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PREFACE.
THEEE are some, of a pedantic school, who will probably smile when they read, in an opening page of this work, the question, « Why did Julim Cvsar invade Great Britain?" and yet grave historians-who were learned men, and not pedants - thought fit to discuss the problem, and to offer elaborate and careful essays thereon. We take credit for this : that in our answer to the above question, we give, in a few concise sentences, the sub- stance of all that has been conjectured and written upon the subject. We have before us a popular History, in the catechetical form, and in this the single question relating to Julius Caesar runs thus: « Who was the first Boman general wJio invaded this island?" and the answer is : " Julius CaBsar, who made two expeditions into it ; but who met with so brave a resistance, that ' he was obliged to return." Waiving any criticism upon the sufficiency of the answer, we cannot refrain from showing that the form of instruction in the work to which we have referred, comprehends only the communication of TACTS; while, upon the system adopted in these pages, the PACTS are preserved, and SEASONS added to them.
iv PREFACE.
This explanation applies to every question and answer contained in THE HISTORICAL KEASON WHY, excepting such as involve the mere statement of facts; but which are, nevertheless, intended to connect, explain, and enforce the reasons which have already been given, or are intended immediately to follow.
It is by no means pretended that THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY forms a complete epitome of the History of England. But it is presumed to be a work which contains more of the essence of the History than any hitherto published; it is a letter epitome than any other of similar pretensions; because it dives beneath the mere surface of matters of fact, and cuts into the lode which constitutes the real wealth of information.
The Author is aware that in undertaking to find SEASONS for many historical events, he has ventured upon ground which calls into question the wisdom, integrity, and motives of men of high mark. But it will be observed that whatever is sacred to the consciences and ouls of men has been left undisturbed ; and only those matters which have a broad and open relation to the political and civil History of the country have been touched.
For all the reasons given, the most impartial historians have been consulted and relied upon. The reader of THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY should not expect to find a complete answer immediately following each particular question. The facts and reasons are mutually relative, and will generally be found to GROUP themselves around
PREFACE.
a principal question as a centre. Some of the answers include more reasons or facts than could be expressed in the terse form of a single interrogation. In such cases, the question in the Text and the question in the Index have been made to differ, in order to call attention to more than one fact or reason, where such may be found.
The Index has been designed to serve the reader as an interrogator; a profitable system of acquiring information will be to consult the Index for a question, and, after exercising the mind thereon, turn to the text to see how far the mental and the printed solution agree. To facili- tate this method of self-instruction, the Index has been, after the manner of the Text, arranged into Periods, so that the reader may take a definite era of British History, and exercise himself thereon before proceeding to the. occurrences of another period.
The paragraphs in small type will be found to supply- many interesting details, and to give connection and solidity as a whole, to that which, in the catechetical form, has a tendency to become fragmentary and uncon- nected. And the Notes which follow the close of each historical period will impart a good idea of the material and intellectual progress of the kingdom.
It has been truly said that History may be regarded as that species of philosophy which teaches by example; and it is equally true that, while it adds to our own stock of experience an immense accumulation of the experience of others, it furnishes innumerable tests, by which we may verify all the precepts of morality and
PREFACE.
prudence. History is, indeed, the repository of all those facts and motives which best illustrate the general nature of men. It opens to us the springs of human affairs ; it marks the rise, progress, and decay of empires ; it developes the reciprocal influence of government and national peculiarities; it explains the artificial manners of social life; and, in all the vivid colouring of nature, it pourtrays, with a firm and steady hand, the strong and distinguishing traits of individual and of national character.
If these remarks be just, with respect to History at large, how much more forcibly must they apply to the immediate History of our own country ? And how much more interesting must this History be, when we are shown the intent and bearing of aims and deeds, as far as is possible, separated from redundant matter, and estimated by an impartial investigation?
INDEX.
V The Figures refer to the Numbers of the Questions.
PEOM THE HOMAN INVASION" TO THE AEEIVAL OP THE SAXONS.
Agricola, what was his policy ... 54 Agricola, why did he build forts
from the Solway to the Tyne ... 55
Agricola, why recalled from Britain Cl
Agricola, who succeeded him ... 62
Britain, when first discovered to be an island .-. ... 60
Britons, why did they break the terms of peace with Caesar ... 13
Britons, why did they rebel after the recall of Plautius 34
Britons, what vyas their religion ... 40
Britons, why did the southern re- volt against Suetonius 45
Csesar, Julius, why did he invade Britain 2
Caesar, why did he retire from Britain 15
Caesar, when did he set out for his second expedition 16
Caesar, to what extent did he sub- due the Britons 25
Caledonians, who were they ... 55
Caractacus, why made a leader of the Welsh Britons 36
Carausis, how did he become Em- peror of Britain 73
Cartismandua, why did she betray Caractacua 38
Cassibelanus, why chosen to lead the Britons against the Romans 21
Cassibelauus, why deserted by Brit- ish tribes 23
Comius, why sent as ambassador to the Britons 6
Comius, why imprisoned by the Britons 7
Constantino, why was he surnamed "the Great" 75
Cunobeliuus, whom did he succeed 28
Druidical orders .. 42
Druids, why is it difficult to arrive at a knowledge of their belief ... 41
Franks, what were they
77
Governor of Britain, who was the first ............... 33
Grampian Hills, battle on ...... 59
Hadrian, why did he construct a
wall from the Solway to the Forth 64 Hadrian, why did he come to
Britain ............... 64
Hadrian, why did he hastily quit
Britain ............... 65
Hadrian, who succeeded him ... 66 Historical knowledge, why should
we acquire it ............ 1
Invasion, where did the Romans land ............... 8
Ireland, when first known to the Romans ............ 59
Lucullus, what was the cause of his death . ........... 62
Ostorius, whom did he succeed Ostorius, what was his policy
Picts, who were they 67
Plautius, when did he invade Bri- tain : 30
Plautius, why was his landing un- opposed 31
Plautius, what were his first acts... 33
Roman fleet, why liable to frequent
disasters 20
Romans, why did they withdraw
from Britain 27
Romans, why did they abandon
Britain... 79
Roman Period, notes upon ... page 29
Saxons, what were the first 77
Scots, who were they 67
Severus, why did he come to Britain 67 Severus, why did he strengthen
Hadrian's wall 63
Vlll
INDEX.
Severus, what were the circum- stances of his last years 71
Suetonius, why did he resolve to conquer Anglesea 43
Suetonius, how did his army cross the Menai Straits 44
Suetonius, what did he do when he heard of the rebellion 47
Theodosius, why sent as governor
to Britain ... 77
Theodosius, what was his policy ... 77 Theodosius, what took place after his departure 79
Vespasian, in what year did he be- come Emperor of Rome 52
Vespasian, whom did he appoint to be governor of Britain 53
Volusenus, why sent to explore the British shores 4
BRITAIN UNDER THE SAXON?.
Alfred, what were the disasters of
his reign 92
Alfred, what were his character
and policy 95
Alfred, who succeeded him 96
Anglo-Saxons, why did they neglect
agriculture 105
Anlaff, why did he pretend to the
crown a second time 118
Athelstan, what was his policy ... 113 Athelstan, what caused the battle
between him and Anlaff 115
Athelstan, who succeeded him ... 117
Canute, why did he lay claim to the English crown 132
Canute, why did he enjoy the favour of the people 134
Canute, in what ways did he distin- guish himself 135
Canute, who succeeded him 137
Danes, what did they in the Saxon
times 91
Danes, what was their religion ... 103 Danes, how did England fall for a time under their yoke 130
Edgar, why did he succeed Edwi... 124 Edgar, why was he surnamed " The
Peaceable" 124
Edgar, what was his principal
glory 125
Edgar, how did he succeed in
exterminating wolves 128
Edgar, who succeeded him 127
Edgar, why was he surnamed " The
Martyr" 127
Edred, what was his policy ... 121
Ed red, who succeeded him 122
Edmund, what was the chief event
of his reign 119
Edward, what were his chief acts 97 Edward, why was his right dis- puted by Ethelwald 98
Edward, what improvements were
made in his reign ......... 100
Edward, who succeeded him ... 112 Edward II., what brought him to
the throne ............ 140
Edward II., why was his marriage
unhappy ............ 141
Edward II., who succeeded him ... 143 Edward II., why was he undecided
to whom to bequeath the crown 148 Edwi, what were the misfortunes
of his reign ............ 123
Egbert, who succeeded him ... 90 Ethelred, why was his reign tur-
bulent ............... 129
Hardicanute, what was his cha-
racter ............... 139
Hardicanute and Harold, what
were the features of their reigns 140 Harold, why was he prevented
from taking the throne ...... 13S
Harold II., how did he become
possessed of the crown ...... 146
Heptarchy, what did it consist of 87
King, who was the first ...... 88
Rents of land, what were the first 107
Saxons, why did they come to
Britain ............ 80
Saxons, what took place upon their
arrival ............... 82
Saxons, why did they resolve to
settle in Britain ......... 83
Saxons, why did they not excel in
learning ............ 101
Saxons, of what religion were they 103 Saxons, why were they encouragers
of poetry ... ...... 109
Saxons, Anglo, why did they en-
gleet maritime affairs ...... Ill
Saxon customs ......... *117
Saxons, Anglo, by whom was their
naval greatness first established. . . 131 Saxon Period, notes upon ...page 43
Vortigern, who was he
William of Normandy, why did he visit Edward II. ... 142
FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE DEATH OB KING JOHN.
Archbishop of Canterbury, why declared Primate of all England 168
Assize of Arms, what was the origin of 260
Battle of Hastings, why fought ... 151 Bishop of Ely, why was he expelled the kingdom 277
Cinque Ports, why were they so called ... ... ... 176
Cinque Ports, of what ports com- posed 177
INDEX.
IX
Commerce, why greatly restricted
in this period 329
Curfew-bell, how did it originate... 18C
Doomsday-book, what was it ... 165
Harold, what were the circum- stances of his death 151
Harold's sons, what did they at- tempt 155
Henry, who was he 192
Henry, what acts made him popular 192
Henry, why did he make an expe- dition into Normandy 198
Henry, why was a foreign con- federacy formed against him ... 203
Henry's son, what caused his death 205
Henry's second marriage, what caused it 207
Henry, what were the circum- stances of his death 212
Henry, why were English liberties extended in his reigu 213
Henry, what quarrel took place between him and the Archbishop of Canterbury 214
Henry II., who
Henry II., what were the first acts of his reign
Henry II., why did he have his son Prince Henry crowned during his own life-time
Henry II., why did differences arise between the King and the Prince
Henry II., what wars and rebellions occurred in his reign
Henry II., what occasioned a war between the Princes
Henry II., what were the circum- stances of his death
Henry II., who succeeded him ...
Jews, what caused a dreadful mas- sacre of ,
Jews, what caused a second mas- sacre 273
John, who was he 298
John, why was his accession dis- puted 299
John, what were the circumstances of his marriage 305
John, how did he create disaffec- tion among the Barons 312
John, in what did he yield to the Barons 314
John, what circumstances attended his death , 320
Longbeard, who was he 293
MagnaCharta, how was it obtained 314 Matilda, Queen, who was she ... 208 Matilda, why were the people op- posed to her 215
Matilda, why did she regain the throne 223
Matilda, what caused her to be
finally dethroned 224
Maud, Queen, who was she ... 202
Norman Period, notes upon... page 88
Peace with Prance, what produced
it in the reign of Henry II. ... 253 Peace with France, why was it once
more disturbed 257
Prince Henry, who was he 221
Prince Richard, who was he ... 261 Prince Henry, what were the cir- cumstances of his death 263
Prince John, who was he 267
Prince John, of what act of trea- chery was he guilty 285
Prince John, what obtained for him
Richard's forgiveness 289
Prince Arthur, who was he 299
Prince Arthur, what was his sup-
posed fate 'rince Louis of France, why did he
invade England
... 317
Queen, who became the first, and why
Richard, who was he
Richard, why did he go to the Holy Land
Richard, why did he suddenly abandon the Crusades ...
Richard, what caused him to be made prisoner
Richard, what were the leading occurrences during his captivity
Richard, upon what pretext did the Emperor of Germany keep him in prison
Richard, what obtained his release
Richard, what great calamity oc- curred in his reign
Richard, what were the circum- stances of his death
Richard, who succeeded him
Robert, who was he
Robert, why did he land in England
Robert, why did he return to Normandy
Robert Earl of Gloucester, why did he submit to Stephen
Scotland, why did William invade it IBS
Scotland, how did it become a de- pendency of England 255
Stephen, why did he claim the crown 217
Stephen, why did he make war against Scotland 221
•Stephen, how did he lose the throne 223
Stephen, how did he obtain release from captivity 225
°tephen, how did he regain the throne 227
Stephen, what were the circum- stances of his death 229
271
284 285
2S6 287
295
296 296 160 196
197
219
IXDEX.
Succession to the crown, what ad- vantages arose from its unset- tled state in early times 323
Thomas a'Becket, who was he ... 233 Thomas a'Becket, what were the circumstances of his death ...234
War with France, what caused it in William's reign 166
William Duke of Normandy, why did he claim the crown 149
William, why did he make a jour- npy through the kingdom ...152
William, why did revolts and in- surrections occur after his acces- sion 154
William, what was the effect of his rigid government 156
William, why did a war break out between him and Robert 1GO
William, what were the circum- stances of his death 167
William, by whom was he suc- ceeded 181
William II., why was a conspiracy raised against him 183
William II., what caused a war be- tween him and France 189
William II., what were the circum- stances of his death 191
William II., who buccceded him ... 192
FEOM THE DEATH OF KING JOHN TO THE ACCESSION OF HENKY THE lOTTETH.
Alliance, why made between the Kings of Scotland and France ... 391
Barons, what was their conduct in Henry's reign 357
Barons, why did Henry make con- cessions to them 362
Battle of Evesham, what were its consequences 369
Battle of Poictiers, what caused it 448
Battle of Crecy (or Cressy), what caused it 450
Bruce, Robert, who was he ... 399
Bruce, why did he claim the throne of Scotland ... 400
Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, who were they ... 464
Duke of Lancaster, why did he make an expedition into France 465
Duke of Gloucester, why did he take up arms against Richard II. 474
Duke of Gloucester, what were his acts 476
Duke of Gloucester, what was his end 486
Duke of Hereford, why banished... 488
Duke of Norfolk, why banished ... 4S8
Duke of Hereford, why did he in- vade England 491
Edward, what prompted him to in- vade Wales 377
Edward, why did he make war against Scotland 3S4
Edward, why did he make war against Scotland asecond time... 393
Edward, what were the circum- stances of his death 400
Edward II., in what way did he ex- hibit unfitness for the throne ... 401
Edward II., what led to constitu- tutional changes in his reign ... 40R
Edward II., what led to a civil war 408
Edward II., what restored peace between him and tho Barons ... 413
Edward II., what led to a second civil war 421
Edward II., what led to a third civil war 425
Edward II., why did he surrender his French dominions 427
Edward II.. what was his fate ... 431
Edward III., what were his first acts 437
Edward III., why did he claim the throne of France 411
Edward III,, why did he invade France 441
Edward III., what was the result of the invasion 415
Edward III., why did he invade Normandy 443
Edward, the Black Prince, who was he 450
Edward III., what led to war with France 457
Edward, the Black Prince, what caused his death 459
Edward III., what were the circum- stances of his death 460
Edward, the Black Prince, why so called 461
Edward III., who succeeded him... 462
Gavaston, who was he 405
Gavastou, what was his fate ... 412 Gloucester, Earl of, what set him at variance with the Royal party 371
Henry III., who was he 337
Henry III., what reconciled the Barons to him 339
Henry III., why declared of age when only sixteen 343
Henry III., what was the nature of the quarrel between him and bis brother Richard 345
Henry III., why did he make an expedition into France 347
Henry III., why did his marriage prove unsatisfactory 351
Henrv III., what influenced him to confirm the Great Charter ...353
Henry III., what steps did he take against the domination of the Barons 359
Henry III., what led to a war be- tween him and the Barons ... 363
Henry III., what was the result of the war with the Barons 364
Henry III., what circumstances attended his death 373
Henry III., who succeeded him ... 374
Hubert de Burgh, why was he dis- graced 340
Ireland, what led to a revolt in, under Edward II 419
Jews, why severely treated 380
John, who succeeded him 337
Mad Parliament, what was the so- called 355
Mortimer, who was he 435
Mortimer, what was his fate ... 438
Notes upon the period ... page 120
Prince Edward, what were his dis-
364
Queen Isabel, what was her con- duct 423
Richard II., who was he 462
Richard II., what rendered him popular 463
Richard II., what led to an insur- rection - 467
Richard II., why did he become unpopular 469
Richard II., what led to a rupture between him and the Parliament 471
Richard II., what change did ho grant in the constitution 473
Richard II., what led to a quarrel between the Court and the Citi- zens of London 4SO
Richard II., why did he resign the crown 497
Richard II., what was his end ... 499
Scotland, what events contributed to peace with 43G
Scotland, why invaded by English Barons 439
Spencer, Hugh, who was he ... 423
Wales, in what manner was it an- nexed to England 882
Wallace, who was he 397
Wallace, what was his death ... 399 War with France, what caused it
under Edward 392
Wat Tyler, who was he 468
PEOM HENRY THE FOURTH TO HENRY THE SEVENTH.
Battle of Agincourt, why fought ... 534
Duke of Burgundy, who was he ... 530 Duke of Burgundy, what was his
end 532
Duke of York, why did he aspire
to the crown 552
Duke of Suffolk, why brought to trial 555
Duke of Suffolk, what was his end 558
Duke of York, how was he en- snared 560
Duke of York, why set at liberty... 561
Duke of York, why made Protector of England 564
Duke of York, what led to his quarrel with the King 5G6
Duke of Gloucester, why did he claim the crown 591
Duke of Gloucester, why was the crown offered to him 593
Duke of Buckingham, why did he conspire against Richard III. ... 598
Edward IV., who was he 575
Earl of Warwick, why did he con- spire against Edward IV. ... 576 Edward IV., why did he fly from
England 580
Edward IV., why did he make an
attempt to regain the crown ... 5S1 Edward IV, what were the circum- stances of his death 586
Edward IV., who succeeded him ... 587 Edward V., what was his fate ... 597 Earl of Richmond, who was he ... 600
Henry IV., who was he 500
Henry IV., why was a conspiracy
formed against him 503
Henry IV., why threatened with
the loss of French dominions ... 505 Henry IV., what were the circum- stances of his death 513
Henry IV., who succeeded him ... 514
Henry V., who was he 514
Henry V., why did he become
popular 517
Henry V., why did he pretend to
the crown of France 520
Henry V., what was the result of
his first expedition to France ... 52 i Henry V., how did he secure the
crown of France 528
Henry V., what were the circum- stances of his death 535
Henry VI., who was he 537
Henry VI., what resulted after struggles with the Yorkists ... 56D
Henry VI., why deposed 573
Henry VI., who succeeded him ...575 Henry VI., what were the circum- stances of his death 5S2
Jack Cade, how did the insurrec- tion under him originate ...557 Joan of Arc, who was she 541
Lollards, what were they 518
Maid of Orleans, who was she ... 543 Notes upon the period ... page 145 Owen Glendower, who was he ... 507
INDEX.
Owen Glendower, what was his end 512
Queen Margaret, who was she ... 518
Richard III., who was he 595
Richard III., what were the cir- cumstances of his death 601
Scotch, why did they invade Eng- land . ... ... 508
"Wars of" the Roses" ...
... 571
York and Lancaster, wars of ... 561 York and Lancaster, what were the conditions of the compromise between 570
FEOM HENEY THE SEVENTH TO THE DEATH OP ELIZABETH.
Anne Boleyn, why beheaded ... 640 Archbishop Cranmer, why sent to
the Tower 690
Archbishop Cranmer, why did he
suffer 692
Babington's conspiracy, what was
its object 742
Battle of Spurs, why fought ...626 Battle of Flodden Field, why fought 628
Cardinal Wolsey, who was he ... 624 Cardinal Wolsey, why disgraced ... 638 Cardinal Pole, who was he ... 652
Catherine Howard, why beheaded 650 Catherine Parr, who was she ... 653
Earl of Essex, what led to his ex- ecution 754
Elizabeth, why was her accession so well received 715
Elizabeth, what were her first steps towards a reformed religion 718
Elizabeth, why did she prefer to remain unmarried 721
Elizabeth, why did she promote peace with France and Scotland 725
Elizabeth, why did she dislike Mary Queen of Scots 726
Elizabeth, why did the Parliament wish her to marry 733
Elizabeth, why did she seek the death of Mary Queen of Scots ... 740
Elizabeth, what were the circum- stances of her death 758
Field of Cloth of Gold, why so
called 630
Field of Cloth of gold, why held ... 631
Henry VII., who was he 600
Henry VII., why was he popular... 602 Henry VII., why was his reign
troubled 605
Henry VII., what expedition of
discovery did he promote 619
Henry VIIL, what were his first acts 622
Henry VIIL, why did he seek a divorce from Queen Catherine ... 633
Henry VIIL, why did he marry AnneofCleves 644
Henry VIIL, what were the cir- cumstances of his death 658
Henry VIIL, who succeeded him... 660
House of Tudor, what is the mean- ing of the name 608
Lady Jane Grey, who was she ... 680 Lady Jane Grey, why sought to be
made successor to Edward IV. ... 682 Lady Jane Grey, why executed ... 700
Lord Somerset, who was he 661
Lord Seymour, why executed ... 662 Lord Somerset, why executed ... 679
Mary Queen of Scots, why married to the Dauphin of France 711
Mary Queen of Scots, what were her claims to the English Crown 726
Mary Queen of Scots, why did she become unpopular with her sub- jects 730
Mary Queen of Scots, why did she submit to Elizabeth 739
Notes upon the period ... page 175
Prayer Book, whycompiled 666
Prince Arthur, who was he 614
Princess Elizabeth, why imprisoned 705
Queen Mary, why did her cause acquire strength 687
Queen Mary, why did she marry Philip of Spain 695
Queen Mary, why was her marriage unpopular 697
Queen Mary, what were the cir- cumstances of her death 713
Reformation, why did it spread rapidly in Scotland 719
Sir Thomas More, why beheaded 639 Sir Francis Drake, what gave rise
to his discoveries 746
Spanish Armada, why fitted out ... 748 Spanish Armada, why did it fail ... 750 Star Chamber, why so called ... 610
Thomas Cromwell, who was he ... 646
FEOM THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH TO GEOBGE THE PIEST.
Battle of Naseby, what resulted from it 815
Battle of the Boyne, what caused it 862
Bishops, why committed to the Tower by James 85Q
Charles L. who was he ... ... 784
Charley, what were his first dif- ficulties with the Parliament ... 785
Charles, why did he issue writs for a new Parliament 803
Charles, what led to the final rup- ture between hina and the Parlia- ment 807
Charles, why did he remove his army from Shrewsbury 810
Charles, why did he escape and fly from Hampton Court 819
Charles, why upon his trial did he refuse to defend himself 821
Charles, what was his end 822
Charles, what form of government succeeded his death 824
Charles II., why did he disappoint his supporters _ 837
Charles II., why did he marry the Infanta of Portugal 838
Charles II., why did he declare war against the Dutch 839
Charles II., what were the principal events disgraceful to his reign ... 841
Charles II., what were the circum- stances of his death 844
Charles II., who succeeded him ... 846
Commonwealth, or Protectorate, what were the chief events during 831
Commonwealth, what was it ... 824
Duke of Buckingham, why im- peached 792
Duke of Buckingham, what led to his assassination 798
Duke of Monmouth, why did he create insurrection in James's reign 847
Duke of Monmouth, who was he ... 848
Duke of Marlboroush, why were his victories unprofitable to Eng- land 874
Duke of Marlborough, why dis1- graced 890
Gibraltar, what led to the siege of 876 George Villiers, who was he ... 776 Gunpowder plot, what originated it 767 Gunpowder plot, what led to its
discovery 770
Gunpowder plot, what was the fate
of the conspirators 771
Jacobites, what were they 870
James, who was he 762
James, why was he received with popular applause 764
James, in what did he disappoint the Catholics 765
James, why did he become un- popular 772
James, how did he raise supplies when refused by the Parliament 779
James, what were the circum- stances of his death 783
James, what were the circum- stances of his flight 854
James, what led to his attempt to recover the crown 858
John Hatnpden, who was he ... 811 Judge Jeffries, why was he so odious to the people 849
London, what calamities befel it in the reiflru of Charles II 843
Lord Falkland, who was he 811
Lord Chancellor Bacon, why im- peached 781
Lotteries, why were they first intro- duced 887
Massacre of Glencoe, what caused it 865
National Debt, in what did it
originate 864
Notes upon the period ... page 175
Oliver Cromwell, who was he ... 825
Oliver Cromwell, what were his movements with the army ...827
Oliver Cromwell, why did the Par- liament invest him with such authority 827
Oliver Cromwell, why did he forcibly dissolve the long Parlia- ment 829
Oliver Cromwell, why did he be- come popular with the nation ... 830
Oliver Cromwell, why did he refuse the crown 832
Oliver Cromwell; what were the circumstances of his death ... 833
Oliver Cromwell, who succeeded him .„ 835
Parliament, why did it remon- strate with Charles 797
Parliament, why called " The Lon g " 80 1 Parliament, The Long, what were
its first measures 805
Parliament, what did it do when
Charles had surrendered 816
Parliament, what was its condition
in the time of Charles 817
Prince Maurice, who was he ... 809
Prince Rupert, who was he 801)
Prince Rupert, how did he endan- ger Charles's cause 813
Queen Mary, what were the cir- cumstances of her death 8C6
Queen Anne, why did she make war against France '...872
Queen Anne, what were the most important political acts of her reign 8SO
Queen Anne, what were the cir- cumstances of her death 892
Queen Anne's reign, why called the Augustan age of England 894
Richard Cromwell, why did he re- sign the Protectorate 835
Robert Carr, why a favourite with James 774
Scotland, what led to revolt in, under Charles ... 800
XIV
INDEX.
Scotland, what were the circum- stances of the union with Eng- land
Sir Walter RaleigL, why executed 777
War against Prance, why under- taken 796
War with France, what led to it under William III 867
Whigs and Tories, what originated their designation 879
William Prince of Orange, why invited to England 851
William III. and Mary, who were they, and what brought them to the throne 855
William and Mary, what was the first important measure of Parlia- ment in their reign 857
William III., what were the cir- cumstances of his death 863
William III., who succeeded him... 870
THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK.
Admiral Eyng, why accused of cowardice 971
America, why did the colonists refuse to pay duties 995
America, why did the colonists reject the terms proposed by England 1006
America, what led to the first col- lision between the provincial and the royal troops 1000
American war, what led to its suspension 1011
Battle of Dettingen, what led to... 953 Battle of Foiiteuoy, what occurred
at 957
Battle of Preston Pans, what oc- curred after 964
Battle of Culloden, what were the
circumstances of 966
Battle of Copenhagen, what were
the circumstances of 1028
Battle of Trafalgar, what were the
circumstances of 1031
Battle of Leipsic, why the cause
of Napoleon's downfall 1061
Battle of Navarino, why fought... lluS Boston, why abandoned by the
British 1004
Cato- street conspiracy, what was its object 1092
Cato-street conspiracy, how de- tected 1093
Charles Edward Stuart, who was he 955
Chesapeake and Shannon, engage- ment between 1066
China, what caused the war with, in 1840 1138
Chinese Treaty of 185S, what are the advantages of 1158
Commodore Anson, what disasters attended his expedition 947
Continental war, what led to, in
the reign of George II 951
Corn Laws, why repealed 1144
Duke of Wellington, his superior generalship at Waterloo 1069
Earl of Bute, why was he created first Lord of the Treasury ... 9S7
East Indies, when did the British power take its rise in 974
East India Company, why de- prived of exclusive privileges ... 1127
Fox, what great act of good did he accomplish 1035
Fox, why was the Granville Cabinet dissolved upon Fox's death 1037
Fox, who was he 1033
France and Prussia, why did England participate in the war between 976
France and Spain, why was war declared against in the reign of George III 1007
French, why did they attempt to invade Ireland 1020
French revolution of 1848, what produced it 1149
General Howe, what did he ac- complish in the American war... 1005
George I., who was 896
George, under what circumstances
did he ascend the throne ... 899 George, in what elements of cha- racter did he differ from the
Stuarts 901
George, to what particular party
did he ally himself 902
George, what were the circum
stances of his death 934
George, who succeeded him .. 936
~ eorge II., who was he 937
George II., what was the state of the country at the commence- ment of his reign 940
George II., what were the circum- stances of his death 978
George II., who succeeded him ... 980 George III., why did he espouse the
Princess Charlotte 983
George Washington, who was he... 1002 George III., what were the cir- cumstances of his death 10S8
George III., who succeeded him... 1090
George IV., who was he 1090
George IV., of what did he die ... 1111 George IV., who succeeded him ... 1112 Gordon Riots, what led to them ... 1009
Habeas Corpus Act, pended
rhy sus-
... 1082
Impeachments, what remarkable ones occurred in the reign, of George 1 905
INDEX.
XV
Indian Rebellion, what caused it... 1157 Irish Rebellion of '98, what led to the 1023
Lord Macclesfield, why impeached 933 Lord Clive, why was ho sent back
to India 994
Lord Cornwallis, what led to his
campaign in India 1018
Lord Nelson, why sent with a
fleet to the Baltic 1027
Lord Exmouth, why sent to
Algiers 1073
Lord Exmouth, how did he attack
Algiers 1077
Members of Parliament, why were five expelled in the reign of
Napoleon, why were his proposals
of peace rejected 1029
Napoleon, what were the terms of
his first abdication 1062
Napoleon's return to Prance, why
called "The Hundred Days ... 1068 Napoleon, why sent to St. Helena 1070 New Orleans, why were the British
defeated at ... -, 1065
North America, why were the
British arms successful in ... 975 Notes upon the reign of Georgo
III page 292
Notes on the period from George
III. to Victoria page 315
O'Connell, why imprisoned ... 1140 Orange Lodges, why abolished ... 1118
Panic of 1825, what led to it ... 1103 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, why
discreditable 970
Perciyal, what led to his assassi- nation 1053
Pitt, why did he quit the ministry 9S5 Pitt, why made prime minister ... 1012 Pitt's death, wh?t were its effects
upon the Government policy ... 1032 Poor laws, why altered in the
reign of William IV 1117
Postage, why reduced 1143
Pretender of 1715, who was he ... 908 Prince of Wales, why made Regent 101, Prince of Wales, the Regency of... 1053 Protectionists, why so called ... 1147
Queen Anne, who succeeded her... 895
Queen Caroline, why didsho return from the Continent and demand to be crowned with George IV. 1096
Queen Caroline, what were the circumstances of her death ... 1100
Rebellion of 1715, what led to it... 908 Reform Bill, why introduced into
Parliament 1113
Reformed House of Commons, what was the first important
measure passed by 1125
Robert Clive, who was he 973
Russian war, what produced it ... 115-4
Sir Robert Walpole, what was he 938
Sir Robert Walpole, why did he resign all his appointments ... 949
Sir Arthur Wellesley, why sent with a British army to Portugal 1044
Sir John Moore, why did he re- treat to Corunna 1046
Sir John Moore, where was he killed 1047
Sir Francis Burdett, why com- mitted to the Tower 1050
Sir Arthur Wellesley, what were his achievements in Spain ... 1051
South Sea Company, how con- nected with the Government ... 923
South Sea Company, what led to its bursting '. 928
Spain, what led to war with, in the reign of George II 945
Spain and Holland, what great victories were gained over ... 1021
Spanish and French fleets, why permitted to unite 1031
Thistlewood, what was his punish- ment 1096
United States, what produced war with .,. ... 1054
United States, what was the result of war with 1055
Victoria, how did she become en- titled to the throne 1134
Warren Hastings, why impeached 1013
Wilberforce, who was he 112<5
Wilkes's trial, what public bene- fits resulted from 997
Wilkes, why was he sent to the Tower, and afterwards expelled
the Honse of Commons 992
William IV., who was he 1112
William IV., what were the cir- cumstances of his death 1132
EEEATA.— Question 460, for Edward the Tliird, read Edward the Second. Question 505, for Richard 'threatened, read Henry threatened.
B tire same
THE REASON WHY. — General Science. THE HOUSEWIFE'S REASON WHY,
t&v.
BRITAIN, INCLUDING ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND WALES, WAS ANCIENTLT CALLED ALBION.
THE
HISTOEICAL
REASON WHY
INTRODUCTORY.
1. Why should ive acquire Historical knowledge ?
Because it makes us acquainted with the troubles through which our ancestors have passed, and teaches us to appreciate and be thankful for the peace and prosperity of the times in which we live.
While giving us an insight into the errors, difficulties, and struggles of by-gone times, it teaches us that every individual in a state possesses some influence over the laws and institutions under which he lives ; and in disposing us to be good citizens, fits us for those social and political duties which we may be called upon to discharge.
History interests us, by revealing the social and domestic condition of our forefathers. Their modes of life, their habita- tions, dress, manners, customs, education, laws, and religion, are made known to us ; and we feel a greater interest in everything which now exists, by drawing comparisons between the Past and the Present.
B
THE HISTOEICAL 2EASOX WHY.
JULIUS CJESAR MADE HIS PIEST DESCENT ON BKITAIX, B.C. 55.
FROM THE FIRST INVASION BY THE ROMANS TO THE ARRIVAL OF THE SAXONS.
2. W hy did Julius Caesar invade Britain ?
Because, like other Roman Generals, he felt an unbounded ambition to achieve conquests, and to extend, in an age when victorious warfare was esteemed glorious, the military fame of the Roman empire. Also because the Britons assisted the Gauls in their battles with his armies, and thereby rendered the conquest of Gaul more difficult.
3. It is said, by some authors, that he was prompted to attempt the invasion by having seen in the possession of the Gauls rich pearls found upon the British shores: but this is very doubtful.
4. Why did lie send Volusenus to explore tlie sliores of Britain ?
Because he was unacquainted with the coasts, and the Gaulish merchants, being unfriendly to his rule, were unwilling to give him. the information which he needed.
5. Why did the British states send voluntary offers of submission to Ccesar ?
Because they had heard of his great power, and being disunited among themselves, were at first afraid to oppose him.
6. Why did Ccesar then send Comius as an Ambassador to the Britons ?
Because such a stratagem was likely to test the sincerity of the proffered submission of the Britons, and also to enable him to gain information of the numbers and strength of the British people — particulars which Csesar had been unable to gain from the expedition of Volusenus.
7. Why did the Britons" imprison Comius, and Ircak from their proffered submission to Rome ?
Because they were divided into a number of independent
THE HISTOEICAL IIEASO>* WHY.
A ROMAN CA3IP ESTABLISHED OX THE SHORES OF DEAL, B C. 54.
states, the most powerful of which had not consented to the submission ; and also because they found that Caesar was pre- paring1 for a hostile attack, although he professed to entertain only peaceful designs.
8. Upon what part of the coast did the invasion take place ?
Ceesar's fleet first advanced towards the coast of Dover, but finding the cliffs covered with a numerous army, and that the place was unfavourable for landing, he sailed along the coast, until he gained an open shore, probably at the place which is now called Deal.
9. Wliy did Ctesar succeed in easily effecting a landing ?
Because the Britons were fatigued and harrassed by their march along a difficult coast, to oppose him; and also because they were unacquainted with the appearance of the Roman galleys and arms, and were alarmed thereby.
10. The Roman soldiers had many and great difficulties to encounter arising from the depth of the water, which struck them breast high, the weight of their armour, and the assaults of the enemy, who knew the ground, and fought with great advantage. Ctesar observing that his men were a little daunted with these difficulties, and did not advance with their usual spirits, commanded some galleys to approach the shore, and attack the enemy in the flank with their slings and arrows. The Britons, astonished at the shape and rapid motions of the galleys, began to give back. The Roman soldiers hesitated to leave their boats, when the standard bearer of the Tenth Roman Legion, invoking the heathen gods, jumped into the sea, and advancing with the eagle towards the enemy, cried aloud, "Follow me, my fellow soldiers, unless you would betray the Roman eagle into the hands of the enemy." When the Romans beheld this bold action, they took fresh courage, and rushed in great numbers to the shore. A fierce battle ensued, during which Caesar sent constant supplies of men in galleys, and the .Britons wore ultimately overpowered.
11. Wliy did not Gxsar immediately follow up the victory lie had gained?
'"' Because the ships having his cavalry on board Lad been detained by some adverse circumstances.
B 2
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
C.ESAR EETUENED TO THE CONTINENT ABOUT SBPT. 20, B.C. 55.
12. Why did the Britons then offer terms of peace and submission to Caesar?
Because, having experienced great loss in battle, and having learnt the power of the Roman arms, they deemed it best to submit to an enemy by whom they had been defeated.
BEITONS OF THE SOUTHERN PAETS OP THE ISLAND.
13. WJnj did the Britons a second lime Irea'k the conditions of peace they had proffered ?
Because the ships containing the Eoman cavalry were driven hack by a violent storm, and scattered upon the Gaulish shore ; tnid tempestuous tides, rising to an unusual height upon the British coast, destroyed many of the ships and galleys which
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
CJ5SAK MADE A SECOND DESCENT, B.C. 54.
had brought the Romans over. The Britons were therefore tempted by these disasters which befel the Romans to endeavour to drive them from the island.
14. The harvest had been gathered in, except one field, in which, as the soldiers of the Seventh Legion were one day foraging, they were attacked by a great number of British cavalry and charioteers. The Romans, con- founded at the suddenness of the attack, were in the greatest danger <tf being cut to pieces. But Caesar, being informed that a great cloud of du* appeared in the direction where the Legion was foraging, suspected what had happened, and took a large number of soldiers from the camp, to the immediate rescue of the Legion. When Csesar came to the scene of action, he found his troops in the most imminent danger. The Britons were put to a stand; it was a drawn battle, and the Romans cautiously retired into their camp. The Britons, encouraged by this partial success, sent mes- sengers into every part of the country, to summon the tribes for a final struggle. Coesar, being aware of their movements, at once attacked them, and through the superior discipline of the Romans the Britons were once more defeated.
15. Why did C&sar again grant easy conditions of peace to the Britons, and then retire from the island?
Because his forces had been considerably decreased by these several battles ; many of his ships had been wrecked, and the winter was approaching without his army being adequately provided for. He may, also, have mistrusted the fidelity of the Gauls during his absence. Should they have risen against him, he would have been cut off from his main point of strength, and would have been entirely at the mercy of the Britons.
16. When did Caesar set out for his second expedition ? In May or June of the following year. He had in the
interval gone to Rome, making known his victories, and obtain- ing fresh supplies to pursue his conquests. His fleet had been considerably augmented during the winter, and he set sail frora Portus Titus (now Calais) having eight hundred transports, and a great number of galleys. In these he embarked five Legions and two thousand horse — making in all an army 42,000 strong.
17. The Roman army landed the second time, near the same place as at first, and met with no opposition. Although the Britons had received early intelligence of the great preparations which were making for a seconxt invasion of their island, and had collected a powerful army for its defence, yet when they beheld this enormous fleet approaching their coasts, they were struck with consternation, and retired into the country.
THE HISTOB1CAL EEASON WHY.
THE BRITO2TS DEFEATED Ilf A BATTLE NEAH, CANTERBTJEY, MAY 20, B.C. 54.
18. Why did Gcesar resolve to attack the Britons, who ~kad not opposed Ids landing ?
Because he obtained information that their armies were organised with hostile intentions, and he determined to pursue them and disperse them, while his own forces were yet in full vigour and spirits. He therefore divided his army into three bodies, and went in search of the enemy. Some battles were fought, in which the Britons were invariably defeated. The chief engagement occurred in the country near where Canterbury now stands. Here the Britons had a place fortified by felled trees and mud banks, but the Eomans compelled them to abandon it, and drove them in disorder into the woods.
19. Here Csesar received intelligence that a terrible storm had. again devas- tated his fleet. He therefore gave up the pursuit of the Britons, and returned by forced marches to the sea coast, where he found that forty ships were entirely destroyed, and the most of the others so much damaged that they were hardly repairable. Having taken steps for the security of the ships that were saved, and for the repair of those that were damaged, lie returned again to the scene of battle, after an absence of ten days.
20. Why was the Roman fleet liable to those frequent disasters ?
Because, although they were considered in those times to be great vessels, and strongly built, they were scarcely larger than the fishing smacks of the present day, and not so well adapted to withstand tempests. Besides, the tides aifecting our shores were little known, and the science of navigation was very imperfectly understood.
21. Why did the Britons choose Cassibelanus for their leader ?
Because, being divided into numerous tribes, each having its own chief, they found that they fought at great disadvantage against an army directed by one head, and acting in every movement in concert with the whole body. Cassibelanus was the chief of the most powerful of the British tribes, and when at war with them had obtained victories which claimed for him this distinction.
THE HISTOBICAL KEASON WHY.
C-ESAE EJIBAEKED HIS FOECES, AND EETTJENED IO THE CONTINENT, SEPT. 26, B.C. 54.
22. Several battles took place between the Romans, and the Britons under the command of Cassibelanus, iu which the Britons, after a brave resist- ance, were generally defeated, and greatly disheartened.
23. Why did several of the British tribes then desert Cassibelanus ?
Because he had previously been a powerful chief, and had, prior to Caesar's invasion, caused much trouble by provoking internal wars. When, therefore, the Britons found that Cassibelanus was unable to protect them against Csesar, their old resentment returned, and they preferred to submit to Caesar, rather than to share the uncertain fortunes of a rival chief.
24. What did Cassibelanus then design to do?
He formed a confederation with some of the tribes that were yet allied with him, to destroy Cassar's fleet. But, upon making1 the attempt, the Britons were repulsed with great loss, and Cintegorex, one of the allied chiefs,- was taken prisoner. After this, Cassibelanus, unable to bear up against these frequent reverses, sent ambassadors to Caesar to propose con- ditions of peace. Then the Southern British tribes submitted to Caesar, consented to pay tribute to Borne, and thus, for the first time, Roman authority prevailed.
25. Although it is generally said that Caesar subdued the island, it must be understood that the conquest was very partial. In those days many parts of the island were very difficult of access; so much so, that many of the tribes held no intercourse with, and, probably, were unknown to others. Caesar never penetrated into the country further than the neighbourhood of St. Albans, where he fought a battle with Cassibelanus. His conquests, therefore, lay among the tribes that inhabited the parts now known as the counties of Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Dorchester, Essex, &c. In fact, some of the subsequent British chieftains, as will be seen, regarded Caesar as defeated, and spoke of his " flying from the island." But the fact that the Roman power became gradually established here from the time of Caesar is undeniable,
26. What occurred when Ccesar left the island?
The various tribes, being again left to their own barbarous ways, engaged in petty wars, in which Cassibelanus took a
THE HISTORICAL BEASON WHY.
TLAUTIUS XAIfDED IN KENT, A.D. 4G.
conspicuous part, and several of them were broken up by strife, and merg-ed into the dominions of their conquerors.
27. Why did the Romans, after invading the island, again abandon it to the chiefs?
Because of civil wars which broke out in Rome, absorbed the attention of its Governors, and rendered foreign expeditions undesirable. A period of ninety-seven years passed before the Romans again directed their attention to Britain.
28. Who ivas the next prominent chief in Britain, after Cassibelanus ?
Cunobelinus, who succeeded Cassibelanus. Cunobelinus arrived at a degree of greatness formerly unknown in this island. He Became sovereign of the greatest part of those provinces which Csesar had conquered; he held peaceable possession probably by Keeping up friendly intercourse with Rome, and by paying occasional tribute. After his death his dominions were divided Between his widow, Queen Cartlsmandua, and his two sons, Caractacus and Togodunus. These three were then the most considerable chiefs in Britain.
29. Why did the Romans again invade Britain during the reign of these chiefs ?
Because, after the death of Cunobelinus, the chiefs withdrew their allegiance to Rome. And the affairs of the Romans again becoming settled, that warlike people once more determined to pursue conquest, and exalt the Roman arms.
30. Who next invaded Britain?
Aulius Plautius, a Roman Consul, was appointed by the Emperor Claudius to command the expedition. The Roman army consisted of four Legions with auxiliaries and cavalry, amounting to about 50,000 men; and Vespasian, who was after- wards Emperor, commanded under Plautius. This army landed without opposition.
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
LONDOX FOUNDED BY THE ROMANS, A.D. 50.
31. Why did the Britons offer no resistance to tks landing of the Army led by Plautius ?
Because, during the long absence of the Romans, they had become much divided, and there was no confederacy formed to resist the landing of the Romans. The British tribes prepared themselves separately for battle, and waited an attack.
32. What did Plautius first do?
Having learned that Caractacus and Togodunus were chiefs of two of the most powerful tribes, and that they were preparing for battle, he resolved to attack them at once. He first overtook and defeated Caractacus; and soon after his brother, Togodunna shared the same fate.
33. A great many battles ensued, in which the Britons were generally defeated. Some of the tribes submitted to the Romans, but others held out with such resolute heroism, and caused to the Roman Generals so much trouble, that Plautius found it necessary to represent his difficulties to the Emper»r Claudius, who himself came to Britain and assumed in person the command of the army. He succeeded in reducing a few of the tribes to submission, and then, after appointing Plautius to be the first Roman Governor of the conquered provinces in Britain, Claudius returned to Rome and received the honours paid to the victorious in battle. After the departure of Claudius, Plautius still carried on the wars successfully, for a few years. He conquered all the tribes occupying the country from the part now known as Kent, to the Land's End, and then returning to Rome, received great homage.
34. Why did the Britons again break out in rebel- lion ?
Because Plautius was recalled to Rome, and Ostorius appointed to succeed him as Governor. The Britons, regarding such a change as a sign of weakness, and looking upon every such circumstance as a probable opportunity for throwing off their bondage, determined to struggle once more for freedom. They therefore began to harrass the Romans, by which they provoked fresh wars, and sustained further and serious defeats.
35. What course did Ostorius pursue, upon resuming the Governorship ?
Having found, by the experience of former rulers, that when the Britons were allowed to remain undisturbed for any length
10 THE HISTORICAL EEASO1-T WHY.
CAKACTACUS DEFEATED BY OSTOEITTS, 51.
of time, they became rebellious, he determined at once to enforce their subjection. This led to further battles, in which the Romans, being still victorious, compelled some of the most troublesome of the tribes to deliver up their arms. Ostorius then caused a chain of forts to be erected along the banks of the rivers Nen and Severn ; he also founded a numerous colony of Roman veterans at Camulodunum, now Maid on, in Essex, and fortified their position. These were the first fortifications of any importance erected in the island.
36. Wliy did Caractacus, wlw had leen the chief of a tribe in South Britain, become the leader of the Welsh Britons ?
Because, having lost his own dominions, he fled into Wales, and being received there with great honour, on account of his patriotic resistance to the Romans, he was chosen to lead the Welsh Britons in their defence against the attacks which the Romans were expected to make upon them. This election was a judicious one, because Caractacus had proved his bravery and fidelity to British independence, and having repeatedly engaged with the enemy, he doubtless knew more of their tactics than the chiefs of the Silurian tribes.
37. The Romans, learning that Caractacus had taken refuge with the Silures (as the Welsh Eritons were called), knew that there could be no security for themselvess while so brave a chief had power to incite the Britons to war. Ostorius, therefore, resolved to conquer the Silures at once. For this purpose, he marched a powerful army towards "Wales. Caractacus, knowing well the country, drew his forces into the best position for battle, and waited the approach of the Romans. He led his forces to a high hill in Shropshire, upon the borders of Wales, and raised ramparts of stone all round the hill. The hill is supposed to have been Caer-Caradoc, a name which it retains to this day, and which is understood to have been the British name for Car-actacus. On this hill, traces of British ramparts may still be seen. At this romantic place the armies of the Romans and Britons met. The brave Caractacus, beholding the enemy approaching, spoke to his countrymen to this effect : " From this day, and this battle, you must date your liberty, if victorious, or your eternal servitude, if defeated." He then encouraged them by saying that Caesar had been obliged to quit the island, although he had boasted of conquering it ; and he solemnly invoked the gods (such as the Britons then worshipped) to aid them in the battle, and save their wives and children from slavery. This roused the Silurian army to the
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY. 11
CAEACTACUS BETEAYED INTO THE HANDS OF THE EOMAXS BT CARTIS MANDUA, ABOUT 52.
highest pitch of resolution, and they resolved to defend themselves to the last. The Romans made a desperate charge up the hill, and were received with a shower of darts and spears : but warding off these with their shields, they gained the height, and the Britons were driven back with great slaughter. The wife and daughter of Caractacus were taken prisoners. The brave Caractacus made his escape, and fled into the provinces of Cartis- mandua, the queen of a powerful tribe, holding a large tract of country in the centre of the island. But she treacherously betrayed him to the Romans, by whom he was led captive to Rome. Being led with his wife and children in triumph before the Emperor Claudius, he made the following touching appeal : " I was lately possessed of subjects, horses, arms, and rL'hes. Can you, Oh Claudius! be surprised that I endeavoured to preserve them? If you Romans have a desire to arrive at universal monarchy, must all nations, to gratify you, tamely submit to servitude? If I had submitted without a struggle, how much would it have diminished the lustre of my fall, and of your victory ? And now, if you resolve to put me to death, my story will soon be buried in oblivion ; but if you preserve my life, I shall remain a lasting monument of your clemency." He was set at liberty with his family, and they are supposed to have died in exile, as they were never again mentioned in history.
38. Wliy did Cartismandua betray Caractacus to the Romans ?
Because she was a wicked Queen, and had created rebellion in her own dominions. She therefore made terms with the Romans to maintain her authority over her own tribe, for which she delivered Caractacus a prisoner.
39. Ostorius received great honours from the Romans on account of his victory over Caractacus. Yet the Silures proved to be so unconquerable, and caused such frequent troubles to the Roman army, that Ostorius died, it is said, of anxiety caused by the wars. The next Roman Governor sent to Britain from Rome was Aulius Didius, who, upon arriving here, found great confusiou and disorder prevailing. Didius continued the policy. of the previous Governor in upholding the wicked Queen Cartismaudua, and many battles were fought with various success, until the Queen, even with Roman aid, was defeated, and Cartismandua obliged to deliver up her dominions to her injured king, Venusius. While these events were occuring, the emperor Claudius died, and was succeeded by his son, Nero. Aulius Didius continued for some time after the accession of Nero to be the Governor of Britain. But he was an inactive, unskilful Governor, and was succeeded by Veranius, who died in less than a year after he had reached this island. Veranius was succeeded by Suetonius Paulinus, one of the most celebrated generals of those times.
40. Of what religion were the ancient Britons? The religious teachers of the Britons were called Druids. They taught the people a mysterious superstition which deified
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
THE GOVERNOR OSTORIUS DIED IN BRITAIN, SUCCEEDED BY AU1IUS DIDIUS, 53.
rarious visible and invisible things. They worshipped the sun, moon, and stars, trees and rivers ; they held the oak and the mistletoe in great veneration ; and they erected large open
DRTJIDICAL TEMPLE AND WORSHIP.
temples, which were constructed of huge stones, in the midst of which they performed those ceremonies and sacrifices which constituted their forms of worship.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 13
SUETONIUS PAUMNUS GOVERNOR OF BRITAIN, 58.
41. Why is it difficult to arrive at a knowledge of the Doctrines which the Druids taught?
Because the Druidical priesthood deemed it to be unlawful to allow their doctrines to be written or inscribed. For this reason, when they consulted each other, they retired into dark groves and secret places. And there they taught the younger priests, who were solemnly bound not to divulge the things that were imparted to them. We know more, therefore, of the external forms of their superstitious rites, than of the principles which they inculcated.
42. According to the account given of the Druids by Julius Csesar, and other ancient authorities, the priesthood were of three classes, who were all under the government of either one supreme head, or Arch-Druid; or there were a limited number of Arch-Druids, each being at the head of the religious order in a limited country or district. The three classes of Druids were the Bards, the Vates, and the ordinary Druidical priests. The Bards had little to do with the administration of religious laws or rites. They were employed to inspire soldiers in time of war by poetic appeals which were delivered in a chanting tone ; and to instruct the young, chiefly by the narration of heroic tales. The Vates, were the high priesthood, who performed the public offices of religion, and accompanied their ceremonies by wild music, and mysterious words, which led the people to believe that they were inspired. The ordinary Druids performed minor religious rites arid attended to those matters which required administration in the houses of the people, and were unconnected with the great Druidical festivals There were also Druidesses, a sacred order of women, who attended upon the Priesthood, and performed deeds of charity. The superstition of the Druids, however, appears to have possessed very little of benevolence, or of desire for wisdom. The priests were austere and cruel. They used great influence to make the Britons fierce in war, and to show no mercy to their enemies. They professed to have the power of rewarding in a happier state those who fell in battle. They terrified the people by sacrificing in the most cruel manner those who offended against the Druidical laws ; and they are said to have constructed large idols of wicker-work, into which they put hundreds of human beings, and then destroyed them by fire, employing music to drown their cries. They also pretended to foretel future events. Upon the whole, they partook more of the character of magicians, keeping the people in awe, than teachers of such principles of knowledge or goodness as they understood, in those unenlightened days.
43. Why did Suetonius Paulinus resolve upon the conquest of the Isle of Anglesea ?
Because that island was the seat of an Arch-Druid, and a
14
THE HISTORICAL BEASOX WHY.
THE CHRISTIAN EELIGION SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN FIEST PUBLICLY PREACHED IN BRITAIN ABOUT 60.
place of refuge for the Druids, to which they flocked whenever the Britons were defeated in battle. From this island, it was found, that the Druids were constantly instigating the Britons to rebellion against the Romans. Knowing, therefore, the great influence which the Druids held over the Britons, Suetonius
THE ARMY OF SUETONIUS MAKING THE CONQUEST OF ANGLESEA.
deemed that there would be no security for Roman possession until the Druids were exterminated: he, therefore, resolved upon a great expedition to the Isle of Anglesea for this purpose.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 15
THE DIIUID3 ATTACKED AT AJfGLESEA, LAEGE NUMBEES OP DESTEOYED BY SUETONIUS, ABOUT 61.
41. Suetonius marched his army to the coast, and conveyed his soldiers across the Menai Straits in flat-bottomed boats. There he found a nume- rous army of Britons drawn up in the order of battle. The Druids had caused large fires to be lighted, with the view of alarming the enemy by indicating that those of them who were captured would be sacrificed. In the midst of the soldiers there were Druids with large beards, and Druidesses with long hair flowing, down their backs. They rushed up and down amid the soldiers, bearing large torches, raising the most frantic cries, and pouring out the most dreadful imprecations upon their enemies. The awful spectacle of the fires, the Druids, the women, the torches, and the fierce aspect of a barbarian array, at first alarmed the Romans they stood motionless, and many of them were slain. At length, being animated by the appeals of their generals, they made a daring charge, broke the British ranks, and many of the Druids were captured, and burnt in the fires they had prepared for their enemies. Suetonius then commanded the Druidical groves to be cut down, and their altars and temples to be destroyed.
45. Why did the Southern Britons break into revolt •while the army of Suetonius was thus engaged?
Because the Romans who composed the colony of Camalo- dunum (35) looking- upon the Britons as subdued, had treated them with great cruelty, depriving them of their lands, and subjecting them to the treatment of slaves. In a neighbouring colony, under the British chief Prasutagus, the same severities had been practised. The chief, who had acquired great wealth, had died and left his possessions to his Queen and daughters; but the Eomans seized everything, and treated Boadicea, the queen, and her daughters, with great indignity.
43. The Britons, taking advantage of the employment of the Roman army at Anglesea, and enraged also by the knowledge that Suetonius meditated the destruction of the Druids, whom they greatly reverenced, rose in unani- mous rebellion, and poured like an irresistible torrent upon the Roman Colony at Camalodunum. The Romans, not apprehending such an attack, were unprepared for resistance. The enraged Britons broke in at the first assault, put all to the sword who fell into their hands, and laid Camalodunum in ashes. The Roman soldiers, and some of the people, fled for refuge into one of the sacred temples. But the1 Britons heeded not its sacreduess. They besieged and took it by storm after a struggle of two days. When the Britons were retiring, flushed with victory, they fell in with Cerialis, and the ninth legion of the Roman army, who were hastening to relieve the province. The Britons, corning upon them suddenly, at once engaged them in battle, and the legion was completely destroyed, scarcely a man escaping.
16 THE HISTORICAL KEASON WHY.
A FORMIDABLE REBELLION OF THE SOUTHERN BRITISH TRIBES, UXDER BOADICEA, 61.
47. What did Suetonius resolve upon when he heard of the rebellion ?
He at once abandoned the Isle of Anglesea and hastened to London, which he reached after laborious marches through difficult parts of the country. London had then become a large, populous, and wealthy place, and at first Suetonius intended to occupy and defend it. But he afterwards resolved that it would be more prudent to abandon it.
48. Why did the Britons and Romans who then inhabited London implore him to continue in the city ?
Because the Britons residing in the city had, to a great extent become attached to the Romans, and accustomed to their manners and institutions, which were superior to the barbarous habits of their own tribes ; and they knew that the free Britons would put them to death for associating with the common enemy.
49. This fear was verified. As soon as Suetonius had quitted London, the Britons entered it, and slew every one they found therein. From thence they marched to Verulamium (now St. Albans), where they took the like dreadful measures of vengeance. So furious had the Britons become that they reserved no prisoners, either to sell or exchange, but put all to death. It is said that no fewer than seventy thousand Romans, and their con- federates, perished in this rebellion.
50. Why did Suetonius leave London in an undefended state ?
Because his army was reduced to ten thousand men, a small army compared to the rebellious Britons, who were estimated to number upwards of two hundred thousand. Suetonius believed that the better discipline, and the superior arms of the Roman soldiers, would be advantageous to them in an open battle.
51. He therefore made a prudent choice of ground upon which to engage the enemy. The rear was secured by an impenetrable wood, and the ground in front extended into a hollow vale, with very steep sides. Here he drew up his army in order for battle. The Britons, confident of victory, and eager to engage, took no precautions, but marched towards the ground which Suetonius had chosen. Boadicea, mounted in a war-chariot, dressed iu a flowing robe, with her two daughters sitting at her feet, drove through
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 17
JULIUS FRONTINUS, GOVERN OK OF BRITAIN, SUBDUED THE SILURIANS,
the army and addressed the soldiers, urging them to fight bravely for their liberties. She concluded a thrilling appeal by saying that she, "though a woman, had determined to conquer or die; those who pleased might live and be slaves." The Britons advanced to the charge with dreadful shouts, and poured a shower of darts and arrows upon the enemy. The Romans sheltered themselves from these weapons by their shields, and waited until the Britons had exhausted their supply of darts ; then the Roman foot soldiers attacked them with their swords, and the cavalry with their pikes, with such impetuosity that they bore down all resistance. The Britons fell into disorder, and became confused by the precipitancy of their retreat. The Romans then, avenging themselves for the sufferings of their fellows, slaughtered all who fell in their way— men, women, children, and horses. So terrible was the punishment inflicted upon the Britons, that eighty thousand of them were killed in the battle and subsequent pursuit. The unhappy Boadicea, unable to bear up against the defeat, put an end to her own existence by poison.
52. What were the next events that transpired In Britain ?
A period of comparative inactivity and peace elapsed, partly caused by the jealousies and cupidity of the Roman generals in Britain, and partly by the unsettled state of affairs hi Home under Nero. In the year A.D. 69, Vespasian was declared Emperor of Rome, and he then sent a new Governor to Britain, Petilius Cerialis, with instructions to carry out a vigorous policy. Under this Governor wars were renewed, tribes reduced to submission, the Roman conquests were extended towards the northern part of the island, and sub- mission and tribute to Rome enforced.
53. Why ivas Julius Agricola appointed ly Vespasian to be Governor of Britain ?
Because he had served in the British wars under Suetonius, in which he distinguished himself by acts of great bravery, judgment, and moderation. Being, therefore, acquainted with the Britons, and having learned by experience the most advantageous policy respecting them, he was honoured by Vespasian with the appointment to the Governorship. He at once brought some unconquered tribes to subjection, and completed the conquest of the Isle of Anglesea, which had been commenced by Agricola.
18 THE HISTOETCAL EEASON WHY.
JULIUS FEONTINUS ORGANISED A ROMAN PROVINCE, AND INTRODUCED BENEFICIAL LAWS, ABOUT 78.
54. Agricola pursued a wise and humane policy. He introduced reforma- tion into his own household, and suffered none of his domestics to be guilty of acts of oppression towards the Britons. In bestowing employments in the state, and preferments in the army, he regarded only merit, esteeming it better to employ such as would not transgress, than to punish transgressors. He heard the complaints of the people with patience, and redressed their grievances with readiness. By his wise administration the Britons began to be reconciled to the Roman govern- ment, and to relish the sweets of peace and industry. Although these feelings influenced the Britons of the South of the island, there were still in the North several unconquered tribes, who retained all the characteristics of barbarity, and occasioned great trouble to the Roman government, and to those Britons who had begun to improve under the arts of civilisation.
55. Why did Agricola build a series of forts, sup- posed to have extended from the Solway Frith to the river Tyne ?
Because it was a part of his wise system, as soon as he had conquered a people, to take them under his protection, and to make them feel that in submission they had gained, rather than lost, advantages. He therefore constructed a chain of forts from sea to sea — to keep back the northern barbarians who frequently committed depredations upon the possessions of the tribes living upon the borders of Scotland. Although Julius Csesar invaded Britain fifty-five years before the birth of our Saviour, it- was about eighty-four years after Christ's nativity, or one hundred and thirty nine years, before the Romans had carried their conquests as far as the borders of Scotland.
Forth or Frith, a narrow arm of the sea; or the opening of a river into the sea.
56. In addition to these measures for the protection of the conquered Britons, Agricola persuaded them to live in a more civilized manner, to build better houses, and to construct towns, with a view to the general convenience, and also to adorn their towns with" buildings for public purposes. He instructed the sons of British chieftains in the language, learning, and eloquence of the Romans. By these means he made an amazing change in the face of the country, and the manners of its inhabitants.
57. Why, when Agricola entered Caledonia, was he unopposed ? Because the barbarous tribes inhabiting that remote part,
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
AGBICOI/A TOOK POSSESSION OF PAETS OP CALEDONIA TNOPPOSEP, ABOUT 82.
believed that the severity of the winter would compel him to withdraw his forces, and yield to them possession of the lands he had occupied. In those days, even in this mild climate, wars were generally suspended in the winter, and resumed in summer.
CALEDONIANS.
58. Wlnj icere the Caledonians disappointed in this expectation ?
Because Agricola was a general of great energy. Finding the enemy inactive in the winter, instead of wasting that season in idleness, he moved further north, and quite unmo- lested, built another chain of forts across the narrow neck of land, which separates the Friths of Forth and Clyde. He had thus reached as far as the present county of Stirlingshire.
20 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
AGRICOLA DEFEATED GALGACU3 Itf KOETH BRITAIN,
These operations occupied a series of winters, and he acquired strength enough to hold the country through the summer.
59. Upon crossing the Clyde, Agricola met with tribes which were previously unknown. And from the coast he first caught a view of Hibernia, now Ireland. Agricola turned his attention to the north-east parts of Britain, which lay beyond the Forth, and having equipped a considerable fleet, he caused the coast to be explored. His last battle was fought on the Grampian Hills, where a large army of Caledonians had assembled, under the command of Galgacus. Although these people were barbarous, and subsisted chiefly by warlike excursions, in which they plundered their neighbours, they regarded every inroad upon their own territory with a very angry feeling. A powerful and daring people, they determined to resist the Roman intruders to the last, and their chieftain, before the great and final battle with Agricola's forces, addressed his followers in a speech full of noble and patriotic sentiments. He called upon them to look back upon their ancestors, who had long been known as the bravest of the tribes of Britons; and forward to their posterity, whose freedom and happiness depended upon their valour, and the event of that day. These speeches were responded to by his troops with military songs, and loud shouts. Agricola also addressed his army in a strain calculated to excite their ardour. He made a very judicious distribution of his forces; and the battle had not lasted long, when the Caledonians, who fought under great disadvantage, on account of their imperfect weapons, were thrown into great confusion, which was increased by the horses which drew the war chariots taking fright, and galloping furiously among them. The despair of the Caledonians after their defeat was inexpressible. They set fire to their houses, and slew their wives and children, rather than let them, as they anticipated, become the slaves of ruthless conquerors.
60. Hoiv ivas tlie discovery that Britain is an island made ?
Agricola, wishing to know more of the northern coast, and finding that the winter was approaching, ordered his fleet to sail northward, and after turning the northernmost point, to return to their winter station, which lay on the western coast. In carrying out these instructions, the navigators found that they had an uninterrupted passage around the north coast, which brought them again to the western port from which they had sailed.
61. Why was Agricola recalled from tlie Governorship of Britain ?
Because Domitian, who was then the Emperor of Home, was
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 21
THE EMPEROR HADRIAN LANDED IN BRITAIN, 104. JULIUS SEVER US
GOVERNOR FOR A SHORT PERIOD IN THE EARLY PART OF
HADRIAN'S REIGN.
jealous of the fame which Agricola had acquired, and which continued to increase. Dornitian was a haughty tyrant, envious of fame, and he took the most artful means to prevent any one becoming his rival. Had the noble-minded Agricola con- tinued for a few years longer to hold authority in Britain, it is probable that he would so far have improved the country and the people as to have preserved them from the terrible calamaties which subsequently occurred in the wars with the Saxons and the Danes.
62. Who was tlie next Governor of Britain ?
Sallustius Lucullus was appointed Governor by Domitian. But he did not enjoy his authority long. He invented a new instrument of war, which he ambitiously named "the Lucul- lean lance,"— this so incensed the Emperor Domitian that he ordered Lucullus to be put to death.
63. A lapse of some thirty years occurs in the History of Britain, without any material occurrences. It was not until Hadrian became Emperor of Home that anything of great importance again transpired.
61. Why did Hadrian, after assuming the Imperial throne, himself resolve to visit Britain ?
Hadrian proved to be one of the most active and accom- plished Emperors that ever held the sceptre cf Eome. He visited in person all the provinces of his great empire, and inquired minutely into their civil and military affairs. He found that the Caledonians, and the Picts and Scots (other tribes of the north), had acquired a portion of the territory which Agricola had conquered and fortified. He, therefore, raised a wall or rampart of earth from the river Tyne on the east, to the Solway Firth on the west, near the line where Agricola had built his first chain of forts.
65. Why did Hadrian hastily quit the Island?
He received news that a serious sedition had arisen at Alexandria, and he was obliged to hasten thither to settle the strife.
THE HISTOEICAL BEASON WHY.
A LONG INTEEVAL OF PEACE AFTEK HADRIAU'S DEPAETUEE.
66. For a period of fifty years, after the departure of Hadrian, the events which transpired in Britain were of minor importance. A civil strife in the Roman Empire occupied the attention of her rulers. There were occasional disturbances and revolts in Britain, which were generally sup- pressed without great difficulty. Antoninus Pius, the adopted son of Hadrian, became his successor to the Imperial throne. Under this Emperor, Lollius Urbicus, one of his lieutenants, was appointed to the government of the Roman provinces in Britain. But from this time, except the building of a wall of earth, beyond the wall of Hadrian, from Edinburgh to Dun- britton Frith, little of importance occurred, until Clodius Albinus com- manded in Briton, in the time of the Emperor Commodus. "Upon the death
PICTS OF THE NOETH.
of Commodus the possession of the Imperial throne was disputed between Septimus Severus, Pescenius Niger, and Albinus. Niger died, and Albinus after assuming the title of Emperor in Britain, raised a considerable army, in which he enlisted "the flower of the British y®uth," and transported them to the Continent, to fight the battles of his cause with Severus. At length the two competitors met, on the 19th Feb., A.D. 197, upon a plain near Lyons, where a sanguinary battle was fought, in which Albinus, being defeated, killed himself, and left Severus sole master of the Roman Empire.
THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY. 23
SEVERUS CONSTRUCTS A. WALL AND LINE OF POUTS.
67. Why did Severus himself come to Britain?
Because, the Governor whom he had appointed, Virius Lnssus, found himself unable to repel the incursions of the Caledonians, the Picts, and Scots, who committed dreadful ravages upon the Eoman settlements, which had been con- siderably weakened by Albinus having drawn away so many of their ablest youth.
68. Severus, though advanced in age when these difficulties occurred in Britain, determined to acquire fresh military glory, and to satisfy the warlike ambition of the Romans by keeping the soldiers in action. He had, more- over, two sons, whom he wished to instruct in the art of war. Bringing these sons with him, he made great preparations for the further conquest of the north of England and Scotland. Severus took the precaution, when he moved towards the north, to leave his younger son, Geta, in command of the southern provinces, thereby to secure their peace. His elder son, Caracalla, he took with him into the field of action. After the Roman army had passed the wall of Hadrian, they met with many difficulties and dangers. The enemy, too weak and disunited to encounter them in the opeu field, in pitched battles, harassed them with continual skirmishes. But their greatest diffi- culties arose from the state of the country, which was then covered with thick woods, deep marshes, brooks, and rivers, arid whose courses were unknown. To surmount these difficulties, Severus employed one part of his army in cutting down woods, draining watery lands, and making roads and bridges, while the other division defended the men engaged in these judicious labours from the attacks of the enemy. He also compelled the Britons that were subject to his power to assist in these important wor!;s. In this expedition a great number of men— estimated at so great a number as fifty thousand— died from exhaustion, the unhealthiuess of marshy districts, and the harassing attacks of the enemy, Severus penetrated into the very heart of Scotland, and obtained from the tribes conditions of submission and peace.
69. Why did Severus construct a wall, and a line of fortresses, parallel with the line of Hadrian's ivall ?
Because the wall of earth which Hadrian had caused to be thrown up, afforded but a very insufficient defence against the incursions of the northern Britons. Having brought these into subjection, Severus determined to employ the interval of peace in strengthening the Eoman position.
70. He employed his troops, for about two years, in building a great wall of stone, twelve feet high and eight feet thick, strengthened with many watch-towers, castles, and stations, at moderate distances. This wall extended across the country in the direction of Hadrian's wall of earth, but it lay a little further to the north, so that Hadrian's wall became a
24 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
THE EMPEEOE SEVEBTTS DIED AT YORK, FEB. 4TH, 211.
sort of second rampart. Severus having accomplished this, which, together with the draining of the country and clearing of woods, may be regarded as the great and distinguishing achievments of his reign, retired to York, where he sought to establish his Court, and enjoy repose and comfort, the reward of his victories.
71. What were tlie events which embittered the last days of Severus ?
He had become very old and infirm; and his sons, whom he had brought hither to acquire military knowledge and fame, became disunited, and raised dissensions between the provinces. The Caledonians, becoming aware of the decline of the aged Emperor, and the quarrels between his sons, endeavoured to recover that part of the country which they had formerly resigned.
Caracalla, ambitious to become sole Emperor after his father's death, to the exclusion of Geta, corrupted the army, and induced laxity of discipline, which encouraged the tendency to public disorder. These events so grieved Severus that he is reported by historians to have died of grief, rather than of disease.
7a. Thus we see that after a long life of danger and anxiety, in which he sought to establish the fame of his two sons, Severus was brought to the grave by their ingratitude and evil conduct, particularly that of Caracalla, who even sought to promote his father's death by endeavouring to influence the attendants to hasten his decease. True, they lived in barbarous times, and their hearts may have been hardened by constant scenes of warfare, and by the slavish submission they exacted from their subjects; but for their ingratitude to tneir father, whose life appears to have been devoted to their service, they deserve the condemnation of every child who knows the sweetness of a parent's love.
As soon as Caracalla received the long-expected news of his father's death, he made an easy peace with the Caledonians, and hastened towards the South with the intention of taking possession of the Empire, but his brother Geta had obtained adherents and acquired power too great to be disputed. The two young Emperors remained but a short time in Britain. They hastened to Rome, to enjoy the pleasures and honours of that great city, which was then the capital of the world. After their departure, no material events occurred in Britain for a period of seventy years.
73. Under what circumstances did Carausius become mperor of Britain? He did so by usurpation. In the time when Dioclesian and
THE HISTORICAL KEASOX WHY. 25
CARAXJSIUS USURPS THE EMPIRE, ABOUT 284.
Herculius were Emperors at Home, new enemies to the peace of Britain arose. These were the Franks and Saxons, who fitted out ships, and became pirates on the seas, so that no vessels could sail from the coasts without being plundered, and their crews murdered. To a nation which was then assuming mara- time importance, this was a considerable evil, as great as the internal distractions which had hitherto troubled it.
Carausius was appointed by the Roman Emperors to command a fleet and exterminate the pirates from the seas. But instead of fulfilling this duty faithfully, he combined with the pirates, and ultimately declared himself Emperor of Britain, and inde- pendent of Roman authority.
74. This led again to internal commotions in which the Romans were more concerned than the Britons. Orders were sent from Rome to put Carausius to death. But, being possessed of the fleet which commanded the seas, he maintained his usurpation for some time, until he was murdered at York, by Alectus, one of his officers, who immediately made pretensions to the government of Britain.
In the meantime, under the direction of the Emperors, Constantius had organised a fleet, for the purpose of recovering Britain from the hands of the usurpers. Alectus was ultimately defeated and slain; Roman authority was again established, after disturbances which lasted ten years; the seas were cleared of pirates, and the freedom of navigation restored. Constantius was afterward declared Emperor of one division of the Roman States, including the British provinces. He died at York, in the year 306, having declared his son successor to the Empire.
75. Why was Constantine, son of Constantius, sur- named tlie Great?
Because he proved to be a good and powerful prince. He embraced and encouraged the Christian religion, and enjoyed a long reign, in which his Empire tasted more of the bless- ings of peace than was customary to those troubled times. In Britain, especially, peace prevailed from the time of Constan- tiiie's accession, to his death, which happened May 22nd, 337. Constantino the Great is supposed to have been the son of Constantius, by his first wife Helena, a princess celebrated for her early connexion with Christianity, and for her piety.
76. Upon the death of Constantino his empire was divided by the deceased Emperor's will, between his three sons, Constantino, Constans, and Constautius. Two of these brothers quarrelled respecting the division
26 THE HISTOBICAL SEASON WHY.
THE EOAIAX E3IPIRE BEGINS TO DECLINE, 403.
of the empire, and had recourse to arms. Taking advantage of these dissensions, the Picts and Scots again rose in great numbers, and repeat- edly attacked the Roman provinces. Constaris was deposed by the Roman army and people, and slain when flying for safety towards Spain. Con- stantius, the youngest of Constantino's sons, and the only surviving one, having suppressed the usurpation and rebellion, again brought the Roman Empire under his dominion. Constantius then pursued towards Britain a tyrannical policy, which caused great discontent.
77. Wliy was Theodosius sent as Governor to Britain Ijy the lEmperor Valentinian ?
Because Britain had again fallen into a state of great dis- order. Whenever the Roman Emperors, either from troubles in their principal states, or from indifference to the welfare of their provinces, neglected the affairs of Britain, it relapsed into a state of tumult. The Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, committed depredations in the North ; and the piratical Franks and Saxons attacked all .the places on the South coast, and plundered vessels on the seas.
