the invasion was unknown at New Orleans. The British formed a camp at VillerS's (Dec. 23), within sight of the Mississippi, and prepared to move for- ward. The invaders were now within 9 miles of New Orleans. A proclamation, printed in the Spanish and French lan- guages, and signed by General Keane and Admiral Cochrane, was sent forward by a negro to be distributed among the inhabi- tants. It read as follows : " Louisianians ! remain quietly in your houses; your slaves shall be preserved to you, and your prop- erty shall be respected. We make war only against Americans." While all this work of invasion was going on, Jackson had been busy at New Orleans preparing to roll it back. He had heard of the capture of the gunboats on the 15th, and he called upon Generals Coffee, Carroll, and Thomas to hasten to New Orleans with the Tennes- see and Kentucky troops. They came as speedily as possible. Coffee came first, and Carroll arrived on Dec. 22. A troop of horse under Major Hinds, raised in Lou- isiana, came at the same time. General Villere, soon after his capture, escaped, crossed the Mississippi, rode up its right bank on a fleet horse to a point opposite New Orleans, crossed over, and gave Jack- son such full information of the position of the invaders that he marched with quite a large body of troops on the afternoon of the 23d to meet the intruders. The armed schooner Carolina, Captain Henley, moved down the Mississippi in the evening to within musket-shot distance of the centre of the British camp at Villerg's. At half- past seven o'clock she opened a tremendous fire upon them, killing and wounding at least 100 men. The British extinguished their camp-fires, and hurled rockets and
485
LOUISIANA, STATE OP
bullets upon the Carolina, with little ef- rights and powers heretofore delegated to feet. The schooner soon drove the British the government of the United States of from their camp in great confusion. Mean- America," its creator. At the conclusion while Jackson had pressed forward with ot the balloting the president said: "In his troops in the darkness in two columns, virtue of the vote just announced, I now and, falling upon the bewildered invaders, declare the connection between the State soon achieved a victory which he dared of Louisiana and the federal Union dis- not follow up in the gloom, and fell back, solved, and she is a free, sovereign, and The astonished Britons were soon cheered independent power." The convention, by the arrival of reinforcements, and the alarmed at the planting of cannon at advent of Gen. Edward Pakenham, one of "Vicksburg by the Mississippians, resolved Wellington's veterans, who took the chief unanimously that they recognized the command. After careful preparation, and right of a " free navigation of the Missis- getting his soldiers well in hand, he led sippi River and its tributaries by all them towards New Orleans. He was met friendly States bordering thereon " ; also by Jackson with a force behind intrench- " the right of egress and ingress of the ments about half-way between the city mouths of the Mississippi by all friendly and Villere"s, and a severe battle ensued, states and powers." A motion to submit in which the Americans were victorious, the ordinance to the people for considera- Immediately afterwards the British with- tion was lost.
drew to their ships and departed. See Prompted by advice from John Slidell JACKSON, ANDREW; NEW ORLEANS. and Judah P. Benjamin, then sitting as In the legislature of Louisiana, assem- members of the United States Senate, the bled at Baton Rouge in special session, governor of Louisiana (Moore) sent ex- Dec. 10, 1860, the Union sentiment was peditions from New Orleans to seize Forts powerful, yet not sufficiently so to arrest Jackson and St. Philip on the Mississippi, mischief to the commonwealth. An effort below the city, then in charge of Major was made to submit the question of " Con- Beauregard ; also Fort Pike, on Lake Pont- vention or No Convention " to the people, chartrain, and the arsenal at Baton Rouge, but it failed, and an election of delegates A part of General Palfrey's division went to a convention was ordered to be held on down the river in a steam-vessel, and on Jan. 8, the anniversary of Jackson's vie- the evening of Jan. 10, 1861, the com- tory at New Orleans. On that occasion rnander of Fort St. Philip (Dart) surren- the popular vote was small, but it was of dered it; but the commander of Fort Jack- such a complexion that the Confederates son (Sergeant Smith), which surrendered, were hopeful. The convention met at gave up the keys under protest. State Baton Rouge, Jan. 23. The legislature troops seized Fort Livingston, on Grand had convened there on tbe 21st. The num- Terre Island, Barataria Bay, at the same ber of delegates in the convention was time, and on the 20th the unfinished fort 130. Ex-Gov. Alexander Mouton was on Ship Island was seized and held by chosen president, and J. Thomas Wheat, the Confederates. Troops left New Or- secretary. Commissioners from South leans, 300 in number, under Colonel Wai- Carolina and Alabama were there, and ton, on the evening of Dec. 9, in a steam- were invited to seats in the convention; vessel, and on the following evening ar- and they made vehement speeches in favor rived at Baton Rouge to seize the arsenal, of secession. A committee of fifteen was then in command of Major Haskin. He appointed to draft an ordinance of seces- was compelled to surrender it on the llth. sion. It reported on the 24th by their By this act the Confederates were put chairman, John Perkins, Jr., and the or- in possession of 50,000 small-arms, four dinance then submitted was adopted on howitzers, twenty pieces of heavy ordnance, the 26th by a vote of 113 against 17. Its two field-batteries, 300 barrels of gun- phraseology bore the same general features powder, and a large quantity of other mu- as the ordinances passed by other States, nitions of war. A part of this property Though a State purchased from France by Governor Moore turned over to Governor the national government, the convention Pettus, of Mississippi. The barracks be- declared that Louisiana "resumed the low New Orleans were seized on the llth.
486
LOUISIANA— LOVEJOY
They were used for a marine hospital. The United States collector at New Or- leans was required to remove the 216 josiah s. Johnston, patients from the barracks immediately, Edward Livingston as the State wanted the building for the Sndtr pX™ gathering Confederates. The collector Alexander Mouton! (Hatch) remonstrated, and they were al- Shades M Conrad3. ' lowed to remain. The authorities of Alexander Barrow. Louisiana also seized the national mint Henr^ Johnson1?!'.'. and the custom-house there, with all the Pierre Souie precious metals they contained in coin p^erre°souiJ and bullion, and by order of the State Judah p. Benjamin".."/..
convention this treasure, amounting to Joh lell>
$536,000, was placed in the State coffers. John's. 'Harris
Soon after this, a draft for $300,000 was
received by the sub-treasurer at New Or- James BTEustls
leans, which that fiscal officer refused to
pay, saying, " The money in my custody is RandaiiT,.jGibson
no longer the property of the United
States, but of the republic of Louisiana."
See UNITED STATES, LOUISIANA, vol. ix.
UNITED STATES SEN ATORS- Continued.
Donaldson Caffrey
Newton C. Blanchard...
