THE HISTORIC AITO CURREOT STATUS
OF THE MOUNTAIN PLOVER IN MONTANA

prepared by:

Craig J. and Pamela R. Knowles
FaunaWest Wildlife Consultants
P.O. Box 113
Boulder, MT 5 9632

prepared for:

SWTE DOCUMENTS COLLECTION

JUL 1 3 2005

MONTANA STATE LIBRARV

IS15 E. 6th AVE.
HELENA. MO^ITA^!A. 5962C

Bureau of Land Management
Montana State Office
P.O. Box 36800
Billings, MT

and

Montana Dept. Fish, Wildlife, and P
P.O. Box 6 610
Great Falls, MT 59406

12 February 199 8

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .....

ii

LIST OF FIGURES ....

• • •

iii

ABSTRACT ......

iv

INTRODUCTION .....

1

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREAS

2

METHODS ......

4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6

PRESETTLEMENT RECORDS (1800s) .

6

SETTLEMENT PERIOD RECORDS (1900-

1929)

7

RECENT RECORDS ....

. 8

CURRENT MONTANA MOUNTAIN PLOVER

DISTRIBUTION

. 11

CHANGES IN DISTRIBUTION

. 14

AREAS SURVEYED WITHOUT PLOVER OBSERVATIONS

. 14

MOUNTAIN PLOVER NUMBERS

. 15

RELATIVE TREND IN NUMBERS

. 16

MOUNTAIN PLOVER REPRODUCTION .

. 19

HABITAT USE ....

. 23

RELATIONSHIP TO GRAZING .

. 26

ACTIVITY .....

. 28

CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS.

. 29

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....

. 32

LITERATURE CITED ....

. 33

LIST OF TABLES

13

Table 1 List of naturalists reporting observations
of mountain plovers during the 1800s and early 1900s.

Table 2 List of general areas in Montana where
mountain plovers were recorded during the 1990s. .

Table 3 List of areas surveyed for mountain plovers
during the 1990s with negative survey results. . • is>

Table 4 Number of mountain plovers observed in
Montana from 1991-97 by study area and study areas
combined. Total birds observed includes birds not
classified to age.

Table 5 Summary of adult mountain plovers observed
at 7 0 station sites along a mountain plover survey
transect in the Northeastern Montana study area. . - i- /

Table 6. Summary of adult mountain plovers observed
at 9 0 station sites along a mountain plover survey
transect in the Central Montana study area.

Table 7 Maximum number of adult mountain plovers
observed at specific locations at the Southwestern
Montana study area.

18

20

Table 8 Frequency of mountain plover broods based
on number of chicks in a brood for the Northeastern
(NE), Central (CENT.), and Southwestern (SW^) study
areas and all observations in all areas combined (COMB.)
for 1991 through 1997.

Table 9 Habitats used by mountain plovers at the
Northeastern (N=l4l) , Central (N=230) , and Southwestern
(N=70) Montana study areas from 1991-97. Figures are
percent of observations . - -

Table 10. Estimated average vegetative height at sites
used bv mountain plovers at the Northeastern (N=141),
Central {N^230) , and Southwestern {N=70) Montana study
areas from 1991-97. Figures are percent of observations .

Table 11 Vegetative characteristics of sites used by
mountain plovers for the Northeastern (NE) (N=17)
Central' (CENT) (N=12) , and Southwestern (SW) (N=8)
Montana study areas from 1994-1996. Heights are m
centimeters.

11

i

Table 12 . Topographic situations used by mountain plovers
at the Northeastern (N=14l) , Central (N=23 0) , and
Southwestern (N=65) Montana study areas from 1991-97.
Figures are percent of observations. . . . . .26

Table 13 . Percent slope used by mountain plovers at the
Northeastern (N=141) , Central (N=230) , and Southwestern
(N=70) Montana study areas from 1991-97. Figures are
percent of observations. . . . . . .26

Table 14 . Percent of observations of mountain plovers
at the Northeastern (N=141) , Central {N=23 0) , and
Southwestern (N=7 0) Montana study areas occurring in
prairie dog colonies and obvious Richardson's ground
squirrel colonies from 1991-97. . . . . . .28

Table 15. Activities recorded for 431 observations of

mountain plovers for all Montana study areas combined

from 1991-97. ......... 29

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure l. Map of the northeastern Montana study area
showing the location of permanent census station sites.
These station locations reflect the observed mountain
plover distribution from 1991-1997. . . . .33

Figure 2 . Map of the central Montana study area showing
the location of permanent census station sites. These
station locations reflect the observed mountain plover
distribution from 1991-1997. . . . . . .34

Figure 3 . Map of the southwestern Montana study area

showing the location of sites used by mountain plovers

and permanent census station sites. . . . .35

Figure 4 . Map of Montana showing the areas surveyed
by early naturalists and locations of mountain plover
sightings. . . . . . . • • .36

Figure 5 . Map of Montana showing the known current
distribution of mountain plovers. . . . .38

Figure 6. Distribution of 48 0 mountain plover
observations by hour (MDT) . . . . . . .39

iii

ABSTRACT

we reviewed the historic and recent literature to determine
the relative abundance and distribution of mountaxn plovers
(Charadrius montanus) in Montana during presettlement ,
settlement, and recent periods. Notes recorded by naturalists
during the presettlement and settlement period indicated that the
mountain plover was widely distributed on prairie grasslands east
of the Continental Divide in Montana. Three early naturalists
associated mountain plovers with black-tailed prairie dog
colonies. The relative abundance of plovers was variously
reported as rare, not at all common, found at infrequent
intervals, regular summer resident, common and abundant Two
naturalists placed mountain plovers m a short list ot Dira
specSs characteristic of prSirie grasslands. The implications
are that mountain plovers were restricted to specific habitats
but where these habitats were common so were mountain plovers.
Overall, it appears that mountain plovers have decreased m
numbers and distribution in Montana during this century .
Agricultural conversion of prairie grasslands and prairie dog
eradication are likely the two major factors responsible for this
decline in breeding area.

we conducted surveys during late spring and early summer
from 1991-1997 to locate mountain plovers in Montana east of the
continental Divide. Mountain plovers were found m nine areas
and were documented to breed at seven of these sites fountain
plovers at three of these sites were surveyed annually to gather
data on relative population trends, productivity and habitat use.
These three sites were ranked as the second through fourth ma^or
mountain plover population centers in Montana. (Use of the word
population in this paper does not imply genetically distinct
grSups but instead refers to mountain plovers living within an
identifiable geographic region.) Montana's ma^or mountain plover
area in Phillips and Elaine Counties was not surveyed because of
previous and ongoing work by others in this area The 3 survey
arels were in Northlastern Montana near Glasgow (64 8 km-) (ranked
as 3rd population). Central Montana near Harlowton (2 555 km )
(ranked as 2nd population) , and a broad region m Southwestern
Montana around ?he Elkhorn, Bull, Highland, and Tobacco Root
Mountain Ranges (3,620 km^) (ranked as 4th population) .A total
of 441 observations of 1,075 mountain plovers was lecorded for
the three study areas during all seven years (2.44
bi?ds/oSservation) for all areas, and 3 9 observations 63 plovers
we?e recorded in other areas of Montana. Highest non- repeated
counts of adult, mountain plovers were 43, 118, and ^5 for the
Northeastern, Central, and Southwestern study jreas
respectively. Permanent census transects estab)lished in 1992 at
these 3 study areas indicated no consistent trend m relative
nu^ers from'^1992 through 1997 at the Northeastern and Central
Montana study areas and a possible downward trend the
southwestern Montana study area. Reproduction was documented at
7 of the 9 areas used by plovers with the first brood being
observed on 8 June and the last incubating adult observed on 18

IV

July. A total of 147 broods was observed and the average number
of chicks per brood was 1.84. Sixty-nine of the broods were
downy chicks and averaged 2.04 chicks per brood, 53 broods were
feathered chicks and averaged 1.73 chicks per brood, and 25
broods had fledged with an average of 1.48 chicks per brood.
Mountain plovers were closely associated with sites characterized
by slopes under 5%, vegetative height under 6 cm, and greater
than half the soil surface being bare ground or lichen. In the
Northeastern study area, mountain plovers generally used
bottomlands of broad, low gradient drainages. In the Central and
Southwestern study areas, mountain plovers were found on ridge
tops and alluvial fans extending from footslopes of mountain
ranges . Mountain plovers in the Northeastern study area were
associated with dwarf shrub communities {Atriplex gardneri and
Eriogonum flavim habitat types) while mountain plovers in the
Central and Southwestern study areas were generally associated
with the Stipa comata/Bouteloua gracilis habitat type. Use of
this latter habitat was restricted to sites intensively grazed by
sheep, cattle, and/or black- tailed prairie dogs {Cynomys
ludovicianus) .

V

INTRODUCTION

The mountain plover (Charadrius montanus) is the sole North
American member of the family Charadriidae which inhabits
grasslands on a year-long basis. During the breeding season, it
is found on heavily grazed short and mixed grass prairies of the
Great Plains from southern Alberta to New Mexico. Original
accounts of this bird indicate that it was common in at least
some portions of its range (Bent 1929) . Declines in mountain
plover numbers noted earlier in this century were attributed to
loss of habitat due to agricultural conversion of grasslands and
market hunting in wintering areas (Bent 1929) . The latter
problem has been eliminated but habitat continues to be lost .
Presently, the mountain plover is listed by the US Fish and
Wildlife Service (USFWS) as a candidate species for listing as
threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act
(Leachman 1997) .

In Northcentral Montana, the mountain plover is reported to
selectively use black-tailed prairie dog {Cynowys ludovicianus)
colonies for breeding, nesting, and feeding (Knowles et al . 1982,
Knowles and Knowles 1984, Olson 1985, Olson and Edge 1985, Olson-
Edge and Edge 1987) . Mountain plovers found in this region are
associated with prairie dog colonies found in northern Fergus and
Petroleum Counties northward into northern Phillips and Blaine
Counties. Although this is Montana's major mountain plover
population, they do occur in other regions of Montana and are not
necessarily associated with prairie dog colonies (Knowles 1985,
Skaar et al . 1985, Prellwitz 1993) . However, very little is
known about these other sites where plovers are found.