Such was the state of things when Theodosius, a wise and energetic general, was sent to rule in this island. He brought with him an army, to strengthen his movements. For then the country was completely overran with lawless bands, that had penetrated as far as London (then called Augusta) and had collected an enormous mass of booty, as well as taken a great multitude of men, women, and children, prisoners.
78. These marauding bands everywhere fled before the army of Theodosius. He drove the Northern barbarians beyond the wall of Antoninus Pius, and strengthened that wall, together with the wall and fortresses of Severus, which the enemy had seized, and in some cases destroyed. Theodosius corrected many abuses in the collection of public revenues, made abatement in taxes, and gave assistance to the natives in repairing the damages which their villages and towns had sustained. By these means he again restored tranquillity, and gained from the people attachment to Roman dominion. When he was recalled to Rome, to be raised to one of the greatest dignities of the empire, he was attended to the place of embarkation by multitudes of people, who gave him their blessings, and prayers for his prosperity.
79. Wliy did tlie Picts and Scots, and the Franks and Saxons again acquire power to trouble the Britons, after the departure of Theodosius ?
Because the Roman empire became again disturbed by rival
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 27
THE BOMANS ABANDON THE ISLAND ABOUT 420.
claims to the Imperial throne. Maximus, a Roman officer stationed in Britain, two sons of Valentinian, and Theodosius, son of the Theodosius who had governed with so much suc- cess in this island, became rival claimants for the Imperial dignity. Maxirnus, who had resided many years in this island, and had married the daughter of a British chieftain, obtained great favour with the Britons, and in his wars of ambition large numbers of them enlisted in his cause, and followed him to the Continent, where, being defeated by Theodosius, by whom Maximus was commanded to be put to death, they were left in a deplorable condition, unable to return to their native country, which had again become the prey of pirates and barbarians. After the death of Theodosius II., reinforce- ments of troops were sent to Britain with the view of again protecting the Roman provinces from the lawless bands which had began to overrun them. But the internal troubles of the Roman Empire increased. Africa was dismembered from it; Thrace, Hungary, Austria, and several other provinces were desolated, and multitudes of Goths, Vandals, and other fierce barbarians had began to threaten Rome itself. In Bri- tain, a spirit of mutiny and rebellion seized the Roman troops ; they laid aside all regard to the reigning Emperor, and invested Marcus, one of their own officers with the supreme title. Soon getting weary of their idol, they put Marcus to death, and set up in his stead Gratkin. In less than four months they deposed and murdered the second Emperor of their choice. Then they set up one Constan- tine, an officer of inferior rank — merely because he bore the auspicious name of Constantine. Constantino with much shrewd- ness, to increase his popularity, organised military excursions abroad, and offered great rewards to those who followed his standard. A considerable number of British youth flocked to his support, and large armies of them overran the provinces of Gaul and Spain. Thus the island was again shorn of the strength necessary for protection. Constantine, and his son Constans were defeated and slain, and the British soldiers who escaped joined those who had previously followed Maximus and Constantine, and founded the colony afterwards
28
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
CLOSE OF THE ROMAN EEA.
called Brittany. Some further attempts were made to uphold the Roman authority in this island, but the intestine troubles of Rome at length became so considerable, that the Romans were obliged to recall all their troops, and abandon the island to its fate. In vain the Britons and the Roman colonists im- plored the Imperial government to keep possession of the island, and protect them from the ravages of their foes. They did, indeed, send occasional relief to Britain, drove back the Picts and Scots, and punished the piratical Franks and Saxons. But at length they were compelled to bid final adieu to Britain, warning the natives to look for no more protection from them, and the last Roman legion set sail from the British coast about 475 years after their ancestors had first landed in it, under the command of Julius Caesar.
ESITISII V,TAR CHARIOT.
THE HISTORICAL BEASON WHY. 29
THE BOMANS LEAVE THE COUNTRY IMPROVED.
NOTES UPON THE ROMAN PERIOD.
Julius Caesar found the Britains divided into distinct tribes, differing in degrees of barbarity.
Some of them went unclad, others were habited in the skins of beasts; others wore manufactured garments, which they obtained from the Gauls. Most of them dyed their skins with woad, and marked fanciful figures upou their persons.
Their Jiouses were rude huts formed of mud and wattles, having an aperture through the thatch for the emission of smoke. Windows were formed of holes in the walls, or light entered only through the hole in the roof and the door.
Of furniture they appear to have had none.
They slept upon the ground, upon the skins of beasts, lying with their feet towards the fire, which burnt in the middle of their huts.
They traded, in some parts of the island, with Phronicians, Spaniards, Gauls, and others, for various commodities, for which they exchanged tin.
They had no ships, but they rowed about the coast in boats called coracles, made of wicker, and covered with leather.
Their weapons were darts, with heads formed of flint, bone, or metal ; long and cumbersome sabres made of copper ; and shields made of wood or wicker.
Their money was formed of pieces of metal, and metallic rings, of curious shapes.
The Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, were different tribes of the same people, occupying the northern parts of the kingdom.
The Britons, under various names, occupied the central and southern parts of the island.
The Gauls alluded to in the opening of British history, were the people dwelling upon the coasts of France, opposite to the British coast. But ancient Gaul was a much more extensive country than is commonly imagined. It was bounded on the north and west by the sea ; on the east by the Rhine and the Alps; and on the south by the Mediterranean and the Pyrenees.
The Franks were a savage and daring people whose origin is a matter of doubt. In course of time they became so powerful and numerous that they overran and conquered Gaul, and carried wars into many parts of the ancient world. The Franks referred to in British History were German tribes who crossed the Rhine and entered Gaul, and then extended their piratical excursions to Britain.
The Saxons were a people who inhabited a territory on the north side of the Elbe, from which they made warlike incursions, and spread terror throughout Europe. Occupying three small islands at the mouth of the Elbe, they built powerful fleets, and obtained the mastery of the seas.
The Romans taught the Britons many useful arts. Instructed them in the formation of roads and bridges, the erection of fortresses, houses, temples, and towns. They put an end to the cruel Druidical sacrifices of human beings, and introduced their own mythology, which was less enslaving to the minds of the people.
30 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
THE SAXONS INVITED INTO BRITAIN, A.D. 449.
BRITAIN UNDER THE SAXONS.
80. Why did tlie Saxons come to 'Britain?
Because the Romans had refused to send further suc- cours to Britain, and a report was propagated that the Picts and Scots had resolved to invade South Britain with their united forces. The Britons, therefore, made application to the Saxons to assist them, who accordingly came over from the Continent in three large ships, and landed in the Isle of Thanet.
81. "When the Britons were threatened by an invasion of the Picts and Scots, an assembly was convened of all the British Kings, Princes, and Chieftains, to deliberate upon the steps to be taken. Amongst the great number of petty princes composing this assembly, .Voltigern, Sovereign of the Silures, was the most considerable; by him the assembly was greatly influenced, and it was he who proposed the application to the Saxons.
82. What took place as soon as the Saxons arrived in Britain ?
The Saxons joined the British army and marched against the Picts and Scots, who had pushed their destructive ravages as far as Stamford. Near that place a desperate battle was fought, in which the Britons, aided and encouraged by their new allies, obtained a complete victory over their ancient enemies, and obliged them to retire into their own country.
83. Why did the Saxons resolve to settle in Britain ?
Because the beauty and fertility of the British soil excited them to wish, and the unwarlike character and divided state of their inhabitants encouraged them to hope, for a solid and permanent establishment in the country.
84. A proposal was made by the Saxon chiefs to send for a further reinforcement of their countrymen, as a greater security against any future attempt of the enemy; this was acceded to by the unsuspecting Britons. As soon, therefore, as this end was accomplished, and the Saxon chieftains, Hengist and Horsa, saw themselves at the head of a consider- able army, they prepared to seize some part of those countries they had been invited to defend.
THE HISTOKICAL EEASON WHY. 31
THE SAXON HEPTAKCHY FORMED.
85. What measures did the Saxons then take ?
They concluded a separate peace with the Picts, and began to quarrel with the Britons about their provisions and pro- mised rewards; and at length, under the plea of doing them- selves justice, commenced ravaging the country and destroying all who fell into their hands.
86. A long atid cruel war now broke out between the Saxons and the Britons, in which the inhabitants were scattered about the country, many perishing for the want of food and shelter, others submitting to the most abject slavery to preserve their lives, and the whole of them, as a people, effectually subdued.
87. In ivhat manner was the Heptarchy, or seven Saxon Kingdoms, founded?
The Saxon chieftains who arrived with armies from time to time, claiming a share of the captured country as a reward for their services, had separate provinces assigned them, which henceforth became seven distinct Kingdoms. The seven Kingdoms were Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Northumberland, East Saxony, East Anglia, and Mercia.
88. Hoio did the seven Saxon provinces eventually come under the sway of one King ?
The internal discords which were naturally engendered by so many warlike tribes, being situated near each other, gave at length the mastery to the strongest power ; and Egbert, who was descended from the West Saxon Princes, became the first English Monarch.
89. At the time that Egbert took possession of the throne all the other Kingdoms of the Heptarchy were in a dependent, or unsettled state. The little kingdom of Sussex had been for some time before, annexed to "Wessex, and that of the East- Angles to Mercia; and the petty Kings of Kent and Essex were tributaries to the Mercian Monarchs. The two remaining Kingdoms of Mercia and Northumberland were greatly weakened by the unsettled state of their governments, and contests about succession. These circumstances afforded Egbert a fair prospect of enlarging his dominions and extending his authority. Accordingly he declared war against the Kingdoms, one after the other, until the whole were defeated, and the reduction of all the Kingdoms of the Heptarchy under one Monarch was completed A.D. 827, about three hundred and seventy-eight years after the first arrival of the Saxons in this island.
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY.
ALFEED THE GEEAT ASCENDED THE TIIEONE, 871.
90. Who succeeded Egbert as Kings of England?
His son Ethelwolf; and at his death his four sons, Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred, and Alfred.
91. How were the first years of Alfred's reign occupied? By endeavouring to drive the Danes out of the English
territories, who had for many years descended from time to time on the English shores, until they became a formidable and relentless foe.
92. What disasters attended Alfred's first efforts to free his country of its enemies?
After several battles, both by sea and land, the English were utterly discomfited, the armies completely routed, and Alfred and his followers compelled to fly.
93. Alfred finding it unsafe to retain even a few followers about him, dismissed them, to wait for better times ; and putting on the dress of a country clown, concealed himself in the cottage of a cowherd. One day as he was sitting by the fire in the cottage where he had concealed him- self, trimming his bow and arrows, he was severely scolded by the good woman of the house, for neglecting to turn some cakes that were baking; telling him angrily that he would be active enough in eating them, though lie would not take the trouble to turn them.
94. What success did Alfred subsequently obtain in his wars with the Danes?
He fought several battles in which he was invariably vic- torious, and at length totally subdued them and drove them out of the country.
95. Why was Alfred surnamed the Great ?
Because, in addition to his military prowess, he superin- tended the repairing of ruined cities, the building of forts and fleets, the making of walls, and many other projects for the security and improvement of his country. He also encouraged the arts and sciences, was a patron of learned and virtuous men, and forwarded the progress of civilization generally.
96. Who succeeded Alfred on the throne ?
Edward, Alfred's eldest surviving son, who inherited much of his father's spirit and military talent.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
33
EDWABD THE SON OF ALFBED BEIGNED, 901.
97. Edward spent nearly the whole of his reign in reducing the Danes of Essex, East Anglia, and Meroia, to a thorough obedience to his authority, and in building towns and castles for keeping them in sub- jection. He also fitted out a fleet of one hundred ships, and sailed against the Danes of Northumberland: with the whole of them he fought several battles, and ultimately defeated them with great slaughter
INTERIOR OF A SAXOX DWELLING.
98. Wliy was Edward's reign disputed ly Etlielwald?
Because the latter was the son of Ethelbert, the elder brother of Alfred, and therefore considered his claim more tenable by priority of descent.
99. When Alfred ascended the throne, Ethel wald was an infant, and therefore could riot prosecute his claim, but when he attained the age of manhood he did not feel disposed to yield his claim to the throne. Having spent several years in endeavouring to gain adherents, he at length hazarded an engagement with an irregular army, and was killed in the action.
34 THE HISTORICAL BEASON WHY.
THE SAXON KELKHOTT DESCEIBED.
100. How did JZdward prove himself a wortliy successor of Alfred?
He spent several years in reducing the Danes, built towns and castles in the most convenient places for keeping them in subjection; fitted out a fleet of one hundred ships, built and fortified an incredible number of forts and towns in all parts of England ; and having thus secured his dominions, he extended them by making a successful expedition into Wales, and reducing the then Prince of that country to a state of subjection.
101. Why did not the Saxons excel in learning ?
Because, like all other northern nations, they were so much addicted to plundering and piratical expeditions that they utterly despised the peaceful pursuits of science; and their arrival in Briton almost extinguished the faint light of learning that had hitherto prevailed.
102. The Saxons, being a fierce and illiterate people, signalized their destruc- tive progress by darkness and desolation ; and to such an extent did this prevail, that in the early part of the Saxon era there was not so much as one person who possessed any degree of literary fame, and at a later period the only parts of learning that were cultivated by the British and Scotch clergy were the Latin language, polemical divinity, and ecclesiastical law — a very small knowledge of either of which was sufficient to procure any one the character of a very learned man.
103. Of ivkat religion were the Saxons ?
They were acquainted with the doctrine of one supreme Deity; but this belief was in some measure lost and corrupted by the introduction of a multiplicity of gods and images.
104. The Saxon and Danish Priests believed and taught the immortality of the human soul, and a state of rewards and punishments after death : rejecting the Druidical doctrine of the transmigration of souls as an absurd fiction. The place of rewards they called Valhalla, where the heroes spent the day in martial sports, and the night in feasting on the flesh of the boar, and drinking large draughts of beer or mead, out of the skulls of their enemies whom they had slain in battle. The place of punishment they called Niflheim, or The Abode of Evil, where Hela dwelt, whose palace was Anguish; her table Famine, her waiters Expectation and Delay, the thresh- old of her door Precipice, and her bed Leanness! In Valhalla all brave and good men were to reside to the end of the world; and in Niflheim all cowards and bad men for the same period— when, according to their doctrine, the heavens and earth, and even the gods themselves were to be
THE HISTOEICAL BEASON WHY. 35
POETJIY HIGHLY ESTEEMED BY THE SAXONS.
consumed by fire. After this, a new and more glorious world was to arise, the heroes and good men were to be admitted into a palace of gold, and the cowards and wicked men were to be consigned to a horrible cavern, built of the carcasses of serpents.
105. Why ivas agriculture neglected among tlie Anglo- Saxons ?
Because the Germans, from whom the Anglo-Saxons derived their origin and manners, were not much addicted to agriculture, but depended chiefly on their flocks and herds for subsistence.
106. These restless and haughty warriors esteemed the cultivation of their lands too ignoble and laborious an employment for themselves, and there- fore committed it wholly to their women and slaves. They even went so far as to enact laws to prevent their contracting a taste for agriculture, lest it should render them less fond of arms and warlike expeditions.
107. How was the payment of rent adjudged to the owners of land?
The rates of the rents were ascertained by law, according to the number of hides of plough-lands of which a farm consisted, and the tenants were enjoined to pay but in kind.
108. By a law made during the seventh and eighth centuries, a farm con- sisting of ten hides of ploughed lands was to pay the following ivnt :— Ten casks of honey, three hundred loaves of bread, twelve casks of strong ale, thirty casks of small ale, two oxen, ten wethers, ten geese, twenty hens, ten cheese, one cask of butter, five salmon, twenty pounds of forage, and one hundred eels.
109. Why did the Saxons esteem and cultivate the art of poetry ?
Because they considered that all events that deserved to be remembered, might, through the medium of verse, be more easily instilled into the minds of men, make a deeper impression on their memories, and a\so be more effectually handed down to posterity.
110. Every bold adventurer when he set out on a piratical or military expedition, if he were not a great poet himself, which was frequently the case, never neglected to carry with him the best poet he could procure to behold and celebrate his martial deeds. The most ancient of these historical and military songs have been Ion? since lost ; but; there is good reason to believe that it is to them wo owe many particulars of the most ancient part of our history.
36 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
BATTLE OF BRUNENBUBGH, 938.
111. Why did the early Anglo-Saxons neglect maritime affairs ?
Partly because the long and obstinate resistance they met with from the Britons obliged them to employ all their forces on land, and to neglect the sea ; and partly because the fertility of their new settlements furnished them with all the necessaries of life, as men lived at that period.
112. By whom was Edward succeeded ?
By Athelston, his eldest son, who was crowned at Kingston- upon-Thames in the year 925.
113. What alliance did Athelston form with Sithric Prince of the Northumbrian Danes ?
In order to attach Sithric more firmly to his interest, Athelston gave him his sister Edgetha in marriage; and he also yielded him the sovereignty of the whole country from the river Tees to Edinburgh.
114. The success of this wise measure was defeated by the death of Sithric, and the succession of his two sons, Anlaff arid Guthfert, who renounced Christianity, and cast off all subjection to the King of England. Athelston, upon this, marched au army into Northumberland, and soon obliged the two Princes to abandon their country. Ultimately a personal interview took place between the contending parties, and au amicable adjustment was effected.
115. Why did Athelston subsequently fight a lattle with Anlaff and his confederates?
Because, for four years, formidable preparations were made to invade England with a very powerful army composed of many different nations.
116. Athelston raised his forces with great ppedition, and came within view of his enemies at a place called Brunenburgh. The battle continued from morning till night, with incredible fury and slaughter on both sides. The result, long doubtful, was at last declared in favour of England, and in the conflict five of the allied Princes and twelve chieftains were slain. This glorious victory not only reduced all England under the dominion of Athelston, and obliged the Princes of Wales, who had been concerned in the late conspiracy, to submit to pay an additional tribute, but it also raised his reputation so high among foreign nations that the greatest foreign Princes in Europe courted his alliance.
THE HISTORICAL EEASOX WHY.
ACCESSION OF EDMUND TO THE THRONE, 941.
117. Who succeeded Athelston on the throne? Edmund, his brother, who was in his eighteenth year when he ascended the throne.
CAKVING PilOil THE SPIT.
117.* Our Saxon ancestors were entirely unacquainted with the use of the fork, which is comparatively a modern invention, dating no further back than the reign of Edward the First. A joint was cooked in the kitchen, adjacent to the dining hall, and being brought in, hissing hot, by the cook or one of his assistants, was presented by him in the kneeling posture represented in the engraving. The host, or his guest, as the case might be, then seized any prominent part, such as a leg or a wing, and cut off as much as he liked, placing the severed portion upon his trencher, as best he could with his knife and the fingers of his left hand. While people were compelled to the frequent use of their fingers in despatching a repast, washing before and after dinner was no idle ceremony, but was regarded as an indispensable process. The ewers and basins for this pur-' pose were generally of a costly material and elaborate workmanship. It was the custom generally for each guest to be furnished with a separate ewer and basin; at the same time it was considered a very high com- pliment, or, at least, an act of high courtesy towards a guest to invite him to wash in the same basin.
38 THE HISTOKICAL EEASON WHY.
EDGAR DECLARED KINO,
118. Why did Anlaff, the former Pretender to the Kingdom, again attempt to invade it ?
Because upon hearing of Athelston's death, and presuming1 upon the youth of Edmund, he imagined it would be a favour- able opportunity for another invasion.
119. Edmund having gained a knowledge of Anlaffs intention, marched against him before he was prepared, and compelled the insurrectionary Princes to make humble submission, and to embrace Christianity. These professions, however, proved insincere, and Edmund was ultimately compelled to expel the apostate Princes from the kingdom.
120. Who succeeded Edmund ?
Edred his brother, in preference to Edwi and Edgar the sons of Edmund, who at his death were infants.
121. Edred carried out the active measures of his predecessors; quieted several rebellions that broke out, and died while still in the flower of his youth.
122. Who succeeded Edred? Edwi, eldest son of the late King.
123. Nothing can be more melancholy than the story of this unhappy Prince. He was hardly seventeen years of age when he came to the throne, remarkably beautiful in his person and of an amiable disposition; but a violent love which he conceived for his cousin Elgiva, became a source of many misfortunes to them both. His marriage with that Princess was opposed by Odo, Archbishop of Canterbury, and by the famous St. Duristan. Edwi, deaf, to their advice, surmounted every obstacle, and married the idol of his affections, and then brought upon himself the animosity of not only Odo and St. Dunstan, but of the whole body of ecclesiastics. Edwi, enraged at this interference, banished St. Dunstan out of the kingdom, and expelled the Benedictine monks from several monasteries, restoring them to the secular canons, their original owners. These measures were resented by Odo, Dunstan, and other followers, who seized Elgiva, defaced her beauty with hot irons, and sent her into Ireland. They also poisoned the minds of the King's subjects against their Monarch, stirring them up to rebellion, and putting Edwi's brother, Edgar, at their head, who soon made himself master of the whole country north of the river Thames. This, and his other misfortunes, crushed his spirits ; and having retired into Wessex, he ultimately died of a broken heart, his brother Edgar becoming Sovereign of all England.
124. Wliy was Edgar, the successor of Edwi, the Peaceable? Because he was so well prepared for war by a powerful flee t
THE HISTORICAL KEASON WHY.
WOLVES EXTERMINATED PKOM GREAT BRITAIX.
and a well ordered army that other nations dared not disturb the tranquillity of his dominions.
125. Edgar's attention to maritime affairs was the chief glory of his reign, and this not only effectually secured the coast from insults, but procured him much respect from neighbouring states and Princes. Eight of these Princes are said to have attended the Court of Edgar at Chester, and to have rowed him in the royal barge on the river Dee, as a mark of their subjection, or of their regard and friendship.
126. In what manner were wolves, ivhich then Infested Great Britain, exterminated?
By Edgar imposing- a new and uncommon kind of tribute on the Princes of Wales ; exacting of them, instead of money and cattle which they paid before, three hundred wolves' heads yearly, which occasioned such a keen pursuit of them, that after a few years they were all either driven out of the country or killed.
127. Why was Edward, the son and successor of Edgar, surnamed the Martyr?
Because he was treacherously murdered by his step-mother Elfrida, who wished to place Edward's younger brother Ethelred on the throne, in order that she might have the administration in her own hands.
128. As Edward was hunting one day near Corfe Castle, he rode up to the castle, without any attendance, to pay Elfrida a passing visit. The treacherous Queen received him with great seeming kindness; and. upon his declining to alight, presented him with a cup of wine; but as he was in the act of drinking he was stabbed in the back either by her own hand or by her order. Edward finding himself wounded put spurs to his horse ; but fainting from loss of blood, he fell from the saddle, and was dragged along with his foot in the stirrup till he expired.
129. Whij was the reign of Ethelred a turbulent and unfortunate one ?
Because the Danes, who for more than half a century had given little disturbance to England, again commenced to harass the English coast. Several descents were made by the enemy in the course of this reign, and peace was for a short time secured, by a large bribe of money.
40 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
CANUTE CROWNED KING OF ENGLAND, 1017.
130. How did England come for a time under tlie Danish yoke ?
Because the purchase of momentary quiet, by large sums of money, only served to accelerate the ruin of the English by weakening themselves and strengthening their enemies. Until at last Ethelred, despairing of preserving his Crown any longer, fled from England and retired into Normandy. (See 94 and 95.)
131. JBy whom liad the Naval greatness of the Saxons first leen established?
By Alfred the Great, who not only attempted to discover unknown seas and countries, and thereby introduce new sources of trade, but by inventing and encouraging new manufactures which furnished many things for exportation.
132. Why did Canute lay claim to the English Crown, and how were his pretensions recognised ?
Canute claimed the English Crown because he was the successor of Sweyn, King of Denmark, by whom the English had first been conquered. The greater part of the English clergy and nobility attended him at Southampton, swore allegiance to him as their King and abjured all the posterity of Ethelred.
133. After this event Edmund Ironside, son of the deceased King Ethelred, still continued to prosecute his claim to the throne of his forefathers, and fought many desperate and bloody battles with Canute without being conquered. At length both parties becoming tired of these damaging and fruitless wars, it was agreed to divide the kingdom between the contending claimants, but a few days after this Edmund was treacherously murdered, and Canute then became King of all England.
134. Why ivas Canute, although a usurper, in favour ivith the English people ?
Because he was at much pains to extinguish national animosities, and to bring about a thorough reconciliation between the Danish and English subjects ; and having thus secured his newly acquired kingdom, he proceeded to perform some meritorious acts of justice.
135. In what other ways did Canute distinguish himself? He made successful expeditions against Sweden and Norway,
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 41
HAKOLD SUCCEEDS TO THE TUBOUE, 1035.
both of which countries he conquered, and afterwards busied himself in framing wise laws, building churches and monasteries, and engaging in other popular and pious works.
136. Canute was called The Great; and his wisdom and good fortune not only won the good opinion of the people, but engendered a host of unscrupu- lous flatterers. Some of his courtiers carried their adulation so far, as to declare in his presence that nothing in nature dared to disobey his com- mands. To confound these sycophants, Canute ordered his chair to bo placed on the beach near Southampton, and seating himself just as tlio tide was coming in, he commanded the waves with an air of mock autho- rity to approach no nearer his royal person. But the waves, regardless of his commands, advanced with their accustomed rapidity, and compelled his Majesty to retire; who turned to his flatterers and said, "Learn from this example the insignificancy of all human power; arid that the word of God is alone omnipotent."
137. Who succeeded Canute on the Throne?
The kingdom was divided between his two sons, Harold and Hardicanute ; Harold keeping possession of London and all the country to the north of the Thames, while that to the south of the river was ceded to Hardicanute.
138. Canute left two sons : Harold, who was born to him by his first wife, and Hardicanute, the offspring of his second wife. This last Prince should, by right, have succeeded to the Crown, but being in Denmark at the period of his father's death, his claims were overridden by Harold, who was then in England, and who stepped into the vacant throne and seized the royal treasures ; and it was to prevent the horrors of a civil war that the kingdom was thus portioned between the two brothers.
139. Why did Hardicanute, when made King of all England, upon the death of Harold, soon become un- popular ?
Because he gave way to his violent passions, and equally disregarded the dictates of reason and the laws of his country. He also rendered himself especially unpopular by imposing a heavy tax for the payment of his Danish fleet and army; an impost rendered still more odious by the rigorous manner in which it was collected, together with a grievous famine that raged at the same time. Subsequently he abandoned himself to such excesses in eating and drinking as impaired his health and hastened his death, which happened while he was carousing at the wedding of a Danish nobleman.
42 THE HISTOBICAL BEASON WHY.
EDWABD THE CONFESSOB, 3VIAERIED TO EDGITHA.
140. How did the English Crown once more become possessed ~by an English Prince?
The violences of Harold and Hardicanute had rendered the Danish rule so distasteful to the English, that upon the death of Hardicanute they determined upon placing a native Prince on the throne, and therefore made Edward, son of King Ethelred, King of England.
141. Why was the marriage of Edward a most un- happy one ?
Because Earl Godwin, the most powerful nobleman of that day, had made a condition with Edward that in return for his aid in raising him to the throne, Edward should espouse his daughter Edgitha. Edward also professed to hold in abhorrence Earl Godwin and his kindred, on account of the murder of his brother Alfred, to which Godwin had been accessory.
142. Why did William Dulce of Normandy pay a visit to Edward?
Because William had protected and supported Edward during his banishment and adversity, and the King thus entertained his Norman cousin as a token of gratitude.
143. It was on this visit that Robert the Norman, Archbishop of Can- terbury, is said to have given "William the first hint of Edward's intention of making him his successor; an intention which was probably suggested by that prelate. A singular commentary on the faithlessness of princes is afforded by the fact that Harold, the son of Earl Godwin, being sent on a mission to William Duke of Normandy, took an oath that he would support William's claim to the Crown of England, which he afterwards claimed himself.
144. Why was Harold, the son of Earl G-odwin, in- duced to believe that he might one day Jill the English throne ?
Because Edward, being in the decline of life, was still child- less, and the true heir to the crown, Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside, was at a great distance from the country, and almost forgotten; and there then remained no one who had any pretensions to the throne.
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 43
HAROLD II. PROCLAIMED KING, 1066.
145. Did Harold absolutely become possessed of the Crown ?
Yes, when at the height of his power and popularity, Edward the Confessor died, and Harold immediately caused himself to be crowned King-, with the full sanction of the people.
146. Harold owed his elevation to the throne to his own great power and wealth, his intimate connection with the chief nobility, the favour of the clergy, the love of the citizens of London, and his general popularity. He endeavoured to secure the Crown by the same popular acts through which he had obtained it, and his administration is acknowledged to have been wise, just, and gracious.
147, Why was Edivard for a long time undecided as to whom he should lequeatli the Crown?
He is supposed to have inclined towards William Duke oi Normandy from feelings of partiality; and, on the other hand, he was disposed to make Harold his heir in order to secure peace.
148. What ivere the circumstances of Edward the Confessor's death?
He died on the 5th of January, 1066, and was the next day interred in Westminster Abbey, the rebuilding of which he had just lived long enough to complete.
NOTES UPON THE SAXON PERIOD.
The Saxons came over to Britain in separate armies and at different periods, and, by degrees, founded the Seven Kingdoms, designated, collec- tively, the Heptarchy.
The lowest order of people among the Anglo-Saxons were slaves, who, with tlieir wives and children, were the property of their masters, besides those who were native slaves, or slaves by birth, others frequently became so by various means ; by the fate of war, by forfeiting their freedom through crime, or even by contracting debts which they were not able to pay. Some of these slaves were called villani, or vittans, because they dwelt at the
44 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
NOTES UPON THE SAXON PEEIOD.
villages belonging to their masters, and performed the servile labours of cultivating their lands, to which they were annexed, and transferred with these lands from one owner to another.
Several members of the Saxon community associated themselves in what was called a tithing; its members were strongly attached to each other, and frequently united by the ties of blood. They fought in one band in the day of battle, and frequently ate at the same table in the time of peace. If one of the society was wronged, all the rest assisted to procure redress ; if one sustained a loss by fire, the death of cattle, or any other accident, the others contributed to indemnify him for his loss; if one of them became poor, the rest supported him; all the members of the tithing attended all the funerals, marriages, and festivals of the neighbourship, and, finally, if one of the members misbehaved himself he was expelled the society. This was a heavy social degradation, as from that moment the expelled member became an outlaw and a wanderer, and was exposed to a thousand insults.
Trial Ity Jury, as at present practised, was instituted by the Anglo- Saxons, in these terms: "That there may be a court held in every wapon- tack, let twelve of the most venerable thanes, with the gerieve, stand forth and swear upon the holy things put into their hands, that they will not condemn any innocent, nor acquit any guilty person."
The first taxes on record were those imposed under the name of Danegeld ; these were raised for the purpose of bribing the Danes to desist from the incursions they were constantly making upon the English coast. This tax was gradually increased from one to seven shillings on every hide of land, and was retained long after the original occasion for imposing it had ceased.
A council, somewhat resembling our present Parliament, existed under the title of the Wittenagemot. In this assembly, both ecclesiastical and political laws were made ; taxes for the maintenance of the clergy and the support of the civil government were imposed; questions relating to peace and war were debated; civil arid criminal causes of the greatest moment were determined; and the most important affairs of the kingdom were finally regulated.
Among the various offices of the Royal Household were two of a somewhat eccentric character, the one was that of Master of the Lights, who had the care of all the wax and tallow candles used in the palace ; he was obliged to hold a taper in his hand near the dish out of which the King ate, and to carry one before him when he went into his bed-chamber. The other singular office was that of The King's Feet-bearer, whose duty it was to sit on the floor, with his back towards the fire, and hold the King's feet in his bosom, all the time he sat at table, to keep them warm and com- fortable.
The Parental Authority among the Anglo-Saxons was great, empowering them to correct their children with becoming severity, to regulate their general conduct, to sell their daughters with their own consent, and even to sell both their sons and daughters into slavery to relieve themselves from extreme necessity. One of the most curious customs among the
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
NOTES UPON THE SAXON PERIOD.
parents of this period was to place their infants on the sloping roofs of their houses, with a view of testing their future courage. If the child clung to the thatch with determination and tenacity, the parents hailed the action with delight, and the child was well tended and carefully brought up. But if the infant cried, and betrayed a fear of falling, it was regarded as an ill omen of his future career, and he was ever afterwards habitually neglected.
Architecture was an art almost wholly unknown among the earlier Anglo- Saxons ; they lived in houses built of wood or earth, and covered with straw or the branches of trees; and the walls even of cathedral churches were built of wood.
SAXON HOUSE. FROM STRUTT.
The Art of making Glass was introduced into England about the eighth century; before that period the windows of houses and churches were filled either with linen cloth or lattices of wood .
The Art of Embroidery was extensively practised by Anglo-Saxon ladies , who worked rich and ingenious devices, for the purpose of decorating the priests and ornamenting the churches. Figures were sometimes embroidered upon cloth with threads of gold, silver, and silk, of purple and other colours, as the nature of the figures to be formed required; and to render them more exact, they were first drawn with colouring matter by some skilful artist.
The Art of Dyeing appears to have been pretty well known, and especially the dyeing of scarlet, by the help of the small insect known as the cochineal.
The Furriers' Art, or the art of dressing the skins of animals without taking off the hair or wool, was much improved in the tenth century ; for then furs of all kinds were much worn, and highly valued for their warmth and beauty.
The Painters and Sculptors of the age were chiefly employed in working for the Church, by drawing and forming figures of our Saviour, the Virgin
46 THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY.
NOTES UPON THE SAXON PERIOD.
Mary, the Apostles, and other saints. At a later period historical paintings representing the most celebrated actions of Princes and Generals became common iu England.
Music was universally admired and cultivated, and some skill in vocal or instrumental performance appears to have been necessary to every man who wished to mingle in the better class of society ; and not to be acquainted with music was deemed a disgrace.
Independently of coin, another medium of purchase and sale existed among the Anglo-Saxons in the shape of living money. This consisted of slaves and cattle of all kinds, which had a certain value set upon them by law, at which they passed current on the payment of debts and the purchase of commoditie of all kinds, and supplied the deficiency of money properly so called.
The scarcity of money occasioned the prices of commodities to be very low. line common price of an acre of land was sixteen Saxon pence (about four shillings of our money), and twenty horses or heads of cattle could then have been purchased for the cost of one now.
Hospitality was one of the most conspicuous social qualities of the Anglo- Saxons. They received all comers without exception into their houses, and entertained them in the best manner their circumstances could afford. "When all their provisions were consumed they conducted their guests to the next house without any invitation, where they were received with the same welcome, and entertained with the same generosity. In those times monasteries were especially regarded as a species of inn, where all ranks of travellers were lodged and entertained.
THE HISTOKICAL SEASON WHY. 47
BATTLE OF HASTINGS FOUGHT BETWEEN WILLIAM AND HAEOLD, 1066.
FEOM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE DEATH OF KING JOHN.
149. Why did William Dulce of Normandy lay claim to the English Grown ?
Partly because he was a distant relation of the deceased Monarch, and also on the pretext of Edward having- willed the Crown to him.
150. What was the consequence of these rival claims to the Throne.
A battle was fought at Hastings between William and Harold, in which the former was victorious and the latter was killed.
151. The combat lasted from six in the morning till the setting of the sun. The English troops fought with great bravery and were only overpowered by the superiority of the numbers of the foe. During the battle, William had three horses slain under him, and at one minute was nearly laid prostrate by an English Knight. His followers were fearfully thinned, and he lost one-fourth of his splendid army; nor did he imme- diately gain by this battle one-fourth part of the kingdom of England, for many an after-field was fought, and his wars for the conquest of the west, the north, and the east, were protracted for seven long years.
152. Why did William malce a royal progress through, his new kingdom ?
Because he did not feel himself at first secure, and was anxious to propitiate the English people, by appearing among them, and behaving towards them with kindness and condescension.
153. William made a progress into the different parts of his kingdom, receiving the homage of his new subjects, and behaving to all who submitted to his authority with the most engaging affability. In this progress he was at great pains to restrain his Norman followers from doing any injuries, or offering any insults to his English subjects. By these popular and prudeut measures the public tranquillity was everywhere restored, and the most perfect submission was observed towards the uew Government.
154. Why did revolts and insurrections spring up soon after William's accession to the Throne ?
Because the Conqueror having established, as he imagined,
48 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
WILLIAM DESOLATED THE >'OETH OF ENGLAND, 1070.
perfect tranquillity in all parts of England, visited Normandy for the purpose of receiving the congratulations of his former subjects; and the Norman captains, taking advantage of the absence of their chief, loaded the English people with injuries and indignities, against which they protested.
155. What other revolt had William to suppress? The two sons of the late King Harold, who had left England
after the battle of Hastings, and taken refuge in Ireland, collected an army and a fleet, and landed on the coast of Devonshire. They were, however, immediately defeated, and compelled to return to Ireland.
156. Why did William forfeit the goodwill and esteem of his English subjects?
On account of the rigorous measures he adopted against them, and the cruelty with which he punished those who had armed themselves against his authority.
157. In the beginning of the year 1070, "William marched northward with his army, destroying and burning the whole country as he advanced, and putting all the inhabitants to the sword without mercy. In this cruel and destructive manner he proceeded as far as Hexham, marking his way with blood and desolation. Many of the wretched inhabitants, who escaped the sword by flying to the woods and mountains, perished by famine; and no fewer than one hundred thousand men, women, and children, are said to have been destroyed. The whole country between York and Durham was converted into a desert, and remained without houses or inhabitants for nine years.
158. Why did William invade Scotland?
Because Malcolm, the King of that country, had afforded a refuge to all the English exiles, and assisted them in their attempts against the Norman Government.
159. "William conducted an army into Scotland, where he was met by Malcolm with forces of equal strength. After the two armies had faced each other several days, a negotiation was set on foot, which terminated in a peace, by which Malcolm agreed to do homage to "William for his rule in England, and "William agreed to receive the English exiles into his favour, and grant them an honourable establishment.
160. Why did a war IreaJc out between William and Ms eldest son Robert? Because Robert had been for some years declared heir to all
THE HISTORICAL SEASON -WHY. 49
DOOMSDAY BOOK PREPABED, 1081.
his father's dominions on the Continent, and began to be impatient for their immediate possession, a desire which became all the stronger owing to William's absence in England.
161. For some time "William eluded the importunate applications of his son by evasive answers; but was at last obliged to declare plainly, that he vas determined not to resign any of his territories so long as he lived. This denial increased the discontent and anger of Robert, and was further fanned into a flame by the following incident, trifling in itself, but important in its consequences. The King, spending some time that year in the Castle of I'Aigle with his Court, his two younger sons, William and Henry, in a jouthful frolic threw some water from an upper apartment on their elder Brother Robert and his companions, who were walking in a court below. Robert naturally passionate, and at that time in a peevish and irritable state of mind, drew his sword in a rage, and rushed upstairs to take revenge on his brothers. This occasioned a great tumult; and it was owing to the King's presence only that fatal consequences were prevented. The rage of Robert, however, was not appeased; for he privily retired from Court that Tery night with a number of the young nobility attached to his fortunes, and with the view of surprising the citadel of Rouen, the capital of Normandy. Open war soon after broke out, in which the father and son were engaged for almost three years.
162. In what manner was the war put a stop to ?
The superior means and invincible valour of William gave him considerable advantages over his son, who was at length driven out of Normandy and took shelter in France.
163. William pursued his son, and besieged the Castle in which he was shut, which was defended with great valour and many vigorous sallies. In one of them Robert encountered, wounded, and unhorsed his father; who made himself known by crying out as he fell to the ground. As soon as the son heard his parent's voice he was penetrated with horror and remorse, sprang from his horse, fell on his knees, and implored his father's pardon. A reconciliation then took place, and Robert and his adherents were again restored to favour.
164. Why did William cause the volume known as the Doomsday Book to le prepared ?
In order that he might acquire an exact knowledge of the possessions of the Crown, the revenues of the church, the nobility, and land-owners; as also the number, quality, and wealth of all his subjects.
165. This survey was conducted by Commissioners, taking information upon oath in each county of the following particulars :— The name of every town or village; who held it in King Edward's days; who then possessed it; how
C 2
50 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
DEATH OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEEOE, 1087.
many freemen, serfs, and cottagers were in it; how many hides of land were in each manor ; how much woodland, meadow, and pasture ; how much it paid in taxes in King Edward's days, and how much now; how many mills and fish-ponds; and in some parts they were even more particular, and took an account of the horses, black cattle, swine, sheep, and hives of bees. All this information was returned by the Commissioners, and formed into the two valuable volumes of Doomsday Book, which are still preserved in the Exchequer.
166. Wliy did a war break out witli ^France about this time ?
Because a want of cordiality had for a long time existed
between the rival Kings, which was brought to a crisis by an
offensive expression which the French King made use of in reference to William's illness.
167. Under what circumstances did the death of William the Conqueror occur ?
Having entered France at the head of a formidable army, with the determination of desolating that country, he took the town of Mantes, set it on fire, and reduced it to ashes ; but in the midst of the attack his horse stumbled and threw him forward on the pummel of the saddle, an injury which, aggra- vated by previous sickness and advancing age, terminated fatally a few days afterwards. William died at Eouen on the 9th of September, 1087, in the sixty-third year of his age and the twenty-first of his reign.
168. Wliy was the Arclibislwp of Canterbury con- secrated Primate of all England ?
Because a dispute having arisen between Lanfranc and Thomas, severally Archbishop of Canterbury and York at this time, regarding the precedence, their respective claims were investigated by a Synod, and Canterbury was declared to be entitled to the Primacy.
169. Wliy did William bring about a cliange in the polity of the Church of England ?
Because he began to find that the clergy and monas- teries were possessed of far too large a proportion of the riches
THE HISTOEICAL BEASON WHY. 51
EEVIVAL OF LEARNING IN ENGLAND.
of the kingdom, without contributing in the same degree to the defence of the country or the support of the State ; he therefore stripped them of many of their estates by various means, and adjudged them to pay the same taxes, and perform the same national duties, as were expected of the laity.
170. So watchful an eye did William keep over the clergy, in the exercise of discipline and government of the Church, that he did not allow any of them to go out of the kingdom without his leave, to acknowledge any Pope without his direction, to publish any letters from Rome till he had seen and approved them, to hold any councils or to make any canons without his consent, or to pronounce a sentence of excommunication upon any of his nobles without his permission.
171. Why were the ancient laws of England preserved fy William the Conqueror ?
Partly by the professed reverence of William for the ordi- nances of Edward the Confessor; and partly by the invincible attachment of the English people to their ancient statutes.
172. Why did the accession of William the Conqueror to the English throne contribute to the revival of learning ?
Because that Prince had received a good education, was fond of reading and the conversation of learned men, and by rewarding with church benefices and other favours excited an extraordinary desire for literary pursuits.
173. The erection of above one hundred monasteries in England in the course of this period may be reckoned among the causes of the revival of learning by increasing the number both of teachers and students, by multiplying the inducements to pursue, and the opportunities to acquire knowledge, but chiefly by rendering books much more attainable than they had been in any former period. The art of making paper, which was invented in the course of this period, contributed also to the revival of, and more general application to learning, by rendering the acquisition of books much less difficult and expensive than it had hitherto been. It is also possible that some of the ingenious men who were to be found among the Crusaders benefitted by their expedition to the East, and introduced the results of their experience among their countrymen.
174. Why was the office of Standard-Sear er one of the most honourable in the kingdom ?
Because the royal standard was considered as the centre of the whole army, and being always conspicuous in the sight of
52 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
THE CINQUE POETS ESTABLISHED.
the soldiers, it became at length to be regarded with a sort of personal interest and affection.
175. Henry de Essex, one of the standard bearers of England, was, on the occasion of a battle with the Welsh, seized with a sudden panic, and threw down the royal standard, upon which the whole array concluded that the King was killed. Being tried for this crime, and convicted, he was condemned to lose his office, his fortune, and his life, which last was spared by the clemency of the King.
176. Why were tlie jive towns on the coast of Kent and Sussex, commonly called the Cinque Ports, so con- stituted ?
With a view to the protection of the country and the encouragement of trade and shipping ; the five ports being compelled to furnish collectively fifty-seven ships at forty days' notice, and to continue fifteen days in the public service at their own charges.
177. The five towns which originally formed the Cinque Ports were Hastings, Dover, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich; to which were added Winch elsea and Rye as principals, and some other towns as members, though they still retained the name of Cinque Ports from their original number. Some idea of the comparative trade of these towns may be furnished by a statement of the number of ships which each was compelled to supply, namely :— Hastings, twenty<one ships; Romney, five; Hy the and Sandwich, each five; Dover, twenty-one. For this important service to the State, the people of the Cinque Ports had various honours and privileges conferred upon them. Their merchants were not only styled Barons, but four of them had the right to support the canopy over the King on the day of his coronation, and to dine at a table on his right hand. The inhabitants were exempted from the several feudal servitudes and prosecu- tions, and could be sued only in their own court.
178. Why did the business of money-lending fall into the hands of the Jews ?
Because Christians were prohibited, both by the laws of the Church and State, from lending money at interest, which was called usury, and those who were convicted of it were punished by excommunication, and the forfeiture of all their goods.
179. This impolitic prohibition gave rise to the most exorbitant profits and the most cruel exactions. For the business of money-lending being confined to one class, and the rate of interest not being regulated by law, the Jews set no bounds to their avarice, and took every advantage of the necessities of those who applied to them for a loan.
THE HISTORICAL KEASON WHY. 53
WILLIAM KtTFUS SUCCEEDED TO THE TIIEONE, 1087.
180. Why was the custom of tolling the Curfew Bell instituted ?
To compel all fires to be extinguished about sunset in summer, and at about eight or nine at night in winter. The ringing of the curfew bell is supposed by some to have been introduced by William the Conqueror as a badge of servi- tude. But another opinion is that it was simply intended as a precaution against fires, which were of frequent occurrence, and very fatal when so many houses were built of wood.
181. JBy whom was William the Conqueror succeeded? By his second surviving son, William, surnamed Eufus, from
the red colour of his hair.
182. William Rufus, who was present with his father on his death-bed, having obtained his nomination to the Crown of England, with a letter of recommendation from Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, did not stay to pay the last duties to his expiring parent, but hastened over the sea to take possession of the Crown. As soon as he arrived in England he got possession of his father's treasures at Winchester and of the most important fortresses on the coast, and was eventually crowned at Westminster, by the Archbishops of Canterbury and York.
183. Why was a conspiracy raised against William II. soon after his accession ?
Because he was secretly disliked by many of the chief nobility, who knew his fierce imperious character, and they having large estates in Normandy, as well as England, conceived that it would be impossible to preserve them both if the two countries were under different Sovereigns.
184. The nobles designed to raise Robert Duke of Normandy, the elder brother of William, to the throne of England. The intention was commu- nicated to Robert, who encouraged the conspirators to proceed, and promised to support them with a powerful army. William, alarmed at the combina- tion against him, exerted all his vigour to defeat his enemies and preserve the Crown he had obtained. With a view of obtaining the faithful adherence of the English, he proi. ised to revive their ancient laws, to allow them to hunt in the royal fores', with other privileges, and so gained thirty thousand over to his cause. With these, and such Norman barons as adhered to him, he took the field, and gained a complete triumph over his enemies.
185. Why did William soon after declare tear against his brother Robert ? Because he was actuated by revenge for the late attempt
54 THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
A CONSPIRACY KAISED TO DETHEOXE WIXLIAM II., 1095.
made on his Crown, and also by a desire to unite the kingdom of Normandy to his own.
186. On landing in Normandy, "William was met by several of the Norman barons, who, having estates in both countries, were naturally anxious to maintain a peace, which was at length concluded without the rival forces coming to an engagement.
187. What internal commotion toolc place during the reign of William II. ?
A dangerous conspiracy was formed during his absence in Normandy to deprive him of his throne ; William hastened home, surprised the conspirators, and put an end to the plot by several executions and confiscations of property.
188. Why did William become for a time the Governor of Normandy?
Because Kobert, the reigning Duke, was seized with the prevalent desire of joining the Crusades, and to accomplish his object, mortgaged his Duchy to his brother William for five years.
189. Why was William involved in war with France ? Because, when he took temporary possession of Normandy,
he laid claim to certain territories as belonging him, which were in the hands of neighbouring Princes.
190. These wars were carried on for some time without any decisive result except the recovery of the province of Maine, which had been defended with great bravery for many years, until the Commander was compelled to submit, and suffer himself to be taken prisoner.
191. finder what circumstances did the death of William Itufus occur?
William Duke of Guienne, wishing to join in the Crusades as other Princes had done, offered to mortgage his Dukedom to the King of England for a sum of money to defray the expenses of the expedition. Rufus accepted the offer, provided the money, and put himself at the head of a powerful army to take possession of his new territories ; with this army he lay near the sea-coast waiting for a fair wind to take him across to the Continent. On the 2nd of August, in the year 1100, the King, with his brother, Prince Henry, and a
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 55
HEKBY FIRST ASCENDED THE THUONE, 1100.
numerous suite, went to hunt in the New Forest ; towards evening, when the company were dispersed in the pursuit of their game, a buck suddenly sprang between the King and one Walter Tyrrel, a French gentleman, who excelled in archery ; he discharged an arrow at the buck, which missed its aim, and, glancing against a tree, struck the King on the breast, pierced his heart, and immediately deprived him of life.
192. Who succeeded William Eufus?
Henry, the youngest son of William the Conqueror, who took advantage of his elder brother Robert's absence to have himself crowned King.
193. Henry was in another part of the New Forest pursuing his sport when he heard that his brother William was killed, and he immediately put spurs to his horse and galloped to Winchester to seize the royal treasure, in order to usurp the Crown. William de Breteuil, the keeper of the royal treasure, was also in the field, and suspecting what might happen rode to Winchester with equal speed. On his arrival, he found Prince Henry demanding the keys of the treasury with many threats, and boldly interposed, declaring that both the treasure and the Crown belonged to Robert, Henry's eldest brother. The Prince drew his sword and threatened immediate death to any who should oppose him, and being supported by some of the nobles he succeeded in obtaining the treasure, and hastened to London, where by gifts and promises he was at length proclaimed King.
194. WJty did tlie nation soon become reconciled to Henry's usurpation ?
Because having in the first place secured the Crown by active and energetic measures, he next by acts of wise and gentle administration won the approbation of the people.
195. Henry recalled Anslem, Archbishop of Canterbury, the idol of the clergy, from exile ; he published a royal charter, full of the most captivating promises of redressing all the wrongs of the two prpceding reigns, reviving the laws of Edward the Confessor, and granting all the immunities that the greatest friends of liberty and of their country could desire; he seized Ralph Flambard, Bishop of Durham, the detested instrument of his brother's oppression, and threw him into prison ; and effectually to gain the hearts of the native English, who were yet a distinct people from the Normans, he married the Princess Matilda, daughter of Malcolm Conmore, sister of Edgar the reigning King of Scotland, and niece of Edgar Atheling. Besides all this he banished from court all the profligate companions of his brother's pleasures, set many prisoners of state at liberty, and remitted many debts that were owing to the Crown.
56 THE HISTOEICAL BEASON WHY.
EXPEDITION MADE BY HENRY INTO NORMANDY, 1105.
196. What measures did Robert take to gain possession of the English Crown on Ms return home ?
He procured the promise of assistance from several Norman and English barons, and after many months spent in preparation he landed in England with a large army.
197. In the meantime Henry, hearing of his brother's intention, was not inactive, and raised both an army and a fleet to defend the country against the threatened invasion. The two armies met each other at Portsmouth, but being struck with mutual awe, they stood facing each other several days without coming to an engagement. At length, through the medium of persons interested in a peace, a treaty was set on foot, on terms mutually advantageous, and Robert having spent several months in festivity in England, peacefully withdrew to his own Kingdom of Normandy.
198. Wliy did Henry make an expedition into Nor-
Because the reckless and profligate government of Eobert had given great dissatisfaction to the people, many of whom sent an invitation to Henry to come over to Normandy. The English King, taking advantage of these circumstances, invaded the country and conquered it.
199. A battle was fought between the armies of the two countries with great bravery and doubtful success for some time, but by the superior numbers and valour of the English, Henry obtained a complete victory, and took his brother Robert, Edgar Atheling, and several other noble persons prisoners. The victory determined the fate of Normandy, and the gates of all its castles, towns, and cities were thrown open to the con- queror. Robert was brought to England and confined in Cardiif Castle.. where, after a captivity of twenty-eight years, he died.
200. Why was Henry guilty of great cruelty towards his nephew William, only son of Eobert, the late Duke of Normandy ?
Henry was fearful that the sympathies of the disaffected and ambitious portion of his subjects might be enlisted in favour of the unfortunate young Prince. He therefore deter- mined to get the Prince into his own power, and for that purpose sent a body of horse to surprise the Castle of St. Saen. The plot however miscarried, owing to the fidelity of the servant; and Helie de St. Saen, the guardian of the Prince,
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 57
QFEEIf MAUD DIED, 1118.
withdrew him from England, and was doomed to wander from court to court for many years.
201. The effect of the intrigues of Helie de St. Saen, in favour of his pupil, at length began to appear; and several of the neighbouring Princes discovered a disposition to divest Henry of his foreign dominions, which obliged him to make a voyage to the Continent for protection. He continued in Normandy for two years, when he was engaged in constant wars with the King of France and the Earl of Anjou; by contracting a marriage, however, between the daughter of the latter and his only son, Henry succeeded in compromising all disputes.
202. What misfortune did Henry meet with in 1118 ?
He lost his virtuous and amiable Consort Maud "the Good," and also suffered considerably by the death of the Earl of Mellent, the ablest minister of his Kingdom, and who had the reputation of being the greatest statesman in Europe.
203. Why ivas a foreign confederacy entered into against Henry about this time?
Because he had secretly assisted his nephew Theobald, Earl of Blois, in a revolt against his liege lord the King of France ; and also because he had broken off the match agreed upon between his son William and the Earl of Anjou's daughter Matilda ; and finally because he had forgotten many of his promises made to the Norman barons in his hour of need.
204. The league thus formed against Henry comprised many of his own disaffected subjects, the King of France, the Earl of Anjou, and Baldwin Earl of Flanders. After a succession of reverses Henry met with better fortune : Baldwin the Earl of Flanders was killed ; the immediate celebra- tion of the marriage of Prince William with the Earl of Anjou's daughter was agreed upon, thus defeating one enemy more; several of the Norman barons were won over by rich presents and liberal promises; the French King after a petty skirmish was defeated, and the confederacy thus terminated.
205. What severe domestic calamity happened to Henry after his return from Normandy ?
His only son William, whom he loved exceedingly, and whose succession he had been at great pains to secure, was drowned at sea.
58 THE HISTOE1CAL EEASON WHY.
PRINCE WILLIAM DROWNED, 1120.
206. When the campaign was at an end, Henry and his army set sail for England, leaving Prince William to follow in a few days. The Prince ordered three casks of wine to be given to his ship's crew, so that many of them were intoxicated when they set sail about the close of the day. As they proceeded coastwise they became entangled among some rocks at a spot called Has de Catse (now Has de Catville), and the ship struck on one of these with such violence that several planks were started, and she instantly began to fill. The boat was immediately lowered and the Prince and some of the chief nobility put into it; and having got clear of the ship it might have reached the shore, which was at no great distance. BUG the Prince hearing the shrieks of his natural sister the Countess of Perche commanded the boat to put back and take her in. As soon as the boat approached the ship, multitudes in despair threw themselves into it, so that it instantly sunk, and every soul but one perished. This catastrophe was concealed from the King for several days, who, when at length informed of it, fell down in a swoon, was with difficulty recovered, and was never afterwards seen to smile.
207. Why did Henry determine on a second marriage upon the death of Ms son ?
Because that event left him without an heir to succeed him on the throne, and he was not only anxious to secure the succession to his own family, but was also desirous of shutting out his nephew William ; Henry, therefore, espoused Adelais or Alice daughter of Geoffrey Duke of Louvain, and niece to the regning Pope Calixtus the Second.
208. Why did Henry afterwards declare Ms daughter Matilda to be liis successor to the Crown ?
Because the marriage with his new Queen was productive of no issue. And although the idea of a female Sovereign was opposed to the wishes, and repugnant to the feelings of the people, the absolute power which Henry had succeeded in gaming, enabled him to carry out his project successfully.
209. On Christmas-day, 1126, a general assembly was convened at Windsor Castle of the bishops, abbots, barons, and all the great tenants of the Crown, who unanimously declared Matilda to be the next heir to the Crown in the event of her father dying without any legitimate male issue. They then swore to maintain her succession ; the clergy swearing first in the order of their rank, and after them the laity; the first of whom was Stephen Earl of Boulogne, who afterwards usurped the Crown.
210. Why did Henry enjoy comparative peace and security towards the latter end of his reign ?
On account of a marriage which was contracted between his
THE HISTOE1CAL EEASON WHY. 59
HENEY'S PATJGHTEE MATILDA BE-:MAEEIED, 1127.
daughter Matilda and Geoffrey, the eldest son of the Earl of Anjou; by which event an old and troublesome foe was amicably disposed of. Also from the decease of his nephew William, whose death took place unexpectedly, from a wound received in his hand.
211. The gallant but unfortunate young Prince William, in his last moments wrote a letter to his uncle Henry, asking pardon for all the trouble he had occasioned the King, and earnestly entreating his favour for his faithful guardian Helie, and a few other friends who had adhered to him in all his vicissitudes. Henry, in the joy of his heart, granted the request of his deceased nephew, who left no children to prolong the King's disquietude, or enlist the sympathies of the disaffected nobles.
212. What circumstances attended the death of Henry the First?
He died in Normandy, on the 1st of December, 1135, in the sixty-seventh year of his age and the thirty-sixth of his reign. His health and spirits had been for some time on the decline; but the immediate cause of his death was the partaking too freely of a dish of lampreys, which occasioned a severe attack of indigestion, and subsequently fever.
213. By what especial act did Henry the First main- tain the liberties of the English?
He drew up a charter containing many new privileges and a confirmation of old ones. Copies of it were sent into every county and deposited in every monastery. It also served as a model for the Magna Charta afterwards granted by King John.
214. Why was there a quarrel, prolonged for many years, between Henry the First, and Anslem, Archbishop of Canterbury?
Because Henry demanded of Anslem either to do homage for his bishopric or leave the kingdom, both of which Anslem refused to do. After some years of angry discussion and bickerings, a compromise was effected by the Pope, to the effect that the King should abstain from insisting upon the investiture with ring and crozier ; the bishops and abbots should do homage in the same manner with the lay tenants in chief of the Crown, for the temporalities of their sees.
60 THE HISTOBICAL SEASON WHY.
THE ACCESSION OF MATILDA OPPOSED, 1135.
215. Why tuas the accession of Matilda to the throne distasteful to the English people?
Because the notion of a female reign was repugnant to the national habits and feelings of the people ; the nobility, especially, whose business was war, regarding their monarch as the only chief who was to lead them to battle.
216. A loud and general cry was raised by the Anglo-Norman and Norman barons, that it would be most disgraceful for so many knights to obey the orders of a woman; and as Prince Henry, Matilda's son, was only four years old, the prospect of a long regency was also incompatible with the spirit and condition of the times.
217. Why did Stephen lay claim to the Crown?
Because he was nearly allied, both by birth and marriage, with the Royal Family of England; he also presumed upon a popularity which he had already succeeded in obtaining.
218. Stephen had resided much in England, and had rendered himself exceedingly popular both to the Normans and the people of the Saxon race. The barons and knights admired him for his bravery and energy— the people for his generosity, the beauty of his person, and his affable and familiar manners. When Henry the First died, Stephen was at Boulogne, from whence he immediately hastened to England. At Dover and Canterbury the gates were closed against him, but, regardless of these repulses, he proceeded to London, where he, was welcomed with the loudest acclamations; having gained over the Archbishop of Canterbury and some of the other prelates to his cause, he was through their instrumentality solemnly crowned and anointed King: at Westminster.
219. Why did Eolert Earl of Gloucester, the late King's natural son, submit to the ride of Stephen ?
Because, although attached to the interests of his sister Matilda, he soon became sensible that unless he submitted, in appearance at least, he must relinquish all his estates, and with them the power of promoting the cause which he had so much at heart.
220. Why was Normandy favourable to Stephen ? Because an hereditary hatred existed between the Normans
and the House of Anjou; and also because the Norman barons felt that their estates in both countries would be secure under one Sovereign.
THE HISTORICAL BEASON WHY. 61
STEPHEN MAKES AN UN SUCCESSFUL EXPEDITION INTO SCOTLAND.
221. Why did Stephen prosecute a -war with Scotland? Because Prince Henry, son of the King of Scots, laid claim to the Earldom of Northumberland, which Stephen refused to recognise.
222. The Scotch King entered Northumberland with an army which committed the most cruel ravages, burning all the towns, villages, and churches, and sparing neither men, women, nor children. Stephen, hearing of their devastations, marched into the north at the head of a large army, and upon the Scotch retiring, pursued them as far as Roxburgh. While the two armies lay facing each other near that place, Stephen discovered such symptoms of disaffection among his own troops, that he did not think it prudent to risk a battle, but returned into the south.
223. In ivhat manner did Matilda become Queen ?
A battle was fought between the rival claimants to the throne, and Stephen was taken prisoner and confined in Bristol Castle. By this defeat the royalists became quite dispirited, and sub- mitted to Matilda, who made her triumphant entry into Win- chester, and was acknowledged Queen a few days afterwards.
224. Why was Matilda soon driven from the throne ? Because her naturally proud and haughty nature became
aggravated by her recent success; so that she behaved ungra- ciously towards her friends, and with disdain and insolence towards her enemies, even when they came to make their most humble submission. She confiscated the estates of all who did not immediately submit to her authority, and thereby fixed them in their opposition; recalled all the grants that had been made by Stephen, by which the fortunes of many were ruined. She refused to listen to a petition from the Citizens of London for an abatement of their taxes; and when the restoration of the Laws of Edward the Confessor was prayed for, she upbraided the petitioners with their liberalities to King Stephen, and com- manded them from her presence. This irritated the people to such a degree, that they rose up in arms against her, pursued her from place to place, and finally drove her from England.
225. How was King Stephen liberated from captivity ? The Earl of Gloucester having been taken in the late war, was
exchanged for King Stephen, by which means both regained their liberty.
62 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
DEATH OE KING STEPHEN, 1154.
226. Wliat progress was Prince Henry making while these commotions were going on?
He was knighted with great pomp by the King of Scotland, successfully invaded Normandy, and secured Anjou, Touraine, and Maine. He also married Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis the Seventh, King of France, who brought him a considerable accession of power and wealth by the territories of her family.
227. How ivas the claim of Prince Henry to the English Crown compromised?
Negotiations were entered into, and agreed upon, that Stephen should enjoy the crown without further molestation during his life, and that Prince Henry should succeed to the throne at his death.
228. This agreement, which diffused incredible joy through the whole kingdom, that had been so long disturbed by civil wars, was solemnly ratified in a great council held at "Winchester. The prelates and barons took an oath of fealty to Henry as successor to the Crown, and the Prince having thus regulated his affairs in England, returned soon after into Normandy.
229. What were the circumstances attending Stephen's death ?
He was seized with illness at Dover, and died on the 25th of October, 1154, in the fiftieth year of his age, and the nineteenth of his reign.
230. Why did the accession of Henry the Second afford great satisfaction to the nation ?
Because the first acts of Henry's reign were equally wise and vigorous. He immediately issued a proclamation, command- ing all foreign mercenaries to depart the kingdom by a certain day, under the pain of death, an order which was promptly obeyed. He levelled to the ground the numerous castles which had been erected in all parts of England during the late civil wars, and from which the neighbouring countries had been deso- lated ; and finding that the Crown had been greatly impoverished
THE HTSTOEICAL SEASON WHY. 63
TBADITION OF XHOMA3 A'BECKET.
by the many grants of the royal demesnes, he obtained a decree of his Parliament to recall all these grants and re-attach them to the royal revenue.
231. Henry also granted to the people a new charter of liberties, and confirmed the old one. The coin, which had been considerably debased during the preceding reign, he restored to its standard purity; and the laws, which had been relaxed, he re-invested with their befitting dignity and vigour.
232. What was the most important event that occurred at home during the early part of Henry's reign ?
The quarrel between the King and Thomas a'Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, which arose from the King's attempt to destroy the power of the ecclesiastical courts of justice, an encroachment which the Archbishop would not yield to.
233. The origin of Thomas a'Becket, one of the richest and most powerful Churchmen that England ever saw, furnishes a romantic episode in history, According to popular tradition, there was among the followers of the Norman Crusaders a Saxon, named Gilbert Becket, who had the misfortune to be taken prisoner. During his captivity in Palestine he gained the affections of his master's daughter, by whose means he was restored to liberty. His benefactress feeling inconsolable without him, abandoned her home; and although she could speak no more English than London and Gilbert, by means of the first she reached England in a pilgrim-ship, and by wandering through the streets repeating the second, she at last found the person she sought. She was baptised and admitted into the Christian Church by the name of Matilda, and, by her union with Gilbert, became the mother of Thomas a'Becket.
234. Why was a'Bec7cet murdered?
Because his insolence and haughty behaviour had become insufferable to the King, who hinted, in the hearing of his barons, that he " wished to get rid of the turbulent priest," and his assassination was therefore determined upon by several of the barons.
235. Four of the barons set out for Canterbury, accompanied by a body of resolute men, with arms concealed under their clothes. These men were placed in different parts of the city to prevent any interruption from the citizens. The four barons then went, unarmed, with twelve of their com- pany, to the archiepiscjpal palace, and were admitted to the apartment where the Archbishop sat. Certain demands were then made, and a long altercation ensued, throughout which a'Becket remained inflexible, although he received several hints that if he did not comply, his life was in danger.
64 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
PEINCE HENEY CROWNED, 1170.
The barons then left the palace for a short time, and afterwards returned, clothed in mail, and bearing each a sword in his right hand and an axe iu his left; they again came upon the Archbishop, who boldly confronted them, but after a few minutes' parley -he was struck down with several blows, and his skull cleft in two.
236. Why did Conan, Dulce of Brittany, resign his dominions into Henry's hands ?
Because the Duke's daughter, Constantia, was betrothed to Geoffrey, Henry's third son, and finding himself unable to keep his turbulent barons in subjection, he resigned his duchy into the hands of the King, to be governed by him, for the benefit of Geoffrey and Constantia during their minority.
237. Why did Henry demolish the Castles of the Barons of Poitou and Guienne ?
Because they were discontented with some measures of Henry's Government, and secretly placed themselves under the protection of the King of France, giving him hostages for their fidelity.
238. Why ivas a peace concluded ivith France ? Because the two kings had been for a long time engaged in
petty warfare, which did not result in any advantage to either kingdom.
239. On this occasion Prince Henry of England did homage to his father- in-law, the King of France, for Anjou and Maine; Richard, the King of England's second son, did homage for Aquitaine; and Geoffrey, his third son, for Brittany.
240. Why did Henry have his son, Prince Henri/, crowned ?
Because the act of crowning and anointing was at this period regarded as a solemn confirmation of the Monarch's right to the throne, and Henry, partly from parental affection and partly from political motives, resolved upon this step.
241. As Henry was now at variance with the Archbishop of Canterbury, who claimed an exclusive right to perform the coronation ceremony, the execution of the design was attended with some difficulty. To accomplish his purpose effectually, Henry appointed an assembly of the nobles and great men of the kingdom, under the pretence of enquiring into the con- duct of the sheriffs and other magistrates during the preceding four years
THE HISTORICAL BEA80NWHY.
CONSPIRACY FORMED AGAINST IIENKY.
when King Henry had been absent from his kingdom. Prelates, Earls liarons, Sheriffs, Aldermen, and Bailiffs accordingly met, when, suddenly, to their great surprise, Prince Henry was crowned and anointed King by the Archbishop of York ; and the following day all the members of the assembly swore fealty to the young King, with a reservation of the fealty they owed his father.
242. Why did Henry take Dermot, King of Leinster, under his protection ?
Because that King having been expelled his dominion by his subjects for misrule, solicited the aid of Henry to reinstate him, with the condition that, if restored, he would hold his kingdom of Henry as his sovereign lord.
243. Why did Henry issue proclamations against tlie expeditions made into Ireland ?
Because Strongbow, the Earl of Pembroke, took the conduct of those expeditions upon himself, in opposition to the com- mands of the King, who had himself meditated the conquest of the Irish kingdom.
244. Strongbow was greatly alarmed at the proclamation, as it tended to deprive him of his followers, and indicated the high displeasure of his Sovereign, to mitigate which, he made the King an offer of all his acquisi- tions in Ireland in the most humble and submissive terms. Henry's resentment being disarmed at this submissive deportment, he received the Earl into favour, restored him his estates, and even permitted him to retain a great part of the kingdom of Leinster.
245. Why did a variance arise between Henry and Ms sons ?
Prince Henry having been crowned at the early age of fifteen, and being surrounded by a crowd of flatterers and unscrupulous courtiers, was induced to demand of his father the immediate and entire possession either of the kingdom of England, or of Normandy, Anjou, and Maine. This demand Henry refused to comply with.
246. On receiving a refusal to his request, the Prince openly^ expressed his discontent, and thenceforth behaved in a most offensive manner towards his father. King Henry, fearing that his son listened to bad counsels, removed several persons from about his son, whose honesty he suspected, and placed others of a better character in their stead. Upon this Prince Henry fled the country and hastened to France. The flight of the young
60 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
CAMPAIGN OP THE ENGLISH IN NOEMANDY.
King was the signal of rebellion to all who were engaged in this conspiracy. He was soon after followed by his two brothers, Richard and Geoffrey, and by a great number of the barons; and the defection at length became so general, that the King knew not whom to depend upon or trust.
247. What followed tliese rebellions ?
Open war broke out in many places. The King of France, with young Henry, at the head of a large army entered Normandy on one side, and invested Verneuil. The Earls of Flanders and Boulogne entered it on the other, and laid siege to Aumale ; while the rebellious Barons of Anjou, Maine, Aquitaine, and Brittany, took the field, and desolated the royal demesnes in these provinces.
248. What was the result of tliese ivars?
Henry, who had previously raised a large array, and strength- ened his castles and fortified places, attacked his enemies with such promptitude and vigour, that he succeeded in conquering the whole of them in a few months with little loss or labour.
249. The Earls of Flanders and Boulogne appeared at first the most for- midable of his enemies, having taken in a short time the towns of Aumale, Neuchatel, and Drieucourt. But at the last of these places the Earl of Boulogne received a wound in his knee, of which he died in a few days; and his brother, the Earl of Flanders, was so much affected at this loss, as well as with remorse for the unnatural war in which he was engaged, that he retired out of Normandy with his own troops, and those of his deceased brother. Thus encouraged, Henry began to act offensively; and with this view marched to the relief of Verneuil, which had been bravely defended, but was uow reduced to the last extremities. The King of France, hearing of Henry's approach, raised the siege and retreated, leaving the field so pre- cipitately, that the camp fell a prey to his enemies. The French barons were so much dispirited with this ill success, that they disbanded themselves, and withdrew from the service. The barons of Brittany, who had proved the most formidable foes, were defeated in a pitched battle, and the rebel chiefs shut up in the Castle of Doll, to which they had fled for refuge. The news of these events so disheartened the rebellious barons in the other provinces, that they dismissed their followers and returned to their castles. Thus ended this active campaign in a manner equally happy and glorious to Henry; who soon after concluded a truce with the Kings of France and Scotland, his two most determined enemies.
250. Why was the capture of the King of Scotland, one of the most important events of this reign ?
Because that monarch had entered into a conspiracy with
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 67
KOUBN BESIEGED A3D SUCCESSFULLY DEFENDED.
Prince Henry and the Earl of Flanders to invade England, and just as this design (which would -have been, in all probability, successful) was on the point of being executed, this event occurred.
2$1. The King of Scotland had invested Alnwick Castle, and imagining himself secure from the approach of any enemy, had sent out the majority of his forces to plunder the adjacent countries, retaining only his house- hold troops about his person. The famous Ranulph de Glauville, then Sheriff of Yorkshire, receiving intelligence of this state of things, collected about four hundred knights and approached Alnwick unperceived, under cover of a thick fog. As they approached nearer, the King of Scots, with about seventy knights, were discovered engaged in the exercise of tilting in a neighbouring field. The King at first mistook the enemy for a portion of his own troops, but afterwards discovering his error, he assumed a bold front and advanced to the attack. But his horse being killed in the first encounter, he was thrown to the ground and taken prisoner, and his followers either yielded or fled.
252. What occurrence took place in Normandy about tliis period?
Rouen was besieged by the King of France and Prince Henry, but was defended with such vigour that no impression was made upon it. Henry, having heard of this event, hastened to the relief of his Norman capital with a powerful army, and compelled the French to abandon their position and retreat.
253. Why did the King of France, after these events, seriously propose a peace with England ?
Because the French King was now convinced that Henry was too powerful a monarch to be vanquished, and that the attempt might result in his own ruin and humiliation. A peace was therefore proposed and agreed upon, of which Henry prescribed the terms.
251. By this peace the formidable confederacy which had been formed against Henry was dissolved, and all who had been engaged in it released from their oaths. The three rebellious princes threw themselves at Henry's feet, implored his pardon, and acknowledged his authority as a father and a king. All prisoners were released, with the exception of the King of Scot- land, and the Earls of Chester and Leicester, with whom a separate peace was to be made. A total oblivion of all injuries on both parts was declared ; and young Henry agreed to confirm all the grants that had been made by his father during the war.
D 2
68 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
SCOTLAND MADE A DEPENDENCY OF ENGLAND.
255. How did Scotland become a dependancy of Eng- land ?
The captivity of the King of Scotland having occasioned the greatest anarchy in that kingdom, the imprisoned monarch was willing to submit to any conditions provided he gained his release ; he therefore engaged that he and his successors should do homage to the Kings of England.
256. Why did the Kings of Navarre and Castille make reference to Henry for the settlement of a dispute that had Ion a existed between them ?
U
Because the wisdom and justice of Henry were as universally acknowledged and appreciated as his courage and activity; and these two princes, therefore, determined to abide by his decision. The cause was solemnly heard in a great council held at London, and determined in a manner agreeable to both parties.
257. Why did a fresh dispute arise between the Kings of England and France ?
Because one of the conditions of the articles of peace con- cluded on the occasion of the last war remained unfulfilled, — namely, the marriage between Richard, Henry's second son, and Adelais, the daughter of Louis.
258. As both, the parties were now become marriageable, Louis insisted that their marriage should be consummated without delay, to which Henry discovered a reluctance which could never be overcome. Louis, finding all his own applications ineffectual, prevailed upon the Pope to interfere; but Henry pleaded his cause with so much art and address, at the same time consenting to take a pilgrimage with Louis to the Holy Land, that the latter monarch agreed to a still further postponement of the marriage.
259. What remarkable act of mediation is recorded of Henry ?
Louis the Seventh, King of France, being attacked with a palsy, his son Philip was appointed to the administration of affairs. At the instigation of the Earl of Flanders, the young King treated his mother and other members of his family with such severity that they retired into Normandy, and claimed the protection of the King of England. On this occasion, Henry,
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 69
THE ASSIZE OF ASMS ESTABLISHED, 1181.
instead of fomenting the discord, laboured hard to restore peace In order to this, he made a voyage into Normandy, and had an interview with King Philip, in which he reconciled that prince to his mother and relatives, on reasonable terms, despite th§ opposition made by the Earl of Flanders.