Samuel D. McEnery
Murphy J. Foster
No. of Congress
18th to 23d 21st " 22d
22d
23d to 24th 24th " 27th 24th " 26th
27th 27th to 29th
28th 28th to 30th
29th 30th to 32d
31st 33d
36th
40th 40th o 42d 42d 45th 45th 46th 48th 49th 52d 52d 53d 55th 57th
32d 36th 36th 40th
45th
46th
48th
48th
52d
51st
53d
57th
55th
Term.
1824 to 1833 1829 " 1831
1832 1834 to 1837
1837 1836 1842 1841 1843 1844
1847 1847 to 1853 1853 1861 1861 1868
1849 1853 1853 1861
1871 1877 1877 1879 1883 1885 1891 1893 1894 1897 1901
1842 1841 1843 1846 1844 1849
1868 o 1872
1877 1879 1883 1885 1892 1891 1894 1901 1897
TERRITORIAL GOVERNOR.
William C. C. Claiborne.
Term.
1804 to 1812
STATE GOVERNORS.
William C. C. Claiborne
James Villere
Thomas B. Robertson
H. S. Thibodeaux
Henry Johnson
Pierre Derbigny
A. Beauvais
Jacques Dupr6
Andre B. Roman
Edward D. White
Andre B. Roman
Alexander Mouton
Isaac Johnson
Joseph Walker
Paul 0. Hebert
Robert C. Wickliffe
Thomas 0. Moore
Michael Hahn
Henry F. Allen
James M. Wells
B. F. Flanders
Henry C. Warmouth
William Pitt Kellogg
John McEnery
Francis T. Nicholls
Louis Alfred Wiltz
Samuel D. McEnery
Francis T. Nicholls ,
Murphy J Foster ,
William W. Heard
Newton C. Blanchard . . .
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Name.
Thomas Posey
James Brown ,
Allan B. Magruder. Eligius Fromentin.
Henry Johnson
James Brown
Dominique Bouligny
No. of Congress.
12th 12th to 14th
12th 13th to 15th
15th 16th 18th
18th 18th 20th
Louisiana Purchase Centennial. See ST. Louis.
Loups. See MOHEGAN INDIANS.
Lovejoy, ELIJAH PARISH, abolitionist; 1812 to 1816 born in Albion, Me., Nov. 9, 1802; grad- 1820 -1824 uated at Waterville College in 1826; 1824 edited a newspaper which advocated the 1828 1° 1829 claims of Henry Clay for the Presidential 1829 " 1830 nomination. In 1833 he was licensed to 1831 " 1834 Preach after a course of theological study 1834 " 1838 at Princeton Seminary, and, returning to 1841 » 1845 St' L°uis, established The Observer, a re- 1845 " 1850 ligious periodical, in which he strongly 1854 «'« 1858 anc* persistently condemned the institution* 1858 " i860 of slavery. In 1836 he removed to Alton, 18618641863 ^'' because of threats of personal vio- 1864 lence in St. Louis, and there his print- iBfti^? loci i^g establishment was attacked four times
18o7 1868 c
1868 " 1872 by a mob. On the last occasion one of
1872 "Js?? his assailailts was killed by the friends
1877 " 1880 who were aiding him to defend his build-
Joo? !! J™1 in£- This caused a momentary lull in
lool 1888 . . f ,1 i -ITU-T
1888 " 1892 »he movements of the mob, and Mr. Love-
iSoo "1904 J'oy' Under the belief that his assailants 1904 u 1908 had withdrawn, opened the door of the
building, and was immediately shot, five
bullets entering his body, causing his
death within a few minutes, Nov. 7, 1837. The affair created widespread excitement,
Term.
1812
1813 to 1817 1812
and was the occasion of numerous pub- L3 to 1819 Hcations and speeches by anti-slavery lead-
1818 1819 1824
1823 ers-
1829 The Freedom of the Press. — On Dec. 8,
487
LOVEJOY, ELIJAH PARISH
1837, Wendell Phillips delivered a speech are loaded with arguments of John Adams
at Faneuil Hall, Boston, on the mur- to prove the taxes laid by the British
der of Lovejoy and the freedom of the Parliament unconstitutional — beyond its
press, of which the following is the sub- power. It was not until this was made
stance: out that the men of New England rushed
to arms. The arguments of the Council
Mr. Chairman, — We have met for the Chamber and the House of Representa- freest discussion of these resolutions, and tives preceded and sanctioned the contest. the events which gave rise to them. To draw the conduct of our ancestors into (Cries of "Question," "Hear him," "Go a precedent for mobs, for a right to resist on," "No gagging," etc.) I hope I shall laws we ourselves have enacted, is an in- be permitted to express my surprise at suit to their memory. The difference be- the sentiments of the last speaker, sur- tween the excitements of those days and prise not only at such sentiments from our own, which the gentleman, in kind- such a man, but at the applause they ness to the latter, has overlooked, is have received within these walls. A com- simply this: the men of that day went parison has been drawn between the for the right, as secured by the laws, events of the Revolution and the tragedy They were the people rising to sustain at Alton. We have heard it asserted the laws and constitution of the province, here, in Faneuil Hall, that Great Britain The rioters of our days go for their own had a right to tax the colonies, and we wills, right or wrong. Sir, when I heard have heard the mob at Alton, the drunk- the gentleman lay down principles which en murderers of Lovejoy, compared to place the murderers of Alton side by side those patriot fathers who threw the tea * with Otis and Hancock, with Quincy and overboard! Fellow-citizens, is this Fan- Adams, I thought those pictured lips euil Hall doctrine? ("No, no!") The (pointing to the portraits in the hall) mob at Alton were met to wrest from a would have broken into voice to rebuke citizen his just rights — met to resist the the recreant American — the slanderer of laws. We have been told that our fathers the dead. The gentleman said that he did the same; and the glorious man- should sink into insignificance if he dared tie of revolutionary precedent has been to gainsay the principles of these resolu- thrown over the mobs of our day. To tions. Sir, for the sentiments he has ut- make out their title to such defence, the tered, on soil consecrated by the prayers gentleman says that the British Parlia- of Puritans and the blood of patriots, the ment had a right to tax these colonies, earth should have yawned and" swallowed It is manifest that, without this, his him up.