We conducted surveys for mountain plovers from 1991 through
1997 throughout Montana east of the Continental Divide (except
for Phillips County) to determine breeding areas and habitat
relationships. During the first survey year (FaunaWest 1991), we
concentrated our survey efforts in areas for which we had
historical accounts or recent reports of mountain plovers. Based
on information gathered during this initial survey effort,
permanent census routes were established in a Northeastern,
Central, and Southwestern Montana study areas in 1992 (Knowles
and Knowles 1993) . All or parts of these areas were surveyed for
mountain plovers again from 1993 through 1997 (Knowles and
Knowles 1994, FaunaWest 1995, Knowles and Knowles 1996, Knowles
and Knowles 19 9 7 and this report) . During each of these years,
we made an effort to examine previously unsurveyed areas for
mountain plovers. This effort even included surveys in potential
habitat in southwestern North Dakota, and northwestern South
Dakota. In addition to previously known breeding areas, this
expanded effort has documented breeding or probable breeding of
mountain plovers near Galata, Fairfield, Ingomar, Warren, and
Ekalaka, Montana. The purpose of these surveys was to: 1)
Determine mountain plover breeding distribution (exclusive of
Phillips County) , 2) Determine habitat use by mountain plovers,

1

and 3) Establish permanent census transects through each of the 3
study areas to monitor the relative trend in mountain plover
numbers. This report summarizes the results of the mountain
plover survey effort from 1991-1997.

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREAS

Mountain plover trend counts were conducted in three areas
of Montana (Figures 1-3) . These areas are designated the
Northeastern, Central, and Southwestern Montana study areas. The
Northeastern study area is located 24 km southwest of Glasgow
(Fig. 1) and comprises approximately 648 km^ . Land ownership in
this study area is almost entirely Federal and State and includes
the entire Little Beaver Creek drainage and portions of Brazil,
Sagehen, and Lone Tree Creeks, and Miller Coulee. This study
area has extensive bentonite deposits which have been previously
mined. The physiography of the area consists of valley bottoms
with deeply incised drainages cutting through fine alluvium,
gently sloping ridge sides with exposed Bearpaw Shale, and
narrow, relatively level ridge tops. Elevation of the study area
ranges from 682-804 m.

The valley bottoms in the Northeastern study area tend to be
broad (>0.8 km across) and relatively level (<l% slope). The
alluvium in the central portion (silty overflow sites) of the
valleys frequently occurs as large areas of light colored
hardpan. Vegetation on these sites is dominated by Nuttall ' s
saltbush {Atriplex gardneri) , plains prickly pear cactus (Opuntia
polycantha) , Nuttall ' s alkali-grass {Puccinella nuttalliana) and
blue grama (Bouteloua g-racilis) . We refer to these sites as the
ATGA habitat type, within these hardpan areas are hummocks of
soil dominated by blue grama. Riparian areas through these
bottoms are dominated by silver sagebrush {Artemisia cana) , and
western wheatgrass {Agropyron smithii) . Generally, there are
gentle rises on either side of the valley bottom dominated by
almost pure stands of yellow eriogonum {Eriogonvm flavim) and
Richardson's rubberweed {Hymenoxys richardsonii) . we refer to
these sites as the ERFL habitat type. Both the ATGA and ERFL
habitat types have an extremely low vegetative height profile
(<10 cm) and a high percentage of bare -ground.

The ridge sides in this area are dominated by creeping
juniper {Juniperus horizontal is) , elk sedge [Carex geyeri) ,
western wheatgrass, and prairie sandgrass [Calamovilfa
longifolia) (JUHO habitat type) . The vegetative height profile
is variable but generally ranges from 10-25 cm. There is a high
percentage of bare soil in areas not covered by creeping juniper.
Slopes on these sites generally range from 5-10%. Throughout the
study area, on both the low rises in the valley bottoms and lower
slopes of ridges, there are areas underlain with bentonite.
These areas are nearly devoid of vegetation with the exception of
lichens, prostrate knotweed {Polygonum avicular) and silverscale
saltbrush (Atriplex agentea) (BENT habitat type) .

2

The ridge tops in this study area are dominated by western
wheatgrass, blue grama, and a dwarf form of big sagebrush
(Artemisia tridentata) (BOGR habitat type) . Plains prickly pear
is also abundant on these sites . A shallovj layer of glacial till
covers the ridges and is characterized by frequent areas of rock
cobble and hardpan soils. The rock cobble is also found, to a
lesser extent, in the valley bottoms and on the ridge sides.
Nuttall ' s saltbush becomes locally abundant in some of these
hardpan sites. Overall, this study area has extremely
depauperate plant communities .

The Central study area is located along the southern benches
of the Little Belt, Big Sno^Ty , and Little Snowy Mountain Ranges
(Figure 2) and occupies an area of approximately 2,565 km^ . Land
ownership is almost entirely private vzith the normal compliment
of State lands (2 sections per township) . The only exception is
the eastern portion of the study area which includes some Federal
land (Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (USFWS) . The elevation within this stxidy area ranges
from 1, 098-1, 708 m.

The major habitat in this study area is the Stipa
comata/Bouteloua gracilis habitat t^-pe (STCO/BOGR) (Mueggler and
Stewart 1980) . It is dominated by needle -and- thread grass (Stipa
comata) , blue grama, threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia) , and June
grass [Koeleria cristata) . Fringed sagewort (Artejnisia frigida)
is a common sub- shrub in this habitat type, and common forbs
include fleabane {Erigeron spp . ) and tufted milkvetch {Astragalus
spatulatus) . The Agropyron spicatum/bovteloua gracilis habitat
type (AGSP/BOGR) occurs at higher elevations (1,676 m) and is
f loristically similar to the STCO/BOGR habitat type except for
the scattered occurrence of bluebunch wheatgrass {Agropyron
spicatjjim) . Vegetative height at heavily grazed sites in this
study area are generally less than 10 cm vorhile at ungrazed to
moderately grazed sites it ranges from 10-20 cm..

Topographical-ly, this study area consists of broad gravel
ridges or benches extending south from the Little Belt and Sno^^^^'
Mountain Ranges . This topographic situation extends from
Hawakers Creek on the west all the way to the eastern terminus
of' the Little Snowy Mountains, a distance of about 105 km. In
some areas, these ridges are poorly defined and appear to be more
like an alluvial fan."" Where ridges are well developed, they are
separated by broad valleys. Ridges, alluvial fans, and valleys
in this area are all inclined from 1-2%, sloping southward away
from the mounta.ins for a distance of 16-24 km. At the southern
margins of the ridges in Golden Valley and Musselshell Counties,
soils change from limestone gravels to heaw clays derived from
shales, and the topogrsiphy becomes more dissected by drainages.
Three black-tailed prairie dog colonies are located along this
transition zone. ApiDroximateiy 34% of this study area has been
disturbed by agriculture.

The Southwestern study area is distributed along the
southern portion of the Elkhorn l/lountains, either side of the
Bull Mountains, the west side of the Tobacco Root Mountains and

the east side of the Highland Mountains. ^^^''J^^^l^^^^^^
reqion comprising 3,627 km^ but less than 1% of the area is used
Sv mountain plovirs at a limited number of specific locations.
cLse^enSy mountain plovers within this study area are not
continuously distributed across the region

The grassland habitats in Southwestern study area are very
similar to the Central study area being dominated by the
STCO/BOGR habitat type. The topography consists °f gravel
hPnrhes ridqes and alluvial fans extending out from these large

i«a is 'much more complix and diverse Chan the Central stndy area
rq,To t-hP diverse qeoloqic history of this region.

?he maioSty of the land in the Southwestern study area is
privately SwnedL the lower elevational ranges. However there
are some BLM administered lands and State-owned lands m this
S?udv a?ea The dry and rocky nature of this region has limited
S!tSal converLon of grasslands habitats with |Pg™f
11% of the area being farmed. However, ^^^^ ^^^^f
habitat type in this region has been replaced with crested
wSeatgrass (Agropyron cristatun» pastures. Black-tailed P^airie
dogs may have beeii common in this study area at one time (Gates
-,a^-i\ hill- are now limited to a few small colonies.

Mountain plovers are found in 6 other areas of Montana and a
brief deScriptioSrol habitats follows. In Phillips, and Blame
counties mountain plovers are found P^^-^^^^iL^^P^rie dog^
colonies on glaciated plains. Generally, ^^SS\P^;^^':^^^°^j.,ne
^"Tnnnpc, occur in upland prairies dominated by blue grama, June
q?ass ISd SesLrS whiatgrLs. Mountain plovers using Froze- to-

Sy^frf atso^ra^rd^Si^?^^ ^^t^a?? sTa!tSrSfh hSbSft^^

sai?Lush^hab??at^Ind^of t\e wes^.side of ^he Pryo~t-ns
thev are associated with sites dominated by blue grama Sites
used g mSun?ain plovers in Teton and Toole Counties are
dominated by the STCO/BOGR habitat.

METHODS

surveys for mountain plovers -^^^Sf ^^^^^^f ^l^^^^o^^f
vear during the months of May, June and July (1997 2 ^°
T.^W^ the time pe-iod that mountain plovers are most likely to
be Observed JiMontana. However, the 1991 and ^^^^^f^-y^l^
extended into August. Potential -°--^J^\P^°y;^,^"^i^?^ir'
??Ss'^ann^Sk?nr-? ra^gf iS^ef aJfas^S" ^or^ ^fge^ation
tSat';as'?nti™y grazed% livestock and/or g-rie dogs^
potential mountain plover habitat was '^^f ^^^^^^^^^^^el
binoculars from the vehicle or by walking through the area.

4

the east side of the Highland Mountains. 7?^is is an extensive
reaion comprising 3,627 km^ but less than 1% of the area is used
b^moSnta!? plovlrs'at a limited nutr±)er of specific locatx^^
consequently mountain plovers withm this study area are not
rnntinuous"! V distributed across the region.

continuous-y^a^^^^ habitats in Southwestern study area are very
similar to the Central study area being dominated the
liS)loGR habitat type. The topography consists of S^J^^^
benches, ridges, and alluvial f^ns _ extending out from these 1^^^
mountain ranges (2,898-3,203 ^ f ^^^J^^^^^^ea ?4nS

in areas used by mountain plovers m ^^^^^^^J^.^^^J^^ this study
1 403-1 525 m. Overall, the topographic situation in tnissuuay
area is'much more complex , and diverse than the Cen^ study area

privately Sined'Lihe Lwer elevational --^-^ .^JJ^fl^^^^'if "
Ire some^BLM -^-.-^^^f ^^^^^ Suited

S^.Tut^a- ^0^1= iSl^^^o. Montana and a

Mountain plovers are found in 6 othei areas oi Elaine
brHef descriptions of habitats follows. In Phillips ana Biame
Cointies mSntain plovers are found P-^---^^,^%?|J^J^",,^°^

using a birdfoot sage ^Arceiii^i>-i-a Pryor Mountains

usSd S mSSntain plovers in Teton and Toole Counties are
dominated by the STCO/BOGR habitat.