260. What was tlie nature of " The Assize of Arms" which Henry established?
By this law, in order to provide for the future security and defence of the kingdom, it was ordered that every earl, baron, and knight, should have constantly in his possession as many complete suits of armour as he had knights' fees. Every freeman who had rents or goods to the value of sixteen marks, was to have one suit of a similar armour; every freeman who had only ten marks, was to have a habergeon, a cap of iron, and a lance; and every free burgess was to have a wambois, a cap of iron, and a lance. These arms were neither to be lent, sold, pawned, nor given for payment of debt, but kept in constant readiness for use.
261. Why did a rupture occur between the three young Princes ?
Henry, desirous of increasing and perpetuating the harmony which now subsisted amongst his sons, added the feudal ties, which were then esteemed inviolable, to those of blood, and pro- posed that his sons, Bichard and Geoffrey, should do homage to their elder brother Henry, for their respective territories of Aquitaine and Brittany. Geoffrey complied with his father's will, but Eichard rejected the proposal, with so much haughtiness, that it occasioned an immediate and violent animosity between him and his eldest brother. A war between the brothers was the result, which was only put an end to through the mediation of the King, their father.
262. What important event took place in the Royal Family at this period ?
The death of Prince Henry, whose naturally passionate dis- position was aggravated by the unhappy circumstances of this
70 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
HENET DESERTED ET HIS SON RICHARD.
family rupture, so that it threw him into a fever, under which he sunk.
263. When the young Prince was informed by his physicians that his recovery was hopeless, he was seized with the most bitter remorse and anguish for the repeated acts of rebellion he had been guilty of towards his father, to whom he sent a message, expressing his repentance, and earnestly entreating a visit. Henry, prevented from complying with this request, by the representations of his friends, took a ring from his finger, and sent it to his son as a mark of his forgiveness. The dying Prince received it with much emotion, and pressing it to his lips, soon after expired, on a heap of ashes, where he had commanded himself to be laid, with a halter round his neck. When Henry heard of his son's death, his fortitude of mind and strength of body failed him. He fainted several times, burst into a passionate flood of tears, and forgetting all the faults of his departed son, extolled him for his beauty, bravery, and other excellent qualities.
264. Why did Prince Richard set out for tlie Holy Land?
Because news arrived in England that the Christian army had been entirely defeated, and the city of Jerusalem taken, by the famous Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, which information excited not only the Prince, but many other princes and nobles to take the Cross.
265. What ivar IroTce out on the Continent about this period ?
One between the Earl of Toulouse and Prince Eichard of Aquitaine. The King of France esp9used the cause of the Earl of Toulouse, and thus compelled Henry to hasten to France, to protect the interests of his son Eichard, and to prevent a war.
266. What distressing scene marked the conclusion of this war ?
In a conference held between the Kings of England and France, the latter monarch, who had entered into a private arrangement with Prince Eichard, proposed to put an end to the war, and restore all his conquests, on these two conditions: that the marriage of his sister Adelais and Eichard should be immediately consummated, and that all Henry's subjects in Eng- land and on the Continent should do homage to Eichard as the heir of all his dominions. The Prince declared his entire acqui- escence in these proposals, earnestly pressing their acceptance;
THE HIS.TOEICAL EEASON WHY. 71
EXPEDITION MADE BY 3JICHABD INTO THE HOLY LASD.
and when they were rejected by Henry, Eichard, in the presence of the whole assembly, went over to Philip, and did homage to him for Normandy, Maine, Berry, Anjou, and Aquitaine.
267. What were tlie circumstances attending Henry tlie Second's death?
The war was renewed the next season with peat fury ; but the prosperity and good fortune which had hitherto attended Henry, now began to desert him, and he was obliged to fly before his enemies. In this reverse of fortune, when he was pursued from place to place by his son Richard, he was basely abandoned by his youngest and favourite son John, who deserted to his father's enemies. This last event, added to all his other miseries, inflicted a mortal blow, so that he died shortly after, on the 6th of July, 1189, in the thirty-fifth year of his reign, and the fifty- seventh of his age.
268. Who succeeded Henry the Second?
Richard, his eldest son, who was crowned at Westminster, September 3rd, 1189.
269. Why was a horrible slaughter directed against the Jews ?
Because, on the occasion of the coronation, the Jews became mingled with the crowd; and, being greatly disliked by the people generally, a disagreement arose.
270. Eichard had issued a proclamation, that none of the Jewish people should enter the church or "Westminster Hall on the day of his coronation. Some of them, being detected pressing into the hall, were assaulted, at first with opprobrious language, and afterwards with sticks and stones. The Jews, perceiving their danger, fled towards the city, pursued by an enraged mob, amongst whom a cry arose that the King had given orders to put all the Jews to death. This cry proved fatal to many of that hated nation, some of whom were massacred in the streets, and others burnt in their houses.
271. Why did Richard maJce an expedition into the Holy Land?
Because, as he was the first prince in Europe who assumed the Cross, he thought it incumbent upon him, on the receipt of the news of the defeat of the Christians, to hasten to their assistance.
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
IONGCHAMP, BISHOP OF ELT, EXPELLED.
272. The King not only appropriated an immense treasure left in his father's coffers, but sold castles, manors, parks, woods, and forests, for the purpose of raising money. He even bartered away the superiority of the Crown of England over the kingdom of Scotland for the inadequate sum of ten thou- sand marks. By these and various other methods, Richard amassed an im- mense sum, and departed from England on the Crusade.
273. Why did a second massacre take place among the Jews ?
Because many of the English who had assumed the Cross, and were preparing- for their voyage into the Holy Land, ima- gined it would be a good beginning of their pious enterprise to murder as many Jews as possible, and seize their riches. In consequence of this delusion, many thousands of this persecuted people were murdered in cold blood in various places.
274. Why was a treaty entered into between Richard and Tancred, King of Sicily ?
Tancred had detained Eichard's sister, the wife of William the Second, in prison, and had declined to pay her dower, and a valuable legacy left by William. Richard invaded the Sicilian territories, and compelled Tancred to perform his obligations, and release the Queen Dowager ; and on the termination of these affairs, a treaty was entered into between the two monarchs.
275. What ivas the first successful action that marked Richard's progress to the Holy Land ?
The siege and capture of Aeon, which had been two years invested by the Christian army, and under the walls of which city, prodigious acts of valour had been performed by both armies.
276. On the arrival of the English army with their gallant leader, the siege, that had languished for some time, was pushed on with the greatest ardour; the walls were battered night and day, furious assaults took place, and the besieged, despairing of relief, agreed to surrender the city.
277. Why tvas Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, expelled the kingdom during Richard's absence ?
Because he abused the high authority with which Richard had delegated him (he being the principal Regent of England during the monarch's absence), by various acts of tyranny, but especially
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY.
73
•WITHDRAWAL OF THE KING- OF FRANCE FROM THE CRUSADE.
by committing a daring act of sacrilege, in dragging Geoffrey, the King's natural brother, from St. Martin's Church, and im- prisoning him in Dover Castle.
R-TLT
FEUDAL J3AHOST, AND MOYEABLE SIEGE-TOWEIl.
278. This outrageous insult on an Archbishop, the son and brother of a King, together with the violation of the rights of sanctuary, excited uni. versal indignation against Longchamp. He was summoned to attend a meeting composed of Prince John and the chief nobles, but instead of com- plying, he shut himself up in the Tower of London, which being insufficiently provisioned, he was compelled to abandon; finally, he was deprived of all his offices, and made his escape out of the kingdom in disguise.
279. Why did the King of France ivithdraw from the expedition to the Holy Land? His pretence was that the climate of Palestine was injurious
74 THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
EEVERSES SUFFERED BY THE CRUSADEKS.
to liis constitution. But his real motives were various. Many disputes had arisen between the two monarchs, which rendered their union neither cordial nor agreeable. The Earl of Flanders had died before Aeon without issue, and the French King expected by his presence in France to secure the succession. He also had a design of seizing a portion of Richard's dominions in his absence.
280. The King of France in his passage from the Holy Land visited Rome, and made bitter complaints to the Pope of many affronts and injuries which he pretended he had received from the King of England, earnestly entreating that he might be released from his oatte, in order that he might take ven- geance on his enemy by invading his dominions ; but with this request the Pope would not comply. On his arrival in France he made a demand of Gisors, and its territories, threatening immediate irar in case of a refusal. He also intrigued with Prince John, tempting him with an offer of all his brother's dominions on the Continent, but in this, John was prevented by his mother, Queen Eleanor, and by the threats of the Regents to confiscate his estates. Philip was also deterred from invading Normandy by his barons, who refused to follow him in the enterprise.
281. Why ivas Richard's expedition subjected to many misadventures ?
Because Saladin, at the head of the Turkish army, finding Richard to be so powerful an enemy, determined upon harassing him to the utmost, and, with this view, he retreated towards the Holy Land, demolishing in his way the several towns through which the English would have to pass. In addition to this, the French generals, acting under the directions of their monarch, baffled Richard in all his designs, and raised every obstacle to the progress of the army.
282. The Christian army marched towards Jerusalem, rebuilding the ruined castles as they advanced. The town of Ascalon alone cost three months' incessant toil in its reparation, the King himself assisting with his own hands, and working with greater ardour than any common labourer.
283. Why did Richard suddenly abandon the Crusade ? Because he had received news of the machinations of his brother,
Prince John, in England, and therefore deemed it necessary to return to protect his dominions.
284. In what manner was Richard made prisoner ?
In his voyage to England he was shipwrecked, and attempting
THE HISTORICAL KEASON WHY.
TEEACHEEY OP KING OF FEAXCE AND PIUNCE JOHN.
to pass through Germany in disguise, he was discovered, and thrown into prison by Leopold, Duke of Austria.
285. What occurrences took place in England during Richard's captivity ?
The King of France, taking advantage of Richard's imprison- ment, determined on invading his rival's territories, and invited Prince John to join him in the expedition. In accordance with this design, John took the Castles of Wallingford and Windsor, and coming to London gave out that his brother was dead, and desired to be proclaimed king ; his assertions were, however, discredited, and an army was raised against him, which compelled him to beg a truce, and retire into France.
286. Upon what pretext did the Emperor of Germany detain Richard in prison ?
Richard was accused of having protected Tancred, who had usurped the crown of Sicily ; of having driven the King of France out of the Holy Land by many injuries ; and of having i concluded a truce with Saladin on too easy terms.
287. What conditions were proposed for Richard's release ?
The Emperor of Germany agreed that as soon as one hundred thousand marks should be paid, and hostages for fifty thousand marks were given, the King should be set at liberty.
288. The King's ransom was soon raised by the English people, and Richard was set at liberty, to the great joy of his mother, Queen Eleanor, and several of the nobles, who were ready to receive him. The liberated monarch returned to England, and was shortly afterwards crowned a second time at Winchester, with great pomp.
289. Why did Richard forgive John for the acts of treachery he had committed?
Because soon after his coronation Richard raised an army, with which he set sail for the Continent, and landed at Barfleur ; and Prince John, upon hearing of his brother's arrival, begged for- giveness in such abject terms, that Richard was induced to grant him a pardon.
76 THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
THE FRENCH DEFEATED BY RICHARD.
290. Why ivere the hostages of Richard set at liberty ? The Duke of Austria, tilting with his courtiers, met with an
accident, which produced fever and gangrene. When he was made acquainted that there were no hopes for his recovery, he was seized with remorse for the cruelty and injustice he had been guilty of towards the King of England, and gave orders for his hostages to be set at liberty.
291. How were the hostilities between the Kings of Mngland and France conducted ?
Richard took the field, raised the siege of Verneuil, and took the Castle of Lochis; he also succeeded in seizing all the bag- gage and treasure of the King of France, and reduced Guienne to a state of submission. These operations were terminated by a truce for one year.
292. As soon as this truce had expired, Philip made an incursion into Nor- mandy, plundered the country, and demolished such castles as fell into his hands. Richard, having collected his forces, marched to meet his enemies, and compelled the French army to retreat. The war was prosecuted for some months after this with various success, but without producing an.v general action or important event ; and was at length terminated by a treaty of peace, concluded between the two monarchs, in a personal interview.
293. What tumults took place in England during Richard's absence on the Continent?
One William Fitz-Osbert, commonly called Longleard, had obtained, among the common people and inferior citizens, a certain amount of influence, by declaiming, with considerable eloquence, against the tyranny of the King's ministers, and the oppressions put upon the poor.
294. Though this man was notorious for a dissipated character and ruined fortunes, yet such was the ascendancy he gained over the minds of his followers, that they called him the Saviour of the People, greeted him with loud acclamations whenever he appeared in public, and bound themselves, by the most sacred oaths, to execute all his orders. The streets were infested day and night by numerous mobs, who committed many disorders, insulted the richer citizens, and threatened them with destruction. Long- beard was at length taken and executed; but after his death, his followers flocked in great crowds to the place of execution, took down the gallows upon which he had been hanged, and divided it into a thousand pieces, as the most precious relics, pretending that they wrought many miracles.
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 77
DEATH OF RICHAED THE PIEST.
295. What domestic calamity occurred in England during the latter part of Richard's reign ?
A succession of cold and rainy seasons produced a famine, from which a plague arose, which raged with such violence for six months, that there were hardly a sufficient number of persons in health to attend to the sick and bury the dead.
296. What were the circumstances attending Richard's death ?
A considerable treasure had been accidentally found on the lands of Vidomar, Viscount of Limoges, and was demanded from that nobleman by Richard, who claimed a right to it as sovereign of the country. Vidomar consented to give up part of the treasure, which Richard rejecting, invested the Castle of Chalus, near Limoges, where the treasure was supposed to be concealed.
297. The garrison offered to surrender the castle, on condition that they should be allowed to march out with their arms. But Richard rejected this offer, declaring that he was determined to take the castle by force, and put its defenders to death. On the fourth day of the siege, the king was wounded in the shoulder by an arrow, discharged by Bertram de Gourdon, one of the garrison. After remaining for some time in the same place, he mounted his horse, returned to head-quarters, and gave orders for the assault. The castle was taken and all its defenders were hanged, with the exception of Bertram de Gourdon. In extracting the arrow from the King's shoulder, the iron was left behind, and several deep incisions which were afterwards made produced mortification, which proved mortal. As soon as he became apprehensive of death, he commanded Gourdon to be brought into his presence, and addressing him said, " What injury have I done you. that you should attempt my death?" Gourdon replied, "You have killed both my father and my brother with your own hand, and designed to put me to an ignominious death. I am therefore ready to suffer the greatest torments you can invent, since I have been so happy as to kill one who has been the author of so many miseries to mankind. " The King, conscious of the justice of this bold reply, bore it with patience, and commanded Gourdon to be set at liberty; but this command was not obeyed, for he was kept in prison until after the death of Richard, and then put to a painful death. A few days after this Richard died, on the 6th of April, 1199, in the forty-second year of his age, and the tenth of his reign.
298. Who succeeded Richard the First?
John, his brother, the youngest son of Henry the Second.
78 THE H1STOEICAL BEASON "WHY.
KING JOHN'S ACCESSION OPPOSED.
299. Why was the accession of Jolm disputed / Because the crown, by rightful succession, belonged to Arthur, Duke of Brittany, the only son of Geoffrey, John's elder brother.
300. Through the influence of some of the nobles, John prevailed on the clergy, nobility, and all ranks of people, to swear fealty to him; and having had a meeting at Northampton with a few of the barons, who discovered some reluctance, he persuaded them, by many fair promises, to take the oath. Oa the Continent, however, John's succession met with greater resistance, many of the barons of Aujou and Maine having declared in favour of Arthur, Duke of Brittany. This young Prince, who was now about twelve years of age, was, by his mother Constance, placed in the hands of the King of France, to whom he did homage for all the dominions of his family on the Continent.
301. Wlnj was war declared between England and France ?
The King of France, in return for the homage paid to him by Prince Arthur, espoused his cause, and undertook to support his claim to the English throne, against that of King John.
302. A peace was soon after concluded between the two countries, one of the conditions of which was, that John should pay twenty thousand marks to the French King.
303. Why ivas Prince Arthur removed from the custody of the King of France ?
Because William de Eoches. the General of Prince Arthur's forces, suspecting the views of the French king, had the young Prince removed from Paris to Le Mans, of which he was governor.
804. At this place "William de Hoches concluded a treaty with King John, into whose hands he put Prince Arthur and his mother Constance, imagining that Prince Arthur would receive care and kindness from such near relations. This transaction was, however, soon repented of, for, on the very next day, William de Roches received intelligence that John had formed designs against the life of his nephew.
305. Why was the marriage of King John imprudent and unpopular?
Because Isabel, the daughter of Aymar, Earl of Angouleme, was already the betrothed wife of Hugh le Brun, Earl of La Marche : but Aymar, dazzled with the lustre of a crown, decoyed his daughter from her betrothed husband, while John, on his
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 79
DISCONTENT EVINCED BT THE ENGLISH BABONS.
part, had obtained a divorce from his wife, (to whom he had been married ten years,) in order to contract his second union.
306. What was one of the first symptoms of rebellion shown ty tlic Barons ?
A rebellion having1 been raised in Guienne, John summoned all his English vassals and military tenants to assist him in restoring order in the revolted territory ; but many of the English barons, considering the affair too trifling, refused to obey their monarch's summons.
307. Why was a war declared between England and France ?
Because Philip of France espoused the pretensions of Prince Arthur, and declared himself the protector of the discontented barons of Guienne.
308. What was the supposed fate of Prince Arthur ? Having been taken prisoner by King John, he was conducted
to the Castle of Rouen, where the King resided ; here the unfortunate Prince was murdered, but in what manner is not certainly known.
309. Immediately after this, John hastened to England, carrying with him the Princess Eleanor, Prince Arthur's sister, and committed her to prison. Many of the other prisoners were so cruelly treated, that they perished in their confinement, and no fewer than twenty seven of the noblest and bravest of them were starved to death in Corfe Castle.
310. Why were John's foreign dominions invaded ly the King of France ?
Because the cruel acts of King John instigated the barons of Brittany to accuse him of the murder of their Prince, before the King of France, of whom he held all his continental territories; and on his not appearing to answer the charge, he was found guilty of treason and felony, and all his dominions forfeited.
311. To execute this sentence, Philip put himself at the head of his army, and being joined by several barons of Poitou, Aujou, and Maine, he made the conquest of Normandy, while John, spending his time in rioting and excess, was at length compelled to abandon the Continent and embark for England.
80 THE HISTOKICAL EEASON %VHY.
3IAGTTA. CHARTA GRANTED, 1215.
312. How did John create ill-feeling and discontent among the Barons?
After the loss of his foreign possessions, John, to excuse himself, cast the onus upon his barons, who, he pretended, had
forsaken him, and thereby put it out of his power to defend
his territories ; for which he fined some of the barons, and confiscated the estates of others.
313. la the following year, John, feigning to have formed a resolution to attempt the recovery of his foreign territories, summoned all his barons and military tenants to meet him at Portsmouth, in order to attend him in an expedition to the Continent. But when the army was assembled, he suddenly changed his mind and dismissed his troops. In a few weeks after, changing his mind a second time, he embarked at Portsmouth with a small retinue and put to sea, but two days after returned, and made this ridiculous excursion a pretence for exacting money from his military tenants for their non-attendance.
314. In what manner was Jttagna Charta secured ?
The schemes that had been forming for some time past among the English barons for recovering and securing their liberties, becoming at length ripe for execution, a great number of these barons waited upon the king in London, and demanded a confirmation of the liberties what had been granted to their ancestors by Henry the First,
315. John, resolving in his own mind not to grant the demands of the barons, employed various arts to secure himself from the effects of their resentment. With this view he commanded all his subjects to renew their oaths of fealty ; granted to all cathedrals, monasteries, and conventual societies the right of electing their superiors; took the Cross for the recovery of the Holy Land ; and sent ambassadors to his sovereign lord the Pope, to accuse his barons of rebellion, and solicit the anathemas of the Church against them. By these steps, the barons being convinced that nothing could be obtained without a sufficient power to enforce their demands, assembled with all their followers, who constituted a formidable army, and marched to Brackley, near Oxford, where the King resided. On the approach of the barons, John sent the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Earl of Pembroke, to ask what were the liberties and privileges that they desired. To these ambassadors, the barons delivered a schedule, con- taining the heads of their demands, which, upon being presented to the King, he rejected, declaring that he never would grant such liberties to his subjects as would make himself a slave. On receiving this answer, the barons, without paying any regard to the Pope's letters, threatening them with excommunication, broke out into open war, and having received an invitation from the chief citizens of London, they marched thither, and took
THE HISTOBICAL EEASON WHY. 81
ENGLAND INVADED BY PRINCE LOUIS OF FBANCE.
possession of the capital. The King afterwards sent to the insurgents at London to propose a conference, in order to an accommodation. This con- ference was accordingly held in a large meadow between Staines and Wind- sor, called Runnymede, where, on the 19th of June, 1215, the famous charter, called Magna Charta, or The Great Charter, was granted by King John.
316. Why were the Barons who exacted the Charter excommunicated by the Pope ?
Because the Pope regarded King- John as under his immediate protection, as he bore the sign of the Cross, and was a vassal of the Holy See.
317. Why did Prince Louis of France invade England? The barons having been brought to the brink of ruin by the
King's persecutions, and knowing too well the unrelenting disposition of their vindictive monarch, sent through their agents a message to Prince Louis, eldest son of the King Philip of France, to come and take possession of the English throne.
318. This offer was gladly accepted, and Prince Louis soon after landed a large army at Sandwich without any opposition. Having taken the Castlo of Rochester, he entered London a few days subsequently, and was received with the loudest acclamations by the citizens, the barons, and their followers, who did homage to him as their sovereign, and received his promise, upon oath, that he would restore them to all their possessions, and protect them in all their privileges.
319. What event impeded the operations of Louis in England ?
After Prnce Louis had received the homage of the Londoners, he took the field and marched into the south of England, the whole of which he reduced to obedience, with the exception of the Castle of Dover. This place was defended with so much skill and valour that many of the besiegers were slain, and all their attacks repulsed, though they employed against it the most formidable engines of the time. This obstinate resistance so irritated Prince Louis, that he swore a solemn oath, that he would not raise the siege till he had taken the castle and hanged all the garrison — an oath which he was never able to perform, and which probably lost him the crown of England.
82
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
DEATH OP KING JOIIIf, 1216.
320. W liat circumstances attended, King John's death ?
In marching over the sands into Lincolnshire, at an improper time, the rear of the King's army was overtaken by the tide, and the whole of his provisions, baggage, and treasure were lost. This, added to his other reverses, is supposed to have thrown him into a fever, of which he shortly after died, on the 19th of October, 1216, in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the seventeenth of his reign.
T1UAL BY ORDEAL.
321. Why is it probable that if King Join had not died he would have been restored to his former power f
Because the dreadful devastations which Prince Louis com- mitted on the estates of those barons who opposed his pretensions, soon convinced those of their error who had invited him to England, proving to them, as it did, that he whom they had chosen for their protector might one day become their conqueror.
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY. 83
WABPSHIPS ESTABLISHED WITH EOTAL PEIVILEGES.
'ul2. Louis also gave such plain indications of his partiality to his own countrymen and aversion to the English, that several of the barons aban- doned his party and returned to their allegiance, and the King in his last moments is said to have received letters from forty of the revolted barons, declaring their resolution to return to his obedience.
323. What was the nature of the royal privilege termed Wardship ?
"When an earl, baron, or other vassal of the crown died, and left his heir under age, and consequently incapable of performing: those personal services to his sovereign to which he was bound by his tenure, the king took possession of his estate, that he might therewith support the heir, and give him an education suitable to his quality, and, at the same time, might provide another person to perform his services in his room. This right of being the guardian of all minors, male or female, who held their lands of the crown by military services, brought considerable sums into the royal coffers, or enabled the monarch to enrich his favourites, by granting them the guardianship of some of his most opulent wards.
324. What ivas the nature of scutage or shield-money ? .It was a sum of money paid in lieu of actual service in the
field, by those who were unable or unwilling to perform that service in person.
325. This payment became the occasion of much vexation to those who owed military service to the crown ; because the monarchs of those days sometimes engaged, or pretended to engage, in expeditions to distant parts, or at inconvenient seasons, that they might have a pretence for demanding scutage from their vassals. •
326. Why did the feudal system serve to preserve the Constitution of England ?
Because the great power and influence which many of the feudal lords possessed over their vassals and tenants, formed a kind of counterpoise to the exorbitant power of the crown, and prevented it from becoming, or, at least, continuing arbitrary.
327. Why are the legal terms used at the present day of Norman origin ?
Because William the Conqueror introduced into England the
84 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
EESTEICTION IN THE COMMEECE OF ENGLAND.
customs and laws which he and his ancestors had observed in Normandy. And to ensure their observance, all the judges and pleaders in all the courts of England were Normans, and the laws were written in the Norman tongue.
328. Why was tlie irregular accession of tlie early Kings of England to tlie crown productive of fortunate consequences to the English people ?
Because the monarchs who thus stepped into power by acts of usurpation, made liberal promises to the people in order to forward their claims; and afterwards felt compelled to observe their promises for fear of being deposed.
329. Why was the commerce of England greatly re- stricted during the reigns of the earlier Kings ?
Because a universal jealousy towards strangers existed, and foreign merchants, in particular, were subjected to such restraints as almost debarred them from entering into any commercial operations.
330. Foreign merchants were not allowed to come into the kingdom, but at certain times, nor to stay above forty days, nor to expose their goods to sale, except at certain fairs. They were often obliged to pay heavy fines to the King for license to trade, arid exorbitant tolls and customs of all kinds; and both their persons and their goods were exposed to considerable violence, whenever a war happened to break out between England and the country to which they belonged.
331. Why was the administration of justice irregular, and the reversal of an unjust sentence difficult to le obtained ?
Because the chief court in which the laws were administered, instead of being stationary, followed the King's person, which at that time moved about from place to place at frequent and uncertain intervals.
332. Why was the fashion of hunting, practised ~by the early Kings of England, productive of great mischief to the people?
Because, in order to indulge in this passion, great tracts of
THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY. 85
MONOPOLY OF TEADE AMONG THE JEWS.
country in almost every county of England were laid waste and converted into forests, and were then guarded by the most cruel and sanguinary laws.
333. Previously to the granting of Magna Charta, it was a received notion that the King might make what laws he pleased for the protection of his forests, and that in making and executing these laws he was not under any obligation to observe the ordinary rules of justice. In consequence of this doctrine, the forest-laws were dictated by such a spirit of cruelty, and executed with such severity, that they were preat objects of terror and sources of distress to those who were so unhappy as to live near the precincts of the royal forests.
334. Why did learning receive a considerable impetus at this period ?
Because William the First took such great care of the education of his son Henry, that in consideration of his acquisi- tions he was surnamed Beauclerc, or the fine scholar. Henry the First gave his son Henry the Second as liberal an education as he had received himself, and this monarch in his turn provided a profound course of instruction for his children. The acquisition and possession of knowledge thus distinguishing the royal family became communicated to the nobles, and from them to the people generally.
335. Why were the Jews enabled to monopolize a greater share of trade than the Christian population, and with more considerable advantage?
Because the Jews possessed larger capitals, had a greater knowledge of trade, and a more extensive correspondence with those of their own nation in other parts of Europe than the native English merchants, and were consequently enabled to undersell all other dealers in every market.
86 THE HISTOE1CAL SEASON WHY.
PROM THE NOEMAN INVASION TO THE DEATH OF KING JOHN.
NOTES UPON THE PEKIOD EXTENDING FROM THE NORMAN INVASION TO THE DEATH OF KING JOHN.
The Houses of the common people in the country, and the lower burgesses in towns and cities, were very little improved in their structure in the course of this period; even in London all the houses of mechanics and common burgesses were built of wood, and covered with straw or reeds. But the palaces, or rather castles, of the princes, barons, and prelates were considerably improved in their style, and efficiently fortified. The following description appertains to the castle of a great earl or baron of this period : — The situation of the castle was most commonly on an eminence, and near a river. The whole site of the castle was surrounded by a deep arid broad ditch, sometimes filled with water, awd sometimes dry, called the fosse. Before the great gate was an outwork, termed a barbacan, or ante-mural, which was a strong and high wall, with turrets upon it, designed for the defence of the gate and drawbridge. On the inside of the ditch stood the wall of the castle, about eight or ten feet thick, and between twenty and thirty high, with a parapet, and a kind of embrasures on the top, called crennels. On this wall, at proper distances, square towers of two or three stories high were built, which served for lodging some of the principal officers of the castle. On the extreme top of these walls, and on the flat roofs of the buildings, stood the defenders of the castle, in the time of siege ; and from thence discharged arrows, darts, stones, &c., on the besiegers. The great gate of the castle stood in the course of this wall, and was strongly fortified with a tower on each side, and rooms over the passage, which was closed with thick folding doors of oak, often plated with iron, and with an. iron portcullis or grate let down from above. Within this outward wall was a large open space or court, called the outer bayle, in which stood com- monly a church or chapel. On the inside of this outer bayle was another ditch wall, gate, and towers enclosing the inner bayle or court, within which the chief tower or keep was built. Under ground were gloomy vaults for the confinement of prisoners, hence called dungeons.
The Arts of Working and Refining Metals were brought to considerable perfection during this period. The constructing of defensive armour, espe- cially, was performed with such skill,' that a knight completely armed might be said to be invulnerable. A suit of this armour consisted of many pieces, for the several parts of the body, jointed with great nicety to cause them to fit easily, and to allow freedom of motion and exercise of strength. The whole was well tempered, finely polished, and often beautifully gilt.
The Manufacture of Cloth, Linen, and similar Fabrics was greatly im- proved at this time. The weavers in all the great towns of England formed themselves_ into guilds and corporations, and had various privileges bestowed upon them by royal charters. Silks of various kinds are frequently mentioned both in the records and by the historians of this period; and tapestries and embroideries were considerably improved, both in richness and design.
The Arms, defensive and offensive, consisted of, for the cavalry, shields of an oval form, carried on their left arms, to ward off the blows— long spears, or
THE HISTOKICAL REASON WHY. 87
NOTES UPON- THE PERIOD EXTENDING PROM THE NORMAN INVASION TO THE DEATH OF KING- JOHN.
lances, made of light strasg wood, and pointed with steel. Long and broad swords, double-edged, and a short dirk or dagger, for the infantry. The defensive armour of a man-at-arms, was a coat of mail, a helmet, and a shield ; and his offensive weapons, a spear and a sword. The defensive armour of an ordinary foot-soldier was a jacket twilted with cotton and an iron skull- cap ; his offensive arms, a spear, or a bow and arrows, or a sling, with a sword. Besides these small arms, there existed a species of artillery, which consisted of wooden machines capable of throwing darts and stones at a great distance.
Sculpture was greatly encouraged at this period ; every church and cathedral was crowded with the statues of saints, aud many scriptural and historical pieces were executed in basso and alto relievo.
Painting received a like encouragement as her sister art ; from the same desire that then existed of decorating and beautifying places of worship and holy houses. The roofs and walls of these places were covered at this time with the productions of the artists of the period. In connection with this art was the illumination of missals and other books, for the purpose of illustration, as engravings are employed at the present day.
English Poetry may be said to have been invented at this time. This art is to be traced to the Provencal poets, who were called Troubadors or Finders, from the fertility of their invention. These poets were greatly loved, adncired, and cherished. They were invited to the courts of princes, and were courted by the brave and the fair, -the one to solicit the extolling of their achievements, and the other their charms.
Tirade and Commerce were increased at this period, but not to the extent that might have been expected : the military ardour of the people and the desire for conquest interposed a barrier between commercial enterprise and the people. Fairs and markets were the principal emporiums of trade, and London was then, as now, the principal commercial city. Slaves were then an article of traffic, both in the internal and foreign trade of England. "When an estate was conveyed from one proprietor to another, all the slaves annexed to the estate were transferred at the same time and by the same deed; and on these occasions, when any person had more children than he could maintain, or more domestic slaves than he chose to keep, he sold them to a merchant, who disposed of them either at home or abroad, as he found most profitable.
Personal Adornment received great attention, and was an object of much solicitude at this period ; the hair was worn long and curled, the vestments were of a simple and yet graceful form, and the hat or bonnet was decorated with insignia befitting the rank of the wearer. The mantle was the chief article of clothing worn, and this was usually made of the finest stuffs, and variously ornamented. The shoes were worn with immensely long points, stuffed with wool, and twisted like a ram's horn. The women of this period began to display a fondness for rich dresses, lined with furs, embroidered with various figures, and decorated with pearls and precious stones.
The Sports of this period chiefly consisted of hunting and hawking. In these diversions the better classes of the people spent the greatest part of
88 THE HISTORICAL EEASOX WHY.
NOTES UPON THE TEKIOD EXTENDING FROM THE NOIIMAN INVASION TO THE DEATH OF KING JOHN.
their time and their revenues: so general was the passion for rural sports, that both the clergy and the ladies were seized with it, and the latter excelled the gentlemen in the art of hawking.
The Pastimes comprised chiefly ecclesiastical plays, composed by the clergy, and acted by them and their scholars. These entertainments consisted of representations of events and actions recorded in the Scriptures, or in the lives of saints. Secular plays were also performed, consisting of comic tales or stories, intermixed with coarse jests, and accompanied in the acting with instrumental music, mimicry, and other arts of raising laughter.
The Game of Chess, and several games at dice, were much studied and practised by persons of rank and fortune at this period. Some knowledge of these games was so necessary to every gentleman, especially if he aspired to the honour of knighthood, that they were commonly made a part of his education.
Tlie Spirit of Chivalry was introduced into England by the Normans, and gave a new direction to the education of the young nobility and gentry, in order to fit them for obtaining the honour of knighthood, which was then an object of ambition to the greatest princes. At their first entrance into the school of chivalry, they acted in the capacity of pages or valets ; and in this station were instructed in the laws of courtesy and politeness, and in the first rudiments of chivalry, and martial exercises, to fit them for shining iu courts, at tournaments, and on fields of battle. After they had spent a competent time in the station of pages, they were raised to the rank of esquire. Then they were permitted into more familiar intercourse with the ladies and knights of the court ; and were allowed opportunity of perfecting themselves in those offices becoming the honours of knighthood. When seven or eight years had been spent in the capacity of esquire, the order of knighthood was conferred ; this was most generally received from the hands of the prince, earl, or baron in whose court they had passed through the several grades of chivalry. The duties of a knight, to which he was bound by oath, were to serve his prince ; to defend the Church and clergy ; to protect the persons and reputations of virtuous ladies ; and to rescue the widow and orphan from oppression, with his sword and at the hazard of his life.
THE HISTORICAL EEASOX WHY.
HENRY III, ASCENDED THE THRONE, 1216.
FKOM THE DEATH OF KING JOHN, 1216, TO THE ACCESSION OF HENRY THE FOURTH, 1399.
336. Wliy was the death of King John an opportune event at this period of English liistory?
Because both the royal family and the country escaped the ruin with which they were threatened, by the confederacy of the revolted barons of England with Prince Louis of France.
337. Who succeeded John on the English throne ?
Henry the Third, the late King's eldest son, who was then in the tenth year of his age.
338. William, Marshal of England, and Earl of Pembroke, the chief support and ornament of the royal cause, conducted young Henry to the town of Gloucester, where a meeting of the nobles and clergy was called, and the young Prince was universally acknowledged as King. At the same time the Earl of Pembroke was chosen Protector of the kingdom.
339. Why did the cause of Henry soon become popular ?
Because the Protector took care to renew the Great Charter of Liberties which John had given to the English. He also wrote letters to all the discontented barons, entreating them to submit to Henry, promising them forgiveness for the past, and giving them a guarantee for the future.
340. Why icas Louis of France induced to abandon his claim to the English Crotvn, ii'hich he had hitherto main- tained ?
Because the Protector took active measures to defend the rights of the young King; and at length defeated the French pretender in a decisive battle at Lincoln.
341. What change took place in the Protectorate of England ?
The Earl of Pembroke died, and was succeeded in his office by Peter de Roches, Bishop of Winchester, and Hubert de Burgh, High Justiciary.
90 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
WITH TKANCE CONCLUDED BY A TETJCE, 1224.
342. The new Regents employed the first three years of their administra- tion in reducing the Earl of Albemarle, and some other turbulent barons, to order, and in quelling and punishing some dangerous mutinies of the Lon- doners. In doing this, they exercised some acts of power and severity, by which they gave great offence.
343. Why was Henry the Third declared of age when only in his sixteenth year ?
Because Hubert de Burgh, who had the chief direction of affairs, thought it would diminish the general odium, which the exercise of his power had created, and also that it would in some degree reconcile the people to the royal cause. The Pope granted a bull declaring Henry to be of age, and commanding all the barons to deliver up the royal castles, which they held, into the King's hands.
344. What important event took place at this time in connection with France ?
Philip Augustus died, and his son Louis succeeded him. That Prince had engaged, by a secret article in the treaty which he made with Henry at his departure out of England, to restore Normandy to the English power, on his accession to the crown of France. Ambassadors were sent to demand the performance of this article ; but Louis, instead of complying with the demand, raised an army, and visited the province of Poictiers, where he took several places still belonging to the English. Upon this news, an English army was sent into France, several places were recovered, and a truce ultimately agreed to for three years.
345. Why did a quarrel break out between King Henry and Ms brother Bichard, Earl of Cornwall ?
Because Richard had seized a manor belonging to one "Walleran, affirming that it belonged to his earldom of Cornwall; and when the King commanded him to restore it to its former possessor, he refused to obey, and, forming a confederacy with several powerful barons, raised a great army.
346. The King being quite unprepared to resist so great a force, and knowing his brother's covetous disposition, entered into a negotiation with him, and gained him over by a grant of lands of much greater value than those in dispute.
THE HISTOETCAL BEASON WHY. 91
HUBERT DE BURGH DISGRACED, 1232.
347. Why did Henry make an expedition into France ?
Because Louis, the King, having died, and left an infant son as his successor, Henry imagined this would be a favourable opportunity of gaining the French dominions.
348. This expedition was one of the most unfortunate on record. Henry, instead of taking immediate advantage of the French King's death, remained in England, engaged in trifling disputes with his subjects. In the mean- time the troubles of Prance were being composed, and Queen Blanche established in the Regency ; and at this inopportune moment, Henry resolved upon actively prosecuting his intentions. But the expedition was as badly conducted as it was ill-timed. A large army which had been raised was detained in England for the want of means of transport, and when Henry arrived at the scene of action, instead of taking any active steps, he spent the whole of the campaign in riotous pleasures, and finally returned to England without having achieved one single action of moment, covered with disgrace.
349. Why was Hubert de Burgh disgraced?
Because the late disastrous expedition in France had rendered his ministry odious both to the nobility and the people at large, and the King, naturally fickle, listened to the clamours against the minister, and at length consented to his downfall.
350. Hubert was removed from his place of High Justiciary, and commanded to give an account of the disposal of the revenues of the Crown during his administration. The fallen minister, perceiving his impending ruin, and considering even his life in danger, took sanctuary in the Priory of Merton, from whence the King commanded the Mayor of London to bring him either dead or alive ; these orders were, however, recalled, and Hubert was suffered the privilege of sanctuary, but strictly guarded and without food, so that he eventually surrendered himself, and was imprisoned in the Tower. Some time after the King relented, Hubert was released from his imprisonment, and after many various turns of fortune, at last recovered some degree of the King's favour; but wisely abstained from all participation in the administration of public affairs.
351. Why did the marriage of Henry with Eleanora, daughter of the Count of Provence, occasion unsatisfactory consequences ?
Because the Queen was followed into England by many of her relations and countrymen, who became great favourites with Henry, and monopolised the places about the court, and the direction of public affairs.
92 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
PEOVISIONS OP OXFORD, 1258.
352. These proceedings did not fail to revive the discontents of the English barons ; and the history of England for some years after the King's marriage consists chiefly of the remonstrances of the English nobility against the foreign favourites, and their attempts to remove them from the King's pre- sence and councils. Whenever Henry was hard pressed and threatened, or stood in need of money from his Parliament, he made the most solemn pro- mises to dismiss all foreigners, and to govern only by the advice of his barons ; but as soon as the danger was over and his wants supplied, he unscru- pulously violated all his promises.
353. Why tvas Henry induced to confirm tlie great English Charter?
Because the King, on the pretext of an intended expedition to the Holy Land, applied to his Parliament for a grant of money, which they refused to grant him, without he first confirmed the Charter of English Liberties in a most solemn manner.
854. According to this agreement, the King, with the whole Parliament, met in the great hall of Westminster, the prelates and clergy in their robes, with each a lighted taper in his hand. The Great Charter, and the Charter of the Forests, were read aloud to this august assembly; and then a sentence of excommunication, containing the most fearful denunciations of the Divine wrath against all who should violate or consent to the violation of these Charters, in any particular, was pronounced ; at the conclusion of which the prelates and clergy threw their tapers on the ground, crying, with one voice, " So may every one be extinguished and stink in hell, who shall incur this sentence." To which the king, laying his right hand upon his heart, replied, " So help me God, as I shall faithfully observe all these articles, as I am a man, as I am a Christian, as I am a knight, and as I am a crowned and anointed king." These obligations, solemn and awful as they were, were soon afterwards violated by this faithless and misguided prince.
355. What was the occasion of the assembly Icnown as the Mad Parliament ?
The King, who had laid repeated oppressive attacks upon the people, for the purpose of rewarding his foreign favourites, and having also deceived and insulted his officers of state in various ways, was resisted hy the discontented barons, who refused to grant him any more supplies, and determined upon driving all foreigners from the country.
356. The famous assembly at which these resolutions were discussed, met at Oxford. The barons came attended with such an armed force as rendered any opposition on the part of the court impracticable. According to agreement, twelve barons were chosen of the King's Council, and twelve by the Parliament ; to whom was given an absolute authority to reform the state, and to make what regulations they thought fit for the future
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 93
THE PBOVISIOJfS OF OXFORD ANNULLED BY HEKEY.
government of the kingdom; and the King himself, his eldest son Prince Edward, and all persons of every station, took a solemn oath to observe and obey all the regulations that should be imposed by these twenty-four barons. They ordained three Sessions of Parliament shoxild be held every year; that four knights should be chosen in each county, to enquire into the peculiar grievances of that county, and lay the same before each meeting of Parliament; that a new high sheriff should be elected every year, by the votes of the freeholders in each county; that none of the royal wards should be committed to the custody of foreigners ; that no new forests or warrens should be created ; and that the revenues of counties should not be let to farm. Such were the regulations (commonly called the Provisions of Oxford) which were made by the twenty-four barons.
357. Wliy did the Barons, invested with these extraor- dinary powers, soon become unpopular ?
Because they chiefly made use of the power thus gained to forward their views and advance their own fortunes.
358. They got into their possession all the royal castles, which they either kept in their own hands, or committed to the custody of their creatures. They dismissed all the great officers of state, and of the King's household, to make room for themselves and their dependants. They enriched themselves and their families by the royal escheats and wardships ; and, in a word, engrossed the whole power, and a great part of the revenues of the Crown; the King was a mere pageant of state, without the least shadow of authority, and the English Constitution was entirely changed from a monarchy to an aristocracy, or rather an oligarchy.
359. What steps did Henry taJce to regain his authority ?
Having taken a resolution to regain his royal prerogative, Henry suddenly appeared in Parliament, and reproaching the twenty-four barons with the breach of their promises to him, and the many abuses of their power, declared he would no longer pay any regard to the Provisions of Oxford, but would immediately re/sume the exercise of his royal authority.
360. Having declared this bold resolution, the King retired to the Tower, whose governor he had gained, seized a considerable treasure that was deposited there, and sent out proclamations dismissing all the great officers, judges, and sheriffs, who had been nominated by the twenty-four barons, and placed others in their stead. This occasioned infinite confusion in the king- dom,—some obeying the officers and magistrates nominated by the King, others obeying those nominated by the barons, and many paying no regard to any magistracy, but living as if ail government had been dissolved.
94 THE HISTOKICAL EEASON" WHY.
TTAR BETWEEN HENRY AND HIS BARONS.
361. Why was Henry again induced to recognize the authority of the Barons ?
Because, when affairs were in their most unsettled state, Prince Edward arrived in England, and declared his determina- tion to support the observance of the Provisions of Oxford ; and after certain articles most displeasing to the King had been mitigated, the dispute was finally adjusted.
362. Why were still farther concessions granted ly Henry to the Barons ?
Because the Citizens of London having espoused the cause of the barons, the royal party became unpopular. The Queen was maltreated by the mob, Prince Edward besieged in the Castle of Bristol, which, together with a number of minor misfortunes, compelled the King to yield to still more advantageous terms than he had hitherto submitted to, in order to obtain a cessation of hostilities.
363. Why did a war occur between Henry and his Barons ?
Because, one of the conditions in the late treaty affecting the succession of Prince Edward, he, with the concurrence of several of the nobles, determined upon referring all their differences to Louis the Ninth, King of France. The award given by the French King being unfavourable to the barons, they rejected it, and again set themselves up in authority against the King.
36-1. What was the result of the war between Henry and the Barons ?
It was disastrous to the royal cause ; Henry and his brother being both taken prisoners, and his army totally defeated.
365. Prince Edward, returning from the pursuit of the Londoners, whom he had put to the rout, to his infinite surprise and grief, found the day entirely lost. He endeavoured to persuade the forces he had about him to renew the battle, but they were too much dispirited to listen to the sug- gestion of their leader. In the meantime, the Earl of Leicester was busy in securing the royal prisoners and rallying his troops, with which he ultimately surrounded the Prince, Edward, finding that there were no means
THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY. 95
BATTLE OF EVESHAM FOUGHT, 1266.
of escape, was reluctantly compelled to submit to the following conditions: That the provisions of Oxford should be confirmed and executed; and that the Prince and his cousin Henry should surrender themselves prisoners, and remain as hostages for their respective fathers in the hands of Leicester and the barons, until all things were completely settled.
366. Why was a diversion soon made in tlie royal favour ?
Because tlie Earl of Leicester having secured immense wealth, and exorbitant .power, excited the envy of the Earl of Gloucester and some other nobles, awakening a proportionate degree of sympathy in favour of the royal prisoners.
367. The Earl of Gloucester formed a scheme for the deliverance of Prince Edward out of the hands of Leicester; which he not only managed to com- municate, but also to convey a horse of extraordinary swiftness. The Prince, in consequence of this plan, feigned illness for some days, and then pretending to recover, he proposed to take an airing on horseback for the benefit of his . Leicester, suspecting nothing, and trusting to the fidelity and vigilance of the persons in whose hands he had entrusted the Prince, offered no opposition. As the Prince and his attendants were riding along, he proposed running matches between the several gentlemen who were the best mounted; while he himself, under the plea of partial convalescence, moved gently along, on the horse conveyed to him by the Earl of Gloucester. At length, when he observed that the horses engaged in racing were suffi- ciently exhausted, the Prince, suddenly clapping spurs to his horse, rode off at full speed. As soon as the attendants recovered from their surprise, they pursued the Prince, but only just in time to see him received by a party of horse, which had been sent to favour his escape.
368. Why did Prince Edward soon gain a large number of adherents ?
Because he made a solemn declaration to the army, that if God should grant him victory, he would persuade the king, his father, to banish all foreigners, to preserve the liberties, and govern according to the laws of England.
369. What were tlie consequences of the Battle of Evesham that ivas then fought ?
The rebel army was totally defeated, the Earl of Leicester and his sons killed, and several barons taken prisoners. .
370. Immediately after this battle the great estates of the revolted barons were confiscated without mercy. This caused such as had escaped to commit themselves once more to a struggle in defence of their fallen fortunes ; Prince Edward, however, pursued them from place to place aud utterly crushed them both by famine and the sword.
96 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
ACCESSION OF EDWAED TKE FIEST, 1272.
371. Why did the JEarl of Gloucester become dis- satisfied, and at variance with the royal party ?
Because he was disgusted at the severities exercised towards the disinherited barons, and with the disregard that was paid to the solemn promises which had been made by Prince Edward before the Battle of Eveshara.
372. While the King and Prince were absent from London, the Earl of Gloucester suddenly entered it with his army; but the royal forces shortly after approaching, the Earl of Gloucester made proposals for an accommoda- tion, and having laid down, his arms, returned to his duty.
373. What circumstances attended the death of Henry the Third?
Henry died on the 16th of November, 1272, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, and the fifty-seventh of his reign. Worn out by age and infirmities, the monarch was quite unequal to the task of government, and his latter days were spent in quelling the riots and disturbances caused through the oppression of his barons. As the King was returning from Norwich, where he had been suppressing one of these riots, he was taken ill at St. Edmundsbury, and being conveyed by easy journeys to Westminster, he died there.
374. Who succeeded Henry on the throne?
Edward, the late King's eldest son, who was in Sicily at the time of his father's death, and was crowned at Westminster in 1274.
375. Why did Edward immediately turn his attention to the laws and the various offices of state ?
Because great abuses had crept into the administration during the latter part of Henry's reign, both by reason of the laxity of the monarch's rule, and the oppression and exactions of the barons.
376. Why did Edward go to war with Letvellyn, Prince of Wales?
Because, although the Welsh Prince had been several times summoned to come to court and perform his homage, he delayed to do so, under various pretences.
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON" "WHY. 97
THE TITLE OF PRINCE OF WALES FOUNDED, 1283.
377. Lewellyn, who had been a faithful ally and zealous friend to the Earl of Leicester, in the days of his power and prosperity, still continued to cultivate the friendship of that family, after their banishment out of England, and had even entered into a contract of marriage with Eleanor de Montfort, daughter of the Earl; but the young lady being intercepted on her passage from France to AVales, was detained a prisoner iu the court of England. When, therefore, the Prince was again summoned to come and perform his homage, he made bitter complaints of the injury which had been done him, and refused to comply, unless his bride was immediately set at liberty, and the King's son, with several noblemen, were put into his hands as hostages for the safety of his person. This last demand was considered insolent and unreasonable, and Edward therefore resolved to reduce the "Welsh Prince by force of arms.
378. What -were the consequences of Edward's invasion of Wales?
Lewellyn was compelled to retire into the Welsh mountains and sue for peace. He also agreed to pay for the expenses of the war, and to do homage to the Crown of England.
379. Though Lewellyn was reduced to the necessity of submitting, Edward was not very rigorous in exacting a full performance of the conditions. He remitted the payment of the fine, delivered to Lewellyn his betrothed wife, and assisted at their marriage.
380. Wliy were the Jews severely punished about this time ?
Because they had been guilty of debasing and clipping the coin of the realm, committing extortion and usury, with various other practices, equally opposed to the laws of the land and the spirit of commerce.
381. An order was issued to seize the whole of that people in one day, the 12th of November, 1278; and, after a very short trial, two hundred and eighty of them were hanged in London alone, and all their lands, houses, money, and goods, to an immense value, were confiscated.
382. In ivhat manner was Wales annexed to the English territory ?
A second battle was fought between Edward and Lewellyn, by which the latter and his brother lost their lives, and the Welsh people, upon witnessing the death of their princes, were utterly dispirited, and tamely submitted to the English yoke.
333. This conquest, however humiliating to the "Welsh people, was productive of happy consequences, as it put a stop to the bloodshed and scoucs of
E
98 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
\VAE BETWEEN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.
desolation occasioned by the mutual enmity of the two nations : and a more important result still was the consequent introduction of the English laws, learning, and arts, into a hitherto half- civilised country. Some years after this event, Edward bestowed the title of Prince of Wales on his eldest son, Edward, which has ever since been the title of the eldest sons of the Kings of England.
384. Why did Edward make war against Scotland? Alexander the Third, King of Scots, dying, left as heiress to
the throne his grand -daughter, Margaret, a child of three years of age, whose mother was the late Queen of Norway. Disputes having arisen among the Regents appointed during the minority of the Queen, Eric, King of Norway, began to be apprehensive for the interests of his daughter, the Queen of Scotland ; and in order to secure to her the possession of that Crown, he applied to Edward, as her grand-uncle, for his assistance and protection. Edward was only too willing to assent to this proposal, as he had already formed a scheme of wedding his eldest son, Edward, to the infant Queen, and thus unite the two kingdoms.
385. How was the ivar with Scotland made still more certain and disastrous ?
By the death of the young Queen, just as Edward's scheme was completed, and Margaret was ou her way to her own dominions.
386. It would be difficult to find in history the death of any one person attended with more fatal consequences than that of this infant Queen. It dissipated in a moment all the pleasing hopes of peace and union, and entailed long and bloody wars upon both kingdoms, which brought the weaker of them to the very verge of ruin.
387. Why was JEdivard called upon to arbitrate in tlie affairs of Scotland ?
Because the Scotch Crown was claimed by two competitors, and the struggle bid fair to plunge the country into a state of civil war.
388. The Regents, the States, and even the competitors themselves agreed that Edward should be the arbitrator in this controversy, as he had always professed the greatest respect and affection for the Scotch nation, and had lately acquitted himself creditably as an umpire between the competitors for the Crown of Sicily.
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 99
WAR WITH FBANCE, 1293.
389. Wlii/ did Edward accept tlie office imposed upon 1dm with alacrity?
Because he had designs upon the Scotch Crown himself, and therefore considered this would be a favourable opportunity for forwarding his views.
390. Edward played his part with the most admirable policy; never disclosing his designs till he was almost sure of success, and observing through the whole proceedings all the external forms and shows of justice. He summoned the States of Scotland, and the competitors for the Crown, to meet him at Norham, a small town on the banks of the Tweed, a few miles from Berwick ; and that they might not hesitate to pass that river, he made a declaration that it should not be drawn into a precedent. "When all were assembled, Edward addressed the meeting to the effect that he was come to determine the great cause concerning the Crown of Scotland, in virtue of his right of superiority and direct dominion over that kingdom, and required that this right should be immediately recognised and solemnly acknowledged by the States, as the first step to be taken. After some little demur at this unexpected demand, Edward's superiority was at length acknowledged. Encouraged by this acquiescence, he farther demanded and obtained all the royal places and castles to be put into his hand, under tho pretence that he should have the power of bestowing the kingdom to the claimant to whom it should be adjudged.
391. What was the result of this arbitration?
The Crown was adjudged to John Baliol ; and Edward at the same time compelled the newly-made King to perform homage, and swear fealty to him, thus constituting the Scottish kingdom a dependency on the English Crown.
392. Why did a war with France occur about this time ? On account of a quarrel which happened between the crews of
an English and French ship about a spring of fresh water, near Bayonne.
393. This, which was a mere scuffle at the commencement, soon grew into a national quarrel. A fleet of two hundred Norman ships sailed southwards, and seized all the English ships which they met in their passage. In conse- quence, an English fleet was fitted out, and sailed to meet the enemy. Thj two fleets met ; and after an obstinate struggle the English obtained a com- plete victory, and took or destroyed the greatest part of the French fleet.
39Jj. Why was an alliance made between the Kings of Scotland and France?
Because the King of Scotland judged from the aspect of affairs
E 2
00 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
IXSUKRECTIOK IJf SCOTLAND, HEADED BY WALLACE.
that an opportunity would be afforded him of throwing off the English yoke, whilst the King of France calculated that the co-operation of the King of Scotland would render him more secure against the attempts of his formidable rival.
395. WJiy did a war break out with Scotland? Because Edward, wanting a plausible pretext for invading
the Scotch territories, required King John to deliver certain castles into his hands, as security for his fidelity during the threatened war with France. In conformity with his alliance with the French King, John refused to comply with the demand, and hostilities were consequently commenced between the two countries.
396. What was tlie result of this war?
Edward gained a complete victory over the Scotch, and took their King prisoner, who, after being confined in England for borne years, died in France at an advanced age.
397. Why did a second war occur with Scotland?
Because the people of that country began to feel the indig- nities that were put upon them ; and Sir William Wallace offer- ing himself as a leader of the insurrection, several of the nobility, and the people generally, joined his standard for the support of their national rights and privileges.
398. What success attended this rising ?
A battle was fought between the two armies at Stirlicg, which place was approached by a bridge over which the enemy had to pass. Wallace, observing the motions of the English, allowed as many of them to pass as he thought he could defeat, when rushing on them with irresistible impetuosity, they were all either put to death, drowned, or taken prisoners.
399. Subsequently to tliis, several battles were fought with varied success. At length Edward invaded the kingdom of Scotland, took Wallace prisoner, and had him executed. A plan was then formed for the government of the country, which, though it gave to Robert Bruce (sou of a former claimant of the Scotch Crown, and the most considerable man of the country), some show of power and authority, conferred in reality the chief places of power and trust upon Englishmen.
THE HISTOEICAL EEASOX WHY. 101
DEATH OF EDTTAED THE FIRST, 1307.
400. Why did Robert Bruce (the sixth of that name) form the design of mounting the throne of Scotland ?
Because, soon after the settlement of the affairs of Scotland, Robert Bruce the elder and John Baliol both died, which circumstances strengthened the claims of the young pretender.
401. When the news of this insurrection reached the ears of Edward, ho invaded Scotland with a large army; and Bruce, after meeting with many reverses, and suffering several hair-breadth escapes, was at length compelled to retire into the Highlands.
402. What were the circumstances of Edward's death ? While still carrying on war with Scotland, he was attacked
with illness, and reaching Burgh-on-the-Sands, about five miles from Carlisle, he expired there in his tent, on the 7th of July, 1307, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and the thirty- fifth of his reign.
403. Why did the reign of Edward the Second promise to be an auspicious one ?
Because that King ascended the throne when he was in the prime of manhood, and at the head of a large army flushed with recent victories, and eager to be led on to further conquests.
404. In ivhat manner did Edward give the first indi- cations of his weakness, and unfitness for rule ?
By trifling away his time in his progress into Scotland, and thus allowing Robert Bruce to become more formidable; and also by recalling a vicious favourite named Piers Gavaston, who had been banished from the kingdom in the former reign, and who possessed a most powerful influence over the young monarch.
405. Edward from the very beginning of his reign evinced a disinclination to continue the war with Scotland, and advanced towards that country but a short stage, where he continued only a few days, Becoming every day more weary of war, and impatient to embrace his returning favourite, he disbanded a great part of his army, and returned to England without accomplishing anything. As soon as the favourite Gavaston arrived at court, he was loaded with wealth and honours, and had the entire control both of the king and the kingdom. And, ultimately, when Edward went to Boulogne to celebrate his nuptials with Isabella, daughter of the King of France, he constituted Gavaston guardian of the kingdom in his absence, with more extensive powers than had ever been granted to any former guardian.
102 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
CIVIL WAS.
406. Why was a change made in tie Constitution in the early part of Edward's reign ?
Because the insolence of Gavaston and the protection and favour which the king accorded him, determined the chief nobles of the kingdom to take the management of affairs into their own hands.
407. When Parliament assembled, the chief nobles of the kingdom attended with numbers of armed followers ; and invested twelve of their own number, under the title of ordainers, with a kind of dictatorial authority, which they were to enjoy for a year ; and the King was compelled to grant a commission for choosing these ordainers from amongst their body. In the following Parliament the ordinances composed by the twelve ordainers were debated; and at length, with much reluctance, confirmed by the King, and sworn to by the Lords and Commons, and copies of them, under the Great Seal, sent to all the sheriffs of England.
40S. Wliy did a civil war break out in England soon after this event ?
Because Edward insisted upon recalling Gavaston, who had been banished the kingdom by one of the articles of the ordinances, and who was particularly odious in the eyes of the people.
409. This imprudent measure rekindled the resentment of the confederated barons, who immediately raised an army, and having appointed the Earl of Lancaster their general, marched northwards. The confederates received a great accession of strength by the junction of the Earl of Warrene to their party, and by the general dissatisfaction with the King-, and rage against the favourite, which prevailed among the people.
410. What steps did the King take to repress this insurrection ?
When the rumour first reached Edward he disregarded it, and still pursued his pleasures in company with Gavaston. At length, hearing of the near approach of the confederate army, he was induced to retire ; put Gavaston into the Castle of Scarborough to defend that place, and marched onwards to York in hopes of raising an army.
411. As soon as the Earl of Lancaster received intelligence of the King's movements, he marched to besiege the Castle of Scarborough, and posted troops between that town and York, to prevent all communication between the King and his favourite. The siege was pushed on with vigour, and Gavaston was compelled to surrender himself prisoner.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 103
PEACE TYITH THE CONFEDEKATED BAROXS.
412. What was Gavaston s ultimate fate ?
Gavaston was conducted to the Castle of Deddington, near Banbury, in Oxfordshire, in custody of the Earl of Pembroke. Here the Earl left him in the care of his servants, and went to pass a few days with his wife, who resided in the neighbourhood. In the meantime the castle was beset by the Earl of Warwick and his followers ; and Gavaston, finding his guards neither able nor willing- to defend him, surrendered himself into the hands of the Earl, his most furious and implacable enemy, who carried him to his Castle of Warwick. As soon as this event was known, the Earls of Lancaster, Hereford, and Arundel, the chiefs of the confederacy, repaired to Warwick, and, after some consultation, agreed to put their prisoner to death, as a traitor and public enemy. In consequence of this resolution, he was conducted to Blacklow Hill, near Warwick, where, in the presence of the confederate lords, his head was severed from his body by the hands of the executioner.
413. Why did Edward conclude a peace with tlie con- federated Barons ?
Because he received intelligence of a large army being raised and approaching the capital; and through his own fears and the persuasions of others was thus induced to listen to milder counsels.
414. The pacification was concluded on the following terms : That the barons should come before the King in Westminster Hall, and ask his pardon on their knees ; that they should restore the horses, arms, jewels, plate, &c., belonging to Gavaston, which they had seized at Newcastle; and that a general pardon should be passed in the next Parliament to the barons and their adherents, for the death of Gavaston, and all other crimes and misdemeanours.
415. Why did the state of Scotland materially improve during this interval ?
Because Eobert, Bruce, who was now universally acknowledged as King of Scots, had taken advantage of the dissensions in England to restore order to the civil government, authority to the laws, and to extinguish the English faction and revive the energy of the people in the defence of their King and country.
416. What result attended the attempt of tlie English to regain tlie Scottish government?
A battle was fought at Bannoclvburn, in which the English
104 THE HISTORICAL REASON "WHY.
KEV01T IK IRELAND.
were totally defeated, with a loss of ten thousand men ; and this victory established Robert Bruce on the throne of Scotland, and restored the long-disputed independence of the kingdom.
417. Why was England at tills time in a most unhappy condition ?
Because, in addition to the late defeat, the country was visited by a famine ; and the Earl of Lancaster and other barons, who formed a powerful party, instead of endeavouring to relieve their countrymen, did all in their power to impoverish and oppress them.
418. The whole power was now in the hands of the Earl of Lancaster and his partisans, who availed themselves of the opportunity to forward their own ambitious ends. Amongst other acts, they turned all the royal officers and servants out of their places, which they appropriated to themselves, or bestowed upon their dependents ; and the King found himself unable to offer any resistance to their will.
419. Why did a revolt take place in Ireland alout this
Because the Irish, who had long borne the English yoke with impatience, conceived this to be a favourable opportunity to estab- lish their freedom; and for that purpose invited Edward Bruce, brother of the King of Scots, to make an expedition into their country. This invitation was accepted, and several actions took place with the English with various success.
420. Wliy was an intended expedition against Scotland abandoned?
Because when Edward raised an army and appointed Newcastle as a place of rendezvous, where the forces might join, the Earl of Lancaster and the barons of his party (who are supposed to have been in the interest of the King of Scots) failed to attend.
421. Why did a civil war break out in England soon after this?
Because the dissensions between the royal party and that of the Earl of Lancaster were revived by the defection of the latter, who was openly accused of treason ; whilst the elopement
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 105
CONFEDERACY AGAINST THE SPENCEB FAMILY.
of the Earl of Lancaster's wife about this time, and her reception and protection by the Earl of Surrey, enraged the aggrieved nobleman to such a degree that he flew to arms, and took several castles belonging to the Earl of Surrey, and some belonging to the King.
422. Upon ivliat terms were tlie contending parties reconciled ? .
A meeting was appointed between the Earl and the King, at which it was agreed that the famous ordinances should be again confirmed, and that a standing council of eight bishops, four earls, and four barons, should be appointed, who were constantly to attend the King by turns, and without whose advice no act of government was to be performed.
423. Wliy was a confederacy raised against the family of tlie Spencers ?
Because the King had taken Hugh Spencer, a young gentle- man of ancient family, into his favour, who, taking advantage of the power that was placed in his hands, invaded the rights and confiscated the estates of several barons without any just cause or pretence.
424. This conduct soon rendered him the object of general terror and detestation, and obliged all who either felt or feared his oppression to conspire against his ruin in order to prevent their own. An army was raised by the Earl of Hereford and many other lords, which, marching into "Wales, committed dreadful ravages on Spencer's estates. The Earl of Lancaster was induced to join this confederacy, and an instrument was subscribed, by which they bound themselves to pursue the two Spencers, father and son, till they had driven them out of the kingdom, and obtained possession of their lands. Ultimately the confederated lords drew up a sentence of forfeiture and banishment against the two Spencers, and got it confirmed by Parliament. They then obtained pardon of the King for all the treasons, murders, and felonies that had been committed, and separated, and returned to their several homes.
425. Wliy did a civil war break out soon after this?
Because the Queen, journeying through Leeds, was refused admission into the castle of the Earl of Badelsmere. The King, having a former cause of quarrel with the Earl, besieged his castle, compelled it to surrender, and hanged some of the officers of the garrison.
106 THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
SUBHEADER OF THE FRENCH DOMINIONS TO THE KING'S SON.
426. The Spencers, hearing of this adventure, took the opportunity of returning to England ; their banishment \vas declared illegal, and they en- couraged the King to pursue vigorous measures, and to take vengeance on ail his enemies. Many other powerful barons, disliking the violent measures of the confederates, and resenting the compulsion which had been put upon them in the late Parliament, repaired to the royal standard, and Edward soon found himself at the head of a powerful army. When the Earl of Lancaster heard of this, he began to prepare for his own defence. No longer concealing his connection with the King of Scots, he openly solicited that monarch's assistance, who immediately placed a body of troops at his service. A battle was subsequently fought, in which the royal party were victorious, and the Earl of Lancaster was taken prisoner, and finally beheaded.
427. Why did Edward surrender Ms French dominions to Ms son ?
Because a dispute had long been pending between the King of France and the King of England respecting the French ter- ritories which the latter possessed ; the King of France demanding that homage should be done for them, and the King of England, on various pretences, refusing to comply with the demand. An overture at length came from the court of France, that if the King of England would bestow his French dominions on his son Edward, Prince of Wales, the King of France would accept the homage of that prince, and grant him the investiture of these territories.
428. Wliy liad Edward soon reason to repent of this decision ?
Because Isabel, Edward's Queen, had secretly proposed this arrangement, in order to carry out a plot which she had long designed against her husband's life and his authority.
429. By this means the perfidious Queen, who had already taken up her residence in the court of France, on the pretence of forwarding the negotia- tions, gained possession of her son, and had the opportunity of poison- ing the mind of the Prince against his father. The designs afterwards broke into open rebellion, and the Queen and the Prince both refused to return to England, in spite of the entreaties and importunities which Edward and his advisers made use of to prevail upon them to do so.
430. Why was a marriage contracted letween tlie Prince of Wales and Philippa, daughter of the Count of Holland ?
Because Queen Isabel could not obtain the assistance she
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 107
EDWAKD TAKEX PRISONER.
desired, to carry on her plots against her husband, from the King of France, and therefore sought the aid of the Count of Holland, who undertook to furnish the necessary means, on condition of a marriage contracted between his daughter and the Prince of Wales.
431. The Queen and her accomplices having completed their preparations, set sail from Holland with a small fleet, and shortly arrived at Orwell Haven, in Suffolk. Besides the Queen and Prince, there came over, in this fleet, the Earl of Kent, who had been betrayed into this conspiracy against his King and brother, and Roger de Mortimer, the great mover of this enterprise, and the paramour of the Queen.
432. Wliy did tlie Queen gain many followers in England ?
Because she pretended that the sole design of her expedition was to drive the Spencers out of the kingdom, to ease the people of their burdens, to reform the disorders of the government, and to improve the liberties of the Church.
433. What was tJie result of this expedition ? Edward, after vainly endeavouring to arm the Londoners in
his cause, fled to Bristol, accompanied by the two Spencers, and attended by a small retinue. At this place the Spencers fell into the hands of the King's enemies and were executed, while Edward was compelled to flee for safety into "Wales. From Wales he made for Ireland, in the hopes of finding friendly succour there ; but, after beating about several days at sea, he was compelled to land at Swansea, and was soon afterwards taken prisoner.
434. Wliat was the fate of the King ?
Upon being taken prisoner, the Queen and Mortimer dis- covered a further part of this plot, which was to depose the King and place the Prince of Wales upon the throne in his stead; this design, with the aid of their unscrupulous -partisans, they were enabled to accomplish, and the King was accordingly deposed, and imprisoned in Berkeley Castle. Here, after under- going a series of unheard-of cruelties and indignities, he wa.s most barbarously murdered by the orders of Queen Isabel and
108 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
CONSPIRACY RAISED AGAINST MORTIMER.
Mortimer, and died on the 21st of September, 1327, in the forty- third year of his age, and after a reign of nineteen years and six months.
435. Why was a threatened war against Scotland, at this time, frustrated ly a hastily concluded peace ?
Because the Queen and Mortimer, under whose advice the young King acted, imagined that it would be a great advantage and security to themselves to have a peace with Scotland, and obtain the friendship, and, in case of need, the assistance of its King. While, on the other hand, Robert Bruce, worn out with infirmities and weary of the perpetual struggle, was desirous of leaving his infant son at peace with all his neighbours, especially with England.
436. In consequence of these articles of peace with Scotland, the Queen- mother of England gave her daughter, the Princess Jane, in a marriage with the Prince of Scotland ; and with the Princess were delivered up many of the charters, and also jewels and other effects which had been taken thence by Edward the First. Thus ended that long and sanguinary war between the two British kingdoms, which involved them both in great calamities, and gave birth to that national animosity that laid the foundation of many future wars.
437. Why was a conspiracy raised against Mortimer ?
Because his great power and influence, combined with his insufferable insolence and tyrannical conduct, had become especially distasteful to the nobles, who determined upon ridding themselves of so dangerous and powerful an enemy.
438. The King, being now eighteen years of age, desired to emancipate himself from the tutelage of the Queen-mother and her minion, whom he had many reasons both to hate and fear. In this design he was encouraged by many noblemen, and a plan was laid to seize Mortimer at the next Parliament. The King, in carrying this plot into execution, was admitted into the castle where Mortimer was, with only a few attendants. Having gained over the governor to his cause, Edward, by means of a subterranean passage, was enabled to seize Mortimer suddenly, in an apartment adjoining the Queen's. Soon after he was put upon his trial for various crimes that he had committed, and condemned to death ; in pursuance of which sentence he was hanged at Tyburn. The Queen-mother also received both censure and punishment. She was deprived of her treasures and position, and com- pelled to live at a private mansion on a comparatively small pension.
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 109
cnovrs OP FEAXCE CLAIMED BY EDWARD.
-i-39. Whi/ was Scotland invaded by a party of English Barons ?
Because the fulfilment of one of the articles of the late peace with England, stipulated that some English noblemen should be restored to their estates in Scotland. But the execution of this article being delayed from time to time without sufficient reason, the aggrieved noblemen determined on invading Scotland, in order to enforce their claims.
440. The rupture was the occasion of a series of battles and invasions extending over the next three years. Edward Baliol, son of a former King of Scotland, joined the barons and prosecuted his claim to the throne; in a short space of time he was proclaimed Kin,?, expelled the kingdom, and again restored to his dominions, and finally, with the assistance of Edward, subdued the country for a time.
441. Wliy did Edward lay claim to the Crown of France ?
Because, owing to the failure of male heirs direct to the throne of France, the succession became a matter of dispute between two claimants, one of whom was Philip de Valois, and Edward the Third, King of England.
412. For Philip it was pleaded, that the male issue of Philip the Fair being extinct, and all females and their descendants being by the laws and customs of France excluded, he had a clear and undoubted right to the Regency, as being the next male heir, the sou of Charles de Valois, brother of Philip the Fair. For Edward it was argued, that being the son of Isabel, daughter of Philip the Fair, he was nearer in blood to the three last Kings of France, being their sister's son, than Philip, who was only their uncle's sou. After a long debate the decision was given in favour of Philip de Valois, who thereupon ascended the throne without any further opposition.
443. Why did Edward persist in asserting Ms claim, notwithstanding this decision ?
Because the haughty nature of Edward revolted at the idea of being compelled to do homage for his French dominions, to a King whose accession he had so recently disputed. Edward v/as also incensed with the new King of France, for affording an asylum to the young King and Queen of Scotland, who had been driven out of their dominions by Baliol, whose 'cause Edward espoused.
110 THE HISTOEICAL EEASO^ WHY.
INVASION OP FBANCE BY THE ENGLISH.
444. Why did Edward determine upon invading France ?
Because his natural desire to do so was encouraged by Kobert d'Artois, brother-in-law to the King of France, who had been sent into banishment for forgery and conspiracy. This adventurer naturally calculated that if Edward could succeed in conquering France, he would be restored to his possessions, and he, therefore, took every opportunity to assure Edward of the validity of his claim to the Crown of France, and to prevail upon the English monarch to undertake the expedition.
445. What was the result of the invasion ?
After considerable labour and expense, and sacrificing even the Queen's jewels to raise the necessary funds for the expedition, Edward could only succeed in raising a defective army, with which he was compelled to content himself in ravaging the countries of Cambresis and Vermandois.
446. Philip, who had sufficient warning of this formidable invasion, had not been indolent in preparing for his own defence, and appeared at the head of an army of a hundred thousand men; with this army he remained on the defensive, unwilling to hazard his crown and kingdom in an engage- ment, and Edward, seeing no opportunity of advantageously attacking a force so much superior to his own, returned to England without having reaped any benefit.
447. How did Edward subsequently retrieve these re- verses ?
He fought a naval engagement with the French off the harbour of Sluys, in which thirty thousand of the enemy were killed, and two hundred of their ships taken.
448. Why did Edward invade Normandy?
Because Godfrey de Harcourt, a Norman nobleman, who had recently been affronted and injured by the King of France, having fled to the Court of England, persuaded Edward to invade Normandy, as being not only a wealthy province, but wholly unguarded, and therefore a valuable and easy prey.
449. Listening to this advice, Edward raised an army, and invaded the kingdom. The fleet visited tho several seaports on the coasts, and destroyed the shipping, while the army, divided into three bodies, ravaged the open.
THE HISTORICAL KEASON WHY. Ill
BATTLE OP CEECY FOUGHT.
country, and took and plundered the towns which were inefficiently fortified and defended. In a few months Edward collected an immense booty, which was put on board the fleet and sent into England.
450. What celebrated battle was the consequence of this invasion ?
The Battle of Crecy, in which both the King and his son Edward, the Black Prince, appeared in person.
451. This is one of the most famous battles on record, both on account of the illustrious persons engaged on either side, the deeds of valour that were performed, and the immense loss and terrific slaughter suffered by the French. In this encounter the French left on the field of battle the King of Bohemia, eleven other Princes, eighty bannerets, twelve hundred knights, fifteen hundred gentlemen, four thousand men-at-arms, and thirty thousand other soldiers.