parallel falls to the ground, for Lovejoy (By this time the uproar in the hall had stationed himself within constitu- had arisen so high that the speech was tional bulwarks. He was not only de- suspended for a short time. Applause and fending the freedom of the press, but he counter-applause, cries of " Take that was under his own roof, in arms with back," " Make him take back ' recreant/ " the sanction of the city authority. The " He sha'n't go on till he takes it back," men who assailed him went against and and counter-cries of " Phillips or nobody," over the laws. The mob, as the gentleman continued until the pleadings of well- terms it — mob, forsooth! certainly we known citizens had somewhat restored sons of the tea-spillers are a marvellous- order, when Mr. Phillips resumed.) ly patient generation! — the "orderly Fellow-citizens, I cannot take back my mob" which assembled in the Old South words. Surely the attorney-general, so to destroy the tea were met to resist, not long and so well known here, needs not the laws, but illegal enactions. Shame the aid of your hisses against one so young on the American who calls the tea tax as I am — my voice never before heard and the stamp tax laws! Our fathers within these walls. . . . resisted, not the king's prerogative, but Men are continually asking each other, the king's usurpation. To find any other Had Lovejoy a right to resist? Sir, I account, you must read our Revolutionary protest against the question instead of history upside down. Our State archives answering it. Lovejoy did not resist in
48S
LOVEJOY, ELIJAH PARISH
the sense they mean. He did not throw himself back on the natural right of self- defence. He did not cry anarchy, and let slip the dogs of civil war, careless of the horrors which would follow. Sir, as I understand this affair, it was not an in- dividual protecting his property; it was not one body of armed men resisting an- other, and making the streets of a peace- ful city run blood with their contentions. It did not bring back the scenes in some old Italian cities, where family met fam- ily, and faction met faction, and mutually trampled the laws under foot. No! the men in that house were regularly en- rolled, under the sanction of the mayor. There being no militia in Alton, about seventy men were enrolled with the ap- probation of the mayor. These relieved each other every other night. About thirty men were in arms on the night of the Gth, when the press was landed. The next evening it was not thought necessary to summon more than half that number. Among these was Lovejoy. It was, there- fore, you perceive, sir, the police of the city resisting rioters; civil government breasting itself to the shock of lawless men.
Here is no question about the right of self-defence. It is, in fact, simply this: Has the civil magistrate a right to put down a riot?
Some persons seem to imagine that an- archy existed at Alton from the com- mencement of these disputes. Not at all. " No one of us," says an eye-witness and a comrade of Lovejoy, " has taken up arms during these disturbances but at the command of th« mayor." Anarchy did not settle down on that devoted city till Lovejoy breathed his last. Till then the law, represented in his person, sustained itself against its foes. When he fell civil authority was trampled under foot. He had " planted himself on his constitu- tional rights, appealed to the laws, claimed the protection of the civil author- ity, taken refuge under the broad shield of the Constitution. When through that he was pierced and fell, he fell but one sufferer in a common catastrophe." He took refuge under the banner of liberty, amid its folds, and when he fell its glo- rious stars and stripes, the emblem of free institutions, around which cluster so
489
many heart-stirring memories, were blot- ted out in the martyr's blood.
It has been stated, perhaps inadvertent- ly, that Lovejoy or his comrades fired tirst. This is denied by those who have the best means of knowing. Guns were first fired by the mob. After being twice fired on, those within the building con- sulted together and deliberately returned the fire. But suppose they did fire first. They had a right so to do; not only the right which every citizen has to defend himself, but the further right which every civil officer has to resist violence. Even if Lovejoy fired the first gun, it would not lessen his claim to our sympa- thy, or destroy his title to be considered a martyr in defence of a free press. The question now is, Did he act within the Constitution and the laws? The men who fell in State Street on March 5, 1770, did more than Lovejoy is charged with. They were the first assailants upon some slight quarrel; they pelted the troops with every missile within reach. Did this bate one jot of the eulogy with which Hancock and Warren hallowed their memory, hailing them as the first martyrs in the cause of American liberty? If, sir, I had adopted what are called peace principles I might lament the cir- cumstances of this case. But all you who believe as I do, in the right and duty of magistrates to execute the laws, join with me and brand as base hypocrisy the conduct of those who assemble year after year on July 4 to fight over the battles of the Revolution, and yet " damn with faint praise " or load with obloquy the memory of this man who shed his blood in defence of life, liberty, property, and the freedom of the press!
Throughout that terrible night I find nothing to regret but this, that, within the limits of our country, civil authority should have been so prostrated as to oblige a citizen to arm in his defence, and to arm in vain. The gentleman says Lovejoy was presumptuous and imprudent — he " died as the fool dieth." And a reverend clergyman of the city tells us that no citizen has a right to publish opinions disagreeable to the community! If any mob follows such publication, on him rests its guilt. He must wait, for- sooth, till the people come up to it and
LOVEJOY
agree with him! This libel on liberty than money, so much is the cause in which
goes on to say that the want of a right to Lovejoy died nobler than a mere question
speak as we think is an evil inseparable of taxes. James Otis thundered in this
from republican institutions! If this be hall when the king did but touch his
so, what are they worth? Welcome the pocket. Imagine, if you can, his indig-
despotism of the Sultan, where one knows nant eloquence had England offered to put
what he may publish and what he may a gag upon his lips. The question that
not, rather than the tyranny of this many- stirred the Revolution touched our civil
headed monster, the mob, where we know interests. This concerns us not only as
not what we may do or say, till some fel- citizens, but as immortal beings. Wrapped
low-citizen has tried it, and paid for the up in its fate, saved or lost with it, are
lesson with his life. This clerical absurd- not only the voice of the statesman, but
ity chooses as a check for the abuses of the instructions of the pulpit and the
the press, not the law, but the dread of a progress of our faith .... mob. By so doing, it deprives not only Mr. Chairman, from the bottom of my
the individual and the minority of their heart I thank that brave little band at
rights, but the majority also, since the Alton for resisting. We must remember
expression of their opinion may some time that Lovejoy had fled from city to city —
provoke disturbances from the minority, suffered the destruction of three presses
A few men may make a mob as well as patiently. At length he took counsel with
many. The majority, then, have no right, friends, men of character, of tried integ-
as Christian men, to utter their senti- rity, of wide views, of Christian principle,
ments, if by any possibility it may lead They saw around them, not a community
to a mob! Shades of Hugh Peters and like our own, of fixed habits, of character
John Cotton, save us from such pul- moulded and settled, but one " in the
pits! . . . gristle, not yet hardened into the bone
Imagine yourself present when the first of manhood." The people there, children
news of Bunker Hill battle reached a New of our older States, seem to have forgot-
England town. The tale would have run ten the blood-tried principles of their
thus: "The patriots are routed — the fathers the moment they lost sight of our
red-coats victorious — Warren lies dead New England hills. Something was to
upon the field." With what scorn would be done to show them the priceless value
that Tory have been received who should of the freedom of the press, to bring back
have charged Warren with imprudence! and set right their wandering and con-
who should have said that, bred a physi- fused ideas. He and his advisers looked
cian, he was " out of place " in that bat- out on a community, staggering like a
tie, and " died as the fool dieth" How drunken man, indifferent to their rights
M'ould the intimation have been received and confused in their feelings. Deaf to
that Warren and his associates should argument, haply they might be stunned
have merited a better time? But if sue- into sobriety. They saw that of which
cess be, indeed, the only criterion of pru- we cannot judge, the necessity of resist-
dence, Respice finem — wait till the end! ance. Insulted law called for it. Public
Presumptuous to assert the freedom of the opinion, fast hastening on the downward
press on American ground! Is the asser- course, must be arrested, tion of such freedom before the age? So Does not the event show they judged
much before the age as to leave one no rightly? Absorbed in a thousand trifles,
right to make it because it displeases the how has the nation all at once come to a
community? Who invents this libel on stand? Men begin, as in 1776 and 1640,
his country? It is this very thing which to discuss principles, to weigh characters,
entitles Lovejoy to greater praise. The to find out where they are. Haply, we
disputed right which provoked the Revo- may awake before we are borne over the
lution — taxation without representation — precipice.