METHODS

surveys for mountain plovers were 9^^?^^!!^ ^^^^J/jf
vear duSng the months of May, June and July (1997 2
T^w^ the time period that mountain plovers are mosc likely to
b" Sbs;rvel in Montana However, the 1991 and l^^G surveys

binoculars from the vehicle or by walking tnrough the aiea.

4

Mountain plover observations were recorded with respect to
number, age class, time of day, legal description, habitat,
vegetative height, topographic situation, slope, and activity.
We also noted if the observation occurred within a black-tailed
prairie dog or Richardson's ground squirrel {Spermophilus
richardsonii) colony, within 2 00 yards of a stockwater site, if
the area had been grazed, and if cattle, sheep or other ungulates
were present in the pasture. Mountain plovers were classified as
adults, downy chicks, feathered chicks, and immature. An
immature mountain plover was a fully feathered chick capable of
flying. Locational information of all mountain plover
observations are available upon request .

During 1994, 1995 and 1996, physical characteristics of the
vegetation at sites used by mountain plovers were measured on an
opportunistic basis. A 2x5 dm frame (Duabinmire 1959) was used
to measure canopy coverage of grasses, forbs, sub-shrubs, shrubs,
litter, and bare ground. The tallest plant in each plot frame
was measured and an estimate was made of the average vegetation
height within the plot frame. Ten plot frames, each separated by
3 m, were placed in a line across the area mountain plovers were
observed to use.

Permanent census stations were established along vehicle
routes in 1992 at the Northeastern (70 stations) and Central (90
stations) study areas, and at specific sites known to be used by
mountain plovers in the Southwestern study area (see Knowles and
Knowles 1993 and FaunaWest 1995 for detailed descriptions of each
station location) . Selection of census stations in the
Northeastern and Central study areas was based on potential
habitat and not necessarily where mountain plovers were
previously observed. The latitude and longitude of each station
were determined with a Global Positioning System unit for each
visit from 1994-1997. These uncorrected data were averaged and
are available from the authors upon request.

Mountain plovers were counted at the permanent census
stations from a parked vehicle (some of the census stations in
the Southwestern study area required that we walk to the site) .
A 10 minute scan of the surrounding area was made with binoculars
and a spotting scope. All mountain plovers observed in the
vicinity of an observation station were counted and recorded.
Due to irregularities in topography and vegetative height, the
radius of the survey area around an observation station varied
substantially among stations and between study areas. At the
Northeastern study area, slight undulations in topography
freauently resulted in many "blind spots" within a survey area
and 'at the Central study area, changes in land use ( e.g. farmed
vs. not farmed, grazed vs. not grazed) within a survey area were
common .

Historical records of mountain plovers in Montana were
determined by reviewing journal notes and publications of major
naturalists to work in Montana from 1850 through 1930. This time
span was divided into presettlement (prior to 1900) and
settlement (1900-1930) periods. Recorded mountain plover

5

observations between 1930 and 1989 were ^^^j-^^^^J^^f ^
records The breeding distribution of mountain plovers in
reouj-u-t. . zi . (1985 is based on old

Montana as reported by Skaar et ai . ^''^ . , -Matural

records and undocumented recent records (Jim Richel, Natural
SJitaqe Program, pers . commun.). This information has been
?ncorpo?a?ed^Lto documented plover distribution data m the
latest update of the Montana Bird Distribution.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

^llltVllTas. t.e mountain Plover wa. founa
throughout the shortgrass habitats °* """^ana east the

?r=L1lifer'S-Monttk

brel?he?Tmountain plover or an upland sandpiper (Bartram^a
f LrpSe^^fcir. o. the .ou^^^^

km southwest of Great ^alls. ^^^^ ^^^^^^ j^3_y i860

cooper (1869a, b) ^^^^^ JJJ^^';';^^ ..r)rairie dog villages on
reported mountain plovers to be ^ • ^P^Ji^^t as he continued

SI friruP^sto^^^^^^

August IS not an optimal PS^i°^^"^ plains between

c^npcifically noted one prairie dog colony on cne piax

thlsun and Dearborn Rivers as his last observation of prairie

i-^aiA) travelled the prairie grasslands between the

:S?^li^nriloSs^fafS^lr?^/JronftSriower Yellowstone .iver
in the vicinity of Glendive .

Grinnell (1876) reported this species not at all abundant in
the portion of Montana through which he traveled (Fort Carroll -
Yellowstone National Park) . He collected two females and two
downy young on the first of August near Haymakers Creek (Twodot
area) . (Our observations show that plovers are already migrating
out of this area by late July.) These were the only mountain
plovers which he observed. McChesney (1879) regarded the
mountain plover as abundant in the spring around Fort Custer
(Hardin, Montana) and Thorne (1895) considered the mountain
plover to be rare around Fort Keogh (Miles City) .

Coues (I874asib, 1878) noted mountain plovers during his
survey of the Montana -Canadian border during the summer of 1874.
He first encountered mountain plovers at the mouth of the Milk
River and observed them all the way to the Sweet Grass Hills at
which point they were no longer seen (he entered this area in
late summer when plovers are harder to find) . Within this area,
Coues considered them as a common species and stated that they
bred in considerable numbers (Coues 1878) . Coues (1874) stated
that "the bird nests anywhere on the dry prairie; but if it has
any preference, it is for the stretches of low loose grassy
ground where the prairie dogs settle, as distinguished from the
more arid and gravelly or stony prairie" . Specific collection
sites include the area around Frenchman River which had the
greatest number of plovers, the two forks of the Milk River, and
the crossing of the Milk River out of Canada.

Settlement Period Records (1900-1929)

Silloway (19 03) compiled a list of birds in Fergus County
(in 1903 this also included all or parts of Judith Basin,
Wheatland, Golden Valley, and Musselshell Counties) and
considered the mountain plover as a regular summer resident from
May through September (Table 1) . Watts and Eichhorn (I98i) noted
that four species of birds (mountain plover, burrowing owl
{Athene cunicularia) , long-billed curlew {Numenius americanus) ,
grasshopper sparrow {Airmodramus savannarum) ) associated with the
shortgrass prairie are much reduced in abundance from Silloway 's
description. They considered the mountain plover as uncommon
within the same area.

In the Terry area, Cameron (19 07) reported the mountain
plover as rare in Custer and Dawson Counties with two or three
pairs breeding annually on the prairie dog colonies in the
vicinity of Terry. Cameron reported observing eggs on 23 May and
hatched young on 15 June 1898. Mountain plovers were also noted
in the Great Falls and Sun River area by Cooke (1910) , near Big
Sandy (Bent 1929) , and the Three Forks area by Saunders (1911) .
Saunders (1911) noted that only a small portion of the valley
near Three Forks was under cultivation at the time and the
majority of the area was rolling grassland. Saunders considered
the mountain plover as a common grassland species in this area.
He also noted that the mountain plover was not found in the
Gallatin Valley and attributed extensive cultivation as a
possible explanation for its absence in this area. Four Montana

7

mountain plover specimens are at the University of Michigan
vertebrate museum. These specimens (3 males and 1 female - UM #s
51,386-51,389) were collected in from 4-14 May 1917 in Garfield
County near Jordan, Montana.

Table 1. List of naturalists reporting observations of mountain
plovers during the 1800s and early 1900s.

Naturalist

Area

Comments

Hayden, reported
by Coues 1874

near Big Timber
near Great Falls

collected specimens

Falls area

nl ovpT"s on Draiiris
dog colonies
otherwise rare

Coues 1874 & 1878

between the Milk R.
and Canadian border

common, usually
found on prairie dog
colonies, collected
specimens

Allen 1874

between the
Yellowstone and
Musselshell Rivers

infrequent, observed
every few days

Grinnell 1876

Two Dot /Haymakers
Creek

collected specimen
not abundant

McChesney 187 9

Fort Custer near
Ha Tci in

abundant in spring

Thorne 18 95

Fort Keogh

rare

Silloway 1903

Fergus County

regular summer
resident

Cameron 19 07

Terry

few breed on prairie
dog colonies

Cooke 1910

Sun River & Great
Falls

Saunders 1911

Three Forks

common in area

U. of Michigan
1917

Jordan

5 specimens

Bent 1929

Big Sandy

migration dates

Recent Records (1S3 0-1990)

The major mountain plover population (use of the word
population in this paper does not imply genetically distinct

8

?n ?SStps clunty, to 26% on the ^°|^^|n??aii£e Refuge within
iS/B3% ol t^^e Char^f t ZTtlo^^l°lle, by mountain plovers
'on'th??orfeI.nar?Sfan Riservation a^^ ^LSn-Sge ana

Se c^ Colonies used by P^°^^"/^led b? mountain plovers were

bii^n'^canL?L-t«^^^^^^

''^^^ SrSirplovers have ^K^ie^Sf letfol^eL

Phillips county P°P"lf ^°^/^e?iod Irota l'"""'"' dog
SStSs f5i;££k f ?.r^^^^ ^^STiSlogfst
colonies along the Mussexb ^g^igtown) - ^ , ,009

--M=n ;fov^e^s JsStlelvS IVXt ig, 1-3,
|?ferS °4r/llB:;^lfel^ft. 1..3 -^n sto^^et^. -^^^

?nsteaa are found over a W5 mr a«a^^^^ ^^^^.^^ "L^Engir a984)
Dlant coramunities. on suitaD±e ^^^^j^ Engie iJ-