452. What other great battle succeeded that of Crecy ? The Battle of Poictiers, in which the English army, commanded in person by Edward the Black Prince, was again victorious.
453. In this battle two dukes, nineteen earls, a great number of knights and gentlemen, and about six thousand men-at-arms, with numbers of other soldiers, were killed. The prisoners taken were still more numerous, and of higher degree; for, besides the King and his youngest son, there were taken three princes of the blood, one archbishop, seventeen earls, fifteen hundred inferior barons, knights, and gentlemen, and several thousand men- at-arms.
454. Why was a war undertaken against Castille? Because Don Pedro, the King of that country, having been
driven from his dominions on account of his cruelty and mis- government, prevailed upon Edward, the Black Prince, to aid his cause, and assist his attempt at restoration.
455. What was the result of this expedition?
Don Pedro having been restored to his throne through the in- strumentality of the English, refused to pay the army, according to his engagement ; and after numbers of the English soldiers had been stricken down by the heat of the climate, to which they were unaccustomed, the Black Prince withdrew the shat- tered and impoverished remains of his army to Bordeaux.
;5G. Nothing could be more fatal to the Black Prince than the consequences of this expedition : it ruined his health, and embittered the few remaining
112 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
DEATH OF EDWARD THE SECOND, 1377.
years of his life, by a continued series of troubles. He had not only exhausted his treasury, by raising and paying the army which he had conducted to Castille, but he had contracted an immense debt, and threw upon his hands some thousands of lawless men, who, for want of pay, began to live by plun- dering peaceful and inoffensive subjects.
457. Why did a war with France ensue?
Because Edward, the Black Prince, in order to raise the money to pay the troops who had fought at Castille, imposed a tax upon every hearth in his French dominions ; which measure was so unpopular that several of the great lords of Guienne intrigued with the King of France, to assist them in overturning the English government.
458. In the wars that followed, the usual good fortune of the English deserted them. Several English provinces fell into the hands of the French ; and in a naval engagement with Don Henry, King of Castille, who had espoused the cause of the French, the English fleet suffered a terrible defeat. A truce was at length concluded, the result of which was that all the advantages which the English had gained by the Battles of Crecy and Poictiers were once more relinquished to the French.
459. What event of national concern occurred soon after tins ?
The death of Edward, the Black Prince, whose health had been declining for some years, under a disease contracted at Castille. He died on the 8th of June, 1376, in the forty-sixth year of his age.
460. What were the circumstances attending the death of Edward the Second ?
Already grown old and feeble, his system received a severe shock by the death of his son, on whom he had built the brightest hopes. He died on the 1st of June, 1377, in the sixty- fifth year of his age, and the fifty -first of his reign.
461. Why was Edward, the Black Prince, so called? Because in battle he was equipped in a complete suit of black
armour.
462. Who succeeded Edward the Third?
Richard the Second, son of the Black Prince. He ascended the throne in the eleventh year of his age.
THE HISTOETCAL EEASON WHY. 113
INSUBBECTIOX IN ENGLAND.
403. Wliy did Richard at once become a popular Sovereign ?
On account of his tender years, the extreme beauty of his person, and the remembrance of his beloved father, whose memory the people of England still revered.
464. Why did the affairs of England wear an unpro- mising aspect upon tlie accession of Richard ?
Because the King's extreme youth rendered him incapable of holding the reins of government, which were confided to his three uncles, the Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester. The want of harmony between these three Protectors prevented the affairs of the nation from being administered with benefit and satisfaction to the people.
465. Why did the Dulce of Lancaster make an ex- pedition into France ?
Because he was naturally of an ambitious and warlike dispo- sition, and finding himself in power, he prevailed upon the council to grant him money and arms, not only for the purpose of pro- tecting England from all its enemies, but to enable him to perform some notable exploit for its honour and advantage.
466. To perform this promise, the Duke raised an army and equipped a fleet for invading France, with which he landed in Brittany, and invested St. Malo. The constable, De Gueselin, hastened with an army to the relief
/of the place; and the Duke, finding it would be impossible to take the town in the presence of the enemy, raised the siege and returned home, without having performed.] anything worthy of his mighty promises arid enormous expenditure.
467. Why did an insurrection take place in England during Richard's minority ?
On account of the heavy imposts which were laid on the people, especially the poll-tax, which fell peculiarly hard upon the lower orders. This tax was rendered still more unpopular by the severity with which it was gathered.
468. The collection of this tax occasioned one of the most memorable insurrections on record. A quarrel arose between one of the poll-tax gatherers and a tyler, living in Deptford, named "Walter, in which quarrel the tyler
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
EUPTUEE BETWEEN EICHAED THE SECOND AND THE PAELIAMENT.
beat out the brains of the tax-gatherer with his hammer. This action was applauded by his neighbours, several of whom gathered together, and in the course of a little time the common people in the surrounding counties were invited to take part in a movement to resist the odious tax. The insurgents at length amounted to one hundred thousand, and a general meeting was appointed at Blackheath, at which Wat Tyler and Jack Straw were appointed leaders. The insurgents marched towards London, and sent a message to the King to come and speak with them. The Kinar acceded to this request, and pacified the mob by granting them liberal charters, and extending his forgiveness for past grievances. Some days afterwards, as the King was riding through Smithfielr], he was seen by Wat Tyler, who. intoxi- cated by recent success, pressed boldly into the royal presence, and preferred the most unreasonable requests, in the most insolent tone. Sir William Walworth, Lord Mayor of London, incensed at this conduct, drew his sword and slew Wat Tyler on the spot. This circumstance might have occasioned serious consequences, but the young King, with admirable presence of mind, put himself at the head of the mob, and cried, " Follow me, I will be your leader:" he then took them into the open fields, when a body of soldiers soon appeared, and the insurgents fled, panic-stricken, in every direction.
469. Whi/ did Richard soon become unpopular ?
Because, after a while, he disappointed the expectations that had been formed of him, neglected the interests of his people, and being surrounded by a number of young and thoughtless companions, gave himself up to a course of extravagance and dissipation.
470. One of the first unpopular acts that Richard committed, was the taking the great seal from Henry le Scroop, to whom it had been committed with the approbation of Parliament, because he refused to seal certain grants of land unworthily made to some retainers about court. The young King, incensed at the opposition to his will, took the seal into his own hnnds, put it to these grants, and then delivered it to Robert Braybroke, Bishop of London.
471. Wlnj did a rupture occur between Hicliard and Tiis Parliament ?
Because the Earl of Suffolk, who had been created Lord Chan- cellor, and received many marks of the King's favour, behaved himself so ill in his office that the Parliament demanded his dis- missal ; this Richard refused to accede to, and withdrew with his court to Elthani.
472. Commissioners were sent to the King inviting him to return to his Parliament, and threatening that if he did not comply, they would dissolve, and leave the nation in its present disaffected state. The King paying no
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 115
\VAE DECLARED AGAINST THE KING.
attention to this first message, a second was sent still more importunate, which had the effect of bringing Richard to London. The Earl of Suffolk was then impeached, and being found guilty, all his offices and emoluments were taken from him, leaving him only his title, with £20 a year, and the Parliament committed him to the custody of his most inveterate enemy, the Duke of Gloucester. Many other changes were made, and several ministers, who had made themselves obnoxious to the people, were deprived of their functions.
473. What change did the Constitution undergo at this period ?
The King was compelled to sign a commission to certain lords, eleven in number, which placed the administration in their hands, and deprived the King of all power.
474. Why did the Dulce of Gloucester and his par- tisans take up arms against the King ?
Because the King's supporters declared that the commission which he had been compelled to sign was illegal, and that those who had promoted it ought to be punished as traitors.
475. Intelligence was brought to tho King that the Duke of Gloucester was approaching at the head of an army of forty thousand men ; and he and his followers notified an appeal against the decision which the King's supporters had promulgated. For this purpose they appeared at Westminster Hall, and falling on their knees before the King, declared, with great profes- sions of loyalty, that in taking up arms they had no design against his royal person, but only to bring their enemies to punishment. The King, by way of answer, raised them from their knees, and assured them that the persons appealed against should be brought before them at the next Parliament.
476. What steps did the Duke of Gloucester next take ? He marched his army into London, received the keys of the
city from the Lord Mayor, and dismissed from the King's person every one who was suspected of having the least attach- ment towards their royal master. The King's especial favourites were driven out of the kingdom or execiited, and the judges were deprived of their offices and banished.
477. By what act of the King's did the Diike of Gloucester, and Ids party, receive a severe lilow ?
Richard suddenly resolved that he would take the management of affairs into his own hands. In consequence of this resolution,
116 THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY.
APPBEHENSION OP THE DUKE O£ GLOUCESTER.
when a very numerous council was assembled, Richard boldly renounced all further tutelage, and declared that he would take the government of the nation upon himself.
478. Why was this change of affairs submitted to ?
Because the first steps which Richard took in the administra- tion were very prudent, and tended to repress the arrogance of the Duke of Gloucester's party, which had latterly become dis- tasteful to the people.
479. The position of the King was further strengthened by the return of the Duke of Lancaster to England, and who brought with him an army devoted to the King's service. Soon after his arrival, Richard held a Council of Peers, when the Duke of Gloucester and the noblemea of his party were brought to court by Lancaster, and seemingly reconciled to the King by his mediation.
480. Why did a quarrel take place between the Court and the Citizens of London ?
Because, in a tumult that occurred, the populace assaulted the palace of the Bishop of Salisbury, who was High Treasurer ; this deed gave such oifence to the King, that he commanded the Lord Mayor and Sheriffs to be imprisoned, and the City to be deprived of its liberties.
481. The citizens having submitted to the King's displeasure, and implored his mercy,, he afterwards entered the City in a kind of triumph, and was received with every demonstration of respect and welcome. Soon after this act, their charters were confirmed at the intercession of the Queen, and a reconciliation was effected. But the King's severity made a deeper impres- sion on the minds of the citizens than his mercy.
482. Why did Richard send an embassy to the Court of France ?
To demand the hand of Isabella, daughter of Charles the Sixth, King of France, in marriage, his first wife having died.
483. This princess was only eight years of age, and the unequal union was probably determined on, not only in hopes of maintaining a peace between France and England, but also for the purpose of securing a powerful support against the Duke of Gloucester and his party, of whom the King was in continual dread.
484. Why was the Duke of Gloucester apprehended? Because his disaffection towards the King, and his designs upon
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 117
BANISHMENT OP THE DUKES OP NORFOLK AND HEREPOED.
the government, had become so apparent, that Richard was urged by his advisers to take this step, in order to secure his own authority, and to preserve the peace of the nation.
485. Richard, who was but too willing to rid himself of such a formidable enemy, readily assented to the apprehension of the Duke of Gloucester, who was soon after surprised at his Castle of Fleshy, in Essex, hurried on board a ship, and conveyed to Calais as a place of the greatest security. The Earls of Arundel and "Warwick, the Duke's accomplices, were at the same time seized in London and committed to prison.
486. What was the result of these apprehensions?
The Duke of Gloucester died in prison under suspicious cir- cumstances. The Earl of Arundel was beheaded, and the Earl of Warwick consigned to perpetual confinement in the Isle of Man.
487. The precise time and manner of Gloucester's death were never certainly known, and are differently related by different authors. It is supposed that the King and his ministers, not daring to bring so considerable a personage to public trial and execution, employed assassins to murder him in prison ; this belief gained ground among the people, and brought much odium on the King and his advisers.
488. Why were the Dulces of Hereford and Norfolk banished from England ?
Because they mutually accused each other of disloyalty, in having- spoken certain slanderous words of his Majesty; and as the exact truth could not be arrived at, the King resolved to punish them both.
489. The Parliamentary commissioners pronounced the following sentence : That the Duke of Hereford should be banished from the kingdom for ten years, and that the Duke of Norfolk should quit the realm for the term of life.
490. Why did popular discontents legin to grow against government ?
Because in an act of indemnity that was granted to all subjects who had been guilty of treason, there were severe conditions made, and large sums of money extorted. These discontents were greatly increased by the complaints of the families of the late Duke of Gloucester, and the two banished Dukes of Hereford and Norfolk.
118 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
ENGLAND INVADED BY THE DUKE OF LANCASTEB.
491. Why did the Dulce of Hereford return from banishment and invade England?
Because during the term of his banishment his father, the Duke of Lancaster, died, by which event an immense accession of wealth and power fell to him. These possessions the Duke was entitled to inherit notwithstanding his banishment, Jetters- patent and powers of attorney having been expressly granted to the Duke when he departed the kingdom to secure any inheri- tance that might fall to him during his exile. But, in con- travention of these conditions, the King declared the estates confiscated, and appropriated them to himself. This act of tyranny and oppression excited universal indignation against Richard and his Parliament, and compassion for the exiled Duke of Lancaster.
492. The Duke of Hereford was at the court of Franco when he received intelligence of his father's death, and of the revocation of his letters-patent, and he soon afterwards received invitations from his numerous and powerful friends in England to come over and vindicate his rights to the estate of Lancaster. Encouraged by these invitations, he resolved to return to England, and having obtained a few ships and a small number of armed it en from the Duke of Brittany, he put to sea, and in a few days landed in Yorkshire ; here he was joined by the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, with other barons of the north, and their followers. Finding himself at the head of a large army, he marched southward, giving out that he was come only to recover his inheritance of Lancaster, which brought such multitudes to his standard, that they soon amounted to sixty thousand men.
493. How did the cause of the King still further suffer ? By his absence from England ; having made an expedition into
Ireland, to revenge the death of the Earl of March, presumptive heir to his crown, and to reduce that kingdom to more perfect subjection.
494. What progress did the Duke of Lancaster make in his invasion ?
The Duke of York, Eegent of the kingdom, raised a considerable army, with which he marched towards Bristol, where it was expected the King would land from Ireland. By this means the armies approaching each other, a conference was held between the Dukes of York and Lancaster ; and the latter still pretending that
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
119
KICHARD COMPELLED TO FLEE.
he came only for the recovery of his inheritance, an agreement was entered into, and the Duke of York joined him with his forces.
SHIP OF THE PERIOD, 1390.
495. WJiat happened to Richard in these proceedings?
While these events were transpiring1, Eichard landed at Milford Haven with his troops from Ireland, intending to join the Duke of York, whom he believed to be at the head of an army, raised in his name, to support his authority. But when he received intelligence
120 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
DEATH OP BICITAUD THE SECOND, 1399.
of the Regent's defection, lie disbanded his small army, and retired with a few faithful friends to Conway.
406. In his retirement Richard took counsel with his friends, whether he should leave the kingdom and take shelter in his French dominions, or open a negotiation with the Duke of Lancaster, who had not yet declared his designs upon the Crown. This last measure was adopted, and in conse- quence a conference was agreed upon to settle the negotiation. The King set out on this purpose accompanied by his few remaining friends; but on the road they were surrounded by a body of armed men, and conducted to the Castle of Flint as prisoners. Next day the Duke of Lancaster con- ducted the King to his head-quarters at Chester, and thence to the Tower of London.
497. Wliy was Richard compelled to resign his Crown?
Because the Duke of Lancaster wishing to obtain the crown in the most plausible manner, hit upon the expedient of making Eichard subscribe a resignation of his sovereignty, as an admis- sion that he was unworthy of possessing it.
498. To carry this plan into execution, a Parliament was summoned in King Richard's name. On the day before the meeting of Parliament, Richard, in his chamber in the Tower, before the Duke of Lancaster, with the prelates and lords of his party, subscribed the instrument of his resignation. When the Parliament met this instrument was produced and read; and the members being asked if they accepted of this resignation, replied in the affirmative.
499. What was the ultimate fate of Richard ?
He did not long survive his deposition, but died after about a year's confinement at Poutefracfc Castle. The exact time and manner of his death are not known, but it is conjectured that he was starved to death. He was dethroned on the 29th of September, 1399, in the twenty-third year of his reign, and the thirty-fourth of his age.
NOTES UPON THE PERIOD FROM THE DEATH OF KING JOHN, 1216, TO THE ACCESSION OF HENRY THE FOURTH, 1399.
At this period some changes were made in the ranks and orders of men in society, and the distinction between the nobility and gentry especially began to be conspicuous. Anciently, all who held of the crown in capite were esteemed noble, and formed one order; but the great inequality of the power and wealth among the members of this order laid the foundation
THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY. 121
NOTES UPON" THE PERIOD FROM TUB DEATH OF KING JOUX TO THE ACCESSION OF HENRY THE FOURTH.
of the division of them into the greater and smaller barons. And this division became more conspicuous still, after the establishment of the House of Commons, when the smaller barons and freeholders no longer mingled with the greater, and ceased to be tiieir peers.
Learning began to make sure and rapid strides; logic, rhetoric, physics, and metaphysics were cultivated and studied with great ardour, and many discoveries were made in chemistry and natural philosophy.
Medicine was considerably improved. The distinctions between physician, surgeon, and apothecary, were clearly denned, and the separate branches cultivated with considerable success. The introduction of chemistry also contributed to this end, furnishing the practitioners with the various preparations unknown to their predecessors.
The style of domestic Architecture remained much the same as in the former period. The building of churches and monasteries, being still believed to be one of the most effectual means of obtaining Divine favour, was carried on assiduously. Many of the cathedrals and churches were magni- ficent fabrics, and raised at an enormous expenditure of labour, time, and money.
The art of Refining and Working Metals was pursued with great success ; suits of armour, most exquisitely tempered and polished, were made; domestic utensils for various purposes constructed, and even statues of some merit fashioned.
The Cutting and Setting of Precious Stones, and 'converting them with gold and silver into rings, bracelets, and other ornaments, became a consider- able branch of commerce.
ClockmaJcing also became a branch of industry, and foreign artists were encouraged to carry on the trade in England under the protection of a royal charter. Watches were also made, or at least used in Britain, not long after the beginning of the fourteenth century.
The Manufacture of Cloth was introduced into England in 1331 by the people of Flanders and the Netherlands, and the English having great quantities of wool, gradually became sensible of the great advantages to be derived from this branch of industry, and thus became themselves manufac- turers.
The Engines of Warfare, especially those used in battering walls, were of enormous size and considerable power. Those used in the time of Edward the First were capable of throwing stones of three hundred pounds weight. The cross-bow was the most destructive of small arms ; a species of arrow, termed quarrel, was used with the most deadly effect, being larger and longer than the ordinary arrow, and sometimes made of brass, and pointed with steel. The discovery of gunpowder, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, however, soon changed this mode of warfare. Cannon, or, as they were then called, bombards, were the most ancient fire-arms. These were very clumsy and ill-contrived, and resembled the shape of a mortar in which chemical and other ingredients are compounded. Hand-cannoa were also used ; they were carried by two men, and fired from a rest, fixed in the ground.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
NOTES UPON THE PERIOD FROM THE DEATH OF KING- JOHN TO THE ACCESSION OF HENRY THE FOURTH.
The arts of Sculpture and Painting were practised with considerable success, and displayed no little taste during this period. The painting and decorating of the interiors of public and private edifices also became very general.
Poetry and Music were assiduously cultivated, and honours and rewards were conferred on minstrels connected with the households of princes, prelates, and barons.
The Domestic Trade of Great Britain was at this time chiefly transacted at fairs. Some of these fairs were of long duration, frequented by multi- tudes of people from different cov.ntries, and stored with commodities of all kinds. To such fairs the kings, prelates, and great barons sent their agents, and others went in person, to purchase jewels, plate, cloth, furniture, liquors, spices, horses, cattle, corn, and provisions of various kinds; men and women were also publicly exposed and sold as slaves, so late as the conclusion of the fourteenth century.
The Foreign Trade of England was very considerable, including Itaty, Spain, Portugal, France, Eretagne, Holland, Flanders, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, &c. The foreign merchants formed themselves into various bands and companies, each having its peculiar laws and distinctive charters.
Hills of Exchange became known in the thirteenth century, and towards the latter end of the fourteenth became a current mode of payment in mercantile transactions.
The Royal Exchange, London, and other exchanges throughout the country, were established by Edward the Third, in order to facilitate the exchange of gold and silver coin, which at that time was a matter of some difficulty. Certain persons were furnished with a competent quantity of gold and silver coins, in London and other places, to be the only exchangers of money at the following rate :— When these royal exchangers of money gave silver coins for a parcel of gold nobles, for example, they gave one silver penny less for each noble than its current value; and when they gave gold nobles for silver coins, they took one penny more, or 6s. 9d. for each noble, by which in. every transaction they realised a profit of H per cent.
The Language of the people during this period was chiefly Norman or French ; that is to say, it was spoken by the higher orders, and by all who wished to be distinguished as persons of rank and fashion: and it was a species of foppishness in that day for persons among the lower orders to endeavour to ape their superiors by smatterings of the French language.
The taste for expensive and extravagant Dress became at this time very prevalent, infecting not only the higher orders but the lower grades of society. An annalist of these times says:— "Such quantities of furred gar- ments, fine linen, jewels, gold and silver plate, rich furniture, and utensils, the spoils of Caen, Calais, and other foreign cities, were imported, that every woman of rank obtained a share of them, and they were seen in every mansion. Then the ladies of England became proud and vain in their attire, and were as much elated by the acquisition of all that finery as the ladies of France were dejected by the loss of it." At length the legis- lature found it necessary to interpose, by making sumptuary laws, for
THE HISTORICAL KEASOX WHY.
123
NOTES UPON THE PERIOD FROM THE DEATH OF KING JOHN TO THE ACCESSION OF HENRY THE FOURTH.
regulating the dress of all ranks of people. But these laws were observed for a few years only, for shortly after it is recorded, that at this time (1388) the vanity of the common people in their dress was so great-, that it was impossible to distinguish the rich from the poor, the high from the low, the clergy from the laity, by their appearance. Fashions were continually changing, and every one endeavoured to outshine his neighbour, by the richness of his dress or the novelty of its form.
LADY OF RANK AND SERVANT.
> The prevailing Amusements of the people consisted of archery, the throw- ing of stones, wood, or iron ; playing at hand-ball, foot-ball, or club-ball, and in bull-baiting and cock-fighting, Wrestling, also, was a favourite diver- sion among the lower orders, and tournaments among the upper classes. The following is a description given of one of these latter entertainments by one of the old chroniclers :—" On the first Sunday of October (1389), which was the first day of the tournament, between two and three o'clock in the afternoon, sixty fine horses, with rich furniture for the justs, issued one
124 THE IIISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
NOTES UPON THE PEBIOD PEOM THE DEATH OP KING JOHN TO THE ACCESSION OE HENRY THE POUBTH.
by one from the Tower, each conducted by a squire of honour, and pro- ceeded at a slow pace through the streets of London to Smithfield, attended by a numerous band of trumpeters and other minstrels. Immediately after, sixty young ladies, richly dressed, riding on palfreys, issued from the same place, and each lady leading a knight completely armed, by a silver chain, they proceeded slowly to the field. When they arrived there, the ladies were lifted from their palfreys, and conducted to the chambers provided lor them; the knights mounted their horses and began the justs, in which they exhi- bited such feats of valour and dexterity as excited the admiration of the spectators. The judges gave one of the prizes, a crown of gold, to the best performer among the foreign knights, and a rich girdle, adorned with gold and precious stones, to the best English performer. After a sumptuous supper, the ladies and knights spent the whole night in dancing."
The Sports of the Field were indulged in by all classes, especially by princes, noblemen, and gentlemen, some of whom made hunting and hawking the chief business of their lives.
Theatrical Diversions existed at this period, but they chiefly consisted of awkward representations of Scripture histories, called Mysteries or Miracles. Moralities were a kind of interlude, in which the virtues and vices, the human faculties, passions, &c., were personified, and speeches formed for them, illustrating and inculcating a certain moral.
Grand Festivals were given by princes and noblemen at their palaces and castles, which were crowded with hundreds of minstrels, mimics, jug- glers, tumblers, rope-dancers, &c., who exhibited each after his own peculiar talent for the amusement of the company.
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 125
COSSPIEACY POEMED AGAINST HENEY.
FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY THE FOURTH, 1399, TO THE ACCESSION OF HENRY THE SEVENTH, 1485.
500. Who teas Henry the Fourth previous to his accession to the throne ?
Henry, Duke of Lancaster, surnamed Bollingbroke, and in his father's lifetime Duke of Hereford, under which title he had been banished from England.
501. How does the raising of Henry the Fourth to the throne illustrate one of the most sudden and surprising changes of fortune in the history of monarchies ?
Because he was crowned king of a great and powerful nation, to which he had returned, less than three months previously, a friendless and impoverished exile.
502. Why did Henry deprive several of the nobles of their honours and estates, which they had acquired during the previous reign ?
Because he suspected them of an attachment to their former master, and therefore determined to secure their fidelity by making them dependent upon him for their titles and fortunes.
503. Why was a conspiracy, formed^ against Henry ? Because the nobles who had' been deprived of their titles and
estates by the new King, determined upon being revenged for the injury they had received, and therefore formed a plot for restoring Richard, and depriving Henry of his life and crown.
504. It \ras agreed to proclaim a splendid tournament, and to invite Henry to be present at and preside at that solemnity, appointing in the meantime assassins to murder him, at such time as he was most intent in viewing the diversion. The scheme was accordingly set on foot; the King, unsus- pectingly, accepted the invitation, and the day of the tournament drew near; but on the previous evening the Earl of Rutland (the chief contriver of the plot) went privately to "Windsor, and put the King upon his guard. On the next day Henry set out for London. In the meantime the conspirators at Oxford remained in great anxiety, expecting every moment the arrival of the King, and their accomplice, the Earl of Rutland. Finding they did not
rrivc, the nobles at once concluded that their plot was discovered, and
126 THE H1STOEICAL EEASON WHY.
EEVOLT OF OWEN- GLEXDOWEE.
resolved to attempt by force what they could not accomplish by stratagem, hoping to surprise the King at Windsor, where they knew he had but a slender guard. The conspirators were greatly disconcerted when they after- wards found that the King had escaped. Being thus foiled, they endeavoured to raise an army, but this attempt proving unsuccessful, they were at last compelled to throw themselves upon the mercy of the King. Henry took a terrible revenge on the conspirators engaged in this plot, and had the prime movers of it put to death with circumstances of great cruelty.
503. Why was Jiicliard threatened with the loss of Ids French dominions?
Because the late King Richard was generally beloved by the inhabitants of the English provinces in France, who were greatly enraged when they heard the news of their favourite monarch being dethroned and imprisoned.
506. The French court taking advantage of their discontent, earnestly solicited them to throw off the English yoke, and put themselves under the protection of Trance, and these solicitations seemed at first to promise success. But when the passions of the people of these provinces tegan to cool, and they had leisure to reflect on the different policy of the two govern- ments, they wisely preferred the mild rule of a distant sovereign to the tyrannical domination of a too powerful neighbour.
507. Wliy did a Welsh subject, named Owen Glen- dower, revolt against Henry ?
Owen Glendower was a Welsh nobleman of high spirit, descended from the last of the ancient princes of Wales. In a kind of petty war which he carried on against Lord Grey, respecting the possession of some lands, Henry espoused the cause of Lord Grey, and threatened to march against Glendower, whom he proclaimed as a rebel. Owen, after this proclamation, burnt Lord Grey's town, declared himself Prince of Wales, and was generally acknowledged as such by his countrymen. Henry marched into Wales, but was unable to meet with the enemy, who had retired into the mountains. From this period a national war commenced, which lasted for several years.
508. Why did the Scots invade England?
Because a report had been circulated that Eichard, the late King, was not dead, but alive and at liberty; and the Scotch conceiving this to be a good opportunity to make a conquest of
THE HISTORICAL EEA.SON WHY. 127
DEATH OF IIENEY THE FOURTH, 1413.
the country, invaded England with a large army, and gave out that they had King Richard among them.
509. The invaders entered England, and penetrated as far as Newcastle but on their return they were met by the English army, and were signally defeated, the leaders of the conspiracy being all either killed or taken prisoners.
510. Why was there a conspiracy among several of tlie nobles soon after this battle ?
Because when Henry received the news of the victory he sent strict injunctions to the commanders of his army not to ransom any of their prisoners without his express permission — terms which were distasteful to all who received it, and which some of them refused to obey.
511. The noblemen concerned in this transaction were so dissatisfied at the conduct of the King, that they resolved to exert all their power and influence to dethrone him, and to place the crown on the head of the young Earl of March, the lineal heir. They communicated their design to their pri- soner, the Earl of Douglas, and granted him his liberty on condition of his joining them with his followers, to which he consented. They also admitted into their confederacy Owen Glendower, who agreed to join them with ten thousand men. In the meantime, Henry, becoming acquainted with the conspiracy, collected an army with great expedition, and marched to meet the rebels. A battle was fought at Shrewsbury, iu which the King commanded in person, and displayed remarkable judgment and per- sonal bravery ; after a desperate fis?ht the royal army proved victorious, and the rebellion was thus crushed.
512. What ivas the result of Glendower 's determined and protracted opposition to the King's authority ?
After struggling for many years to establish an indepen- dency, during which all the men of note had been killed, the Welsh refused any longer to regard him, and submitted to the English government. Glendower, after wandering about the country for many years, under several disguises, at length died at his daughter's house in Herefordshire.
513. What were the circumstances of Henry the Fourth's death ?
The King, though in the prime of life, had been for some time in a precarious state of health, being afflicted with fre- quent fits, which deprived him of all sensation, and seemed to
128 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
FORMIDABLE EISIIfG OF THE LOLLAEDE
threaten him with immediate death. He was seized with one of these fits when he was at his devotion in St. Edward's Chapel, Westminster, and being1 carried into the Abbot's lodgings, he there expired, on the 20th of March, 1413, in the forty-sixth year of his age, and the fourteenth of his reign.
514. By whom was Henry the Fourth succeeded?
By his son Henry the Fifth, to whose title no objection was raised, and who ascended the throne with great applause.
515. Why were the anticipations formed of Henry not very flattering ?
Because as a Prince he had displayed great folly and extra- vagance, and had committed many irregularities which were well known to the people.
516. Henry had even been guilty of direct violations of the law, and insults on its most distinguished ministers ; and for disorders of this nature he had been placed in confinement on two several occasions, by the Chief Justice of England and the Mayor of Coventry.
517. Why were the unfavourable opinions formed of Henry's character soon dispelled?
Because the moment he ascended the throne he altered his course of life, and became as wise and steady as he had been before reckless and foolish. He dismissed the licentious com- panions of his former riots with marks of his bounty, but with strict commands never to approach his royal person till they had given sufficient proof of their amendment.
518. Why did a religious sect termed the Lollards lecome formidable in the early part of this reign ?
Because, in proportion as they were persecuted for the tenets they professed (being disciples of Wickliff), so they increased. They also derived a greater amount of importance from the fact of Lord Cobham, one of their chief members, having escaped from the Tower, into which he had been thrown on a charge of heresy.
519. A conspiracy is said to have been set on foot by the Lollards, to kill the King, the chief members of his family, and the heads of the clergy. A
THE HISTOETCAL REASON WHY.
129
CROWN OF FEANCE CLAIMED BY HENBY.
large reward was offered for Lord Cobliam, who, however, was not taken until four years afterwards, when he was hanged as a traitor and burnt as a heretic.
520. Why did JLenry purpose claiming the Crown of France ?
Because the reigning King of France, Charles the Sixth, was afflicted with a mental malady which seldom allowed him suffi- cient reason to conduct the ordinary affairs of state ; and advan-
A ROYAL PARTY OF THE TIME OF HENRY HIE FIFTH.
tage was taken of this circumstance, by the two rival factions of Burgundy and Orleans, to plunge the country into a state of anarchy and confusion — a conjunction which Henry conceived to be favourable to his designs.
130 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
BATTLE OP AGINCOURT FOUGHT.
521. Why, although Henry made active preparations for his expedition, did he conceal his real designs from the people ?
Because he was anxious to procure all the money and assist- ance he could, and concluded that these would not be advanced, if his design upon the French crown were known to be the object of his expedition.
522. Henry also deceived the King of France, by speciously demanding the hand of his daughter Catherine in marriage, and with great seeming earnestness carried on constant negotiations for a long truce or a per- petual peace. At the same time he took care that these negotiations should not succeed, by rising in his demands as the French advanced in their concessions.
523. Why was a conspiracy raised against Henry about this time?
Because some of the nobles, in order to better their own
fortunes, determined upon proclaiming the Earl of March king1,
purposing to carry him into Wales, and there set up his standard.
524. What was the result of Henry's expedition into France ?
He succeeded in laying a successful siege to Harfleur, which was compelled to surrender on hard conditions ; but, having accomplished this, he proposed to return to England, owing to the devastation which the great fatigues of the siege and the heat of the weather were making in his army. The English were, however, intercepted in their homeward march by the French army, and soon after, the battle of Agincourt was fought.
525. The circumstances in connection with this battle are the most extra- ordinary, especially when the result is considered. The army of Henry was reduced to 10,000 men, many of whom were suffering from the effects of sickness ; they had to traverse a long tract of country, inhabited by exas- perated enemies, upon whom they were to depend for their food, lodging, guides, intelligence, and everything they wanted. That country was defended by many strong towns, intersected by deep rivers, and guarded by an army of upwards of a hundred thousand men. The night previous to the battle, Henry spent the whole time in preparing his army for the next day's struggle. The encounter commenced on the following morning at ten o'clock ,
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 131
ALLIANCE WITH THE DUKE OF BUEGUJfDT.
and for three hours a hand-to-hand contest was fought between the two armies with desperate valour, ending in a signal victory for the English. The French lost a number of illustrious warriors, fifteen hundred knights, and several, thousands of common soldiers, whilst the English loss is recorded as not being greater than one hundred men ; it is also remarkable that the number of prisoners taken by the English exceeded their own army.
526. Wliy did Henry make an alliance witli the Duke of Burgundy?
Because, owing to prevailing factions, that nobleman was ex- cluded from the participation of the government of France, to revenge himself for which indignity, he acknowledged Henry to be King of France, and engaged to assist him with all his forces to obtain possession of that kingdom.
527. The state of Prance at this period was the most turbulent and unsatis- factory that can be imagined. The Constable, d'Armagnac, in reality possessed all the power of the crown, and he employed that power for the most pernicious purposes. His ruling passion was hatred of the Duke of Burgundy and his party, and he did not fail to persecute, with, the greatest cruelty, every person whom he suspected to belong to the Duke's party. This served to aggravate the recent misfortunes of France, and to accelerate her ruin.
528. What steps did Henry next take to secure the Crown of France ?
He invaded France with a large army, and conducted it through the kingdom in a sort of triumphal march, no resistance being offered to his progress, and he being universally acknow- ledged as a conqueror.
529. At the same time the progress of the King's ally, the Duke of Burgundy, was no less successful. Besides a powerful army, with which he advanced towards the capital, he had many friends and emissaries in all parts of the kingdom, who prevailed upon many great men to espouse his party, and on many towns to open their gates to his troops.
530. Why did the Duke of Burgundy forsake Henry's cause and enter into an alliance with the Court of France ?
Because, as Henry's triumphs increased, his demands upon the conquered nation became proportionately exorbitant, and his manner towards the other Princes haughty and disdainful.
F 2
132 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
HENRY PROCLAIMED BEGEKT OF FJKAXCE.
531. Why was the situation of Henry at this time very critical?
Because his hopes of success had been chiefly founded on the animosity of the French parties, which, being* now at an end, and having- only a straitened army, and possessing limited means and credit for carrying on the war, there appeared to be every prospect that the conquering of France would prove the ruin of England.
532. What circumstance tended to alter this state of affairs ?
The assassination of the Duke of Burgundy, who was killed
while attending1 a conference with the Dauphin, by which
event the contending parties in France became as implacable towards each other as ever.
533. As soon as the news of this assasination reached Paris, where the Duke had always been exceedingly popular, the whole city was in a tumult, and the citizens of all ranks expressed the most violent resentment towards the Dauphin and his adherents, and the other cities of France, of the Bur- gundian party, imitated the example of the capital. The son of the Duke of Burgundy thought only of revenging himself for his father's death, and all these enemies of the Dauphin turned their eyes to the King of England, determined to deny him nothing to engage him to assist them in gratifying their revenge.
534. What was the result of this invasion ?
Henry having been acknowledged as a conqueror in all parts of the French dominions, and having also married Katherine, the French King's daughter, made a triumphant entry into Paris, and was publicly acknowledged as Regent of, and heir to, the kingdom.'
535. Why did Henry again land an army in France ? Because his brother, the Duke of Clarence, and several other
noblemen, had been killed in a battle fought at Bauge, against an army of Scots that had been sent to the relief of the Dauphin.
536. What were the circumstances of Henry1 s death ? In the midst of conducting his army against the Dauphin, he
was seized with fever, and compelled to relinquish the command
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY. .133
DEATH OF HEXRY THE FIFTH, 3422.
of his troops. After languishing a few days, he died on the 3]st of August, 1422, in the thirty -fourth year of his age, and after a reign of nine years and five months.
537. What provision was made on the death of Henry to carry on the English, government during the young King's minority ?
The Duke of Bedford was appointed Protector of the kingdom and Church of England, and chief counsellor of the King, when he resided in the kingdom, and the Duke of Gloucester was appointed to exercise the same office, with the same powers, when his brother was abroad.
538. What important event occurred in France in connection with, England?
The death of the King, immediately after which, the young King of England was proclaimed King of France, as was also Charles the Seventh. There were thus two Kings of France, the possession of the kingdom being left for decision by the sword.
539. Why did discord IreaJc out letiveen England and Tier allies?
Because Jacqueline, heiress of Holland, and other provinces,, fled from her husband, whom she had married through the influence and persuasion of the Duke of Burgundy, and married the Duke of Gloucester, though her former marriage was not dissolved.
540. Why did the claims of England to the Crown of France receive a severe How at this time ?
Because the Duke of Gloucester, who had landed an army in France, with a view of taking possession of the estates gained through his wife, was repulsed by the Duke of Burgundy. The Earl of Richmond, who had been refused the command of the English army, allied himself with Charles the Seventh, and also prevailed upon his brother, the Duke of Brittany, to take the same steps. The English cause was thus discomfited, and lost two of its most powerful adherents.
131 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
THE FEENCH ASSISTED BY THE MAID OF ORLEANS.
541. By what extraordinary event was the tide of for- tune turned in favour of the French ?
By the accession of Joan of Arc, otherwise called the Maid of Orleans, to the French army, who pretended to have a mission from Heaven to assist the French in their warfare against the English.
542. Thia extraordinary woman, who sprang from an obscure origin, and spent her early days in service, having had her imagination excited and aroused by the pending warfare between the two kingdoms, travelled to court and claimed an audience with the King, and declared to him that Heaven had sent her to his assistance. The circumstance was so extraordinary, and Joan's manners and address so engaging and enthusiastic, that the French were induced to listen to her, and ultimately guided their conduct by her counsels. Joan was present at all the encounters that took place between the two armies, and so animated the soldiers by her speech and gestures, as also by their belief that she was inspired from Heaven, that the French arms were irresistible, and they gained battle after battle, and took town after town, notwithstanding all the exertions of the English to prevent these reverses.
543. What was the fate of the Maid of Orleans ? After a long career of success, she was taken prisoner, deli- vered into the hands ot the English, and finally burnt as a heretic.
544. Why did the Council in England prove an impedi- ment to the progress of England in France ?
Because the council was divided into two parties, one headed by the Duke of Gloucester and the other by the Cardinal of "Winchester. The animosity of these parties disturbed the peace of the country, and obstructed the vigorous prosecution of the war.
545. Richard, Duke of York, was appointed Regent of France, by the influence of the Duke of Gloucester and his party ; but the other party, who favoured Cardinal Beaufort, threw so many impediments in the way, that six months elapsed before the Duke of York obtained his commission. In this interval the city of Paris, and all the other strongholds of France, were lost, being either purchased, surprised, or forcibly taken, by the enemy.
546. Why was the Duchess of Gloucester sentenced to penance and imprisonment ?
Because the spies of Cardinal Beaufort, in the family of his rival, the Duke of Gloucester, gave information that the Duchess
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 135
GOVERNMENT OF ENG1AND USURPED BT QUEEN MARGARET.
was in league with witches and necromancers, to procure the death of the King. This charge, notwithstanding the position of the accused and the power and influence of her husband, was successfully prosecuted by the Duke's enemies ; and the Duchess, being found guilty, was sentenced to do penance in St. Paul's and two other churches, on three several days, and to be impri- soned for life.
547. Why was a truce concluded between England and France ?
Because both countries had suffered so much from the wars which had been carried on between them, without any good prospect of a satisfactory termination, that both parties deemed it advisable to suspend all further operations for the space of four years.
548, Why was Henry the Sixth compelled to relinquish the provinces Tie held in Anjou and. Maine to the Earl of Maine ?
On account of Henry's marriage with Margaret of Anjou, the French King's niece, who made this one of the conditions of the contract.
549. When this contract (which had been contrived by the Cardinal of Winchester and the Earl of Suffolk, in order to have a Queen in their interest, and indebted to them for her elevation) was laid before the council, it was urged, that though Margaret had neither riches nor estates, she had great beauty and accomplishments ; and further, by her near relationship to the King, Queen, and Prime Minister of France, she would be mainly instrumental in bringing about a peace with that kingdom.
550. Why was Queen Margaret well calculated to assist in carrying out Cardinal Beaufort's selfish ends and am- bitious views ?
Because, by the beauty of her person, and the energy of her character, she was enabled to gain an entire ascendant over the weak and ductile King. He resigned the reins of government into her hands, which she eagerly grasped j and, favouring her old friend, the Cardinal, made use of her power to work the destruction of the Duke of Gloucester.
136 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
EXECUTION OF THE DUKE OP SUFFOLK.
551. The Queen, the Cardinal, and Suffolk, thinking they might now attempt anything with impunity, determined to rid themselves of their most formidable enemy, the Duke of Gloucester. For this purpose he was treacherously arrested and imprisoned, and a charge brought against him that he had designed to assassinate the King. Finding, however, that this improbable accusation could not be substantiated, the Duke's enemies deter- mined upon despatching him privately, and he was one morning found dead in his bed, though he had been in perfect health the previous night.
552. Why did the Duke of York aspire to the Crown of England ?
Because having received injuries and indignity at the hands of the Queen, and her favourite, Suffolk, and presuming on the weakness of the King, and the unpopularity of the Queen and Suffolk with the people, he imagined that this would be a favour- able opportunity to lay claim to the crown. The pretensions of the Duke of York were regarded with favour by a large proportion of the populace, and this circumstance gave rise to those sanguinary wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, which were prosecuted for so many years afterwards.
553. Why did England lose Normandy and a great part of her French possessions ?
Because they had been for many years neglected, were ineffi- ciently garrisoned and fortified, and were under a weak and irresolute governor, who suffered the King of France to invest these territories without taking a single step to defend them.
554. Why did insurrections break out in England ? Because the loss of these foreign provinces, and the internal
misgovernment of the kingdom, inflamed the rage of the people against the Queen and the Duke of Suffolk, to whom these misfortunes were attributable.
555. Why was the Duke of Suffolk Irought to trial ?
He was accused by the Parliament of high treason, the parti- cular charge being that he had sold the kingdom of England to France, and being found guilty, he was sentenced to banishment for five years.
THE HISTORICAL EEASOtf WHY. 137
INSURRECTION OF JACK CADE.
556. Suffolk being fully convinced that he would be no longer safe in England, hastened to go into banishment, and for this purpose embarked at Ipswich. He was, however, overtaken at sea by a ship belonging to the Duke of Exeter, and being seized, he was brought back to Dover, and there had his head struck off, on the side of a cock-boat, and his headless trunk left on the beach.
557. JLow did the, insurrection of Jaclc Cade originate ?
The Queen, enraged and grieved at the loss of her favourite, threatened revenge upon the people, and especially the inha- bitants of Kent, in which county the Duke of Suffolk had met with his death ; and this circumstance, together with the Queen's former unpopularity, incited the people of Kent to place them- selves under the conduct of Jack Cade, in opposition to the constituted authorities.
538. Cade having collected a considerable portion of the common people, by specious promises of reforming all abuses, marched towards London, and encamped on Blackheath. From this place addresses were sent to the King, requesting redress for their grievances, and asking for the punishment of certain evil counsellors. These addresses were rejected, and an army de- spatched against the insurgents; but in a battle near Sevenoaks, the royal troops were defeated, and the general slain. Elated by his success, Cade inarched into London, seized and executed the Lord Say, late high treasurer of England, and Sir James Cromer, Sheriff of Kent. They then commenced plundering the city, out of which, however, they were driven into South- wark. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York, taking advantage of this repulse, caused a pardon under the Great Seal to be proclaimed to all that would depart to their own homes. The effect of this movement was instan- taneous ; the insurgents separated in all directions, and Cade was taken and killed.
559. Why did the DuJce of York taJce up arms against the Royal Authority ?
His avowed reason was, that he desired only to redress the grievances of the nation, and to bring the authors of those grievances to justice.
560. How was the Duke of YbrJc ensnared?
The Queen and the Duke of Somerset having raised an army to defend the royal cause, prevailed upon the King to send a message to the Duke of York, demanding the reason of his appearing in arms. The Duke returned an answer that he wished only to redress the grievances of the people, and
138 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
DUKE OF YOKE MADE PEOTECTOE.
more especially to have the person of the Duke of Somerset, the chief author of mismanagement, imprisoned. The King having- sent an assurance that these requests should be com- plied with, the Duke of York disbanded his army, and repaired to the tent of the King1, for a ratification of this agreement ; but, to his surprise, found that the Duke of Somerset was still at liberty ; while he himself was shortly afterwards arrested, and conducted to London.
561. Why was the Duke of York soon afterwards set at liberty?
Because intelligence arrived at the English Court from Guienne and Bordeaux that the people of those provinces designed again to submit to the English, and the Queen and the Duke of Somerset, calculating that the regaining of these places would restore the favour and confidence of the people, determined upon setting the Duke of York free, in order that they might more readily execute their project.
562. Having resolved upon this step, they set the Duke of York at liberty, taking care at the same time to bind his conscience by the strongest vows. They therefore had him conducted to St. Paul's in a public manner, and com- pelled him, in the presence of a great number of nobles, prelates, and other orders of the people, to take a solemn oath that he would never more appear in arms against the royal authority. Having observed the compulsory obli- gation, the Duke retired to one of his country seats, with a determination of awaiting a more favourable opportunity.
563. Wliy was the hatred against the Queen and the Dulce of Somerset increased soon after this event ?
Because the English were unsuccessful in their attempts to regain the French provinces ; and, simultaneously with this national disaster, the King became so debilitated in both mind and body as to be totally unfitted for government.
564. Why was the Duke of York made Protector of England ?
Because the King's inability for business, his son's infancy, and the unpopularity of the Queen, rendered it necessary that the affairs of the kingdom should be administered by some one who had the interests of the people at heart.
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 139
THE SIXTH DEFEATED BY THE DUKE OF YORK.
565. Encouraged by these circumstances, the Duke of York ventured from retirement, and came to London, attended by some of the most powerful lords of his party. The courtiers, alarmed at the arrival of these great men, with numerous retinues, in the capital, advised the Queen to admit the Puke of York, with some others of his party, into the council, to allay the ferment of the nation, and prevent a civil war. These noblemen, being accordingly admitted, soon became predominant. The Duke of York was delegated to hold a Parliament, to take into consideration the affairs of the nation, and he was appointed the Protector of the kingdom during the King's pleasure, or until Prince Edward arrived at years of discretion.
5G6. Wliy did the Duke of York and tlie Royal Parly soon come to an open rupture ?
Because the King partially recovering soon after the appoint- ment of the Protectorate, the Duke of York was not only deprived of his office of Protector, but had the Governorship of Calais taken from him, although he held it for seven years, under the Great Seal.
5G7. The Duke, enraged at this last injury, gave up all thoughts of reconciliation, and retired into "Wales; here he collected forces, and after a little time returned to England with a considerable army. A fierce battlo was fought at St. Alban's, between the Royalist and Yorkist forces, in which the latter were completely victorious. This established the first success of the Duke of York's party.
568. Why did the French invade England at tliis juncture ?
Because the factions existing in England seemed to promise a favourable opportunity for invasion. They accordingly came, and committed some depredations on the English coast, but satisfied themselves with these advantages, and suddenly re- embarked.
569. Wliat Jiappened to Henry after various struggles with the Yorkists ?
After the battle of Northampton, which resulted in a signal victory for the Yorkists, the King, having been deserted by the Queen and other members of his family, was found in his tent, almost alone, by the victorious Earls, and was by them con- ducted to London, and lodged in the Bishop's Palace.
140 THE HISTOKICAL KEASOIS" WHY.
HESBY THE SIXTH DEPOSED.
570. What compromise between the houses of York and Lancaster was agreed to by Parliament ?
It was settled that Henry should continue King during his life, and that the Duke of York, or his heir, should succeed to the Crown on Henry's death.
571. The calm produced by this compromise was of a very short duration, and many circumstances portended a sanguinary and protracted struggle for the Crown. The whole nation was divided into two parties, the one distin- guished by the red rose, the badge of the house of Lancaster, the other by the white rose, the insignia of the house of York. So universally was either cause espoused, that both had partisans in every corner of the kingdom, and frequently in the same family.
572. Why did the Queen refuse to return to England, with her son, although requested to do so by the King ?
Because, having gained the co-operation of the King of Scots, she determined to invade England in her own person, and for that purpose put herself at the head of a large army, and marched southward.
573. Why was Henry the Sixth deposed ?
Because the ravages committed by the Queen's army, and the weakness displayed by the King, so irritated the people, that they assembled in large multitudes, and declared that they would not have King Henry to reign over them any longer. In obedience to this popular wish, a council of the chief men of the kingdom was convened, in which Henry was declared to be no longer entitled to the Crown.
574. The council declared that Henry of Lancaster had forfeited his right to enjoy the Crown during his life, and that it now devolved to Edward, Duke of York, and concluded with entreating him to accept of that Crown, which was his undoubted right. On the 4th of March, 1461, Edward was seated on the throne, and Henry was deposed, after a reign of thirty-eight years and six months.
575. Under ivhat title did Edward, Duke of York, reign ?
As Edward the Fourth; and as such was crowned at West- minster in the nineteenth year of his age.
THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY. 141
HENRY RESTORED BT THE EARL OF WARWICK.
576. Why did the Earl of Warwick conspire against the King?
Because the Queen's relations, who previously occupied a pri- vate station, had honours, riches, and estates bestowed upon them, some of which were alienated from the Earl of Warwick, his family, and friends.
577. Why did Warwick determine upon restoring Henry the Sixth to the throne?
Because being- declared a rebel, and compelled to fly England, he resolved to restore Henry to the throne, as the only means by which he could regain his estates and his personal liberty.
578. Warwick was now residing at the Court of France, and found no difficulty iu prevailing on the French Monarch to enter into his views; for Louis the Eleventh had long dreaded the intimate union of King Edward with his two most formidable enemies, the Dukes of Burgundy and Brittany. The King of France, therefore, promised his assistance, with these conditions— that Edward, Prince of Wales, should marry his daughter, the Princess Ann ; that Warwick should be Regent of the kingdom during the reign of Henry and the minority of Edward ; and that the Duke of Clarence, Edward the Fourth's brother, who assisted Warwick in his revolt, should succeed to the throne if Edward, son of Henry the Sixth, should die without issue.
579. Why was Edward easily expelled?
Because he neglected to take any precautions to secure his throne, and abandoned himself to pleasure and idleness, with the belief that Warwick and his party were effectually subdued.
5SO. King Edward was in the north when he heard the news of Warwick and Clarence landing in England with a formidable army; he hastily endeavoured to collect his forces together, but finding that many of his former partisans now declared for Henry, he fled from England, and a few days after landed at Alomar, in Friezeland. Warwick, on receiving this intel- ligence, immediately marched to London, released the King from the Tower, conducted him in triumph through the streets of the city, and finally placed the crown on his head in St. Paul's Cathedral, when he was hailed as the lawful King.
581. Why did Edward soon make another attempt to regain the Crown ?
Because he received considerable assistance, both of money and troops, from the Duke of Burgundy, who was desirous to see Edward established on the throne. Edward, therefore, having
142 THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
EXPEDITION OF EDWABD THE POUUTH INTO PEANCE.
collected an army, embarked for England. Here he received a material accession of strength, by being joined by his brother, the Duke of Clarence, who had deserted the cause of Warwick. After two desperate battles at Barnet and at Tewkesbury, Henry's forces were decisively defeated, and the reign of Edward the Fourth once more re-established.
582. What were the circumstances of Henry the Sixth's death?
He was found dead in his bed in the Tower on the morning after King Edward entered London in triumph. The remarkable coincidence affecting the circumstances of the two monarchs gave rise to many suspicions as to the manner in which the King came by his death. It is generally believed that he was mur- dered, and the crime is attributed to the Duke of Gloucester, Edward the Fourth's brother.
583. Why did Edward the Fourth resolve upon an expedition into France?
Because Edward entertained an animosity against the King of France for the assistance he had given the Lancastrians, and feared that he might again render them the same aid ; he also calculated upon the national enmity which the English people bore towards the French.
684. Another circumstance served to render this a favourable opportunity for an invasion of France. The two powerful Dukes of Burgundy and Brittany were open enemies to Louis, King of France, and several of the greater lords of the kingdom were secretly disaffected; and all these earnestly solicited Edward to come over with an army, and promised him their assistance.
585. Why was the expedition frustrated ?
Because when Edward landed at Calais, and expected to be joined by the Duke of Burgundy's army, he discovered that that nobleman had already had his army destroyed by an im- prudent and unsuccessful expedition into Germany. The Duke also represented that the Earl of St. Pol, Constable of France, would surrender him the town of St. Quintin; but, when the English troops proceeded thither, instead of being assisted by the
THE HISTOEICAL EEASOF WHY. 143
DEATH OF EDWARD THE FOTTBTir, 1483.
Constable, they were fired upon from the ramparts, and a con- siderable number killed by a sally. And, in the face of these untoward circumstances, Edward was compelled to conclude a truce with France.
586. Wliat ivere the circumstances of Edward tlie Fourth's death?
While he was preparing a second time to invade France, he was suddenly seized with illness, brought on, as is generally sup- posed, by the combined effects of mental anxiety and excess. To this disease he succumbed, and died on the 9th of April, 1483, in the forty-first year of his age, and the twenty-third of his reign.
587. Who succeeded Edward the Fourth?
Edward, his eldest son, who was in his thirteenth year when he ascended the throne.
588. What two great parties existed at this time ?
One consisted of the Queen and her relations, with such as attached themselves to them in order to gain preferment; the other was composed of certain noblemen, who, by their long and faithful services, had gained the confidence of the late King, and had been thereby supported in their places, without any dependence upon, or connection with, the Queen's relations.
589. Why did a dispute arise between, these two parties, on the accession of the young King ?
Because the great object which each of these parties had in view, was to obtain and keep possession of the person of the young King, in order that they might avail themselves of his power.
590. The last named party succeeded in gaining the ascendancy. In this faction the Duke of Gloucester, brother of the late King, was the chief; by his directions the Queen was driven from court, and several of her party were executed. Finally, the Duke of Gloucester had himself made Protector of the kingdom, and under the mask of loyalty kept a strict surveillance over the young King.
144 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
THE CROWN trSTTEPED BY THE DUKE OP GLOUCESTEB.
591. Wliy did the DuJce of Gloucester lay claim to the Crown ?
He promulgated a statement that the late King, before he married Lady Jane Grey, had been previously married to Lady Butler ; and that in consequence of this prior marriage, the issue by his subsequent marriage was illegitimate.
592. The Duke of Gloucester, who was one of the most artful and designing princes, was not slow in gaining over creatures to his cause, whom he prevailed upon to execute the most unscrupulous designs, by promises of preferment and riches, which he never intended to fulfil. Among these tools of his ambition were the Duke of Buckingham, one of the most powerful noblemen of the day, Stillington, Bishop of Bath, and Dr. Shaw, a popular preacher of the time.
593. Why was the Crown eventually proffered to the Duke of Gloucester ?
Because the Duke of Buckingham, his chief confederate, having made a harangue to the citizens of London at Guildhall, afterwards represented that they were favourable to the usurper's cause, and prevailed upon some of the principal nobles to proffer the crown accordingly.
594. -The acting of Gloucester at this juncture was of the most artful character. When the crown was proffered in the first instance, the Duke assumed the greatest surprise, and desired time to consider the acceptance of the offer; and shortly after, when the crown was again proffered him, he consented to receive it with affected reluctance and humility.
595. Under what title did the DuJce of Gloucester lecome King ?
As Richard the Third ; and, as such, was crowned, with his Consort Ann, at Westminster, on the 6th of July, 1483.
596. What horrible crime is attributed to Hichard the Third?
The murder of the two Princes, Edward the Fifth and his brother, the Duke of York, in the Tower.
597. The exact circumstances of the death of these unfortunate young Princes has never been satisfactorily ascertained. The generally received account is, that Richard sent a message to Sir Robert Brackenbury, Constable of the Tower, where the children were confined, to assassinate them. Sir Robert declining to execute this detestable commission, Sir James
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 145
RICHARD THE THIRD KILLED AT BOSWORTH, 1485.
Tyrrel, Master of the Horse, was sent from the court at "Warwick, to take the command of the Tower for one night ; and in that night the two young Princes were suffocated in their beds, and buried at the stair-foot.
598. Wliy did the Duke of Buckingham conspire against llicliard ?
Because Kichard had failed to fulfil his promises made to Buckingham ; and that nobleman, who had leagued with Richard for his own selfish purposes only, determined on dethroning Richard in revenge for his supposed private wrongs.
599. The Duke of Buckingham collected an army and directed his march towards the river Severn, in order to pass that river and join his con- federates; but at this juncture such heavy rains fell, as to deluge the country, and so discourage his troops, that they disbanded themselves, and Buckingham was obliged to fly and conceal himself in disguise; a large reward being offered by the King, for the apprehension of the Duke, he was soon betrayed, and beheaded without a trial.
600. By whom was the possession of the Crown of ^England contested?
By the Earl of Richmond, who was descended by his mother from one of the natural sons of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster.
601. A battle was fought between the two contending parties at Bosworth; in this battle the indifference and defection of Richard's troops was but too apparent; finding, therefore, that his fortunes had arrived at a crisis, he determined upon seeking out Richmond in order that he might turn the tide of fortune in his favour by one blow; having at length discovered his rival, he was on the point of attacking him, when he was overwhelmed by numbers and slain. This event occurred on the 22nd of August, 1485.
NOTES UPON THE PERIOD FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY THE FOURTH, 1399, TO THE ACCESSION OF HENRY THE SEVENTH, 1485.
Slavery decreased in England considerably during this period. Various causes conduced to this happy change; but the chief cause was, that the pro- prietors of land by degrees discovered that slaves, who laboured not for themselves, but for their masters, were often indolent and refractory, and that the allotted tasks were much better performed, and at less expense, by hired servants.
The Method of Making the Laics was essentially amended in the reign of Henry the Fifth. Previously to that time, it was customary, at the conclusion
146
THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
NOTES UPON THE PERIOD FROM THE ACCESSION OP HENRY THE FOURTH TO THE ACCESSION OP HENRY THE SEVENTH.
of every session of Parliament, for petitions to be presented to the Kins, which he denied, granted, or delayed, as he thought proper. Those petitions that were granted were afterwards promulgated in the form of statutes. This lax system of promulgating the laws laid them open to many abuses, in order to amend which the Commons drew up their petitions, and saw them formed into acts, before the session ended.
T. >••
' ' *» -'
TOURNAMENT.
Alcliemy, or the supposed art of transmuting the baser metals into gold and silver, was eagerly pursued during this period ; and in the reign of Henry the Sixth, especially, alchemists were favoured by royal manifestos, by which they secured immunity from a previous act of Parliament promulgated against them, and were preserved from the fury of the people, who believed that they were assisted in their operations by infernal spirits.
Agriculture made but slow progress during this period, owing to the difficulty of procuring efficient labourers; this partly arose from the oppressive laws enacted against agriculcural labourers, and partly from the drain of men from the various estates to follow their employers to the seat of war.
Architecture displayed but few improvements at this time. Household conveniences and comforts were but little known ; the common people were indifferently lodged; and the mansions of the great were more magnificent than comfortable.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 147
NOTES tTPON THE PERIOD FEOM THE ACCESSION" Oi1 HENRY THE FOURTH TO THE ACCESSION OF HENRY THE SEVENTH.
The arts of Mining, of Refining and Working Metals, were greatly im- proved during the fourteenth century ; to this end the ingenious efforts of the alchemists considerably contributed : for though these efforts failed to produce the desired success, they led to a more intimate knowledge of the nature of metals, and of the arts of working them.
The art of Spinning, Throwing, and Weaving Silk was brought into England during this period, and was at first practised by a company of women in England called "silk-women;" but in the year 1480, men began to engage in this trade, which, up to that period, had been exclusively practised by females.
Printing was introduced into England at this time. The first book that issued from the English press was in the year 1474; it was printed by William Caxton, and was entitled The Game of Chess.
Sculpture was considerably improved during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; and this was in a great measure owing to a prevailing taste for adorning sepulchral monuments with statues, and various devices.
The Dress of this period was characterized by what appear at the present day very eccentric fashions. The men wore long-pointed shoes, which were obliged to be fastened to the knees, before the wearer could attempt to walk. Velvet and satin mantles were also worn, punctured with innumerable small eyelet-holes, from each of which a needle hung suspended by a silken thread. Females also indulged in the same ridiculous excess of dress, especially in the article of head-dresses, which were sometimes made so broad and high that they could with difficulty pass through an ordinary door. To support these head-dresses, two large horns were fixed beneath, bending upwards, on which many folds of ribbon and other ornaments were suspended. From the top of the horn on the right side, a streamer of silk or some other light fabric was hung, which was sometimes allowed to fly loose, and sometimes brought over the bosom, and wrapped about the left arm.
148 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
ACCESSION OF HENRY THE SEVENTH.
FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY THE SEVENTH TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH.
602. Why was Henry the Seventh at first popular ? Because with a warlike people a conqueror always obtains
some degree of favour; and it was hoped that through his marriage with the Princess Elizabeth of York, the rival claims of the Red and White Roses would be united, and a happy end put to intestine war.
603. Why did the King delay the coronation of his
Because, having obtained the Crown by the power of the sword, he was unwilling to admit any title in the Princess of York, and consented to the performance of the ceremony only to silence the loud murmurs of the people.
604. Why was the " Yeomanry of the Guard " esta- blished by Henry ?
Because of a growing tendency on the part of the British Sovereigns to isolate themselves from the forms of the Consti- tution, and to rule absolutely and independently.
605. Why was this reign so greatly troubled with fictitious pretenders to the throne ?
Because of the mystery that surrounded the deaths of the children of Edward the Fourth, which naturally gave rise to the wildest surmises> and afforded a safe and easy foundation to the plots of the dissatisfied partisans of the House of York.
606. Lambert Simnel, the first of these fictitious pretenders, was the son of a baker, and a native of Oxford. He had been tutored to play the part of Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, and son of that Duke of Clarence who had been murdered in the Tower by his brother, King Edward the Fourth. The second, Perkin Warbeck, was the son of a merchant, a con- verted Jew, and native of Tournay, in Flanders, who was put forward to claim the rights, as he succeeded in representing the features and appear- ance, of Richard, Duke of York, the second son of Edward the Fourth. That Prince, it was alleged, had escaped from the sceue of his intended
THE HISTOKICAL REASON WHY. 149
ESTABLISHMENT OP THE STAR CHAMBER.
assassination, and, after beiui; a wanderer and a fugitive for seven years had come to claim his inheritance. Ralph Walford, the third pretender was the son of a oordwainer, whose exact birth-place has not hitherto been traced. He affirmed himself to be the Earl of Warwick, whom Simnel had previously personated.
607. Why did these pretenders meet with, such in- different success ?
Becausa they were but tools in the hands of the King's foreign and domestic enemies, put forth by them to serve temporary purposes, and withdrawn or abandoned when no longer necessary.
608. What is the meaning of the term " House of Tudor /"'
The King was descended from Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentle- man, who had married Catherine of France, widow of Henry the Fifth.
609. Thus Henry's surname was Tudor; but he traced his descent from Edward the Third, through his mother Margaret, a daughter of the Duke of Somerset, and direct heir of John of Gaunt, that monarch's third illegiti- mate son.
610. What was the Star Chamber, and why was it so designated ?
Established under the Statute 3rd Henry VII. c. i., it was a new and most arbitrary tribunal, previously unknown to the law, and in direct contravention to Magna Charta, by which almost any amount of iniquity might be perpetrated at the mere will of the reigning sovereign. Its name was derived from the decorations of the apartment at Westminster, wherein the sit- tings took place.
611. By this means, under the name and sanction of law, Henry the Seventh and his son were enabled to accomplish at least as great, if not greater acts of tyranny and oppression than the most despotic and power- ful of the Norman Kings.
612. Why did Henry become the most powerful monarch of his time ?
His ambition appeared to lie in the rapid acquisition of treasure ; this gave a reflective rather than an active turn
150 THE HISTOBICAL REASON WHY.
MAIUUAGE OF PRINCE ARTHUR.
to his character, and by watching with great coolness the various turns in the game of war as played by his contemporaries, he contrived to sell his influence to the most powerful of them.
C13. Besides this cause, he was most successful in crushing the power of the feudal barons, his own subjects, who, through their frequent intestine wars, by attainder, and by the suppression of vassalage, possessed now but a shadow of their former power and independence.
614. Who was Prince Arthur?
He was the first-born of Henry the Seventh and Elizabeth of York, a youth of great promise and the hope of the nation, which saw in that young Prince the final period put to the rival claims of the York and Lancastrian Houses.
615. Why is 7iis history especially interesting?
Because of the circumstance that, upon his marriage with Catherine of Arragon, and his early death before that marriage could be consummated, the whole question of the Reformation turned.
616. Wliy did Prince Henry, upon the demise of his brother Arthur, marry his widow ?
From the combined motives of policy and avarice on the part of the King, his father ; a very considerable dower having been paid with Catherine, which Henry could not prevail upon himself to return.
617. Why was Henry the Seventh's Chapel at West- minster built ?
It was erected by the King as a mausoleum or sepulchral chapel, for the reception of his own remains.
618. The practice was a very common one in that age— and by no means one of its worst. Henry, as his end approached, felt considerable uneasiness of conscience, and deemed that the bestowal of a large sum of money upon a religious foundation would be beneficial to his soul's interests. From whatever motive, however, ho may have acted, it is certain that in that edifice he has left to posterity one of the grandest as well as most graceful monuments of mediaeval architecture.
TITE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
151
IIENIIY TUB EIGHTH SUCCEEDS HIS FATHEB.
619. Why has the reign of Henry the Seventh an especial interest from a commercial point of mew?
Because of the discovery of Newfoundland under the expe- dition fitted 'out by the King and commanded by Sebastian Cabot.
CABOT'S EXPEDITION OF DISCOVERY.
620. What led to the popularity of the new Xing ?
The nation had felt the cold and heartless policy of Henry the Seventh to be something- derogatory to the character of a chivalrous people, and naturally hailed the accession of his son as the dawn of a new err.
152 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
ADVANCEMENT OF WOLSEY.
621. Henry, to a fine person and a graceful manner, united nearly every accomplishment which the age could bestow. He was fair, of popular and winning aspect, seeming to possess in equal proportions the generous im- pulses of the maternal stock and the clear-headedness of his father. Keen observers, however, even at that early stage, did not fail to notice that he preferred the show to the realities of war, and the gratification of his own will to every other object.
622. What measures of a popular nature did Henry talce ?
He instituted an inquiry into the conduct of those unscru- pulous tools of the late monarch, who, under the guise of law, had despoiled of their estates and houses a vast number of the gentry and lesser nobility.
623. The two principal culprits, Empson and Dudley, were both lawyers, and their mode of procedure was simple, and such, says Bacon, as could not have been effective, but for the utter annihilation of the aris-tocratic power, and the absence of spirit in the Parliament. They charged the owners of estates which bad long been held on a different tenure, with the obsolete burdens of wardship, liveries, and the whole array of feudal obli- gations, for which they would only give quittances for payments in money ; they not only converted nearly every offence into a case of fine and forfeiture, but they invented new offences that they might get the fines. To hunt up their game, they kept packs of spies and informers in every part of the kingdom ; and to strike it down with the legal forms, they kept a rabble to sit on juries, while the court of commission in which these cases were tried, was in their own houses. Empson and Dudley were arrested and thrown into the Tower, and after lingering therein for several months, and submitting to the form of a trial, they were condemned as traitors, and suffered the loss of their heads on Tower-hill.
624. Who was Wolsey?
He was the son of a substantial butcher, of Ipswich, who had destined him for the Church.
625. He studied at Oxford, where he rapidly acquired distinction; was afterwards a tutor in the family of the Marquis of Dorset, through whom he obtained the living of Limington in Dorsetshire. This he exchanged for the post of domestic chaplain to the treasurer of Calais. He next entered the service of Bishop Fox, one of the most accomplished diplomatists of that period, who introduced him to the King, Henry the Seventh. From the service of that monarch he passed easily into that of his son, and the eighth Henry appears immediately to hav« discovered in Wolsey a man every way fitted to serve him. He became his chief minister, and was the de facto ruler of England during the first twenty years of that reign.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 153
WAKS WITH PRANCE AND SCOTLAND.
026. Why was the Battle of Spurs fought, and wJiy was id so denominated ?
It formed part of a campaign undertaken from a motive of military aggrandizement by the young King of England, for the humiliation of the French monarch, and was called the Battle of Spurs by the vanquished themselves.
627. Henry the Eighth, in pursuance of the ancient claim, bequeathed to him by a long line of ancestry, to the throne of France, had, in conjunction with Maximilian, the Emperor of Germany, invaded the former kingdom. On the 15th June, 1513, the King departed from Greenwich, and on the 30th landed at Calais. Three weeks later ho was joined by the Emperor of Ger- many. The allies were engaged besieging the town of Terouenne, when the Trench army, consisting of about twelve thousand men, advanced from Plangy with a view of throwing in provisions. Upon this Henry and Maximilian crossed the river, and formed in order of battle between it, the town, and the French army. The cavalry of the latter charged in a brilliant manner, but, after throwing some powder within reach of tlie besieged, they wheeled round, to fall back upon their main body. Being hotly pursued by the mounted English archers and a few squadrons of German horse, they quickened their pace into a downright flight, galloped into the lines of their main body, and threw the whole into uproar and confusion. The panic was soon com- plete, and every Frenchman that was mounted struck spurs into his horse and galloped from the field. Many of the French nobility were among the captured; and it was in reply to a remark of Henry, congratulatory of the speed of their horses, that the light-hearted Frenchmen replied, "It was indeed a Battle of Spurs ! "
G28. Wlnj was the Battle of Flodden Meld fought ?
It was the result of a diversion made by James the Fourth, of Scotland, in favour of his ancient ally, the French King, by which he invaded England.
629. The invading army was led by the Scottish King in person. The English were commanded by the Earl of Surrey. Flodden Hill, which formed the battle ground, was an offshoot of the Cheviots, steep on both flanks, and defended in front by the river Till. James allowed this admir- able position to be turned or taken in flank, and although prodigies of valour were exhibited by both armies, the English came off victorious. To the Scotch the battle was most disastrous ; the King and the chief of his nobility, with no less than nine thousand soldiers, being left dead upon the field.
630. Why was the "Field of the Cloth of Gold" so called? Because of the extreme gorgeousness of the appointments,
154 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
QUESTION OF A DIVORCE.
cloth of gold being the material chiefly employed in the coverings of the Royal pavilions.
631. Why was it held?
Because it was deemed advisable to cement a treaty of peace between the Kings of England and Prance. The thorough insincerity, however, of all parties concerned, makes it very doubtful as to what was its real object.
632. Probably Henry's love of display, and his personal taste for any pageant, of which he formed the chief figure, was the moving cause of the whole business, which produced no good results whatever, while it im- poverished both nations, and ruined many of the chief actors among the French nobility.
633. Why did Henry the Eighth, seek to le divorced from Queen Catherine ?
Although he pretended otherwise, it is now pretty certain that his desire to marry Anne Boleyn was the sole cause.
634. Anne Boleyn was daughter to Sir Thomas Boleyn, a person who, although descended from the trading classes, had been ennobled and long employed about the court. Anne was born in or about the year 1507; when only seven years old was appointed Maid of Honour to the King's sister, in whose train she went to France. In the French court accordingly she was brought up. She seems to have returned to England in 1525, and was then appointed Maid of Honour to Queen Catherine. Thus she was introduced to the notice of Henry, and the way was paved to her subsequent elevation and unfortunate end.
635. Why did the question of a divorce so greatly affect the Papal power in England?
Because the dissolution of the King's marriage with Catherine could only be effected by an act of the Sovereign Pontiff, and failing to obtain his wish, Henry resolved to repudiate the Papal claim, and to abolish the exercise of the Pontifical authority in his realms.
636. Why did the Pope refuse to grant a divorce ivhen such great consequences depended upon his consent ?
Because, although swayed by political motives to some extent, he felt that to grant the divorce would be to violate every just principle.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 155
SUPPRESSION OF MONASTERIES.
637. The Pontiff declared to the English envoy that whatever he might be induced to do as a secular Prince, if they pressed the matter too far, they would find that, as a spiritual ruler, he was prepared to die rather than act against the dictates of his conscience.
638. Why was Wolsey disgraced?
Because the King considered that the Cardinal had not used the great power in his hands with sufficient zeal in the matter of the divorce, and readily listened to the suggestions of his
639. Why did Sir Thomas More suffer decapitation ?
Because of his refusal to acknowledge that Henry, as a merely temporal monarch, could be spiritually head of the Church.
640. Why did Anne Boleyn suffer?
Because Henry after a few years grew tired of her, and had already (1536) cast his eyes upon one whom he destined for her successor in the person of Jane Seymour.
041. Certain charges were brought against her, which it were idle to attempt either to prove or disprove, since it is notoriously the fact, that under the reign of the Tudors to be accused and to be condemned was one and the same thing.
642. Why were the monasteries suppressed?
Because although many immoralities were laid to the charge of their inmates, the monks and religious orders were the stoutest maintainers of the doctrine of the Papal supremacy.
643. Besides which their rich lands and costly altars presented a tempting bait to the royal commissioners, who, as in the previous reign, made a very profitable business of confiscation.
644. Why did Henry marry Anne of Cleves?
Queen Jane Seymour having died in childbed, the King
sought a wife among the Protestant powers of the Continent :
and the sister of the Duke of Cleves appearing the most
eligible match, she was proposed to and accepted by him.
(>:.". Anne was far from good-looking, and Henry took a disgust at her appearance upon their first meeting, which disgust, it is said, only increased upon a closer acquaintance. Nevertheless, the lady had been brought from
156 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
PERSECUTION OF EECUSANTS.
her own country ; and as it was represented to the King that great offence would be given to the Protestant Princes by his so doing, he desisted from his first purpose of sending her home again immediately.
646. Who was Thomas Cromwell ?
He had formerly been the secretary of Wolsey, and after that prelate's disgrace became the minister of Henry.