is far beneath that for which he died. Lovejoy, OWEN, abolitionist; born in
(Here there was a general expression of Albion, Me., Jan. 6, 1811; was with Ms
strong disapprobation.) One word, gen- brother, Elijah P. Lovejoy, when the lat-
tlemen. As much as thought is better ter was murdered. He openly violated the
490
LOVELL— LOWELL
Illinois State laws in holding public anti- ingly liberal in promoting its welfare. In
slavery meetings. Elected a member of Congress in 1856, and remained a member through re-election until his death in Brooklyn, N. Y., March 25, 1864.
Lovell, JAMES, a patriot; born in Bos-
1895 he offered to erect a grand univer- sity library at his own expense. This building by the time of its completion had cost him about $1,200,000. In honor of his munificence, the trustees established twelve
ton, Mass., Oct. 31, 1737; graduated scholarships for Brooklyn boys and twelve at Harvard College in 1756; taken pris- in Barnard College for Brooklyn girls. In
oner after the battle of Bunker Hill and confined in Halifax, N. S., till exchanged in November, 1776. He was a member of the Continental Congress in 1776-82. He favored Gen. Horatio Gates for command- er-in-chief of the American army, and was very bitter against Washington. He died in Windham, Me., July 14, 1814.
Low, SETII, educator: born in Brook- lyn, N. Y., Jan. 18, 1850; graduated with high honors at Columbia College in 1870; entered his father's mercantile house, and in 1875 became a member of the
firm, and shortly after was elected a member of the Chamber of Commerce. Later he established the Brooklyn Bureau of Charities. In 1881 and 1883 he was elected mayor of Brooklyn. Mr. Low was chosen president of Columbia College in 1890. In 1899 President McKinley ap- pointed him one of the United States delegates to the Universal Peace Confer- ence called by the Czar of Russia and held at The Hague, Netherlands, that year. Since his accession to the presidency of Columbia University he has been exceed-
491
1897 Mr. Low was defeated as the candi- date of the Citizens' Union for mayor of New York City; in 1901 was elected on an anti-Tammany ticket; and in 1903 was defeated on a Fusion ticket.
Lowell, CHARLES RUSSELL, military offi- cer; born in Boston, June 2, 1835; grad- uated at Harvard in 1854, and when the Civil War broke out was one of the first to offer his services. He was made captain of cavalry in May, 1861, and served on the staff of General McClellan until the fall of 1862, when he organized the 2d Massachusetts Cavalry, and was made colonel in the spring of 1863. As a leader of cavalry he performed much good service in Virginia, and was made briga- dier-general of volunteers on Sheridan's recommendation the day before his death. He died of wounds at Cedar Creek, near Middletown, Va., Oct. 20, 1864.
Lowell, JAMES RUSSELL, poet and diplo- matist; born in Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 22, 1819; graduated at Harvard in 1838; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1840; but soon abandoned the profes- sion and devoted himself to literary pur- suits. His first collection of poems — A Year's Life — was published in 1841, and in 1843 he engaged with Robert Carter in the publication of The Pioneer, a literary and critical magazine. He published the first series of the Biglow Papers in 1848, the second series in 1866. He visited Europe in 1851, and in the winter of 1854-55 delivered a course of twelve lectures on the British poets. On the resignation of the professorship of modern languages and belles - lettres in Harvard by Mr. Longfellow, Mr. Lowell was chosen his successor. To fill the place successfully, he again went to Eu- rope and studied for a year, returning in August, 1856. He edited the Atlantic Monthly from 1857 to 1862, and in 1863- 72 was one of the editors of the North American Review. In 1874 the University of Cambridge, England, bestowed upon
LOWELL— LOWRY
JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL.
him the honorary degree of LL.D.
Lowell, JOHN, philanthropist; born in Boston, May 11, 1799; was educated in Edinburgh and at Harvard College until 1815, when he was compelled to travel for the improvement of impaired health. A fine scholar, the inheritor of a large fort- une, he indulged his passion for travel and books, after being engaged a few years in commercial life. ^He bequeathed $250,000 for the maintenance forever in Boston of an annual course of free lectures on a variety of subjects, and on this was estab- lished the Lowell Institute, which began its work in the winter of 1839-40. He died in Bombay, India, March 4, 1836.
Lowell, JOSEPHINE SHAW, philanthro- pist; born in West Roxbury, Mass., Dec. 16, 1843; was educated in Europe, Boston, In and New York; and travelled abroad from 1877-80 Mr. Lowell was United States 1851 to 1855. She married Charles Rus- minister to Spain, and in 1880-85 minister sell Lowell in 1863, and has devoted her to Great Britain. He died in Cambridge, life to charity. She was one of the com- Aug. 12, 1891. missioners of the New York State board
Lowell, JOHN, author; born in New- of charities in 1877-89; and was a leader buryport, Mass., Oct. 6, 1769; graduated of the Women's Municipal Purity Auxil- at Harvard College in 1786; became iary in 1894. She is author of Public Re- st, prolific writer, and published about lief and Private Charity; and Industrial twenty-five pamphlets. He was a strong Arbitration and Conciliation. political partisan, but would never take Lowndes, RAWLINS, statesman; born office, and he wrote severely against the in the British West Indies in 1722; was supporters of the War of 1812-15. With taken to Charleston, S. C., in early youth; his extraordinary colloquial powers and became a successful lawyer, and in 1766 elegant and logical pen, he wielded great the crown appointed him associate judge, influence in Massachusetts. Mr. Lowell An earnest patriot, he was one of the was a founder of the Massachusetts Gen- committee of safety at Charleston in 1775, eral Hospital, the Boston Athenaeum, the and in 1776 he was one of a committee Savings Bank, and the Hospital Life In- to draft a constitution for the province, surance Company. For many years he Mr. Lowndes opposed the national Con- was president of the Massachusetts Agri- stitution, and said in a speech, " I wish cultural Society. He died in Boston, no other epitaph than this: * Here lies March 12, 1840. one who opposed the federal Constitution,
Lowell, JOHN, lawyer; born in New- holding it to be fatal to the liberties of buryport, Mass., June 17, 1743; grad- his country/" He died in Charleston, uated at Harvard College in 1760; ad- S. C., Aug. 24, 1800.
