|S DOCUMENTS AND NARRATIVES
CONCERN \JG THE
DISCOVERY AND O)'U'Y £> OF LATIN ^/i^Ii^CA
CO
PUBLISHED BY
THE CORTES SOCIETY
NEW YORK
DOCUMENTS AND NARRATIVES
CONCERNING THE
DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF LATIN AMERICA
PUBLISHED BY
THE CORTES SOCIETY
NEW YORK
NUMBER FIVE VOLUME II
MAP OF BRAZIL FROM THE ESCORIAL MS.
The Histories of Brazil
By PERO de MAGALHAES
now translated into English for the first time and annotated by
JOHN B. STETSON, JR.
with
a facsimile of the Portuguese original 1576
The Cortes Society
NEW YORK 1922
Edition limited to 2JO copies of which ten are on Japan paper
r^" '""'**
This copy is Number .......T....
Contents of Volume II
THE TRANSLATION OF THE HISTORIA
PAGE
LICENSES TO PRINT 10
THE POEMS OF CAMOES 11
LETTER OF DEDICATION 16
PROLOGUE 18
CHAPTER I. How THE PROVINCE WAS DIS- COVERED, AND THE REASON FOR CALLING IT SANCTA CRUZ AND NOT BRAZIL 20
CHAPTER II. IN WHICH THE LOCATION AND QUALITIES OF THE PROVINCE ARE DES- CRIBED 25
CHAPTER III. OF THE CAPTAINCIES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE PROVINCE 31
CHAPTER IV. OF THE GOVERNMENT OF
\\
THE INHABITANTS OF THE CAPTAINCIES AND
OF THEIR MODE OF LIVING 40
CHAPTER V. ABOUT THE PLANTS, FOOD- STUFFS AND FRUITS IN THE PROVINCE 43
CHAPTER VI. ABOUT THE ANIMALS AND
POISONOUS REPTILES OF THE PROVINCE. . 53
PAGE
CHAPTER VII. ABOUT THE BIRDS OF THE PROVINCE 65
CHAPTER VIII. ABOUT SOME OF THE NOTE- WORTHY FISH, WHALES AND AMBERGRIS OF THOSE PARTS 72
CHAPTER IX. ABOUT A MARINE MONSTER ' THAT WAS KILLED IN THE CAPTAINCY OF SAO VICENTE IN THE YEAR 1564 79
CHAPTER X. ABOUT THE NATIVES OF THE PROVINCE: THEIR CONDITION AND CUSTOMS, AND HOW THEY ARE GOVERNED IN PEACE. . 83
CHAPTER XI. ABOUT THE WARS THEY HAVE
WITH ONE ANOTHER AND THE MANNER IN WHICH THEY ARE WAGED 93
CHAPTER XII. ABOUT THE DEATH THEY METE OUT TO THEIR CAPTIVES AND THE CRUELTIES THEY PRACTISE UPON THEM . . . 102
CHAPTER XIII. OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED THERE BY THE FATHERS OF THE COMPANY IN SPREADING THEIR DOCTRINE 113
CHAPTER XIV. ABOUT THE GREAT RICHES WHICH THEY EXPECT IN THE REGION OF THE Sertao. . . 117
THE TRANSLATION OF THE T RAT ADO
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 125
DEDICATION 127
PROLOGUE 129
FIRST PART.
CHAPTER I. THE CAPTAINCY OF TAMARACA 131
CHAPTER II. THE CAPTAINCY OF PERNAM- BUCO 132
CHAPTER III. THE CAPTAINCY OF BAHIA DE TODOS LOS SANTOS 134
CHAPTER IV. THE CAPTAINCY OF ILHEOS.. 137 CHAPTER V. OF A RACE OF ABORIGINES
WHICH IS FOUND IN THIS CAPTAINCY 139
CHAPTER VI. THE CAPTAINCY OF PORTO SEGURO 142
CHAPTER VII. THE CAPTAINCY OF SPIRITO SANCTO 143
CHAPTER VIII. THE CAPTAINCY OF Rio DE JANEIRO 145
CHAPTER IX. THE CAPTAINCY OF SAN VICENTE . 147
SECOND PART.
PAGE
CHAPTER I. THE RANCHES 149
CHAPTER II. THE CUSTOMS OF THE COUNTRY 152 CHAPTER III. THE QUALITY OF THE SOIL . . 154
CHAPTER IV. THE FOOD-STUFFS OF THE COUNTRY 158
CHAPTER V. THE GAME OF THE COUNTRY . 160
CHAPTER VI. OF THE FRUITS OF THE COUNTRY 162
CHAPTER VII. ON THE CONDITION AND CUS- TOMS OF THE INDIANS OF THE COUNTRY. . . 165
CHAPTER VIII. THE WILD BEASTS OF THE
COUNTRY 176
CHAPTER IX. OF THE COUNTRY CERTAIN MEN OF THE CAPTAINCY OF PORTO SEGURO WENT TO DISCOVER AND WHAT THEY FOUND IN IT 180
NOTES TO VOLUME II 189
SOME BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REMARKS 237
GENERAL INDEX 255
'History of the Province *— ' of Santa Cruz
which we commonly c
dMagalba.es ck Ciandavo, aeaicateato the, •ff _. •?
offllalaca anaother regions ofSouthernjndia.
Approbation
I have read the present work of Pero de Magal- haes, at the order of the gentlemen of the Council General of the Inquisition, and it does not contain anything contrary to our Holy Catholic Faith, nor to good morals; on the contrary, many things well worth reading. Today, the loth of November, 15/5.
Francisco de Gouvea
In accordance with the above certificate, the book may be printed and the original shall be returned with one of the printed copies to this council, and this de- cision shall be printed at the beginning of the book together with the above certificate. At Evora the loth of November. By order of Manuel Antunez, Secretary of the Council General of the Holy Office of the Inquisition in the year 157$.
Lido Anriquez Manuel de Coadros
To the most honourable Lord
DOM LIONIS PEREIRA, verses in the tercet
form upon the book which Pero deMagalhaes
offered him in dedication, by
Luis de Camocs.
When finished lay the tale, telling the story Where in brief compass raises he to fame The land of Sancta Cruz, lacking in glory,
In thought Magalhdes pondered for a name
Whose patronage would shine, wreck thereby
choosing For carping critics who might dare declaim.
Thus searching far and late, ivorn with his musing, Sweet sleep o'ercame him, lulling him to rest, E'er fiery Sol could rise, daylight diffusing.
And to his dreams appeared, for battle dressed, The mighty Mars, furious lance aligning, Whose flashings blanch the cheek by dread oppressed.
His deep voice spoke, rough as some threat designing. "Unjust it is this warrior's tale you plan Whence fame your brows may seek, laurel confining,
Should' st other dedication have than can
Throughout the whole wide world win all those prizes
12 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
Given for deeds in arms by admiring man."
Scarce the words uttered, when Apollo rises (He who the flaming chariot guides each day) From the opposing side and thus advises,
"Magalhaes, Mars through terrors would you sway And drive you to his will, chilled by his thunders. Through me alone will wisdom you display.
A learned man, so great Thalia's wonders Are trusted to him, and my science true, Can be thy sole defense, free from all blunders.
'Tis just for learning Prudence this should do,
Because crass art of arms, coarse with its lewdness, Can ne'er the road of eloquence pursue."
Thus spake the Shining-One, soft'ning the rudeness Of the Warrior-God through soothing tone Swept from his harp by art invoked with shrewdness.
But Mercury, the Messenger, alone
Composer of doubts, the Caduceus-Bearer, The symbol of that power all must own,
Decides to reconcile these claims lest error May enemies make of the heavenly two, By reasons loved of both, and hence the fairer.
He spake, "How many deathless heroes true, Both of the Golden Age and of this living, Were symbols of Bellona's stress in thew;
And yet whose skill in arms equalled in giving Allegiance unto eloquence. For all The Muses surely bless men in war striving.
Nor Alexander, nor did Caesar fall
From quests of intellect in battle-smother, While oft do armies march to learning's call.
A book within one hand — steel in the other! The first to rule and teach, the second strike;
or SANTA CRUZ 13
Far more is won by craft than force her brother! And since 'tis so, ye seek a hero, like
To one Apollo loves, gifted in letters,
Yet skilled through Mars in use of sword and pike. Such can I name you, one whose strength enfetters
Knowledge and valour bound in single breast.
'Tis Dom Lionis, peer among our betters. For infant promise seen, the Muses blest,
Those sisters nine, him in their bosoms bedded,
Put their immortal milk at his behest, And thus to him desires Olympic wedded,
Through arts and science nurtured to be great
And grasp that moral strength which they inbredded. Next in the exercise of arms did Fate
Cast his heroic part, under the morning
Stars of the far east, on red war to wait. Therein ripe chivalry, noblest adorning,
The like true Christians seek, all pure and stern,
Did he display to men, less than this scorning. Time rolled. As valiant captain him discern
Ruling the Golden Chersonese? where ever
He holds the feeble walls at each new turn, When the infant settlement faced the clever
Assault of Achean forces which long
To feed on other's blood. 'Gainst that endeavour, O Mars, did he, your chosen, prove so strong,
Battle so bravely, punish them so throughly,
A routed remnant homeward gladly throng. Then left he the new kingdom, guarded duly:
Yet his successes his return compel.
And so, again, to rule choose they him newly; A governour whose strength they know full well.
He was so kindly just, friends are recalling;
14 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
I
So swift to bring defeat his foes retell.
So love and hatred wait, he both inthralling, — Aflame with hope are love's imaginings, While hate broods silent on a threat appalling
Which the returning hero with him brings — The doom of banishment, creeping the nearer, From Indie's seas to endless wanderings!
And can there be a case justice makes clearer? The favour and the help high heaven can give On him will be outpoured, held daily dearer.
This truth is certain, clear. O Gods who live Forever, choose this hero, ^vho can rightly True patronage for Magalhaes contrive."
Thus Mercury each case to each bound tightly; And thus Apollo and red Mars agreed; And thus the dream was ended appositely.
0 famous ruler, from that vision freed,
Comes Magalhaes to lay this tale before you, Where brain and brawn unite in deathless deed.
True genius here can cast its glamour o'er you, Rare information give and justify Benign reception as he would implore you.
Since if you patronage to him deny
Bright intellect will fall to depths the blacker, May you to him the same defense supply As held the walls of elsewise lost Malacca.
OF SANTA CRUZ 15
Sonnet to Dom Lionis, on the victory he obtained over the King of Achem2 in Malacca, by Luis de Camoes
Ye nymphs of the Gangetic jungles, praise Whom crimson-robed Aurora, with her light, Defended from the sons of ebon night,
A hero worthy of your sweetest lays.
The daring sons of Golden Chersonese Fell, dusky horde, erupted for the fight To oust from their dear chosen nest a might
More favoured than by Fortune's fickle ways.
When lo! a lion bold, unknown to fear, He with his scanty band of warriors turned
Their strength to weakness and to death's impasse. Thus sing, 0 Nymphs, with voices sweet and clear, How brave Lionis in Malacca earned
Such praise as Greece ne'er gave Leonidas!
16 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
LETTER OF PERO DE MAGALHAES TO THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS DOM LIONIS PEREIRA
By this small tribute which I offer you, Illustrious Sir, from the first fruits of my feeble knowledge, you will recognize to some extent the desire I have to testify, within the limits of my power, to at least a small part of what is due the renowned fame of your heroic name. And this, not only because of the dis- tinction of the most noble blood and famous stock from which you take your origin, but as well because of the merits of the trophies of the great victories and very fortunate experiences which have been your lot in those parts of the Orient, where God deigned to favour you with so generous a hand, that I fear my entire life will not suffice to voice the smallest portion of your praises. As all these reasons do so impel me, and as I conceive no other thing to be so acceptable to persons of high minds as the reading of books, by means of which they reach the secrets of all sciences, and mortals see their names made famous and per- petuated on earth in undying fame, I have determined to choose you, Sir, among all gentlemen of the world, to whom to dedicate this short history. I hope you will take pleasure in perusing it with attention, and in tak- ing it benignly under your protection; because it is new and because I wrote it as an eye-witness; because I know what particular affection you have for things of the spirit; and because I am certain that the exer-
or SANTA CRUZ 17
cise of learning will be no less acceptable to you than
the exercise of arms. Hence I feel certain that I shall
be able to publish in all security this little undertaking,
and to spread it throughout the world without any
apprehensions, having as a sponsor you, Honoured Sir,
whose person may God preserve, and whose
life and estate may He increase
through long and happy
years.
18 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
PROLOGUE TO THE READER.