Severs reported by Green 1582, plovers/mi m

SSinId fion, 16.4 Pl"^"^/'"^,, "fiose to where Coues £«f

This population is very <^l°^%/-° „iuc River and is
incountSil plovers f --^^f.^-Jlf ^opulafion described by hi-
probably a 'j— ,f„Sld^4° ;?un?a!n Pl°-f,,r,f ^epoSed

jll isll wallis and wershler (1981) rep ^^^^^^^
^SlSg — plovers at a few^spec^^^ «|StiSfr
^^^vS^wS^tSS^^^^^^^^^ S^Siia?fors'on:inL Ijers at

fiter^rnrt^iercons^^^^^^

observations (.i^ucvc

(1980) recorded observations of 10 mountain plovers near Val

"^-^'^Ha^Sfrf SeS. on the sout. side of t.e ^^^^
Mountains , "-^^^^-f f/?^,''L?ftioS'i"Mon?ana ' t^finf mountain
S-Srf -"e =4ld3 in pXovers to .e present on and^^^

ilTl dfsfancllf II £^ F-HFisSir^ ^^^^ '""^
1876 report of mountaxn plovers by Grxnneli. . Little

^continuls eastward along the -u^fj^/^^^f, f „*^,fi? ^?^ver'oi

SrlH^rJbouf 8 m??ls no?lh o£ Harlowton (the site is now a
Shea? fieidi ^?Sers reported seeing mountain Pl^^ers .n thxs

Sio^gis^^'a-d^^^SL^i^rs-S-^^^^^

program Knowles^l985K^^^^^^ a few mountain plovers were

?oS Sr?nr?Se ^^^^J^^^^^

Chicle and apparently .s the basr^or the breedxn^
SSier"f1loierl 'ohU^atiS"datls, and specific locations of

?hSl -?h'i"9^,-^-^o?^ricordSd tS Ssfri°a?ioS single
observations , Dood f |f ^^"g a prairie dog colony along
mountain plover on 15 ^^S^^^^^^^^^? sSme of these observations
^Sfrlsponrto'simrSdf by^cSleron (l.OV, during the

^^"^i:;era!^moSntain plovers have recorded over a 2o

TaSr^iS =ing £ f f ^the^^^^^^^^

=irdfrrn^ i^Seirn-M^^^^^^^^

(Pat McKinney pers . cotmaun.) In f ^^/^^^^ mountain plover
visited this site and observed ^^Jf ^eSsused annually

(Pat McKinney, pers. " ^^^^^^atlon of a mountain

for 10 years and this was the only °^^;^;:^^^°^„°_ listing the

plover. ^PP^^^-^^^.'^^'^^f ?r?at??onq 28 Mo^ntafn plovers
mountain plover as bj^^^^25^^^^^5^i^°?^Whlteha?l in the Whitetail
were also reported about = km north of wnit ^^^^^

valley just east of tne old Whitehall observed a

commun. Last Chance Audubon Chapter) Ewer first ^^.^
plover here in 1978 and he consistently observed pio

J. „ -lom i-r^ noqn whpn two nuvenile Diras weit; toCwu. '■ ^
site from 1987 to 1990 wnen ^^o ju grassy ridge extending

Saunders (1911)

10

Current Montana Mountain Plover Distribution

Surveys for mountain plovers during the 1990s show that
mountain plovers occur at a minimum of nine locations m Montana
(Ficmre 5, Table 2). Reproduction has been documented at all
sites except two. Montana's largest and most extensive breeding
population (or subpopulation) is associated wxth prairie dog
colonies in Blaine, Phillips, and northern Fergus and Petroleum
Counties. This population has been extensively studied and also
attracts the attention of casual observers.

Based on systematic surveys and incidental observations
(Prellwitz 1993, Rogers 1997, Jody Peters BLM biologist and Jerry
Kaiser BIA biologist, pers . commun, BLM files, Lewistown) mthis
area, mountain plovers occur immediately north of the Milk River
in prairie dog colonies near Harlem and Malta, southward through
Phillips and Blaine Counties on prairie dog colonies either side
of the Little Rocky Mountains, and south of the Missouri River on
a few prairie dog colonies in northern Fergus and Petroleum
Cou.nt 1 s s

The 'central. Northeastern, and Southwestern study areas
represent the second, third, and fourth largest mountain Plover
populations, respectively, in Montana. The documented area used
bv plovers was 648 km^ 2,565 km^ and 3,620 km^ for the
Northeastern, Central and Southwestern study areas, respectively.
However, mountain plovers in the Southwestern study area were
restricted to several very isolated sites while plovers m the
other two study areas were more evenly ^^f J^S^^^.^^J^^^^^^^^J.
landscape. One mountain plover was recorded ^°^^/hackf ord
(1997) in a fallow wheat field near Moccasin, Montana (north side
of the Little Belt Mountains) in July 1995. Presumably, this
Sird was part of the Central Montana population. Plovers m the
Northeastern, Central, and Southwestern Montana study areas
appeS? to be' documented during the presettlement and settlement
pI?iods by Coues (1978), Grinnell (1876) and Saunders (1911),

respectively^ ^^^^tain plovers have been observed at the other
five sites with known current use. In Teton County mountain
plovers are known to use only a single ^^^^^^^'^t.l^'^^L lill bv 8
km west of Fairfield. This ridge is ^PP^°^^^%^,f ^^^^^^^'^IstLg
km long that is intensively grazed by ^^eep. Up to three nesting
pairs of plovers have been observed on this ridge (Phil Harris,
sheep rancher, pers. commun.). A careful examination of this
SSqe in July i!96 did not produce any plover observations which
waf thi fSsJ year in many years that plovers were jot observed
here (Phil Harris, sheep rancher, pers. commun.). A second ridge
5n this area was formerly used by plovers until land ownership

Sanged and the site was graze . ^' f tSsoS^d ^by

Harris pers commun.). Similar isolated habitat (isolateacy
SarSuitu^e) ■ iS the vicinity of this occupied site was examined
?nMav 1994 and July 1996 but no plovers were observed. The
pLvers in tSs areS are apparently a remnant population of that
reported along the Sun River by Cooke (1910) , k^o^h r^r^

The Toole county site used by mountain plovers is based on

11

two observations in 1996 of a pair of mountain plovers with a
single brood of three chicks. The habitat used by these birds is
restricted to an intensively grazed (cattle) grassland site
occupied by Richardson's ground squirrels. Approximately 25 km^
of similar habitat occurs in this general area, and isolated
(isolated by agriculture) parcels of this habitat were found
about 16 km north of this site immediately south of the
Sweetgrass Hills. Observations in Toole County during 1997 did
not result in additional plover observations (Harriet Marble,
pers. commun.). Although Coues (1878) failed to find mountain
plovers near the Sweet Grass Hills, this could have been due to
the fact that he traveled through this area in the late summer
and early fall after plovers had migrated.

Up to six different adult mountain plovers have been
observed in northern Treasure County about 10 km directly south
of Ingomar. These plovers have been found at silty overflow
sites dominated by dwarf shrub plant communities along a 2 km
length of Froze- to-Death Creek. Plovers have been observed there
from 1994 through 1996 but none were found in this area in 1997.
This general area was surveyed by Allen during 1874 and was
reported to contain some mountain plovers .

Mountain plovers have been found from 1994 through 1997 at a
single site in Lone Tree Creek in Carter County in extreme
southeastern Montana about 3 0 km southwest of Ekalaka. No more
than 2 plovers have been observed at a time in this area. This
area is characterized by dwarf shrub communities occurring in
silty overflow sites and areas of bentonitic soils interspersed
with shrub/grassland habitat. This combination of habitats is
restricted to 2 0 km^ area, but similar habitat is found in other
drainages in the general area. These other areas were searched
in 1995, 1996, and 1997 but did not produce any additional plover
observations. There are no presettlement or settlement period
records of mountain plovers in this area. These sites are close
to suitable plover habitat found in Bowman County, North Dakota
and Butte County, South Dakota but the mountain plover is
considered the as extirpated in these 2 states (Fannes and
Stewart 1982, Houtcooper et al . 19 85, Leachman and Osmundson

Mountain plovers were found in an area on the west and soutn
sides of the Pryor Mountains during 1996 and 1997. Yellowstone
Valley Audubon Chapter members reported seeing plovers in the
vicinity of Gyp Spring (16 km east of Warren) in May 1996 and May
1997 (Bill Roney) . Another pair of plovers were observed in the
Gyp Spring area on 17 May 1997 by Terry McEneaney (wildlife
biologist, YNP, pers. commun.). Plovers observed in this area
were using dwarf shrub communities dominated by birdfoot sage.
Nuttall's saltbrush is also present in this area. We observed a
mountain plover on 23 June 1997 on the west side of the Pryor
mountains on a large flat dominated by blue grama. There are no
presettlement or settlement period records for mountain plovers
in this area. However, Knight (1902) showed mountain plovers
breeding south of this area in Wyoming and recent records show

12

mountain plovers still breeding here (Wyoming Game & Fish 1989) .

Table 2 . List of general areas in Montana where mountain plovers
were recorded during the 1990s.

Location

Habitat Association

Minimum Number

Phillips, Blaine, N.
Fergus, & N. Petroleum
Counties

Grasslands :
Prairie dog colonies &
some use of barren
areas with glacial till

in 18-53% of
the prairie dog

colonies
69% of acreage

occupied

Wheatland, Golden
Valley Musselshell
Counties

Grasslands :
Stockwater sites
grazed by sheep and
cattle Sc prairie
dog colonies

118 adults
counted in
1992

Valley County

Dwarf shrub communities
associated with silty
overflow sites &
bentonitic soils

3 9 adults
counted in
1996

Jefferson, Madison,
Broadwater Counties

Grasslands :
Prairie dog colonies &
Stockwater sites grazed
by cattle

35 adults
counted in
1992

Treasure County

Dwarf shrub communities
associated with silty
overflow sites

6 adults
counted in
1995

Carter County

Dwarf shrub communities
associated with silty
overflow sites &
bentonitic soils

2 adults
counted in
1995

Carbon County

Dwarf shrub communities
& blue grama flats

3 adults
counted in
1997

Teton County

Grasslands :
Ridge grazed by sheep

6 adult
birds reported
by a rancher

Toole County

Grasslands :
Grazed by cattle &
ground squirrels

2 adults
counted in
1996

13

Changes In Distribution

There are no current records for mountain plovers along the
Yellowstone and upper Missouri River, an area that they were
documented to occur in during the presettlement period. These
areas formerly contained abundant prairie dog colonies (Cooper
l869aScb, Stuart 1902) but they have been largely eradicated and
the area is intensively farmed.

There are a few recent and only one current record of
mountain plovers between the Yellowstone and Musselshell. The
plains between the Yellowstone and Musselshell Rivers were
surveyed by Allen (1874) and mountain plover were noted at
infrequent intervals .