mitted to the bar in 1762, and settled in Lowry, ROBERT, hymnologist; born in Boston in 1777. He held a seat in the Philadelphia, March 12, 1826; graduated convention which drew up the constitution at Lewisburg University in 1854, and of Massachusetts in 1780, and was a mem- entered the Baptist ministry. He held ber of the committee which drafted that pastorates in West Chester, Pa., New York document. It was through his urgency City, Brooklyn, and Plainfield, N. J.; was that the clause " all men are born free and Professor of Literature in Lewisburg (now equal" was inserted. In 1783 the State Bucknell) University in 1869-75; chan- Supreme Court decided that his position cellor in 1876-82; president of the New respecting slavery was legal and the insti- Jersey Baptist Sunday School Union in tution was abolished in Massachusetts. He 1880-86; and a delegate to the Robert died in Roxbury, Mass., May 6, 1802. Raikes centennial in London in 1880. He
492
LOYAL LEGION— LUDLOW
luis composed many Easter and Christmas services and hymns, and edited Chapel Melodies; Bright Jewels; Pure Gold; Hymn Service; Brightest and Best; Glad Refrains, and other sacred music.
Loyal Legion. See MILITARY ORDER OF LOYAL LEGION.
Loyalists. See TORIES.
Luce, STEPHEN BLEECKER, naval officer; born in Albany, N. Y., March 25, 1827; entered the navy as a midshipman from New York in 1841; was first attached to the Mediterranean squadron, and then to the Brazilian. With Commodore James Biddle he circumnavigated the globe in the 74-gun line-of-battle ship Columbus. He was afterwards on the Pacific sta- tion in the Vandalia, and then was attach- ed to the home squadron in the Vixen. In September, 1855, he was commissioned lieutenant, and when the Civil War broke
STKPHEN BLKECKER LUCE.
out in 1801 he was ordered to the Wabash, in which he participated in the attack on the forts at Hatteras Inlet. In the Wa- lash (then the flag -ship of Commodore Dupont) Lieutenant Luce engaged in the conflict at Port Royal. Subsequently he was employed in the blockade service in the Pontiac. In 1863, in command of the Naval Academy practice-ship Macedonian, he visited the ports of Plymouth and Portsmouth, England, and became deeply
interested in the training system for boys for the royal navy as practised theie. On his return he made a special report and recommendations upon the subject, which was followed by the adoption of a similar system for the United States navy. In 1884-86 he was president of the United States Naval War College; in 1886 was appointed commandant of the North Atlantic squadron; and on March 25, 1889, was retired as a rear-admiral. His pub- lications include Seamanship and Naval Songs.
Ludewig, HERMANN ERNST, lawyer ; born in Dresden, Saxony, Oct. 14, 1809; became a lawyer and settled in New York City in 1846, where he was naturalized and engaged in practice. He was the author of Litera- ture of American Local History; Supple- ment Relating to Local History of New York; Literature of American Aboriginal Linguistics, etc. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Dec. 12, 1856.
Ludington, MARSHALL INDEPENDENCE, military officer; born in Smithfield, Pa., July 4, 1839; served in the Union volun- teer army during the Civil War; was ap- pointed captain and quartermaster, Oct. 20, 1862: promoted major and quarter- master, Oct. 24; and was brevetted brigadier-general, March, 13, 1865. He was commissioned major and quartermaster in the regular army, Jan. 18, 1867; promoted lieutenant-colonel and deputy quarter- master-general, March 15, 1883; colonel and quartermaster, Dec. 31, 1894; and brigadier-general, Feb. 8, 1898.
Ludlow, NICOLL, naval officer; born in Islip, Long Island, N. Y., Sept. 11, 1842; entered the United States Naval Academy in 1859; was promoted to en- sign in 1863; attached to the Wachusett, of the Brazilian squadron, in 1863-65; and was on the iron-clad Monadnock on her remarkable passage from New York to San Francisco, in 1866. He was promoted master in 1866; lieutenant, 1867; lieutenant-commander, 1868; com- mander, 1881; captain, 1895; and rear- admiral on Nov. 1, 1899; and was retired on the same day. After the close of the Civil War his official duties gave him an exceptional familiarity with the con- struction and equipment of the vessels for the new navy, as he performed service in connection with the making and testing
493
LTJDLOW— LUNA Y ARELLANO
of torpedoes, and at various iron, steel, and ordnance foundries. During the war with Spain, he was in command of the double-turret monitor Terror, attached to the squadron operating in Cuban waters, and after its close he was in command of the battle-ship Massachusetts till his re- tirement.
Ludlow, WILLIAM, military officer; born on Long Island, N. Y., Nov. 27, 1843;
WILLIAM LUDLOW.
graduated at the United States Military Academy, and commissioned a first lieu- tenant of engineers in 1864; was pro- moted captain, March 7, 1867; major, June 30, 1882; lieutenant-colonel, Aug. 13, 1895; and brigadier - general, Jan. 21, 1900. In the war with Spain he was ap- pointed brigadier - general of volunteers, May 4, 1898, and promoted to major-gen- eral on Sept. 7 following. He was honor- ably discharged under his last volunteer commission, and appointed a brigadier- general of volunteers, both on April 13, 1899; and the last appointment was va- cated on his promotion to brigadier-gen- eral in the regular army. At the out- break of the war with Spain, in 1898, he was ordered to Cuba. He greatly dis- tinguished himself in the battle of EL CANEY ( q. v. ) , and he was in command of the 1st brigade of General Lawton's division in the attack on Santiago by the land forces. He was assigned to the 2d division of the 1st Army Corps, and in December, 1898, he was appointed the first
American military and civil governor of Havana. He died in Convent, N. J., Aug. 30, 1901.
Lumber State, a popular name for the State of Maine, which abounds in im- mense forests of timber suitable for build- ings. The inhabitants are largely engaged in cutting, rafting, and sawing the trees for lumber. It is sometimes called the " Pine-tree State " because of its forests of pine-trees.