The principal reason which impelled me to write the present history and to print it was that no one, up to the present, has undertaken it, although seventy odd years have already passed since the discovery of that Province. Its history, I believe, was buried in such silence, more because the Portuguese attached little importance to that Province than because there was a lack of gifted and inquiring persons there who could have written it in better style and more fully than I. However, since foreigners hold it in higher esteem and know its peculiarities more thoroughly than we (the Portuguese have many times already driven the foreigners out of it by force of arms)* it seems a fitting and necessary thing that our own people should have the same information, especially so that all those who live in poverty in these Kingdoms might have no hesitancy in choosing it for their own support; for the land itself is so favourable to all who seek it, that it will give shelter and relief to all, no matter how poor or destitute they may be. In this country there are also things worthy of great admiration and so notable that it would seem carelessness and want of inquisitive- ness on our part, should we not mention them in some narrative, and so perpetuate them, as was the custom among the ancients who let no event escape from being fully put down in history, and who did not even neglect mentioning things of far less importance than those -which we find here [in Brazil], things that still live
OF SANTA CRUZ 19
among us, and will live forever. And if the ancient Portuguese, as well as the moderns, had cared more for writing, many of our antiquities which are lack- ing today would not have been lost, nor would there be such profound ignorance of numerous things in the investigation of which many scholars have worn themselves out, and have searched through a great number of volumes without succeeding in uncovering or reconstructing such facts as they actually happened. Hence it was that the Greeks and Romans considered all other nations barbarians; and in truth they were justified in so naming them, for they were so little solicitous and ambitious of glory, that by their own negligence they allowed many deeds to perish which, had they commemorated them, would have made them immortal. Thus, since writing is the very life of memory, and
to which we should all aspire, as far as we are entitled ^to^it, I, moved by _such reasons, decided- to write this short history, for the adornment of which I shall not seek exquisite epithets or beautiful language which eloquent orators are wont to use, in order to enhance ) their work with the artifice of words. I shall attempt to write only according to truth, in a clear and easy , style, as my feeble intelligence will dictate, with a de- > sire to please all who seek information. For this rea- v son, may I be pardoned the failings which will be noticed. I speak to the discreet readers who are dis- posed to forgive with genuine solicitude; from fools and the malicious I well know that I shall not escape, as it is certain that they will spare no one.
20 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
CHAPTER I.
How THE PROVINCE WAS DISCOVERED, AND THE
REASON FOR CALLING IT SANCTA
CRUZ AND NOT BRAZIL
In the reign of that very Catholic and Serene Prince, King Dom MANUEL,4 a fleet was pre- pared for India, of which Pedralvarez Cabral5 went as commander-in-chief (capitam mor), this being the second expedition undertaken by the Portuguese to that part of the Orient. The fleet sailed from the city of Lisbon the ninth of March of the year 1500.6 After they arrived among the Cape Verde Islands (for here they planned to get fresh water), a storm broke out, which prevented taking on water and separated some of the vessels of the fleet. When fair weather came again the fleet was reunited, and proceeded to the high seas, to avoid the Guinea calms7 which might hinder their voyage, and to be able easily to double the Cape of Good Hope.8 They travelled a month in this circuitous course with favourable winds, when they came upon the coast of this Province; along which they sailed all of that day, it appearing to every one to be a large island, for
or SANTA CRUZ 21
they had no Pilot or other person who had any knowledge of it, or any one who presumed that there might be a continent in that part of the Occident. They anchored that afternoon in a place on the island which seemed to them most suitable, where they soon had sight of the natives on shore ; whose appearance caused them no little wonder, for they were different from the inhabi- tants of Guinea, and according to the general im- pression, different from any people they had ever seen. They being at anchor in the place I men- tion, such a storm arose that night that they were obliged to weigh anchor; and in a wind which quartered their course, they were forced to run along the coast until they came to an open harbour of deep water, which they entered, and to which they then gave the name, which it bears today, Porto Seguro, for it had given them shelter, and had safeguarded them from the dangers of the tempest they had experienced. The next day, Pedralvarez and most of the crew went ashore where high mass was celebrated and a sermon preached: and the Indians of the land, who were grouped about, listened very quietly to every- thing, imitating all the acts and ceremonies they saw us perform. Thus they knelt and beat their breasts, as though they had the light of Faith, or
22 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
as though in some way there had been revealed to them the great and ineffable mystery of the Most Holy Sacrament.9 By this action they showed clearly that they were disposed to receive Chris- tian Doctrine at any time it could be declared to them, inasmuch as they were people who were not impeded by a belief in idols, and who pro- fessed no other law which might conflict with ours, as will be seen later in the chapter dealing with their customs. Then Pedralvarez sent a ship10 with the news to the King, Dom Manuel, which news was received with much pleasure and satisfaction: and from that time on he began to send more ships to those regions;11 and so, little by little, the country was explored, and [ever] more was learned about it, until finally the country was entirely divided into Captaincies and settled in the way it is today. To come back to Pedralvarez, its discoverer. After spending some days there, taking on water and waiting for suitable weather before departing, he wished to give a name to the Province he had so recently discovered ; so he ordered a Cross to be raised on the highest branch of a tree, whither it was lifted with great solemnity, and many benedictions by the Priests whom he had brought in his company, and the name of Sancta Cruz was given to the
OF SANTA CRUZ 23
land^tfor^Holy Mother Church was celebrating the feast of the Holy Cross that very day (it being the third of May).12 This event is not lacking in mystery, for the Order and Knighthood of Christ in the Kingdom of Portugal wear as insignia a cross upon the breast; and so it pleased Him (Christ) that that land should be discovered on this holy day when such a name might be given ,itj because it [the land] was destined to be possessed by the Portuguese, and to remain an inherited property under the custody of the Grand Mastership of this very Order of Christ.13 Hence it does not seem reasonable that this name should be withdrawn from it, nor that we should forget it so universally for another which an ill-advised public gave it after the dye-wood began to be ex- ported to the Kingdom [of Portugal]. We call it brazil because the wood is red and resembles hoTTJSius,1* and thus the land got the name of Brazil. But in order that in this respect we may vex the Devil who has laboured so hard and is still labouring to efface the memory of the Holy Cross and to exile it from the hearts of men (the Cross by means of which we were redeemed and delivered from the power of his tyranny), let us restore the name and call it "Province of Sancta Cruz," as in the beginning. (That illustrious
24 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
and famous writer, Joao de Barros, in his First Decade, dealing with this discovery, shows that it was first so called).15 For in truth it is more estimable, and sounds better to our ears as Chris- tian folk, to hear the name of the rood upon which the mystery of our Redemption took place, than of the tree which serves for no other uses than the dyeing of cloth, or similar purposes.
OF SANTA CRUZ 25
CHAPTER II.
IN WHICH THE LOCATION AND QUALITIES or THE PROVINCE ARE DESCRIBED.
The Province of Sancta Cruz is situated in that great America, one of the four parts of the world. It begins two degrees south of the Equator and thence extends southwards to forty- five degrees. Thus part of it lies in the torrid zone and part in the temperate. The shape of the Province is like that of a harp, the coast-line on the north side running from east to west and parallel to the Equator. On the south it is bounded by other provinces of America, peopled and owned by heathen nations with whom so far we have no communication. On the east it is bounded by the African Ocean and lies directly opposite the Kingdoms of Congo and Angola as far as the Cape of Good Hope. On the west it is bounded by the very Tiigh peaks of the Andes and the slopes of Peru, which are so high above the land that it is said even the birds have diffi- culty in passing over them. Until now, men coming from Peru to this Province18 have been able to find only one route, and that is so rough that some persons perish crossing over, by falling
26 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
from the narrow path they are following, and their dead bodies fall to a depth so far below the living that they can not see them, even if they are disposed to give them burial. This Province _ of Sancta Cruz lacks these and other extremes; for although it is so large, there are neither such mountains (there are great numbers of them) nor deserts nor marshes which can not be crossed with ease. Apart from this, the Province, with- 1 out contradiction, is the most suitable of all the1-! provinces of America for mankind, because usually the air is good and the soil most fertile, and [the land is] of the most delightful and pleasing appearance to human sight. The fact that it is so healthful and free from sickness is because of the winds that generally blow over it, from the northeast or south and sometimes from the east or east-southeast. As all these come from off the sea, the air is so pure and well tempered, that not only does it do no harm, but on the contrary restores and prolongs human life." The viragao19 begins about noon and lasts till daylight; then it stops because of the moisture from the earth which checks it. When day breaks the sky is usually covered with mist, for the many thickets attract all this moisture. And during this period a gentle wind blows from off the land until the sun calms it with its rays
OF SANTA CRUZ 27
and the accustomed sea breeze starts, the day becomes clear and mild, and the ground remains clean and free from all exhalations.
The aspect of the Province is very delectable and refreshing to a great degree: the whole of it is covered with lofty thick woods, and is watered with many delightful streams, with which all the land is abundantly supplied; it is always green with the same temperature of spring that April and May offer us here [in Portugal]. For this reason they do not have the colds or frosts of winter to injure the plants as they injure our plants. In a word, Nature has so acted in respect to all things in the Province, and has so moder- ated the air, that one is never aware of excessive cold or heat.
There is an infinite number of springs in the country, the waters of which form many great rivers which flow into the Ocean, either on the north or the east coast. Some of them rise in the midst of the sertao™ and wind through long and tortuous channels in search of the Ocean, where their currents drive away the salt water with vio- lence and enter the Ocean with such impetus that it is difficult and dangerous to navigate those waters. The principal and most famous of the rivers of those regions is the River of the Ama- zons20 which flows northward into the ocean one
28 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
half-degree south of the Equator, and whose mouth is about thirty leagues across. In the mouth of this river are many islands which divide it into many channels ; it rises in a lake about one hundred leagues from the South Sea [Pacific] at the foot of the mountain ranges of Quito, in the province of Peru, whence several Castillian expe- ditions have embarked, which navigated down- stream and succeeded in entering the Ocean half a degree from the Equator, a distance of six hun- dred leagues in a straight line, but actually more, counting the turns the river itself makes.
Another very large river, fifty leagues to the east of this one, also empties north, and is called the Maranhao River.2* There are many islands in it: one of them in the middle of the bar is in- habited by aborigines, and alongside any kind of boat may anchor. The mouth of this river is seven leagues across, and so much salt water enters it that for fifty leagues up into the sertao it is no more nor less than an arm of the sea, whither one can navigate among the islands with- out any hindrance. Here there empty two rivers which rise in the sertao; up one of them some Portuguese sailed on a voyage of discovery in the year '35;22 they proceeded up it two hundred and fifty leagues, until they could go no farther because of the narrowness of the river and the
OF SANTA CRUZ 29
shallowness of the water which would no longer float the boats. Of the other river no explora- tion was made, so that today the source of neither is known.
"Another very noteworthy river flows east- ward into the same Ocean and is called Sao Francisco : its mouth is located in ten and a third degrees and may be half a league wide. This river flows into the sea so proudly and with such fury that the tide never reaches its mouth, but only represses the water a little; three leagues out to sea the water is fresh. It flows toward its mouth from the south to the north; within it is very deep and clear, and it can be navigated for sixty leagues, as has already been done. From there on one can not go, on account of a very great waterfall at that point, over which the sheet of water rushes from a great height. And above this fall the river itself runs underground and comes up again a league away; when there are floods, the river overflows and washes away the earth. This river rises in a very large lake which is in the middle of the country, where they say are many towns whose inhabitants (according to report) have great possessions of gold and pre- cious stones.23 Another very large river, one of the most marvellous in the world, empties into the sea on the east coast in latitude thirty-five: it
30 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
is called Rio da Prata, and has a width of forty leagues where it enters the Ocean; and the fprce of this fresh water, which carries the drainage of all the slopes of Peru, is so great that sailors drink fresh water before they can see the land whence it comes. Two hundred and seventy leagues up this river, there stands a city settled by Castillians which is called Ascengao (Asun- cion).24 It is navigable up to this point and for many leagues farther. Up in the interior there pours into this river another called Paragoahi, which rises also in that very same lake as the Sao Francisco which has already been [mentioned].26
Besides these, there are many other rivers on the coast, large ones and small ones, and many gulfs, bays and arms of the sea, which I do not wish to name because my intention was to choose only noteworthy facts, the principal ones, of that land and to speak of them in detail, so that I should not be charged with prolixity, but should satisfy all with brevity.
OF SANTA CRUZ 31
CHAPTER III.
Or THE CAPTAINCIES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE PROVINCE.