Mountain plovers remain in the area south of the Little Belt
and Snowy Mountains where Grinnell (187 6) collected mountain
plovers in the 1870s. However, the slow conversion of this area
to agricultural crops appears have caused a decline in numbers
based on a description by Pettingill (1981) and a 1972 collection
site.

Mountain plovers and prairie dogs were considered common
north of the Milk River in Montana during an 1874 survey (Coues
1878) . The only recent and current documentation of plovers in
this area are plovers observed in a few prairie dog colonies near
Harlem and Malta. Prairie dogs were largely extirpated from this
area through eradication efforts earlier in the century.

There are no current records of mountain plovers near Big
Sandy (Bent 1929) Fort Benton (Cooper I869a&b) , and Great Falls
(Cooke 1910) . A few plovers remain on 1 ridge along the Sun
River (Cooke 1910) . A remnant population of mountain plovers
persists in southwestern Montana but there are no current records
in the Three Forks area where they were formerly considered
common (Saunders 1911) .

Areas Surveyed Without Plover Observations

In addition to the areas with documented mountain plover
populations, we have surveyed many other areas of Montana east of
the Continental Divide since 1991 during late spring and early
summer (Table 3) . These survey areas were selected because they
contained potential mountain plover habitat with specific sites
that appeared suitable for plover use, or we found presettlement
or settlement period records for these areas . Many of these
survey areas were searched during more than one year and they
produced negative results. Although we did not find plovers at
any of these sites, negative results are not conclusive evidence
that mountain plovers are not in these areas,- low density plovers
populations are not easily detected and may be over looked with a
single pass through an area. However, our surveys were of
suitable intensity to conclude that the areas do not support
large plover populations .

14

I

Table 3 . List of areas surveyed for mountain plovers during the
1990s with negative survey results.

Benches south of the Highland Mountains
Benches north of the Ruby Mountains

Upper Beaverhead River Valley south of Clark Canyon Dam

Plains either side of the lower Madison River

Upper Yellowstone River (Paradise Valley)

Yellowstone River Valley Columbus to Livingston

Benches associated with the Beartooth Mountains from Bridger

Creek to Redlodge Creek
South of Hardin in the vicinity of old Fort Custer
Prairie dog colonies north and south of the Yellowstone River

near Terry (Custer Creek and the lower Powder River)
Prairie dog colonies on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation
Thompson Creek west of Alzada, Willow Creek northwest of Alzada

and Cottonwood Creek north of Alzada
Little Missouri River bottomlands in Bowman County, ND and the

Little Beaver Creek area southeast of Baker
Big Porcupine Creek north of Vananda
Prairie dog colonies northwest of Glasgow

Prairie dog colonies southwest of the Northeastern Montana study
area

The area north of Chinook

Either side of the Milk River northwest of Havre

South side of Sweetgrass Hills west to the Kevin Rim

Rocky Mountain front from Augusta to Dupuyer

Ulm Pishkun west to the Rocky Mountain Front

North of the Belt Mountains from Raynesford to Judith Gap

Prairie dog colonies south of Big Sandy

East side of the Elkhorn Mountains from Radersburg to Winston
West side of the Bull Mountains from Cardwell to Boulder

Mountain Plover Numbers

A total of 480 observations of 1,13 8 mountain plovers (2.37
birds/observation) was recorded during all years for all survey
areas (Table 4) . Adults accounted for 845 of these birds and 270
birds were classified as chicks or immatures (23 birds were not
seen well enough to distinguish between adult or immature) . Over
9 0% of these observations were made within the 3 major study
areas. The Central study area accounted for approximately half
of the mountain plover observations and about 6 0% of the birds
observed. Average group size for the Northeastern, Central, and
Southwestern study areas was 1.70, 2.93, and 2.2 9 mountain
plovers per observation, respectively.

Although our study was not designed to provide a population
estimate for each major study area (Northeastern, Central, and
Southwestern) , we feel that our survey efforts have been thorough
enough so that the maximum number of adult plovers observed in
each study area is a comparative index of number of birds in each

15

area. In each of these study areas, we have conducted systematic
surveys to delineate the mountain plover distributional range,
and our surveys sample most the area within the known occupied

range. . , . ,

In the Northeastern study area, our highest non- repeated
count was obtained in 1996 and we could be certain of 43
different adult birds. For the Central study area, our highest
non-repeated count came in 1992 and we could be certain of 118
birds, and in the Southwestern study area, we could be certain of
at least 35 different adult birds in this area during 1992.
These figures represent the minimum number of birds occurring m
each study area and are not population estimates.

Table 4. Number of mountain plovers observed in Montana from
1991-97 by study area and study areas combined. Total birds

Study Area

Total
Obs .

Total
Birds

Adult
Birds

Juvenile
Birds

Northeastern

141

240

181

55

Central

230

675

463

193

Southwestern

70

160

144

16

Blaine Co.

18

27

26

1

Phillips Co.

5

6

2

4

Treasure Co.

9

18

17

1

Toole Co.

1

3

1

2

Big Horn Co.

1

1

1

0

Carter Co .

3

4

4

0

Combined

480

1138

845

270

Relative Trend in Numbers

Relative numbers of adult mountain plovers recorded at
census stations at the Northeastern study area showed no
consistent trend from 1992 to 1997. During this period, 17 to 35
adult mountain plovers were recorded along the permanent survey
^oute at 11 to 21 stations (Table 5) . The count during 1995 was
incomplete due to rain. Five stations were not visited and 2 of
these stations usually produced plover observations. The highest
count came in 1996 when 35 plovers were observed at 21 stations
(Table 5) . The census route was run twice m 1992 to help
establish a suitable survey period. The second survey m late
July 1992 resulted in fewer birds being observed and appeared too

16

late in the year to obtain good results. During 5 survey years
at this study area, mountain plovers were observed at 56% (39) of
the stations .

Table 5. Summary of adult mountain plovers observed at 7 0
station sites along a mountain plover survey transect in the
Northeastern Montana study area. ==„=

YEAR 1

DATE

# ADULT PLOVERS

# Stations

1992

5-8 June

17

12

1992

19-22 July

9

4

1994

22-24 June

20

13

1995

25-27 June

19

11*

1996

2 9 June -
1 July

35

21

1997

6-8 July

27

13

* 5 stations not visited due to ram

A similar lack of a consistent trend was obtained along the
census route at the Central study area (Table 6) . We observed
103 adult plovers at 34 observation stations while setting up the
permanent census route in June 1992. A second survey of the
route approximately one month later in mid- July 1992, resulted m
observations of only 52 adult plovers at 21 stations. This
decline in plovers was similar to the seasonal change observed m
the Northeastern study area. The next complete survey of the
route came in June 1994 when we observed only 19 adult birds at
11 stations. Persistent windy weather during the June 1994
survey of the Central study area route may have influenced the_
purvey results . The Central study area route was surveyed again
in July 1994 and we recorded 53 adult plovers at 14 stations.
Numbers of birds observed during the 1995 survey declined
slightly and appeared to be related to the agricultural
conversion of 3 observation stations normally used by plovers.
However, the second highest count for this route came m July
1996 when 79 adult birds were seen at 22 stations. The count was
much lower in 1997 but two of the three survey days had frequent
showers and thunderstorms which may have influenced mountain
plover observability. During the 5 survey years, mountain
plovers were observed at 69% (62) of the stations.

17

Table 5. Sunmiary of adult mountain plovers observed at 90
station sites along a mountain plover survey transect in the
Central Montana study area.

YEAR

DATE

# ADULT PLOVERS

# Stations

19S2

22-25 June

lOi

1992

14-18 July

52

21

1994

11-14 June

19

11

1994

7-9 July

53

14

1995

18-2 0 July

39

11

1996

11-13 July

79

22

1997

8-10 July

40

10

Changes in relative numbers of mountain plovers at specific
sites in the Southwestern study area could be interpreted as
decline in plovers across this region {Table 7) . While numbers
of mountain plovers counted at sites occupied by prairie dogs
remained relatively constant from 1992 through 1997, mountain
plovers observed at grassland sites grazed by cattle appeared to
be in decline. For example, the vicinity of the old Whitehall
Cemetery was previously identified as a site used by mountain
plovers (David Ewers, Last Chance Audubon Chapter, pers .
commun.). Although this site appears to be intensively grazed
each year during winter and spring, we have yet to observe a
mountain plover in this area since 1991 despite intensive
surveys. We have not been able to find mountain plovers on the
Fish Creek Bench since 1994, and 1992 was the only year we found
plovers on the Elkhorn Bench (plovers were observed here in the
early 197 0s) . Grazing intensity at these two sites as well as
the Goodrich Gulch alluvial fan varies greatly between years and
may influence mountain plover use of these sites .

The monitoring of mountain plover numbers at specific sites
along permanent census routes has shown that mountain plover
numbers can vary substantially within and between years . These
variations may or may not be reflective of actual changes in
mountain plover numbers. Survey results may be influenced by
weather conditions, time of the year, annual grass growth, and
random effects. Surveys in the Central study area have shown
that strong wind (>3 0 km/h) and precipitation can reduce plover
counts. During windy weather, some birds have been observed to
crouch on the leeward side of small shrubs or bunches of grass.
However, we have observed plovers to remain active in moderate
snow and rain showers . Mountain plover observability may also be
influenced by the time of the year surveys are conducted. _ Birds
incubating eggs are probably less observable than birds with

18

broods or birds engaged with courtship displays . Mountain
plovers do show some periodicity in their daily activity patterns
and the time of day that surveys are conducted may also influence
survey results (see Fig. 8) . The 1992 survey results suggested
that mountain plover surveys should be conducted prior to mid-
July. We have observed fledged young and adults to leave the
Central study area as early as 14 July. We have also found that
in years of abundant precipitation, needle -and- thread grass
produces profuse, tall seed heads that reduce the effective
scanning area. In addition, the effective scanning radius in
areas intensively grazed by livestock is greater than areas only
moderately grazed.

Monitoring of census stations from 1992 through 1997 showed
mountain plovers were both consistent in their use of some areas
and opportunistic in their use of other areas. When established,
the census stations at the Northeastern and Central study areas
included many potential sites with no known use by plovers.
Some of these potential sites were used by mountain plovers in
subsequent years and some were never used during the entire
survey period. Some stations produced mountain plover
observations each survey year, and a few stations produced
mountain plover observations only in 1992 but not in subsequent
years . Yearly variation in mountain plover distribution at both
the Northeastern and Central study areas appeared to be related
in part to a changing distribution of livestock grazing.