Lummis, CHARLES FLETCHER, author; born in Lynn, Mass., March 1, 1859; was educated at Harvard College ; walked from Cincinnati to Los Angeles, Cal., in 1884. This trip of 3,507 miles was made purely for pleasure and was accomplished in 143 days. He was editor of the Los Angeles Daily Titr.es, 1885-87. He lived for a number of years in an Indian village in New Mexico, became familiar with the manners and customs of the natives, and has travelled extensively in the Southwest, Mexico, and South America. In 1894 he established in Los Angeles The Land of Sunshine, a monthly periodical. Among his publications are The Land of Poco Tiempo; The Spanish Pioneers; The Man Who Married the Moon; The Gold Fish of the Grand Chimu; A New Mexico David, etc.
Luna y Arellano, TRISTAN DE, ex- plorer; born in Borobia, Aragon, in 1519; and went to Mexico about 1550. In 1559 a powerful expedition was fitted out at Vera Cruz, Mexico, for the conquest of Florida, under his command. He sailed Aug. 14 with a land force of 1,500 soldiers, many friars, and a number of women and children (the families of soldiers), to con- quer and colonize Florida. He had a pros- perous voyage to the Bay of Pensacola, where he anchored his ships, but a week later a storm arose which drove the ves- sels ashore and wrecked them. He at once sent out an exploring party in search of the fertile lands and cities plethoric with precious metals, of which he had dreamed. For forty days they marched through a barren country before they found any food. This they found at a deserted town. Word was sent back to De Luna of the abun- dance of food there. He had lost most of his stores with the ships. With 1,000 men, women, and children, he marched to the town. The food was soon consumed,
494
LUNDY— LUNDY'S LANE
and great suffering followed. De Luna meet the latter. In the mean time Brown, marched back to Pensacola, whence, in two after burying the dead and caring for the vessels that had been saved or built there, wounded, had moved forward to Queens- he sent to the viceroy of Mexico for sue- ton and menaced Fort George. He ex- cor. Relief came, but the discontent of pected to see Chauncey with his squadron the remnant of his colony caused his re- on the Niagara River to co-operate with turn to Vera Cruz in 1561. He died in him, but that commander was sick at Yucatan, in 1571. Sackett's Harbor, and his vessels were
Lundy, BENJAMIN, philanthropist; blockaded there. Brown waited many born in Hard wick, N. J., Jan. 4, 1789; be- days for the squadron. Losing all hope came an abolitionist about 1810. In 1815 of aid from Chauncey, he fell back to the he founded the " Union Humane Society," Chippewa battle-ground. On the 24th in- an anti - slavery organization, in St. telligence reached him that Drummond, Clairsville, O. During different periods with 1,000 men, many of them Welling- of his life he established anti-slavery pa- ton's veterans, had landed at Lewiston, pers in several States. He is said to have opposite Queenston, with a view to seiz- been the first to have made anti-slavery ing the American stores at Schlosser, addresses and to have founded anti-slavery above the falls. Brown ordered Scott to periodicals. He died in Lowell, 111., Aug. march rapidly with a part of the army 22, 1839. and threaten the forts at the mouth of
Lundy's Lane, BATTLE AT. The con- the river. Towards evening on the 24th test near the great cataract of the Niagara Scott went forward with his brigade, is known in history by the names of Towson's artillery, and a few mounted " Bridgewater," " Niagara Falls," and men, and near the verge of the great cata- " Lundy's Lane." The latter is better ract he saw some British officers leave a known. On his retreat from the battle- house, mount their horses, and ride rap- ground at Chip- pewa, July 5, 1814, the British general, Riall, fled down the bor- ders of the Niag- ara River to Queenston, put some of his troops in Fort George, and made his headquarters near the lake, 20 miles westward. Drummond was mortified by this discomfiture of his veteran troops by what he deemed to be raw Americans, and he resolved to wipe out the stain. He drew most of the
troops from Burlington Bay, York, Kings- idly away. Believing an advance guard ton, and Prescott, with a determination to of the British were near, Scott dashed into drive the invaders out of Canada. With a the woods to disperse them, when he was force about one-third greater than that of confronted by Riall with a larger force Brown, Drummond pushed forward to that he had at Chippewa. The Americans
495
SITE OF THE BRITISH BATTERY— 1860.
LUNDY'S LANE, BATTLE AT
were in great peril. To stand still would be fatal; to retreat would be hazardous, for it might create a panic in the main army. So Scott resolved to fight the over- whelming force. At sunset a desperate battle was begun, which ended at near midnight. Riall's force was 1,800 strong, posted in slightly crescent form on an eminence over which passed Lundy's Lane, a highway stretching westward from the Niagara River. Upon that emi- nence the British had planted a battery. Scott perceived a blank between the Brit- ish left and the river, and ordered Major Jesup with his command to crawl cau-
When within short musket-range of the battery, they could see the gunners with their glowing linstocks, ready to act at the word fire. Selecting two good marks men, Miller directed each to rest his rifle on the fence, select a gunner, and fire at a given signal. Very soon every gunner fell, when Miller and his men rushed forward and captured the battery. This gallant exploit secured a victory; not, however, until a terrible hand-to-hand fight in the darkness with the protectors of the guns had ensued. The British fell back. They attempted to retake the battery (consist- ing of five brass cannon) but failed, even
BATTLES Of CHIHHE U U U V 5 . 18 14. IAGARA ..JULY 25. 1014. ERIE SEP. 17. 1814
JAMES MILLER'S MEDAL.
tiously, in the evening twilight, through the underbrush that covered the space and turn that flank. Jesup obeyed, and suc- cessfully gained the British rear and kept back reinforcements sent by Drum- mond. At the same time Scott was hotly engaged with Riall. Brown, apprised of the situation, had pressed forward with his whole army and engaged in the fight. Perceiving the key of the British posi- tion to be the battery on the hill, he turned to Col. James Miller, of the 27th Regulars, and asked, " Can you storm that work and take it?" "I'll try," was the prompt reply. With 300 men he moved steadily up the hill in the darkness, along a fence lined with thick bushes that hid his troops from the view of the gun- ners and their protectors who lay near.
after being reinforced by 1,500 men sent forward by Drummond from Queenston. Meanwhile, General Scott had been fight- ing desperately but successfully, and had been severely wounded by a musket-ball in his shoulder. General Brown was also severely wounded, and the command de- volved upon General Ripley. The Brit- ish were repulsed, and the Americans fell back to Chippewa. with orders from Gen- eral Brown to return after a brief rest, before the dawn, and occupy the battle- field. The always tardy and disobedient Ripley failed to obey the order, and the British returned and took possession of the battery (excepting one piece) and the field. The battle had been fought by about 3,500 British troops and 2,600 Americans. The latter lost in killed,
496
LUNT— LUZON
wounded, and missing, nearly one-third of their whole number; the British lost 878, or twenty-six more than the Ameri- cans. Both armies claimed a victory. Kipley, whose disobedience caused the Americans to lose the advantages of a victory won at midnight, led the army to Fort Erie, where he was soon after- wards superseded by Gen. E. P. Gaines. The exploit of Miller in capturing the battery was considered one of the most brilliant of the war. The moment that General Brown met Miller afterwards, he said, " You have immortalized yourself." Congress voted him the thanks of the na- tion and a gold medal.