This Province contains eight Captaincies settled by the Portuguese, as one proceeds south- ward from the Equator,26 each one having fifty leagues of coast-line or thereabouts, separated from one another by lines drawn parallel with the Equator from east to west; they are contained between the Ocean and the Line of Demarcation27 of the Kings of Portugal and Castille. And to each of these Captaincies the King, Dom Joao III, desirous of establishing the Christian Re- ligion in those regions, chose and sent for govern- ing each one of them a vassal of noble blood and ability in whom he had confidence.28 They built their cities along the coast in those places which seemed to them most convenient and suitable for those who were to live there.29 All these Cap- taincies are now well peopled, and in the more important places there are garrisons with much heavy artillery to defend and protect them from enemies coming from the sea, as well as from the land. Near the towns were many Indians when the Portuguese first began to colonize; but be-
32 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
cause these same Indians revolted against them, and committed many acts of treachery, the Gov- ernours and Captains of the land destroyed them little by little, and killed off a great many of them; others fled into the sertao, and thus the land in the neighborhood of the towns is un- occupied by aborigines. However, some villages of the Indians remained in the neighbourhood, those who were peaceful and friendly with the Portuguese inhabitants. \In order that I may mention all [the Captaincies] in the present chapter, I shall in passing name only the first Captains to conquer them, and name specifically the towns, sites, and ports where the Portuguese reside, giving them in order as they lie from north to south, as follows :
The first and most ancient is called Ta- maraca, which took its name from a small island where the first settlement was situated. Pero Lopez de Sousa was he who first conquered it and freed it from the French, in whose possession it was when he came there to settle : this is an island whose inhabitants are separated from the main- land by an arm of the sea which surrounds it and into which empty several streams from the sertao. There are two bars parallel with the coast and the island between them: over one of the bars any large ship may pass and come to anchor close
OF SANTA CRUZ 33
to the town which is only about half a league off. The north bar may be used as well by ships of smaller size ; because of its shallowness it will not admit the larger ones. North of the island, this Captaincy possesses many broad and luxuriant fields, where in these days there are large ranches ; and its population will increase and flourish with as much prosperity as that of any of the other Captaincies, if the Captain himself, Pero Lopez,30 will reside there a few years more and not leave the colony unprotected during the time it is being settled.
The second Captaincy which follows next is called Paranambuco:31 this Duarte Coelho con- quered. He built his principal town on a height visible from the sea lying five leagues from the island of Tamaraca, in eight degrees latitude. It is called Olinda and is one of the noblest and most populous cities of those regions. Five leagues inland there is another town called Igarogu, which has for another name Villa dos Cosmos. And besides the inhabitants of these towns there are many others who are scattered about on the sugar mills and ranches, here as in the other Captaincies, all the surrounding terri- tory being settled. The soil here is of the best and the inhabitants have cultivated it more than in any of the other Captaincies of the Province;
34 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
for the inhabitants are much favoured and aided by the Indians of the land from among whom they get an infinite number of slaves with whom they work their farms. The principal reasons why the population is continuously growing are that the Captain himself, who conquered the country, has made a continuous sojourn there, and that it is visited by more ships from Portu- gal, as it is nearer to it than any of the other Cap- taincies farther down the coask. A league south of Olinda is a reef or low line of rock which is the port where the ships enter. The debarcation takes place on the beach and also on the bank of a small river which runs close to the town itself.
The third Captaincy going south is that of Bahia de Todos os Sanctos, belonging to the King our Master. There reside the Governour, the Bishop and the Ouvidor Geral32 for the whole coast. The first Captain to conquer it and to be- gin the colonization was Francisco Pereira Cou- tinho;33 he was overwhelmed by the Indians in a great war they waged against him, the impetus of which he could not withstand, so many were the enemies who leagued against the Portuguese everywhere in those regions. Afterwards it was once more restored and colonized by Thome de Sousa, the first Governour General in those parts. And from then on the inhabitants kept steadily
OF SANTA CRUZ 35
increasing in number as well as in their posses- sions. So that today the Captaincy of Todos os Sanctos has more Portuguese citizens than any other Captaincy of the Province, j There are three populous and noble cities,)near one another, located one hundred leagues from the cities of Paranambuco, in thirteen degrees latitude. The principal one, where the Governour of the land and the other nobility live, is the City of Salvador.^ Another one is near the bar and is called Villa Velha, {he first settlement located in the Cap- taincy. J After Thome de Sousa became Gover- nour, he built the city of Salvador a little more than half a league away, as that was a fitter and more appropriate location for the inhabitants of the country. Four leagues inland there is another city called Paripe which is also an incorporated city like the others.*} All these settlements are located on the shore of a large and beautiful bay where any ships, no matter how large, may enter with security: it is three leagues wide and navi- gable fifteen leagues inland. There are many islands in it of remarkable soil. It is much cut up into arms and coves of which the inhabitants make use to go in small boats to their ranches.
The fourth Captaincy, that of Ilheos, was given to Jorge de Figueiredo Correa, a nobleman of the household of the King our Master; by his
36 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
order it was colonized by Ifoao Dalmeida, who built his town thirty leagues from Bahia de Todos os Sanctos, in latitude fourteen and two- thirds degrees. It is a very pretty and populous city, on a slope in sight of the sea, beside a river which ships enter. This river also is divided inland into many branches by the sides of which the inhabitants of the whole country have the cultivated fields of their estates; they move about in boats and dugouts as in the Bahia de Todos os Sanctos.
>•%
The fifth Captaincy is known as Porto Se- guro and was conquered by Pero do Campo Tou- rinho. j There are two settlements located thirty leagued from those of Ilheos, in sixteen and a half degrees : between them runs a river with a reef at its mouth forming a harbour where ships enter. The principal town is in two sections, one on ( the crest of a steep cliff facing north, above the \ sea, the other on the plain beside the river. The other town is named Sancto Amaro, and is one league south of the river. Two leagues to the north of this reef is another one, [behind which] lies the harbour the fleet entered when the dis- covery of the Province was made. And because at that time the name of Porto Seguro was given it, as I have related above, the Captaincy took the same name and is called Porto Seguro.
or SANTA CRUZ 37
r~
The sixth Captaincy is that of Spirito Sancto, conquered by Vasco Fernandez Coutinho. The town is located on a little island about sixty leagues from the towns of Porto Seguro, in lati- tude twenty degrees. This island lies in a very broad river, about a league above the bar, up in the sertao : in this river they take an infinite num- ber of fish, and on shore an infinite quantity of game, with which the inhabitants are always sufficiently supplied. This is the most fertile Captaincy and the best provided of all on the coast with the products of the soilA
The seventh Captaincy is that of Rio de Janeiro,35 which Mem de Sa conquered, and, hav- ing engaged in perilous combats, he freed it by force of arms from the French who were occupy- ing it, he being the Governour General of those parts. There is a noble city there of many in- habitants called Sao Sebastiao which is seventy- five leagues from Spirito Sancto, in latitude twenty-three degrees. This town is built near the bar along an arm of the sea, which enters seven leagues inland and is five across in the widest place, and at its mouth, where it is narrowest, only a third of a league. In the middle of the bar there is a flat rock fifty-six fathoms36 long and twenty-six wide, on which a fort may be built to insure the defense of the country. The bar is one of the safest and best in those regions, and any
38 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
ship may enter or leave it in any weather without fear or danger. The soil of this Captaincy is of the best, and better fitted to enrich the inhabitants than any other soil in the Province: J do not be- lieve that any one who goes out there with that hope will be deceived.
The last Captaincy is that of Sao Vicente,37 conquered by Martim Affonso de Sousa. There are four towns in it; two of them are situated on an island which an arm of the sea, resembling a river, separates from the mainland. These two towns are forty-five leagues from Rio de Janeiro, in latitude twenty-four degrees. This arm of the sea which surrounds the island has two bars, one at each end. One of them is shallow, and not very wide, where only small craft may enter; be- side it is built the oldest of the towns, called Sao Vicente.38 A league and a half from the other bar (which is the main one where large ships or craft of any description enter when they come Ao this Captaincy) is located the other town called Sanctos. ) Here, because it is the port of call, live the Captain or his lieutenant, and the other offi- cials of the council and government. Five leagues south there is another settlement called Hitan- haem. There is another twelve leagues inland named Sao Paulo, which the Fathers of the Com-'; pany [Jesuits] founded, where there are many
OF SANTA CRUZ 39
inhabitants, the greater portion of them born of native Indian mothers and Portuguese fathers. There is also a similar island to the north sepa- rated from the mainland by another arm of the sea which joins the first one : on its bar there are two fortresses, well equipped with artillery, one on each side to defend this Captaincy from the Indians and sea-pirates.39 Formerly they used the bar as a point of embarcation and here their enemies used to inflict great damage upon the in- habitants.
There are many other towns in all these Captaincies, besides those I mention, where many Portuguese dwell; of these I do not wish to speak here, for it is my intention to indicate only the most renowned, where there are officers of justice and which are self-governing just like any town or city in this Kingdom.
40 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
CHAPTER IV.
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE INHABITANTS
OF THE CAPTAINCIES AND OF THEIR
MODE OF LIVING.
( From the time the Province of Sancta Cruz was peopled by the Portuguese, all the territory was under one jurisdiction, over which the Gov- ernour General presided on behalf of the King our Master, with power over the other .Captains who lived [one] in each Captaincy.4^} But as the Captaincies were far away from one another and increasing rapidly in population, the country has now been divided into two jurisdictions ; namely, one established in the Captaincy of Porto Seguro in the north and the other in Spirito Sancto in the south;41 and in each one of them presides a Governour with equal power. , The Governour of the north lives at Bahia de Todos os Sanctos and the other one of the south at Rio de Janeiro. And so each is located in the centre of his jurisdiction, in order that the inhabitants may be better and more conveniently governed. To come to the mode of living and the sustenance of the inhabi- tants. As for the dwellings, they are continually building better and more costly houses; for at
OF SANTA CRUZ 41
first there were none in the country but one-story mud huts42 with roofs of palm leaves. Now they build two-story dwellings of stone and mortar, with tiled roofs and wainscotted like those of this country. There are long and beautiful streets of them in most of the towns I have named. And thus before long (according as the population increases) it is expected there will be many sump- tuous edifices and churches, which will add dis- tinction to the country. The majority of the in- habitants who are scattered throughout these Cap- taincies, in fact nearly all of them, hold their lands in allotments43 given and bestowed upon them by the Captains and Governours of the country. The first thing they try to obtain is slaves to work the farms; and any one who suc- ceeds in obtaining two pairs or a half-dozen of them (although he may not have another earthly possession) has the means to sustain his family in a respectable way; for one fishes for him, an- other hunts for him, and the rest cultivate and till his fields, and consequently there is no ex- pense for the maintenance of his slaves or of his household.44^ From this, one may infer how very extensive are the estates of those who own two hundred or three hundred slaves, for there are many colonists who have that number or more. The inhabitants, for the most part, are on very
42 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
good terms with one another and are happy to be of assistance to one another with their slaves, and to relieve the poor who have just settled in the country. That is a universal custom in these regions: and they perform many other pious acts, so that all have a competency and there are no beggars who go from door to door asking alms as in this country [Portugal].
OF SANTA CRUZ 43
CHAPTER V.
ABOUT THE PLANTS, FOOD-STUFFS AND FRUITS IN THE PROVINCE.
There is such an abundance and such va- riety of plants, fruits and herbs in this Province, of which one could point out so many peculiari- ties, that it would be an endless task to write about them here or to give a detailed account of the properties of them all. Therefore I shall mention only a few in particular, principally those whose properties and fruits are advan- tageous to the Portuguese. First, I shall describe that plant and root from which the inhabitants obtain sustenance and which they eat in place of bread. The root is call mandidca™ [manioc] and the plant from which it grows is about the height of a man. This plant is not very thick and the stalks have many joints ; when they want to plant a field of it, they cut it into pieces, which they put, like graft stalks, into the ground after it has been tilled, and from them new shoots put forth; each of these cuttings produces three or four roots or more (according to the quality of the soil in which they plant it) which take from nine to ten months to grow; except in Sao Vicente,
44 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
where it takes three years because the ground is colder [than to the north]. The roots at the end of this period have become very large like the inhames [yams] of Sao Thome, although most of them are long and curved like the horn of an ox. After they have reached their growth in this way, if the inhabitants do not then wish to pull them up to eat, they cut off the plant at its stalk, and the roots will remain five or six months under ground in perfect condition without spoiling: in Sao Vicente they will keep twenty or thirty years*6 in the same way. As soon as they pull them up, they put them to soak in water for three or four days, and after they are soaked they thoroughly mash them. This done, they put the paste into long narrow bags which they make of narrow withes woven as in a basket; and in this they squeeze out the juice so that none drips, for the juice is so poisonous and the venom so powerful, that if a person or any animal whatsoever drank it, he would die instantly. After they have cured it in this way they put it in an earthen vessel over a fire; an Indian woman keeps stirring it until the heat of the fire has dispelled all the moisture and it becomes dry and is ready to eat, this process consuming about half an hour. This is the food they call farinha do pdo [wood-flour] ; with it the inhabitants and natives are nourished.
OF SANTA CRUZ 45
They have two kinds of flour, one called, fwinha de guerra [war-flour] and the other farinha fresco, [fresh flour]. War-flour is made of the same root ; after it is dried it is toasted so that it will keep more than a year without spoiling. The fresh flour is more delicate and of better flavour; but it will keep only two or three days, after which it spoils. They make from this same mandioca another food which they call beijus; these are like obreas [wafers], only thicker and whiter, and some are flat like filhos" [pancakes]. They are much used by the inhabitants of the country (principally those of Bahia de Todos os Sanctos) because they are more tasty and more easily digested than the flour.