647. Cromwell was less scrupulous than any of the creatures of Henry — had risen from the lowest grades to be Vicar-General of the kingdom — as such taking precedence of the first and oldest of the nobility, and exercised his vocation in the most relentless and corrupt manner. The unfortunate termination of the negotiations touching the King's marriage with Anne of Cleves so disgusted the King, that he readily consented to his ruin. He was beheaded as a traitor and heretic on Tower Hill, June 19th, 1540.
648. Why did Henry lurn Protestant equally with Catholic recusants ?
Because, having constituted himself sole head of the Church, and final judge in religious matters, he was determined to extinguish dissent of every kind ; and looked upon the slightest deviation from the standard of theology which he had set up, as an act of treason to himself.
649. It was no uncommon spectacle, at that period, to behold a Catholic and a Protestant drawn together on the same hurdle to the place of execution, and suffering at one and the same time. Thus, at the execution of Dr. Barnes, Cromwell's chaplain, who suffered three days after his patron, Garret and Jerome, two priests, were put to death for denying the Royal supremacy.
650. Why teas Catherine Howard, Henry's fifth Queen, decapitated ?
After living happily with the King for more than a year, she was accused by Cranmer of crimes against the Royal marriage bed, and upon the evidence of her servants and others, her former acquaintances, condemned to suffer the penalty of treason.
651. It is difficult at this time to ascertain the exact value of the evidence produced against this unhappy victim. To be accused, as has been before shown, was to be condemned. Witnesses were subpoenaed, and at once submitted to the terrors of the torture-chamber, where infliction followed upon infliction until the required evidence was extracted. Under such a state of things, it is easy to imagine how auy accusations, however atrocious, could be supported.
THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY. 157
HENEY INVADES FRANCE.
652. Who was Cardinal Pole?
Reginald Pole was the son of Sir Richard Pole, by Margaret, Countess of Salisbury, daughter to George, Duke of Clarence, the murdered brother of Edward the Fourth. He was thus second cousin to the King, who at first loved him and gave him a handsome allowance ; but differing from Henry upon the question of Queen Catherine's divorce, his love was changed to the deepest hatred, and he sought by every means to destroy him.
653. Who was Queen Catherine Parr ?
She was the King's sixth wife ; is described as a very matronly, learned, discreet, and sagacious woman, the widow of Neville, Lord Latimer.
634. She was deeply read in the controversies of the time, and a sincere convert to the Protestant Church. Her union with the King gave great joy to the Reformers, although it is quite certain that within a fortnight of her marriage three of their party were burned alive in Smithfield.
655. Why did the King at this period invade France ?
Henry had entertained an enmity to Francis ever since the affair of Anne Eoleyn ; but the immediate cause was the encouragement given by the French monarch to the Scots in their wars with England.
656. Why did the enterprise fail '{
Because, in addition to the fact that the exchequer of the kingdom was thoroughly exhausted, the King, 'excepting personal courage, was possessed of none of those qualities which consti- tute a great general.
657. Henry's father had left him the richest monarch in Europe. This inheritance was soon spent. The money furnished from the suppression of monasteries was also soon dissipated. By every species of pretext vast sums were extracted from Parliament or begged from the nation; yet towards the end of his reign he had to make a very urgent appeal to Parliament explanatory of his pressing wants. The subservient members voted him an enormous subsidy, and, in addition, granted him the disposal of all colleges, charities, and hospitals in the kingdom, with all their manors, lands, and hereditaments, receiving in return his gracious promise, that they should be employed to the glory of God and the public good.
158 THE HISTOEICAL EEASOIST WHY.
DEATH OF HEXEY THE EIGHTH.
A modern historian remarks :— " Had he survived a little while longer, he would not have left an hospital for the cure of the sick, or a school for the instruction of youth."
658. What was the immediate cause of Henry's death ?
He had become the prey to a complication of disorders ; an ulcer had been for many years the source of great torture to him, and he was grown unwieldy from the increase of fat ; finally dropsy set in, under which disease he gradually sank, dying 28th January, 1547.
659. Why did the late King's executors for several days conceal his death from the public ?
From a desire to secure their several shares in the effects of the deceased monarch, and to consolidate their own powers.
660. Why was the ceremonial of the coronation of Edward the Sixth greatly abbreviated ?
Partly on account of the tender age of the King, and partly because of the more advanced Protestantism of his council.
661. How did Lord Somerset become Protector of the Kingdom ?
As uncle of the young Edward, he had, by the will of Henry, been named chief of the council ; by degrees he arrogated to himself the whole functions of that body, and ultimately ruled with the most despotic power.
662. Why was Lord Seymour executed ?
He aspired to a share in the Government, and with that view sought to alienate the King's affections from the Protector his brother, who, in return, had him attainted. He suffered as a traitor on Tower Hill, 20th March, 1549.
663. Seymour had married the Queen Dowager, Catherine Parr; after her death he sought the hand of the Princess Elizabeth. The Protector, to con- ciliate his friendship, made him Admiral of the Kingdom. In this situation he intrigued to secure the King's person and the sole management of affairs ; but the superior tactics of his brother obtained the mastery, and precipitated his ruin.
THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY. 159
THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER.
664. Why were severe laws against mendicants passed at this period ?
The poor, who had been, previous to the suppression of so many religious houses, fed at their gates, now wandered in crowds through the country, and by their numbers and im- portunities extorted alms from the intimidated passenger.
665. The act 1st Edw. VI. (Stat. of the Realm, iv. 5) enacted that "whoso- ever lived idle and loiteringly for the space of three days" came under the description of a vagabond, and was liable to the following punishment : Two justices of the peace might order the letter V to be burnt on his breast, and adjudge him to serve the informer two years as his slave. His master was bound to provide him with bread, water, and refuse meat; might affix an iron chain round his neck, arm, or leg, and might compel him to "labour at any work, however vile it might be, by beating, chaining, or otherwise."
666. Why ivas " The First Book of Common Prayer" compiled ?
It was hoped that by removing the old books and manuals, and substituting for them a new formulary, the separation of the kingdom from the communion of Rome, begun in the last reign, would thus be most effectually consummated.
667. Cranmer (its principal author), taking the Latin missals and breviaries for the groundwork, omitted such parts as he deemed superfluous or super- stitious, translated others, and by numerous additions and emendations, endeavoured to meet the wishes of the new teachers, without shocking the belief or the prejudices of their opponents. The use of this book was enforced by Act of Parliament. To refuse it, or to speak or write against it, was made penal, and entailed upon the obstinate offender imprisonment for life.
668. What is the meaning of " Common Lands, or Commons" ? *
They were portions of land purposely unenclosed in order to be left for the common use of the labourers and poorer inha- bitants.
669. The wars between England and Scotland that followed the death of Henry the Eighth had greatly interfered with the pursuits of agriculture, and farmers began to find it more profitable to grow wool than corn. This,
* Such as Chelsea Common, Barnes Common, &c.
160 THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
FALL OP THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET.
joined to Henry's depreciation of the coinage, led to great distress among the farm labourers. The farmers sought to mend their fortunes by annexing the common lands,— the labourers, being without remedy, sought for one in insurrection.
670. What 'particular Act was passed during this reign upon the subject of fasting ?
By the Act of 19th February, 1549, the observance of certain days of abstinence from flesh meat were ordered, under severe
671. The preamble of this Act recites that one day, or one kind of meat, is not more holy than another; but condemns the practice of those who, turning their knowledge to satisfy their sensuality, had broken and con- temned such abstinence as had been used in this realm upon the Fridays and Saturdays, the Ember days, the Vigils, and in the time of Lent. The King's Majesty, it is recorded, had been moved to maintain the old laws upon the subject, as well for a means to virtue, as for the maintenance of the fishing interests, "that men employed that way may be set to work, aud that thereby much flesh meat may be saved and increased."
672. Why did tlie power of the Protector Somerset now decline ?
Because of his ill success in war, for which he had but little genius, joined to a general dislike of his arbitrary temper.
673. Why did the chief nobility league against him ?
He was regarded by them as an upstart who sought to build his greatness on their depression, and on the general subversion of the ancient order of things with which they were identified.
674. Wlio were the chiefs of the adverse confederacy ?
The league was headed by the Earl of Warwick and ex- Chancellor Southampton ; the former of whom had been the most successful general in the Scottish wars, while the latter represented the great body of Catholics and High Church Protestants.
675. The power of "Warwick and bis party was so complete, that Somerset was soon arrested and sent to the Tower. He escaped for a time with his life, having, when before his judges, adopted a most abject and submissive attitude.
THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY. 1G1
LADY JANE GBEY.
676. Wlnf did the chief power of the kingdom remain in the hands of the Earl of Warwick ?
Having obtained the position formerly held by Somerset, like him he rid himself very speedily of his immediate associates.
677. Southampton, who hoped to obtain the Chancellorship at the very least, was entirely discarded by the unscrupulous soldier, and, it is said, died a few months afterwards of vexation and disappointment.
678. Why were the Protestants, Joan Boucher and Von Paris, burned during this reign?
The former was burned, by the persuasion of Cranmer, and against the wish of the King, for a heterodox opinion about the human nature of the Redeemer, and the latter as a pro- fessor and preacher of Arianism.
679. What circumstances led to the execution of Somerset ?
He sought to regain his former power and position; failing in which, he was tried for high treason and beheaded.
680. Who was the Lady Jane Grey ?
She was the daughter of Frances, Duchess of Suffolk, who- was the eldest of the two daughters and only surviving children of the Princess Mary, daughter of Henry the Seventh, who had been married first to Louis the Twelfth of France, and then to Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, by whom she had her two daughters.
6S1. After Edward, in the succession to the throne, there stood between Lady Jane Grey, or her mother, b.y this descent, the Princesses Mary and Elizabeth, and the descendants of Mary Tudor's elder sister, Margaret, who married James the Fourth of Scotland, whose representative was the infant Queen of Scots.
682. Why was it sought to make her the successor of Edward ?
The Duke of Northumberland, who now possessed the chief power in the kingdom, wished to consolidate his position by a marriage between his sou, the Lord Guildford Dudley, and
162 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
ACCESSION OB MABY.
the Lady Jane Grey, whom it was his intention to proclaim Queen, to the prejudice of the Princesses Mary and Elizabeth.
683. Why were these projects conceived about tins time ?
Because of the declining health of King Edward, which ren- dered it necessary to provide speedily for the succession.
684. Why did the projects fail ?
On account of the powerful interest which the Princess Mary excited and maintained throughout the greater part of the kingdom.
685. Upon the demise of Edward, Northumberland and the other con- spirators endeavoured to secure the persons of Mary and her sister Elizabeth, intending thereupon to proclaim the accession of Lady Jane Grey as Queen. Concealing his death, they represented the King as very sick, and summoned the two Princesses to attend in his chamber and receive his last instructions. Mary was actually on her way to town when she received a timely warning from the Earl of Arandel, and so escaped to Framliiigham Castle, in Suffolk.
686. Why did the proclamation of Jane as Queen meet ivith a cold response?
Because the great majority of the nation regarded her as merely the tool of Northumberland, who was suspected of a design to secure the crown for himself.
687. Why did Queen Mary's cause so rapidly acquire strength, ?
Because, as the eldest daughter of Henry and the child of Catherine of Arragon, her claims were too evident to be easily
688. Why did Queen Mary retain the services of so many of those lords who had been her enemies ?
Because, in addition to their great abilities, she regarded their former opposition as the result of pressure put upon them by the adverse circumstances of the times.
689. Queen Mary had had sufficient evidence of this in her own person. Her youth had been passed in gloom and in storms; her father had alter- nately threatened to make her a nun and to take off her head ; his myrmidons
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY. 163
EXECUTION OF ARCHBISHOP CRANMER.
had forced her to sign papers declaring her religion an imposture, and her mother Catherine no lawful wife. From the time of the marriage of Anne Boleyn she had been persecuted, insulted, and driven from place to place almost like a common criminal and a vagabond. She had learned to distrust mere professions, whether of a favourable or unfavourable character.
690. Wliy was ArcliUsJiop Cranmer sent to the Tower ?
Because, besides being the acknowledged leader of the Pro- testant party, he had incurred the Queen's hatred, for his conduct in the divorce of her mother.
691. It was also considered that, as one of the council which had set up Lady Jane Grey, he had been guilty of high treason. He was sent to the Tower, with several other lords, but shortly afterwards received pardon.
692. Why did lie afterwards suffer?
Because, notwithstanding his frequent recantations, he was ever regarded as the strongest champion of the Protestant cause in England.
693. Wliy did the Parliament reverse all their previous acts in favour of the Catholic religion ?
Because it is greatly to be feared that its members were possessed of no genuine sentiments of religion whatever, and pre- ferred to go with the current, whichever way it might lead.
694. The principal exception to this remark was in respect to the abbey and church lands, which had now passed into the possession of nearly every great family in the kingdom. The Lords of the Council and the Parliament showed the greatest reluctance to part with any portion of these, and Queen Mary was wise enough not to proceed to extremities on that point.
695. Why did Queen Mary marry Philip of Spain?
Because, having few personal friends in England, she naturally chose the most powerful alliance which her foreign connections afforded her.
C96. Philip, King of Spain, was the son and heir of the Emperor Charles the Fifth, who, in addition to being the wisest and greatest of the crowned heads of Europe, was, and had been for many years, the friend and protector of Mary. Charles, being a widower, had entertained some ideas of proposing for himself, but subsequently decided to offer the hand of his son.
G2
164 THE H1STOBICAL REASON WHY.
1ADY JANE GKEY EXECUTED.
697. Why was this marriage so unpopular with her
Because of the ancient repugnance to foreign rule on the part of the English people.
698. Although stipulations of the most stringent character, restricting the power of Philip as King Consort, were drawn up and submitted to by him, and it does not appear that he sought to overstep them in any material degree, the prejudice against his person and nation was too great to be conquered. Queen Mary herself had great reason to regret the step she had taken— it is said in a moment of pique— in yielding her hand to Philip. It was the most unfortunate act of her reign, and while it embittered the enmity of her Protestant subjects, even shook the fidelity of the Catholics.
699. Why did Cardinal Pole return to England?
Because, as a near relative of the Queen, he was the most legitimate representative of the Papal authority, which it was sought to restore.
700. Why was Lady Jane Grey executed?
Because the Queen and council considered that there would be no end to plots and conspiracies so long as she survived.
701. The Queen's wish was to spare the Lady Jane ; but the Emperor Charles the Fifth, to whom she was accustomed to submit in most matters, strongly urged the impolicy of mercy in her regard. The dangerous and nearly successful rebellion under Sir Thomas "Wyatt went a great way towards precipitating the catastrophe.
702. Why did Philip leave England?
Because the hostility of his wife's subjects rendered his residence here odious to him, and the unsettled state of the Continent offered a pleasanter field for his exertions.
703. What ivas the effect upon the Queen's mind of his departure ?
She became fretful and unhappy, and cherished a feeling of resentment against those whom she considered the enemies of her husband and herself.
704 There can be no doubt that much of the bloodshed which followed upon these events is to be attributed to the ill will engendered in the Queen's bosom by the national opposition to her marriage. Hitherto she had hesi-
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
165
IMPRISONMENT OF ELIZABETH.
tated to shed the blood of those opposed to her in religion, as her immediate predecessors had done. She seems now to have regarded such persons as her natural enemies, deserving only to be extirpated by those horrid measures which the intolerance and cruelty of the age placed so readily at her disposal.
LANTERN SEL1EE OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTTJEY.
705. Why was tlie Princess Elizabeth imprisoned?
Because as next lieir (in default of issue of the Queen's body), and as the reputed leader of the Protestant part}', she was the rallying point of all the disaffected parties in the nation.
706. Elizabeth had outwardly conformed to the Catholic religion— had set up an altar in her own house, and employed her leisure hours in
166 THE HISTOKICAL KEASON WHY.
LOS3 OF CALAIS.
making and embroidering vestments, &c., for the Roman rite; but no one really believed her to be anything but a sound Protestant at heart. She contrived, however, to keep off any positive evidences of her complicity with the various conspiracies of the period; and the Queen was not averse to her release. She was accordingly set at liberty, and received many marks of her sister's friendship and confidence.
707. Why did the Emperor Charles the Fifth renounce his crown and retire to a monastery ?
Because, seeing his sons capable of swaying the empire, he professed himself desirous of spending his remaining years in religious exercises.
708. Though only fifty-five years old, and with his faculties, both mental and physical, to all appearance unimpaired, he, on the 25th October, 1555, met the States of the Low Countries, explained to them the reasons of his resignation, absolved them from their oaths of allegiance, and devolved his authority on Philip. He chose for his retreat the Monastery of St. Just, near Placentia, on the frontiers of Portugal, retaining about him no more than a dozen servants, and keeping only one horse for the purpose of exercise. He survived his abdication about two years, chiefly occupying his time in gardening, the study of theology, and mechanics, for which latter science, especially that branch of it whicli includes clock-making, he had a great liking.
709. How came the English during this reign to lose possession of Calais ?
The low state into which the navy had been allowed to fall, and the exhaustion of the national finances, tempted the French King to seek its recovery ; which was effected under the skilful generalship of the Duke of Guise, on the 8th of January, 1558.
710. The loss of Calais was a great blow at the Queen's prosperity as well as the national dignity; although its actual value to England was rather nominal than real, its retention costing annually much treasure and many brave soldiers, while its utility as a post of defence for the channel fleet was hardly worth consideration.
711. Why was . the marriage, at this juncture, oj J\Iary Queen, of Scots with the Dauphin of France, an event of much importance to England ?
Because it cemented the old alliance between France and Scotland, which it had been the policy of the later English monarchs to dissever.
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 1G7
DEATH OF QUEEN MAEY AND ACCESSION OF ELIZABETH.
712. What effect was produced ly this event upon the popular mind in England?
It excited a great desire to recover the ground lost by the fall of Calais, and the war feeling being most strikingly mani- fested by the Queen's attitude and the vigorous measures proposed by her, she succeeded in regaining some degree of popularity.
713. What were the causes of Queen JkLary's death ? She contracted the prevailing disorder, a kind of intermittent
fever, which, in 1558, decimated the realm ; and after languish- ing about two months, died at St. James's Palace.
714. Mary had long been prematurely old, and when she was attacked by the epidemic her heart was well nigh broken. She had never enjoyed good health : the troubles of her reign ; the rancorous enmity of the two classes of politico-religionists ; the desertion of her husband ; finally, the loss of Calais, which had been considered as one of the crown's brightest jewels, — conspired to crush her spirit. A stronger frame might well have succumbed.
715. Why was the accession of Elizabeth so well received? Because of her undoubted right to the throne, and from the general opinion of her great abilities.
716. Mary had expired about noon (November 17, 1558), and in a short time the Commons received a message to attend the bar of the House of Lords. On their arrival the important event was announced by Archbishop Heath, the Lord Chancellor. Of the right of Elizabeth there could be no dispute ; it had been established by the statute 35th Henry VIII. ; and nothing remained for the two Houses but to discharge their duty by recog- nising the accession of the new sovereign.
717. Why was the Queen, who was a Protestant, crowned according to the Catholic ritual?
The difference between the two communions was at that precise moment very trifling ; and Elizabeth was most anxious to have the ceremony performed without loss of time, and without exciting any bitterness.
718. What were the first steps taken by Elizabeth towards establishing the Reformed Religion ?
The statutes of Henry the Eighth against the Papal authority,
168 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REFOBMATIOy.
which had been repealed in the previous reign, were revived, and it was enacted that "The Book of Common Prayer," with certain emendations and additions, should alone be used by ministers, under the penalties of forfeiture, deprivation, and death.
719. Why did the Reformation succeed rapidly in Scotland ?
From the character of the people for independence of thought ; the burning zeal of its promoters ; and the corruptions which had crept into the higher ranks of the Catholic clergy.
720. Of all the European churches there was perhaps not one better prepared to receive the seed of the Reformed doctrines than that of Scotland. During a long course of years, the highest dignities in the church had been filled by the illegitimate or the younger sons of the most powerful families. These commendatory abbots, bishops, and priors received the income, but cared little for the domestic economy of the sees or monasteries over which they were supposed to rule. Though they seldom took orders, they ranked as clergymen, arid by their vices and irregularities continued to throw an odium on the religious profession.
721. Why did Elizabeth prefer to remain unmarried?
The most probable cause is to be found in her love of absolute power ; no inducements appearing to her mind sufficient for admitting a second person to share it.
722. The first suitor proposed to her acceptance was Philip of Spain— formerly husband to her deceased sister. 2. To Philip succeeded Charles of Austria, son to the Emperor Ferdinand. 3. Eric, King of Sweden, was the next suitor; who was followed by, 4, Adolphiis, Duke of Holstein. 5. By the Earl of Arran, a Scottish lord and the most ardent of all the Scottish lords in the cause of the Reformation. G. A sixth suitor was Sir. William Pickering, a gentleman of great beauty and accomplishments, who had been employed in a confidential foreign mission. 7. The Earl of Arundel, and, 8, Robert Dudley, afterwards Earl of Leicester, close the list.
723. What further steps did Elizabeth take to esta- blish the Reformation?
She restored . the Oath of Supremacy, by which the Queen •^as declared sole head of the Church ; and had an act passed making it penal for any man to absent himself from his parish church.
THE HISTOEICAL BEASON WHY. 109
MARY QUEEN- OP SCOTS.
724. All the bishops, with the exception of Kitchiu, Bishop of Landaff, refused the oath, and were deprived of their episcopal jurisdiction. A vast number, however, of the parochial clergy agreed to take it, while the places of those who declined to do so were speedily filled by the many Protestants whom the severities of the last reign had driven into exile. The two acts called the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity were the foundation of those oppressive penal statutes which weighed so heavily upon both Catholics and Dissenters during the succeeding two centuries.
725. WTiy did Elizabeth conclude a peace with France and Scotland?
Because she foresaw that her power at that juncture was more likely to be consolidated by a strict attention to domestic affairs than by any foreign wars.
726. Why was fllary Queen of Scots an object of fear and dislike to Elizabeth?
Because, in addition to her superior beauty and attractiveness of manner, Mary possessed claims to the English Crown which were by no means despicable or unacknowledged.
727. According to every canonical law of the Roman Church, and to the notions of nearly every Catholic in England, the claim of Mary Stuart to the English succession was far preferable to that of her cousin Elizabeth. Every one who acknowledged the Papal power of binding and loosing denied the validity of Anne Boleyn's marriage— maintaining in consequence Elizabeth's illegitimacy. The attainder of her blood had never been reversed by Parliament ; and Mary of Scotland, although passed by in the will of Henry the Eighth, and overlooked by the English nation, was in their opinion, by right of descent and purity of birth, indisputably entitled to the throne.
728. Why did the Scottish Reformers oppose the mar- riage of Queen Mary with the Dauphin of France ?
Because they feared that such a union would give an undue advantage to the Catholic interests in Scotland.
729. The Scottish Reformers accordingly entered into a new religious cove- nant. The subscribers, with the Earls of Argyle, Morton, and Glencairn at their head, assuming the title of "The Congregation of the Lord," bound themselves "to strive to the death in the cause of their Master, to procure and maintain faithful ministers of the Gospel, to defend them, and every member thereof, to the whole of their power, and at the hazard of their lives," &c. This "covenant" was considered by the opposite party as equi- valent to a declaration of war.
170 THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
THE THIBTY-NINE AKTICLES.
730. Why did Mary Queen of Scots at this juncture become unpopular with her subjects generally ?
Because the Dauphin, her husband, having1 shortly afterwards succeeded to the French throne, the Scottish people feared that their country might become a mere province or dependency of France.
731. The Reformers hereupon took fresh heart. Led by the celebrated John Knox, their preachers scrupled not to denounce the Queen in the most unmeasured terms, calling her Jezebel — the enemy of God's people; and by various means sought to render her name odious to the body of the nation.
732. Why did Elizabeth secretly assist the Scottish malcontents ?
Because she dreaded the enforcement of Mary's claims to the English Crown, and considered any measures justifiable that might tend to lessen her rival's power.
733. Why did the English Parliament press Elizabeth to marry ?
Because of their dread of a disputed succession, which would inevitably follow her demise without issue.
734. During the year 1563 the small-pox had raged with great violence, the Queen herself suffering greatly from its effects. This circumstance aroused her Commons to propose to her either to marry or to name a successor. Elizabeth appears to have dreaded equally the thought of sharing her crown with another, and of contemplating her own decease. She made the deputation some evasive speeches and postponed the subject. Nevertheless, she avoided giving such a decided answer as would wholly have discouraged the hopes of her various suitors.
735. Why iv ere the Thirty-nine Articles drawn up and promulgated ?
A Parliament having assembled (January 12, 1563), the Con- vocation of the clergy, according to ancient custom, met at the same time, and the Articles, as they at present exist in the Common Prayer-Book, were put forth, and received the sub- scription of both Houses.
THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY. l7l
ASSASSINATION OF DAVID BIZZIO.
736. Why did the Queen assist the French Huguenots ? Partly from sympathy with their religious tenets, and partly
from a desire to recover the town of Calais from the King of France, which an alliance with them seemed to promise.
737. Who ivas David Rizzio, and why was he assassinated ?
He was a native of Piedmont, who had come to Scotland in the suite of the Ambassador of Savoy. At the request of that minister, he was appointed secretary to Queen Mary. His fidelity and attachment to his sovereign and mistress earned for him the hatred of the native lords, many of whom were in open rebellion against her.
738. Ey these a plot was formed, and the Secretary was assassinated (March 10, 156C) at the very feet of the unfortunate Queen, in one of the apartments of Holyrood Palace.
739. Why did Mary place herself within the power of Elizabeth ?
Because, being reduced by the rebellion of her own subjects to the greatest straits, she hoped to receive more consideration from the magnanimity of her rival than from her French con- nections or the residue of her Scottish friends.
740. Why did Elizabeth disappoint these hopes ?
Because of the still-recurring fears in her breast that the beauty and misfortunes of Mary would eventually raise her up friends sufficiently powerful to endanger her possession of the
741. Elizabeth was soon made to feel that in resolving to keep Mary in captivity in the heart of England, she had done that which cast a threaten- ing cloud over her own liberty and greatness, and deprived her of her peace of mind; in fact, for many years she was incessantly harassed with the fears of plots, escapes, and bloody retaliation ; no castle seemed strong enough, no keepers sure enough, for her hated rival, who, in many respects had become more dangerous to her than ever. During the nineteen weary years that Mary remained her prisoner, there can be no doubt that the one thought of her death, by any means, whether fair or foul, occupied the mind of Elizabeth, as well as the constant thoughts of her ministers.
172 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
THE SPANISH AEMADA.
742. What was tlie object of Babingtons conspiracy / It was concerted for the purpose of rescuing the Queen of Scots from the power of Elizabeth.
743. Anthony Babington was a young man of family and fortune; he was joined by several others whose sympathies had been wrought to the highest degree in Mary's favour. They were betrayed by one Pooley, a spy in the pay of Walsingham, and suffered the penalty of treason.
744. Why did Elizabeth seek to remove Mary 'by assassination ?
Because there was no law in existence by which one crowned sovereign could try and condemn another.
745. An ex post facto law was, however, passed after the execution of Babington and his co-conspirators, awarding the punishment of death to the person in whose favour such attempts should have been made.
746. Why is the fact of Sir Francis Drake's dis- coveries about this period interesting ?
Because they laid the foundation of the present naval supremacy of Great Britain.
747. The origin of these discoveries is to be traced in the wars with Spain, arising out of the claims on the part of Philip of Spain, not only to the British Crown, but to a universal dominion of the Indian Seas. Enterprises, set on foot at first simply to intercept the Spanish treasure- ships, were afterwards developed into greater maritime projects, and by the indomitable energy of Hawkins, Drake, and others, ended in the dis- covery of a western passage to India, and the circumnavigation of the globe.
748. Why was the " Spanish Armada " fitted out ? Because the King of Spain desired to revenge himself upon England for their interference with his Transatlantic possessions.
749. Religious considerations also entered into the project ; moreover, the Spanish Netherlands had been excited to revolt by the agents of Elizabeth, and Philip felt that the most effectual way to punish his enemies would be to carry the war into their own country. He levied troops in all parts of the Continent, hired ships, built new ones, constructed floating batteries, and raised an army amounting to 34,000 men, which he placed under the Duke of Parma.
750. Why did the Spanish Armada fail ?
It was partly dispersed by a storm in the Channel, and partly
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 173
EXECUTION OF
destroyed by a vigorous attack under the command of Ealeigh, Howard, and Drake.
751. Although intended by Philip as a demonstration on behalf of the Catholic religion, the whole body professing that religion in England cordially united with the Queen to oppose the Armada. At the head of the British arma- ment, Elizabeth had the liberality to retain the Catholic Lord Howard ; the rest of the Catholics, disqualified from holding offices of dignity and trust, chose to enlist in the expedition as common soldiers and sailors.
752. Why is the reign of Elizabeth regarded as one of the most glorious in our annals ?
Because under her the nation attained its highest rank from the military and political points of view ; and because our greatest poets and philosophers were born and flourished at that par- ticular period.
753. Why did Elizabeth make "progresses" among her chief nobility ?
Because she desired to ingratiate herself with her subjects by personal intercourse, and because she was enabled thus to inspect the establishments of her leading servants, and to curb their individual power.
754. What were the causes of the rebellion of the Earl of Essex, and his death ?
He was the greatest of the favourites of Queen Elizabeth ; by which he incurred the enmity of Cecil and Raleigh, who, taking advantage of some intemperate expressions of the Earl, provoked him to the acts of treason for which he suffered.
755. The Earl of Essex was executed on Ash-Wednesday, the 25th of February, 1599, in an inner court of the Tower. His popular and engaging manners had won him many friends among the common people ; and perhaps no act of the Queen's reign, with the exception of the execution of Mary of Scotland, brought more odium upon her character, or detracted more from her popularity with all classes of her subjects.
756. What was the latest proclamation issued ly Elizabeth ?
It was one against the Catholics, whose influence it was supposed would be used against the succession of James of Scotland.
174 THE HISTOE1CAL EEASON WHY.
DEATH OP QUEEN ELIZABETH.
757. In this proclamation (see Eymer's Foodera, xiv. 473—476) Elizabeth notices the divisions among the Catholics. The regular clergy and their adherents she denounces as traitors ; the seculars as disloyal and disobedient subjects ; complains that in consequence of her clemency towards both these classes of men, they even "adventured to walk the streets at noon-day," and carried themselves "so as to breed a suspicion that she proposed to grant a toleration of two religions, though God knew that she was ignorant of any such imagination, and that no one had ever ventured to suggest such a thing to her." The document was followed up by the establishment of a new commission for the sole purpose of banishing summarily, and without any of the usual forms of trial, all Catholic clergymen under such conditions as it chose to prescribe.
758. Why did Elizabeth become a prey to melancholy ?
From a growing belief that she had survived her greatness and popularity, and from a conviction that most of her ministers longed for her decease.
759. It was supposed that regrets at the death of her favourite Essex were the chief cause, but most historians are of opinion that the disclosures made in his confession, and which convinced her of the general faithlessness of her court, sank deeply into her heart, and wounded her self-esteem beyond remedy. She became pensive and taciturn; she sat whole days by herself, indulging in the most gloomy reflections; every rumour agitated her with new and imaginary terrors. Under these and similar impressions she assured the French Ambassador that she had grown weary of her very existence.
760. What was the proximate cause of tlie death of Queen Elizabeth?
An indiscreet removal from Westminster to Richmond, during a wet and stormy day, while suffering from a cold, is supposed to have led to the illness of which she died, March 24, 1603.
761. Her indisposition increased, but, with characteristic obstinacy, she refused the advice of physicians. To a total loss of appetite was added low- ness of spirits. She continually relapsed into a kind of stupor, from which when she aroused herself, it was but to fall into paroxysms of anger and rage. One of her maids of honour* has recorded : " She sate for 2 days and 3 nights on the stole redie dressed, and would never be brought by any of the counsell to go to bed: she kept her bed 15 daies, besides 3 daies she sate upon the stole ; and one day, being pulled up by force, stood on her feat 15 hours."
* Mrs. Southwell, MS. April 1.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 175
NOTES UPON THE TTJDOE PEEIOD.
NOTES UPON THE TUDOR PERIOD.
Religion.— The great change that took place with respect to the faith and opinions of the British people during this period forms its chief characteristic. That change consisted not so much in the details of religion as in the principles upon which religious faith is founded. Before the breach with Rome every- thing that concerned faith was received on the authority of the Church as a living and " infallible " guide. With the suppression of the Papal supremacy and the stoppage of all intercourse between the new and the old communions, private judgment may be said to have been substituted ; in other words, before the Reformation Englishmen believed because Rome spake— afterwards they did so as the result of their individual investigations.
Constitution, Government, and Laws, — The Royal power attained its highest point under Henry VIII., Mary, and Elizabeth. This was owing to the decay of the feudal system, and the gradual absorption of the aristo- cratic power by the Crown. But having reached to a most tyrannical point, it appears to have generated the seeds of its own ruin ; and we perceive the gradual growth of a limited Constitutional Monarchy, even where the power of the reigning Sovereign appears most complete. Thus Elizabeth is seen to have outlived her power and popularity; and two reigns later the King himself is put upon his trial for an alleged violation of the Constitution, and suffers the penalty of death. The administration of the laws was marked by the grossest acte of cruelty; and it is difficult to understand how men and women, reputed as good and virtuous, could have been stained by the perpetration of the atrocities laid— upon the best evidence— to their charge. Torture was used to extort confessions, and this of such a sharp and searching kind that any statement, however monstrous, which it was deemed desirable to extract, could hardly fail to be produced.
Commerce— Industry.— The discovery of America and of a western passage to the Indies gave a very great impetus to these sources of the national wealth ; while the persevering investigations of Cabot, Hawkins, Frobisher, Drake, Cavendish, and others, laid the foundation of our naval supremacy. In the year 1562 the African slave-trade was begun by Mr. John Hawkins, assisted by the subscriptions of " sundry gentlemen of London," who, fitting up three ships, proceeded to the coast of Guinea, and succeeded in trans- ferring the first cargo of human beings from their native land to that of Hispaniola. In 1570 the first Royal Exchange was erected by Sir Thomas Gresham, and opened for the accommodation of the British and foreign mer- chants assembling in London ; and in 1581 the original nucleus of the East India Company was formed.
The Art of Printing, discovered during a former period, was greatly developed under the Tudors-uot indeed by the Monarchs of that time, but by the new spirit of inquiry awakened in the 'breasts of their subjects. That of coining made considerable progress, owing to the great skill brought to bear upon the art by Italian and French artists ; also from the recovery of many coins and medals of the classic period, which had been buried under the ruins of Rome and other ancient cities. Many inventions and improvements were also introduced into the manufactures of silk, cloth, and worsted stuffs.
176 THE HTSTOEICAL REASON WHY.
NOTES TJPOff THE TUDOE PERIOD.
Literature and the Fine Arts.— In poetry the names of Shakspere and Spenser, and in philosophy that of Bacon, entitle this period to the claim of being the Augustan, or golden age of England. Although no very eminent names occur in the list of native painters, that of Holbein, an artist from Holland, employed by Henry the Eighth, stands deservedly pre-eminent. The Gothic style of architecture attained its highest excellence under the Tudors, and then becoming corrupted, gave place to a new order called the Elizabethan, a mixture of the revived Roman and the deposed Gothic.
Domestic Life.— Li the beginning of the period the middle class— the yeo- manry and traders — lived in houses but little better than those of the humblest peasants of the present day. These were formed almost entirely of wood ; their walls of wattled plaster ; without chimneys, and void of all conveniences. The beds of the same class were of straw, over which were thrown a coarse sheet and a woollen coverlet. Servants slept upon a heap of straw or chaff, with nothing but their clothes to protect them from the inclemency of the night season. The table was poorly furnished with a wooden platter and a spoon of the same material. Wheaten bread was a luxury appertaining only to the rich and the noble. Money was extremely scarce. In times of dearth, artificers and labouring men fared but little better than cattle. A proverb of the sixteenth century (illustrative of this fact) says : "Hunger setteth his first foot into the horse-mariger." Notwithstanding which, a rude kind of abundance seems generally to have prevailed, although luxuries were unknown. The principal materials for clothing were not bought, but were obtained by the industry of each family. To the household establishment of every considerable yeoman, a tailor, a cordwainer, a sempstress, and a smith were necessary appendages. With the reign of Henry the Eighth, owing to the great social and religious convulsions, a change took place, which, however disastrous at first, eventually resulted in good to the mass of the middle class. Increased pressure induced increased exertions to meet it, and a spirit of enterprise was awakened, which led to improve- ments in farming and manufactures. If an additional amount of labour and skill were required to procure the means of subsistence, the results were more than correspondent; and we may date from this reign the com- mencement of a new era in all matters that concerned domestic life.
Costume— The male costume during the reign of Henry the Seventh con- sisted of a fine shirt of lawn, over which was a doublet of various material, slashed at the elbows and across the arms, and at the breast, to show the shirt. To this was added the stomacher and petticoat. Over all drooped a long furred gown. The general style of this dress prevailed through the succeeding reigns; with this difference, that the long cloak was retained only by the graver personages. Soldiers, and the gayer sort of civilians, wore a shorter cloak or mantle. Of female attire, previous to Henry VIII., the chief features were slashed sleeves, a square cut body to the dress, and a laced stomacher. The high head-dresses of a former period gradually became depressed, and finally disappeared. In their place simple cauls of gold net-work were worn, and from under these the hair was allowed to fall negligently down the back. Turbans, introduced from the East, which began now to be opened up by travelling merchants, became the fashion, and divided the rage with a kind of hood— the germ of the mag-
THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY. 177
NOTES UFO?* THE TUDOR PERIOD.
nificently-adorned hooded head-gear of the next reign. The portraits of Henry the Eighth's Queens are so well known that fe\v words are needed to describe the female attire of that period. But with the accession of Elizabeth the hood was discarded, having had its day (by the upper classes at least), and the hair was dressed, powdered, and dyed, to suit the ever- varying mode. Ruffs of a monstrous bulk were imported from Holland, Gown-sleeves increased in volume. The masculine doublet and jerkin were added to the female dress, and the petticoat, made of cloth of gold, and spread out with hoops, shone resplendent with embroidery and jewels. The principal novelty in male costume introduced during the reign of Edward VI. consisted of the small flat cap— the muffin cap still worn by the boys of Christ's Hospital, London— placed upon the side of the head, aud ornamented, by such as could afford it, with a small tuft of feathers, or with a brooch or device in jewels. The hair, which had previously been worn long, was, consentaneously with the introduction of the flat cap, cropped close iu pursuance of a Royal Order to that effect ; on the other hand, beards and moustachios re-appeared, and were suffered to grow and be worn at pleasure.
Sports and Pastimes.— A characteristic of the times was the relinquishment of the old tournaments, and the substitution for them of less refined, but scarcely less dangerous, entertainments. Bull and bear baiting prevailed, and at the latter sport even Queens presided. The miracle plays fell into disuse, but masks and secular dramatic shows took their rise. During the last years of Elizabeth the great works of Shakspere aud his compeers were produced. Falconry was a favourite pursuit with the upper classes, to which were added hunting, fowling, and horse-racing; the last-named amuse- ment began to prevail as a settled national predilection. Dancing also became a fashionable accomplishment. Both Henry VIII. and Elizabeth were fond of this exercise, and are said to have prided themselves upon the manner and vigour of their steps. Music, especially of the vocal class, was cultivated, and, with a few minor recreations, formed the sum of the in- door recreations of the Tudor period.
178 THE HISTOEICAL BEASONWHY.
ACCESSION OP JAMES THE FIRST.
THE HOUSE OF STUART.
JAMES THE FIKST, 1603.
FROM THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH TO THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE THE FIRST, EMBRACING A PERIOD OF 111 YEARS.
762. Why was it that on the death of Elizabeth, and the failure of the line of Tudor, James the Sixth of Scotland, a foreign prince, and tfie hereditary enemy of the country, laid claim to the throne of England?
He did so as lineal heir to the crown, claiming through his mother, the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots, who, as the granddaughter of Margaret Tudor, eldest daughter of Henry the Seventh, and wife of James the Fourth of Scotland, was the direct successor to the throne.
763. He claimed also, though more distantly, through the right of h is father, the murdered Darnley, who was his mother's cousin, being descended from the same ancestress, Margaret Tudor, by her second marriage with the Earl of Angus. Exactly one hundred years after the daughter of Henry the Seventh quitted England to espouse the Scotch King, James, the descendant of that union, entered England as its King. To the apprehen- sions entertained by the peers of this realm upon that marriage, that in the course of time it was possible, through failure of issue, that England might fall under the dominion of Scotland, Henry, with a penetration that succeeding time has verified, replied, "No, in that event Scotland will only become an accession to England."
764. Why was James received with such universal satis- faction, and his reign inaugurated as an epoch of hap- piness ?
Because he came to the throne with the approbation of men of all degrees and parties, who anticipated, from the learning and reputed wisdom of the monarch, every benefit to them- selves and nation. This was particularly the case with regard to the religious part of the community. The Protestants felt confident that all their religious and social privileges would be faithfully confirmed by so wise and pious a prince ; the Dis-
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 179
THE GUNPOWDER PLOT.
senters, who already began to form an important element in the State, trusting to James's Calviuistic principles, and his known tolerance, hailed his accession as a certain augury of power and influence to all orders of dissent ; and lastly, the Catholics, who still numbered a large portion of the wealth and respectability of the kingdom, trusting to the natural feelings of resentment James must entertain towards the party who had executed his mother, and out of sympathy to the religion so devoutly professed by his unfortunate parent, fully calculated on experiencing great favour and indulgence from the son of a queen whom they regarded as a martyr. Indeed, of all parties and interests who hailed the advent of James with hopes of personal or general advantage, the Catholics were the most sanguine and assured.
765. How did James undeceive and exasperate llie Catholic party ?
By declaring on all occasions he would govern in obedience to the laws, and at once putting in force all the enactments and penalties framed in the previous reign against the Catholics.
766. Why did this declaration provoke the Catholic party, and what remarkable conspiracy resulted from it ?
It incensed them against him, first on account of his bigotry, and further shocked them, that he should be so dead to natural feeling as to oppress his mother's friends and partisans, and place his sole trust in those men who had been instrumental in her murder ; and seeing that there was no possibility of ever obtaining favour or safety for the practice of their religion during his reign, a few of the more fanatical and intolerant of the party conceived a plot for the murder of the King and ministry ; a plot that, from the comprehensive and diabolical nature of its purpose and details, is without example for its atrocity in the annals of the world.
767. Why was it called the Gunpowder Plot?
Prom the intention of the conspirators to execute their scheme of vengeance by that means ; and, at one blow, destroy the King,
180 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
CAUSES OF THE GUNPOWDEB PLOT.
Queen, Prince of Wales, the high Officers of State, the Bishops and Peers of the realm, and all the obnoxious members of the opposite party, constituting the House of Commons.
768. This frightful scheme was first devised by a gentleman of desperate fortune, called Robert Catesby, who, having imparted his plan to Sir Henry Percy, a member of the ducal family of Northumberland, and being encouraged by Percy's entire approval and concurrence with the plot, communicated his intentions to Sir Thomas Winter, another Catholic gentleman, whom they at once sent to Flanders, to engage Guido Faux, an officer in the Spanish army, a bigoted Catholic, and a man of a bold, fearless, and unflinching resolution, to superintend and direct the details of their horrible conspiracy. The leaders of the plot next proceeded to enlist other partisans of the cause, to take part in their scheme ; adding to their number Tesmond and Garnet, two Jesuits ; with Sir Everard Digby, Rookwood, and others ; making, in all, about a hundred persons. But so secretly and cautiously were all their proceedings conducted— each confederate being solemnly sworn on the Holy Sacrament, and further bound by every oath of religion and manhood, not only to perpetual secrecy, but to the rigid performance of their purpose, at whatever danger or sacrifice— that though the plot was entrusted to so many, it was preserved for eighteen months with inviolable secrecy. Having completed their number, the next step was to commence the execution of their task, and for this purpose, Percy hired a house in Westminster, adjoining the building in which the Parlia- ment—about to open— was to be held, the object being to undermine, and run a passage from the cellar of the house they had hired, into the vaults beneath the Parliament, where, by depositing a quantity of gunpowder and connecting it by a train, they could at any moment, upon the arrival of the King and Peers, fire the mine from a distance, and with perfect safety to themselves. Having, after incredible labour and perseverance, under- mined the building, and pierced the wall of one of the vaults, nine feet in thickness, the conspirators discovered, to their amazement, that the apart- ment they had entered was filled with coals, which the owner was selling off previous to letting the vault for business purposes. Upon obtaining this information, Percy at once hired the place, and bought the remainder of the coals, and burying beneath them thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, and laying down the train, only awaited the meeting of Parliament, to consummate their unparalleled crime. The two members of the Royal Family, Prince Charles and the Princess Elizabeth, who were in the country, it was proposed simultaneously to seize. Percy was to possess himself of the Prince, and assassinate him; while Sir Everard Digby was to attack Lord Harrington's house in Warwickshire, the residence of the Princess, and, securing the child, instantly proclaim her as Elizabeth the Second .
769. Why was it that a plot so successfully planned, and faithfully kept, miscarried in its aim? Through the devoted attachment of Sir Henry Percy for his
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 181
PATE OF THE CONSPIEATOKS.
friend Lord Monteagle, who, though a Catholic like himself, would be in his place in the House of Peers at the approaching opening of Parliament, and to save whom from the universal destruction meditated against friend and foe, Percy forwarded an anonymous letter, advising Monteagle, as he valued his life, to keep from the approaching meeting of the King and his Parliament.
770. This important letter was sent about ten days before the appointed meeting. Monteagle being unable to comprehend the drift of the mysterious warning, which he half thought to be a trick, resolved to show it to Lord Salisbury, the Secretary of State ; who, in turn, unable to comprehend its import, carried it to the King iu Council; but not one of the ministers, though they apprehended danger, were able to see in what direction the evil was to be looked for. In this universal dilemma, James is reported to have been the first to discover the nature and direction of the threatened danger, and considered that some sudden calamity was meditated by means of gunpowder, and at once gave orders for the searching of all the vaults and cellars beneath the Houses of Parliament. But this duty Suffolk, the Lord Chamberlain, deferred till the day before the intended meeting. Upon entering the vault he at once perceived the coals and faggots, the gunpowder and train, and found a man already at his post, waiting the arrival of the important hour for commencing operations. This man was fully equipped for his diabolical purpose, dressed in a cloak and boots, a dark lanthorn in his hand, and matches and other combustibles to fire the train, in his pocket. This individual, who was instantly arrested, was the veritable Guy Faux himself, the great directing spirit of -the whole conspiracy. The entire scheme was now discovered, and it only remained to trace the conspirators. Faux was at once taken before the Council, where he boldly declared his intention was to blow up every member of the Government, the Royal Family, and both Houses of Parliament; and so far from showing regret at the nature of his act, gloried in the nobleness of the achievement. To every demand made to him to reveal his accomplices, he returned a proud and haughty refusal, till, being sent to the Tower, and led into the torture- room, the sight of the formidable instruments presented to him had such an effect on his spirit, that he at once lost all his defiant manner, and divulged the names of all who had participated in the meditated crime.
771. What ivas the fate of the other conspirators ?
Those who were in London, hearing that Faux was arrested, immediately fled to "Warwickshire, where Sir Everard Digby, relying on the success of the plot, was already in arms; but having failed in his attack on the Princess, and being pressed by the militia of the county, and seeing no chance of escape, he, with the rest of the conspirators, to the number of eighty,
182 THE HISTOBICAL EEASON WHY.
DEATH OP PRINCE HENKY.
threw themselves into a house, and, first having confessed and taken the Sacrament, placed themselves back to back, and, drawing their swords, resolved to sell their lives as dearly as possible. But an explosion caused by a spark falling on their gunpowder produced such dreadful havoc among the party, that the survivors, bursting out on their foes, were instantly surrounded by their assailants, and nearly all cut to pieces. One shot stretched Percy and Catesby, as they fought back to back, dead on the ground. Winter, covered with wounds, with Digby and Rookwood, were taken alive, and, with Garnet the priest, tried and executed.
772. Why did James become unpopular with his English subjects ? •
The two principal reasons of the King's unpopularity were, first, his extreme toleration, especially towards the Catholics, he having magnanimously declared, after the late conspiracy, that he would not confound the great body of the innocent Catholics with those bigoted murderers who had so lately attempted to ruin the nation — a tenderness of conscience and act of justice that the popular feeling against the Papists would not allow the people to appreciate ; and, secondly, from the King's great partiality for favourites, and his prodigal extra- vagance in heaping the wealth of the nation on his low and infamous creatures, especially Robert Carr, whom he created Viscount Rochester and Earl of Somerset, a man celebrated only for his detestable crimes.
773. What memorable events occurred in 1612-13 ? The death, on the 6th of November, of Henry Prince of
Wales, in the 18th year of his age, beloved and mourned for by the whole nation ; and three months afterwards, February 14th, the marriage of the Princess Elizabeth to Frederic, the Elector Palatine of Germany.
774. Why did James take so marked a liking to -Robert Carr, and what was the cause of his rise and downfall ?
From his extreme good looks, his youth, and graceful bearing.
THE HISTOKICAL REASON WHY.
183
THE KING'S FAVOTJEITES.
The King, always pleased by youth and comeliness, had been attracted to Carr by his demeanour in the tilting yard; and his admiration was further heightened, by sympathy for the youth, in consequence of his breaking his leg in the King's presence,
HENRY, PBINCE OP WALES, AT THE AGE OF EIGHTEEN.
who thereupon formed so strong a regard for him that he fre- quently attended on him himself, and, determined that he should derive all his worldly advancement from himself, heaped upon him costly gifts, and on his recovery conferred on him the honour of Knighthood, and in a few months raised him to the Peerage by the title of Viscount Rochester; and, not content
184 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
EXECUTION OF EALEIGH.
with so much favour, afterwards, upon his shameful marriage, created him Earl of Somerset— a dignity he subsequently dis- graced by his profligate life and the crime of murder.
775. Early in his career of prosperity, Carr, or rather Rochester, had had the good fortune to secure the friendship of Sir Thomas Overbury, a gentleman, a scholar, and a man of unblemished honour. All the time the King's favourite followed the wise counsels of his friend, he was esteemed by the sovereign, and even regarded with favour by the people. But Rochester having, by a series of most disgraceful acts, procured the divorce of the Countess of Essex from her husband, that he might espouse her himself, so exasperated Overbury, who had hitherto directed him in the paths of virtue, that he foreswore his society and threatened to expose his conduct to the King. This bold demeanour so offended Rochester, that, exerting his influence with James, he had him committed to the Tower, where, aided by his abandoned wife, he shortly after had him secretly poi- soned. It was some years before the crime was discovered and brought home to the guilty pair, whose lives being spared in pity by the King, were driven in disgrace from the Court, spending the rest of their days in a retirement embittered by remorse, the hatred of the world, and their own mutual reproaches and contempt.
776. Why was James easily reconciled, to the loss of Somerset ?
Because he had found a new favourite in the person of George Villiers, who, having shortly before attracted his attention at a court play, was first appointed cup-bearer to the King; and, having once commenced to honour the youthful aspirant for royal favour, he never paused in his career of adding dignities till he had passed through the grades of Viscount, Earl, Marquis and Duke of Buckingham, Knight of the Garter, Master of the Horse, Chief Justice in Eyre, Warden of the Cinque Ports, Master of the King's Bench, Steward, of Westminster, Constable of Windsor, and Lord High Admiral of England, and the infatuated Monarch could find no new title with which to deck his new-created minion.
777. Why was Sir Walter Raleigh executed?
To appease the Spanish Court, who, making strong remonstrance against Sir Walter's conduct in Guiana, one of their settlements, the King signed the order of his death, not indeed for his attack upon the Spanish town, but for a previous charge of conspiracy, for which he had never even been found guilty.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 185
FALL OF LOUD BACON.
778. Why was the Spanish alliance for the Prince of Wales broken off?
In a great measure through the vanity arid folly of the favourite Buckingham, who induced Prince Charles to go to Spain as a Knight-Errant and win the affections of the Princess by his devotion and chivalry — a proceeding at which the Spanish Court took offence; and also partly through the Prince, who in his travels, having seen Henrietta, the daughter of Henry the Fourth of France, formed an attachment for her, which was soon after ratified by marriage.
779. How did James raise supplies ivhen the Par- liament refused to grant further subsidies ?
By selling the honours and dignities of the State. The prodi- gality of James to his favourites had been so excessive, that to meet the requirements of the nation, whose money he had squandered to enrich a few parasites, he, among other means, invented a title of nobility called a Baronetcy, which titles were openly sold to the highest bidder.
780. Why was James so vain of his government of Ireland?
Because he was the first English prince who, after a pos- session of the island for four hundred years, had ever attempted to substitute law and order for the barbarous customs of Gavelkind and Tanistry, which up to his time had existed in the country.
781. Why icas Lord Chancellor Bacon impeached, and what ivas his penalty ?
This ornament of literature, the greatest genius of his country and age, was accused of taking bribes in his capacity of Lord Chancellor, and having confessed to the truth of the allega- tions, was sentenced to pay £40,000 to the King, be imprisoned in the Tower, declared incapable of ever again holding any place or office, never to sit in Parliament, or approach within the verge or confines of the Court.
186 THE HISTOEICAL KEASON WHY.
DEATH OF JAMES.
782. Why did the expedition sent to assist the Elector Palatine Frederic, and recover the Palatinate, fail ?
Because the French King- neglected to ratify his promise, by allowing- the English army to enter Calais, in consequence of which, and from the length of time the troops were kept on board, half the force was destroyed by a pestilence which broke out, and the army becoming- too far weakened to be of any service, returned home without striking- a blow.
783. When and hoio did the King die ?
Anxiety in consequence of his son-in-law's affairs, and the cares of public business, brought on a tertian ague, of which he died, after a few weeks' illness, in the 59th year of his age, and the 22nd of his reign. Of his character it may be said, that his generosity merged into profusion, his learning into pedantry, his pacific disposition degenerated into weakness, his wisdom into cunning, and his friendship into a frivolous fondness.
CHAELES THE FIKST. FROM MARCH, 1625, TO JANUARY, 1649.
784. Why have historians agreed in calling the acces- sion of Charles the First propitious and happy ?
Because few princes ever ascended the throne under more advantageous and cheering circumstances. He was the only surviving son of James, young, handsome, courtly, and modest ; and during his career of Prince of Wales, and .for some time after his accession, universally popular and beloved. He had also obtained considerable reputation for prudence and economy, and men expected much both from the natural goodness of his disposition, and from the penetration and wisdom he was sup- posed to have derived from his father.
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY. 187
EARLIEST TROUBLES OF CHAKLES THE PIKST.
785. Why toas Charles so eager to summon a Par- liament directly on assuming the reins of state, and what caused the frequent prorogations ?
The war with Spain and Austria, for the recovery of his brother-in-law's state of the Palatinate, which James had reluctantly commenced at the end of his reign, and had left him as a solemn legacy, and to prosecute which he required immediate supplies. The arrival of his beautiful bride, the Princess Henrietta of France, immediately before the assembling of Parliament, with the marriage which followed, and the fetes, rejoicings, and public galas that for some weeks succeeded that event, compelled the young King to postpone the meeting with his Commons from the original time, 7th of May, to the 18th of June.
786. Independent of the immediate necessity he had for money to equip his fleet, and pay the army waiting on the coast for embarkation, Charles was personally in debt, from charges contracted while Prince of Wales ; besides which, he found his father's coffers not only empty, but outstanding claims upon the late King, which Charles took upon himself to defray, to the amount of £300,000.
787. How did the Parliament respond to the young King's statement of his affairs, in a war that had teen provoked entirely in obedience to the former Souse ?
By a mockery of the King's necessities, and a total disregard of the honour and engagements of the country. They granted him two subsidies, in all about £112,000; a sum so glaringly inadequate even to dispatching a part of the army, that it is difficult to understand the motives that at such a time, and under such circumstances, could have influenced the House in its dishonourable parsimony.
788. Why did the House take umbrage at the King's subsequent conduct ?
Because, unable to obtain money from Parliament for the exigencies of the State, Charles had recourse to a Benevolence, and issued Privy Seals for borrowing money from his subjects.
188 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHT.
IMPEACHMENT OP BUCKINGHAM.
789. These compulsory means of borrowing money, though frequently adopted in cases of emergency by previous sovereigns, had, however unjust and exacting on the subject, hitherto been silently submitted to by the people; but now men began to question the Monarch's right to levy by such illegal means, and maintained, with sullen discontent, and In outspoken terms, that no antiquity of precedent, and no necessity of occasion, could sanction a wanton injustice.
790. Did the extorted loan aid the King in liis pur- pose ?
The amount raised was very disproportionate to the occasion ; but by means of the sums sent into the Exchequer, and by loans raised from other quarters, Charles was enabled to equip and dispatch his fleet by the 1st of October.
791. This armament consisted of eighty ships of all tonnage, carrying an army of 10,000 men, the whole under the command of Sir Edward Cecil, created Viscount "Wimbleton, aiid was ordered to sail direct for Cadiz, and there, after landing the troops, wait for the homeward-bound Plate fleet. On arriving before Cadiz, Cecil found the bay full of Spanish galleons of great value; but instead of cutting out or boarding the prizes, in a bold and skilful manner, he made some crude and preposterous attempts that finally ended in a repulse, and covered the affair with contempt. After this failure the troops were landed, and, with their national gallantry, carried a fort, and made good their lodgment. The want of discipline, however, rendered this success nugatory; for the men having become intoxicated from the large stock of wine captured, were rendered unfit for duty, and Cecil gave orders for their immediate embarkation, and with an inglorious precipitancy stood out to sea, with the professed object of inter- cepting the Indian fleet; but the license indulged in by the soldiers, and the ill-ventilated ships, brought the plague among the troops and crew, and the disease spreading with fearful havoc through the men, Cecil gave the signal to return, and about eight weeks after its departure, this ill- fated expedition, covered with disgrace and odium, re-entered the Downs.
792. Why was the Duke of Buckingham impeached ? His impeachment was a measure of retaliation on the King
and Court, instigated by the Earl of Bristol, for Charles' accusation of high treason against the Earl ; for his presumption in taking his seat in the House of Peers, while still lying under the Sovereign's command to confine himself to his own house j and for other contumacious conduct.
793. Charles having summoned another Parliament with no better result than the former— the House granting him only three subsidies, equivalent to a hundred and sixty thousand pounds, a sum preposterously insufficient—
THE HISTORICAL BEASON WHY. 189
JOHX HAMPDEir,
he was once more compelled to resort to those arbitrary and unconstitu- tional means to obtain money that— though in former times it was exacted by the Prince, and paid by the people without complaint-in the present temper of men's minds, and the growing power and influence of the House of Commons, could not be resumed without exciting deep and general dis- content, a feeling which found such an echo in the House, and was there denounced with such warmth as a violation of the rights of the subject and a breach of the constitution, that from that circumstance Charles had to date all his after urihappiness, and that breach with his Parliament that ended in the loss of his head. Of all those indiscreet actions which the parsimony of the House drove the unfortunate King to adopt, none was more unpopular, or the immediate cause of such momentous consequences, as the compulsory levy called the ship-money.
794. Why was this the cause of such heats and ani- mosities in the nation, and what was the result of the discussion ?
The causes were many already, though so early in the reign. The breach between the King and the Parliament had become serious ; and Charles, careless of hiding the resentment he felt against the Commons, did all he could to show his displeasure and violate their prejudices ; and, among other impolitic measures, openly compounded with the Catholics for a large sum of money to grant them a dispensation of the penal laws in force against their religion. Independent of many new and vexatious imposts levied on the people, Charles issued writs through every county for the arbitrary raising of a sum of money for the express purpose of building and equipping a fleet for the defence of the country. Though highly obnoxious to the people, it was not till some years later that his right to levy such a tax was openly questioned by John Hampden, who, in his own person, tried the question for the nation against the Crown; and though, through his servile judges, he was fined and condemned, his arguments produced such a revolution in men's minds, that from that hour may be dated Charles' declension from the throne to the block.
795. By this measure it was rendered compulsory on every maritime town, according to its population, to equip a certain number of well-armed and efficiently-manned vessels of war, at their own and the expense of the county— the City of London being rated at twenty ships. Among the irregular impositions adopted by Charles this time to raise money may be
190 THE HISTORICAL REASON TTHT.
CONTEST BETWEEN THE KING ASD HIS PARLIAMENT.
mentioned tonnage and poundage; a county assessment towards the expense of the Militia; compositions \rith recusants, the Catholics paying a large part of the annual revenue for the tolerance of their religion; fines and compositions exacted from owners of land with faulty titles, and another upon all who possessed £200 a year, and neglected, according to an old law of Edward II., to claim Knighthood from the Sovereign ; a stamp duty on cards ; the sale of monopolies ; and last, and greatest of all, the inquisitorial and tyrannous exactions and fines of the Star Chamber. By all these means, however, Charles was enabled, in a few years, to equip one of the finest fleets the country had, up to that time, ever possessed. A formidable armament of sixty sail, under the command of the Earl of Northumberland, was sent to sea, and used at first as a means of exacting £30,000 from the Dutch for one year's privilege of fishing in British waters.
796. Why was war declared against France, and what was the result of the Duke's expedition ?
In reality to gratify the personal vanity and pique of the Duke of Buckingham against his rival, the French Prime Minister, Richelieu; but ostensibly to assist the French Pro- testants, the Huguenots, shut up and besieged in the town of Rochelle. To effect this object, July, 1627, a fleet of a hundred sail, with an army of seven thousand men, was despatched under the sole command of Buckingham. But so totally unfit was he for any military command, that he arrived in view of the town before the besieged had heard of his intended succour, and believing his coming was only a stratagem, designed by their enemy Richelieu to entrap them, they refused to let him land his men or enter their town. Failing in this direction, the Duke sailed to the Isle of Rhe, an unimportant, and, if taken, useless acquisition; and here landing his troops, com- menced military operations against the forts and castle, but in a manner so rash and precipitate, that he sacrificed two-thirds of his force through the impolicy of his measures, and at last was compelled to retreat to his ships, and return to England with the disgraceful tidings of his own defeat, and the nega- tive credit of personal courage and hardihood.
797. Why did the Souse frame a remonstrance to the King, and what was its nature ?
The King's abrupt determination to dissolve Parliament, from the boldness of the House in compelling the officers of the
THE HISTOBICAL SEASON WHY. 191
ASSASSINATION OF BUCKINGHAM.
Customs to give an account of their authority for distraining on merchants' goods for tonnage and poundage, and for their committing the Sheriff of London to the Tower for illegally countenancing their levy. When apprised that they were to be dissolved, the Speaker was violently seized and held in his chair while the members framed their hasty protest. In this remonstrance all Papists and Arminians, a sect who believed in freewill and universal redemption, were declared capital enemies of the State. Tonnage and poundage was condemned as con- trary to law, and not only those who raised it, but those who paid it were declared guilty of capital crimes.
798. Why was the Duke of Buckingham at Ports- mouth when, he was assassinated, and what led to his death ?
Ashamed of the disgraceful result of the expedition to Rochelle, another armament, under the Earl of Denbigh, had been sent out to endeavour to raise the siege; but having returned without effecting its object, Buckingham was resolved to dispatch a third fleet, to the relief of the invested city, more complete than either of the previous expeditions; and to super- intend and personally direct the equipment, he posted down to the chief arsenal in the kingdom to expedite the arrangements, when he was murdered by a gloomy and enthusiastic fanatic, one Fenton, a disappointed officer, who had served under the Duke in the first expedition.
799. So great was the discontent of the nation, that the officers appointed to collect the subsidies, openly connived at all kinds of frauds in the payment of the assessments, the better thereby to embarrass the King. To remedy this state of affairs, and compel the officials to execute their duty with honesty, was also one of Buckingham's motives in hastening to Ports- mouth, to which place Fenton had followed him, and, sharing a common opinion among the fanatics of the time, that the murder of a tyrant, and an oppressor of the people, was a meritorious action, both acceptable to God and glorious to the country, Fenton entered the room where the Duke was holding a levee of his officers, watched his opportunity, and as Buckingham turned to leave, struck him to the heart with a long-bladed knife, over the shoulder of Sir Thomas Fryar, and then hurried to the street. The Duke, only exclaiming, " The villain has killed me," drew the weapon from his breast, and fell dead in the room.
192 THE HISTOBICAL REASON WHY.
BEVOLT IN SCOTLAND.
800. Why did Charles conclude peace with France and Spain immediately after this event, and ivhom did he take as councillors ?
Being destitute of money, and having resolved to summon no more Parliaments, peace became the wisest course he could adopt : and that he might better devote his time to the internal policy and welfare of the kingdom, Charles associated two men with himself in the task of Government, whose devotion to their Sovereign and sense of duty to the country subsequently cost each his head. These were Dr. Laud, afterwards Arch- bishop of Canterbury, and to whom the spiritual welfare of the country was entrusted ; and Sir Thomas Wentworth, created Earl of Strafford, to whose hands the foreign and domestic interests of the nation were confided.
801. How did Charles excite the revolt in Scotland?
By endeavouring to force the reading of the Liturgy in the service of the Presbyterian religion, which so offended the people that they flew to arms ; and though prevented by ex- planations and treaties for a time from open insurrection — finding at last that they were only trifled with — the whole country broke out into such open defiance of the royal authority that to maintain his prerogative Charles was compelled to meet the rebellion by force of arms.
802. What was the result of this attempt to establish the Canons and Liturgy of the English Church in Scot- land?
The formation of the Solemn League and Covenant, and the abolition of Episcopacy in that country.
803. Why, after a lapse of eleven years, did Charles issue writs for a new Parliament ?
Because, having tried every means to raise supplies, by the Star Chamber, illegal levies, forced benevolencies, foreign and domestic loans, by ship-money, and every ancient stretch of the prerogative, and failing in all to raise a sufficient sum to enable
THE niSTOEICAL SEASON WHY. 193
SUMMONING OF THE LONG PABXIAMENT.
him to carry on the functions of the state, and punish his rebellious subjects, no other alternative remained for the unfor- tunate King- to adopt.
804. Why, and in what year, was the last Parliament in Charles' reign, called the Long Parliament, summoned?
The former House, having refused the King any supplies, was at once dissolved; and, hoping to meet more compliance from another, that remarkable assembly was called together by Charles, on the 3rd of November, 1640, which exercised such extraordinary influence on the destinies of the country, and, for the long period of thirty-nine years, may be said to have ruled the nation with greater authority than any monarch who ever swayed its fortunes.
805. What were the first measures of the Long Par- liament ?
After having declared all the previous acts of the King to raise money an abuse and breach of the Constitution, they im- peached both Strafford and Laud, who, having been brought to trial, were condemned and subsequently executed — Strafford in 1641, and Laud in 1643. Besides these violent measures, bills were brought in and passed to abolish the High Court of Com- mission and the Star Chamber, and Charles found himself at once deprived of his friends and ministers, and the great instruments of his prerogative.
806. What led to the » rebellion in Ireland, and the massacre of the Protestants ?
The hope inspired in the breasts of the Catholic party in that country, by the unsettled state of affairs in England, to recover their former religious supremacy. A conspiracy was accordingly formed among the Papists, to murder, on one day, all the Pro- testants on the island — a massacre that has been unparalleled in the annals of the world for its fiendish barbarity ; as neither the ties of blood, obligations of friendship, nor respect to age or sex, had any influence on the savage butchers, who are esti-
194 THE HISTORICAL EEASON TTHT.
CAUSES OS THE KING'S EUPTUEE WITH THE COMMONS.
mated to have slaughtered, on that occasion, above 100,000 of unarmed and unsuspecting Protestants.
807. Wliat led, to the final rupture" between tlie King and Parliament^ and what was the consequence of that breach ?
The King having violated the privileges of the Commons by entering the House and endeavouring to seize the five personally obnoxious members, and his determined refusal to part with the prerogative of the sword. Upon this, both parties prepared for war — one to maintain the little authority yet left him, the other to wrench all power from the Crown and establish a dynasty of the people.
80S. Charles, having been compelled, one bygone, to acquiesce in the abroga- tion of his royal rights, and submit to so many abatements of his regal privi- leges, as well as yielding the custody of all the arsenals and towns of strength into the hands of the Parliament, that when at last insolently asked to sur- render the right and authority of the army, his patience, wearied with granting concessions that only led to further demands, and feeling that longer com- pliance with exactions aimed at his humiliation would be derogatory to himself and criminal to the country, resolutely refused to comply with this last indignity ; and when further virged to resign the command of his army to the Parliament, for at least a time, exclaimed, with more than his usual heat, "No; not for an hour!" Upon this, both parties threw off all disguise, and prepared to decide their differences by arms. The King at once gathered around him his friends, or the Cavaliers as they were called ; and leaving London, which was devotedly in the interest of the House of Commons, and had embodied 4,000 men in one day, proceeded to York— Sir John Hotham having shut the gates of Hull, with all its magazine of arms, against him— and for greater security while his friends were mustering, retired to Shrews- bury, where he appointed Lord Lindesey General of all his Forces, Prince Rupert to the command of the Horse, and Sir Jacob Anstey of the Infantry. At the same time the Puritans, or Parliamentarians, as the executive of the Commons were called, having seized the navy and appointed Essex Commander of the Army, enlisted men in all parts, making each soldier swear he would live and die with his General, and finally issued orders for the raising of contributions for the support of the troops and the safety of the State.
809. Who were the Princes Eupert and Maurice?
Charles' nephews, the sons of his sister Elizabeth, who had married the Palatine, and who had come to England on the breaking out of the war to offer their services to their un- fortunate uncle.
THE HISTOEICAL BEASON WHY. 195
BATTIE OF EDGE DILL, AND AEBOGANCE OP THE PAIILIAMENT.
810. Why did Charles remove his army from Shrews- lury?
To meet the advancing Parliamentarians, who, to the number of nearly twenty thousand, were approaching, under the com- mand of Essex, and who encountered the Royalists at a village called Edge Hill, near the borders of Warwick ; and though in the action that ensued both armies kept the field, yet the retreat of Essex on the following day gave the honour of the battle to Charles. In this short and first passage of arms five thousand men were left dead, the loss on both sides being nearly equal.
811. What was the result of the first campaign, and who were the chief men of note who fell ?
Decidedly favourable to the Royal cause. The King lost onq of his most devoted friends, the amiable and beloved Lord Faulkland ; and the Parliament and the country its patriot and champion, John Hampden.
812. Why was the Parliament so arrogant under its Josses, and why did it refuse all overtures of accom- modation made by Charles after each victory?
Because another element was rising out of the fanatical spirit of the times — a sect violently opposed to the Presbyterians, and who aimed at the total extinction of all monarchical and aristo- cratic institutions; in other words, the Independents — and this party was gradually working its way to power in the House, and greatly influenced its decisions. Besides, their disasters were soon repaired: they levied a new army of 14,000 men in the east, the command of which was given to the Earl of Manchester, and another of 10,000 under Sir William Waller; these, with Essex's force, and a large body of Scots, who marched into Eng- land to their assistance, gave them a strength that the King's crippled supplies, and the trifling assistance brought him from time to time from Holland by the Queen, could not long resist.
H 2
196 THE HISTOBICAL REASON WHY.
KING- CHABLES SUBBENDEBS TO THE SCOTCH.
813. Why was Prince Rupert's rashness fatal to Charles' fortunes, and the immediate consequence of the ruin of his cause ?
By having, in contempt of Newcastle's advice, hazarded the Battle of Marston Moor, which, by the destruction of the finest army Charles ever had, exposed him to the final defeat of Naseby, which led to the betrayal and death of the King.
814. The Duke of Newcastle, being closely besieged in York by Leven and Fairfax, and reduced to the last extremity, Rupert levied an army of 25,000 men in the counties of Lancashire and Cheshire, and resolved to raise the siege; and having thrown in provisions and effected a junction with Newcastle, instead of resting contented with the good effected, and arro- gantly despising all counsel, led out his army to attack the enemy on Marston Heath— a battle in which more than 50,000 Englishmen were armed against each other, and which was fought with an obstinacy never surpassed on any field of battle, whole regiments dying where they stood, and making a rampart of the dead, over which the living had to mount to confront the foe. Crom- well, who in this battle first held a post of command, was opposed to Rupert,, whom he ultimately drove off the field; while Lucas, who commanded the left wing of the Royalists, routed the troops of Fairfax and Leven. Cromwell, on his return from pursuing Rupert, having to renew the action, which finally terminated in the total rout of the Royal army, with the loss of all their artillery and military stores.
815. Why, after the Battle of Naseby, did Charles sur- render to the Scotch ?
Because he dreaded the indignities to which the Parliamentary soldiers might subject him, and trusted to the loyalty of his national subjects for better treatment than he thought he could expect from the Commons.
816. How did the Parliament act, when apprised of the King's surrender?
They sent commissioners to the Scotch army at Newcastle, to treat for the King's person ; the Scots ultimately receiving a sum amounting to £400,000, under the name of the arrears due to their army, but in reality for the infamous sale of their King.
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 107
PRESBYTEEIANS AND INDEPENDENTS.
817. What was tlie state of the House of Commons at this juncture of affairs ?
Split like the nation into two great factions, or parties, Pres- byterians and Independents, who, by the authority they possessed, kept all other sects — and there were many, each emulous of power — completely in subjection, — the Protestant doctrine, or Prelacy, as it was called, being little less obnoxious to all parties than that universal theme of alarm and bigoted intolerance, the Papacy.
818. The great distinction between these two powerful religious parties of the state lay chiefly in this: that the Presbyterians maintained a form of Church government, denominated an assembly, or synod, composed of the clergy of the district, and some of the elders of the congregations, and to which body all questions having reference to the welfare of the Church were sub- mitted; at the same time they rejected the authority of prelates, ignored the use of the Liturgy, abolished all expensive shows, and prohibited, as far as pos- sible, all ceremonials. The Independents, on the other hand, repudiated all ecclesiastical government whatever, and would allow of no spiritual jurisdiction among pastors, disdained systems and creeds, and abolished all forms, ordi- nances, ceremonies, and customs, each congregation forming a church in itself, and, as they rejected all distinctions between the laity and the clergy, whoever the congregation elected as their pastor, so long as he possessed zeal, was unanimously approved by the great body of hearers. The political opinions of these religionists were in keeping with their theological tenets. The Presbyterians, as they retained a certain form of ecclesiastical govern- ment, wished to maintain the national system of magistracy, only correcting abuses, abridging the exclusive power of the Crown, and fixing on definite grounds the liberty of the subject. The Independents, on the other hand, aimed at the total overthrow of monarchy, universal franchise, and equality, and the establishment of a republican form of government.
819. Why did Charles escape from his confinement at Hampton Court, and fly to the Isle of Wight?
Out of apprehension of violence from the army, which, com- posed almost exclusively of Independents, had become too power- ful for the Parliament to restrain, and who, regarding Charles as a tyrant, stained with the blood of his people, would have had no hesitation in sacrificing him to their mistaken sense of justice.