Lunt, GEORGE, author; born in New- buryport, Mass., Dec. 31, 1803; grad- ANNE C^SAR DE LA LUZERNR.
uated at Harvard College in 1824; be- came a lawyer in his native town in 1827. as ambassador to London, where he died, He took an active interest in State and Sept. 14, 1791.
national politics; and was United States Luzon, the principal and most north- district attorney during the administration erly island of the Philippine group ; be- of President Taylor. He wrote Three Eras tween the Chinese Sea and the Pacific of New England; The Union, a Poem; Ocean and lat. 12° 30' and 18° 40' N. and Origin of the Late War; Old New Eng- long. 119° 45' and 124° 10' E.; area, 44,400 land Traits, etc. He died in Boston, May square miles; population, estimated by 17, 1885. the United States military authorities in
Lutheran Church. The first Lutherans 1898, 3,426,000. It comprises the portion came to New Amsterdam in 1621, but of the Philippine Islands with which Dr. H. M. Miihlenberg is generally rec- Americans are most familiar because of ognized as the founder of the Church in the initial naval operations in Manila Bay America, although the first Lutheran and the subsequent movements of United minister ministered to the Swedish Luther- States troops against the Filipino in- ans in New Sweden in 1638. In 1890 the surgents. The surface of the island is to Church consisted of 48 synods, 4,692 min- a large extent mountainous, showing vol- isters, 70,948 congregations with a mem- canic formations, and there are also vast bership of 1,099,876. In 1900 the com- tracts of swampy land which greatly em- municants numbered 1,665,878. barrassed the American military author-
Luzerne, ANNE C^SAR DE LA, diplo- ities in their pursuit of Aguinaldo. The matist; born in Paris in 1741. Having island is rich in economic productions, and risen to the rank of colonel in the French there are also indications of mineral re- army, he studied the art of diplomacy, sources of large value that are awaiting and, in 1776, was sent as an envoy to intelligent development. These include Barranca. He succeeded Gerard as min- gold, coal, copper, lead, iron, sulphur, ister to the United States, in September, marble, and kaolin. In agriculture Luzon 1779, and remained here four years, and Mindoro, separated from it by San gaining the esteem of the Americans by Bernardino Strait, yield crops of rice and his friendship, wisdom, and prudence. In corn, an amount usually inadequate for 1783 he returned to France, bearing the home consumption. The best quality and cordial thanks of Congress; and after the largest amount of tobacco is grown on organization of the national government Luzon, and in the southern portion of the in. 1789, President Washington caused the island hemp and cocoanut are cultivated Secretary of State to write a letter to Lu- extensively. There is a large internal zerne, making an official acknowledgment commerce between Manila and the dif- of his services. In 1788 Luzerne was sent ferent islands in the group, carried on al- V.— 2 1 497
LUZON— LYMAN
most exclusively by water. At the time of the cession of the islands to the United States there was but a single line of rail- way, built by English capital, and extend- ing from Manila north to Dagupan, about half the distance between the extreme northern and southern extremities of the island. The roads in the immediate vicin- ity of Manila are macadamized and gen- erally in good condition; elsewhere they are of dirt, and become almost impas- sable in the rainy season. The different provinces of the island are connected with Manila by telegraph lines, and there are cables from that city to the southern isl- ands in the group and also to Borneo, Singapore, and Hong - Kong. Manila has a street railway, a telephone service and electric lights.
Since the occupation of the island by the United States the wotk of modernizing the various public activities has progress- ed with much success, and with a rapidity surprising in view of the natural and artificial obstacles. The Philippine Com- mission appointed by President McKinley became the legislative body of the archi- pelago on Sept. 1, 1900, with power to take and appropriate insular moneys; to establish judicial and educational systems ; and to make and execute all laws necessary to Americanize the archipelago. The early results of this new governing body were seen in the establishment of new school laws; in the organization of a competent judiciary; in the improvement in the dif- ferent provinces of Luzon, as well as in the other islands of the group. In no field has the new order of things worked so quickly and beneficially as in the edu- cational. The new public school law is modelled on the methods pursued in the United States. The general superin- tendent of education is Dr. F. W. Atkin- son, and a considerable number of teach- ers are, like him, from the United States. The native youth are very quick to learn, and, at the close of 1900, there were thir- ty-six public schools in Manila alone, un- der the superintendence of Kev. George P. Anderson. On June 29, 1900, a college of primary and secondary education was opened in Manila, being the first edu- cational enterprise in the Philippines that was not under the control of the priests, and that depended for support on volun-
tary contributions. Over 500 pupils were enrolled at the opening. During the calendar year 1899 the imports of mer- chandise at the port of Manila alone aggregated $17,450,412, and, with gold and silver coin, $18,701,469.
Lyman, BENJAMIN SMITH, geologist; born in Northampton, Mass., Dec. 11, 1835; graduated at Harvard College in 1855; studied in Paris in 1859-61, and in Saxony in 1861-62; was assistant geolo- gist of the State of Iowa in 1859; spent several years in private geological and mining engineering work; and was assist- ant geologist of the State of Pennsylvania in 1887-95. Mr. Lyman has travelled ex- tensively in the United States, Europe, India, and Japan; is a member of many scientific societies; and has published numerous papers and reports on his vari- ous employments.
Lyman, PHINEAS, military officer; born in Durham, Conn., about 1716. Educated at Yale College, he was a tutor there from 1738 to 1741. He engaged in mercantile pursuits, but finally became a lawyer in Sufneld. There he was a magistrate for some years, and took a conspicuous part in the disputes between Massachusetts and Connecticut concerning the town of Suffield. At the breaking out of the French and Indian War he was command- er-in-chief of the Connecticut forces; he built Fort Lyman (afterwards Fort Ed- ward ) , on the upper Hudson, and fought and won the battle at the head of Lake George in 1755. In 1758 he served un- der General Abercrombie, and was with Lord Howe when he was killed. He was also at the capture of Crown Point and Montreal, and, in 1762, led provincial troops against Havana. In 1763 General Lyman went to England to get prize- money for himself and fellow-officers and to solicit a grant of land on the Mississippi for a company called " Military Adventur- ers." He returned to America in 1774, at which time a tract near Natchez was granted to the petitioners; and thither he went with his eldest son, and died soon after reaching west Florida, as the region was then called, near the present Natchez, Miss., Sept. 10, 1774. The emigrants suf- fered great hardships, and on the conquest of the country by the Spaniards (1781-82) they took refuge in Savannah.