There is another species of mandioca which has different qualities, called aipim, from which, in some Captaincies, they make bolos*s [a kind of bread] which surpass in flavour the fresh bread of Portugal. The juice of this root is not poisonous like the juice of the other, and will harm no living thing even if it be drunk. They also eat this root roasted like batata [sweet po- tatoes] or inhame and it has a good flavour. Aside from this there is much milho zaburro [maize], from which they make a very white bread ; and much rice, and many species of beans and other vegetables, all in great plenty.
46 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
There is another plant in that Province which came from the island of Sao Thome, the fruit of which helps to nourish many [.people in the region.49 This plant is very tender.- and not very tall; it has no branches but only leaves which are six or seven palms long. The fruit is called bananas [banana] : these are shaped like cucumbers and grow in bunches; some of them are so large as to contain one hundred and fifty or more. And many times the weight is so great that it breaks the stalk of the plant in the middle. At the proper time they gather the bunches, and a few days later they ripen. After they have been gathered they cut down the plant, for it bears only once; but soon suckers shoot out from the same root and grow up like the others. This fruit is very savoury and one of the best of the country; it has a skin like that of a fig (but thicker) which they throw away when they eat it : but when over- indulged in, it causes injury to the health and produces fever.
There are some very tall trees in those re- gions called zabucaes™ [Brazilian nuts], on which grows a cup-like fruit the size of a large cocoanut, of the same shape as a Hindu jar. These cups are exceeding hard and are full of very sweet and tasty nuts; the mouths are at the lower end and covered with flaps [tapadoiras],61
v OF SANTA CRUZ 47
which really do not look as if grown by Nature but as though made by human industry. And when the nuts are ripe, these flaps fall off and the nuts themselves begin to drop out one at a time until not one remains in the cup.
There is another fruit in this region better still, the most prized by the inhabitants of all fruits; jit grows on a humble plant near the ground f* this plant, like the aloes plant, has spines. They call this fruit ananazes52 [pine- apple] ; they grow like artichokes, and naturally resemble pine-cones, being of the same size or a little larger. When ripe they have a very sweet odour, and are eaten pared and cut in slices. They are so savoury that in every one's opinion there is no fruit in Portugal which surpasses them in flavour. And therefore jthe inhabitants strive harder to obtain them, and hold them in greater esfe'em than any other fruit in the country^
There is another fruit which grows in the thick wood, on trees like pear-trees-or apple-trees : it is like peros repinaldos*3 [a variety of apple] in form, and is very yellowy They call it cajus** [cashew] : it is very juicy, "and is eaten in hot weather for refreshment as it is very cool by na- ture, and it would be astonishing if it did one harm even if used to excess.) On the point of each fruit there grows a nut the size of a chest-
48 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
nut and the shape of a bean : this sprouts first and grows at its extremity like a bloom. The shell is very bitter, and the nut when roasted is very hot
and more tasteful than an almond.
r~~~^
There are in the Province many different varieties of fruit, accessible to all; they are so abundant that many people travelling in the in- terior live on them for days without any other sustenance. The fruits I am describing are the ones which the Portuguese hold in highest esteem and consider the best in the country. ^ There are some Portuguese fruits which grow in those re- gions; namely, many varieties of melons, cucum- bers, pomegranates, and figs of several species; there are many grape-vines which produce grapes two or three times a year: all fruits are so abun- dant because there are no frosts (as I have said) to do them any harm.J Of cedrats, citrons, limes, lemons and oranges there is an infinite number, because these thorny trees thrive well in the coun- try and multiply faster than others, j
Besides the trees which produce these fruits „ without any cultivation, and the food-stuffs, ( there are others which the inhabitants raise on their farms; namely, sugar-cane and cotton plants which are the principal crops"6f the region, in the cultivation of which they all help one an- other and gain much profit in all the Captaincies,
OF SANTA CRUZ 49
especially in that of Paranambuco where nearly thirty sugar mills have been built, and nearly as many at Bahia de Salvadpr: from each of these there is a large yield of sugar every year, and a big crop of cotton, more, without comparison, than in any of the other Captaincies. L There is also much brazil-wood in these Captaincies, on which the inhabitants make a large profit]] it is quite evident that [this wood is produced by the heat of the sun, JJnd grows under the influence of its rays; because it is found only in the torrid zone, and the nearer it grows to the Equinoctial Line, the better it is and the finer the dyej That is the reason why there is none of it in the Cap- taincy of Sao Vicente, or south of it.
There is a species of tree in the forests of the Captaincy of Paranambuco called copaiba,™ from which they get a balsam that is very health- ful and exceedingly useful in many kinds of sick- ness; it has especially good effect in illnesses that come from chills, and draws out all pain, however serious, in a very short space of time. For bruises or wounds of any kind, it has the same virtue, for as soon as it is applied to them they hastily heal without a scar, in such a way that it is the exception to be able to discern where [the wounds] have been; and in this respect they have an advantage over all other medicines.
50 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
This oil is not easily found in these trees at all seasons of the year; nor do they attempt to look for it, except in summer which, is the .season when the trees produce it abundantly. When they wish to obtain it, they make cuts or holes in the trunks of the trees, from which the predous liqudr ex^ udes little by little from the heart of the tree. Nevertheless they do not find it in_all -the- trees, but only in some of them which for that reason they call female; those which lack it they call male; and in this respect only is the difference in the two varieties; for in size and appearance one cannot distinguish one from the other. Most of these trees are found with the bark scratched by animals, which instinctively seek them as a cure for their wounds, when they 'are" Injured or bitten by some other wild animal. There is an- other tree, different from these, in the Captaincies of Ilheos and Spirito Sancto which they" call caborahiba,™ from which they extract another balsam: 'this exudes from the bark of the tree and smells most sweet. It also is advantageous for the same infirmities, and those who obtain it hold it in great esteem and sell it for a high price ; because, aside from the fact that the trees are very scarce, those who seek them run great risks from hidden enemies who infest the forest in that re- gion and spare no one whom they encounter.
OF SANTA CRUZ 51
Moreover, there is a certain tree in the Cap- taincy of Sao Vicente, which is called in the language of the Indians obird paramaqaci^ which means "wood for ills" : three drops only of the sap serves amply as a purge and an emetic. If any one swallow a quantity such as [might be contained] in the shell of a nut, he will die with- out delay.
Of the other plants and herbs which yield no fruit, and of whose uses nothing is known, many things might be written ; but I shall not , mention them here, for it is my intention (as I Or c have said before) only to give data of the things ^^ which benefit the inhabitants of the country. I shall mention only a very noteworthy one, whose qualities when known will, I believe, cause much wonderment everywhere. It is called the herya_ viva [literally and actually "sensitive plant"] and has some resemblance to dog-briar. When any one touches it with his hands or with any other object whatsoever, it instantly recoils and shrivels, in such a way that one would say it seemed a liv- ing creature annoyed and insulted by the touch. And after it has become calmer, as though the insult had been forgotten, once more it opens little by little until it is again as sturdy and green as before. This plant must have some very great virtue hidden from us, the effect of which will
52 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
probably not be less worthy of admiration. For we know that of all the plants which God created, each one has, in the field of usefulness, a special power which causes certain operations for which it was created : how much greater virtue then has this one which I wish especially to point out as being so strange and different from all other plants.58
or SANTA CRUZ 53
CHAPTER VI.
ABOUT THE ANIMALS AND POISONOUS REPTILES59 OF THE PROVINCE.
As this Province is of great extent and for the most part uninhabited and filled with very tall trees and dense thickets, it is not to be wondered at that there should be a vast diversity of animals and fierce poisonous reptiles: even among us [Portuguese], with the ground cultivated and thickly settled, yery_large snakes grow in the brambles, and they tell many notable stories about them. There are other reptiles and harmful animals which may be found scattered in the heaths and thickets ; although the inhabitants kill them at every opportunity, they have not been able to exterminate them, as we know. How much more then [is this to be expected] within the Province, where the climate and the quality of the land breezes are no less conducive to their propagation than is the ground itself with its many thickets, as I have mentioned, favourable to their rearing. Although Nature had dispersed great quantities of foul insects and animals throughout the land, there were no domestic ani- mals there when the Portuguese began to settle.
54 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
But after they had become acquainted with the country and had recognized the profits to be made out of stock-raising, they began to bring horses60 and mares from Cape Verde Island, so that today the raising of this stock has become general throughout all the Captaincies of the Province. There is also a great quantity of cattle which was brought from the same island to those parts, cows and. oxen being especially abundant; and they are increasing rapidly on account of the good pastur- age. /The other animals found in this land are naturally wild; and there are some strange ones that have never been seen in any other country, which I shall now describe here, beginning first with those that are eaten here and with whose flesh the inhabitants are abundantly supplied in all the Captaincies.
There are many deer; and a great variety of the hog species; namely, the wild boar as in this country; and others, smaller, whfch have the navel on the back,61 of which a very large number are killed. And there are others that are eaten that are bred on land but can go in the water; they run very little because their hind feet are long and their front ones short ; so that Nature has provided them with the ability to go under water in order to preserve their lives; they dive under water every time they see any one or any-
or SANTA CRUZ 55
thing that frightens them.62 And their meat, as well as that of the others, is very savoury, and so wholesome that it is given to the sick, for it is beneficial for all ailments and does harm to no one.
There are animals which they call antas [tapir] shaped like a mule but not so large, with a narrower muzzle and a long upper lip like an elephant's trunk. Their ears are round and their tails not very long: they are ashy-grey on the body and white on the belly. These antas go to pasture only at night, and as soon as dawn ar- rives, they hide themselves in swampy growth or in any concealed places they can find, and there they remain the whole day, hidden like night- birds to whom daylight is hateful, until dusk again, when once more they go out to feed, as is their custom. The meat of these animals has the flavour of beef which it resembles in all particu- lars.]-
(There is another animal about the size of the hare called cotia [coati] ;63 and it resembles it in appearance and flavour. These cotms are reddish-brown and have small ears and a tail
so short that it can scarcely be seenr~\
C-^ There are other larger ones known as pacas,
which have a round muzzle and are about the build of a cat with a tail like the cotia. They are
56 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
greyish and mottled, spotted with white over the whole body. When they wish to stew them for eating, they take off the hair as in the case of a sucking pig, and do not skin them, because the hide is very tender and savoury; the meat thereof is also tasty and one of the best in the country. There is another remarkable animal, which, in my judgment, is the strangest of all animals that have been seen up to the present time. They are called tatus [armadillos] and are about the size of a sucking pig ; they have a shell like that of a tortoise which is divided into many jointed plates, so arranged that they look like an armoured horse. They have a long tail covered with the same shell ; their muzzle is like that of a sucking pig, although somewhat sharper, and nothing projects beyond the shell save the head. They have short legs and live in burrows like rabbits. The meat of these animals is the best and most prized of any in the land, and the flavour is al- most like [that of] chicken.
There are also rabbits like those of our own country, from whose appearance they differ in no respect. 1
Finally, all the inhabitants have access to them, as well as to all other varieties of game which I have mentioned, and they can kill any- where as much of it as they desire, with little
OF SANTA CRUZ 57
effort, for they are not restricted by game laws as in Portugal; and a single Indian (if he be a good hunter) is enough to furnish a household with meat from the forest; and scarcely a day passes without his killing either a pig or a deer, or some of the other animals I have mentioned.
There are other wild animals in the Prov- ince, which are harmful to game as well as to the cattle of the inhabitants : they are called tigres [ tigers J^ although there most people call them ongas [jaguars] ; but some people, who have seen tigers elsewhere and recognize them, affirm that they are such. These animals naturally resemble cats from which they differ in one point only, their size, for some are as large as a calf and others are smaller. Their coats are of many distinct colours, to wit, streaked with white, brown or black. When they are hungry, they enter the corrals and kill many heifers or young bullocks, which they carry off to the forest to eat: they do the same to any animal they may encounter. And consequently, when they are very famished, they will attack a man.^) In that region they are so daring, that the following happened: an Indian climbed a tree to escape from one of these animals which was pursuing him, and the tiger waited at the foot of the tree, and was not frightened away by the people who hurried to the scene from
58 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
the village in response to the cries of the Indian; in spite of all their attempts he [the tiger] remained very securely guarding his victim, until nightfall when the people went home not daring to attack the tiger, telling the Indian to stay where he was and the tiger would get tired of waiting. And when they came in the morning, they found nothing but the bones of the Indian (whether he had wished to descend, thinking the tiger had gone, or whether he had happened ac- cidentally to fall, or however it had occurred [is not known] ).64 On the other hand, when they are satiated, they are very cowardly and so pusillani- mous, that any dog who runs at them is enough to put them to flight; and sometimes they are so harried with fear that they climb a tree and there allow themselves to be shot with arrows without any resistance. T* Finally, excessive satiety not only dissipates prudence, courage, and the wit of mankind, but also among the brute beasts it weakens and incapacitates the use of their natural powers even when they are in need of using them
in the defense of their lives. •&
"j /^
&/ There is in_that country another species of animal called (cerigoes [opossum], which are greyish and about the size of a fox : they have an opening lengthwise in their bellies so arranged that there is a pouch on each side65 in which they
or SANTA CRUZ 59
carry their young. And each young one has a teat in its mouth which it never lets go until it is weaned. Of these animals it is affirmed that they never conceive the young in the belly but only in these pouches, because of all that have been taken none have been pregnant, Moreover, aside from this, there are other very likely conjectures, [according to which] it is considered impossible for them to bear young as all other animals do (according to the laws of Nature).