820. Why, upon being re-captured, was he not imme- diately Irought to trial?
Because it was necessary to prepare men's minds for so bold
108 THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY.
THE TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF CHAELES.
and unprecedented a proceeding ; and this was effected by spread- ing slanders among the people, attributing every kind of tyranny and injustice to the King ; and, further to ensure success, Cromwell beset the House with a strong body of soldiers, who stopped and violently carried away one hundred and sixty of the Presbyterian members, so that when the bill was brought in, impeaching the King of " high treason, in having levied war against his Parliament," it met with instant acquiescence from the body of Independent members, who were left to constitute the House of Commons.
821. Why did Charles, wlien brought to trial, refuse to defend himself, or plead to the allegation ?
First, that as he was the King, and fountain of all law, he could not be tried by laws to which he had never given his assent ; and second, as there were no peers present to con- stitute a House of Lords, he denied the power of the court to try him.
822. What was the result of the King's olstinacy ?
The court on the third day received the evidence of witnesses, who having sworn to seeing the King in arms against the Par- liament, the judges, in the name of the people, the "source of all power and authority," found him guilty, upon which he was led back to Whitehall, and, on the 30th of January, 1649, pub- licly beheaded in front of the Palace.
823. The history of few princes presents so pure and blameless a life as that of Charles Stuart. It was his misfortune to live in troublous times, and to pay in his own person for the arbitrary encroachments of more despotic and less conscientious princes. He died with the modest calmness of a brave man, and the resignation of a martyr, in the forty-ninth year of his .nge, and the twenty-fourth of his reign.
THE IIISTOBICAL REASON WHY. 199
THE HEPUBLIC OF ENGLAND.
THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE PKOTECTOEATE.
FROM 1649 TO 1660.
824. What form of Government succeeded on the execution of Charles, and the abolition of Royalty ?
A Eepublican form of Government, entitled the Common- wealth of England, with Cromwell as the directing spirit of the constitution.
825. Why did the Parliament entrust him with such authority, and luho was Oliver Cromwell?
From the remarkable talent he evinced in all important trusts reposed in him, and from the singular vigour and re- solution with which he prosecuted, and the success that attended, all his undertakings ; besides this, having expelled all the Pres- byterians from the House, leaving only a remnant of that great representative body, now called the Rump, amounting to about sixty members, and all of the Independent party, they were in a measure bound to support him, as they held their authority through his sufferance.
826. Oliver Cromwell, the younger branch of an ancient and respectable family, was born in Huntingdon, in the year 1599. His earlier years were spent in a course of such reckless extravagance, gambling, dissipation, and vice, as materially crippled the small inheritance leffc him by his father. Waking abruptly from this vicious course, he assumed a life of rigid decorum and Puritanical piety, married, and entered upon many schemes to retrieve his broken fortunes; and among other pursuits adopted farming, but with so little success that but for some property left him by a relative his patrimony would have been insufficient for his requirements. By accident he was returned for Cambridge to the Long Parliament, where he remained without displaying any evidence of that great capacity for command and aptitude for business that subsequently distinguished his career ; and it was riot till the breaking out of the civil war, and he had obtained a post of command in the army of the Parliament, that he displayed those traits of consummate genius that soon after raised him above Fairfax, Essex, "Waller, Leslie, and all the Puritan generals of the English and Scotch army. It was through the mere force of his character, an imperious and domi-
200 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
CBOJIWELL'S VICTORIOUS CAEEEB, IN IRELAND AND SCOTLAND.
neering temper, a seeming devotion to civil and religious liberty, a refined artifice, and a profound dissimulation, that he became at this juncture of affairs both the foremost man in the nation, and the expectation and trust of both Parliament and people.
827. Why did the Parliament give the chief command of the army to Cromwell, and what expeditions did he undertake ?
Because Fairfax and the other generals refused to act against their own party, the Presbyterians — scruples that, as an Indepen- dent, Cromwell did not feel. His first proceeding was to pass into Ireland, where, under O'Neil, the whole country was in arms for the youthful Charles. Here, with his usual success, he overran the entire kingdom, storming cities, besieging castles, and fighting pitched battles, till, in a few months, not a hostile trooper was to be found in the length and breadth of the island. Leaving Ireton to suppress any after rising, he returned to receive the thanks of the Parliament ; and, as the Scots had made Charles the Second King, and were preparing an army to restore him to his English throne, Cromwell immediately marched into Scotland, and, in a succession of brilliant victories, restored the country to peace and order, compelling Charles, with the remnant of his forces, to seek safety in flight. Leaving Monk to tranquillize Scotland, Cromwell followed the King by rapid marches to England, and terminated a succession of splendid victories by the crowning triumph of the Battle of Worcester, where all Charles' hopes were ruined, and the last embers of the civil war were trodden out ; the fugitive King, after many wonderful escapes, returning to his retreat on the Continent.
828. Hoiv was Cromwell received in London?
In triumph: the House of Commons with their Speaker, the Lord Mayor and Council in their robes, coming out to meet and publicly thank him.
829. Why did Cromwell turn the members out of the Souse, take away the mace, and lock the door?
Because they had answered his purpose, and it was no longer necessary to keep up the disguise and hypocrisy that had hitherto
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 201
CEOMWELL PEOTECTOE.
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cloaked all his actions. The army, which was devoted to his cause, immediately declared him Protector of the Realm and Commonwealth of England, with the title of " Highness ;" and Cromwell, in reward for its services, gave the troops a month's pay, and elected his Council of State out of the most useful of its officers.
830. Why was this assumption of almost regal power gladly concurred in by the nation ?
From the heats and contentions that the rancour of fanaticism and party feeling had extended over the country, to the in- terruption and ruin of all social and business pursuits. Affairs had come to such a crisis through the furious animosities of the different factions, that for the welfare of the country some one armed with despotic power became absolutely necessary ; and till he threw off the mask, each party looked on Cromwell as the man best suited for the time and purpose.
831. What were the chief occurrences of the Pro- tectorate ?
The war with Holland and the many naval victories gained over the States by Monk, in which above 1,600 ships — men-of- war and merchantmen — were taken from the Dutch; the treaty with Prance against Spain; the burning of a Spanish fleet of sixteen sail at the Canaries, and capture of their treasure -ships by Blake, who, sailing into the Mediterranean, compelled the Duke of Tuscany and the Deys of Tunis and Algiers to apologise and make restitution for insults to British subjects; the capture of Jamaica and the settlement of St. Helena; with the storm and surrender of Dunkirk to England by France.
832. Why did Cromwell refuse the Grown when so urgently tendered him by the Parliament?
From motives of personal safety, as the Royalists had vowed to assassinate him if he should ever ascend the throne ; also through an apprehension of a revolt in the army, should he accept the offered sceptre : but most of all through the threats, entreaties, and remonstrances of his own family.
202
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
DEATH AND CHABACTER OP CEOMWEL1.
833. SbtOj and of what, did the Lord Protector die ?
He died of a tertian ague on the day on which he had gained his most remarkable victories, and expired during a fearful hurricane of rain and wind, on the 3rd of September, 1658, in the 59th year of his age, and the 9th of his Protectorate.
834. No Monarch ever raised the reputation of England, at home or abroad, to such a height of national greatness and honour as it acquired under the firm, patriotic, and courageous conduct of Oliver Cromwell. He compelled foreign nations to do homage to her greatness, and strike their ensigns in presence of her flag, and everywhere acknowledge her mistress of the sea; while in each kingdom in Europe he protected her rights, compelled justice, and enforced respect to every citizen of the British Empire.
B'EHTISGT - DIVRNAliL
o F THE
AN AUTHENTIC SKETCH OP THE PURITAN PARLIAMENT, COPIED PBO THE HEADING OB A NEWSPAPER OP THE PEEIOD.
835. Why did his son, Richard Cromwell, resign the Protectorate ? Though want of courage and capacity have been assigned as
THE HISTORICAL BEASON WHY. 203
ABDICATION OP BICHABD CEOMWELI,, AND ACCESSION OF CHARLES THE SECOND.
the cause, it is evident that the motives which swayed his determination are entitled to a higher and more virtuous inter- pretation, in which a principle of justice, a desire of restitution, and a wish in his own person to atone, as far as possible, for the wrong and usurpation of his father, seem unquestionably to have instigated a course which the rancour of faction and the malevolence of the times construed to be unmanly fears and moral incapacity. Seeing also the growing arrogance of the army, that, like the Eoman Prastorian Guard, assumed all authority ; and knowing his inability to curb, as his father Lad done, the ignorant and fanatical natures of which it was composed, wisely resolved on that course which he proved the happiest for himself and the best for England, and after a reign of seven months signed, on the 22nd of April, 1659, his formal abdication.
835. Fleetwood, from whom the greatest opposition was to be apprehended, renounced all pretension to the Protectorate, and gave his adhesion to Richard's title. His brother, Henry Cromwell, Governor of Ireland, assured him of the support of that «ountry. While Monk proclaimed him in Scotland, the army and the fleet unanimously sent in their adhesion, and acknowledged his supremacy. More than ninety addresses were forwarded from the counties, and all the corporations congratulated him on his accession, while foreign states sent ambassadors to pay homage and congratulate Richard on his assumption of the Protectorate. So that it may with justice be said that no Monarch could have more peaceably or happily ascended a throne than the son of the brewer of Huntingdon, Richard Cromwell, accepted the lirst magistracy of Great Britain.
CHAELES THE SECOND. FROM 1660 TO 1685.
837. Why were the people early disappointed with tlieir new King, whose return they had nailed with such demonstrations of delight ?
Because they found that his agreeable person, elegant address, engaging manner, and mature years, which had fascinated all beholders, and promised, with the severe teaching of his long
204 THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
MARRIAGE OP CHARLES AND SALE OB DUNKIRK.
misfortunes, so many advantages to the nation, only covered a rooted indolence, love of pleasure, and a total disregard of all business.
838. Why did Tie marry the Infanta of Portugal, from which union Tie was warned no issue could ever spring ?
From the necessity he had for money; the Princess's dower of £300,000 being a bribe of ready money, which his love of sensual pleasures would not permit him to refuse. Besides this, she brought as part of her fortune the Fortress of Tangier, in Africa, opposite Gibraltar, and the Castle and City of Bombay, in the East Indies.
839. Why did Charles declare war against the Dutch, and what was the result of that contest ?
To recruit his exhausted funds ; for as he knew the money the Parliament granted to carry on the war would pass through his hands, he was unscrupulous enough to appropriate a large portion of it to his own uses, to squander on his mistresses and favourites.
840. This war, which raged with excessive animosity, was carried on at immense sacrifice of blood and treasure, until at last both sides, weary of longer hostilities, signed the treaty of Breda, by which Holland ceded for ever the colony of New York to the English. The annals of no maritime nation present such a series of desperate battles, as those which, at this time, took place between these two nations for the mastery of the seas ; and in which the success of one side to-day, was counterbalanced by that of the other to-morrow. On one occasion the fight was continued for four days, and twice were the Dutch swept from the sea, and blockaded in their harbours.
841. What were the most disgraceful acts of Charles' reign ?
The sale of Dunkirk to the French for £400,000; the appropriation of nearly two millions, granted by Parliament to carry on the war, and in consequence of which the country had to suffer the greatest disgrace ever inflicted on a nation; for the Dutch, finding no fleet to guard the coast, sailed up the Medway, burnt the dockyards and ships at Chatham, and
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 205
DOMESTIC OCCUKBENCES AND DEATH OE CHABXES.
outraged the dignity of the people by twice entering the Thames, and insulting all the towns on the coast. And, lastly, his taking an annual bribe from the French Monarch, to break the Triple Alliance, and allow Louis to invade Holland.
842. What were the chief domestic events of this reign ?
The robbery of the regalia and crown jewels, by Blood; the disturbance with the Covenanters in Scotland, and their defeat at the Battle of Bothwell Brig; the number of plots that were got up by infamous persons, for the purpose of being rewarded for their supposed revelations ; the forfeiture of all the City charters, by the King, as a means of raising money, by compelling each town to buy them back again; and the trial and execution of Lord William Kussell and Algernon Sydney, for participating in Monmouth's intended insurrection.
843. What great calamities oefel the City of London during this reign ?
The breaking out, in 1665, of one of the most fearful plagues that had ever visited the city, above 90,000 of the inhabitants fall- ing victims to its frightful ravages ; and the 3rd of September in the following year, 1666, occurred the Great Fire of London, a conflagration that destroyed four hundred streets and lanes, and thirteen thousand houses, besides an immense number of churches and public buildings.
844. In what religion did Charles die?
In that of the Church of Home, to which he had been gradually approaching for many years, having even promised the French King to restore the Papacy. Charles having been seized with a sudden fit of apoplexy, expired after a few days' illness, on the 6th of February, 1685, in the 59th year of his age and 25th of his reign.
845. Aa a man the character of Charles presents many sterling quali- ties that might have become virtues. He was an excellent master, an affable companion, a kind brother, and an indulgent father; but his friendship was weak, and his gratitude feeble. As a King, he was dangerous to his people, faithless with his allies, and dishonourable to himself.
206
THE niSTOElCAL BEASON WHY.
JAMES THE SECOND'S BIGOTED POLICY.
JAMES THE SECOND.
FKOM 1685 TO 1688. 846, Who was James the Second, and what were his
James, Duke of York, who succeeded his brother, was the second son of Charles the First, and had been reared by his
THE PLAGUE DBESS, -WORN BY THOSE WHO ATTENDED OK, AND BtTKIED THE DEAD.
mother in the devout observances of the Catholic Church, a faith in which he had always lived ; and so blindly was he biassed
THE HISTOKICAL EEASON WHY. 207
MONMOTJTH'S EEBSLLI03T.
to its tenets, that, forgetting the temper of his subjects, and unmindful of the terrible lesson taught in his father's lifetime and consummated by his tragical death, he was rash enough to attempt to force the English people into the acceptance of his own religion, and to acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, — an infatuated policy that inflamed the whole nation with animosity to his person and rule, embittered his life, and changed his character, from that of a humane and moderate prince, into a bigoted tyrant, led to the revolt of his subjects, and those judicial murders which were the disgrace of the age.
847. Why did Monmouth, having lecn pardoned in the last reign for his former insurrection, seels to stir up fresh dissension in this?
Ostensibly to save the nation from the tyranny of James, and maintain the Protestant religion. For this purpose Argyle was to rouse the Scotch in the north, and, leading his army into England, join Monmouth, who was to land in the west, and with their united forces make for London, and there compel the King to change his ministers, and adopt a milder policy towards the people. But Argyle being encountered by the Royal forces, was defeated, made prisoner, and led captive to Edinburgh, where he terminated his life and treason on the scaffold.
848. .Tames Walters, created by his indulgent father Knight of the Bath, and Duke of Monmouth, was young, handsome, brave, and chivalrous, idolized by the soldiers and beloved by the nation, a large portion of whom were ready enough to overlook his bastardy, and accept him with acclamations as their King. Buoyed up with the hope of dethroning his uncle, and securing the Crown as heir of his father Charles, Monmouth landed with a few followers at Dorset, and such was his popularity, that in a few days he was at the head of a large force, and, advancing to Taunton, Bridgewater, Wells, and Frome, was at each place proclaimed as King, issued proclamations, and treated everywhere with the respect of Sove- reignty. To check this formidable rebellion the Earl of Faversham was dispatched with all the available troops, and meeting the rebels on Sedge- moor, totally defeated them. Monmouth, flying from the field, never drew bridle for twenty miles, when his horse falling dead, he was obliged to seek shelter in a pea-field, where he lay in the ditches and furrows, covered with straw and weeds, for some days. At length, tracked by tho vigilance of his pursuers and their bloodhounds, this son of a King, dis- guised in rags, half starved with hunger and cold, one pocket filled with
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
JUDGE JEFFERIES AND HIS VINDICTIVE PUNISHMENTS.
raw peas, aud in the other his diamond George, was dragged forth and at once led before the King, when, forgetting all the heroism of his former life, and overwhelmed by misfortune, he threw himself on his knees, and, in abject cowardice, implored his uncle to spare his life; but James having still further humiliated the suppliant, by making him, in the hope of pardon, write a declaration of his own bastardy, with a cold sneer signed his death-warrant, and sent him to the block, where, having recovered his fortitude, he died as became a soldier and the son of a King.
849. Why was the name of Judge Jeferies so odious to the people, and the cause of such universal disgust and terror ?
From the wanton barbarity that marked his conduct in the
THE HALIFAX MAIDEN, OE GIBBET ; AN INSTRUMENT OF CAPITAL AND GENERAL PUNISHMENT, USED AFTER THE MONMOUTH REBELLION.
trial of the prisoners taken in Monmouth's rebellion, this execrable wretch often officiating as hangman, and seeming to gloat over the despair and agony he created.
THE HISTOEICAL REASON "WHY. 209
SEVEN BISHOPS SENT TO THE TOWEE.— ARRIVAL OB THE PEINCE OF ORANGE.
850. What Bishops were committed to the Tower ly James, and for what offence ?
Seven: the Bishops of St. Asaph, Bath and Wells, Ely, Chichester, Peterborough, London, and the Lord Primate. Their offence was having refused to read the declaration for liberty of conscience, after service.
851. Why was William, Prince of Orange, invited to come to England at this critical juncture of affairs ?
Because the nation looked to him, as a firm Protestant, and the husband of Mary, James's daughter, as the only man who could save the country from the bigoted tyranny of its present ruler.
852. What loas the consequence of William's landing his forces at Torbay ?
Almost all the officers of state deserted James, and fled to the invader; every county poured out its most honoured names, and the people everywhere flocked in masses to his side ; till James, finding himself deserted by the army, his friends, and kindred, secretly sent off the Queen and her infant, the Prince of Wales, to France, and then in the night-time left his palace, threw the Great Seal into the river, and wandered no one knew whither.
853. This is the only epoch of James' life in which his misfortunes call for our sympathy ; for so universal was the disaffection, that neither love nor gratitude could retain a friend by the fallen Monarch. One daughter and her husband were in arms against him, and even his most beloved child Anne, and her consort, Prince George of Denmark, though pro- fessing love and duty to the last, suddenly left him to join his enemy. " God help me," he cried, in the extremity of his agony, "my own children have forsaken me ! "
854. What circumstances followed the King's flight ?
The army was disbanded by its General, and the Bishops formed a Council of State till the arrival of the Prince of Orange. In the meantime, James was taken prisoner at Faversham, and
210 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
THE CEOWN CONFEEEED Off THE PEINCE OF OEAIfGE.
brought back to London, but which, by permission of the Prince, he again left in a few days, and secretly taking ship from Chatham, landed in France, and proceeded to join his Queen at St. Germains.
WILLIAM AND MAEY.
FROM 1689 TO 1701.
855. What was the conduct of Parliament upon finding tlie throne vacant?
The House of Peers and Commons, having taken into con- sideration the state of the country, first declared King James to have deserted the throne, and to be civilly dead, ignoring the existence, as if illegitimate, of the infant Prince of Wales ; they next declared the crown to be vested in the Princess Mary and the Prince of Orange, her husband, but the sole administration to remain in the hands of the Prince. The Princess Anne to succeed after the demise of William and Mary, and her posterity to succeed to the throne, after those of the Prince, but before those by any other wife than Mary.
856. How did William find Ms new subjects affected towards him?
He found them, though very dutiful, particularly watchful of their own rights, and jealous of his prerogatives, and more eager to examine his edicts than obey his authority.
857. What was the first important measure of Par- liament after the Coronation?
The settlement of the Eevenue. Hitherto all supplies granted by the country went to the Exchequer for the exclusive use of the Crown, out of which both the royal expenses and the charges of Government were defrayed, a course open to great objection, and the source of constant frauds, embezzlements, and mal-administration. It was consequently arranged to allow the Sovereign a certain annual sum out of the gross revenue
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
A CIVIL LIST GRANTED THE KING.— INVASION OF IRELAND BY JAMES, AND SIEGE OP DERBY.
for the Royal household and the maintenance of his dignity of £1,200,000, and a civil list of £600,000 ; the expenses of the State being defrayed out of the remainder, under the sole direction and authority of Parliament.
858. Why was the French King so ready to assist James to recover his Crown?
In the hope of creating a diversion of his enemy's forces, as William, in furtherance of his Dutch policy, had declared war against France.
859. Accordingly, on the 22nd of May, James, escorted by a French fleet of twenty sail of the line, and a large number of transports containing a store of arms and munitions, and carrying a small army, with, a body of French officers, landed at Kinsale, in Ireland, and James immediately assuming Royal authority, issued proclamations, coined money, and collecting an army of 40,000 men, proceeded north, and at once laid siege to London- derry.
860. Why did the siege of this insignificant town lecome so celebrated,?
From the great disparity of numbers between the two parties ; scarcely seven thousand ill-clad and badly-armed militia, with a few old guns, commanded by a clergyman, defending for months a walled town against 40,000 well-provided troops, under the most able French generals ; for the horrible barbarities inflicted on the surrounding inhabitants by James' army; the gallant defence of the besieged, the dreadful privations to which they were subjected, from hunger, fatigue, and the deprivation of every comfort. Succour having at last been thrown into the town, the Catholic army, despairing of success, raised the siege, after losing nearly 10,000 men in the fruitless attempt, and retreated before a handful of half-starved but heroic Protestants.
861. Why did not William proceed in person with the relieving army to Ireland?
Because he was too intent on carrying out his continental policy to spare the necessary time. The army was conse- quently entrusted to the command of his Dutch favourite, the aged Duke of Schomberg, who, after obtaining a few unini-
212 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
BATTLE OF THE BOYNE.— ESTABLISHMENT OP THE NATIONAL DEBT.
portant advantages, entrenched himself at Carlingford, and neglected striking a decisive blow. A fatal sickness at last breaking out in his camp, Schomberg saw half of his army swept away by disease, and the remainder too weak to put in motion for active operations.
862. Why was the engagement tJiat ensued on William' 's arrival called the Battle of the Boyne ?
Because this important and decisive encounter was fought on the banks of that river, in the county of Antrim.
863. It was across this river that either army surveyed the other, both sides being inflamed with all the animosity that springs from religious hatred and revenge. James was strongly posted on a rising ground, having the deep river, and afterwards a morass, in his front, while his son-in-law, William, was compelled to lead his soldiers breast-deep through the Boyne, to attack his position— an operation effected in three bodies, and under a furious cannonade from either bank. Having once gained the shore, the English troops formed, and plunging into the morass, gallantly struggled on, -till, reaching the Irish army, they charged them with such fury that their lines were quickly broken, when a fearful slaughter took place, the enemy being driven in total rout off the field. The subsequent Battle of Aughrim and the Siege of Limerick decided the fate of James in Ireland, from whence he returned to France, and died about seven years after the defeat on the Boyne, A.D. 1700.
864. Why does the National Delt owe its origin to William ?
William, anxious to carry on his continental wars, and humble the power of the French King, came to an under- standing with the Parliament to waive the greater part of his prerogative, and allow them to govern the country, on condition that they supplied him with sufficient funds for the ample prosecution of his continental wars. For this purpose the Par- liament mortgaged for many years the national revenue, and raised immense sums of money, the whole of which were expended on his foreign campaigns, while England became hampered with a debt that has gone on increasing, to such an extent that there is no probability of its ever being paid, and costs a revenue only to defray the amount required for the yearly interest.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON "WHY. 213
MASSACRE OF GLENCOE.— DEATH OF WILLIAM.
865. What memorable event occurred in Scotland in tliis reign?
The massacre of Glencoe ; a horrible atrocity committed under the direct warrant of the King, and in which thirty-eight of the Macdonald clan, including the chief, his wife, and children — all who could be found in the house — were murdered in their beds, the village fired, and the wretched inhabitants turned destitute to face the inclement winter and the snow that covered the earth.
866. When, and of what illness, did Mary die ?
She died on the 28th of September, 1694, of small-pox, in the 33rd year of her age and the sixth of her reign, with the reputation of an exemplary and loving wife, an unfeeling sister, and an unnatural daughter.
867. Why was the long war with France that con- tinued throughout this reign begun, and what results occurred to England for the immense expenditure of Hood and treasure during its prosecution?
The war was waged and carried on entirely in the cause of Holland • and though many victories were obtained both by sea and land, they resulted in no benefit to this country, though adding to the aggrandizement and consolidation of the King's Dutch possessions. The only concession made to Britain at the peace of Eyswick was the empty honour of having William acknowledged King by Louis XIV.
868. What ivas the cause of William's illness and death ?
While riding to Hampton Court his horse stumbled on a mole- hill ; and the King, being violently thrown, fractured his collar- bone, which, from his impaired health, brought on a fever, from, which he died on the 8th day of March, 1701, in the 52nd year of his age and 13th of his reign.
869. Of a cold, austere, and passionless nature, laconic and taciturn, William was little calculated either to inspire respect or encourage friendship ; and except in battle, when his demeanour was free and cheerful, hia society was
214 THE H1STOKICAL REASON WHY.
ACCESSION OP ANNE, AND INFLUENCE OP THE DUCHESS OP MAELBOROUGH.
rather an infliction than a pleasure. He was religious, temperate, and ordinarily just: his besetting passion was ambition, and to effect this object he sacrificed honour, truth, and political faith. He possessed courage, firm* ness, and indomitable resolution ; but his defective education, grafted on an unamiable disposition, made his conversation unmannerly and repulsive. The only emotion he ever displayed was the most commendable feature of his life— an affection for his wife.
ANNE. FROM 1701 TO 1714.
870. Why did the Jacobites, or the supporters of King James, hail the accession of Anne with a satisfaction equal to any other party in the kingdom ?
Because, as it was unlikely that she would leave any heirs, the six children she had already been the mother of having all died as infants, they thought her natural feelings would sooner or later prevail, and, taking compassion on her exiled father and his family, she would set aside the prescribed order of succession, in favour of her young brother, the Prince of Wales, the offspring of her father's second marriage, and born only a few months before his desertion of the throne.
871. Through whose instrumentality were these expec- tations defeated?
Through the advice and counsel of Sarah, Duchess of Marl- borough, who from her infancy, and till her death, exerted a strong and domineering influence over the judgment of Anne, both as Princess and Queen.
872. Why was one of Anne's first acts a declaration of war against France ?
Ostensibly to curb the ambitious and haughty policy of the French King, who seemed resolved to subjugate the whole of Europe to his encroaching authority.
THE HISTOBICAL BEASON WHY. 215
EISE OP HAELBOBOTJGH.— CAPTUEE OB GIBBALTAB.
873. Though this, to preserve the balance of power, as it was called, was the professed object of Anne's taking part in the war of the "Spanish Succession," there can be no doubt she was advised into the measure to advance both the ambition and fortune of her favourite's hus- band, John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, who, as a soldier and statesman, was one of the most illustrious men to be found in the annals of this country : raised by the favour of James, from a Court page, through every grade of military dignity, and elevated to a peer of the realm, he was one of the first, in his adversity, to desert his Royal Master, and not only to side with his enemy, but, through his wife's influence, induce Anne, his beloved child, to desert her father in his misfortunes. The Duke of Marlborough had seen much service, and obtained great distinction in the Dutch and French wars, under the late King William, and he burned fof an opportunity of distinguishing himself as the sole commander of his country's forces. In this he was at once gratified, by being appointed General of the English army; while the Dutch, in remembrance of his former services, and to gratify Anne, created him Generalissimo of the entire united armies. Upon this Marlborough, at once repairing to the Dutch camp at Mineguen, and mustering an army of 60,000 men, imme- diately broke up, and taking the field, commenced operations against the enemy.
874. Why were the splendid victories gained fy Jilarl- lorough over the French in the Low Countries, Blenheim, families, Oudenarde, and Malplayuet, of such little con- sequence to England?
Because this country had nothing to gain in a continental war, beyond restoring the European balance of power : with the Dutch it was different; they sought not only an enlarged frontier, but were bent upon humbling the power of their neighbour and rival; and while the empty glory of these splendid victories was all that England obtained for the sacrifice of life, and the immense sums expended in prosecuting each campaign, all the solid benefits of the war, with much less of its expense, accrued to Holland.
875. Why was it that one of the most important achievements of this reign, and a conquest of incalculable advantage to the nation, the capture of Gibraltar, was so coldly regarded in England?
Because the ownership of a barren rock was not considered worth possessing, and the ministry, unable to see its vast importance,
216 THE HISTOEICAL BEASON WHY.
NAVAL AUD MILITAEY EVENTS.— THE SPANISH SUCCESSION.
or recognise the merit and heroism of the undertaking, not only refused to thank the gallant men who had effected the capture, but took an early opportunity to suspend the brave admiral, Sir George Rooke, for his courageous services; and this while every honour was heaped on Marlborough for victories that yielded the country no return for the immense expense at which they were purchased.
876. Sir Cloudesley Shovel and Sir George Rooke, having been sent out, in 1703, with two squadrons, to watch the French fleet and create a diversion in Spain, being struck as they entered the Mediterranean with the import- ance of Gibraltar, which, though naturally of immense strength, being inaccessible on three sides, was at the time but weakly garrisoned, resolved upon at once attacking the place, and having landed 1,800 men on the land side, while these assaulted the town and bastions, the ships bom- barded the citadel, and the boats of the fleet simultaneously stormed the south mole, which, with the platform, were, after some desperate fighting and the springing of a mine, by which two officers and 100 men were blown into the sea, both carried sword in hand, but fresh boats coming up, the men threw themselves on the rocks and embrasures, and, resolved to conquer, were quickly in possession of another redoubt, and would soon have carried the fortress, bastion by bastion, had not the Governor, seeing the hopelessness of further resistance, hung out a flag of truce, and directly after surrendered this important fortress to the English.
877. Why did this country favour tlie pretensions of Charles, the Emperor's son, to the throne of Spain, and what means were taken to support him?
To harass and oppress France: the grandson of Louis the Fourteenth being joyfully accepted by the nation as their King, under the name of Philip the Fourth, the Emperor of Germany declared that the late Spanish King had, in his will, bequeathed the crown of that nation to his son Charles, whose cause, out of motives of policy, was immediately espoused both by this country and Holland, as well as by the King of Portugal. For this purpose an army of British infantry and Portuguese horse, commanded by the Earl of Peterborough, and accompanied by Charles, entered Spain, for the purpose of dethroning Philip and placing Charles on his seat ; at the same time the Duke of Marlborough, at the head of the English and Dutch army, entered Germany, to assist the Emperor and drive out the French, and oppose their ally the Bavarians.
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 217
OEIGI5T OF WHIGS AND TOBIES.
878. Why did tlie Spanish invasion fail ?
In a great measure through the divided counsels and petty jealousies in Charles' court. The English, having taken Bar- celona, though strongly garrisoned with 5,000 men, and obtained several brilliant advantages, upon attacking the Spanish army under the Duke of Berwick, were, in the critical part of the fight, shamefully deserted by the Portuguese horse, who, posted on the wings, suddenly fled, leaving the British infantry outflanked, and entirely surrounded by the enemy, when, throwing them- selves into a square, they retreated fighting, till, having exhausted all their ammunition, and ignorant of the country, they were at last compelled to surrender themselves prisoners of war, to the number of 10,000. After this disaster Charles lost all his conquests in Spain, and was compelled to resign every hope of success, and return to Germany.
879. Why were the two political parties at this time called Whigs and Tories?
The name Whig had been in vogue from the time of Charles the Second, and was a term of contempt bestowed by the Court party upon their opponents, because of their pretended resem- blance to the Scotch Covenanters, to whom the word was originally applied. This sarcasm the popular party retaliated by calling the King's supporters, and all favourers of absolute monarchy, by the insulting reproach of Tory, a low Irish term in use to denote a base, unprincipled scoundrel, fit for the perpetration of any falsehood or villainy; but it was not till the time of Anne and the first George that the terms came into general use as distinctive appellations of the two great parties of the State ; and though since then the principles of both sides have undergone considerable modification and change, the name is still used as a distinctive badge of two political creeds.
880. What was the most important political and national event of Anne's reign ?
The union of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland, a measure ardently desired by Edward the First, and again
218 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
THE TOION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.
earnestly attempted by the first James, was finally effected May 1st, 1707, under the sovereignty of a Queen.
881. WJiy were loth the Scotch and English Par- liaments dissatisfied with the terms of the Union ?
The Scots were generally indignant at the thoughts of losing their ancient independence ; the nobility deemed themselves degraded both in dignity and influence in being excluded from a seat in the Upper House, and ranking in station after the English Peerage; and the commercial part of the community regarded the privilege of trading with the English colonies, and an equal maritime advantage with the sister country, but a poor com- pensation for the customs and duties they would have to pay for the permission. On the side of England it was sarcastically urged, that the union of a rich with a poor nation could only be beneficial to the latter, and all the former could expect from the arrangement was a participation in the other's neces- sities and troubles ; and it was, moreover, maintained that the distribution of taxes was unequal, and the proportion which Scotland was to pay was infinitely less than their just share in the legislature; that the proposed taxation would not amount to a seventieth part of what was paid by England, though their political rights and Parliamentary influence would be scarcely a tenth less than that of the wealthier state.
SS2. The preliminary articles of this important compact, by which the political and social welfare of two nations was indissolubly cemented into one firm and brotherly empire, were discussed and decided upon by the Scotch and English Commissioners, in the apartment known as the Cock- pit, adjoining the Palace of Whitehall ; and first stipulated, that the suc- cession of the United Kingdom should, after the decease of Anne, be vested in the House of Hanover; that the Parliament should represent both nations; that the subjects of both should enjoy equally all civil and religious advantages, and participate in common in all political and com- mercial rights and benefits; that the Courts of Session and Judicature should remain in Scotland as then constituted; or, in other words, the inhabitants of Scotland should be governed by their own laws, as far as regarded private rights and privileges; that the country should be repre- sented in Parliament by sixteen Peers and forty-five Commoners; that all Peers of Scotland should bfe considered as Peers of Great Britain, and rank immediately after the English Peers, according to their degree, and take precedence of all after creations of title, and that they should possess
THE nis'qeifTCAL KEASON "WHY. 219
THE WHIG PAETY DISGEACED.— A XOEY MINISTEY POE1IED.
all privileges the same as English Peers, except having a place or voting in Parliament, and sitting on the trial of Peers. Such were the chief features of this important treaty, which subsequently received the approval of the Parliaments of both countries; yet such was the prejudice and want of sagacity of the great bulk of the people of Scotland at that time, that the Union was considered a dishonour and a disgrace to that kingdom ; and so far did the feelings of the people carry them, that the Com- missioners appointed, to sign the Act of Union were compelled to meet in secrecy, and at night, in a cellar of the High-street of Edinburgh, to attach their signatures to an instrument that, from the popular opinion of the time, might have been supposed the advent to the political ruin, instead of the regeneration and greatness of the nation and people.
883. Why did the Whigs lose their influence over the Queen, and by ivhat arts were the Tories brought into power ?
Anne, growing weary of the arrogance of the Duchess of Marlborough, through whose influence over her the Whigs monopolised all the offices of the State, began to listen to the counsels of Mrs. Masham, an instrument of Secretary Harley, a Tory in heart, though professing the opposite principles, and the secret enemy of Marlborough ; and who, advanced by the Duchess to a place near the Queen, soon began to exercise all the arts she possessed, but in a more judicious manner than her rival, and to implant ideas more congenial to the Queen's dis- position than those inculcated by the great mover of the Whig party, the Duchess of Marlborough. The consequence was, that the party soon lost all favour with the Queen, as they had already done with the country ; the affairs of State were entrusted to the Tories, headed by Harley, who was created Earl of Oxford, and appointed Lord of the Treasury, assisted by Henry St. John, made Lord Bolingbroke, and Sir Simon Harecourt.
884. What measures did the King of France adopt to create a diversion in the allied army ?
He equipped a large fleet, with a considerable army on board, to support the Pretender's claim to the crown, by a landing in Scotland.
885. Having presented the Prince of Wales, the son of James the Second, commonly called the Chevalier de St. George, with a diamond- jewelled sword, a service of gold and silver plate, costly liveries for his
220 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
THE PRETENDER'S THREATENED INVASION DEFEATED.— LOTTERIES
ESTABLISHED.
attendants, and all appliances befitting a king, and employing the words he used to his father when he embarked for Ireland— "that he hoped he might never see him again"— despatched him to wage war upon his sister, and win from an unwilling people his lost inheritance.
886. Why did this formidable expedition fail ?
In consequence of the precaution taken by Admiral Sir George Byng, who having gained intelligence of the sailing of the French fleet from Dunkirk, followed it with such expedition with his light squadron, as to come up with the enemy in the Firth of Forth, while preparing for landing. Upon this Fourbin, the French admiral, crowded all sail, and stood out of the Firth to the north. One of his frigates touching the ground, was instantly boarded and taken, the rest, under favour of the night, escaping capture. Being unable, from the state of the weather, to effect a landing off Aberdeen, and dreading the re-appear- ance of Byng, Fourbin was compelled to return to Dunkirk, the Prince retiring to St. Germains, and the whole scheme ending in total failure.
887. Why were lotteries introduced into this country? They were first employed by the Government, to raise money
to meet the vast expenses created by the useless and unprofit- able war carried on through nearly all this reign, on the Con- tinent.
888. Why was the war prosecuted so long, and who derived advantage from its continuance ?
It was protracted, as far as respects this country, entirely to gratify the ambition and military pride of the Duke of Marl- borough, who used it as a means of gratifying his inordinate cupidity ; for the shining qualities of this great statesman and commander were obscured by an ignoble avarice, which led him to reject all overtures of peace from Louis, that he might dishonourably convert to his own use large sums entrusted to him by the nation for the prosecution of the war.
889. What important domestic occurrence created great heats and commotions both in the Parliament and among the people T
The trial of Dr. Sacheverel, a Protestant divine of the High
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 221
DISGBACE OF MABLBOEOUGH AND DEATH OF ANNE.
Church party, for some extreme opinions on the rights of the Crown, and arrogant pretensions of the Church, expressed in two sermons. After a trial of three weeks he was found guilty, prohibited from preaching for three years, and his sermons ordered to be burned by the hangman.
890. Why was Marllorough dismissed from all his appointments, and publicly insulted ?
For taking an annual bribe of £6,000 from a Jew who had the contract for supplying bread to the army, and conniving at the fraud practised on the men's rations.
891. Why was the state of the Ministry tlie cause of making mortal the Queen's last illness?
The unprincipled conduct of those to whom she had entrusted the great offices of State, who had no sooner crowned their animosity by a triumph over the Whigs, than they began to plot and cabal among themselves, and by their disputes, open charges, and recriminations, both in the House and at the Council Board, so affected Anne, whose health since the death of her husband, Prince George of Denmark, had been greatly impaired, that it gave way before the state of anxiety and mental distress engendered by these repeated quarrels and animosities.
892. Of what disease did Anne die ?
The many shocks her health had suffered through the turbu- lence of her Cabinet, produced such an effect on her constitution that she declared she could not survive it; and though appa- rently somewhat better on the previous day, was suddenly attacked with a fit of apoplexy, from which she never rallied, expiring on the following morning, July 31st, 1714, in the 49th year of her age and the 12th of her reign.
893. The character of Anne must be considered in the light of a woman, as well as that of a Queen, before a just estimate of her disposition, or of her abilities, can be honestly formed. In the former she has ever been represented as a pattern of conjugal fidelity, a devoted and loving wife, a tender mother, a warm friend, and an indulgent mistress, alike amiable in every relation of domestic and social life. As a Sovereign she was deficient both in capacity and vigour of mind, in independence of thought and self-reliance of action; easily swayed by favourites and flatterers, and so
THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
THE AUGUSTAN AGE OP EffGLAKD.— PATE OP THE STITAETS.
averse to giving pain to others, that she suffered indignities herself rather than support her own dignity by an authority that might have distressed those who offended her ; aud such was her humanity that no one suffered death during her reign for treason. She was beloved with the tenderest solicitude by her people, for whose real happiness she felt as a mother; and so well was this understood by her subjects, that it obtained for her the enviable title of the "Good Queen Anne." In fine, if she was not the greatest, she was certainly one of the best Sovereigns who had ever sat on the throne of these kingdoms.
894. Why was Anne's reign denominated the Augustan Age of England?
From the great number of poets, men of letters, philosophers, and military commanders, who flourished during the years of her supremacy ; of these the most celebrated were Pope, Swift, Congreve, and Howe ; Steele, Addison, and Arbuthnot ; Bolingbroke raid Shaftesbury ; Marlborough, Peterborough, Ormond, Byng, and Sir Cloudesley Shovel.
NOTES UPON THE STUART PERIOD.
With the death of Anne terminated, after six successive Sovereigns, the reign of the line of Stuarts, at least as respects direct descent— a race of Kings singularly unfortunate both in their civil and political lives. Robert the Third died broken-hearted for the loss of his children, the eldest starved to death by his ambitious uncle, and the youngest, a lad of nine or ten years, being made captive by the English, and only restored as James the First, to ascend a throne from which he was speedily removed by the knives of his assassins. James the Second was killed by the bursting of his own artillery before the Towers of Roxburgh. The Third James fell by his own subjects while endeavouring to crush a rebellion ; his son, James the Fourth, was left, surrounded by two hundred of the House of Douglas, on the field of Flodden. Shame and mortification at the defeat of his army, by a handful of English on the banks of the Solway, brought to an untimely end the Fifth James. His only child, born an hour before his death, the beautiful Mary Queen of Scots, lost her head in Fotheringay Castle ; and her grandson, Charles the First, his, at Whitehall. James the Second was deprived of his throne; and his son and grandson, proscribed fugitives from their native country, died, and were buried, in a foreign land. That much of the troubles and misfortunes that attended the country and the Sovereigns, was in a great measure owing to a false idea of the Royal prerogative, an infatuated belief in the divine right of kings, and the want of political faith in the Sovereign to his people, there can be no question ; but much nmst also be attributed to the dawning on men's minds of a new, but rude sense of liberty, which, the more it
THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY. 223
NOTES UPON THE STTJAET PEKIOD.
was speculated upon, and the more acquainted men became -with the true source of all political strength, the more jealous they became of its pos- session, and the more resolutely resolved, at all hazards, to cherish and defend it; and while the Sovereign stood on hereditary rights and privi- leges, the people, the "source of all power" maintained, that as that was only delegated by them, they had a right to control, direct, or annul it.
Finance.— The revenue of Charles the Second, from customs, excise, hearth- money, and other sources, amounted to £1,358,000, and the expenditure to £1,387,770; and the extra sums voted him by Parliament during his reign amounted in the gross to £11,443,263. The revenue of James the Second, with his grant as Duke of York, which was continued, amounted to £2,000,000 a-year.
General Affairs.— Commerce and wealth had never, during any period, increased so rapidly as from the Restoration to the Revolution of 1688; events due in a great measure to the Dutch wars unlocking the commerce of Europe and the Indies, and the great benefits accruing to the nation from the possession of New York and the Jerseys in America.
Arts and Manufactures,— To James the Second the maritime world is indebted for the invention of sea signals. Telescopes were also invented in this age ; and to Prince Rupert, a general patron of arts and sciences, the invention of etching, and the process called mezzotinto, owe their origin. The manufacture of glass and crystal was introduced from Venice; turnpikes were first established in 1662, and the Royal Society founded after the Restoration.
Learning.— "With the increase of commerce, wealth, and luxury, learning and education steadily advanced ; and during the reign of the Stuarts many celebrated writers flourished; among whom were Wilkins, Wren, Wallis, as mathematicians; Sydeuham, Boyle, and Newton, philosophers; Bucking- ham, Rochester, Wycherley, and Butler, as wits; while among poets must be named Spenser, Shakspere, Jonson, Milton, Waller, Denham, Cowley, Otway, and Dryden; besides Hobbes, Bacon, and Sir William Temple in other branches of polite and scientific literature.
THE HTSTOEICAL HEASON WHY.
GEORGE THE FIEST'S TITLE TO THE THRONE.
THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK.
GEOKGE THE FIRST, 1714.
FROM THE DEATH OF QUEEN AUNE TO THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE THE THIRD, EMBRACING A PERIOD OF 46 YEARS.
895. What family succeeded the line of Stuart on tlie Throne of these Jcingdoms?
The House of Brunswick, commonly called the line of Hanover, from the first Georges being hereditary Electors of that State.
896. Who was George the First?
The son of Ernest Augustus, first Elector of Brunswick, and the Princess Sophia, granddaughter of James the First.
897. By what right did he claim the Crown of this country ?
In right of his mother, who was the daughter of the Princess Elizabeth of England, and Queen of Bohemia, wife of Frederic, Elector Palatine, and afterwards elected King of Bohemia.
898. And also by an enactment of Parliament made in the reign of William the Third, called the "Act of Succession," by which the Lords and Commons of England rendered it impossible for any person professing the Catholic religion, however just or near their claim might be, ever to ascend the throne of these dominions; and further, to place their restric- tion beyond all doubt or evasion, fixed the line of succession first to William and Mary and their heirs ; next to the Princess, afterwards Queen Anne, and her children ; and lastly to Sophia, Dowager Duchess of Hanover, and her lawful issue: thus setting aside all branches of the Royal Family of the Catholic persuasion ; a measure strongly resented by those foreign princes, who, in right of marriage, or other ties of kindred, had nearer claims to the Crown than those of the favoured Protestant branch. This was especially the case with the Duchess of Savoy, who, in right of her mother, the Princess Henrietta, daughter of Charles the First, formally protested by herself and husband against this total exclusion of her more immediate right.
THE HISTOSICAL KEASOX WHY.
KING'S CIIARACTEB, AND PAETIA1ITT FOB THE WHIGS.
899. Under wliat prospects did lie ascend the Throne ?
The most encouraging, and with every likelihood of peace and prosperity. The country, weary of the faults and vices of the Stuarts, and apprehensive of further civil strife through the Pretender, in some rash endeavour to regain his father's throne, hailed with the utmost satisfaction the advent of a new race of Kings, and hoping that the fact of the nation freely giving the Crown to a foreigner would strike a deathblow at the ambi- tious hopes of the exiled Stuarts.
900. Sow was this state of public satisfaction and general tranquillity in a great measure effected ?
By the energetic conduct of the Privy Council, who, during the last illness of Anne, had taken every precaution to inspire public confidence, and provide for the safety of the nation ; .among other measures recalling the army from Flanders, and distributing the troops over the garrisons and strongholds of the country ; by manning a fleet with extraordinary expedition for the defence of the coast, and by other prudent steps to insure internal order and guard against foreign aggression.
901. In what did the character of George differ from of the Stuarts ?
Politically, in being less tyrannous and arbitrary, and in having juster notions of government, both as regarded tho rights and privileges of the people, and the legitimate prerogative jf the Crown ; and, as respects his private character, " in never abandoning a friend, doing justice to all the world, and fearing no man" — a maxim of his own, and which he is reported to have faithfully adhered to during life.
902. To ivliat party in the State did the King attach himself?
To the Whigs.
903. How did Tie slow this?
By depriving the former Ministers of all power in the king- dom, and putting every office of trust, honour, and emolument
I
226 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
IMPEACHMENT OP OXFOKD, MOKTIMER, AKD BOUNGBEOKE.
into the hands of the Whigs, who, solely bent on studying- their own advantage, harassed the people with unjust laws and arbitrary taxes, and s% degraded the Court by their personal jealousies and paltry distinctions, that their Sovereign became in their hands" little better than the King of a faction.
904. How was this conduct regarded lij tlie people ?
With open clamour and great discontent ; the old contentious cry of " The Church in danger" was revived with acrimonious heat, and the people only wanted a leader in whom they had confidence, to incite them to open revolt.
905. Whom did the House of Commons impeach, and Tiow were they influenced?
The Earls of Oxford and Mortimer were charged with high treason, and the former nobleman at once committed to the Tower ; the Duke of Ormond and Lord Bolingbroke, having fled to the Continent, were outlawed and their estates confis- cated ; while Thomas Harley, and Matthew Prior, the poet — both Members of the House — were arrested and lodged in prison.
906. The Ministry, anxious to ruin their opponents in the opinion of the country, and divert public odium from themselves, had, immediately en the meeting of Parliament, called for all papers connected with the late Government, and, with a most unworthy feeling of animosity against the Tories, forced a false construction on all their measures, and proceeded to frame a grave accusation out of the most trivial and justifiable circum- stances; when Mr. Walpole, taking the initiative, moved for a warrant against two members, Harley and Prior, and finding the House base enough to support his motion, proceeded with Lord Coningsby to the more daring act of impeaching the late Ministers of the Queen.
907. Sow did these impeachments end?
After two years' imprisonment Oxford petitioned to be brought to trial; but the Peers and Commons not agreeing as to the mode of conducting the impeachment, the Lords voted his release, and he was accordingly set at liberty, the other charges, with the exception of the outlawed noblemen, falliug to the ground.
THE niSTOEICAi, ai)AiSON WHY. 227
EABL OF MAE SETS UP THE PEETENDEE'S STAUDAED ON BEAEMOOE.
908. What led to the Rebellion of 1715 ?
The extreme impolicy of the Ministry in the virulence with which they signalised their triumph over the opposite party, the general severity of their measures, and the imposition of new and obnoxious taxes. The wide-spread complaints among all classes of the people, excited by these causes, were mistaken by the Pretender for a deep-seated animosity to the new Sovereign; and under the belief that the country was ripe for an insurrec- tion, the rash, crude scheme of an invasion was at once set on foot, and still more injudiciously carried into operation.
909. Where did the Belellion first IreaJc out?
At Braemoor, in the Highlands of Scotland, where the Earl
of Mar, surrounded by some three hundred of his clan, set up
the Pretender's standard, and proclaimed him by the title of James the Third.
910. Sow did the Rebellion proceed, and who were its leaders ?
Two vessels, filled with men and arms, and secretly furnished by France, arrived, on the coast, to second the Earl's attempt, who acted, till the coming over of the young Prince, as Lieu- tenant-General, and who, through the general loyalty of the Highlanders to the House of Stuart, soon found himself at the head of 10,000 men, and in a position to take the field.
911. How was this -formidable demonstration sup- pressed ?
By the Duke of Argyle, who, with a hastily mustered force of 5,000 men, intercepted the Earl, and gave him battle near the town of Dumblane.
912. In this battle, which was fought with great animosity and lasted for several hours, though neither side could claim the victory, each army being compelled to retire from the field; yet the effect was all ou the side of the Royalists, the progress of the rebels being checked,— a result worse than a defeat resulting from this arrest in their advance South. The Castle of Inverness was surrendered by the time-serving Lord Lovat; the Marquis
i 2
228 THE HISTORICAL KEASON WHY.
REBELLION SPKEADS TO ENGLAND.— PATE OF THE LEADERS.
of Tullibardine with his followers deserted the Earl, to look after his own estate; an example that was immediately followed by every leader of the party, so that in the course of a few days after the engagement at Dum- blaue, the unfortunate Earl of Mar found himself deserted by his army, and alone.
913. Did the 'Rebellion spread, to England, and Jiow did it succeed in this country?
It did, but with still more disastrous consequences. The Ministry having been apprised, by its Ambassador at Paris, of all the Pretender's plans, as they were devised in his petty Court of St. Germains, were in most instances enabled to antici- pate every rising, and thus crush the several schemes in the bud. In the north, however, the Earl of Derwentwater, and his friend, Mr. Forster, took the field with a large body of horse, and being joined by a considerable number of Border gentlemen, proclaimed the Pretender; but having sustained a repulse before the walls of Newcastle, were compelled to fall back on Hexham, from whence, strengthened by some partisans from Scotland, they advanced on Kendal and Lancaster, ulti- mately throwing themselves into Preston, where they made some rude attempts to defend the town; but, being confronted by General Willis, with the regiments from Flanders, and hemmed in on every side by Carpenter, with several squadrons of horse, the rebels were compelled to lay down their arms, and unconditionally surrender.
914. What was the fate of the leaders ?
Several of the officers who had deserted from the Eoyal army were immediately shot ; all the common soldiers were imprisoned in Chester and Liverpool, and the commanders and men of note sent to the Tower, being marched through the streets of London, strongly guarded and bound together, like common malefactors.
915. After some time a commission was opened for the trial of all the prisoners; the Earls of Derwentwater and Kenmuir were found guilty, and beheaded on Tower-hill; Lord Nithisdale, Mr. Foster, and Mr. Mac- intosh, escaped to France; of the remainder, five gentlemen of birth were hung and quartered at Tyburn; twenty-two executed at Preston and Manchester; and about a thousand transported for life to what were then called the plantations of North America.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 229
PEETENDEE LANDS Iff SCOTLAND ASSISTED ET SPAIN.
916. When, and tender what circumstances, did tlie Pretender, or the Young Chevalier, as he was called, take the field?
Not till the ruin of all his projects, and the destruction of his best friends, rendered his presence useless and contemptible.
917. With the infatuation that characterised all this Prince's proceedings, he procrastinated his departure till the various crude efforts made in his behalf, in Scotland and England, had severally failed, and his presence for any practical utility to the cause was worse than useless. Then passing in disguise through France, he embarked at Dunkirk, and with only six gentlemen in his suite, landed in the North of Scotland to recover from an able monarch, and a resolute people, the Crown his father had lost by the will of the nation, and his own bigoted incapacity.
918. What ivas his conduct while in Scotland, and 7ww did Tie quit the country ?
Vain and undignified, being indebted to the consideration of the French Monarch for the means of escape from the country he ostentatiously called his own.
919. A few days after landing, the Pretender was met by the Earl of Mar, and about thirty gentlemen, when, having gone through the idle ceremony of a proclamation, and waiting in vain for any accession to his numbers, the Prince and his party proceeded to the Palace of Scone: where, after for a few weeks holding the mockery of a court, and dispensing the abortive functions of royalty, with an affectation of power that exposed him to the contempt and ridicule of all who witnessed the pitiful exhibition, he at length acknowledged his want of money, arms, munitions, and, in fact, all necessary requisites to recover his throne; and holding out some vague promise of returning at a future time better supplied, ignominiously quitted the country, and having embarked on board a French ship of war, once more returned to his Court of St. Germains.
920. By ivJiat power was the Pretender openly assisted in his attempt to regain the Throne?
By Spain, who having found a cause of rupture with Great Britain, fitted out a fleet of ten ships of war, with a large flotilla of transports, carrying an army of 6,000 men, fully equipped, and abundantly supplied with arms and ammunition, for the service of the Pretender.
230 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
PATE OP THE SPANISH FLEET.— SOUTH! SEA COMPANY, 1720.
921. To whom was the command of this armament given, and what ivas its fate ?
To the Duke of Ormond ; but he had hardly set sail, when a violent storm he encountered off Cape Finisterre, so disabled and scattered his ships, that they were obliged to put back, totally disorganised. This disaster had such an effect on Philip, the Spanish King, that he at once abandoned all thoughts of hostilities, and concluded a peace with England.
922. What great commercial misfortune befel this country in the year 1720 ?
The failure of the South Sea Company, or the bursting of the South Sea Bubble, as the ruin of this scheme was called.
923. What tvas the connexion between the Government and the South Sea Company?
The Company had, in the previous Session of Parliament, obtained a Bill, empowering them, at their own time, and at whatever rate they could effect it, to buy up all the Govern- ment Securities, thus constituting themselves the exclusive holders of the National Debt
924. The difficulty experienced during the previous three reigns, in collect- ing in time the different grants and subsidies allowed by Parliament, for the exigencies of the state, often compelled the ministry, to meet the wants of government, to borrow, in anticipation, large sums from the merchants or large commercial companies of the country, and, among other bodies, the State had borrowed to the extent of some millions from the South Sea Com- pany. This facility of borrowing had very much increased the expenses-, and George the First, being anxious to reduce the National Debt, and ease as far as possible the public burden, advised the House to devise some means to effect this desirable object. Sir John Blunt, or Blount, a shi'ewd and calculating lawyer, a member of the House, and a director of the South Sea Company, secretly advised the Government to sanction, by a bill, his Company's buying up from the merchants, corporate bodies, and private individuals, all Government debts and securities, and thereby make the South Sea Company the sole creditor of the State. For this concession, the Company was content for six years to receive only five per cent, interest, and after that period to reduce their claim to four per cent., the Govern- ment having the privilege, at a subsequent period, of redeeming the debt by an annual payment of one million sterling.
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 231
MAffNEB OP BAISIffG ITS CAPITAL.— THE PUBLIC DEBT.
925. Sow were the Directors to raise funds for so gigantic an undertaking?
By a clause in the Bill empowering tie Company to raise subscriptions from the public, for the ostensible object of trading in the South Seas ; a scheme which the designing- Directors took every means to represent as fraught with the most fabulous wealth.
926. When the Sill was passed, did the nefarious scheme succeed ?
Yes, even beyond the wildest dream of its most sanguine speculator. No sooner were the books of the Company opened than the South Sea House was besieged by multitudes, every day increasing the number of applicants for shares, till the whole nation became infected with the mania for speculation, in which the peer, the bishop, and the commoner; the highest dignitary in the realm, and the lowest costermonger ; the duchess in her carriage, and the scullion from the kitchen, all jostled in one eager and excited throng, beseeching the clerks to take their money in exchange for worthless paper, till every class of society appeared intoxicated with the wild hope of realising unbounded wealth.
927. What amount of Public Debt was the Company to buy up, and to what height did Securities rise ?
More than thirty-two millions. The Company's Stock, which had stood 'at 130, rose at once to 400, and within a few weeks went up to ten times its original value. A share that in July was bought for £100, before the end of August would have been gladly repurchased for £1,000.
928. What led to the lursting of the Bubble ?
The utter want of faith in the transaction, and the absence of anything like commercial security. On the 8th of September the stock began to fall, and before the end of the month ifc had sunk to 150. The people woke as from a dream, and in amazement were forced to look on the horrid reality .of a
232 THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY.
FAILURE OF THE SCHEME.— THE BUBBLE BURSTS.— GREAT AND LITTLE GOES.— IMPEACHMENT OF THE LORD CHANCELLOR.
universal ruin, that beggared the most princely fortunes in the kingdom, and carried misery and despair into almost every home in the country.
929. Did Government interpose to punish the delin* quents, and hoiv ?
Yes, for so universal was the clamour of the people, and so great the censure thrown on the Ministry, that the King was obliged to return in haste from Hanover ; Parliament was imme- diately summoned, and all the principal delinquents punished by the forfeiture of their ill-gotten wealth and estates.
930. At the same time, Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester, who had taken a prominent part in the transactions, was sent to the Tower ; the Duke of Norfolk, Earl of Orrery, and Lords North and Grey, with several others, committed to close custody ; the Bishop was subsequently banished ; and one Mr. Layer hanged at Tyburn. Besides these severities, the Government gave some compensation to the sufferers, by ordering seven millions of the Company's stock to be set apart for that purpose; but the calamity was far too deep and wide-spread to be effectually relieved.
931. Was this the only great fraud of the time ?
No ; though it was the most important. Unprincipled men, taking advantage of the mania for speculation encouraged by the South Sea scheme, opened offices in every street, in which, with the most unblushiyg hardihood, frauds of every character were practised on the credulous public, who were so blinded by the delusions of their own fancy, that in one instance two thousand guineas were paid down in a few hours, as deposits for larger sums, to an adventurer, who deemed it unnecessary even to give a name or prospectus to his scheme.
932. Sow were these bubble schemes denominated? Great and Little Goes, according to the sums charged for
shares ; for, to meet the gambling spirit of the very poorest, offices were opened at shilling shares.
933. What Lord Chancellor was impeached in this
reign for receiving bribes, and how was he punished ?
Lord Macclesfield, for the sale of places in Chancery. He
THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
233
DEATH AND CHAEACTEE OF THE KING.
•yas sentenced to pay a fine of £30,000, and imprisoned till the amount was paid.
934. When and how did George the First die?
He was attacked with' paralysis while on a journey to Hanover, and had only time to reach Oznaburg, when he became insen- sible, and expired the next morning, June llth, 1727, in the 68th year of his age and the 13th of his reign.
COSTUME AND MODE OP TRAVELLING AT THE BEGINNING OF GEORGE THE SECOND'S TIME.
VICAB, WITH HIS WISE AND DAUGHTER, GOING TO CHUECH.
935. What was this King's character?
He was calm, sagacious, and prudent, and, owing to his great assiduity, remarkably fortunate ; at the same time brave in the field and wise in council ; an unostentatious, simple, and honest
234 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
GEOBGE THE SECOND.— WALPOLE MINISTEK.
936. What other important events occurred in this reign ?
The "Aurora Borealis," or the Northern Lights, were first accurately described. The Scotch acquired the art of making thread. The Act establishing Septennial Parliaments passed. Inoculation was first practised in England for small-pox ; and Admiral Sir George Byng destroyed the Spanish fleet off Cape Passaro, August llth, 1718.
THE SECOND.
FROM 1727 TO 1760.
937. When, and by whom, was George the First suc- ceeded ?
He was succeeded on the 15th of June, by his son George, Prince of Wales, who ascended the throne in the 44th year of his age.
938. Who was the Chief Minister of his first Calinet? Sir Eobert Walpole, Minister for the internal affairs, or Home
Secretary ; and who soon after became Premier, and the leading politician of the time.
939. Sir Robert "Walpole was a man of extraordinary talents, who, by the force of his own genius arid energy, had raised himself from an inferior station to the highest post in the kingdom, and to be acknowledged as a politician of consummate wisdom. This remarkable man, created Earl of Orford, was ,born at Houghton, in Norfolk, in 1674, and after serving George the First and Second as prime minister, and enjoying a plenitude of power, for a space of nearly twenty years, such as had never been possessed by a minister of the Crown in this country, died in the year of the last Rebellion, 1745.
940. What was the moral and political state of the country at the close of the First, and beginning of the Second Georges reign ?
The morals of the people generally, but more especially of the aristocracy and governing body, were as low as venality, corrup-
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
JIOEAL AND POLITICAL STATE OP THE COXJNTET.
tion, and the absence of all domestic and political truth and honour could sink them. The Ministry was filled with corrupt officers, as ready to take a bribe from the enemies of their country as to sacrifice friend and family to personal interest or convenience. Political honour was scouted as a delusion, conjugal fidelity laughed at as a fable, and intrigue, tergiversation, and gallantry the established practices of the day. The Sovereign, an alien in heart as in person, regarded the empire he swayed but as a ready bank, from which to draw resources for his paltry German inheritance, whose obscure interests he considered of more account than the welfare of the great nation entrusted to his care. With such principles on the throne, it is little wonder if every grade beneath it imitated and magnified the depravity of heart and ignominy of mind of that above it. Yet amidst this wreck of principle, this ruin of social and political faith, civil and reli- gious liberty, firmly established in the Constitution by the abdication of James the Second, or the Revolution, as it was called, progressed gradually onwards, and soon began to produce fruits on the mind of the nation ; the accession of new territory, the advancement of literature, arts, sciences, commerce, and manufactures, soon began to influence a new race of men, and inaugurate an epoch, from which the nation may date, without shame or humiliation, its restoration to moral supremacy and political greatness.
941. What was the state of the country at the acces- sion of George the Second?
Distracted and hampered on all sides, by foreign treaties, con- tracts, and obligations to Continental states, not one of which was of the slightest use or benefit to the nation, the honour, wealth, and blood of Great Britain being pledged for the petty Electorate of Hanover, whose defence, and the Dutch wars of William, had, at the commencement of this reign, in a period of twenty-nine or thirty years, involved the nation in a debt of fifty and a quarter millions of money, and for which this country had not received one shilling's equivalent in value.
236 THE HISTOEICAL KEASON WHY.
FIVE MEMBEBS OP THE HOUSE EXPELLED TOB FBATJD.— WAE WITH SPATS.
942. Why were such clamours raised against the Spaniards, and how ivas war averted ?
From the cruelties practised on the inhabitants of our West India Islands, by Spanish cruisers, who, sent out to guard the trade and suppress smuggling1, had perpetrated the most wanton barbarities, pillage, and injustice. Through the mediation of Austria, explanations were given by Spain, with promises of compensation, and a new treaty being signed, peace was for the time preserved to Europe.
943. Why were Jive Members of Parliament expelled the House?
For the disgraceful frauds practised by them as managing trustees and directors of the " Charitable Corporation Fund," an association professedly started to lend money on pledge, or security, upon an equitable interest, to all borrowers ; but though half a million of paid-up capital had been subscribed, not one shilling had ever been advanced as a loan, the entire sum having been disgracefully appropriated by the committee, almost all of whom were Members of the House, or persons of dis- tinction.
944. Why tvas Sir Robert Walpole's first scheme of an excise on tobacco defeated?
From the assertion of its opponents, that bonding the tobacco in Government warehouses, and making the proprietor pay the excise duty, which was fixed at 4d. a pound, when the article was sold — a course, they alleged, which would ruin the factors, and, by the number of officers required, make the Ministry formidable — produced such an eftect on the public mind at the time as compelled the withdrawal of the Bill.
945. Why was war at last declared against Spain?
From the continuance of those violations on the people of the West Indian colonies that had led to the former remonstrance, and the neglect of Spain to pay the compensation money agreed upon.
THE HISTORICAL BEASON WHY. 237
ANSON'S EXPEDITION TO THE PACIFIC.— SAILS BOUND THE WORLD.
946. What were the first achievements of the war ? The capture of two valuable prizes in the Mediterranean, and
the bombardment and capture of Porto Bello, in South America, by Admiral Vernon with six ships.
947. Wlnj was Commodore Anson dispatched to the Pacific, and with what armament?
To intercept and destroy the Spanish trade, and inflict as much injury on the enemy, in those seas, and their Peru and Chili possessions, as possible. For this purpose, a fleet of five sail of the line, a frigate, and two store-ships, carrying about 1,400 marines, were entrusted to Commodore Anson, with orders to proceed to his destination, and communicate across the Isthmus of Darien with Admiral Vernon, who had the like commission in the Gulf and Atlantic Ocean.
918. The hardships and sufferings endured by Auson aud his little fleet is a narrative so full of adventure that it might be deemed a romance, but that the facts are incontestable. About a year after leaving England, he entered the Pacific, with two shattered and leaky vessels, the sole survivors of his fleet, and his men reduced to the last stage of distress, by privation and disease, the scurvy having prostrated nearly all his crew. Having recruited his men at Juan Fernandez, taken all the crew on board his own ship, and burnt his shattered consort, he proceeded in quest of some of the Spanish treasure-ships — " immense vessels built to carry a vast quantity of mer- chandise, powerfully armed, and manned by five or six hundred men." As these vessels, or galleons, as they were called, only sailed once a-year from port to port, their freightage was of great value, and consequently their capture always considered of the utmost importance. Anson, having failed to fall in with the one expected at Mexico, from the Philippine Islands, and estimated at immense wealth, traversed the Pacific in search of her, till, having lost half his crew by the scurvy, which again broke out, he sailed to China, where having replenished his men, and taken a few Dutch and Indian sailors to complete his complement, he once more set out in search of the Spanish prize, and at length had the pleasure to discover the long-sought galleon iu the Straits of Manilla. Though the Spaniard carried a complement of six hundred men, and mounted sixty guns of heavy metal, and the " Cen- turion," Anson's ship, did not muster (Indians and all) half the number of men or ordnance, he at once bore dowu on the huge ship, determined, after all his dangers and privations in search of her, to make her his at any sacrifice, and immediately began a desperate action, which resulted in the Spaniard hauling down her colours, and yielding to the victor, who, taking his prize in tow, returned to Canton, and from thence, with his capture, set sail, by the Cape of Good Hope, for England, where he arrived, after an absence of three years and nine mouths, having in that time completely
238 THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
WAI/POLE EESIGWS.— FAILUEE BEFORE CABTHAGEKA.
circumnavigated the globe. The prize realized £313,000, which, with his previous captures, made a gross sum of £700,000, bestowing immense riches on the few hardy fellows who were permitted to return to their native country to enjoy it.
949. Why did Sir Robert Walpole resign all Ms ap- pointments ?
From the dreadful clamour raised in the country by the mis- carriage of the expedition to the West Indies : a disaster which the people attributed to the fault of the Minister; when Sir Eobert, unable to stem the tide of popular displeasure, resigned all his appointments, upon which the King created him Earl of Orford, and, to show his displeasure still further, adjourned the House.
950. Concurrent with Anson's expedition to the Pacific, one of the finest fleets that had, up to that time, ever sailed from these shores was dispatched to the AVest Indies, — consisting of twenty-nine sail of the line, thirty frigates, containing a vast supply of all stores and munitions of war, and carrying 15,000 seamen, and an equal number of land forces. Admiral Vernon com- manded this magnificent flotilla, and Lord Cathcart had the direction of the army; but the latter dying on the voyage, was succeeded in his command by his lieutenant, General "Went worth. The expedition proceeded direct to the Isthmus of Darieu, and bearing up for Carthagena, one of the most important and strongly defended towns on the Spanish Main, the army was landed, and while the fleet bombarded the citadel and town, Wentworth and his troops stormed and carried some of the outlying forts ; but so incapable was the commander for such a responsible duty, and so deficient in military tactics, that he attempted to storm the fort of St. Lazare, one of the strongest of the enemy's posts, before effecting a breach, in which, from the ignorance displayed in the plan, the shortness of the scaling-ladders, and the men being led in mistake to the strongest instead of the weakest part of the fort, the assault ended in a defeat, the troops being mown down with dreadful slaughter ; and after losing 600 men before reaching the walls, were com- pelled to- retire. The rainy season setting in directly after, brought on a pestilential fever, which raged with such virulence that the army was reduced to a mere skeleton, in which state the commanders were compelled to re-embark their shattered forces, and, quitting this scene of slaughter and contagion, return in disgrace to England, there to recount the history of their own defeat, each commander accusing the other of ignorance, incapacity, and rashness.
951. Why did England espouse the cause of the Queen of Hungary, and enter upon the Continental war ?
Professedly to maintain the balance of power, endangered by the aggrandizing spirit of France and the Emperor; but more
THE IIISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
QUEEN OP HU A'GAUY.— BATTLE OF DETTINGEN".
to protect the Electorate of Hanover, which might at any moment be overrun by French or Prussian troops, than to assist the unhappy Queen in the restitution of her rights.
952. Upon the death of the Emperor Charles the Sixth, the great powers, in violation of all treaties, and especially of that edict called the " Pragmatic Sanction," conferred the crown of the Empire on the Elector of Eavaria ; and Charles' dominions, instead of passing, as pre-ordained, to his daughter, the Queen of Hungary, were ruthlessly shared among the Continental nations. Prussia instantly overran and seized Silesia, while France, Saxony, and Bavaria poured in their troops across their several frontiers, and partitioned among themselves her empire; and one of the most illustrious sovereigns in Europe found herself suddenly bereft of all her inheritance and wealth. At this juncture England came to her assistance, and soon after a coalition was formed in her favour, consisting of Holland, Sardinia, Russia, and Great Britain. George, having received a parliamentary grant for the purposes of the war, dispatched a body of English troops to Hanover, to co-operate with his Hanoverian army; and with these forces a diversion was made in France, by which means the Queen's general, Prince Charles of Lorraiu, was enabled to attack and drive out the French from Bohemia; Bavaria was invaded; Munich, its capital, taken; and the new Emperor, her rival, stripped of his power and fighting for his hereditary possessions, was driven defeated from every field, till finally, abandoned by his powerful allies, and deprived of all his dominions, he retired to Frankfort, where he passed the rest of his life in obscure poverty.
953. What were the causes that led to the battle of Dettingen ?
The English army, having effected their object in France, to the number of 40,000 pushed along the banks of the Maine to form a junction with the Queen's Austrian army. To pre- vent this union, 60,000 French, under Marshal Noailles, followed them on the opposite bank ; and having cut off all supplies, the British army were in imminent danger of being starved into a capitulation, for the country on all sides of them had been swept of provisions. Upon this, the King, who had just joined the army, ordered a retreat, in the hope of joining a large body of Hessians, who lay in the rear with a full com- missariat. In effecting this retrograde movement, the French, perceiving their advantage, crossing the river, suddenly seized a defile, and completely hemmed in the army on every side.
951. In this mortifying position each alternative that presented itself was equally perplexing and hazardous: if the King risked a battle, it must be at a fearful disadvantage; if he remained inactive, the army would perish
240 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
THE YOUNG PKETENDER LEAVES BOME.— FAILURE OP THE FKENCH EXPEDITION FOE SCOTLAND.
of hunger; and even if he succeeded in cutting his way through the defile,, it must be at the loss of half his army, and the sacrifice of all his baggage, if not his artillery. From this painful and humiliating situation, the rash- ness of the enemy saved the honour of the army. Instead of defending the defile, which shut the British up as in a trap, the impetuous Duke of Grammont, who commanded the horse, with the entire French cavalry, made a desperate charge through the pass upon the English infantry, upon whose serried and immoveable lines they were broken and scattered in such utter confusion that, after a short but desperate encounter, they were compelled to retreat not only from the field, but forced, in haste, to repass the river, leaving the road open, and five thousand of their best men, dead and wounded, on the plain of Dettingen.
955. Why did diaries Edward Stuart, the son of the Chevalier de Si. George, and grandson of James the Second, quit Home in such haste for Paris, travelling through Italy and ^France in the disguise of a courier ?
The French, smarting under their late reverses, were resolved to prosecute the war with Britain with increased vigour; and for this purpose decided upon making use of the Young Pre- tender— whose appeals for assistance they had hitherto neglected — to effect that object, and hoped, by supplying him with forces to make a descent on Scotland, to create a powerful diversion in the heart of their enemy's dominions.
956. Why did this project miscarry, and what was the fate of the expedition ?
Through the skill and energy of Sir John Norris, who, with the Channel fleet, lay in wait for the French armament, which, consisting of twenty line-of-battle ships and transports, with a well-provided army of 3.5,000 men, under the command of the famous Count Saxe. set sail from Dunkirk, and had reached the middle of the Channel, when, discovering the English fleet bearing down upon them, the whole flotilla, rather than risk an action, put back to port with all haste, and being favoured by a stiff breeze, fled with such speed as to outstrip all pur- suit; but though they escaped the English cannon, they were caught off the coast in such a furious gale, and suffered so many wrecks and disasters, as rendered the whole expedition a failure — the fleet, shattered and thoroughly disorganised,
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 241
ENGLISH DEFEATED AT FONTENOY.— CHAELES EDWARD STUABT PEEPARES FOE A DESCENT IN SCOTLAND, 1745.
creeping back to Dunkirk and the nearest harbours to land their men and material.
957. Wliat reverses did the English arms suffer in tins campaign in Flanders?
The English and Hanoverian armies, under the Duke of Cumberland, suffered a defeat at the battle of Fontenoy, fought on the 1st of May, 1744.
03S. To raise the siege of Tournay, defended by a Dutch garrison, and reduced to great extremity by the French, who, under Marshal Count Saxe, with a powerful army, invested the place, the Duke of Cumberland advanced with his united forces in the hope of throwing in succours to enable the Governor to maintain a little longer so important a town. Upon hearing of the approach of the Allies, Saxe drew off from before the walls; and, posting his army in a strong position, threw up works, and made so admirable a disposition that, while covering the town, he was enabled to give battle with every advantage to himself, and at the same time to compel the Duke to risk an engagement unless he chose to see the town taken before his eyes. But, despite his numbers and natural and artificia) strength, the defeat would have been a victory but for the bad Generalship of the Duke, who sent forward his attacking columns without any cover or protection to their flanks, by which they were exposed to a murderous cross fire, were surrounded, outflanked, and mown down in files. Twice the English infantry swept the plain, driving the entire wing of the French army before them— once up to their guns and breastworks— and on their second charge, forcing them, in confusion, into their tents; whenf had they been supported by horse, they must have remained masters of the field. Surrounded, however, by fresh numbers, they were compelled to retire, but not till they had left 12,000 of their comrades on the field; and even then, though exposed to the whole brunt of the enemy's artillery > they retreated fighting, and with their faces to the foe, who bought his hard- won victory at a loss of life equal, if not greater than the vanquished. This celebrated battle, recorded as one of the most bloody engagements fought in that age, was begun by the light of the moon, at two o'clock ia the morning, and lasted, without rest or intermission, for thirteen hours.