498
LYMAN— LYON
Lyman, THEODORE, author; born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 20, 1792; gradu- ated at Harvard College in 1810; member of the Massachusetts legislature in 1820- 25; mayor of Boston in 1834-35. During the latter year he saved William Lloyd Garrison from the fury of a mob, endan- gering his own life. He was the author of Account of the Hartford Convention; The Diplomacy of the United States with For- eign Nations, etc. He died in Brookline, Mass., July 18, 1849.
Lynch, JAMES DANIEL, author; born in Mecklenburg county, Va., Jan. 6, 1836; graduated at the University of North Carolina in 1859; served in the Confed- erate army during the Civil War, and after its close practised law in West Point, Miss. Among his publications are The Bench and Bar of Mississippi; The Bench and Bar of Texas; Kemper County Vindicated, or Reconstruction in Missis- sippi; and the poems, The Clock of Des- tiny; The Star of Texas; The Siege of the Alamo; and Columbia Saluting the Na- tions, written for the World's Columbian Exposition.
Lynch, THOMAS, signer of the Declara- tion of Independence; born in Prince George parish, S. C., Aug. 5, 1749; was of Austrian descent. His father, also THOMAS, a wealthy patriot, was a member of the Continental Congress from 1774 till his death, in 1776, The son was educated in England, and returned home in 1772, when he settled upon a plantation on the Santee River and married. He was elected to fill the seat of his sick father in Con- gress near the close of 1775, when he voted for and signed the Declaration of In- dependence. His own ill-health compelled him to leave Congress in the fall of 1776. Near the close of 1779 he embarked for St. Eustatius, with the intention of pro- ceeding to Europe, but the vessel and all on board were never heard of afterwards.
Lynch, WILLIAM FRANCIS, naval offi- cer; born in Norfolk, Va., in April, 1801; entered the navy as midshipman in 1819. In 1847 he was sent on an expedition, proposed by himself, to explore the course of the River Jordan and the coasts of the Dead Sea. He entered upon these duties in the spring of 1848, and completed them with great success. He ascertained the Dead Sea to be 1,312 feet lower than the
Mediterranean Sea. He joined the Con- federates in 1861, and was made a com- mander in the navy, in which he served throughout the Civil War. He died in Baltimore, Md., Oct. 17, 1865.
Lynch Law, the name given to the summary operations of a mob, or a few private individuals, independently of the legal authorities. It is said to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who exercised it upon the fugitive slaves and criminals dwelling in the Dismal Swamp, N. C., when they committed outrages upon persons and property which the colonial law could not promptly redress.
Lyon, MARY, educator; born in Buck- land, Mass., Feb. 28, 1797; acquired with much difficulty an education that she deemed necessary to fit her to become a teacher; and, after • teaching for nearly twenty years, founded at South Hadley, Mass., on a plan combining domestic labor with an advanced curriculum, the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, of which she was president till her death. The institu- tion has since become Mount Holyoke Col- lege and the model for a number of schools for young women. She died in South Hadley, Mass., March 5, 1849.
Lyon, MATTHEW, legislator; born in County Wicklow, Ireland, in 1746; emi- grated to America at the age of thirteen, and was assigned to a Connecticut farmer for a sum of money to pay for his passage. Subsequently he settled in Vermont and became lieutenant in a company of " Green Mountain Boys," in 1775, but was cash- iered for deserting his post. He served in the Northern Army awhile afterwards, and held the rank of colonel while serving as commissary-general of militia. In 1778 he was deputy secretary to the governor of Vermont; and after the war he built saw-mills and grist-mills, a forge, and a mill for manufacturing paper, where he had founded the town of Fairhaven, in Rutland county. Lyon served in the State legislature, and was a judge of Rutland county in 1786. He established the Free- man's Library (newspaper), which he con- ducted with ability. From 1797 to 1801 he was a member of Congress, and gave the vote which made Jefferson President of the United States. For a libel on Presi- dent Adams, in 1798, he was confined four months in jail and fined $1,000. In 1801
499
LYON— LYTLE
he went to Kentucky, and represented that State in Congress from 1803 to 1811. Ruined pecuniarily by the building of gunboats for the War of 1812-15, he went to Arkansas, and was appointed terri- torial delegate to Congress, but did not
NATHANIEL LTOX. ( From an old daguerreotype.)
live to take his seat, dying in Spadra Bluff, Aug. 1, 1822.
Lyon, NATHANIEL, military officer ; born in Ashford, Conn., July 14, 1818; killed in battle, Aug. 10, 1861; graduated at West Point in 1841. He served in the war in Florida and against Mexico, where he gained honors for gallant conduct; be- came captain in 1851 ; and when the Civil War broke out was placed in command of the arsenal at St. Louis, where he out- witted and outgeneralled the Confeder- ates. Commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers in May, 1861, the command of the department devolved on him, June 1. Pie acted with great vigor against the
Confederates under the governor (Jack- son) of Missouri; he attacked a large force at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, on Aug. 10, 1861 ; and was killed in the battle. Lyon was unmarried, and be- queathed nearly all his property (about $30,000) to the government to assist in preserving the Union.
Lyons, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL, LORD, diplomatist; born in Lymington, England, April 26, 1817; the only son of the first Lord Lyons; was educated at Ox- ford; filled many diplomatic appoint- ments, including attache at Athens in 1839, at Dresden in 1852, and at Florence in 1853; was envoy to Tuscany in 1858; became British minister to the United States in the latter year, and held the post till 1865, when he became ambassa- dor to Constantinople; and was ambassa- dor to France in 1867-87. He succeeded to the barony in 1858; became a member of the privy council in 1865; and was made a viscount in 1881, and an earl in 1887. He died in London, England, Dec. 5, 1887.
Lytle, WILLIAM HAINES, military offi- cer; born in Cincinnati, Nov. 2, 1826; graduated at Cincinnati College in 1843; served in the war against Mexico, and was Democratic candidate for lieutenant- governor of Ohio in 1857, but was de- feated. In command of the 10th Ohio Regiment, he served in western Virginia in 1861, and was wounded. He was in command of a brigade under General Mitchell; was wounded in the battle of Perryville and made brigadier-general. He served under Rosecrans, and was killed in the battle of Chickamauga, Sept. 20, 1863.
E 174 .L91 1905 v.5 SMC Lossing, Benson John, Harper's encyclopedia of United States history from 4 47083523