^/ A certain animal is found also in those parts which is callecK perguiga™ [sloth] (of about the same size as these [the cerigoes] ) ; it has an ugly face and claws almost as long as a finger. It has on the back of the head a long shock of hair which covers its neck; and it walks always with its belly on the ground, without ever standing on its feet like other animals; and thus it moves about with such halting steps that, even if it crawls with the utmost effort for fifteen days, it will not get farther than a stone's throw. Its food is the leaves of trees and in these it spends most of the time: jt needs at least two days to climb a tree and as long to come down. And even though they kill them with clubs and other animals pur- sue them, they never, move more rapidly at one time than at another, j
60 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
V There is another species of animal in that land called 1 tamendods [ant-eater] which are about the size of sheep : they are grey and have a very long muzzle, narrow underneath; their mouth is not wide like the mouth of other animals but is so narrow that it will scarcely admit two fingers. They have a very thin tongue which is almost three palms in length. The females have two teats on the breasts like a woman, and an udder is located at the back of the neck, between the shoulder-blades, from which the milk runs down to the teats where the young suck. Also each one has two finger nails on each paw as long as the middle finger, and broad, shaped like a gouge. They also have a very silky, long-haired tail, as long almost as that of a horse^ All the extremes found in these animals are necessary to , preserve their life; for they eat nothing but ants. And as this is the case, they go and scratch in the ant-hills where the ants are: when the ants are aroused, they stick out their tongue and lay it where they have been scratching, and as fast as it is covered with ants they draw it into their mouth, and they keep on doing this until they are satiated. When they wish to shelter themselves or to hide from anything, they raise their tail over their back and under the long silky hair they are entirely covered so no part of them is visible.
OF SANTA CRUZ 61
/ There are many monkeysJn the land and of many species, as is already known: and because they are so well known everywhere, I shall not particularize here very extensively on their char- acteristics. I shall treat only in a few brief words of one thing about them which among others deserves mention.
./There is a red variety not very large which gives forth a very sweet scent, perceptible to any one who approaches them, and if one strokes them with the hand or they happen to be sweating the odour is much stronger and is perceptible to every one in the vicinity. Of these there are very few in the land and they are found only far in- land, in the sertao.
There is a black variety larger than these, which have a beard like a man: they are so bold that it often happens when the Indians hit one of them that he will pull the arrow out of his own body with his hands and hurl it back at the one who shot it. By nature they are very brave and the most untractable of all the varieties of the region.
There are two very small varieties of mon- key on the coast not much larger than a weasel; namely, one kind quite tawny and the other greyish, which are commonly called sagois [saguin].67 The tawny ones have a very fine
62 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
coat and resemble a lion, both in the face and in the shape of the body: they are very beautiful and are found only in Rio de Janeiro. j The greyish ones are found to the northward in all the other Captaincies. They are also much prized, but they are not so pleasing to the eye as the former. Both kinds are so tender and deli- cate by nature that when they take them from their native habitat to ship them to this Kingdom, as soon as they reach a colder atmosphere nearly all die, and it is a wonder if any one survives [the voyage].
Back in the forest also there are many large snakes of different species, which the Indians call by different names according to their pecu- liarities, v There are some in the land so im- measurably large68 that they can swallow a deer or any other similar animal whole~- But this is not so astonishing, since we can see in our own country today rather small snakes which will swallow a hare or a rabbit in the same way, al- though they have a gullet which at sight seems little larger than one's finger: and when they swallow these animals it dilates and gives in such a way that the whole animal passes within and they keep on swallowing until it arrives at the stomach, as is well known among us. How much more likely then that these of which I speak
OF SANTA CRUZ 63
will find less difficulty, on account of their great size, in swallowing any animal on earth, no mat- ter how large. ,
There are others of another species, not so large as the former, but more poisonous.89 They carry at the end of their tail something like a rattle, and wherever they go they keep on sound- ing it; and whoever hears this takes care to pro- tect himself from them. Besides these, there are many others of different species (which I do not enumerate, for fear of being prolix) which are for the most part so harmful and poisonous (especially those they call gerardcas [-vipers]) that, if a person is bitten, it is marvellous if he escapes; and the longest time he will survive is twenty-four hours.
There are also some very large lizards in the fresh water lakes and rivers, whose testicles have an odour more fragrant than musk; and whatso- ever clothing they touch, the scent will remain in it for several days.70
There are in that Province many other ani- mals and venomous reptiles of which I shall not treat, for they are so many and in such wealth of varieties that it would be a long narrative just to name them here and to catalogue their character- istics, there being, as I say, such an infinite num-
64 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
her of them in those regions, where on account of the nature of the soil and of the climate, one could not expect otherwise. Because the winds which proceed from inland become infected with the de- cay of plants, grasses and swamps, which are fertilized by the influence of the sun which plays so large a part in these things: thus are created very poisonous animals which are to be found in the maritime regions and back in the sertao in innumerable quantities, as I have already indi- cated.
OF SANTA CRUZ 65
CHAPTER VII.
ABOUT THE BIRDS OF THE PROVINCE.
Among all things that may be mentioned in the present history, the most pleasing and beau- tiful offered to human sight is the great variety of delicate and brilliant colours of the countless birds which breed in the Province: because these
•e»-J
are of such diversity, (1 shall speak only of the ones about which something [interesting] may be noted, or of the ones most esteemed by the Portu- guese and Indians who live thereri
There are in the Province very handsome birds of prey of many species; namely, eagles, falcons, hawks, and others of divers kinds and colours which have the same characteristics. The eagles are very large and powerful; and they swoop down with such fury on any bird or animal they wish to seize, that sometimes one may be seen so intently pursuing its prey that it will strike against the house of a colonist, and there fall in sight of all the people without being able to rise again. ^ The Indians of the country are accus- tomed to take the young [eagles] when very small and raise them in cages, so that when they are grown they can use their feathers to bedeck
66 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
themselves.; The falcons are like those of this country, but there is one variety whose feet are so covered with feathers, and so velvety, that one can scarcely see the claws. They are so swift that it would be a miracle for any bird or prey to escape them, once it is attacked. The hawks are also very quick and powerful, especially the small variety, which, numerous as merlins, will attack a partridge and carry it off in their talons. And, furthermore, they are so daring, that it often hap- pens when they are after a bird, they will pounce upon it right before people, and will not with- draw nor let go, however much one tries to frighten them. The other kinds of birds in the region, those edible, of which the inhabitants avail themselves, are the following. \
There is a certain variety called macucagods which are black and larger than hens : they have three layers of meat on the breast,71 and are fat and tender; thus the inhabitants hold them in much esteem, for they are very savoury, more so than any fowls which are eaten among us.3
There is another variety almost as large which they call iacu [ocus]72 and which we call galhinas do mato [forest-hens]. They are grey and black and have a white circle on their head, and a red neck.^jMany of them are killed because they are very savoury, for they are among the
OF SANTA CRUZ 67
best birds of the forest. -There are also in the country many perdizes [partridges], pombas [pigeons], and rolas [doves], as in Portugal, and many patos [ducks] and adens [wild ducks]73 in the lakes and rivers of the coast: 3 there are many other birds of different species which are no less tasty and wholesome than the [varieties] eaten among us [in Portugal] and held in most esteem.
The parrots of those regions are of many kinds and very beautiful, for some have already been seen here [Portugal]. The best of all, which are rarely found in the country, are very large, larger than falcons, and are called ana- purus. These parrots are of many variegated colours, and breed in the depths of the sertao: after they are captured they become so tame, that they lay their eggs in the houses and adapt them- selves more to living with mankind than does any other bird whatsoever, however tame or do- mestic it may be. And for this reason they are held in so much esteem in those parts that among the Indians they have the same value as two or three slaves: so, the Portuguese as well, when they are able to obtain them, hold them in the same esteem, because they are extremely beau- tiful and adornedjas I have said with brilliant and delicate colours^ so that they exceed in mag-
68 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
nificence all the other birds of the country. There are others almost as large as these, called ca- mindes,™ which are all blue except for a few yellow feathers in the wings. These also are very beautiful, and esteemed of great value by any one who obtains them.
There are others in the depths of the sertao, about the same size, called ardras [macaws], which are red, with a few yellow feathers; their wings are blue and they have a very long beau- tiful tail^ There are smaller ones which speak more readily and better than all others, and it is this species which are there called the true par- rots. It is these the Indians bring down from the forests as merchandise to barter with the Portu- guese. They are about the size of pigeons, bright green with the head almost entirely yellow, and with red shoulders. There is another variety on the coast, among the Portuguese, of the same size, which are called coricas: they are entirely covered with dark green feathers, and have a blue head the colour of rosemary. Of this variety of parrots there are more in that country than of crows or starlings here; they are not esteemed so much as the others because they frequently play truant, and aside from this they speak with diffi- culty and at the price of much patience. But when they do speak they surpass all the others,
OF SANTA CRUZ 69
and are accordingly prized. And that is why the Indians of the land are accustomed to pluck the feathers while young, and to dye the birds with the blood of a certain toad to which they add other ingredients : and when the feathers grow out once more they are exactly the colour of the real ones. Thus it often happens that the Indians deceive people by selling them for the true species. ^ There are also some very small parrots which come from the sertao, a little larger than sparrows, which they call tuyns [parakeets] : Nature covers them with very fine green feathers of a solid colour; their beaks and feet are white and their tails very long. These talk also and are very pretty and extremely pleasing.^] There are others on the coast about the size Toi blackbirds, which they call marcandos : they have a very large head and a large thick beak; these also are green, and talk, like all the others.
There are some notable birds also in those parts besides those to which I have referred, of which I shall make mention: now I shall treat especially of the ^sea-birds called goards [red ibis] : these are atfout the size of gulls. The first feathers with which Nature clothes them are white without any mixture, and extremely fine. After a period of about two years, they moult, and another coat appears, this time very fine and all
70 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
grey. After the same lapse of time they again moult, when they are covered with black without mixture. After a certain time they change again, and their new feathers are red, ipf the finest pure crimson to be seen anywhere, and in this [coat] they finish their days.75
There are certain birds found inland in the Captaincy of Paranambuco, twice the size of the galos do Peru [turkey] : they are greyish, and have on their heads above the beak a very sharp spur like a horn, striped dark brown and white, the length of which is about a palm, and three similar ones on each wing but somewhat smaller, namely, one at the shoulder, one at the middle joint, and the other at the wing tip. These birds have a beak like [that of] the eagle and thick, very long feet. They have callosities on their knees as large as big fists. When they fight with other birds they turn sideways so as to aid them- selves with all the arms that Nature has given them for their defense.76
There is another variety of bird in those parts whose name is well known to all here [Portugal] : they are more like terrestrial animals than birds, for the reason which I shall presently mention ; however, as they are really bircls and as such should be described, for they have a bird- like appearance, I shall not fail to mention them
or SANTA CRUZ 71
here, as I have all the other [birds]. They are called Jiemas1'1 [emus] ; they are as heavy as a large sheep, and have legs which, from the shoulder where they join the wings, are as long as the height of a man. Their neck is excessively long and their head is no larger than that of a goose; they are variegated grey, white and black, on the body; they have beautiful feathers which here [Portugal] it is our custom to wear on hats and caps, especially gallants and those who pro- fess the military art. Like any other animal of the field, these birds feed on grass, and never rise off the ground nor fly like other birds, but only spread their wings and beat the air with them as they run along the ground; therefore they frequent only the prairies where they are not hindered with brush or trees, but can run and fly in the manner I state.
Of the innumerable other species of birds in those regions, which Nature has clothed with many fine colours, I might also make mention here: but as my principal intent in the present history was only to be brief, and to eschew those things for which I might be accused of prolixity by those who are little interested (as I have already said), I wish to particularize only the most notable things, and to pass over in silence the others which deserve less attention.
72 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
CHAPTER VIII.
ABOUT SOME OF THE NOTEWORTHY
FISH, WHALES AND AMBERGRIS
OF THOSE PARTS.