959. Why did the Young Pretender resolve to try his fortune in Scotland with such slender means?
Because, despairing of French assistance, and deceived by some desperate partisans into the belief that the country, groaning under heavy taxation to support German interests, was eager and anxious to welcome him as a deliverer and King : upon these representations he resolved to take advantage of the absence of George, and at once adventure the risk.
242 THE HISTOEICAL BEASON WHY.
PKETENDEE LANDS IN THE HIGHLANDS, AND ADVANCES ON EDINETTEGH.
960. Why was it that the Pretender's scheme of taking Fort William, in the Highlands, was frustrated, a plan that, if successful, would have given him a large quantity of arms and immense accession of strength ?
The project was defeated by the expedition being encountered by the "Lion" line-of- battle ship, which immediately attacked the Prince's convoy, tlie "Elizabeth," a French man-of-war, and continued the fight with such fury that both ships became completely disabled, the "Elizabeth" hauling off, and with difficulty keeping afloat till she reached Brest. The frigate, with the Pretender, and some six or seven of his adherents, carrying two thousand stand of arms, kept her course, and landed her passengers on one of the Hebrides, from whence they proceeded to Perth, while above a hundred officers, with his artillery, aud the greater bulk of his military stores, were lost to the cause on board the " Elizabeth."
961. Why was the Pretender allowed to gain strength and descend to. the Lowlands?
Through the pusillanimity, if not cowardice, of Sir John Cope, the Commander of all the Troops in Scotland, who, rather than encounter the Chevalier, took a wide detour to the north, with the intention of coming upon the rear of the rebel force. Upon this, Charles put his army in motion, and, Cope having left the whole south of the kingdom unprotected, pro- ceeded to Perth, Dundee, and Edinburgh, where he took up his residence in the palace of Holyrood, and where, for the the third time, he had his father proclaimed as King, and seizing, wherever it could be obtained, the public money for the general uses.
962. The caution and procrastination that characterised all Cope's actions, exposed him to the scorn and merited contempt of both parties ; the Jacobites, in particular, writing lampoons on his lack of courage, while his indolence is still perpetuated in the country by sarcastic songs of the period, finding the enemy had escaped him, he at length embarked his infantry at Aberdeen, and on the 19th of September landed at Dunbar, where, being joined by Carpenter's Dragoons and some squadrons of horse, in all about 0,000, he proceeded towards Edinburgh, and on the morning of the 21st was attacked by the Chevalier, who with his raw levies and Highland clans,
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 243
BATTLE OP PRESTON PANS.— THE EEBKLS ENTEE ENGLAND, AND APPBOACH LONDON.
amounting in all to some 2,500 men, fell upon him with such abruptness and impetuosity, that in less than half-an-hour the sanguinary battle that ensued was lost and won; the royal troops, on every side broken, fled in confusion; the horse, with Cope at their head, were the first to fly, not deeming themselves safe till the Tweed lay between them and the Highland claymore; the infantry, mown down by scythes and the sweeping broad- swords of the clans, were all killed, or taken prisoners, while all the baggago and material of the army fell into the hands of the victor. The engagement, from the name of the village where the chief action took place, was called the Battle of Preston Pans.
963. Why did not the victor follow up this success by vigorous efforts ?
He was deluded by promised succours from France, and the expectation of being joined by many adherents of name and influence; and in the hope of being soon reinforced by a great accession of strength he delayed active operations, frittering away his time, on the strength of his late victory, in a beggarly assumption of royalty, holding levees, and dispensing the functions of sovereignty, on behalf of his .father, in whose name he issued proclamations, reinstated attainted nobles, promised a dissolution of the Union, and, in imitation of the conduct of the Government to himself, set a price on the head of the Elector of Hanover.
964. Sow did the Chevalier proceed, after the battle of Preston Pans ?
Having wasted many valuable weeks in idle pageant in the Scotch metropolis, and being promised a diversion in his favour on the southern coast of England, from France, he came to the resolution of acting with dispatch and energy; and, taking his post on foot, at the head of his men, dressed in the national garb, set his army in motion, and by rapid marches southward crossed the borders by the western Marches, invested and took Carlisle, armed his troops from the magazine of the garrison, and, being joined by considerable numbers, pushed on for Penrith and Manchester; and finding the country open, and his progress unopposed, proceeded to Derby, and held on to within a hundred miles of London, when the disaffection and insubordination of the Highland chiefs compelled him to abandon the scheme that might have crowned his adventure with success.
244
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
EEIREAT OP THE BEBEL AEMY TO THE KORT1I.
Retracing his journey northward, he re-entered Scotland by the west, laid Glasgow under contribution, and, halting near Stirling, laid siege to that powerful castle — which he raised, however, to confront General Wade's force, sent after him from Edinburgh, in which, after a sharp and sanguinary con- flict, the royal troops were broken, and driven in rout from the
DOMESTIC MANUFACTURES.
SMOD2 OF MAKING TB.EEAD BEFORE THE INTRODUCTION OP THE SPINNING JENNY.
field, leaving the Prince in possession of their camp, baggage, and artillery. Aided by money from Spain, the junction of several Scottish nobles, and a great accession of numbers, the Young Pretender's cause had never presented so promising an aspect as at this juncture, but instead of taking advantage of his circumstances he retreated still farther . north, fighting occasional skirmishes, attempting in vain to capture Fort William, and finally, after much dissension among the various leaders, took his stand on the fatal plain of Culloden.
THE HISTOEICAL BEASON WHY. 245
PRETENDER 20STS HIMSELF AT CULLODEN.— ADVANCE OB THE ROYAL ARMY UNDER THE DUKE OF CUMBERLAND.
965. To meet this, the most formidable of all the Pretender's attempts on the Crown, the country was rapidly put in a posture of defence, volunteer corps were enrolled all over the kingdom, several regiments of horse and foot were brought over from the army in Flanders, which, with some Dutch and household trooos, in all 14,000, were placed under the command of the Duke of Cumberland, who, setting forward, pursued the retreating rebels as far as Aberdeen, where, but for the insubordination in his army, it was the Chevalier's purpose to have given him battle. Having recruited his army at Aberdeen, the Duke crossed the Spey, a deep and rapid river, where his passage might have been disputed with every prospect of success, but, being unguarded, the Duke passed it iu undisturbed freedom, and, on the 14th of April, encamped his forces at Nairn, nine miles from Culloden.
966. Wliy was the rebel army so unprepared for action U'Jicn the royal troops came up?
As soon as the Chevalier heard of the Duke's halt at Nairn, he had his camp reconnoitred, with the intention of attacking it at dark. For this purpose, on the night of the 15th, he set his men in motion j but the column was so long that it em- barrassed and delayed the march, and, in consequence of its frequent halts, ignorance of the ground, and the absence of guides, the best part of the night was lost before half the distance had been traversed, while the men, who had been under arms all the previous night and day, were so oppressed with fatigue, sleep, and hunger, that numbers strayed irom the column, or threw themselves on the earth, and instantly fell into profound sleep. Finding it impossible to reach the camp and surround the enemy before daylight, the Prince was compelled to countermand the movement, and lead his exhausted troops back to their former ground, upon which the men threw themselves upon the earth protected by the park wall, that sheltered a portion of their position from the sharp night wind, and others scattered themselves about in the vain search for ibod ; so that when Cumberland, who had set his army in motion before dawn, reached the rebel position, the Pretender's army had to be roused from sleep, or gathered from difierent parts of the field to be marshalled for the coming shock.
967. What ivas the force of the Chevalier's army at the Battle of Culloden ?
It is variously estimated, though the most probable number
216 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
BATTLE OF CTJLLODEN, DEFEAT OP THE REBELS, AND PLIGHT OF THE TOTTNG PEETENDEE, 1746.
is supposed to have been 8,000, with several pieces of cannon, well manned and properly served, while the Royal army was little less than twice the strength of the rebels.
968. The battle began about one o'clock in the afternoon of the 16t,h of April, 1746, by a furious cannonade from the royal artillery, which did dreadful execution on the enemy's columns, and Avas but feebly replied to by the rebel guns. Unused to this kind of passive warfare, and maddened at the loss of their comrades, who were swept away before this storm of artillery, five hundred of the clans, drawing their claymores, rushed with such impetuosity on the left wing of the Duke's army, that one regiment was borne down and routed by the weight and impetus of the onslaught, and but for the opportune arrival of two battalions from the reserve line, the entire wing would have been routed. At the same time, and while the Highlanders were driven back, a regiment of militia having broken a passage through the park wall, which covered the rebels' right flauk, Hawley's Dragoons, and several squadrons of horse, poured in, and falling on the unprotected wing, drove it in wild confusion on the main battle, which instantly became a scene of inextricable disorder and rout and with such expedition was the charge given, and so universal became the panic, that in less than half an hour the enemy was driven from every part of the field, which, with the road as far as Inverness, was strewn with the dead and dying of the rebel army to the number of three thousand. Some French companies endeavoured to cover the retreat by a steady fire, but were borne down by the rush, and. made prisoners. A large part of the reserve, immediately on witnessing the rout, marched off the field in order, and escaped pursuit. The Prince fled, with a single attendant, till their horses breaking down compelled them to alight, and seek safety on foot in opposite directions. Alone and destitute, without money, hungry and faint, a fortune set upon his head, hemmed round by a cordon of thirty thousand soldiers every day drawing closer their encircling nets; skulking by day in clefts and gullies, or snatching a few hours' sleep on the bleak heather, and wandering by night over rocks and mountains, in solitude and darkness, among the frightful wilds and lonely wastes of Glengary, this unhappy and hunted fugitive endured six months of ceaseless toil, privation, and mental anxiety; often without food for days, barefooted and in rags ; many times on the verge of discovery, and as often, by a fortunate accident, escaping from the very grasp of his pursuers, before he reached the solitudes of Lochnanach, where a French privateer, that had kept on and off the coast for mouths, received him on board, reduced as he was, by famine, fatigue, and constant anxiety, to a condition of the most abject and melancholy destitution. Though chased by two frigates, the privateer at length fortunately reached the coast of Bretagne, arid landed the exile in safety.
969. Why was the conduct of the Duke of Cumberland so censured after the suppression of the rebellion ?
For the extreme inhumanity that characterised his conduct to the miserable captives; numbers were shot on the field, and martial
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.— LOSS OF MINORCA.— ADMIKAI. BTKG ACCUSED OF COWAEDICE.
law remorselessly executed everywhere; seventeen officers were hanged and quartered on Kennington Common, and the Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino beheaded.
970. Wliy was the treaty of peace, signed at Aix-la- Chapelle, so disgraceful to this country?
Because by it England restored to the belligerent powers all the possessions she had acquired by conquest in the late war, and sent two noblemen as hostages to France till the restoration of Cape Breton. So low had sunk the national honour, that the ministry gloried in a measure that covered the kingdom with disgrace.
971. Wliy was Admiral Byng accused of cowardice ? For having neglected to fight the French fleet off the island
of Minorca, or rather for allowing them to escape ; for keeping aloof while his vanguard was in action ; and for other acts of timidity and irresolution, in consequence of which the island of Minorca, which had been conquered in the time of Queen Anne, was taken by the French.
972. The country was so incensed at the misfortunes which attended our arms in North America, Washington and Braddock's defeat in the renewed war with France, the capture of Madras in tho New Settlement on the Coromandel, that on the news of this last misfortune, attended with such disgraceful timidity, the people were so incensed that the ministry, to save themselves, willingly seized so inviting an opportunity of giving the populace a victim, on whom to vent the national anger, which, on the subsequent news of the loss of the island and citadel, rose to a state of frenzy. Orders were sent out superseding Byng, who was brought home under arrest, tried on the capital charge of cowardice in face of the enemy, found guilty, and shot on the quarter-deck of a line-of-battle ship, in Portsmouth Harbour.
973. Wliy may the prosperity of our Empire in the East date from this period ?
Because at this time there appeared on the scene Robert Clive, a young man, a native of Shropshire, who, having gone out to India in the capacity of a writer, or junior clerk, in the Honourable East India Company's service, throwing aside the pen, devoted himself to the sword, and with such singular zeal and ability, that he soon became the leading man both in the council and the field.
THE IIIST01UCAL EEASON WHY.
ME. CUVE EXPELS THE FRENCH FROM INDIA.— BEITISH SUPEEMACY IN HINDOSTAN.
974. Under his auspices, as if by magic, British power and influence was established over the whole peninsula, arid that mighty fabric of civil supremacy, that has since become the wonder and admiration of the world, took from him its coherent shape, and under his directing skill and energy, seemed to start into a sudden and consolidated existence. So great were the benefits conferred that the monarch of a grateful nation, in reward for such exemplary services, subsequently raised him to the peerage, under the title of Lord Clive, and appointed him first Governor- General of the new Empire in the East. After having risen through all the military grades to the rank of colonel, he led his small army against the French in Arcot, where, in a succession of dashing actions, he completely cleared the province of the enemy, taking the general prisoner. Having, with Admiral Watson, attacked the notorious and dreaded pirate-king, Tullage Angria, stormed and taken his capital city Geriah, fired his fleet, entirely crushed and rooted out his power, and subdued the border- ing princes and chiefs, who paid him tribute, he proceeded northward, to avenge the outrage committed on the English in Bengal, where Sur-Rnjah al Dowlat, having surprised and captured the Company's chief establishment in the Indies, Calcutta, had inhumanly confined 140 persons in an under ground room, hardly 18 feet square, called the Black Hole, where '12? of the number were in a few hours suffocated by the noxious exhalation? proceeding from so many human beings confined in so narrow a compass After a furious fire of two hours, Sur Dowlat was compelled to surrender, and give up entire possession of the town and fort; an acquisition made complete by the subsequent capture of his great arsenal, magazine of arms, and granaries, at Hooghly, a city of great trade and importance. After many brilliant actions, and the reduction of several strong and hotly con- tested posts, Colonel Clive fought the great and decisive battle of Plassy, in which 15,000 horse and 30,000 infantry, with 40 pieces of artillery, were opposed to a mere handful of Europeans and a small number of native troops; yet, in despite of such fearful odds, the victory on the side of the English was decisive. Having subdued all the native malcontents, and placed a new Emperor on the Mogul throne, Colonel Clive proceeded to wage war on the French in their Indian possessions, in each engagement with the enemy being singularly successful, sweeping them one by one from every settlement they held iu the country.
975. Why were the British arms so signally successful in ihe North American campaign of 1759 ?
The disasters that had so long attended the British arras in America were owing to the incapable commanders sent to those provinces by the ministry, who passed by all real merit, and promoted only the tools and friends of their party to posts of distinction. But on the accession of Mr. Pitt to the ministry, new counsels began to prevail, and more efficient men were employed in the public service. Three expeditions
THE HISTORICAL KEASON WHY. 249
FRENCH DEIVEIT OTTT OB AMEEICA.— SIEGE OF QUEBEC AND DEATH OP WOLFE, 1759.
sent out this campaign, to attack the enemy in his most vulnerable points, were severally crowned with success. General Amherst stormed and took Crown Point with 12,000 men; General Prideaux, with a proportionate force, secured Fort Niagara; and to General Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory, was left the third and most important duty of all, the capture of the city of Quebec, a conquest that struck the last blow to the power of France in the country, and placed the whole extent of North America in the hands of the English.
" 976. Why did this country enter on the Continental war between Prussia and France?
Merely to assist the King of Prussia ; for England had no interest at stake in a quarrel that disturbed the peace of 'the whole Continent; and from having supplied money to arm the Hanoverian contingent, the Parliament granted men, till at last more than 30,000 English troops were fighting for no national cause in Germany, while the maintenance of the country's colonial possessions was left to a weak and shamefully inadequate force.
977. At this time the honour of the British arms was gloriously vindicated in every part of the globe. In India and America the national triumph was borne on every banner ; in Germany the British infantry, now the first in the world, had won the famous battle of Miuden ; and her invincible fleets, setting at defiance all considerations of reserve or prudence, with chivalrous hardihood, entered unknown seas,- braved all dangers of rocks, tempests, or shoals, by day or night, in calm or storm, as exemplified in the terrific action in Quiberon Bay, fought in a night hurricane, where her hardy crewa boldly confronted, and sought the foe, doing battle with a heroism and undaunted bravery that nothing could withstand;' so that the latter part of this reign may be regarded as one of the most splendid epochs in the military history of Great Britain.
978. When and hoiv did George the Second die?
He expired suddenly at the Palace of Kensington, of rupture of the heart, on the morning of the 25th of October, 1760, in the 77th year of his age, and the 33rd of his reign.
979. Possessed of qualities more designed to benefit society than adorn a throne, George the Second was a monarch eminently calculated to inspire confidence, and beget esteem in his English subjects ; and during his reign the people rapidly advanced in wealth, commerce, and prosperity. la
THE HISTORICAL REASON WITT.
DEATH OP GEORGE THE SECOND. — ACCESSION OF HIS GRANDSON.— STATE OP THE COURT.
temper he was violent and sudden, though his actions were ever guided by deliberation and reason. Plain in his conduct, true to his word, steady in his favour, and constant in his friendship, he inspired rather esteem for the solid qualities of the man, than admiration for his attributes as a Sovereign. Having said so much, truth has spoken all that can be advanced in his favour. He was ignorant, narrow-minded, and selfish; destitute of education himself, he despised learning in others ; and though literature flourished in his time, it was irrespective of Royal patronage. He considered his German State of more estimate than all his acquired dominions, which were pil- laged to save and advance the interests of his beloved Electorate; and finally, his extreme nationality fostered an economy that was only one degree removed from avaricious meanness.
GEOEGE THE THIED.
FROM 1760 TO 1820.
980. Who was George the Third?
The grandson of the late King", his father, Frederick, Prince of Wales, a most amiable and beloved Prince, dying- some ten years before the late King's death, deeply mourned by the nation.
981. Why were the people so overjoyed at the acces- sion of the new Sovereign ? ,
There were many causes, independent of his youth, comely appearance, and agreeable manners, that conspired to make the advent of a young Monarch at such a time particularly accept- able to the nation, rendering the ascension of the young King1 one of the most memorable events in the modern history of the kingdom.
9S2. The three last male sovereigns had all been aliens, who acknowledged no real interest in the welfare or happiness of the people they governed, and whose language they were hardly capable of speaking; besides this, all were far advanced in years when they ascended the throne, which they surrounded by a barrier of foreign faction, or domestic intrigue, so that the nation was shut out from all sympathy or communion with its Sovereign, by a Dutch or German clique, who, if they did not arrogate all the offices of State, dammed up each avenue of appeal or approach. For nearly a hundred years no native-born prince had mounted the throne; it was consequently with particular gratification that the people hailed the coronation of a King,
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 251
KING'S MABEIAGE.— PITT CHEATED EAKL OF CHATEAU.
not only English-born, but bred in the country, and educated by an exemplary father in the wishes, tastes, and principles of his countrymen and future subjects ; so, though of German extraction, no Sovereign of these realms was ever more thoroughly English, in heart and understanding, than the King to whom this country is indebted for the brightest pages in its history, and the people, for the regeneration of manners, the elevation of moral principles and political truth, the bright example of virtue, the encouragement of art and science, and for the diffusion of happiness and civilization.
983. Why did the King espouse Charlotte, Princess of Mccldenburgh-Strelitz ?
Because he did not choose to run counter to the wishes of the nation, by allying1 himself with any of the great Catholic families of Europe ; he therefore willingly selected a sovereign Protestant state of Germany, as the source from which to select a wife, and was accordingly married on the 8th of September, 3761.
984. What military achievements characterized this year's proceedings ?
Eelleisle was taken by bombardment from the French ; the fortress of Pondicherry was stormed in the East Indies; while in the West, the islands of Martinique, Grenada, St. Lucia, Grenadillas, St. Vincent, with others of less note, were taken in rapid succession, from the French and Spaniards.
985. Why did Pitt resign, and quit the Ministry?
Because, foreseeing the French and Spanish coalition, and the certainty of a war with the latter power, he advised the instant adoption of active measures, and the capture of the Spanish treasure fleet, then on its homeward voyage, — measures which his colleagues, out of rivalry to the minister, violently opposed, upon which Mr. Pitt, rather than be a party to such irresolute counsels, resigned.
986. Upon which George the Third, out of consideration to his great abilities, and the honour his services had conferred on the nation, created him Earl of Chatham, with a pension of £3,000 a-year, to continue for three lives ; while, as a further mark of his regard, his wife and her children were ennobled by titles.
252 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
CIVIL LIST.— PUBLIC EXPENDITURE.— HAVANNAH TAKEN.— CAPTUKE OP A TBEASUEE SHIP.
987. Why was the Earl of Bute created First Lord of the Treasury, and what provision was made for the King and Queen?
Through the influence that nobleman had acquired over the King, while acting as his tutor. The sum granted the King for the household and dignity of the Crown was £800,000 ; and on the Queen, should she survive the King, an annuity of £100,000 for life, Buckingham House as a residence, and the lands of Richmond Old Park. At the same time the expenses for the year were declared to amount to £19,616,119 19s. 9fd.
988. Why, when war was declared against Spain, icas an expedition sent to the Havannah?
Because the island of Cuba, and its immensely wealthy capital, the Havannah, was considered the most vital part of the Spanish West India possessions, being the port in which all their American and European commerce centred.
9S9. This city, hitherto considered impregnable, was with incredible toil, heroism, and labour taken, after a siege of two mouths ; at the same time Manilla and the Phillippine Islands, with Trinidad, were captured, while to complete the triumph of the English, the great register ship, the Hermioue, a treasure galleon bound for Cadiz from Lima, was captured at the mouth of her destined port, and brought in triumph to England. The gold and silver ingots with which she was laden amounted to above a million sterling, which, placed in waggons, were drawn through the streets of London to the Bank at the same moment that all the church bells were pealing for the birth of the Prince of Wales, August 12th, 1762.
990. Why was Havannah restored to the Spaniards?
It was restored at the general peace, which was concluded in Paris in 1763, Great Britain receiving Florida in exchange for the capital of Cuba.
991. In this war, which lasted seven years, England had conquered the whole of North America, made herself master of twenty-five islands, fought and won by sea and land twelve pitched battles, bombarded and took nine fortified cities and forty-four castles, sunk and burned above a hundred ships, and acquired more than twelve millions of plunder.
992. Why was Wilkes sent to the Tower, and after- wards expelled the House of Commons ?
For writing a libel on the King's speech in a periodical called
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 253
ME. WILKE3 ACCUSED OF WRITING A LIBEL.— LOED CLIVE SENT TO INDIA.— DIFFERENCES WITH THE AMERICAN COLONY.
" The North Briton ;" and though his privilege as memher of the House obtained his release from the Tower, the Commons subsequently expelled him from their body for the publication of an indecent work.
993. Why were the political relations of the country the sulject of such contempt abroad, and so galling to the people at home?
Because every year saw a new Ministry, whose first duty was to annul all the acts of their predecessors, and then pro- mulgate enactments of their own, framed without any regard to the interests of the people taxed, and with such unstatesmanlike ignorance as to expose the country to the ridicule of foreigners and the anger and contempt of its own subjects abroad.
994. Why ivas Mr. CUve, now created Lord Clive for his meritorious services, sent lack to India?
To correct the shameful abuses that had crept into the adminis- tration of affairs, the officials exacting from the natives large sums of money, under the name of gifts, till the name of an Englishman became synonymous for theft and rapine. Having restored honesty to every branch of government, and ratified an advantageous treaty with the Mogul, he returned to England.
995. Why did the colonies of North America refuse to pay the Stamp Duty, and what led to the unfortunate war that severed the mother country from what were considered the most valuable of all her colonial possessions ?
The colonists resolutely refused to be taxed in any way, for a government in which they had no voice and no representative.
936. There were many causes, heart-burnings, and acts of injustice, which had for some years been steadily growing up in the minds of the American people, and finally led to this determination: while the vacillating and ever- changing ministry, one session passing severe measures on the colonists, and the next rescinding them, to enact others; that ultimately contempt was added to their many causes of vexation, till finally they not only flatly refused to contribute in any way to the imperial exchequer, but even denied themselves the luxury of all exciseable articles ; and to convince the Government how obnoxious tho last measure was— that of attempting to
254 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
GENEEAL WAEEANTS DECLARED ILLEGAL.— FIEST. COtfGEESS AT PHILADELPHIA.
put an excise on tea and some other commodities— and to place temptation out of the reach of the more temperate inhabitants, the people of Boston broke into the ships and bonded houses, and forcibly seizing all the tea in store, threw it into the harbour. At the same time there can be no doubt that the weak policy pursued at home by the Ministry, in regard to Mr. Wilkes, stimulated them to undertake the hazardous course upon which they decided ; while the formation of Lord North's Cabinet, with that narrow-minded and strongly-prejudiced nobleman as leader, completed the last link in the chain of direct and collateral causes, that led to the horrors of the civil war that immediately followed.
997. What political lenefit accrued to the people from Mr. Wilkes' trial ?.
General warrants were declared illegal ; at the same time the seizure of private papers by a State messenger was pronounced unlawful, and the practice of both abolished.
9D8. The arbitrary conduct of the House of Commons, and the intem- perate zeal of the Ministry, in committing Mr. Wilkes to the Tower, and, after being three times returned for Middlesex by overwhelming majorities, refusing him his seat, and otherwise treating him with insult and con- tumely, created such a ferment in the country, as being subversive of the liberty and civil rights of the subject, that his cause was at once espoused by the nation, whose political freedom he was considered as defending in his own person at his subsequent trial; and he was consequently regarded as a martyr in the cause of the Constitution and the civil rights of the subject, lifting his dispute with the Government from the insignificance of a private question to the dignity of a great national trial, in which the whole kingdom took the keenest interest, bestowing on its favourite and idol the admiration due to the most exalted and patriotic sacrifices.
999. WTiy did delegates from the different American States meet at Philadelphia? ' .4
The representatives of Thirteen States met, to the number of fifty-one, and, constituting themselves into a CONGEESS, resolved to animate each other in a determination to resist the payment of all taxes to the mother country, that the Government might plainly understand from their determined conduct that they were resolute in their resistance, and that they were prepared to go to any extremity to maintain their rights and liberties, which they considered imperilled by the late measures, both as it regarded themselves, and the ministerial treatment of Mr. Wilkes.
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 255
HOSTILITIES WITH THE AMERICANS.— BATTLES OF LEXINGTON AND BUSKER'S HILL.
1000. What led to tlie first collision lehveen the pro- vincial and royal troops in America ?
The CONGEESS feeling that, sooner or later, the States would be forced into an attitude of defence, if not aggression, had secretly given orders for the collection of military stores, so that at any moment a sufficient body of volunteers, or militia, might be easily equipped. General Gage, who commanded the troops at Massachusets, having received information that a large magazine of arms was formed at the town of Concord, sent out a strong detachment, on the night of the 19th of April, 1775, to capture or destroy them, a duty which was effected with remarkable despatch, the people being ignorant of the object and direction of the expedition ; but the news of the affair having spread like wild-fire over the country, the inhabitants poured from their homes, and lining the woods and hedges along the road, through which the troops had to return, in the neighbourhood of Lexington, poured in such an unex- pected and well-directed fire, that the men were thrown into disorder, and' pursued by the masked and shifting enemy almost to the gates of Boston. In this running fight, the first blood shed in the "War of Independence," as it was called, the Royalists lost 273 men killed and wounded, and the Americans about 60.
1001. The first blow having been struck, both parties addressed themselves for vigorous action, and on the 7th of June, the Americans, anxious to possess themselves of Boston, and taking advantage of the reduced strength of the garrison, before reinforcements could arrive, took the opportunity of the night, to throw up breast-works, and entrench themselves so strongly round Bunker's Hill, that in the sanguinary struggle to dispossess them of their earth-works, the British army lost 226 killed, and 800 wounded; and though the troops were finally victorious, it was at the price of a dearly-bought triumph. The Congress at once appointed George Washington, a gentleman of large property in Virginia, and who had formerly been in the British service, and engaged against the French, as Colonel Washington, Commander- in-Chief of all their forces. At the same time, they drew up a declaration of rights, declaring, that as they had taken up arms to defend those rights, they would never lay them down, so long as oppression or injustice was practised or attempted. A petition was drawn up and sent to the King, by Mr. Perm, the Governor of Pennsylvania, humbly praying his Majesty to adopt means to suppress the further effusion of blood, and to be graciously pleased to devise a remedy for the grievances of which the colonists complained. But
256 THE HISTOIUCAL SEASON WHY.
WASHINGTON MADE COMilANDEE O~E THE AMEEICAIT AB3IIES : HIS CAEE22.
such was the infatuation and criminal egotism of the Ministry, that Lord Dartmouth, the American secretary, informed the delegate, that no answer would be accorded— z\\ insulting reply to their address, that embittered the feelings of the Americans, and caused them to redouble their efforts at resistance.
1002. Who was George Washington ?
George Washington, the founder of American independence, and one of the purest and most illustrious characters to be found in the annals of any age or people, was born on the llth of February, 1732, in the State of Virginia, United States. His early education, amid the beauty and magnificence of his native state, was of a nature admirably suited to the develop- ment of a sound mind and vigorous frame, which, cast in the largest mould, was early inured by robust exercise to endurance and hardship. After the acquisition of a sound and useful education, he embraced the military profession, and in the service of the state, rose to the grade of colonel, and having obtained considerable experience in the several French campaigns on both sides of the St. Lawrence, was particularly serviceable in bringing off Braddock's force, when led into the Indian ambuscade.
1003. After the conquest of Canada, he retired into private life, on his paternal estate ; till the impolitic course adopted by the Ministry in England roused him to a keen sense of the dangers menacing his native country, when, with many others, good and patriotic men, he came forward boldly to identify himself with the interest of the American States, and was returned as delegate for Virginia in the first Congress in 1774. In the second Congress, so high an opinion was entertained of his abilities as a commander and a statesman, that his brother colonists unanimously elected him to the highest office they had to dispose of, that of Comtnander-in- Chief of their army — a post that, through all the difficulties, hardships, and responsibilities of the long, and often doubtful war, he fulfilled with such brilliant distinction as to command the admiration of both friend and enemy. Having guided the military destinies of his country through all the vicissitudes and troubles of that stormy period, after the capitulation of New York he laid his delegated truncheon at the feet of his liberated country. The earliest act of his grateful confederates was to confer ou General Washington the proud and distinguished office of First President of the United States of North America, where, invested with almost absolute functions, he implicitly obeyed those laws, in the formation of which he had, by his wisdom, so largely contributed. In this dignified post, which, like Cincinnatus, he twice held, he remained till, overcome by the weight of years, and seeing more active spirits rising round him, he
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 25'
BOSTON ABANDONED BY THE BRITISH.— BETBEAT OF WASHINGTON.
resigned in 1793 the supreme authority his country had again conferred on him, and retired to his paternal estates on the Potomac, accompanied in his retirement by the admiration of his countrymen and the blessing of all true lovers of a country that, under his prowess in the field, and wisdom in the council, had risen from a distracted and ill-governed colony, to a great, independent, and powerful nation. In this retirement, General Washington, the most illustrious man America ever gave birth to, died in the year 1799, iu the 67th year of his age.
1004. Wliy was Boston abandoned ly the British?
The Americans, under Montgomery and Arnold, having made a successful irruption into Canada, besieged and then blockaded Quebec, were, on the receipt of reinforcements by Carleton, the Governor, compelled to retreat in great disorder, leaving Canada in the undisturbed possession of the English troops. Washington, who in the meantime had invested Boston, recruited by a part of Arnold's troops, pressed the town so hard, that the garrison, under General Howe, reduced to the last extremity by the want of provisions, and despairing of timely succour to relieve them, were obliged to desert the town, Howe embarking his troops, to the number of 7,000, on board the vessels in the harbour, set sail for Halifax, — Nova Scotia having remained faithful to British rule. As the fleet left the harbour on the 17th March, 1776, the American army took possession of the town and defences of Boston.
1005. Why did not General Howe, after overrunning tlie Jerseys, push on for Philadelphia, where, by seizing the Congress, and head of the American Executive, the war might have been finished at one How?
This great neglect is said to have arisen from hampering orders from England ; but, whatever was the reason for so great an omission, it proved the saving of America. Howe, having been reinforced by a large body of Hessians, and several regiments of Highlanders, assisted by his brother Lord Howe, with the fleet, attacked and took the town of New York ; gained several advantages on the White Plains, took Fort Washington, with 2,500 prisoners ; and shortly after Fort Lee, with a vast quantity of the enemy's stores and munitions, compelling the
258 THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY.
THE AMERICANS KEFUSE CONDITIONS.— WAE DECLARED WITS JJJ1ANCE AND SPAIN.
Americans to retreat across the Delaware, above ninety miles; while in the north, Sir Henry Clinton drove the enemy from the State of Rhode Island ; the British troops covering the Jerseys and all the eastern face of the country, from the mouth of the Delaware to Cape Cod • so that if Washington, with the shattered remnant of his army, had been followed up, as all the tactics of war demanded, nothing could have saved the capital from falling* into the hands of the British, and by this bold achievement concluding the war.
1006. Why were the terms of accommodation sent over to America from England, indignantly rejected ly the Congress ?
Because, by this time, the Americans had recovered from the deplorable state into which their reverses had thrown them, and had, in a series of actions, obtained great advantages; and though they would, some months before, have gladly accepted terms of reconciliation, they had now become so incensed at the wanton and horrible barbarities practised on the people by the German regiments in the British pay, that they refused to hear the Commissioners, till their independence was acknowledged, and every ship and soldier withdrawn from their land and waters. These terms being rejected, the war was consequently continued with unabated energy.
1007. Why was war declared against France and Spain, and how was it carried on ?
The Americans having sought assistance from France to carry out their War of Independence, that nation dispatched a powerful fleet, with a considerable number of land forces, to America, to distress the English in the Southern States ; and further used her influence to induce Spain to co-operate — an offensive and defensive treaty being ultimately agreed to between these two powers, and a united fleet of Spanish and French ships sent to sea, thai? for its number, complement of men, and weight of metal, was so formidable as to create the most intense alarm in this country, as this defiant flotilla arrogantly paraded the English Channel.
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 259
NAVAL EVENTS.— SIEGE OP GIBEALTAB.— POPISH EIOTS OF LONDON, 1780.
IOCS. D'Estang, with the French expedition to the Savannah, was gallantly beaten off by General Prevost, while Sir Hyde Parker swept the Gulf Stream, and defended the West India Islands from the enemy, taking many of his merchantmen. The first measure of the Spaniards was ono in which all the resources of the nation were stretched to the uttermost to carry it out with success, and on which Europe looked in doubt and amazement ; this was no less than an attempt to retake Gibraltar, a siege which has justly been described as one of the most terrific bombardments that had ever been known. The united fleet consisted of forty-eight ships of the line, besides ten floating batteries, great numbers of frigates, gun- boats, bomb-ketches, and smaller craft, carrying in all one hundred and fifty-four pieces of brass cannon, and above a hundred thousand men. Though ill supplied to resist such overwhelming odds, General Elliott, the governor, defended his important trust with the most determined courage and vigilance. This desperate battle presented one of the most terrible and sublime scenes of grandeur ever witnessed: above four hundred pieces of ordnar.ce were incessantly vomiting forth fire and death, till the earth shook with the roar of the reverberating guns, and both the rock and the peninsula on which the fortress stood were wrapped in a dense cloud of smoke, through which the fire from the red-hot shot and shells gleamed like a smothered volcano. This scene, terrible in the day, became grandly awful through the darkness of the night, as, without slack or pause, the destructive cannonade continued night and day, till at length, their batteries taking fire, compelled a respite to the deadly storm. Eefore it could be renewed, Lord Howe, with thirty-five ships of the line, bore up to the relief of the garrison, and, with his deadly broadsides, completed the victory, and saved the rock from further molestation. In the following January, Admiral Rodney captured seven Spanish ships of war, and the greater part of the merchantmen they were convoying, and, a few days after, defeated, off Cape St. Vincent, a fleet of eleven ships of the line and two frigates— one of the Spaniards, a seventy-four, with 600 men, was blown up in the heab of the action. In the following May, three naval battles were fought and won over the French in the West Indies, with the capture of twelve valuable merchantmen. These victories were damped, however, by the loss of five East Indiamen and fifty merchantmen, captured by the French and Spanish fleet,— the greatest mercantile loss ever sustained by this country at one time.
1009. What led to the Popish Riots of 1780, or the Gordon Riots, as they were called?
The passing of an Act in the former session to relieve the Catholic part of the community from some of the shameful disabilities imposed on them by an enactment of William the Third, and which had passed off without giving offence in this country, till the Scotch, in their bigoted intolerance, created a riot in Edinburgh, and, setting fire to a Catholic Chapel, sounded the key-note that set loose all the dogs of discord,
260 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
MILITABY OPERATIONS IN AMEEICA.— INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES DECLARED, JULY 4, 1783.
theological rancour, and party animosity, which for more than a week gave the metropolis up to the pillage of an infuriated mob, led on by a religious madman, and created one of the most audacious civil commotions that had ever disgraced the capital.
1010. The ignorant mob, excited by the rabid fanaticism of a self-constituted body called the Protestant Association, and led on by an insane visiouary> Lord George Gordon, broke open and fired the prisons, sacked all places of Catholic worship, and the houses of all persons supposed favourable to the persecuted Catholics ; broke into the house of the Lord Chancellor Mansfield, and, heaping his books and manuscripts on a fire kindled for the purpose, compelled him to look on while they wantonly consumed one of the finest private libraries in the kingdom; while like fiends they danced round the blazing ruin they made; or, rushing with torches up and down the streets, fired every building whose owner did not display a banner from his window, with " No Popery " in conspicuous letters. The Corporation, like the Ministry, were too timid to act;. and for more than a week London was at the mercy of an excited rabble, till the troops, called out, but left to their own dis- cretion, put an end to scenes that had created the wildest alarm and appre- hension.
1011. What were the immediate measures that led to the suspension of the American war ?
The surrender of Lord Cornwallis, with his army and part of the fleet, together with the City of New York, to Washington and the American army that besieged him ; the news of which disaster had such an effect on the nation, that, considering the immense expense the war had entailed on the country, and the formidable nature of the league against it, Holland having joined with France and Spain to aid the revolted colonies, the House memorialised the King to terminate a war so repugnant to the feelings of the people, and so fearfully expensive to the nation. A change of Ministry succeeded, and negotiations were opened at Paris, and soon after terminated in declaring the sovereign independence of the British North American States, 4th of July, 1783, after a war of eight years. At the same time peace was separately concluded with France, Spain, and Holland; and the country, overjoyed at the termination of the ong and fearful war, presented addresses of congratulation to the King.
THE HISTOniCAL REASON WHY. 2G1
PITT MADE PRIME MINISTER.— TRIAL OF WARREN HASTINGS.— PRINCE OF WALES REGENT, 17S7.
1012. Why was Pitt made Prime Minister?
The King, weary of the weak and vacillating counsels that, through ten distinct Cabinets during this reign, had covered the Government of the country with odium, sent at midnight, on the 19th of December, 1783, to demand the seals of office from the two Secretaries, and giving them to Mr. Pitt, a new Cabinet and new Parliament inaugurated the following year, with wiser counsels.
1013. Why was Warren Hastings, the late- Governor- General of India, impeached ?
Because he was accused of many acts of tyranny, extortion, and cruelty, on the chiefs and natives of the Indian Empire, vhereby the British name was exposed to the charge of avarice and barbarity, and the Company's possessions and the national honour endangered and compromised by such disgraceful conduct.
1014. After one of the most remarkable trials on record in the House of Peers, where his accusation and defence were conducted, both for the im- portance of the inquiry, the length and patience of the trial, the brilliant speeches delivered for and against the accused, and for the vast interests compromised in the question, Mr. Hastings, though believed to have com- mitted most of the allegations laid to his charge, was finally acquitted, because it was allowed that the urgent necessity of the Indian affairs at tho time warranted the performance of the offences alleged against him, and that the extreme iiature of the occasion justified the unusual and extra- ordinary proceedings adopted, and that what was done was performed for the good of the service, and to the best of his judgment. Upon his acquittal, the East India Company paid the entire expense of the trial, and settled on their late Governor the sum of £5,000 a-year for life.
1015. Why was the Prince of Wales created Regent ? In the month of November, 1787, the King was first attacked
with those occasional fits of insanity, that from time to time recurred throughout the remainder of his long reign ; the Prince of Wales was, therefore, under certain restrictions of prerogative, appointed to administer the affairs of the nation, under the title of Regent.
1016. What great social convulsion IroJce out in France, and shook the entire of Europe, with its democratic principles, 'in the year 1789 ?
The French Revolution, by which the King and Queen of that
262 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
STOHMIUG OP SEEINGAPATA.M.— MUTINY IN THE FLEET AT 8PITHEAD.
country were brought to the guillotine, and which, in its horrible ravages, exterminated the ancient nobility of the kingdom, and ended by establishing an aristocracy of the people and a military government, which, after passing through the different phases of a National Convention, Directory, and Consulate, merged into an absolute despotism, called the Empire, with the first Napoleon as its chief.
1017. What led to the great campaign in India, under Lord Cormvallis, in 1790 ?
The feuds and jealousies between the Rajah of Travancore, and Tippoo Saib, Sultan of Mysore, the most formidable of all our adversaries in Hindostan. To save the Rajah from the overwhelming force of Tippoo, and punish him for his broken faith to the English, it was resolved to wage war on this powerful enemy, which, after many splendid achievements, terminated in storming the capital, Seringapatam, the death of Tippoo, who fell bravely defending his walls, and the annexation of a large part of the Mysore country to the British possessions : the two sons of the Sultan being brought to England for education.
1018. Why, when the signal to weigh zuas given to the British fleet at Spithead, did the men mutiny, and refuse to obey orders ?
The alleged cause of this alarming mutiny was the bad pay, and inferior and unjust rations served to the men, with some minor grievances ; these complaints constituted the chief demands made by the men to their Admiral. This dangerous and most formidable defection of the navy, occurring when the arms of the Allies and the English, under the Duke of York, in the Nether- lands, were attended with such ill-fortune, created the utmost terror in the public mind throughout the country.
1019. The mutiny of the seamen, which threatened to leave the nation naked to the assaults of the enemy, created universal consternation through- out the kingdom; after having returned to their duty, the men, under a belief that Government meant to deal falsely by them, again revolted, turned the cannon on their officers, and hoisting their mutinous red flag, took possession of the fleet. The Parliament having passed an act, allowing additional pay to the men, and the settlement of all tubjects of complaint,
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 2G3
MUTINY AT THE NOEE.— FEENCH ATTEMPT A LANDING IN IRELAND.- GEBAT NAVAL VICTOEIES.
Lord Howe returned to the fleet, with full powers to grant all their demands, and the King's pardon; upon which the men pulled down their flag, and instantly returned to their duty. This danger at Spithead had, however, hardly been surmounted, when the fleet at the Nore revolted in the same manner, but, far more insolently, refused all accommodation, unless their own terms were complied with, and, under the leadership of Richard Parker, proceeded to blockade the mouth of the Thames. The Government having refused all terms, but those granted to the other fleet, prepared floating batteries at Sheerness, to bombard the rebellious ships, upon which many of them struck their colours, and, growing weary of Parker's tyranny, returned to their duty, and in a few days every ship in the fleet struck her flag, and placed herself under the guns of Sheerness, upon which Parker and his accomplices were arrested, four or five of them executed, and the rest pardoned, upon the news of Duncan's great victory over the French, and the nation was thus saved from the most formidable danger that had ever assailed it.
1020. Why did the French attempt the invasion of Ireland, and how did the expedition terminate?
The arrogance of the French Directory having- precluded all chances of peace, they sent a strong squadron of ships, under Admiral Bouret, to make a descent in Ireland, which had reached Bantry Bay, when, being opposed by a few ships, and the weather not admitting the attempted landing, the entire fleet returned to Brest, with the exception of two ships "of the line, and three frigates, taken or sunk by the English.
1021. Why were the great victories gained over the navies of Spain and Holland, off Cape St. Vincent, under Sir John Jervis, and the Texel, by Admiral Duncan, of such great importance to the nation, and of such disastrous results to the French ?
The Dutch, ever subtle and artful in their foreign policy, and strongly influenced by French interest, had formed themselves into a Eepublic, on the model of that country, and concluding an alliance with France, declared war against England, and having equipped a large fleet, with an army of French soldiers on board, were ready to co-operate with their new ally, either in a descent on these islands, or wherever else French interests might direct, as best suited to strike a telling blow at England. The destruction of the principal fleets of their two allies, Spain and Holland,
264 THE H1STOKICAL EEASON WHY.
CAPE OP GOOD HOPE TAKEN FBOM THE DTTTCH.— OEEAT EEBELLION IBELAND, 1798.
within a few months of each other, was a most serious blow to the ambition of the French Directory; though the means of saving this country from some meditated evil was only averted by the loss of her subsequent navies.
1022. If the arms of Britain were less triumphant on the Continent, in this campaign, her successes on the sea fully compensated for any deficiency on land. In the previous summer, the British navy rode the ocean, in each hemisphere, and in every, quarter, with equal glory and triumph. France Spain, arid Holland suffered in their colonial dependencies by the capture of a great number of their "West India Islands, while from the latter were taken the Cape of Good Hope, her most favoured possession, and the colony adjacent— a conquest that so galled the Batavian Republic, as Holland was now called, that a small fleet and army were despatched to recover the colony at all hazard; and while the English Governor was preparing his batteries to resist the bombardment and landing, a British squadron of eight line- of-battle and several frigates entered the Bay ; and, at once preparing for action, placed the Dutch between the range of two fires, at which their Admiral, seeing their hopelessness of resistance, struck and surrendered his whole fleet without firing a shot.
1023. WTiy was tlie year '98 so memorable in the history of Ireland ?
For the breaking out of one of the most formidable and widely ramified rebellions that was ever developed in that country, above a million of members being enrolled for the purpose, and large sums of money subscribed to buy arms; while, to assist the rising and give system and order to the whole scheme, 1,800 well-armed French soldiers were landed, and took part in the scenes of outrage that ensued.
1024. The arbitrary and cruel penal statutes enacted in former reigns against the Catholics had been almost entirely repealed in this, and the Catholic now enjoyed the same civil privileges, with the exception of sitting in Parliament or holding Government offices, as the Protestant. Consequently, all religious or civil grievances were supposed to have been removed. Yet a society of men was formed, called the " United Irishmen," who were bound together by oaths and secret signs, ramifying through every grade of society, affecting even the army, to the extent of one-third of its number, and spreading over the entire length and breadth of the island; and though, "Catholic Emancipation" was the professed object of this far-spread con- spiracy, it is evident by the secrecy observed, the soliciting aid from France, and the collection of arms, that the real object was a total separation from Great Britain, and the establishment of an independent state on the model of the American Union. This dangerous society was originated by an Irish
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 265
'UNITED IRISHMEN" AND "ORANGEMEN." — FRENCH INVADE EGYPT.
barrister of great ability, called Theodore Wolfe Tone, whose object was to connect the whole Irish nation in one bond, and all pledged to one purpose. The Protestants, alarmed by the machinations going on, and persuaded such a union could only be established for some dangerous mischief, formed among themselves a counter society, and assumed the name of "Orange- men," after William of Orange, the supporter of Protestant principles. The animosity engendered by these opposite parties was fruitful of constant strife, faction, and ill-will. Though the plot of the " United Irishmen " was discovered, and the ringleaders and chiefs arrested, it did not prevent the rising on the day appointed, or the murder and violence that was anticipated from taking place, and though suppressed early in two of the provinces, in Connaught it raged with frightful fury, till the surrender of the French rendered longer opposition useless; as it was, above 80,000 lives were lost, and still more wounded and maimed, before peace was restored to the harassed country. Of the fourteen chiefs arrested, Emmet and several others were hanged, but by far the greater number were tried by drum-head court-martial, and immediately shot or hanged.
1025. Why did the 'French send an armament to Egypt, and wliat was the result of that invasion and the sub- sequent conquest of the country ?
The French having been expelled from Hindostan by the English, and all their valuable possessions annexed to the Com- pany's settlements, it was the policy of France to endeavour to regain, not only her former influence in the Indian peninsula, but strike a bold and severe blow at the wealth and power of this nation by assailing her in her Eastern Empire. For this purpose, as a long sea voyage was beset with perils from the English fleets, that in all latitudes rode triumphant mistress of the seas, an overland expedition was projected, which would have the further advantage of injuring our oldest ally, Turkey, who, as Sovereign of Egypt, it was intended to humble, by wrench- ing from her the richest province in the Ottoman Empire. The objects, therefore, were two-fold: first, the conquest of Egypt, and secondly, an expedition from thence, by the Eed Sea, to the British possessions in the East Indies.
1026. For the better execution of this purpose, and to blind England as to the real destination of the armament, rumours of an intended invasion of Britain were busily circulated, which led to the putting the coast of this country in a posture of defence, the enrolment of volunteer corps in every county, the embodiment of the militia, a great accession of the naval and military strength of the nation, and the dispatching of a fleet, under Admiral Lord Nelson, to watch the French coast, and observe the enemy's
THE HISTOEICAL BEASON WHY.
ITSLSON DEFEATS PBENCH FLEET AT THE BATTLE OP THE NILE, 1798.
motions. In spite, however, of all Nelson's precaution, the French escaped his vigilance, and, with an immense flotilla of transports, containing a large army, under the command of General Bonaparte, escorted by a fleet of .sixteen line-of-battle ships, frigates, gun-boats, &c., put to sea, and reached the coast of Egypt, where, being safely disembarked in the neighbourhood of Alexandria, that city was, after a sharp and hotly-contested engagement, taken by the French. From Alexandria, Bonaparte led his army into the interior, fighting several bloody battles with the Egyptian cavalry, the Mamalukes, till, unable to oppose the disciplined legions of the French, the country submitted ; upon which Bonaparte led his forces to Acre, a ruined and neglected city, hastily and inefficiently put in a state of defence by Sir Sidney Smith, who, with a few English sailors, and a small number of Turks, defended the place with such obstinate gallantry as to baffle every nttomyt of the French army, though supported by a powerful train cf artillery, and commanded by a man who had made his name illustrious, as the first captain of the age. After losing many thousands of his army in the trenches, and greater numbers by the mortal pestilence of the country, the French general was compelled to raise the siege, and leaving his shattered army in Egypt, fled to France to assume the office of First Consul of the French Republic. Nelson having at length learned the direction the enemy's fleet had takeri, followed it to Africa, and on the morning of the 6th of August, 1798, came upon it in the Bay of Aboukir, and instantly making his disposition for action, commenced that splendid engagement, which, subsequently called the "Battle of the Nile," ended in the total defeat of the French fleet, the blowing up of their admiral's ship, the death of Casablanca, and the capture or destruction of all their ships, with the exception of two, that escaped to bear to France the news of this disaster to their arms, which occurred exactly a month after the landing rff the army in Egypt. After keeping possession of the country till the year 1S01, when Sir Ealph Abercroinbie, having landed with an English army, fought the memorable battle of Alexandria, the French were compelled to surrender, and finally expelled from the country— a success clouded, however, by the death of the gallant Abercrombie, who fell at the moment of victory.
1027. Why was a British fleet, under the command of Sir Hyde farJcer and Lord Nelson, sent to the Baltic, and what was the result of the Battle of Copenhagen ?
To break the coalition formed between the Northern States and France, ostensibly designed out of resistance to the English „ right of search," a privilege they exacted of searching all neutral vessels, to ascertain whether they carried any articles contraband of war — a power neutral states resented, and which England as firmly refused to yield; though the real object was to shut out English merchandize entirely from the Continent, as it was Bonaparte's belief that if he could effectually prohibit our goods entering the Continent, he should be able to break
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 267
BATTLE OF COPENHAGEN.
the power of the nation, and compel his most determined and constant enemy, the English, to accept his own conditions of peace. But the great and immediate object in the coalition was to recruit his ruined marine by the aid of the Northern fleet. This hope was, however, frustrated by the capture of Copenhagen and the destruction of the Danish flotilla.
102S. To the immortal Nelson the nation owes the glory of this great victory; for when his superior in command, alarmed at the formidable bat- teries and tremendous armament prepared to receive them, gave the signal to come to anchor, Nelson, who led the van, and saw that victory was possible, dared to disobey his orders, and placing his squadron alongside the enormous guns, after four hours' terrific fighting silenced all the Danish batteries, took or sank eighteen ships, seven of these being line-of-battle, with a great number of smaller craft, and the loss to the enemy of 4,000 men, killed at the batteries. This victory, with Vh.e death of the Russian Emperor Paul, broke up the coalition, and led to peace with the Northern States. Horatio Nelson, Viscount Nelson, and Duke of Bronte, in Sicily, was born in Norfolk, 1758— died, 1805. Bred to the sea, this hero early evinced that prompt decision of character and intrepidity of conduct by which he was so eminently distinguished. In 1779 he was appointed post captain. At Touloti, Bastia, and Cabri, he displayed his courage and conduct, When Rear-Admiral of the Blue and Knight of the Bath, ho lost his right arm while gallantly signalizing himself at the siege of Santa Cruz, in the isle of Teneriffe. But the successive victories of the Nile, Copenhagen, and Trafalgar completed the climax of his professional glory. In the battle of the Nile, nine French ships of the line were taken and two burnt. Before Copen- hagen eighteen Danish ships were taken, seven of which were of the line. In Lord Nelson's last and great achievement, the ever-memorable battle of Trafalgar, the combined fleets were defeated, and twenty ships of the line taken and destroyed. He fell towards the close of the engagement, in life victorious, and in death triumphant; his remains being interred in St. Paul's Cathedral, with unexampled funeral pomp, and at the public expense.
1029. Wliy did Napoleon, immediately after Ids coro- nation, make proposals of peace to England, and wliy ivere tliey rejected?
He did so merely to gain time to effect the preparations making for his great scheme of an invasion of England, and without any real desire for a lasting peace, and to show Europe that he was not actuated by motives of aggrandizement. As this country, however, refused to agree to a separate treaty, or negotiate without consulting her allies, the useless parade of a moderate policy fell to the ground.
268 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
EXEETIONS MADE BY PRANCE TO EETEIEVE HEE LOSSES.— THE ALLIEE FLEET ESCAPES PEOM ITS HAEBOTJES.
1030. What steps did the French take to retrieve their naval losses?
The exertions of the French, at this time, to rebuild another navy, were of the most gigantic description : every carpenter in the Empire was compelled to work in the dockyards ; and, to expedite their fleet, and construct transports to convey the army of 100,000 men, who lay encamped at Boulogne, the artisans worked in relieving gangs both day and night, in every seaport in France and Holland. These exertions, however, would have been of little avail, had not Spain, who had had longer time to recover her misfortunes, been once more in pos- session of an efficient navy ; with this, joined to the French ships already completed, Napoleon, though he had given up the idea of an invasion as utterly hopeless, against so vigilant a rival, was once more enabled to take the sea, in the hope of effecting some signal injury on our commerce and possessions.
1031. Why were the Spanish and French fleets allowed to quit their harbours and unite their forces?
Having long blockaded Toulon with an inferior number of ships, in the hope of inducing the French to come out and risk a battle, Nelson purposely stood out to sea to allow them to escape, trusting to his falling in with them on some part of the coast. Taking advantage of the freedom granted, the French fleet sailed out ; and having effected a junction with their Spanish allies, stood to the westward. Now began the most memorable chase that naval history has recorded. Twice Nelson swept the Mediterranean — from Gibraltar to the Levant — crossed the Atlantic, sailed through the "West India Islands, and again returned to Europe, baffled, but confident. For several weeks he continued his search, till, on the morning of the 21st of October, 1805, the two fleets, to the number of thirty-three sail-of-the-line, seven frigates, and eight corvettes, commanded by five admirals, were descried off Cape Trafalgar. The enemy at once formed in line of battle, presenting the form of a crescent, and with great coolness awaited the attack — which Nelson, with his fleet of twenty- six line- of- battle and a few
THE HISTORICAL BEASON WHY. 2G9
ALLIED FLEET TOTALLY DESTROYED AT TRAFALGAR.— DEATH OF KELSON, OCTOJJEE 21, 1805.
frigates, in two lines, immediately commenced. The action began by cutting the enemy's line with his van, every vessel breaking through in succession, in the most splendid order, and engaging its antagonist muzzle to muzzle. The French and Spaniards fought with a courage hardly to be surpassed, while the British seamen, actuated by the memory of former victories, national honour, and a determination to act up to their beloved admiral's last signal, "England expects every man to do his duty," fought with a coolness, determination, and scorn of danger, that elicited the admiration even of those who best knew their sterling qualities. Courageous as the conduct of the enemy was, nothing could resist the impulse and hardihood of the English ; and the battle, which began at twelve o'clock, raged for three hours with fearful fury. By that time many of the enemy had struck ; and their line giving way, all became confusion. One of the Spanish admirals contrived to escape with ten ships in tolerable order, six of which were afterwards captured ; and a squadron of four French line-of-battle got off, but were in a few days subsequently taken, after a sharp action, by an equal number of English. Twenty ships-of-the-line were sunk or taken in the battle ; and of the formidable fleet that presented so magnificent a spectacle on the morning of the 21st, but four vessels finally escaped this terrible battle. Great and unprecedented as this crowning victory was— perfectly annihi- lating the enemy's navy — the triumph was considered dearly bought with the life of the renowned commander. The intrepid Nelson, confident of victory, was struck about the end of the action, as he walked the quarter-deck, by a ball in the breast; and though his wound gave him great pain, he continued giving orders and making inquiries till the last of the enemy had struck, when, being told of the number, he exclaimed, " Thank God, I have done my duty," and immediately expired.
1032. What was the consequence of Mr. Pitt's death on the policy of the Government ?
After a vain attempt at pacific measures by the new Ministry, the Cabinet was obliged to carry out the former statesman's views. Lord Grenville succeeded the late minister as first Lord
270 THE HISTOKICAL REASON WHY.
DEATH OF PITT.— BATTLE OE MAIDA HILL.— DEATH Otf POX, 1806.
of the Treasury, with Mr. Fox as Secretary of State for the Foreign Department, the other offices being filled up by friends
of the administration.
*
1033. William Pitt, second son of the illustrious Earl of Chatham, born in Kent, 1759 -died 1806. This great statesman was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer when only twenty-three, and continued Prime Minister, with very little interruption, till his death, which happened at a critical period for England. During the arduous discharge of public duty, he of course met with warm partisans, and inveterate enemies ; his perseverance in the measures which he deemed just has been termed obstinacy, his magnanimity in changing them when the national welfare required it, inconsistency. But all parties concur in acknowledging that his talents, integrity, disinterested- ness, and love of country, were eminently worthy of praise and imitation: the country decreed him public funeral honours, and granted £140,000 for the payment of his debts.
1034. Why were British troops sent to Calabria, and what was the result of the expedition?
The French having invaded Naples, and deposed the reigning Sovereign, who fled to Sicily, there implored the assistance of England, who dispatched a fleet to protect the island, and landed a small army of 10,000 men in Calabria, under General Stuart, to oppose the further progress of the enemy, and if possible expel them from the country; an operation which was in part effected by the victory of the English at Maida Hill, in which 6,000 were killed, or made prisoners, with all their arsenal and stores, and the independence of Sicily secured.
1035. What philanthropic good did Mir. Fox effect, when admitted to tlie Ministry, which Pitt was unable, through his twenty years of office, to effect ?
The total abolition of the African slave-trade.
1036. Of what did Mr. Fox die ?
He died of dropsy on the 13th of September, and expired without a struggle, in the 59th year of his age, leaving a name beloved and venerated.
1037. Why was the Granville Cabinet IroTcen up on the death of Mr. Fox?
From the King's obstinacy in resisting the introduction of
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
271
ME. PEBCIVAI- PIEST 10ED OP THE TEEASUEY.— EXPEDITION TO THE BALTIC.
measures for Catholic Emancipation, which the Ministry were in a manner pledged to bring forward, and which they considered absolutely necessary for the tranquillity of Ireland.
1038. The Right Hon. Charles James Pox, n, distinguished statesman and orator, and the great rival of Mr. Pitt, was born 1748, and died 1806. Parties have differed, and will still continue to differ, as to his politics, but all will allow the honesty of the man, and all must bow to the conviction of his lofty mind and gigantic talents. His nephew, the late Lord Holland, inherited much of his genius and zeal for the popular cause. He was dis- tinguished, also, for his learning, wit, and hospitality.
POPU1AE MODE OP TBAVELLIKG AtfD CONVEYANCE IK THE EARLY PAET OP THIS EEIGtf.
1039. Whom did the King call upon to form a new administration ?
Mr. Percival, who, with Lord Liverpool, and other partisans of the late Pitt Cabinet, constructed a Ministry out of these elements.
1040. Why was a second expedition sent to Copenhagen in the year 1809 ?
Napoleon having, by a series of brilliant victories, prostrated the whole of Northern Europe, first by annihilating the
272 THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY.
AFFAIBS OF EUEOPE.— THE DANISH FLEET CAPTtJBED BY THE ENGLISH.
Austrian power, on the bloody field of Austerlitz, or the Battle of the three Emperors ; again by crushing the Prussians, in the terrific battle of Jena, wher three hundred thousand men, and eight hundred pieces of artillery, created a din and carnage fit to decide a universe; and finally on the snows of Elau and Friesland, bending the stubborn Russian to his will, had so completely subjected all the Northern States and Empires of Europe, as to remain the great arbiter of the destinies of the nations subjected to obedience by the power of French arms. Having after each victory compelled the defeated State, as a sine qua non of peace, to expel all English commodities from their dominions, Napoleon now satisfied himself that, having formed a barrier from the Bay of Biscay to the North Pole, against the introduction of British commerce, that this country must soon feel the severity of the blow aimed at her pertinacious existence. His next step was in the direction of Denmark, where, by the offer of advantageous terms, and by overawing her by the neighbourhood of large armies, he com- pelled her Government to negotiate a treaty for the secret delivery of the Danish fleet to France, with which, added to the few remaining ships in the French harbours, some fortunate blow might be struck against England, always the most resolute and determined of his enemies.
1041. What steps did England take to frustrate this
Admiral Gambier was sent with a fleet, conveying an army under General Cathcart, to prevent the Danish fleet falling into the hands of the French.
1042. What was the result of the expedition?
The Danes having refused to negotiate, or break with France, and, further, indignantly rejecting the idea of sur- rendering their fleet in trust to the British, General Cathcart landed his troops, and a sharp engagement was fought with, considerable loss to the Danes, who still obstinate not to come to terms, the town was bombarded for three days, and not till it had been wrapped in flames, and reduced to a heap of
THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY. 273
BKITISH TROOPS SENT TO SPAIN.— SIE ABTHTTR WELLESLEY LANDS IN PORTUGAL.— BATTLE OB VIMIEBA.
ruins, would the gallant enemy yield ; but his capital no longer tenable, and the smouldering streets filled with dead, they were compelled to surrender, and with bitter mortification see their splendid navy, consisting of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gunboats, manned by British seamen, navigated through the Sound as captives of war, and taken as an honourable pawn to England.
1043. Why were British troops under Sir David Baird sent to Spain?
At the solicitation of the Supreme Junta, who, on the flight of Charles and Ferdinand to France, where they had been decoyed by Napoleon, concluded peace with Britain, and solicited the aid of men, arms, and money, to repel the invader, who was already pouring his conquering legions over their frontier.
1044«. Why was Sir Arthur Wellesley sent with a British army to Portugal ?
To oppose the French, who, having overrun the country, and deposed the house of Braganza (the Royal Family having been escorted by the English fleet to Brazil), were committing frightful ravages : the opportunity was thought favourable for annoying the enemy, forming a good basis for future operations, and from where, at any time, a highway might be opened into the heart of France.
1045. After a few severe skirmishes, Sir Arthur advanced his army to Vimiere, where he first encountered the French under Junot, one of Napoleon's most esteemed generals. In this battle British discipline and courage were too much for French enthusiasm, the enemy being totally defeated, and compelled within a few days to surrender prisoners of war, to the number of 30,000.
1046. Why did Sir John Moore retreat to Corunna?
Sir John advanced nearly to the centre of the kingdom with 20,000 men, to co-operate with the Spanish General Cuesta, but the latter general having been defeated, and Sir John Moore, remaining ignorant of the fact, and believing the road open, pushed on, till within dangerous proximity to the enemy, when, to avoid being surrounded by the French army, com-
274 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
ilETEEAI OF SIS JOHH MOOEE, AND BATTLE OP COBUNIfA.— WALCIIEEEN EXPEDITION, 1809.
manded by Napoleon in person, he was compelled instantly to retreat with all expedition to the nearest port of embarkation; and though this movement has been regarded as a masterpiece of military tactics, it was one most disastrous to the army; the country through which the retreat was conducted was totally destitute of provisions, while, to add to the distress of the troops, the season was most inclement, the ground deeply covered with snow, and the enemy, in vast numbers, constantly harassing their flanks and rear; many of the soldiers perished from the intense cold, and for miles the line of march was covered with dead horses, that, falling lame, had to be shot to save them from the hands of the enemy.
1047. Galled past endurance by the harassment of the French, Sir John repeatedly formed Ms men, and offered battle on the most advantageous terms ; but, content with skirmishing, the enemy always declined the challenge. In this way, exhausted, without shoes, and paralyzed with the cold, fatigue, and insufficient food, the wreck of the British army reached the walls of Corunna, and beheld with joy the transports waiting to receive hem. The sight that cheered the British exasperated the French, who, resolving, if possible, to compel a surrender, poured their masses down the neighbouring heights, determined, at all hazards, to prevent the embarka- tion. Soult, who commanded tha enemy, immediately began the battle, but weary and worn down as they were, the men were still dangerous ; and, throwing aside all fatigue, fought with the energy of fresh troops, and after a sanguinary and unequal contest, the French were successively beaten back at every point, and the after shipment of the British troops effected with safety. Early in the action, Sir John Moore was struck with a spent cannon-ball, while leading on his gallant Highlanders; he only lived to hear the shout that proclaimed the field his own, when this brave soldier, like another "Wolfe, died, with the resignation of a hero.
1048. What was the Walcheren expedition?
A powerful army of 40,000 of the finest troops that ever quitted this country, with a considerable fleet, was sent to Flanders in the year 1809, to enter the Scheldt, and destroy the enemy's ships and arsenals at Antwerp ; but, in conse- quence of the gross mismanagement of Lord Chatham, to whom the expedition was entrusted, in stopping short at Flushing, and encamping his army in the morasses of Walcheren, a deadly swamp at the mouth of the Scheldt, this splendid army was utterly disorganised, and after, losing many thousands by the pesti-
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY. • ' 275
THE JUBILEE.— SIE P. BUBDETT SENT TO THE TOWEE.— CAMPAIGNS IN SPAIN.
lential exhalations of the place, the fever- stricken remnant of the army was brought back to England in a deplorable state of disease, spreading the pestilence to all around.
1049. Why was the 25th of October, 1810, lieU as a Jubilee ?
Because on that day the King had reigned fifty years.
1050. Why ivas Sir Francis Burdett committed to the Tower ?
For a breach of privilege, in having as a member of the House written a letter in Cobbett's " Register " upon the imprison- ment of John Gale Jones, a proceeding that led to vast commo- tion and serious popular disturbances.
1051. What was the progress of events in Spain ?
In the campaign of 1809, Sir Arthur Wellesley defeated the French, under Soult, on the Vaiega, and effected a junction with Cuesta ; fought and won the famous battle of Talavera, but, the enemy being strongly reinforced; Sir Arthur was compelled to fall back on Portugal, where he constructed those celebrated defences around Lisbon known as the lines of Torres Vedras. Sir Arthur, now created Lord Wellington, after several engage- ments at the opening of the following campaign, pursued the French, who were compelled to retreat, and defeated them at Fuentes d'Honore, and again more signally at the battle of Albuera. These successes were followed in the succeeding campaign by the storming of Ciudad Rodrigo, capture of Badajos, and the desperate battle of Salamanca, upon which Wellington' and his army entered Valladolid and Madrid. The vast successes of this campaign brought new honours and rewards to the great victor, who, by his series of brilliant battles, had raised the military reputation of this country to the highest pitch. The greater part of the next campaign was occupied in short, but brilliant, actions with the enemy, as they fled before the English in their retreat through Spain, till Jourdan, making a halt to rest his columns at Vittoria, gave Wellington an opportunity of adding another wreath to his crown of fame in the signal
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
THE BKITIS1T, XTJJDER THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON, DRIVE THE FBENCH OUT OF SPAIN.— PBINCE OF WALES EEGENT, 1812.
victory on the plains of Vittoria, in which the rout of the enemy was so complete that they lost baggage, camp, and a hundred and fifty guns, with the whole material of their army. The next brilliant success was the storming and capture of St. Sebastian, which led the way for the entrance of the British army into France, where Bayonne was invested; and while Marshal Beresford took Bordeaux, Wellington advanced to Toulouse, where Soult and his army were for the third time defeated, and where the news of Napoleon's abdication suspended all hostilities for a time.
1052. Why was the Prince of Wales created Regent?
In consequence of the state of mental apathy into which the King had fallen on the death of his beloved daughter, the Princess Amelia; and as his state rendered it impossible to con- sult him on the subject, a bill was brought into the House and passed, empowering the Prince to assume the office of Regent till such time as the King's health warranted his resuming the regal authority.
KEGENCY OF THE PBINCE OF WALES.
FROM 1812 TO 1821.
1053. Why was Mr. Percival assassinated in the lolly of the Rouse ?
Out of a feeling of revenge, by a man named Bellingham, who having suffered loss and imprisonment in Russia, which he thought the country ought to be responsible for, and deeming the Chancellor of the Exchequer and Premier stood in the way of redress, watched the latter's coming to the House, and as Mr. Percival entered the lobby leading to the House of Commons, drew a pistol and shot him through the heart, May llth, 1812.
1054. Why did the Americans declare war against Great Britain ?
In consequence of the vexatious restrictions and embargoes laid on their commerce, by the Orders of the Council, which though
TBE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
C77
WAE WITH THE UNITED STATES DECLAEED.
repealed as equally hurtful to the general commerce in this country, was not promulgated till lour days after hostilities had commenced, by the Americans issuing letters of marque and reprisals ; consequently the act was kept in force as far as America was concerned.
CASALS INTRODUCED AT THE CLOSE OF THE EIGHTEENTH AND BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH CEXTUBY.
1055. What was the result of this war with the United States ?
The war was carried on in an extremely vague and desultory manner ; the whole attention of the country being directed to France, and the great resources of the nation sent to the scat of war in the Peninsula, she had little time to think or care about the hostilities on the other side of the Atlantic.
278 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
THE FRENCH ARMY DESTROYED IN THE SNOWS OZ? RUSSIA. — AFFAIRS IN AMERICA.
1056. The Americans, attempting to strike a blow in Canada, were worsted in several encounters, lost the Fort of Detroit, General Hall being at last compelled to surrender the army under his command to the British. This blow was followed up, in the autumn, by another defeat at the Battle of Queeustown, on the Niagara frontier, and the capitulation of General "VVodsworth, and nine hundred men. At sea, the success was more in their favour, their navy having captured two British ships of war— a success owing to the greater size of the American ships, their greater complement of men, heavier metal, and number of guns.
1057. What great political event marked the campaign 0/1812,?
The invasion of Russia by the French, and the total destruction of the magnificent army with which Napoleon had so confidently set out on his mission of subjugating the North ; and of five hundred thousand fighting men who passed the Ilussian frontier, so high in hope, and confident of success, not more than thirty thousand returned with their beaten captain ; the rest had fallen in action, perished in the snow, or been made captives by the pursuing Muscovite.
1058. What was the result of the next American campaign ?
Highly honourable to the British: early in the year Major Proctor attacked the Americans at French Town, Major Winchester and five hundred of his men being taken prisoners. Major MacDonnell, having crossed the St. Lawrence, took Fort Ogdensburg, and captured above seven hundred stand of arms, thirteen cannon, and a large quantity of stores. Several other severe actions were fought with defeat and rout to the enemy, whose only success in the campaign was the taking of Little York, in Upper Canada.
1059. What were the political consequences to France of the failure of the Russian expedition ?
It at once sealed the prestige of the French arms, and was the beginning of the end of Napoleon's career. The Russians, but feebly opposed by the French, advanced into Germany. Prussia, encouraged by the presence of the Czar's army, threw off her compelled submission, recruited her armies, and declared
THE HISTOBICAL EEASON WHY. 279
MIUTAEY AFFAIKS OB TUB CONTINENT.— BATTLE OP LEIP3IC.— ABDICATION OP NAPOLSON.
war ; the mediatized German States began to shake off their subservient lethargy, and join the greater powers; Hamburg* revolted, and expelled the French; Sweden, taking part with the Northern Confederacy, put her forces in motion to assist the Allies ; while Austria, out of family ties, preserved a doubtful neutrality ; at the same time, in the Peninsula, the French armies were being gradually forced towards the Pyrenees.
1060. Why did Austria join the allies ?
After the battle of Lutzen, Austria, having negotiated a truco between the Allies and Napoleon, had promised that if Napoleon refused the terms proposed, the most important of which was the evacuation of Germany by French troops, to declare for the Allies. Napoleon having haughtily refused compliance with the demands, Austria at once declared war, and set her army in motion,
1061. Why ivas the Battle of Lcipsic the immediate cause of Napoleon's downfall ?
This fearful' battle, the most bloody and important of any fought by Napoleon, was contested with a rancour and obstinacy unusual in civilized warfare, and on this spot the French Emperor seems to have ventured his last stake. In consequence of the immense loss sustained by his army in this battle, Napoleon was unable to make head against the overwhelming fores of the united power of Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, and Sweden. In this conflict, which lasted for two days, the French alone left 80,000 in the streets, on the ramparts, and in the river, which was choked with the dead. In the retreat that followed, Napoleon, regardless of his suffering army, pushed on to Paris, where he was soon after compelled to sign his abdication.
1062. What were the final terms of the abdication ?
That Napoleon should renounce all present and future title to the Crown of France, in lieu of which the small island of Elba was ceded to him as a kingdom, with a yearly pension to be paid by France of £24,000 a-year, in quarterly payments, and wnich England guaranteed to see paid.
280 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
BEaTC-RATION OB LOUIS XVIII.— BRITISH DEFEATED AT NEW ORLEANS. — DECLARATION OP PEACE.
1063. What occurred in France on the abdication of Napoleon ?
The Bourbons were restored to the throne, and Louis the Eighteenth, the brother of the unfortunate Louis the Sixteenth, beheaded in the Revolution, after residing in England for nearly twenty-three years, returned to France to ascend the vacant throne.
1064. What public event occurred in "England, after the ratification of peace ?
The Sovereigns, their Ministers, and most of the great commanders of the Allied army, came to England and were publicly entertained by the Prince Regent.