Mountain Plover Reproduction

Reproduction was documented at the 3 major study areas and
at 4 of the 6 other areas with known populations . Circumstantial
evidences suggests that mountain plovers are probably also
breeding at the Carter and Carbon Counties sites that currently
lack hard data for breeding. Mountain plovers have been observed
in most years in Lone Tree Creek (Carter County) since 1994
during the period they normally would breed. Similar
observations have been made adjacent to the Pryor Mountains
(Carbon County) during 1996 and 1997. Although no young were
seen, the behavior of a single adult plover on the west side of
the Pryor Mountains was typical of an adult with a newly hatched
brood.

The first mountain plover brood was observed on 8 June and
the last observation of an incubating adult was on 18 July.
Observations of incubating adults in mid-July would suggest that
at least some plovers renest if nest is destroyed. This nesting
chronology is about one month later than described for Colorado
by Graul (1975) . We examined 5 nests with incubating adults
during the surveys and each contained 3 eggs which is consistent
with other recent observations of plover nests in Montana (Sally
Olson-Edge, and Steve Densmore pers . commun.) and reported in the
literature (Graul 1975) . The available data suggests that
mountain plover egg production in Montana is within the normal
range. Iko et al . (1997) found no significant contaminants or

19

trace minerals in mountain plover and Knopf ^ (1992) reported no
significant contaminants in eggs collected in Colorado and
Montana .

Table 7. Maximum number of adult mountain plovers observed at
specific locations at the Southwestern Montana study area.

Census Area

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

Willow
Springs
Prairie Dog
Colony

10

9

4

8

8

6

Elkhom
Bench

2

0

0

0

0

0

Upper
Whitetail
valley
Prairie Dog
Colony

2

8

6

4

3

4

Lower
Whitetail
Valley
Prairie Dog
Colony

3

NO
Sur .

2

NO
Sur .

2

No
Sur .

Whitehall
Cemetery

0

0

0

0

0

0

Fish Creek
Bench

9

2

0

0

0

0

Goodrich
Gulch

Alluvial Fan

7

No
Sur.

3

3

0

0

A total of 147 broods (27 0 chicks) was observed in all areas
during all years with an average brood size of 1.84 (Table 8) .
These data compare favorably with data collected by others m
Montana. Knowles et al . (1982) collected data on mountain plover
use on prairie dog colonies on the Charles M. Russell National
Wildlife Refuge from 1978 to 1980 and 19 broods were recorded
with an average of 1.74 chicks per brood. We also reviewed data
collected by Green (1982, 1983), Green and Engle (1984),
Prellwitz 1993, and ELM files from 1978 to 1987 in the
Northeastern study area and observations of 8 0 broods resulted m
an average brood size of 1.61. The available data would suggest
that average mountain plover brood size in Montana has changed
little during a 20 year period.

A total of 69 downy broods was observed with the average

20

brood size of 2.04. Fifty-three broods were classified as
feathered and averaged 1.73 chicks per brood. For immature
birds, 25 broods were observed and they averaged 1.48 chicks per
brood. Only 19% of the downy broods contained 3 chicks and by
the time chicks had developed feathers only 11% of the broods
contained 3 chicks . Over half of the broods with downy chicks
contained 2 chicks while only about a third of the broods with
feathered chicks contained 2 birds. Single chick broods were the
most frequently observed for chicks classified as feathered (49%)
and immatures (71%) . These data indicate that as a minimum
approximately 3 0% of the chicks are lost shortly after hatching
(or not all eggs hatch) , and that another 25% of the chicks are
lost prior to fledging. This analysis does not account for nest
destroyed prior to hatching or broods where all the chicks are
lost. Others have reported a similar loss of chicks after
hatching. Graul (1975) reported most chick mortality occurred
within 3 days after hatching. McCaffery et al . (1984) reported
an average brood size for 1-5 day-old chicks (downy chicks) of
2.1 and noted that the average brood size declined with an
increase in age.

It appears to be common for mountain plovers to lose at
least one chick shortly after hatching. An example of this was
observed in July 1992 at the Central study area. A newly hatched
brood of 3 chicks accompanied by an adult plover was obseirved on
15 July, and early the next morning at the same site, only one
chick was with the adult. As a matter of chance, a second chick
was located about 150 yards from the adult as a result of hearing
repeated distress calls from the chick. This situation was
watched for about 0.5 hours and it was apparent that the chick
was not capable of finding the adult and that the adult was not
looking for the chick. The third chick was not observed during
this period. The cause of the apparent loss of one chick and the
abandonment of a second chick was not determined, but predation
is a likely explanation.

Most of the mountain plover brood data was collected from
the Northeastern and Central study areas where the average brood
size was 1.96 and 1.82, respectively. Average brood size is a
measure of chick survival and it appears to be within the normal
range for these two areas . Number of chicks per adult plovers
observed during July of each survey year was 0.37 and 0.51, for
the Northeastern and Central study areas respectively. A flash
flood occurred on 6 July 1997 at the Northeastern study area and
most of the low lying areas used by plovers had 5-15 cm of water
flowing over the ground. No chicks were observed during the 1997
survey period and if the 1997 data is dropped from the analysis
the number of chicks to adult birds would be 0.44. (The
Northeastern study area was subjected to flash floods in June
1991 ahd no plovers observed in this study area when first
examined during July 1991.)

The number of chicks to adult plovers is both a measure the
number of broods produced and chick survival, while the average
brood size is a measure of chick survival. Since no consistent

21

trend in mountain plover numbers was noted at the permanent
census stations established at the Northeastern and Central study-
areas, it is concluded that an average brood size of 1.82-1.96
and a ratio of chicks to adults of 0.37-0.51, is probably
adequate to maintain mountain plover populations at these sites.

The average brood size in the Southwestern study area was
only 1.33 and the number of chicks observed per adult during July
was 0.18. Both figures are considerably lower than for the other
two study areas. Our monitoring of permanent census stations in
the Southwestern study area indicate that there may be a downward
trend in plovers using this area. It is concluded that an
observed average brood size of 1.33 chicks and a ratio of 0.18
chicks to adult is probably not adequate to maintain a
population.

Observations of mountain plovers during the month of July is
the period with the greatest probability of finding chicks with
adults. Data gathered during July from 1991 to 1997 resulted a
ratio of 0.44 chicks (all age classes) to i adult.

Table 8 . Frequency of mountain plover broods based on number of
chicks in a brood for the Northeastern (NE) , Central (CENT.), and
Southwestern (SW.) study areas and all observations in all areas
combined (COMB.) for 1991 through 1997.

Study

Downy
Brood

Chicks
Size

Feathered
Brood

Chks
Size

Immature s
Brood Size

Area

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

NE.

4

6

6

0

0

1

1

1

0

5

1

1

1

CENT.

12

24

8

1

2

22

15

5

3

10

3

3

0

SW.

1

3

0

0

0

2

2

0

0

1

1

0

0

COMB.

18

35

13

1

2

26

18

6

3

17

5

2

1

Adult plovers will forage together and there is mixing of
broods as indicated by broods with more than 3 chicks (seven
observations) or with broods of obviously different ages (4 cases
of downy chicks and feathered chicks together, 1 case of downy
chicks with immatures together, and 4 cases of feathered chicks
with immatures together) . Overall, about 13% of the brood
observations represented situations where more than one brood was
present .

Although we did not observe any cases of predation on adult
or juvenile mountain plovers, predation must have been a
significant factor affecting juvenile survival. We did notice
that mountain plovers in close proximity to long-billed curlews
at the Central study area, appeared to respond to curlew alarm
calls, when avian predators were present (primarily northern

22

harriers (Circus cyaneus) ) . Common ravens {Corvus corax) were
attracted to the Goodrich Gulch alluvial fan by the Twin Bridges
landfill, and they were observed to frequent stock water sites
use by mountain plovers. Coyotes {Canis latrans) and red foxes
{Vulpes vulpes) were two mammalian predators observed in areas
used by mountain plovers. Since there is strong evidence that
chicks are lost throughout their growth period, it is difficult
to compare productivity rates among study areas or among years
because data were not collected simultaneously at all study areas
within a year or at the exact same time period among years .

Habitat Use

Habitat use by mountain plovers was consistent among years
within a study area but varied among study areas depending on
habitat availability (Table 9) . within each study area, one or
two habitats were clearly sought out and selectively used. In
the Northeastern study area, mountain plovers selected the
Nuttall's saltbrush and yellow eriogonum habitats. These two
types accounted for 90% of the observations which is far greater
than their availability (not determined but estimated to cover
25-3 3% of the landscape) . Soils with bentonite in them were
common in the Northeastern study area but were only occasionally
used by plovers possibly because these sites contained irregular
topography .

In the Central study area, the STCO/BOGR habitat was the
most widely available and most frequently used habitat . Within
this habitat, mountain plovers clearly selected areas of
intensive livestock grazing (discussed later in this report) .
Vegetation at ungrazed sites was generally too high for mountain
plovers to use. Agricultural areas accounted for approximately
34% of the landscape and were the second major habitat in this
study area. However, only 1% of the plover observations occurred
on this type. Further evidence of the avoidance of agricultural
land by plovers came when 3 grassland sites used by plovers were
converted to wheat production in late 1994. Mountain plovers
have not been observed at these sites since that year. Recorded
use of agricultural sites has-been limited to fallow wheat fields
located adjacent to grassland sites. In each case, birds were
observed to fly between grasslands and agricultural lands.

In the Southwestern study area, all observations of mountain
plovers were in the STCO/BOGR habitat. This was the dominant
habitat in topographic situations suitable for mountain plovers.
Within this habitat, mountain plovers were selecting for prairie
dog colonies and intensively grazed sites. Approximately a
quarter of the Southwestern study area has been converted to
agricultural production and no mountain plovers have been
observed in a agricultural fields.

Eight percent of our observations (18) in the Central study
area have included birds on gravel roads. Over half (11) of
these observations were adult birds with broods and most of these
groups contained downy chicks traveling on the road bed. Vehicle
impacts may be a significant mortality factor for young broods

23

traveling on gravel roads . The average number of chicks observed
in these 11 broods traveling on gravel roads was 1.36. We also
have observations of adult mountain plovers on gravel roads
feeding on grasshoppers killed by vehicles.