There is such abundance of savoury, whole- some fish caught both in the high seas and in the rivers and bays of that Province, in the advan- tages of which the inhabitants of all the Cap- taincies generally participate, that the abundance of fish alone would be sufficient to sustain them amply, even if there were no meat or any other kind of game, as enumerated above. Without considering the great variety of fish which ordi- narily do not differ in appearance from those of hereabouts [Portugal], I shall treat now in par- ticular of a certain species which they have in those parts and which they call peixes bois™ [sea- cows] : they are so large that the largest weigh forty or fifty arrobas.79 They have a muzzle like [that of ] a cow, and two stubby fins with which they swim, similar to arms. The females have two teats with the milk of which they nourish their young. Their tail is wide, blunt and not very long. They have no resemblance to fish, save that their skin seems like that of a tuninha [dolphin]! These fish for the most part are
OF SANTA CRUZ 73
found in the rivers or bays of the coast, usually where a river or stream runs into the salt water, because they stick their heads out of water and graze upon the herbs which grow in such places, and they eat also the leaves of a tree which is called mangues [mangrove] of which there are many along the banks of the rivers. The inhabi- tants of the country kill them with harpoons, and also they take some of them in weirs, for they swim into such places with the flood tide, and with thejebb go back again to the sea whence they came. _This fish is exceedingly tasty and seems exactly like beef, in appearance as well as in flavour; roasted there is no difference from loin of pork. It is also cooked with cabbage and is stewed as beef, and no one who eats [of it] would take it for fish unless he knew beforehand.
There is another fish which they callcam- boropins which are about the size of atuns [tunny ~fish] . These fish have very hard scales, larger than [those of] other fish: these, too, they kill with har- poons, and when they desire to catch them they go out on a point [of land] or a rock, or other similar place adapted to the purpose. And a good fisherman, (so that he may not waste his shot) when he sees them coming lets them pass by, and waits until they are in a position so that he can harpoon them from behind ; thus the harpoon
74 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
enters the fish, despite the scales which as I say are so hard that, if the harpoon should happen to strike them fairly, it would be a wonder if it penetrated, i These are among the best fish of those parts because, aside from being very well flavoured, they are also very wholesome, and of a firmer quality than any other fish in the country.
There is also another species called tamoa- tds80 which are about the size of sardines and grow only in fresh water. These fish are covered with shells, laminated like the coverings of the tatus which I mentioned above, and are very savoury; and the inhabitants of the land hold them in much esteem. ,.
i There is also a species of very small fish like xarrocos, which they call mayacus;61 these are so exceedingly poisonous, especially the skin, that if one were to take only a mouthful he would die within the hour_i for there is no remedy known in the land whicn counteracts or delays at all the vio- lence of this death-dealing venom. Some Indians of the country risk eating them after skinning them and removing the whole of that part where they say the poison is contained. But in spite of this they sometimes die. These fish, as soon as they are taken out of the water, swell up so that they look like a bladder full of wind : and in ad- dition to this characteristic, they are so tame that
or SANTA CRUZ 75
one may catch them without difficulty with the bare hands ; often they lie so quietly by the blank that any one seeing them would be tempted to take of, and even to eat of them if he were not aware of [their poisonous nature] . I do not re- call any other fishes of those parts which deserve mention, for none of the others, as I have said, differs from those of this country [Portugal] : a great number of them are of the same species; but they are more savoury, and so wholesome that they are not injurious and are not forbidden to the sick, and they are very digestible in any sort of illness; under all conditions one may eat of them without affecting the health.
Nor does it seem to me entirely out of place to say something here about the whales and the ambergris which they say comes from them. What I know of the matter is this, that there are many whales in those regions82 which usually come from the high seas to the coast at certain sea- sons, rather than at others, and that at this period ambergris comes out of the sea in greater quan- tities and is cast up on the shore of those prov- inces. Hence many hold the opinion that this ambergris is nothing but the excretion of the whales; and that is what the Indians call it in their native language, without knowing any other name to give it. /Others say that it is the sperm
76 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
of the whales : ! but what is considered certain (leaving these and other erroneous opinions aside) is that this liquor is created at the bottom of the sea, not generally all over but in certain parts which Nature has disposed for its growth. Since this liquor is food for whales it is affirmed that when they eat too much of it they become drunk, and that that which is found on the beaches is the excess that the whales vomit. And if it were not as explained here, and if it should come from the whales in any other manner than above described, it is to be believed that in Por- tugal it could be obtained in the same way,83 for whales are common to the whole ocean. And, moreover, in that Province of which I speak this has been proved by many whales which have been thrown up on the coast, because in the in- testines of some of them they find much ambergris which has already been digested because it had been eaten some time before. And in others they find it in the belly, still fresh and in perfect state, which looks as if the whale had just eaten it in the hour of its death. Then, too, the excretion in that part where nature gets rid of it has no resemblance to ambergris and does not appear any less digested than the excretions of any other animal. Whence it is clearly shown that the first opinion is not true, and that the second can
OF SANTA CRUZ 77
not be either ; for the sperm of these whales is that which they call balso** of which they find a great quantity in this sea, and which they say is good for wounds, and is recognized as such by all navi- gators.
This ambergris when it is fresh out of the sea is soft like soap and has almost no odour ; but after a few days it becomes hard and has the odour we all know. There are nevertheless two species of amber ; namely, one greyish which they call gris, and the other black: the grey is very fine and is estimated at a great value everywhere in the world: the black is much inferior in the quality of its odour, and according to available information it is of little use. A great quantity of both has already been obtained from that Province and is being obtained today, and from it some of the inhabitants have become rich, and others are getting rich, as is well known.85 Finally, as God has destined this 4»*ui -f rem~all time to Christianity, and as self-interest attracts men more than anything else in life, it seems manifest that He wished to attract them to the land with this wealth from the sea, until they should succeed in discovering those great mines which the country promises, in order that in this manner all the blind, barbarous people who in- habit the land might absorb the light and knowl-
78 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
edge of our Holy Catholic Faith, which for them [Portuguese] would mean to discover greater mines in Heaven: and may our Lord grant that this be so, for His glory, and the salvation of so many souls.
THE MARINE MONSTER AS DEPICTED IN THE ESCORIAL MS.
or SANTA CRUZ 79
CHAPTER IX.
ABOUT A MARINE MONSTER THAT WAS
KILLED IN THE CAPTAINCY or SAO
VICENTE IN THE YEAR 1564.
The appearance of the fierce and frightful marine monster, which was killed in that Province in the year 1564, was so unusual, and human sight so unaccustomed thereto, that although many parts of the world have news of it, I shall nevertheless not fail to repeat it again, relating in detail all that happened. For in truth the greater part, and in fact nearly all of the pictures which have attempted to show its horrible aspect, are erroneous, and besides, the facts about its death are told in different ways, there being only one true one, the following.86
In the.jCapJtaincy of Sao Vicente, it being al- ready night, about the hour when every one was ready to go to sleep, it happened that an Indian girl, the Captain's. slave, left her house; and cast- ing her eyes over the plain which lies between the sea and the town of the Captaincy, she saw the monster walking about from one place to another, with steps and movements which were strange,
80 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
and braying now and then so horribly that half out of her wits and nearly fainting, went Jo find the son of the Captain, whose name was Baltesar Ferreira; she told him what she had seen, it seeming to her to be an apparition of the Devil. But as he was a man as judicious- a& he was brave, and as the natives were worthy- .of-lit- tle credence, he paid small attention to her words and remained in bed, and told her to go out again and make certain what it was. " 'IJie^nTnjniaii woman obeyed his command and went out: and she returned more frightened and affirmed and repeated what she had said before; namely, that there was something walking about that was so ugly it could be only the Devil himself. Then he hastily got up, and seized a sword that was close by him and stepped out of doors clad only in a shirt, being very strongly of the opinion that it must be a tiger, or some other animal known in the country, and that, having verified it, he could persuade the Indian woman that it was not what she thought. Turning his eyes in the direction she indicated, he saw indistinctly the bulk of the monster on the beach, without being able to dis- tinguish what it was because of the darkness which prevented him and because the monster was something never before seen, entirely differ- ent in appearance from all other animals. And
or SANTA CRUZ 81
approaching a little so that he could see it better, he was perceived by the monster itself; which, raising its head, as soon as it saw him, started for the sea whence it had come. From this the youth knew that it was from the sea, and before it could reach the water he had hastily rushed forward to intercept it. Seeing that he was barring its path it stood upright like a man, resting upon the fins of its tail ; and being thus face to face with it, he gave the monster a sword thrust in the belly,, and at the same time dodged to one side so swiftly that the monster could not fall upon him : never- theless he was in no little danger^ for the great flow of blood which came out of the wound squirt- ed in his face with such force that he was almost blinded.'' As soon as the monster had fallen for- ward it left the path it was following; andjthus wounded, it brayed with its mouth open, and fearlessly attacked him to rend him with teeth and claws, but he gave it a large cut on the side of the head: upon this the monster became weak, and giving up its vain encounter, it turned once more to the path toward the sea. During this time some slaves had rushed up in response to the cries of the Indian woman who was looking on, and coming up to the monster they seized it, when almost dead, and carried it from there to the town where it was seen the^next day by all the
82 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
people of the country. Although the young man had shown himself so courageous on this occa- sion, thereby gaining a very great reputation in the land, nevertheless he came out of this, battle so exhausted and so upset and overcome by the sight of this horrible animal, that when his father asked him what had happened to him he was not able to answer; and in the state of one in a trance he remained a long time without saying a word. The picture of this monster, which may be seen at the end of this chapter, was taken from life. It was fifteen palms long, the whole body covered with hair, and on its muzzle there were some very silky bristles like a mustache. The Indians .of the country call it in their language Mpupidra,87 which means demonio dagoa [water-devil]. Others like it have already been seen, in those regions ; but they are rarely found. And thus there must be many other monsters of different shapes which hide in the vast and frightful depths of the sea, no less strange and wonderful: for one can believe anything, however difficult it may seem; because all the secrets of Nature have not been revealed to man, so that he can not reason- ably deny or hold as impossible things which he has not seen or of which he has no knowledge.
or SANTA CRUZ 83
CHAPTER X.
ABOUT THE NATIVES OF THE PROVINCE: THEIR
CONDITION AND CUSTOMS, AND HOW
THEY ARE GOVERNED IN PEACE.
that we have treated of the land and of the things in it that are created for man, it seems fitting to speak here about the natives : and in this category we shall not mention all, but only those who inhabit the coast, and those parts of the sertao many leagues inland with whom we have communication. Although these natives are much divided and have many different names for their tribes, still they are one in their appear- ance, their condition, their customs and their heathen rites. And if they differ in any way in those regions, it is so little that it is not necessary to point this out or to attend to such matters among the more notable characteristics which are generally common to all, as I shall now relate.
These Indians are of a dark brown coloui with sleek hair; the face is flattened and some of their features resemble [those of] the Chinese;88! for the most part they are well set up, lusty and of good stature; a very brave people who esteem(_
84 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
death lightly, daring in war and of very little prudence. They are very ungrateful, inhuman and cruel, inclined to fight and extremely vindic- tive.J They live at their ease, without any pre- occupation save eating, drinking and killing peo- ple ; and so they grow very fat, but with any vexa- tion they immediately grow thin again. Many times their imagination has such power over them, that if one desires the death of another and suggests to him that he will die on a certain day or on a particular night he will die at the end of this period. They are very fickle and change- able; they readily believe whatever they are urged to believe, however difficult or impossible it may be, and with a little dissuasion they as readily reject it. They are very dishonest and given to sensuality, giving themselves up to their vices as though they were without human reason:89 never- theless in their congress, the males with the fe- males, they have due reserve and show a certain , modesty.
The language spoken along the whole coast is the same, although there is a difference in cer- tain words in some places, but not so much that they fail to understand one another; and this as far as the twenty-seventh degree: from there up there is another kind of aborigines about whom we have not so much information, who
OF SANTA CRUZ 85
speak another language. The language I speak
of, the one common to the coast, is very soft and
easily learned by any of the tribes. There are
some words of it which are employed only by
females, and others serve only for the males. It
lacks three letters ; one does not find in it, namely,
F, nor L, nqrj?, a very wonderful thing, for they
have neither Faith, Law, nor .Ruler: and thus
they live without order, [having besides no idea
of] counting, weights or measures. They adore About their
nothing, nor do they believe that after death Religion
there is glory for the good and punishment for
the wicked. Their belief in the immortality of
the soul is only this, that their dead will go
through a future life wounded or cut in pieces
or in the condition in which he left this life.
And when one of them dies, their custom is to
bury him in a hole seated on his feet with the
hammock beside him that served him for a bed
in life.90 Then for the first few days his relatives
place food on the grave, and some of them are
even accustomed to put the food in the grave at the
time of burial; and they absolutely believe that
they eat the food and sleep in the hammock which
is with them in the grave. These people have no
king or any one to administer justice, except a
chief in each village who is like a captain, whom
they obey voluntarily and not through con-
86 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
straint.91 When he dies his son succeeds him; his only function is to lead them in war and to give them counsel as to how they should conduct themselves in battle ; but he does not punish their evil deeds nor command them against their wills. The war they carry on today amongst themselves was not caused by conflict of laws or customs nor on account of greed or self-interest, but be- cause at some ancient date some one had hap- pened to kill another, as occurs today (for they are very revengeful and live, as I have said, hav- ing absolutely no superior whom they obey and fear) ; the relatives of the dead man formed a league against the killer and his tribe, and they pursued one another with such hatred that they became divided into different bands and re- mained enemies, as they are today. In order that these dissensions might not spread, and that they might the better keep peace among themselves and become stronger against their enemies, they de- cided to put an end to them [the dissensions] by means of the following remedy: when it does happen that one kills another, the relatives of the assassin hold court over him and then drown him in the presence of all. In this way the friends of the dead man are satisfied and both parties re- main in friendly relations as before. But as this rule is voluntary and is not enforced with rigour,
or SANTA CRUZ 87
and no one is under judicial obligation, nor does every one wish to follow this proceeding, they soon get into the way of dividing themselves into clans and rising one against the other, as has been said.