1065. Why tvere the 'British defeated at New Orleans ? In consequence of the admirable disposition of the Americans,
who, having an open town to defend, made a breast-work of woolsacks, behind which, and flanked by a battery of ten guns, their men, in safety themselves, were enabled to pour in a withering fire on the advancing British. In this unequal contest, the most severe during the war, the British lost above two thousand men, with their two commanders, while the loss of the enemy is reported at only seventy.
1066. Why did the American Ministry consent to come to terms, and conclude a peace with this country ?
The severe chastisement which they had suffered at Washington, and the heavy loss inflicted on the navy, along the coast, by Admiral Cochrane, had tended greatly to subdue that arrogance which the success of a few naval duels had given them.
1067. The vanity of the Americans received a severe rebuke in an engage- ment between the Shannon aud the Chesapeake, the former a British, the latter an American ship of war. This action was fought off Boston, and was witnessed by thousands of the inhabitants ; and so confident were they of the success of their countrymen, that a supper was ordered to wel- come them on their victory, to which the captive British officers were to bo invited, to give additional grace to the triumph. The commander of the Shannon, Captain Broke, had long been anxious to engage the Chesapeake,
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 281
DUEL BETWEEN THE SHANNON AND THE CHESAPEAKE.
although she was superior iu tonnage, number of guns, weight of metal, and complement of men. Accordingly, while lying off Boston, hi June, 1813, Captain Broke sent a challenge to Captain Lawrenco, of the Chesapeake, to meet, " ship to ship, and try the fortune of their respective flags." The letter was written in a very gentlemanly style, with great candour and spirit ; it concluded in the true spirit of a British sailor, anxious only for a battle: "Chooso your terms, but let us meet." Before the challenge reached the Chesapeake she was observed to be under way. She came down upon the Shannon's quarters with three ensigns flying; she had also flying at the fore a large flag, inscribed with these words : " Free trade and sailors' Tights," upon a supposition that this favourite American motto might para- lyze the efforts, or damp the energy, of the Shannon's men. The vessels were soon iu action, the shot of the Shannon proving very destructive. After ten minutes' fighting:, Captain Broke perceived that the Chesapeake's quarter- deck division were deserting their guns ; he instantly called out, " Board ! " and, accompanied by the first lieutenant and twenty men, sprang upon the Chesapeake's quarter-deck. Here not an officer or a man was to be seen; upon her gangways about twenty Americans made a slight resistance. These were instantly driven towards the forecastle, where a few endeavoured to get down the fore hatchway, but in their eagerness prevented each other; a few fled over the bows, and reached the main-deck ; and the remainder laid down their arms. The Chesapeake's fore-top was now stormed by Mid- shipman Smith and his top-men, about five in number, who either destroyed or drove on deck all the Americans there stationed. This gallant young officer had deliberately passed along the Shannon's fore-yard, which was braced up, to the Chesapeake's, also braced up, and thence into her top. After those on the forecastle had submitted, Captain Broke ordered one of his men to stand sentry over them, and sent most of the others aft, where the conflict was still going on. He was in the act of giving them orders to answer the fire from the Chesapeake's main-top, when three treacherous Americans, seeing they were superior to the British then near them, had armed themselves afresh. Captain Broke parried one fellow's pike, and wounded him in the face; but instantly received, from the man on the pikeman's right, a blow from the butt-end of a musket, which bared hia skull and stunned him. Determined to finish the British commander, the third man cut him down with his broadsword, and at that very instant was himself cut down by one of the Shannon's seamen. Captain Broke and his treacherous foe now lay side by side, each, although nearly powerless, strug- gling to regain his sword, when a marine despatched the American with his bayonet. Captain Broke was severely wounded by this affair; and while a seaman was tying a handkerchief round his commander's head, he called out (pointing aft), "There, sir, there goes up the old ensign over the Yankee colours." The Captain saw it hoisting, and was instantly led to the quarter- deck, where he seated himself upon one of the carronade-slides. Even after the British colours were flying on board the Chesapeake, some of her men kept firing up the main hatchway, and killed a British marine. It was then, and not till then, that Lieutenant Falkiner, who was sitting on the booms, very properly directed three or four muskets that were ready to be fired down. Captain Broke told him to summon them to surrender if thoy desired quarter He did so, aud they replied, "We surrender," and all hostility ceased
282 THE IIISTOEICAL SEASON WELT.
NAPOLEON EETUENS TO FEANCE.— THE DUNDEED DATS.— PEUSSIAKS DEFEATED AT LIGNY.
Between tho discharge of the first gun, and the period of Captain Broke's boarding, eleven minutes only elapsed; and, in four minutes more, the Chesapeake was completely his. Happily a better state of society and public feeling now exists between the two nations, and their friendship is cemented by a commerce which is the pride and happiness of both.
1068. Why was Napoleon's return to France called " The Hundred Days ?"
Because, between the time of his first landing from Elba, to the signing of his second abdication, embraced exactly a hundred days.
1069. In that time Napoleon collected a powerful army, and, as dispatch, was of the utmost consequence to his future success, he, as early as possible, put his troops in motion, hoping to fall on the different armies of the Allies, quartered in various parts of the frontiers; and before they could unite their forces, or individually take the field, encounter them singly, and cut them up in detail. For this purpose he advanced with great rapidity to the Sambre, on the banks of which the Prussians, with some Austrian and Russian troops, were encamped to the number of one hun- dred thousand men, under Blucher. Having driven in his outposts, Napoleon came upon the main army at Ligny, where the celebrated battle of that name was fought; the first of that series of fearful encounters, that made this short, but terrible campaign, so grand and illustrious, which, after five hours' hard fighting, terminated in the retreat of the Prussians, with great loss. Dispatching one of his marshals with a strong corps to prevent the junction of Blucher and Wellington, Napoleon turned to encounter the British, whose army, quartered round Brussels, had been hastily collected from its cantonments ; a large body, with some Hanoverian and Dutch troops, having been pushed forward to Quatre Bras, while the main army was collected in tho rear, and taking up its position around the height of Mount St. John, in the Plain of Waterloo. Ney having been defeated in his attempt to drive the British from the Quatre Bras, or Four Roads, the troops towards evening fell back, and after another sanguinary encounter at Genappe, the Duke of Wellington concentrated all his forces at Waterloo, where the final struggle was to be decided ; a battle .that drove the French army in total rout from the field, and hurried Napoleon back to Paris, where, having signed a second abdication, he attempted to leave France for America, but finding all the coast guarded, he surrendered to the English. The important and decisive battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday, the ISth of June, 1815, between the British, Hanoverian, and Dutch troops, to the number of seventy-five thousand, of which the British did not exceed thirty-three thousand, under the Duke of Wellington, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, with a force of infantry, artillery, and all his cavalry, of one hundred and ten thousand. This battle, so fiercely contested and obstinately disputed, in which the French performed prodigies of valour, and were only surpassed in heroism by the indomitable courage of their victors, was obtained at a fearful sacrifice of life; the loss of the British and their allies, irrespective of the Prussians, who came on the field at
THE IIISTOEICAL EEASON WHY. 283
PliESCH TOTALLY DEFEATED AT WATERLOO.— NAPOLEON SURRENDEBS, AND SENT TO ST. HELENA.
tho final charge of the army, was thirteen thousand killed and wounded, with six hundred officers and eleven generals. The French are supposed to have left twenty thousand on the field, exclusive of the slaughter that took place in the pursuit. Much has been said about the victory being due to the timely arrival of tho Prussians, but the battle was virtually decided long before Blucher made his appearance, and Wellington only waited their coming up to give the decisive charge, well knowing that his own men, after so long a day's action, were ill-suited for an active pursuit. Had the Duko of "Wellington commanded the splendid army of veterans he led into France from the Peninsula— by his own statement years afterwards— "Waterloo would have been decided in six hours. But the greater part of his army in Flanders was composed of fresh regiments, many of them raw levies, and most of his allies, especially the Dutch troops, not to be relied upon. Tho battle of Waterloo, therefore, properly considered, and in this light, and remembering who their antagonists were, was one of the most remarkable battles and splendid victories to be met in the records of history.
1070. Why ivas Napoleon sent to St. Helena?
As a place of greater security and protection than any place of .confinement to be found in Europe, and as it was evident, by his breaking his parole and escaping from Elba, that no obligations of honour, no stringency of treaty, would restrain him from in future effecting, if possible, his escape, and again plunging Europe into war, in hope of recovering his lost sceptre, it was deemed expedient by the Allies to imprison him for life in some remote locality, where, removed from the tide of European politics, and excluded from the aid and machinations of his friends, escape would be impossible, — in fact, some prison, where, out of respect to his former career, a certain freedom of body might be guaranteed with perfect safety of person ; and as it was most inexpedient to retain him in Europe, and the other contracting powers possessed no colony suited to the purpose, the safe custody of his person was confided to England, not only because she possessed those advantages in which they were deficient, but because he had voluntarily surrendered to that power, being well assured that his safety would be more guaran- teed by England than by any other power.
1071. The island of St. Helena, rising grand and boldly from the bosom of the South Atlantic, twelve hundred miles from the nearest coast, seemed destined by nature in its solitary grandeur as the prison of some illustrious captive. This island rock, powerful by nature, and made impregnable by art, rises abruptly from the sea, presenting, on four-fifths of its circum- ference, an unbroken rampart of towering granite, on which the long deep
28'i THE JIISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
NAPOLEON ARRIVES AT ST. HELENA, 1815.— AIAKEI AGE OF THE PRINCESS CHA.BLOTTE.
swells of the Atlantic break in ceaseless roar. On its only approachable side the rocks shelve down in broken declivities till they meet the water- line, where the land and rock, receding for a short space inwards, create a miniature bay or harbour. "Within this cleft or rift, as it appears, of the island, is built the town, covered and protected from every eminence by forts and batteries, with each muzzle of its armament raking the little bay and span of beach that forms the only landing on the rock. On a wild and broken plateau, higher up and more inland, is situated Longwood, the house of the former Governor, and afterwards celebrated as the resi- dence of the fallen Emperor, no longer the arbiter of nations and the dictator of Europe, but the exiled General Bonaparte. On the 15th of June, 1815, Napoleon began that scries of battles that terminated with "Waterloo; on the 15th of July he surrendered to the English, and on the 15th of October he landed at St. Helena. And here, in the society of four devoted friends, their wives and children and domestics, he spent the remaining six years of his life, like a caa;ed lion or fettered eagle, gazing from the rocky pinnacles of his solitary prison on the unbroken stretch of water that on every side made the same unvarying horizon of sky and ocean. Deserted by his wife and child, and the bitter reflections of his ruined greatness, soon began to affect his temper, which became captious, irritable, and querulous, venting itself in petty quarrels with the Governor of the Island, Sir Hudson Lowe, whom he accused -but most unjustly— of acts of tyranny and a studied system of personal insult -charges that have long since been fully and com- pletely rebutted. Napoleon's want of veracity, when it suited his purpose to disguise the truth, has long been matter of fact, though his charge against Sir Hudson Lowe charity willingly attributes to the inroads of the painful malady— cancer of the stomach— that on the 8th of May, 1821, terminated the life of this great and extraordinary man. His body was interred in a spot selected by himself soon after his arrival on the island, and where it remained for more than twenty years ; till the British Govern- ment surrendered his remains to France, to be entombed beside the departed heroes of the nation in the Hospital of the Invalids.
1072. What event of interest occurred in the year 1816 ? The marringe of the Princess Charlotte, the daughter and
only child of the Prince Regent, with Leopold, Duke of Saxe Coburg, which event took place on the 2nd of May, Parlia- ment granting a pension of £60,000 a-year for the household of her Royal Highness.
1073. Wliy was Lord Exmouth sent with a fleet to Algiers ?
To demand from the Dey satisfaction for many acts of outrage committed on British subjects, and, in defence of the common claims of humanity, to protest against the atrocities
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 285
BOMBAEDMENT OF AIGIEKS BY LOED EXMOUTH. — ITS DEFENCES.
perpetrated by Algerine pirates upon Christians of all denomi- nations and of all nations ; and to demand not only immediate redress, but a guarantee that such horrible cruelties as those perpetrated on unoffending Christians should from henceforth cease.
1074. What reply did the Algerine Sovereign make io the British demands ?
He treated them with contempt; and having had time to put the town in a posture of defence before the arrival of the fleet, the Dey, when apprised of the admiral's resolution to proceed to extremities unless satisfaction was at once given, contemptuously pointed to his forts and bastions, as an answer to his ultimatum.
1075. The City of Algiers is situated between two hills, having a long train of batteries in front over the harbour, and as the town is built on an incline, a succession of batteries rise with the streets one over the other, the apex being crowned with a strong fortress, while on a tongue of land that runs abruptly into the sea and forms a side of the harbour, was erected another range of strong batteries, the whole defences mounting a thousand guns; making Algiers one of the most formidable positions in the world. And as every piece cf ordnance was levelled or depressed to rake the harbour, threatening annihilation to any ship that might come within their range, it might well appear, to the over-coulldent Dey, as an act of perfect madness for any one glancing over his bristling cannon, that from the water line to the lofty citadel presented their brazen throats, to hazard his ship within the jaws of such a powerfully defended harbour.
1076. How did Lord Exmouth attack the place?
Besides the land defences already described, the harbour contained the whole Algerine navy, ranged with their broad- sides to the offing ; but undaunted by such a formidable de- monstration, Lord Exmouth, in the Queen Charlotte of 110 guns, placing himself alongside the Mole, immediately swept the sea wall and its line of batteries with his broadside, while the other vessels of the fleet, boldly ranging alongside the enemy's flotilla, opened their fire with murderous execution both on the town and navy. In this manner the battle raged with, desperate fury for several hours, the Algerines fighting with a desperation almost amounting to frenzy, till the darkness of night, and the sudden rise of a terrific storm of thunder and
238 THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
THE DEY CONSENTS TO COME TO TEEMS.
lightning, put a end to the engagement, and compelling Lord Exmouth, for the safety of his fleet, to seek a wider effing. When day broke on the following morning, the City of Algiers presented a scene of the most frightful havoc and confusion : the batteries, even up to the7 citadel, lay in crumbling ruins, while more than two-thirds of the city itself was reduced to ashes; the guns were overthrown, the bastions unmanned and desolate, and the few ships not in flames or sunk, lay perfect wrecks on the water ; the place' presenting a picture of absolute desolation and smoking ruin. No victory could be more complete ; the arrogance of the Dey was completely humbled ; his city, navy, magazines, arsenals, were prostrate and destroyed ; and nearly seven thousand of his troops lay dead by their prostrate guns and battered ramparts.
1077. The attack on Algiers, whether considered as to its object, or tho success with which that object was accomplished, must be regarded as ono of the most glorious achievements of the British arms. Resolved to punish tho wanton outrages committed by that piratical state on the laws of nations and the rights of humanity, Lord Exmouth first sent a message to the Dey, with the terms which he demanded; these not being acceded to, his lordship still waited for them to fire first. When, much to the gratifica- tion of the British, who were impatient for the attack, he saw the flash of one of their guns, before he heard the sound, he exclaimed with great alacrity, " That will do ; fire, my fine fellows ! " A tremendous broadside was immediately given with great cheering, which made havoc among the people on shore. In this engagement the most determined bravery was displayed. Some of the sailors, wanting wadding, impatiently tore their jackets in pieces, and crammed buttons and all into the guns ; while the soldiers' wives on board some of the ships supplied their husbands with powder and shot during the engagement. During the action, the Leander lay for a considerable time exposed to a most destructive fire of shot and shells. Everyone was at his post; and among others Mr. Colthorp, master's mate, was ordered into the fore-top, where he remained unhurt during the hottest of the conflict. When the batteries were found to slacken their fire, he was called in to perform some duty on deck. He came down smiling, and taking the lieutenant by the hand, pointed to the Mole, where the Algeriue fleet lay on fire, and in a most impressive manner, with his eyes flashing fire, and his whole countenance full of animation, exclaimed in the language of Byron, in his poem of "The Corsair:"—
"Much has beeji done, but more remains to do. Their galleys burn! why not their cities too?"
Scarcely had the words died on his lips, when a round shot struck him on the head, and blew it to atoms. Lord Exmouth escaped unhurt most miraculously, for his coat was cut to pieces b.y musket-balls and grape-shot.
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 287
THBEE THOUSAND CAPTIVES RESTORED TO LIBERTY BY LORD EXMO STATE O? THE COUNTRY AFTER THE PEACE.
1078. What was the result of this splendid achievement ?
The Dey agreed to abolish Christian slavery for ever, to deliver to the victors all the captives of whatever nation in his dominions, to return all the money he had received within the year for the redemption of slaves, and to make restitution and a public apology to the British Consul, for the indignities to which he had been subjected.
1079. The Dey refunded three hundred and eighty- two thousand five hundred dollars, to the Governments of Naples and Sardinia, and set at liberty three thousand and three Christian slaves, all of whom were delivered up to the British admiral. When the boats of the fleet came alongside the Mole to receive the unfortunate captives, who, of all ages, sex, and nations, were driven to the water's edge like a ghastly flock cf famished and hideous spectres, their lamentable appearance so affected the British seamen, that they could with difficulty suppress the indignation that fired them, on beholding such a mass of liumau misery ; while the poor slaves, suddenly dragged from hideous dungeons, or from brutal toil, at first incredulous as to their good fortune, believing they were rather collected to suffer some new tortui-e, gazed with wild and bewildered looks on all around; but when at length made certain of their release, and that liberty was indeed before them, as if actuated by one spirit, the whole mass of human beings at once lifted off the hats and coverings from their heads, and, half choked by their tears of gratitude, shouted, in their different tongues, "Long live the King of England, the eternal father, and the English admiral who has delivered us from this second hell!" The scene was so affecting that Lord Exmouth said, in his dispatches home, " that to. have been the humble instrument, under Divine Providence, in breaking down this horrid system, and effecting so much good, was happiness enough for one man's life-time." The entire number of slaves liberated were in all 3,003:— Neapolitan subjects 2,050, Sardinian 409, Romans and Tuscans 190, Spaniards 226, Portuguese 1, Greeks 7, Dutch 32, French and Austrian 4, and of English 13.
1080. What was the state of the country after the peace ?
Great distress prevailed among the agriculturists ; and the manufacturing interest suffered severely, especially in Stafford- shire, Nottingham, and South Wales, as well as among the silk-weavers of Spitalfields, which led to great commotion and tumultuous meetings all over the country, and a serious riot took place in London. In the House the Ministry endeavoured to renew the property-tax, but the project created such wide- spread alarm that the bill was thrown out, the Ministers suffering a defeat upon the division of thirty-seven.
288 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
THE SPANISH MONARCH RESTORES THE INQUISITIOK.— HABEAS CORPUS ACT SUSPENDED.— DEATH OB THE PRINCESS CHARLOTTE, 1817.
1081. What remarJcable event occurred in Spain?
The re-establishment of the Inquisition in all its horrors, which on the entrance of the French into Spain had been abolished ; but no sooner was the infatuated Bourbon restored to his throne than he revived this frightful tribunal, before which some of the noblest in the land — patriots who had fought for the restoration of their King — were, by his connivance, ques- tioned and horribly tortured by this court of spiritual juris- prudence.
1082. Wliy was the Haleas Corpus Act suspended?
In consequence of the angry tone of public opinion, the numerous seditious meetings held all over the country, consequent on the general distress and want of employment among all classes of the labouring poor. Great riots took place at Spa Fields and at Derby, and the public were in a state of great excite- ment, which was considerably increased by the trial of Thistle- wood and Watson for conspiracy and sedition, and the execution of the ringleaders of the Derby rioters. All these causes made it expedient to suspend this bulwark of constitutional liberty — the Habeas Corpus.
1083. What event of national sorrow threw a gloom over the nation in the years 1817 and 1818 ?
The death, on November the 6th, of the Princess Charlotte of Wales, the wife of Prince Leopold, the daughter of the Regent, and the heir apparent to the throne of these kingdoms. This amiable and beloved lady, the hope of the nation and the idol of the people, had only been married eighteen months, when her young and exemplary life was prematurely closed in child-bed, only surviving three days the birth of her still-born child. The sorrow of the nation at this great calamity, which left the direct succession to the throne a subject of apprehension and uncertainty, was not a passing and complimentary grief for the death of an illustrious personage, but an unalloyed and heart- felt sorrow for one whose gentleness of nature, humanity and tenderness of disposition, extreme affability of deportment and
THE HISTORICAL BEASON WHY. 289
BOYAL MAEKIAGE3 Iff 1818.
benevolence of heart, had personally endeared her to the people; so that, on the news of her untimely fate, her death was mourned in every home of England as an individual grief.
1084. On the 18th of the following November, after a long illness, borne with meek and pious resignation, expired Queen Charlotte, the wife of George the Third. She died of dropsy, at her Palace of Kew, in the 75th year of her age. Though possessed of few personal attractions, she was by no means destitute of those graces and accomplishments so necessary for the high station she was called upon to fill. As a wife and a mother, her conduct through life was an example and a pattern that every mother in the kingdom endeavoured to imitate. When she came to this country, the court was corrupted with the licentiousness and vice of the former reign, bu* by her bright example she raised it to be the envy of foreign States, and the example for succeeding ages; and while most. Continental courts were disgraced by vice and immorality, that over which Queen Charlotte presided was celebrated for the purity of its manners, and the moral rectitude of those who were permitted to enter its virtuously guarded precincts. Of this there can be no doubt, that to the virtues and moral qualities of this lady the English nation is indebted for that regeneration iu public morals and domestic habits, which succeeded the dissolute laxity of honour and principle brought in by the Second Charles, and elaborated into a system, called Intrigue, by the First and Second George.
1085. Why were so many Royal marriages celebrated in 1818?
The sudden death of the Princess Charlotte left the succession in a most unsatisfactory state, and without any pre- sumptive heir ; all the Royal brothers of the Regent being unmarried, and the separation existing between his Royal Highness and the Princess of Wales, rendering it unlikely that another heir would ever follow from that unfortunate union. Under these circumstances it became necessary to seek for suitable alliances for the King's sons. Accordingly, on the 7th of April, the Duke of Cambridge married the Princess of Hesse- Cassel, and at the same time the Princess Elizabeth, the King's daughter, was united to the Prince of Hesse -Hombourg. On the llth of the following July, the Duke of Kent was married to the Princess of Leningen, and the Duke of Clarence to the Princess of Saxe-Meningen, on each and all of whom the nation bestowed an abundant revenue.
290 THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY.
OBIGIK OF THE EADICALS.
1086. Why were tlie political reformers icJio created so much discussion in the country at this time called Radicals ?
From the sweeping and absolute measures they advocated, who, eschewing all half or palliative reforms, insisted upon going to the root of every abuse, and attacking1 the fundamental evil ; from whence, and their party cry of Radical Reform, the term in time became the political name of a new party in the State, though, from the principles enunciated being largely embraced by the lower orders, and the most turbulent of the people, the name of Radical, in its early adoption, was used by the more moderate as a term of reproach, sig- nifying a noisy and unreasonable demagogue — a party whose existence was a symbol of anarchy and strife. At the present day, however, the word possesses a very different interpretation.
1087. feadical doctrines continued to gather strength among the mechanics and lower orders, and large bodies collected in various places, marching in bauds with music and flags, with their orators at their head. Above 80,000 assembled in this manner at Manchester, their appearance and order so alarming the magistrates that they called out the yeomanry to disperse them. These citizen cavalry dashed among the assembled thousands and with their sabres cut down great numbers, and riding over the affrighted mob soon cleared the town of the political operatives, but at the cost of several lives, vast numbers being wounded, and many maimed for life. This impolitic measure produced such a feeling of resentment that the operatives turned out in all parts of the country, especially in the manufacturing towns, and in large bodies paraded the streets ; in Glasgow especially the demonstrations became formidable, and more than one encounter with the military took place ; the volunteer rifles were called out and lined the streets by night and day, and ib was not till the arrival of some field-pieces, with a troop of Horse Artillery, that the " Radicals," as they were called, were finally suppressed. As it was, several lives were lost, and three of the ring- leaders executed for high treason, one of the number being beheaded after hanging. Hunt, one of the principal orators, and some others, were tried and imprisoned for lengthened terms, and after a year of much cormnotiou, public order and quietude were finally re-established.
1088. When, and of loliat disease, did George the Third die ?
He died on the 29fch day of January, 1820, at the place of his usual residence, Windsor. Early in the previous November,
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 291
DEATH OF GFOEGE THE THIKD, 1820.
the firm, indeed robust health which the King had always enjoyed abruptly gave way, and though some dangerous symptoms that supervened were quickly subdued, they eventuated into a settled debility, which indicated approaching death, and though the fatal event was averted for the time, his strength gradually became more impaired, till he finally expired without a sigh or moan, from a complete decay of nature, dying in the 60th year of his reign and the 82nd of his age, and outliving his son, the Duke of Kent (who died suddenly of inflammation of the lungs in the 53rd year of his age), by exactly eight days.
1089. As already stated upon the accession of George the Third, this is the most remnrkjible reign in the whole annals of the British history, not alone from being the longest period that any Sovereign ever sat on the throne of this country, but for the great social and political events that, from its dawn to its termination, took place at home and abroad, within that cycle of time. Though naturally of a humane and pacific disposition, unswayed by the pomp of war or the ambition of conquest, and with a taste that inclined to the arts of peaee, the encouragement of genius, and the development of civilisation, it was this monarch's misfortune, v/ith the exception of two or three brief intervals of peace, to be engaged, in almost ceaseless wars — wars which, for their length, the immense burdens they imposed on the people, and their frightful sacrifice of life, are without parallel in the history of nations. This circumstance is to be attributed, in a great measure, to a resolute obstinacy of disposition on the part of the Kinar, which made him adhere, with remarkable tenacity, to his preconceived opinion on all political subjects, and also in some respect to ministers who, in the commencement of his reign, it was his misfortune to call to his counsels— men whose shallow abilities made them unable to take comprehensive views of great events, or direct the more acute, but often erring, judgment of their master. The impolicy of the American war, opposed as it was on natural feelings to the unanimous wish of the people of this country, was fraught with more momentous con- sequences than the mere loss of our early settlements; for there can be no doubt that though the vice and luxury of the French Court, and its regime of old nobility, had, by exciting the contempt and hate of the nation, prepared men's hearts for the perpetration of those political horrors, that, in its subsequent Revolution, converted France into a shambles of human blood, the direct stimulant to revolt was caught from the American War of Independence; and from the pure patriotism of Washington and his Government, the French demagogues drew the crude outline of their Utopia. And to this Europe owes the advent of that remarkable man, whose ambition was inimical, indeed, impossible with the co-C'iistence of freedom, and for whose suppression, the war this country waced so long, and often single-baud, d, against all Europe, was, in the cause of humanity, a holy one. If, as a shrewd politician and wise Sovereign.
L 2
292 THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
NOTES UPON THE REIGN OP GEORGE THE THIRD.
George the Third is unable to claim equal honour with other monarchs who have held the sceptre of these realms, as the father of his people, one ever solicitous for the welfare and happiness of his subjects, and as an example of domestic truth, moral rectitude, and modest piety, his private and public character may challenge comparison with any King who ever lived. He found on his accession the whole frame of society unhinged and polluted, and by making his nobles personally oblige him by abstaining from masquerades and card-playing on the Sunday, slowly effected that reform in the external respect to the day, which, in imitation of French manners, it had become the fashion to profane. The people, who in all things always copy the aristocracy, soon took a pleasure in following the example set by their King in his household; so that when he resigned his sceptre, the morals of the English people became the pattern for Europe. George the Third was a great and steady patron of the arts, and to literature, science, and the drama, a munificent friend ; his taste was eminently practi- cal ; and all his recreations and amusements thoroughly English ; and he taught the nation, by his own example, to find their greatest happiness at home and in their families. For the last ten years of his life he had been afflicted with blindness, which, with the obscuration of his mental life, left him in his old age a wreck to be pitied. The last time that he ever publicly appeared was at the Jubilee, when the people devoted themselves to rejoicing on his having completed his fiftieth year as their King; and as the blind old man passed through the throng on his way to St. Paul's, he was the object of universal love and veneration. Up to the end of George the Third's reign, nations chronicled their epochs of glory by deeds of blood, by battles, sieges, and campaigns, by the pirate flag of slaughter and oppression; but a new era then began to dawn on Europe, and one that has already far advanced its reign within these happy islands. We have come to chronicle time by deeds of public good, by trophies of scientific improve- ment, by works that civilise as they teach, and the further they spread the more indelibly they grave on the face of time the fact, that Knowledge is Power, and Christian "Wisdom Strength.
NOTES UPON THE REIGN OF GEOKGE THE THIRD.
In Literary Taste, George the Third was supposed to be somewhat deficient, though he collected a noble library, and during his reign literature was certainly not neglected, as such names as Johnson, Gold- smith, Cowper, Burns, Paley, Robertson, Blair, Scott, and Gibbon eminently attest in every branch of polite letters.
The Graphic Arts may be said to have been almost created, so extensive were the improvements that this branch of pictorial art underwent in the long series of years that extended from 1760 to the erid of the reign in 1820. In 1765 a Royal Charter was given to a society of artists, who, for some few years previously, had exhibited their own pictures; and this Charter was
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY. 293
NOTES UPON THE EEIG* OP GEORGE THE THIRD.
also accompanied by an annual donation from the Royal purse of £10<V to encourage the society in the furtherance of its meritorious exertions. The Royal Academy was founded some few years after the other; removing the reproach, which up to that time had existed, that this country possessed neither a home nor a school for pictorial art. But now, through private benevolence and national aid, public galleries have been opened in different parts of the metropolis, where the finest creations of the great masters may be admired and studied by the connoisseur and student. Among the celebrated men who raised the Fine Arts to so enviable a distinction, during this reign, we must mention the names of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Morlaud, Sir James Thornhill, Benjamin West, Wilson, Hogarth, Gainsborough, Stothard, and Wilkie— men who, in the different branches of their art, have left a deathless reputation, a fame that will outlive the wear of canvas and the endurance of oil.
The love of Art, and an improved taste for the beautiful, soon began to exert a strong influence on every branch of domestic and commercial utility, as the excellence attained in architecture, furniture, dress, and in all the daily accessories of life fully testified. Formerly, the mirrors, tables, and indeed, all kinds of household furniture, were copies of the gorgeous French, or heavier Italian school, but now the public taste was altered ; instead of resorting to foreign nations for the pattern of articles of ornament or utility, home artists designed for domestic wants, and with a beauty arid finish of execution that immeasurably surpassed the innovations from the Continent; from that time our useful arts have been developed with a perfection that may challenge the world to surpass, or even equal.
Maritime Discoveries progressed in this reign with astonishing rapidity, in consequence of the indefatigable researches of Captain Cook, Carteret, King, Vancouver, and others. By the unwearied investigation of these, and those undaunted explorers, Bruce, Mungo Park, Clapperton, and others, the words that had hitherto disfigured our maps as "Unknown Regions" were swept away, and fruitful colonies and busy towns sprang up on what had been represented as arid sands or a deadly morass. Nor was it a mere accession of territory that these discoveries brought to the country: the sciences were greatly advanced; botany, mineralogy, and natural history largely extended, and the sphere of knowledge on several branches received an amount of confirmation that lifted them into sciences.
The door of inquiry and improvement being once open, investigation poured in like a tide, and Philosophy and the Sciences being brought in to every purpose of life, the secrets of nature became revealed facts; new systems of worlds, and erratic planets were discovered in the most distant heavens; and the miner's lamp, that placed the subterranean explorer above the danger of the fire and choke-damp, was invented.
Great as the marvels were which the application of science to social purposes was effecting, there were two agents yet untried that were destined to yield results the most astounding, and consequences the most momentous, to nations and peoples, that ever had or probably ever can again occur.
204 TJIE HISTORICAL RSASOM WHY.
NOTES UPON THE KEIGN OP GEOEGS THE THIBD.
Franklin having demonstrated the identity of lightning and Electricity, and drawing it from the air, like Prospero, mado its potent principle subservient to his uses, the knowledge thus acquired vent on expanding and developing till now, highly organized in our own time, it has become the subtle courier of the world, doing our business in the bowels of the earth or mid air, and, on the wings of thought, —
" "Wafting7 a sigh from Indus to the Pole."
Great and wonderful as electricity is, it is of infinitely less consequence to the welfare of mankind than the sister discovery, the Steam-Engine, the great leveller of all distinction, and universal teacher. This giant monopoliser, that has as many hands as purposes, is now applied to every pursuit of life, and is the motive power of all manufactures. Electricity, the steam-engine, and gas, were discoveries that, singly, would have been enough to crown any ap;e with the laurels of a wondrous triumph, sufficient to have marked out the century as an epoch of vast and imposing consequences. The Marquis of Worcester is commonly regarded as the inventor of the steam- engine; but perhaps the most that can justly be said is, that he was the first person who imagined the possibility of constructing such a machine. The individual who actually first constructed an engine, for raising •water by the alternate force and condensation of steam, was Captain Savary, who published a;i account of his invention in a small tract, called "The Miner's Friend." In 1705, Nevt'comen obtained a patent for an im- proved steam-engine, and in 1717, Henry Beighton made some farther im- provements, one of which is generally allowed to have been that of causing the steam-cock to be opened aud shut by the machinery, a man having been previously employed for the expi-ess purpose. A few other improvements were made by different persons, but they did not affect the general action of the engine; and although defects in its power had been noticed, their cause was unknown, until 1765, when, happily for the prosperity of the arts and manu- factures of Britain, the subject engaged the ingenuity of Mr. Watt. The model of a Nevrcomen's engine fell into his hands to be repaired; and in this, he presently discovered the immense loss of steam occasioned by its admission into the cylinder, just cooled for condensation; indeed, he went so far as to ascertain, by experiment, that half the steam of the boiler •was thus lost. But the circumstance that excited his greatest surprise was, that the injected water gained infinitely more heat, than if a quantity of boiling water, equal to that required to form the steam, had been added to it. In this dilemma he is understood to have consulted the celebrated Dr. Black, whose discoveries on the subject of heat were then the theme of general wonder; and from him he obtained such an explana- tion of the difficulty, as enabled him so to alter the construction of the engine, that, with rather less than one-third the quantity of steam, it could produce the same power as one of equal dimensions on Newcomen's plan. But, great as was this improvement, it formed but a small part of the successful achievements of llr. Watt in this department of mechanics. The application and utility of the engine he extended iu various im- portant ways; and at last arrived at that climax of improvement, which
THE HISTOEICAL E.EASOX WHY. 29-5
NOT2S UPON THE EEJGX OF GEORGE THE THIED.
consisted in making the steam serve to elevate as well as to depress tlio piston. An engine upon this plan, executed at Mr. Watt's manufactory at Soho, near Birmingham, was first employed at the Albion Mills in 1778.
In Manufactures, no branch flourished so greatly as that of cotton, till our textile fabrics have become almost the staple of our trade; and so ex- quisitely have these been elaborated, that this country has become the fore- most in the world for the beauty and delicacy of their texture. For this great source of trade the country is indebted to Richard Arkwright. When Sir Richard Arkwright went first to Manchester, he hired himself to a petty barber ; but, being remarkably frugal, ho saved money out a very scanty income. With these savings he took a cellar, and commenced busi- ness; at the cellar-head he displayed this inscription — "Subterranean shaving, with keen razors, for one penny." The novelty had a very successful effect, for he had soon plenty of customers ; so much so, that several brother tensors, who before had demanded twopence a-piece for shaving, were obliged to reduce their terms. They also styled themselves subterranean shavers, although they all lived and worked above ground. Upon this, Arkwright determined on a still further reduction, and shaved for a halfpenny. A neighbouring cobbler one day descended the original subterranean tonsor's steps in order to be &haved. The fellow had a remarkably strong, rough beard. Arkwright, beginning to lather him, said he hoped he would give him another halfpenny, for his beard was so strong it might spoil his razor. The cobbler declared he would not. Arkwright then shaved him for the halfpenny, and immediately gave him two pairs of shoes to mend. This was the basis of Arkwright's extraordinary fortune ; for the cobbler, struck with this unexpected favour, introduced him to the inspection of a cotton machine invented by his particular friend. The plan of this Arkwrighfc got possession of; and it gradually led him to the dignity of knighthood, and the accumulation of half a million of money.
In Agriculture the progress of this country within the sixty years of George's reign has been truly wonderful, not alone in a just knowledge of the soil, but in an improved mode of drill-sowing, by which space is economised, and the land made more productive; while the knowledge of artificial manures, and steam appliances in husbandry, have raised the calling of a farmer to the dignity of a science. A complete history of English agriculture from 1750 would comprise names worthy of record from almost every county, and the name of George the Third would worthily appear at the head of the list. He had a considerable practical knowledge of the science, and contributed, under the denomination of Ralph Robinson, to Young's monthly periodical, " The Annals of Agriculture." His devotion to the pursuit did much to recommend it to others ; and he was often fondly and proudly spoken of as " Farmer George."
The general introduction of Canals and Macadamized Roads, in the early part of George's reign, did much to expedite travelling, the roads of Great Britain having become the envy and admiration of Europe ; and that these should have been carried on amidst such incessant wars, is a matter as sur-
096 THE HISTORICAL EEASOX WHY.
NOTES UPON THE EEIGX OF GEOEGE THE THIED.
prising to observe as it is gratifying to record. The progress of turnpike legislation may be thus stated :— From 1700 to 1710, twelve Turnpike Acts received the royal assent; from 1710 to 1720, twenty-one Acts; from 1720 to 1730, seventy-one Acts ; from 1730 to 1740, thirty-one Acts ; from 1740 to 1750, twenty-nine Acts: thus far existed one hundred and sixty-nine Turnpike Acts. From 1750 to 1760, one hundred and eighty-five Acts were added; from 1760 to 1770, one hundred and seventy- five Acts; so that five hundred and thirty such Acts existed in the year 1770. These Acts were limited to twenty-one years' duration, the Legislature presuming that tolls might not continue to be always necessary: but since the year 1830, the term has been prolonged to thirty-one years, and most of the Turnpike Acts have been renewed. In 1838 (the period when railways began to supersede roads) the total number of Turnpike Trusts exceeded eleven hundred. The debts of the Trusts at that time amounted to £8,500,000, of which £1,000,000 was unpaid interest. They paid £300,000 interest annually upon bond debts amounting to £7,100,000. The annual income from tolls was £1,800,000; their expenditure in making, maintenance, and improvements, £1,064,000; in management, £135,000.
In 1760 the net customs duties paid into the Exchequer amounted to £1,969,934 : and in 1815, the customs, with the duties and war taxes, amounted to £10,487,522 ; the consolidated excise, with duties, &c., to £26,562,432; stamps, post-office, assessed taxes, &c., produced £29,393,848,— making a total net revenue of £66,443,802. At the accession of Queen Anne, the National Debt amounted to £16,000,000. It was thought by Sir Robert Walpole that it might be increased to a hundred millions, but beyond that it was declared to be impossible to carry it without producing national bankruptcy. Yetf in spite of such fears, it has gone on increasing, and in 1820 had reached to the amount of £869,000,000,
THE HISTORICAL SEASON WHY. 297
ACCESSION OP GEOEGE THE FOTJETH.
•~N^^X>^^N^^^XVVVA^VVV^\xvx^ok^^^v^^^yv>/Xj^vv/v^^^^/x
GEORGE THE FOURTH.
FKOM 1820 TO 1830.
1090. Who succeeded to the Throne on the death of George the Third?
His eldest son, George, Prince of Wales, who, for the last ten years of his father's life, had exercised nearly all the func- tions of Royalty as "Prince Regent."
1091. Why was the Cato Street Conspiracy formed?
The object for which these infatuated men banded together seems totally inexplicable, unless we suppose that, under the excitement of a heated imagination, they considered themselves as worthy patriots, and that, in plotting the murders they meant to execute, they should perform a meritorious work.
1092. What was the nature of this conspiracy ?
The object was to murder all his Majesty's Ministers, fire the city, open the prisons, and form themselves into a Provisional Government ; and, that this might be done effectually and at once the plan was arranged to attack the Ministry in a body while collected at the house of Lord Harrowby, where a Cabinet dinner was to be held, and the mode of procedure was as fol- lows : Arthur Thistlewood, their leader, was to knock at Lord Harrowby's door with a dispatch-box in his hand, and upon gaining admission give his box to the porter to convey to the Secretary, as if containing papers of instant import : while the porter retired to give the box to a servant, Thistlewood was to open the hall- door and admit the whole band, who, being fully armed, were to rush into the room where the assembled Cabinet were seated, and, while some guarded the door, the rest were to fall upon the Ministers, and ruthlessly destroy them.
1093. Sow was so horrible a scheme detected?
By one of the conspirators, who, disliking the whole proceed-
298 THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY.
THE CATO STEEET COSSPniACY.
ing, secretly informed the authorities, who retained him in their service, and used him as a spy, to inform them from time to time of all that took place among the band. A short time before the hour intended for the execution of this scheme} a large body of armed police suddenly surrounded the stable in Cato-street, Edgware-road, where the conspirators assembled, and boldly dashing up the ladder that led into the loft, confronted the whole body, dressed and armed, and that moment preparing to set forward. To the summons from the magistrate who accompanied them, to surrender, the conspirators drew their swords and stood on their defence, upon which Smithers, one of the officers, rushed forward, and received Thistle wood's sword in Ins breast, immediately falling dead in the loft. The lights were then blown out, and a scene of wild confusion, deadly struggle, and uproar ensued, hardly possible to be described: at this moment the military, who should have been on the spot before, arrived, and nine of the party were secured. Thistlewood, who had escaped, was captured next morning in his bed; and the following day the remainder of the conspirators, the whole being conveyed to Bow-street for examination.
1094. Thistlewood, the chief actor in this murderous plot, had originally been bred as a druggist in Newark ; he then became a subaltern officer in a militia regiment, leaving this to take a situation in a regiment of the line, ordered to the West Indies. Resigning his commission, he passed into America, where he acquired strong Republican notions; these extreme opinions led him to France, where he arrived during some of the bloodiest days of the Revolution under Robespierre. After witnessing the execution of that sanguinary miscreant, he returned to England, where he became mixed up with Dr. "Watson's forgery, for which he was tried, but acquitted. Upon being set at liberty, he challenged Lord Sidmouth, for which he was fined and imprisoned. From this time the sole bent of his mind, and after his release the exclusive employment of his time, was the study of revenge. For this he associated with the lowest, most abandoned, and violent of the disaffected whom, he could find, till he had made himself the nucleus of a horrid scheme of murder and arson ; for immediately on the commission of their butchery, the barracks, certain private dwellings, and many of the public buildings were to be fired, and proclamations which were already printed distributed, calling on the people to rise and vindicate their freedom. So systematic and well-considered had been the plot, that a number of short but deadly swords had been made, and so ingeniously contrived that though the point was double-edged for some inches, the broad back of the weapon was serrated to answer the purpose of a file
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 299
DIFFICULTIES WITH QUEEK CAROLINE.
or saw, and while, from its length, width of blade, and exquisite temper, capable of inflicting a mortal stab, when used on guard it would dash off the lunge of a bayonet, and as a strong tool, saw through a door, or file oir an iron bar ; besides these uses, its moveable handle adapted it to other pur- poses, so that, as well as a means of defence and attack, it became in the hand of an artisan a tool of universal use. Though malignity and revenge may account for the desperate part taken by Thistlewood in this conspiracy, it is difficult to find a motive strong enough to account for the part taken by the other poor and infatuated beings who leagued with him, to overcome the evident risk— indeed, the moral certainty— there was of detection and failure.
1095. What was the punishment inflicted on the conspirators ?
Thistlewood, and four of his leading accomplices, were, ac- cording- to the tenor of their sentence, hanged, beheaded, and quartered, the horrid butchery occupying nearly an hour and a half.
1096. Wliy did the Queen go to Westminster Alley during the coronation, and demand admittance?
To assert her right, as the lawful wife of the King, to be crowned with him ; his Majesty, having been for many years separated from his wife, had resolved that she should not share his dignity, when, by the course of nature, he should be called to the throne. Upon the death of the late King, Queen Caroline, who had resided for some years on the Continent, returned to England, and adopted measures to induce the King to do her the justice of sharing his coronation.
1097. What offer was made ly the Ministry to the Queen ?
That if she remained on the Continent, a pension of £50,000 a year would be fixed upon her for life, but that if she persisted in coming to England, a bill of pains and penalties would be brought into the House against her.
1098. Why was such a measure proposed, and how did the Queen answer the offer made to her ?
The threatened bill was to be based on some alleged errors of
300 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
DEATH OP QUEEN CABOLINE, 1821.
conduct, of which the Queen was said to have been guilty, in connection with one of her attendants called Bergami. The proposal was received with scorn by her Majesty, who, in opposition to all advice, immediately returned to England, and having demanded to be admitted to the coronation, and being refused by the officers on guard, she published an account of her treatment to the nation, in a letter in the public journals.
1099. What steps were taken after these appeals to the public ?
Witnesses having been brought from Italy, and the House of Lords having heard evidence, and the Ministry obtaining a majority of nine votes in favour of the bill, abruptly dropped all proceedings, and the trial fell to the ground.
1100. What effect had these proceedings on the Queen ?
They preyed so deeply on her spirits, that her health rapidly declined, and after a short illness of eight days, she died suddenly at Hammersmith, on, the 7th of August, 1821.
1101. Why did the populace rise and make such a violent demonstration at her funeral ?
Because orders had been given to take the funeral possession by the outskirts of London on its way to Harwich, where it was to embark on its journey to the Continent, when the body was to be taken for interment in the family vault of Brunswick ; but the populace, resolved that the funeral should pass through the City, assembled in vast numbers, overpowered the military, made it return, and led it through the heart of the city, till, having reached Mile End, it was allowed to proceed.
1102. What places did, the King visit after his coronation ?
First Ireland, where he landed on the 12th of August, and a few weeks later set out on a visit to his Hanoverian domin- ions, which, during the late war, had been overrun and oc-
THE HISTOKICAL SEASON WHY. 301
THE PANIC 05 1825.
cupied by the French; and on the 15th of August, 1822, the King landed in Scotland, entering the capital in great pomp, followed by many of the Highland clans, and troops of gentle- men on horseback, dressed in the costume of the time of Henry the Eighth. Though holding levees in the palace of Holyrood, and giving audience in the Castle, his Majesty resided, during his stay in Scotland, in the Duke of Buccleugh's palace at Dalkeith, the present noble owner being then a minor.
1103. What led to the remarkable failures that so seriously shook the money market in 1825 ?
Over-speculation in what were called Joint Stock' schemes : projects that in themselves were, many of them, useful and meritorious, but fell to the ground and were ruined, from the excessive cupidity of those entrusted with their management.
1104. What military events occurred at this period?
The Algerines, having forgotten the chastisement inflicted by Lord Exmouth, had resumed their piratical dealings, when, to intimidate them from their practice of making Christian slaves> Sir E. Neale was dispatched with a squadron of ships to demand satisfaction. Upon sight of the British fleet, the Dey was seized with such alarm, that he immediately entered into a treaty, and promised to abolish the slavery of Christian, subjects for ever.
1105. The former Dey had been strangled by his own guards, either in consequence of his dreadful cruelties, or, as is not impossible, out of revenge for his adhesion to the pledge given to the English to refrain from piracy, —a means of profitable gain too agreeable to Mahometan cupidity to be easily or willingly surrendered.
1106. What other military achievements took place?
A tribe of the Ashaiitees having committed great depredation on our African possessions, and killed Sir Charles Macarthy, and afterwards mustered in great force, were attacked by Sir Charles Pardon with 600 Europeans and several thousand natives, and totally defeated with great slaughter. In the East the Burmese, having commenced hostilities on our Indian
302
THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
SIE ABCHIBALD CAMPBELL AND LOUD COJIBESMEKE.
were opposed by Sir Archibald Campbell and an Anglo-British force, and after a series of decisive engagements, following the enemy up to the heart of his kingdom, they
ABCHITECIUBE OP OLD LONDON.
were compelled to sue for peace, which was only at last granted them upon ceding; four of their richest provinces to the English, and paying all the expenses of the war.
1107. Immediately after this splendid accession of territory, Lord Comber- mere attacked with 20,000 men the usurping Rajah of Bhurtpore in his capital fort, one of the strongest in India, and which after a brave defence and gallant assault was carried; the treasure, stores, and spoil taken exceeded the expense of the entire expedition. The remaining forts in the Rajah's dominions, intimidated by this success, at ouce surrendered, and the who]e population returned to their duty.
THE HiSTOETCAL SEASON WHY. 303
CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION-, 1829.
1108. Why was tlie lattle of Navarino fought ?
The allied powers of England, France, and Russia, desirous to see the Greek nation re-established in independence, for which the Greeks had been fighting1 for some years, made urgent representations to Turkey on the subject, and to back their remonstrances sent a combined fleet to the coast of Greece under the command of Admiral Stopford, to watch over the interest of the Greeks ; the Turkish and Egyptian fleets having been allowed to enter Navarino Bay, under a promise that the inhabitants on the coast should be respected. But, forgetting the promise given, the Egyptians commenced operations by ravaging the country ; upon this Sir Edward Codrington, with the allied fleet, moved nearer in to the bay, when the Turkish admiral, incensed at being enclosed, began firing on the advancing fleet, upon which a general action ensued, in which, after an obstinate and bloody battle, the Ottoman fleet was totally de- stroyed.
1109. What ivas the last important measure of this
rcirm ?
The passing of the Catholic Emancipation Bill in the session of 1829.
1110. After many years' struggle, the rejection of innumerable bills, and the breaking up of many Cabinets, this great and important measure, that removed the last restriction on tha Catholic subject, and the last of those measures of pains and penalties imposed on the Papists by the Puritans, was finally swept away by the determination of the Duke of Wellington, who, having resolved that tho law should no longer disgrace the legislature, succeeded in abolishing so hateful an injustice.
1111. Of what did George tlie Fourth die?
George the Fourth died from the effects of water in the chest, but his constitution, long enfeebled by a life of extreme gaiety, was a prey to many sufferings, filling his last hours with great physical anguish ; he lingered from the middle of April till the 26 tli of June, 1830, when death at last relieved him from the sufferings he had endured so long. As a King, his taste for magnificence and splendour was a source of vast
304 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
ACCESSION OP -WILLIAM THE FOtTKTH, 1830.
expense to the country, and though the judgment that dictated it was often more than questionable, the manner in which it was expended was eminently regal.
WILLIAM THE FOUKTH.
FROM 1830 TO 1837.
1112. Who succeeded George the Fourth on ike Throne ?
The Duke of Clarence, the late King's brother, who ascended the throne under the title of William the Fourth.
1113. Why was a Reform Bill introduced into Parlia- ment ?
Because the country having changed, without any corresponding alteration in the constituency having been made for centuries, and various other abuses having crept into the representative system, it was determined by the Liberal party to initiate a measure calculated to be acceptable to the people.
1114. The passing of this measure met with the greatest opposition from the Conservative party, and the struggle between the Reformers and Anti- Reformers was one of the longest and most severe on record. The Duke of Wellington made himself especially obnoxious to the people by his determined and dogged resistance to the proposed measure. The Duke's house, and those of several of the peers, were attacked by the mob. In Derby, Bristol, and several other large towns, serious riots took place, and, in short, from one end of the kingdom to the other, this measure became the great object of contention. At length, however, the bill was passed, and became law in June, 1832.
1115. What "humane act was passed ly the English Government in 1833 ?
An act for the Abolition of Slavery, which had long been the object of philanthropists, and which was more immediately owing to the efforts of Wilberforce and Clarkson.
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 305
ALTEKATIOSr OB THE POOE 1AWS.
1116. By this act about 800,000 slaves were emancipated, subject only to an apprenticeship to their former masters for a limited number of years, wlile all children under the age of six years were declared free. By a subsequent law, imperatively called for by the ill effects of the apprenticeship system, the "West Indian negroes were entirely freed from servitude. The sum of £20,000,000 was paid as a compensation to the owners, or, in other words, with that money Government purchased all the slaves, and then restored them to their liberty.
1117. Why was a thorough change effected in the Poor Laws about this time ?
Because the old regulations, based on an act passed in the reign of Elizabeth, had been grossly abused. The poor-rates were a "bounty to indolence, instead of an encouragement to honest industry. The object of the amendment act was to apply the labour test, that is, when people able to work applied for relief, to give it only in the shape of labour, so that it might hold out no temptation to those who were not truly destitute.
1118. Why li'ere the Orange Lodges abolished ly Hoyal Authority ?
Because, Ireland being essentially a Roman Catholic country, the existence of these Lodges was considered to be offensive to the people, consequently the Koyal Authority was promulgated, and the Lodges immediately dissolved themselves.
1119. Why was the Spanish Government permitted to enlist Englishmen to serve in her army?
Because the English Government sympathized with the Queen of Spain, and the Constitutionalists in Portugal; who were threatened by Don Carlos and a large body of followers.
1120. Why was it, after so many precautions, and the strict enforcement of the quarantine laws, that Cholera, that dreaded disease, in its worst form, gained an entrance into this country?
It is impossible to find anything like an intelligible reason for such a visitation, after the adoption of what was considered every
306 THE niSTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
DEATH OF SIE WALTEB SCOTT, 1832.
possible precaution, to slmt out its ravages from assailing the inhabitants of these islands. The disease, in a most unaccountable manner, having found its way to Sunderland, produced frightful havoc among its inhabitants, and spread in all directions from that centre, raging with an unprecedented virulence over the South of Scotland, and especially in the fishing village of Mussel- burgh, within a few miles of the capital, which suffered more than any other town of equal population in either kingdom. The disease, after extending to almost every town in the kingdom, after a visitation of about ten weeks gradually declined, and by the approach of winter had entirely disappeared, not, however, till many thousands had fallen victims to this modern plague.
1121. Wliy ivas the dispute continued, so long "between tlie States of Holland and Belgium ?
Because the King of the former country would not give up the citadel of Antwerp to the Belgians. On this refusal, England laid an embargo on Dutch vessels, and France marched an. army of 50,000 men into Flanders. The citaclel was invested, and the siege commenced on the 4th of December, and lasted twenty days. The Dutch commander, being obliged to capitu- late, was made prisoner of war. Being thus conquered by the superior force of the French, they could not again advance, in consequence of a treaty of alliance between the five Great European Powers and the King of the Belgians.
1122. What eminent literary man died in the year 1832 ?
Sir Walter Scott, the celebrated novelist and poet, died at Abbotsford, near Edinburgh, in his sixty-second year, having attained over Europe a greater celebrity "than any English author could hitherto boast.
1123. Sir Walter Scott was born on the 15th of August, 1771 ; was educated at the High School, Edinburgh, and afterwards brought up to the law. In 1792, he was called to the Scotch bar; and in 1800, he obtained the valu- able situation of Clerk of the Sessions in Scotland. Sir Walter early discovered a love of poetry and legendary lore; and his being born laino
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY. 307
DEATH OF WILLIAM WILBEKFOUCE, 1833.
gave htm leisure for study. After several minor publications, "The Min- strelsy of the Scottish Border," in 1S02, first established his fame. "The Lay of the Last Minstrel," &c., followed; and in 1810, "The Lady of the Lake." To these and other poetic works succeeded the splendid series, known by the name of the "Waverley Novels." No contemporary author has written so much, and certainly few so well. He created a new world of fiction, founded rather on the spirit than on the letter of history.
1124. What was the first important measure passed ly the Reformed House of Commons?
The Irish Coercion Bill, brought in by Earl Grey, which empowered the Lord Lieutenant to suppress all meeting's that might be considered dangerous, and to declare the disturbed districts under martial law.
1125. What circumstance led to the civil wars in Spain and Portugal ?
The abolition of the Salique law by Ferdinand the Seventh, King of Spain, to enable his daughter Isabella to succeed to the crown. The friends of Don Carlos, who was heir-presumptive according to the old law, rose in arms, and declared him their rightful Sovereign. A civil war ensued; but towards the latter end of the year the insurrection was so far quelled that it was confined to the mountains of Navarre. In Portugal Don Pedro supported the claims of his daughter, Donna Maria, to the crown. After a protracted struggle, the usurper, Don Miguel, was defeated, and driven into exile.
1126. Who icas William Wilberforce, and when did he die?
A distinguished philanthropist, born at Hull in 1759; died on the 29th of July, 1833. His name will be transmitted to posterity for his enthusiastic exertions in the cause of the abolition of slavery, and negro emancipation. He had the good fortune to live to see his labours crowned with success, and his death took place in the very year that the last fetters were struck from the slave throughout the British dominions.
THE HISTOKICAL REASON WHY.
HOUSES OF PABUAMENT BtTENT, 1831.
1127. Wliy did Government, on the renewal of the Charter of the East India Company, deprive it of its exclusive commercial privileges ?
In order to extend the right of trading with China to the community at large. The ancient policy of not allowing Europeans to settle in Hindostan was also departed from, under some restrictions of inferior importance.
1128. What calamitous conflagration occurred alout this time ?
In the month of October, 1834, both Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire, which was accidentally occasioned by over-heating the flues ; but, fortunately, the library and national archives were saved from the ravages of the destructive element.
1129. Who succeeded Sir Robert Peel as Premier?
The resignation of the Ministry being announced on the 9th of April, Lord Melbourne received his Majesty's commands to form a new Cabinet.
1130. What important measure was carried this session ?
A bill for the reform of the English Municipal Corporations was carried with difficulty, in consequence of the small majority the Ministry possessed in the House.
1131. What event, occurred in Paris in 1835 ?
An attempt was made on the life of the French King, by means of a machine formed of thirty gun-barrels, heavily loaded with powder and balls. The assassin (a Corsican named Fieschi) would have probably effected his escape, but for the bursting of some of the barrels, by which he was severely hurt; the number of killed and wounded, caused by this explosion, amounted to forty, but the King escaped uninjured.
1132. When did King William die?
The health of the King had been for some months declining,
TIIE HISTOEICAL SEASON "WHY. 309
ACCESSION OF QUEEN TICIOEIA, 1837.
and on the 20fch of June, 1837, he breathed his last. His reign was brief, extending over a period of not quite seven years, and his death took place in the seventy-second year of his age.
1133. Whatever opinions may be entertained of the political tendencies of his Government, it must be admitted by all that no Monarch ever lived who was more anxious for the prosperity of his people— who, to use the language of his successor, more earnestly desired "to promote the ame- lioration of the laws and institutions of his country." Brought up on that element which is the peculiar source of Britain's supremacy, the late King, though not possessed of splendid talents, had a vigour of character, a decision, and a manly frankness, which could not fail to command the respect, to win the love, and secure the confidence of the people of England. The combined qualities of firmness and conciliation he eminently displayed ia his conduct as the ruler of a great nation in times of no ordinary difficulty and peril. In pursuing the generous purposes of an enlightened patriotism, he knew how to distinguish between the clamour of faction and the reason- able desires of the country, making it the object of a wise solicitude to leave unimpaired to his successors the constitutional grandeur of the throne, the sanctity of the national altars, the independence of the peerage, and the liberties of the people.
QUEEN VICTOEIA, 1837.
1184. How did Queen Victoria become entitled to the Throne ?
She was the daughter of the Duke of Kent, who was the next eldest brother to William the Fourth.
1135. Why were Upper and Lower Canada united?
On account of the rebellions which had from time to time broken out in the separate provinces, and which this consoli- dation, and the transference of the seat of Government from Quebec to Montreal, were calculated to suppress.
1136. Why did Chartist Riots break out in 1839 /
Because there was a political body who were dissatisfied with the existing Parliamentary Laws and Representation, and who,
310 THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY.
WAR WITH CHINA, 1840.
therefore, claimed a Charter of Liberties which they held to be essential to good government and the well-being of society.
1137. The doctrines thus espoused were comprised in "Six Points;" namely, Annual Parliaments, Vote by Ballot, Universal Suffrage, Electoral Districts, Abolition of the Property Qualification for Parliamentary Representatives, and Payment of Members. The agitation which was carried on in connec- tion with this cause assumed a formidable appearance, and disturbed the public peace for some time. In the manufacturing districts several riots took place, attended with loss of life and destruction of property; and in "Wales several of the ringleaders were taken, and transported for life.
1138. Why did a war take place with China in 1840 ?
Because for many years the East India Company, as well as private merchants, had been carrying on a very lucrative commerce with China in opium, one of the staple productions of the Indian peninsula; and the Chinese Government, alarmed not less by the drainage of silver specie than by the frightful ravages caused by this poisonous drug among its subjects, had prohibited its importation, and forbidden its use in the empire under the severest penalties. As the people of China were still ready to purchase opium, the merchants gave but little heed to these orders, and a most extensive contraband trade was opened for the sale of the forbidden article. At length several cargoes were seized by the Chinese authorities and destroyed, and British subjects, charged with attempts to contravene these regulations, were imprisoned. The Commissioner, Captain Elliot, had also been deprived of his liberty.
1139. Such an insult as this could not be overlooked; satisfaction and reparation were demanded by the Home Government, and refused, upon which war was declared. Canton was immediately blockaded, and Chusan occupied. In the following year Canton was attacked, and just as the besieging troops were marching to storm the walls, the city capitulated, and, on payment of a ransom of six millions of dollars, the British army was withdrawn. Meantime the war was going on in the north; Amoy was taken, the island of Hong Kons was ceded to Great Britain, and four other ports, besides Canton, were opened to foreign traders.
1140. Wliy was Mr. O'Connell imprisoned?
Because he agitated the Repeal of the Union between England and Ireland; and in advocating the cause, his words and
THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY. 311
THE COEN LAWS REPEALED, 1846.
demeanour were so offensive towards the English Government, and had such a dangerous influence on the Irish populace, that he was put upon his trial for sedition and treason, found guilty, and imprisoned.
1141. The extraordinary influence possessed by this one man over the Irish people, was one of the most remarkable events of this period. O'Con- noll was originally a barrister, but abandoned this profession for the express purpose of agitating the cause of Repeal. To compensate their leader for the income he had sacrificed, as well as to repay the other expenses of the movement, a species of voluntary tax, called the Rent, was raised, to which people of all ages and of both sexes contributed. At the commencement of the movement this contribution was only between two and three thousand per annum, but reached at length the astonishing amount of forty-eight thousand. Soon after tho imprisonment of O'Connell the agitation declined, and a fuw years afterwards became quite extinct.
1142. Wliy lucre certain outbreaks in Wales ' termed Rebecca riots?
Because they wished to suppress the toll-bars in the different parts of the country, and called themselves " Rebecca and her daughters," deriving this title from the twenty-second chapter of Genesis, in which the children of Rebecca are promised possession of "the gates of their enemies."
1143. Why was the Penny Postage established?
Because the high rates that were charged for the postage of letters proved a serious impediment to commerce, and fell upon the poorer classes especially, as a heavy social tax. Great abuses also existed in the system of franking, which gave members of Parliament and other persons the privilege of forwarding all letters having their signature on the superscrip- tion through the post-office free.
1114. Great opposition was made to this movement; and the Postmaster- General for the time being declared, in his place in Parliament, that if a universal penny postage were established, it would be utterly impossible to carry on the business of the post-office.
1145. Wliy were the Corn Laws repealed?
Because the payment of duty on corn imported from foreign
312 THE HISTORICAL EEASON WHY.
WAE, WITH INDIA, 1849.
countries was adjudged to be both unnatural and unjust, as a tax upon the food of the people, and it was also calculated that the removal of this restriction would give an impetus to trade and commerce, and be beneficial to the community generally.
1146. This wise and beneficial measure, from which the most important results have arisen, owes its existence to the individual energy and eloquence of two men, occupying a comparatively subordinate position in society; namely, Eichard Cobderi and John Bright. Through the instrumentality of these original advocates of the cause, an agitation gradually spread itself throughout England, and a powerful association was organized, called the Anti-Corn-Law League, which, by indomitable energy and perseverance, at length secured the advantages it struggled for.
1147. Why ivas the term " Protectionists " applied to a certain section of the Conservative body ?
Because they opposed the repeal of the Corn Laws, on the plea that the introduction of foreign grain, duty free, would be unjust to the English farmer, by bringing about a competi- tion which it would be impossible to maintain; and they therefore declared that it was necessary, not only to the agricultural interest, but to the country generally, that the grower of home produce should be " protected."
1148. The fallacy of this reasoning has been unanswerably proved by sub- sequent events; and the Protectionist party, convinced of the weakness of their position, have abandoned their theory, and may be said to be defunct.
1149. Why did a revolution in France occur in 1848 ?
Because the people of France had been for some time dis- satisfied with the government of Louis Philippe, which was brought to a crisis by that monarch refusing to allow a military banquet which had been projected to take place.
1150. The result of this resolution was, that the people rose in arms ; Louis Philippe was compelled to fly to England, and Louis Napoleon, nephew of tho Emperor Bonaparte, encouraged by the event, hastened to France, was elected President, and afterwards became Emperor.
1151. Why did a war IreaJc out in India in 1.849 ? Because the Sikhs, who had on previous occasions resisted the
THE HISTOEICAL SEASON WHY. 313
WAE WITH EUSSIA, 1S54.
British rule, again rose in rebellion, and the English Govern- ment determined to reduce the revolters to obedience by force of arms.
1152. In this struggle, Mooltan was besieged and taken; and subsequently a battle was fought at Chillinwallah, in which, though the English remained masters of the field, they suffered severe loss. Several minor victories were afterwards gained; the chiefs of the insurgent forces were compelled to surrender themselves prisoners ; and the Punjaub teritory became annexed to the British.
1153. What protracted warfare ivas brought to a close in 1852?
The hostilities between the British and the Caffres. These were terminated by General Cathcart, who reduced Sandalli, the most active chief of the Caffres, to submission, and defeated the most formidable of our opponents.
1154. Wliy did England go to war with Russia ?
Because the Emperor of Eussia attempted to interfere with the organization of the Greek Church in Turkey ; and, as Turkey was the ally of England, the latter was bound to assist in resenting the insult thus offered by one power to another.
1155. In the year 1854 the Russian war broke out. In this terrible and protracted conflict England received the assistance of France; and great intrepidity and gallantry were displayed by the armies of both countries. On the 20th of September the battle of Alma was fought, in which the allies were victorious. On the 25th of October the battle of Balaklava was fought, chiefly remarkable for the daring charge of a brigade of cavalry, which, numbering only 670 men, went through the whole Russian forces, and only about 200 returned. The 5th of November saw the battle of Inkermann; the allies were completely victorious, but the loss, especially of officers, was something unprecedented. The crowning act of the war was the bombardment of Sebastopol, which, after three days' incessant cannonade, was abandoned by the enemy on the 8th of September, 1855, and the allied armies entered the city in triumph. The capture of Sebastopol brought the war to a termination, and terms of peace were concluded on the 10th of January, 1856.
1156. Wliy did, a rebellion lreak out in India?
The immediate pretext was, an objection on the part of the
314. THE niSTOEICAL SEASON Vv'HY.
TEEATY OB PEACE WITH CHINA, 1S5S.
native troops to bite the regulation cartridges, with which grease was mixed, tho tasting of which was interdicted by the religious customs of the country. The real cause of the war, however, is to be traced to the accumulated grievances of a number of years, which a large portion of the native population urge against the Home Government.
1157. This disastrous rebellion has occasioned great bloodshed, and an enormous outlay of treasure, besides interrupting the commercial relations between tho two countries. The struggle, however, like every other in which the, British arms have been engaged, has served to commemorate the names of many of our countrymen who were conspicuous for valour and personal bravery. The defence of Lucknow, under the most disadvantageous circumstances possible, affords one of the most striking illustrations of British heroism, energy, and perseverance. The name of Havelock, who conducted this memorable defence, and who sacrificed his life to the exces- sive demands that were made upon his mental and physical faculties, has been handed down to posterity among our national heroes. Lord Clyde, the successful Commander-in-Chief, is also entitled to the gratitude of his country, for having crushed one of the most formidable rebellions on record, and re-established the peace of the empire.
1158. What important treaty, affecting the commercial and political greatness of England, was secured in 1858 ?
On the 19th of June, 1858, a treaty was entered into with China, which secured many important advantages to the European powers, and is calculated to extend its influence over the whole civilized world. By this treaty, the whole of the vast Empire of China is thrown open to Christianity, and nearly the whole of it to the trade and industry of the Vfest. Our diplomatic agents may reside temporarily at Pekin, and our missionaries are to be admitted everywhere. France and England obtained the most ample concessions for injuries previously received, and the laws against Christianity are all abolished.
1159. These concessions, obtained from one of the most important coun- tries in the world in point of wealth and commerce, have been followed up by a stroke of policy on the part of Lord Elgin, who has succeeded in obtaining privileges, similar to those just recorded, from the enterprising but hitherto jealously guarded empire of Japan. By these two treaties, British enterprise and commerce will receive an impetus, the full value of which cannot be at present calculated.
THE HISTORICAL EEASO2T WHY. 315
NOTES UPON THE EEIGtJT OP VICTORIA.
NOTES UPON THE PERIOD.
During the reign of the present Queen the progress of the nation lias been comparatively much greater than during any preceding interval of the same term.
The extension of Railways, the improvements in Steam Navigation, the Electrio and Submarine Telegraphs, have been brought into a state of wonderful efficiency, and have been productive of the most important benefits in a social, commercial, and national point of view
The Manufacturing and Agricultural Interests of the Country have been considerably enhanced by the introduction of many important improvements in these branches of industry. The introduction of Gutta Percha has been the means of supplying many important requirements in connection with rural and domestic economy. The importation of guano, as a valuable manure, has been attended with the most important results, materially im- proving the soil, and tending to the production of various crops.
Architecture has made rapid strides during this period. The r.ew neigh- bourhoods that have sprung into existence within the last few years in the suburbs of the metropolis is something surprising, while the improved style of architecture observable in warehouses, shops, and other commercial establishments, are evidences alike of the riches and the enterprise of the country. The public buildings that have arisen during the same period include the Royal Exchange and the Houses of Parliament. The erection of magnificent halls at Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, Liverpool, &c., indicate the growing prosperity and improving taste of the inhabitants of those great depdts of industry. The most conspicuous undertaking, how- ever, of modern times is the Crystal Palace.
Some years ago it having been determined to establish in London an Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, one of the considerations naturally was, to secure an appropriate edifice in which the specimens of every branch of industry and enterprise might be exposed. Mr. Joseph Paxton, •who was at that time employed by the Duke of Devonshire as an ornamental gardener, and who had directed his attention to the raising of glass structures, which should have all the stability of buildings raised from heavier materials, submitted a design to the authorities, of an edifice which was to be almost wholly constructed of glass and iron. Under this gentleman's superintendence, the noble building was erected, which became the wonder and admiration of the whole civilized world. This building, which was only intended for a temporary purpose, has been re-erected, with additions and improvements, at Sydenham, and, under the name of the Crystal Palace, has become the most popular and interesting place of resort of the English people.
Another great work of art and utility, though with a different intention, is the Tubular Bridge across the Menai Straits. This wonderful invention of engineering skill consists of a hollow iron cylinder, through which a locomotive engine and a railway train travel with the ease and safety that they would on an ordinary line.
316
THE HISTOEICAL REASON WHY.
NOTES UPON THE REIGN OF VICTORIA,
The building of the "Great Eastern" steam-ship furnishes another evidence of the enterprise and ardour of the British character. This enormous vessel is provided with accommodation for 4,000 passengers, inde- pendently of her crew ; but might, on an emergency, be made to carry twice that number. She will travel at the rate of twenty miles an hour, and will reach Australia in from thirty to thirty-five days. Her five saloons will afford accommodation equal to that of five of our largest hotels ; while her deck will afford a promenade around her, equal to a quarter of a mile. She is of two thousand six hundred horse power. Her screw propeller is tweuty-
6TERN, KEEL, AND SCREW-SHAFT OF THE GREAT EASTERN.
four feet in diameter, and its shaft is one hundred and twenty feet long. The diameter of each paddle-wheel is fifty-six feet. She will carry twenty large boats on deck, and will bear on her sides two screw steamers, each one hundred feet long, and between sixty and seventy tons burden. There will be »n electric telegraph on beard, to communicate orders simul- taneously from the officer in command, to the distant parts of the ship.
THE HISTOEICAL EEASON WHY. 317
NOTES UPON THE BEIGN OF VICTORIA.
She will be lit by gas, which will be made on board; and the electric light is designed to shine, like a star of the first magnitude, from her mast-head.
In the Arts, the most rapid strides have been made. Photography has served to supersede the expensive and capricious art of portrait painting. And we have, also, presented to us the kindred invention of the Stereoscope, by which mere outlines are rounded into realities, and which reflect, as nearly as art can do, life in its various phases and situations.
In the Sciences, many important discoveries have been made, not only tending to introduce new theories, but to detect previous fallacies, and correct former errors.
Literature is not behind in the general advancement. The names of Buck- land and Faraday, in science; Macaulay, Alison, and Carlyle, in history; Bulwer, Dickens and Thackeray, in fiction; and Tennyson in poetry, are sufficient to attest to the literary talent and genius existing in the country. The most remarkable feature in this direction, however, is the talent, energy, and uncompromising integrity of the Newspaper Press. So con- spicuous has this become, that it is the fashion to denominate the Press "the fourth estate;" and it is certain that the healthy influence which the Press is enabled to exercise on behalf of the people, and in opposition to any bad tendencies which may arise, from whatever quarter it may be, is one of those happy results of civilization which cannot fail to be a source of congratulation to the public.
The tendency to Investigation, and Research, which has ever been one of the characteristics of the English people, is being worthily perpetuated by those enterprising travellers and discoverers of the present day, Layard, Livingstone, Dr. Rae, and others. By the exertions of these eminent men, many important discoveries have been made, and numerous relics brought to light, of the most interesting and important nature.
The Improvements in the Statutes and Laws of the Country have been most essential and significant ; among these may be mentioned, the admission of Jews into Parliament, and the abolition of the qualification of Members of Parliament, by which latter, a serious obstruction, as well as a notorious abuse, has been for ever done away with. The minor alterations in legal enactments are not less essential : the abrogation of the window-tax has abolished one of the most offensive burdens that was ever imposed upon the people. The universal penny receipt and penny postage stamps, and the considerable reduction of the charges for stamps on bills of exchange, have also exercised a salutary influence upon commercial trans- actions.
The Trade and Commerce of the country have considerably extended during the last few years; the export trade with other countries, more especially with America, is one of the most gratifying results of our advancing prosperity ; and the impetus which has been given from time to time to the import trade by judicious reductions in the tariff, has brought within the reach of the humbler classes many comforts and enjoyments which have been hitherto placed beyond their reach.
318 THE HISTORICAL REASON WHY.
NOTES UPON THE EEIGN OP VICTOEIA.
The Rise and Progress of our Colonies are fully commensurate with their requirements ; the discoveries of gold in Australia and the subsequent application of the energies of the colonists to every branch of art and industry, have tended to raise the new country high iu the scale of civiliza- tion. And when the colonial media of communication are more advanced, the beneficial effects which will be felt by the old and new countries will tend to the firmer union and the happier condition of both.
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Iron rails traverse the kingdom, the steam horse races over the level track, drawing after him a thousand people, who sit as easily as in their dwellings, and reach a destination, a journey to which, a few years ago, would have in- volved days of toil and varieties of dangers, while they pursue the problems of newspaper politics, or listen to narratives by fellow-passengers. All praise the speed, the ease, the economy of such a rapid journey : but few know by what steps the locomotive became a thing of such mighty power.
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