Most mountain plover observations at all three study areas
were at sites with estimated vegetative height less than 10 cm
(Table 10) . Availability of these sites in the Central and
Southwestern study areas was extremely limited, while in the
Northeastern study area short vegetation was more common.
However, mountain plovers in the Northeastern study area were
observed with a higher frequency in vegetation over 10 cm in
height than the other two study areas. Generally, these sites
with taller vegetation had widely spaced big sagebrush, or
bunches of Nuttall's alkali-grass with considerable bare ground.
In such situations, plovers seemed tolerant of the taller
vegetation when bare ground was abundant.

Table 9 . Habitats used by mountain plovers at the Northeastern
(N=l4l) , Central (N=230) , and Southwestern (N^lO) Montana study
areas from 1991-97. Figures are percent of observations.

Habitat

Northeastern

Central

Southwestern

STCO/BOGR

0

96

100

AGSP/BOGR

0

1

0

AGSM

4

2

0

BOGR

<1

0

0

ATGA

56

0

0

ERFL

31

0

0

Bentonite

8

0

0

Agricultural

0

1

0

We measured vegetative characteristics at sites used by
mountain plovers during 1994-1996 and the results are very
similar to information recorded during general observations
(Table 11) . The average vegetative height at sites used by
mountain plovers was under 6 cm and over 50% of the ground
surface was bare soil and lichens. Sites used by plovers with
the shortest vegetation, least amount of vegetative cover, and
greatest amount of bare ground were found at the Northeastern
study area. The Central study area had the highest amount of
grass cover at sites used by plovers. The abundance of sub-shrub
cover in the Southwestern study area was due to fringed sagewort
in prairie dog colonies where 5 of the 6 transect were located.

Use of topography at the three study areas has been

24

r

I

consistent within a study area among years but varies greatly
among study areas . These differences are related to the
physiography of each study area. At the Central and Southwestern
study areas, mountain plovers were primarily found on ridge tops
or alluvial fans extending from the mountains (Table 12) . At the
Central study area, mountain plovers were also observed in the
valley bottoms of the larger drainages where they had been
heavily grazed by cattle and sheep during winter and spring.
Nearly all observations of mountain plovers in these 2 study
areas were on slopes of 0-5% (Table 13) . Examination of
topographic maps showed that the overall slope of sites used by
mountain plovers was generally less than 2%. In the Central
study area, we found plovers on ridges ranging in elevation from
1,124 m to 1,708 m. The elevational range of mountain plover
observations at the Southwestern study area was 1,403-1,525 m.

Table 10. Estimated average vegetative height at sites used by
mountain plovers at the Northeastern (N=141) , Central (N=230) ,
and Southwestern (N=70) Montana study areas from 1991-97.

Vegetative
Height

Northeastern

Central

Southwestern

< 5 cm

12

27

14

5-10 cm

71

63

80

11-15 cm

16

10

6

16-2 0 cm

1

0

0

Table 11. Vegetative characteristics of sites used by mountain
plovers for the Northeastern (NE) (N=17) , Central (CENT) (N=12) ,
and Southwestern (SW) (N=8) Montana study areas from 1994-1996.

Study
Area

Ave .
Max.
veg.
Height

Ave .
Veg.
Height

Ave . %

Grass

Cover

Ave . %

Forb

Cover

Ave . %
Sub-
Shrub
Cover

Ave . %
Lichen
Cover

Ave . %
ground

NE

8 . 5

3 . 8

4 . 8

4 . 0

12 . 6

4 . 4

85 . 0

CENT

14 . 6

5.3

48 .6

4 . 5

13 .6

14 . 8

36 . 0

SW

12 . 7

5.4

25 . 2

3 . 7

20.8

3 .5

49 .9

25

Table 12 . Topographic situations used by mountain plovers at the
Northeastern (N=141) , Central (N=23 0) , and Southwestern (N=65)
Montana study areas from 1991-97. Figures are percent of
observations .

Topographic
Situation

Northeastern

Central

Southwestern

Ridge top

9

63

60

Ridge side

3

0

0

Alluvial fan

0

26

29

Valley bottom

89

11

11

Table 13 . Percent slope used by mountain plovers at the
Northeastern (N=141) , Central (N=230) , and Southwestern (N=70)
Montana study areas from 1991-97. Figures are percent of
observations .

% Slope

Northeastern

Central

Southwestern

< 5

98

99

96

5-10

2

1

4

Relationship to Grazing

Mountain plovers showed a preference for areas which had
been grazed. Overall, 65% of the mountain plover observations
were at sites which showed obvious signs of recent livestock
grazing. Livestock did not have to be present for a grazed site
to be used by mountain plovers. Only 39% of the mountain plover
observations had livestock present in a pasture at the time of
the observation. Past grazing (primarily during winter and
spring) seemed to create conditions sought out by mountain
plovers . Sheep were found in pastures used by mountain plovers
in 10% of the observations and cattle were found at sites used by
mountain plovers in 26% of the observations. However, sheep were
found only in the Central study area while cattle occurred in all
areas. The majority (83%) of the mountain plover observations in
the Central study area were at sites grazed by livestock. At the
Northeastern and Southwestern study areas, 49 and 35%,
respectively, of the observations were at sites grazed by
livestock.

Mountain plovers were also observed in pastures used by
bison (8) horses (4) and llamas (l) . It appeared that intensity
of grazing was more important at attracting mountain plovers to
an area than species of ungulate grazing the site. We did

26

observe mountain plovers to forage within cattle and sheep herds
and to feed on flies attracted to fresh cattle fecal matter.

Frequently (33%) , mountain plovers were found in association
with livestock watering sites . Usually such sites were at wells
where water was pumped using either wind or electricity. Most of
the mountain plover observations at livestock watering sites were
in the Central study area (94 of 157 observations) . In this
study area in 1992, we walked 16 km of transects between
windmills known to be used by mountain plovers and observed no
mountain plovers in the lightly grazed land between the water
sources . Many of the winter and spring pastures used by mountain
plovers in this study area did not have obvious water sources .
These pastures generally had a barn or shed and tended to be
uniformly grazed short. We also had 4 observations of mountain
plovers in the Central study area using fence corners which had
been heavily grazed by cattle. Three of these observations were
at a fence corner used by mountain plovers in 1991, 1992, and
1994.

Initially, 1 of our best areas to observe mountain plovers
in the Central study area was on approximately 5 km^ of
intensively grazed (cattle and horses) winter/spring pasture on
the Lewis Ranch. In 1992, 18 adult plovers were observed here.
Ranch management changed in 1993 and intensive winter/spring
grazing stopped. Mountain plovers observed at this site declined
each year and by 1997 no plovers were observed here.

The importance of grazing by prairie dogs was illustrated by
the near abandonment of a large (40 0 ha) prairie dog colony on
the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation. During our 1983 survey of
this colony for black-footed ferrets {Mustela nigripes) , we
recorded 17 mountain plovers here. This colony was surveyed
again in June 1996 and no mountain plovers were found at this
site. In 1996, prairie dogs occurred as scattered small groups
in this colony and the reduction was apparently the result of
recreational shooting, but sylvatic plague cannot be entirely
ruled out in this decline.

During the 1992 surveys we made note if mountain plovers
occurred in the vicinity of old homestead sites, and 32% of the
observations in the Central study area were within 2 00 m of an
old homestead. Usually water was available at these sites and
livestock loafed around the old buildings and corrals. However,
livestock and mountain plovers could be found at homestead sites
without flowing water. Much of the land used by mountain plovers
around the old homesteads had been previously farmed 7 0 to 8 0
years ago. The entire Central study area had been heavily
homesteaded in the early 19 0 0s and a sign at one old homestead on
the Central study area stated that the township once had 130
homesteads . Mountain plovers were also observed near the only
old homestead sites at the Northeastern and Southwestern study
areas (1 each) .

Although black- tailed prairie dogs were not common at any of
the major study areas (3 colonies each in the Central and
Southwestern study areas - representing about 0.1% of each area),

27

18% of our observations in these study areas occurred on prairie
dog colonies (Table 14) . Mountain plovers were recorded at all 3
of the prairie dog colonies in the Southwestern study area and
over half of all observations of plovers in this study area were
in these colonies . Mountain plovers were documented at 2 of the
3 colonies in the Central study area. The third colony, although
it appeared to be situated in a topographically unfavorable site
for plovers, apparently had previous use by mountain plovers
based on observations by local ranchers knowledgeable of mountain
plovers (Janet Lewis, pars, commun.).

Richardson's ground squirrels were common in the Central
study area and were frequently found in well established colonies
at intensively grazed sites. Obvious Richardson's ground
squirrel colonies were present at 26% of the sites where mountain
plovers were observed at in the Central study area. At present,
we have no indication that ground squirrels create vegetative
conditions selected for by mountain plovers, but rather it is
probably a situation where mountain plovers and ground squirrels
are each selecting for similar habitat.

Richardson's ground squirrels were also present in the
Northeastern and Southwestern study areas. However, their
distribution at these 2 study areas was highly scattered and no
well-established colonies were found. Richardson's ground
squirrels were abundant at the Toole County mountain plover
observation site and they occurred at the Teton County site as
well . The Southwestern study area also had Columbian ground
squirrels {Spermophilus columbianus) present in some areas but
usually the sites occupied by this species were not suitable for
mountain plovers .

Table 14 . Percent of observations of mountain plovers at the
Northeastern (N=141) , Central (N=230) , and Southwestern (N=70)
Montana study areas occurring in prairie dog colonies and obvious

Northeastern

Central

Southwestern

Prairie dogs

0

6

63

Ground
squirrels

0

26

1

Activity

A plot of all mountain plover observations by hour shows
that mountain plovers were observed throughout the day (Figure
6) . The frequency of observations appears bimodal with
observations peaking during mid-morning and late afternoon. This
bimodal distribution may be exaggerated because we did not always
start and end our surveys exactly at sunrise or sunset, and we
frequently took a break from surveys at mid-day. However, we did

28

see examples of plovers resting and using shade provided by small
shrubs or bunch grasses during hot afternoons. Presumably
plovers would be harder to spot when inactive.

The most frequently observed activity for mountain plovers
was feeding (Table 15) . All other activities were relatively
minor. Most of the displays we recorded were distraction
displays of adult birds with young chicks disturbed by our
approach.

Table 15. Activities recorded for 431 observations of mountain
plovers for all Montana study areas combined from 1991-97.