These Indians live in villages: each village has seven or eight houses which are very long like a rope walk or warehouse, constructed of wood almost entirely, and covered with palm leaves or other similar forest plants: they are filled with people from one end to the other, each person having his allotted place with a location for the hammock in which he sleeps: thus they are side by side in rows ; and in the centre of the house there is an open passage, which, like the passage way in a galley, is used by everybody to go to his sleeping quarters. In every house all live together in harmony, without any dissension amongst them: on the contrary, they are so friendly with one another that what belongs to one belongs to all, and when one of them has something to eat, no matter how small, all his neighbors share in it.
When any one goes on a visit to their vil- lages, as soon as he is seated, it is the custom for some of the girls with dishevelled hair to come up and receive him with great lamentation, shedding many tears, asking him (if he be a native) where
88 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
""" he has been and what are the hardships he has endured since he left [home], bringing to mind many disasters which might have happened; in a word, seeking to provoke tears by using the sad- dest and most feeling words they can think of. And if he be a Portuguese, they curse the mis- fortune of their ancestors who were not fortunate enough to live and behold a people so valiant and so enlightened as are the Portuguese, from whose country all good things come, indicating some of the things they hold in most esteem. This recep- tion that I have described is so customary amongst them that it is a miracle if they omit it, except when there is malice toward those who come to visit them, or when they are planning some treachery.
The affectations and adornments which they use consist of having the lower lip pierced and a very long stone put in the hole. Others have their faces full of holes and stones, thus appear- ing very ugly and disfigured : this is done to them while very young. They are also accustomed to pull out the beard, and they do not allow hair to grow on any part of the body except the head, and even on the lower part of it they pull it out. The women prize their hair highly, and wear it very long, clean and well combed, and most of them wear it braided. (Both the men and the
V.
or SANTA CRUZ 89
women are accustomed at certain times to stain themselves with the juice of a certain fruit called genipdpo, which is green when it is squeezed out, but after they put it on their bodies and it dries, it becomes very black, and, however much they I wash, it will not come off for nine days.
r It is their custom to marry the women who are their nieces, the daughters of their brothers or sisters; these are considered their legitimate and true wives. Fathers of the women can not refuse them, nor can any persons other than their uncles marry them. They have no wedding cere- mony or any usage, except that each man takes to himself a wife when he arrives at a certain age which is about fourteen or fifteen.92 Some men have three or four wives, but they esteem the first above the rest and she enjoys more consideration than the others. This obtains generally among the chiefs, who on account of their position and the dignity that accords with it regard it highly thus to be distinguished from the others.
There are some Indian women who deter- mine to remain chaste: these have no commerce '•)) with men in any manner, nor would they consent to it even if refusal meant death.93 They give up all the duties of women and imitate men, and fol- low men's pursuits as if they were not women. They wear the hair cut in the same way as the
90 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
men, and go to war with bows and arrows and pursue game, always in company with men ; each has a woman to serve her, to whom she says she is married, and they treat each other and speak jwith each other as man and wife.
The first act of all other Indian women, after giving birth, is to bathe in a stream; [after which] they seem as well as if they had not been in travail: and they do the same thing to the child which they have borne. In their stead, their husbands remain in the hammocks and are visited and taken care of, as though they were the ones just delivered.94 And this comes from the fact that the women have great esteem for the fathers of their children, and are extremely anxious after bearing them a child to find favour in their sight.
All the children grow up quite viciously, without any form of chastisement: they are nursed up to the age of seven or eight, unless the mothers in the meantime give birth to another child, which occasionally happens. There is no education among them to which they give atten- tion; and they are not occupied with any other duties than securing what they eat, [in company] with their fathers under whose protection they are trained to a point when each one is able to provide for himself, without expecting any other inheritance or legacy in order to become rich,
OF SANTA CRUZ 91
save the growth which Nature universally be- stows on all animals not endowed with reason. But the life they live and the cultivation of their sustenance are [accompanied] with little effort, and are much easier than ours; for they have no property, nor do they try to acquire it as .other men do; so they live free from greed and inordi- nate desire for riches, which are prevalent among
\other nations: [this is true] to such an extent that neither gold nor silver nor precious stones nave any value among them, nor have they need /of the use of such or any similar objects. They
I all go naked and with bare feet, men and women alike, nor do they cover any part of their bodies. The beds in which they sleep are hammocks made of cotton thread which the Indian women weave on a loom made for the purpose : these hammocks are nine or ten palms long, and are attached to cords knotted at the extremities, so as to make a loop at each end by which they are hung up, and they are suspended above the ground about two palms, so that they can light a fire underneath to warm themselves at night, or whenever they re- quire it.95 The foods which they plant in their fields and on which they are nourished are those Jvhich have been mentioned above, namely, man- dioca [manioc] and milho zaburro [maize]. Be- sides these, they live on the meat of many kinds
92 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
of animals which they kill either with arrows, or by the ingenuity of snares and pitfalls, which is their usual method of hunting. They live also on shell-fish, and fish which they catch along the coast in flat bottomed boats made of three or four logs bound together in such a way as to resemble the fingers of an extended hand; these will carry two or three people or more, according to the num- ber of logs, because the logs are very buoyant and support a great weight on the water. The logs are fourteen or fifteen palms long and about two or three in circumference. And in this way all the Indians live without owning property or tilled fields which would be a source of worry, nor have they any class distinctions or ideas of dignities or ceremonies, nor do they need them: because^all^ as I say, are in every respect equal, and so in harmony with the conditions that they all live ~ justly in that country, and in conformity with Hie~ laws of Nature.
OF SANTA CRUZ 93
CHAPTER XI.
ABOUT THE WARS THEY HAVE WITH ONE
ANOTHER AND THE MANNER IN
WHICH THEY ARE WAGED.
These Indians are always at war with one another and thus there is never peace among them, nor will it be possible (they are so hateful and vindictive) to prevent these disagreements among them by any method, save by means of Christian Doctrine by which the Fathers of the Company are little by little taming them, as I shall relate farther on. The arms with which they fight are the bow and arrow, and they are so skillful with these that it is a marvel for one of them to miss his mark no matter how difficult it may be. They are extremely rapid in shooting, and especially daring in danger, and bold to the last degree against their adversaries. Whenever they go to war it seems to them they have victory assured, and that none of the company is destined to die; hence, on leaving, they say that they are going out to kill, without any other talk or con- sideration; nor do they believe that they can be defeated. Only a thirst for revenge, without
94 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
hope of spoils or any other interest, moves them frequently to go in search of their enemies at very great distances, through the mountains, the thicket, deserts and difficult paths. Others are accustomed to go by sea from one region to an- other in craft which they call canoas™ when they desire to make an attack near the coast. These canoas are shaped like the shuttle of a loom and made of a single log, and in each one of them there are twenty to thirty rowers. Besides these, they have another kind, the same size as the others, made of bark from a tree, which ride the waves very well, for they are very buoyant though less safe; because if one of these capsizes it goes to the bottom, while if one made of wood capsizes it continues to float under any circumstances. When one of these happens to capsize, the In- dians themselves jump into the sea and raise the canoa until it is drained; then once more they get in and continue their journey.
All their combats are very determined, and they fight with great courage without any defen- sive arms; wherefore it is a very strange sight to see two or three thousand naked men on opposing sides shooting with bow and arrows at one another with loud shouts and cries, all hopping about with great agility from one spot to another, so that the enemy may not take aim or shoot at any definite
or SANTA CRUZ 95
individual. Nevertheless they fight in disorder, and often countermand one another's orders to the point of quarrelling, because they have no captain to restrain them or other military officers whom they must obey at such times. But although they lack organization of this sort, on the other hand, they give much consideration to the engagement and are very cautious in choosing the proper time to make an assault on the village of their enemies; they are accustomed to make these attacks at night at the hour when least expected. When it so hap- pens that they are not able to enter a village im- mediately, being impeded by a stockade which the enemy have built about it for defense, they build another stockade about the village a little way from the first: this they advance each night ten or a dozen steps until the day arrives when it is close to the stockade of their enemies, often so close that they can break one another's heads with their clubs which they hurl at one another. But for the most part those in the village get the best of the fight, and usually the attackers turn back defeated to their own country without obtaining the victory they had intended, and without triumphing over their enemies; and this because they do not have defensive arms or other neces- sary equipment to entrench themselves when they lay siege to their enemies, and to protect them-
96 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
selves against them, and also because they have many omens, and anything which mystifies them is enough to cause them to withdraw from the undertaking : they are so inconstant and pusillani- mous in this respect, that often, departing from their own country with great determination, de- sirous of exercising their cruelty, they happen to meet a certain bird, or any similar thing which they consider of evil portent, and they do not proceed with the enterprise, but then and there hold a consultation and decide to turn back, with- out a single dissenting voice in the company against this decision. If any one should misuse the omens he could easily be frightened at all times, although they may be very close to winning a victory; for it happens that a besieged village is sometimes almost ready to surrender when a parrot within will speak certain words which they consider inspired; they raise the siege and flee without waiting for the success which time promised them, believing without doubt that if they did not do so, they would all perish at the hands of their enemies. But aside from Jhis pusillanimity to which they are subject, they are very bold, as I have said, and are so confident in their valour that there are no opposing forces so powerful as to frighten them, or to make them deviate from their barbarous and /Vindictive Jen-
or SANTA CRUZ 97
On this subject I shall relate a few notable instances that happened among them, leaving out many, enough to fill a large volume if it were my intention to write about them in the same detail as each of the following.
f>( I In the Captaincy of Sao Vicente, Jorge Ferreira being Captain at the time, it happened that there was an attack on a village not far from the Portuguese settlement, and during the assault they killed the son of the head-man of the vil- lage. And because [the son] was well liked and beloved by all, there was no one who did not weep for him, showing with tears and lamenta- tions how sorry they were for his death. But the father, ashamed and affronted for not yet having taken vengeance, asked all those that loved him to conceal the loss of his son, saying, that he wished they would cease their weeping; [which they did.] Three or four months after the death of his son, he ordered his people to make the necessary preparations, because it seemed to him a favourable and suitable time for his purpose: and they all got ready forthwith. And a few days later he led them into the territory of his enemies (which was about three days' journey) where they lay in wait near the village in an am- bush in which they could do the most harm to their enemies: as soon as night fell, the chief
98 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
himself left the company with ten or twelve se- lected archers in whom he had the most confi- dence, and with them he went right into the vil- lage of the enemy, who had affronted hinu^and leaving them apart, alone with no one to follow him, he began to spy about among the houses, with great caution lest they should hear him : and from the conversation they held one with another he soon learned the name and dwelling of the man who had killed his son; and to complete his vengeance, he went to the outside of the house where the man was located, and when he was quite certain that it was the very man, he stretched himself out on the ground waiting for everybody to go to sleep. As soon as he saw the opportune moment to get his revenge, he very softly broke through the palm thatch with which the house was covered, and entering went straight up to the murderer whose head he cut off very swiftly with a cutlass which he carried for this purpose. This done he seized the head and rushed away to save himself-j The enemy who by this time had rushed up, hearing the struggle and convulsions of the dying man, recognizing that there were enemies about, started to pursue them. But as the chief's men were all ready on guard where he had left them, they killed many as they came out of the houses, jand then they withdrew defending them-
OF SANTA CRUZ 99
selves as far as the ambush, where all the others rushed out against their pursuers with much im- petuosity and killed many more. With this vic- tory they retired to their own land well pleased and very contented. The chief took with him the head of his enemy, and upon arriving in his village the first thing he did was to go to the mid- dle of the square in the village where he impaled the head on a stake in the sight of all, speaking these words: "Now, my companions and friends, that I have avenged the death of my son, and have brought here before your eyes the head of the man who killed him, I give you permission to weep for him as much as you wish : for up to now, you would have been right had you wept for me, because it seemed to you that this vengeance was delayed through my neglect, or that having for- gotten it by reason of great affliction, I no longer intended to take it, I, who am the one most deeply affected by his death." And from that day on, that chief was always much feared and his name became renowned in the whole country.
r>j Another instance, not less worthy of admira- tion, occurred between Porto Seguro and Spirito Sancto during the war in which they killed Fernao de Sa, son of Mem de Sa, at that time Governour General of those regions. The Portu- guese having captured a village with the aid of
100 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
some Indians friendly toward them, who fought with them, these Indians came to one of the houses to take the enemy prisoners, as they had done in the others. But they [the enemy], de- termined to die, would let no one enter : and those outside, realizing their determination not to give themselves up under any circumstances, told them that if they did not come out at once they would certainly set fire to the house. And our Indians, seeing that the threat was unavailing, rather than go into the house, determined to kill as many of them as they could, set fire to it : and from within the burning house the chief, seeing that there was no hope of salvation nor of revenge, and that they were all beginning to burn, rushed out with great fury and attacked another chief who was walking outside in front [of the house], one of his ene- mies, with such fury that the latter could not free himself from his grasp; he dragged him toward the house, and threw himself and the other into the fire where they were both burned, with all the others of whom not one escaped.