Accivi uy

iS U J- UU oti 1. V ct U X vJilt>

Feeding

54

Flying

7

Traveling

7

Displays

10

Standing

4

Resting

7

Calling

5

Preening

2

Incubating eggs

2

Brooding young

<1

CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS

Across its range in Montana, the mountain plover displays
adaptability to a great variation in use of habitat types and
topographic situations. The mountain plover is capable of using
grassland and dwarf shrub habitats, and is found from mountain
benches, to rolling upland prairie, to desert-like silty overflow
sites. Annual precipitation at sites used by the nine mountain
plover populations ranges from about 25-35 cm (Ross and Hunter
1976) . The unifying feature among sites used by mountain plovers
is extremely short vegetation (<10 cm), a high percentage of bare
soil and lichens (>50%) , and extensive (0.5-1 km diameter) areas
of nearly level terrain. In addition, persistence of mountain
plover populations requires that multiple suitable sites be
widely ' spaced over approximately 25 km- area as a minimum.
During their daily activity, mountain plovers may utilize
seemingly atypical habitat but overall their activity and
breeding success is dependent upon habitats meeting the above

29

criteria .

In Montana, black-tailed prairie dogs within appropriate
topographic situations (broad ridges or valleys) can provide
mountain plovers with suitable habitat conditions (Knowles et al
1982, Knowles and Knowles 1984, and this study) . There should be
no surprise that Montana's major mountain plover population
corresponds to Montana's major prairie dog complex in Phillips
and Blaine Counties. In this area, 18-53% of the prairie dog
colonies are suitable mountain plover habitat (Knowles and
Knowles 1984) . However, surveys around Montana have
demonstrated that prairie dog colonies located within narrow
valleys or on narrow ridges are not used by plovers and that
small isolated colonies in appropriate topographic situations are
generally not used. During the 1991 surveys only 1 of 60 prairie
dog colonies examined resulted in mountain plover observations .

Our surveys have demonstrated that intensive grazing by
sheep, cattle, horses, bison, and llamas in appropriate habitat
and topographic situations can also provide suitable sites for
mountain plovers. Our observations at the three major study
areas have repeatedly shown that without livestock grazing
mountain plovers will abandoned a site over several years . We
have also observed on l occasion that a grassland site burned
during the fall was used by plovers during the following spring
and summer.

Removal of the previous growing season's plant litter
appears to be an important prerequisite for plover use of a site.
Winter and spring grazing by cattle and sheep appear to
accomplish this better than summer grazing. However, year-long
occupancy by prairie dogs in combination with domestic ungulate
grazing provides mountain plovers with the litter free, low
growing vegetation that they require for successful nesting and
brood rearing. In rare situations, naturally low producing
habitats may be suitable for mountain plover use with only
moderate ungulate grazing. The Nuttall's saltbrush and yellow
eriogomum habitats in the Little Beaver Creek drainage in Valley
County, the Nuttall's saltbrush habitat in Treasure and Carter
Counties, and the birdfoot sage habitat in Carbon County south of
the Pryor Mountains are examples of this.

During the past 7 years, we have systematically surveyed
most areas of Montana where there were either historic or recent
reports of mountain plovers . At a minimum, Montana has at least
nine distinct areas that mountain plovers still use. Significant
numbers of plovers occur in Phillips and Blaine Counties, the
Central study area, and Northeastern study area. Mountain
plovers occur in lesser numbers in the Southwestern Montana study
area, and Treasure, Teton, Toole, Carbon, and Carter Counties.
Breeding has been documented in all areas except for the latter
two sites. Other small isolated breeding populations may occur
in Montana, but it is doubtful that a another significant
breeding population exists in Montana. It is apparent that Graul
and Webster (1976) vastly over estimated mountain plover numbers
(88,400 birds in Montana and Wyoming) and distribution in Montana.

30

Presettlement and settlement period notes indicate that
mountain plovers were widespread in Montana east of the
Continental Divide, and in at least some areas it was considered
a common bird characteristic of grassland habitats (Coues 1878,
McChesney 1879, Silloway 1903, Saunders 1911). Although none of
the early naturalists attempted to quantify mountain plover
abundance, the general impression is that mountain plovers have
declined in abundance during this century (Watts and Eichhorn
1981) . Specific areas that we failed to find mountain plovers in
during the 199 0s but were documented to have plovers during the
1800s early 1900s included the vicinity of Terry, Hardin, Fort
Benton, Big Timber, Jordan, Three Forks, Ulm, Big Sandy, and
Wildhorse. Some sites presently used by mountain plovers were
not identified by early naturalists apparently because they did
visit these areas. Interestingly, there are no historical
records for mountain plovers in Phillips and Blaine Counties
between the Missouri and Milk Rivers; the region that now
contains Montana's major plover population.

It is difficult to understand how mountain plover
populations persist at isolated sites with low breeding numbers.
This situation has been reported by others (Dabbs and Ellison
1997) . The ridge west of Fairfield apparently has supported less
than 6 plover pairs in relative isolation since agricultural
conversion of the surrounding area occurred during the 192 0s and
1930s. It is possible that our survey effort only finds a small
portion of the breeding population and that many other birds are
present in the area. Another explanation for population
persistence is that plovers arriving in Montana during the spring
cover large areas searching for suitable nesting habitat, and
that mountain plovers in Montana represent a single large
breeding population. Whatever the case, conservation of these
small plover groups is probably very important to maintaining
plovers in Montana over the long term.

During our surveys, we have looked at many fallow wheat
fields for mountain plovers and have only a few observations of
plovers in wheat fields. Moreover, these birds were known to use
adjacent grasslands. Knowles and Knowles (1984), reported a
single observation of mountain plovers using a fallow wheatfield.
Shackford (1997) reported one observation of a plover in a fallow
field near Moccasin, Montana during a systematic survey
agricultural fields across the Great Plains in 1995. We have
subsequently surveyed this site and not found mountain plovers.
Montana contains about 6 million hectares of dryland agriculture
(Stringer and Lund 1997) and this conversion of grasslands to
agricultural crops has not benefited mountain plovers. Most of
the areas cited above that mountain plovers formerly inhabited
but are now no longer found at, are intensively farmed.

Frequently habitat fragmentation and habitat degradation can
contribute to extinction of local plant and animal populations,
and they are considered the two most important causes of
contemporary extinctions (Groombridge 1992) . Loss and
fragmentation of habitat reduces population sizes and increases

31

the probability of extinction by demographic and environmental
stochasticity . It is generally accepted that loss of habitat has
greater negative population consequences than simply fragmenting
the habitat (Fahrig 1997) . These two processes reduce population
size and reduce the exchange of individuals among nearby
populations. The decrease in population size and increase in
isolation results in a higher probability of extinction by random
demographic and environmental events. Species such as the
mountain plover with high mobility and dispersal potential may be
at lower risk of local extinction than many other species and may
account for the presence of populations seeming too small to
maintain population viability. However, there can be little
question that there has been a substantial loss of suitable
mountain plover habitat in Montana during this century, and that
many of the Montana mountain plover sites are now separated by
long distances . Habitat loss has resulted from agricultural
conversion of grasslands, prairie dog eradication and sylvatic
plague in prairie dogs .

Our surveys have shown that it is possible to manage for
mountain plovers. However, management for plovers probably only
has significance where mountain plover populations already exist.
During our surveys, we have found apparently suitable sites
without plovers, but the sites are too far removed from existing
populations to be used. The following is a list of management
practices which would favor reproductive success of mountain
plovers: 1) Encourage the growth or maintenance of black-tailed
prairie dog colonies, 2) Encourage the intensive grazing of
cattle, sheep or other large ungulates, especially during winter
and spring, in areas with large expanses of nearly level terrain,
and 3) Prescribed burning during fall, winter or early spring in
areas with large expanses of nearly level terrain. Conversely,
prairie dog eradication, carefully regulated summer grazing of
cattle, and agricultural conversion of rangelands all appear to
be detrimental to mountain plover conservation.

Prescribed burning in the Pawnee and Comanche National
Grasslands appears to be a successful tool to providing suitable
breeding habitat for mountain plovers (Ball 1997, Kaczmareck
1997) . Restoration of prairie dogs to abandoned colonies
formerly used by mountain plovers is currently being evaluated in
Montana (Dullum and Durbian 1997, Knowles and Weggenman 1998) .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Funding for this study was provided by the Bureau of Land
Management (ELM) , and Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and
Parks (FWP) . We wish to thank Dan Hinckley (BLM) , David Waller
(BLM) , 'Kristi DuBois, Arnold Dood, and Heidi Youmans (FWP) and
for their roles in organizing the study and obtaining funds
during the past seven years . Members of Montana Audubon Chapters
have also assisted in locating mountain plovers. FaunaWest has
conducted this research as a Challenge Cost Share project.

32

Mountain Plover Survey Sites- Valley County

Census Sites

Cities
ivers

Highways
Counties

Lambert Conformal Conic
State Plane Coordinate System
NAD 1983

Figure 1. Map of the northeastern Montana study area showing the location of permanent census station sites. These station locations
reflect the obsei-\'ed mountain plover distribution from 1991-1997.

Central Montana Mountain Plover Census Sites

Ji.

Jucfith Basin

^^^^

30

31

33 35

40

3934 36 m

^''^ /!337

51.

53

67,

70

4748. K &4 79 *
59 58

A

Census Sites
Roads

County Boundaries

N

w^ga^ E

1:675000

State Plane- 1983

Figure 2. Map of the central Montana study area showing the location of pennanent census station sites. These station locations reflect
the observed mountain plover distribution from 1991-1997.

k)uthwestem Montana Mountain Plover Observations

T Rover Observations
—Roads

- — County Boundaries

N

s

1:750000

State Rane- 1983

Figure 3
station sites

. Map of the southwestern Montana study area showing the location of sites used by mountain plovers and permanent census

Figure 4. Map of Montana shov^ing the areas surveyed by early naturalists and locations of mountain plover sightings.

Toole Co
Site

Phillips & Blaine
Counties

-J

Carbon Co.
Sites

Carter
Site

Figure 5. Map of Montana show-ing the known current distribution of mountain plovers.

50

# Obs.

00

40

30

20

10

0

I

1

I

ll

I

I

6 7

8

\

1 ^

■

P
i

I

I

I
I

P
P

P il

P

I

p

1

I

I
I

■

I
I

I

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Time

Figure 6. Distribution of 480 mountain plover observations by hour (MDT).

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40

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43