At about the same time and in the same place, a Portuguese gave such a sword blow to an Indian as almost cut the latter in two: the Indian falling to the ground as though almost dead, before expiring, seized a spear that hap- pened to lie in front of him, and threw it at the
OF SANTA CRUZ 101
man who had mortally wounded him, saying: "Receive this my will which I am not able to carry out, for this is all I can do to you by way of revenge."9 Whence one may truly infer, that there is nothing which so torments them at the hour of their death as the grief they have at not, being able to wreak vengeance on their enemies.
102 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
CHAPTER XII.
ABOUT THE DEATH THEY METE OUT TO
THEIR CAPTIVES AND THE CRUELTIES
THEY PRACTISE UPON THEM
One of the customs of these Indians which is most repugnant to human nature, and in which they seem to exceed all other men, is the great and excessive cruelty which they employ toward any person whatsoever, not of their tribe, who may fall into their hands. For they not only mete out to him a cruel death, at a time when they are most free and disengaged from all passion; but, moreover, after this, in order completely to satisfy themselves, they eat all his flesh, thereby displaying such diabolical cruelty that they are even worse than brute beasts who have no reason and were not born to exercise clemency.98
First, whenever they capture an enemy, one not killed in active combat, they take him to their own land, so that they may all take vengeance on him according to their taste. As soon as the people in the village have news that they are bringing in such a captive, they go out from the village for about half a league where they wait
OF SANTA CRUZ 103
for him. When he arrives they all receive him with gross insults and vituperation, playing upon flutes which it is their custom to make out of the leg bones of enemies whom they have killed in the same way. And as they enter into the village after having walked with him in triumph from one place to another, they put about his neck a cotton rope made for the purpose, and very thick where it encircles the neck, so woven and tied that no one can do or undo it save the official who made it. This rope has two long ends by which they tie him at night so that he can not escape. Then they put him in a house, and next to the station of the man who captured him they hang up his hammock, and as soon as he [the cap- tive] gets into it all the insults cease, and no one abuses him further. The first thing they pre- sent to him is a girl, the most beautiful and hon- oured of the village, whom they give to him for a wife: and from that day on she is responsible for preparing his food and guarding him, and he may never go anywhere unless she accompany him. After having feted him for a year, or as long as they desire, they decide to kill him, and during the last days before his death they pre- pare, for the celebration of the carrying out of their vengeance, many new utensils, and make much wine of the juice of the plant they call
104 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
aipim, of which mention has been made above. During this time they erect a new house where they put the prisoner. On the day in which he has to suffer, very early in the morning, before sunrise, they take him from the house, and with many songs and much dancing, they bathe him in a stream. And as soon as they have led him back to the village, they take him to the public square in the centre of the village where they transfer the rope from his neck to his waist, with one end of it in front and the other in back; and at each end two or three Indians lay hold. They leave his hands free for they delight in seeing him de- fend himself with them: and they place within reach some hard fruit similar to oranges, which they have among them, which he can throw and with which he can injure whomever he wishes. The man who is appointed to kill him is one of the bravest and most distinguished of the country, upon whom they bestow the appointment in token of their esteem and as a mark of honour. He feathers his whole body with the feathers of par- rots or other birds of various colours. Thus at- tired, he comes upon the scene with an Indian who carries his sword upon an earthen vessel; the sword is made of a hard and heavy wood and is shaped like a club, although at the end there is a resemblance to a paddle. Having arrived be-
OF SANTA CRUZ 105
fore the prisoner, he takes his sword and twirls it about, first one way then another, under his legs and arms. These ceremonies over, he withdraws a bit from the prisoner, and begins to make a speech in the manner of a sermon, saying, that he [the captive] should show himself very brave in defense of his person, so that he [the execu- tioner] should not be dishonoured, and so that no one could say he had killed a weak effeminate man of no spirit, and that he [the captive] should remember those valiant men who have died that way at the hands of their enemies, and not in their hammocks like weak women who were not born to achieve such honour by their deaths. If the victim is a spirited man and is not dis- mayed by this incident (as sometimes happens) he replies with much haughtiness and daring, that he should be killed at once since he has killed many of their relatives and friends. Neverthe- less he is aware that, as they are taking vengeance on him for these deaths, just so will his tribe have, like valiant men, to avenge him; and they will do it in the same way upon him [the executioner] and his whole tribe. These and similar words having been said, which they employ on such oc- casions, the executioner rushes upon him with the sword raised in both hands as though he were going to kill him, and with it he threatens him
106 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
many times, making feints as though he would strike him. The miserable victim, who sees above him the cruel sword in the grip of those violent and relentless hands of his arch-enemy, with eyes and attention fixed upon it, vainly defends himself to the best of his ability. And while these attacks are going on, it sometimes happens that they come to grips and that the victim maltreats the executioner with his own sword. But this is very rare, for the onlookers rush up very quickly to free him from his hands. As soon as the exe- cutioner sees an opportune time, he gives him such a blow on the head that the skull is shattered. There is an old Indian woman ready with a large gourd in her hand, and as he falls, she comes up very quickly and puts it under the head to catch in it the brains and blood. Having finished killing him in this way, and having cut him in pieces, each chief who is present takes his portion to re- gale the people of his village. They roast and cook every part of him, and nothing is left of which the people in the community do not par- take, every one save the man who killed him; he eats nothing, but on the other hand orders him- self scarified over the whole body, because they consider it certain that he would soon die if he did not spill some of his own blood as soon as he had performed this duty. They are accustomed to
or SANTA CRUZ 107
smoke an arm or a leg or some other part," and to keep it some months, so that, when they wish, they can have another feast with the same ceremonies, in order to renew the pleasure of their vengeance, as on the day when they killed the victim. And after they have once thus eaten the flesh of their enemies, their hatred is confirmed in perpetuity, for they feel this insult very deeply, and for that reason they are always trying to avenge them- selves one on the other, as I have said. And if the woman who was the wife of the prisoner is found to be with child, after the child is born and weaned, it is killed and eaten without there being a person to pity so unjust a death. Its very grandparents (who should feel the most grief) are the ones to aid in eating it with the greatest zest, and they say that, as it is the son of its father, they are taking vengeance on the father; for they believe that under the circumstances this creature derives nothing from the mother, nor do they think that such unfriendly seed can blend with her blood. It is only with that object in view that they give him the woman to live with ; for in truth they are such [fiendish] people that they would not be completely avenged upon the father unless they put into execution this cruelty upon the innocent son. But as the mother knows the end which her child must suffer, often when she
108 HISTORY or THE PROVINCE
realizes she is pregnant she kills the child in the womb, so that it will not see the light. It some- times happens also that she falls in love with her husband, and succeeds in fleeing with him to his country to save him from death. There are a few Portuguese100 who have escaped that way and who are still living. Nevertheless, it would J>e * impossible for one to escape from their hands with his life who is not saved by this means, or by some occult stratagem, for they [the Indians] are not accustomed to grant life to any captive, • nor would they give up their hope of vengeance i for any wealth in the world, whether the victim were male or female. Except that if a chief or some one else in a village happens to marry one of the female slaves of the enemy, as very often hap- pens, by this act she becomes free, and they agree not to take vengeance upon her, in deference to the man who married her. But as soon as she - dies a natural death, in order to comply with the rules of their cruelty, (and there is nothing in this to give offense to the husband) they are ac- customed to crush her head, although in rare cases when she has sons, these will not allow any one to come near her, and they stand guard over her body until it is given burial.103
There are other Indians of another race found in those regions, even fiercer and with less
or SANTA CRUZ 109
reason than these. They are called Aimores, and travel along the coast as highwaymen, and they inhabit the region from the Captaincy of Ilheos to that of Porto Seguro whither they came from, the sertao about the year 1555. Their reason for living in this part of the country, more than else- where, is that the country is better suited to their ends, as much because of the dense woods in which they are always lying in ambush, as for the quantity of game there, which is the principal food on which they are maintained. These Aimores are whiter and of larger stature than the rest of the Indians of that land, and their lan- guage has no similarity or relationship to that of the others. They all live in the thick woods like brute beasts, without having villages or houses in which to gather. They are excessively strong, and carry very long bows which are thick in proportion to their strength, with arrows to match. These brutes [Aimores} have done much harm in the Captaincies from the time they de- scended on the coast, and have killed some Portu- guese and slaves, for they are very barbarous and hate everybody in the land. ; They do not fight in the open, nor have they sufficient courage for that] they hide in the thicket near a path, and whefTany one passes they shoot him in the heart or some other vital spot in order to kill him, and
I
110 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
they never shoot an arrow without hitting the mark,- The women carry thick clubs like maces with which they help dispatch people when the occasion offers. Up to now no means of destroy- ing this perfidious race has been found; because as soon as they see an opportune moment they make an attack and immediately retire very quickly to the forest, where they are so agile and crafty that, when we think they are fleeing from their pursuers, they leave behind them some of their men, who hide and shoot any one who care- lessly goes on ; ii^this way they kill many people. For this reason,fall who live in the country, In- dians and Portuguese alike, fear them greatly^ consequently, in those parts infested by them, no inhabitant will go to his ranch overland without taking with him fifteen or twenty slaves armed with bows and arrows for his protection. Most of the time they wander about scattered in differ- ent places, and when they want to assemble they whistle like birds or like monkeys, in such a way that they understand and recognize one another without being recognized by any other person. They do not spare any one's life even for an hour, but they very suddenly and swiftly take their re- venge; so much so that often while the person is still alive they cut off his flesh and roast and eat it before his very eyes. I Finally, these savages
/
OF SANTA CRUZ 111
are so harsh and cruel that words are lacking to describe their cruelty. The Portuguese have al- ready taken some of them : but as they are so bar- barous and untractable, they have never been able to tame them, or force any of them into servitude, as the other Indians of the land who accept, un- like these, submission to captivity.
There are also certain Indians on the banks oLthe Maranhao, on the eastern shore, in latitude about two degrees, who are called Tapuyas, who say they are of the same race as these Aimares, or at least brothers in arms, and hence they do not molest one another when they meet. These Tapuyas do not eat the flesh of any of their enemies ; on the other hand they are arch-enemies of all those who do eat flesh, and pursue them with mortal hatred. -Nevertheless they have an- other rite more ugly and diabolical, contrary to nature and inspiring great disgust. It is this: if one of them happens to be so sick that they despair of his life, his father and mother, brothers and sisters, or any other near relatives, kill him with their own hands, holding that they have more compassion for him thus than if they per- mit death to hover about him, slowly consuming him for a vague length of time. And the worst of it is, they roast, cook and eat all his flesh, and say that they should not allow anything so low
112 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
and vile as earth to devour the flesh of any one they loved so much; that, since he is their rela- tive, there is so great a bond of love between them that the most honourable sepulture they can de- vise is to place him within themselves and shelter him forever in their entrails.
As it is my principal intention to speak here only of those Indians who are common to the coast, and who have communication with the Portuguese, I do not wish to delay by going into the details of some of the rites of this and other nations in the Province; for it would seem to me rash and imprudent to set down in so truthful a history what by chance might be false informa- tion, because of the little news we now have about the greater part of the aborigines who live far inland.
OF SANTA CRUZ 113
CHAPTER XIII.
OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED THERE BY
THE FATHERS OF THE COMPANY IN
SPREADING THEIR DOCTRINE.
In all the Captaincies of that Province the Fathers of the Company of JESUS have erected monasteries, and have built a few churches in cer- tain places among the Indians who are peace- able, where some of the Fathers reside in order to preach their Doctrine and to make Christians of them: they all accept this Doctrine readily and without any contradiction. For, as they have no law, or anything which they worship, it is very easy for them to accept ours. And on the other hand, with the same facility they turn away for the most trivial reason and many flee to the sertao after having been baptized and instructed in Christian Doctrine.102 Because the Fathers have observed their inconstancy in this respect, and the slight capacity they have for observing the com- mandments of the Law of God (for it is among the elders that the seed of their Doctrine brings forth the least fruit) they try, especially, to plant the Doctrine among the children whom they
114 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
raise from infancy instructed in it. And in this way, they have hopes that with time (by the grace of God) the Christian religion will spread throughout the whole Province, and that some day our Holy Catholic Faith will flourish as univer- sally there as in any other part of Christendom. And in order that the fruit of this Doctrine might not be lost, but might continue to grow, the Fathers themselves decided to remove occasions which, on our part, might be hindrances, causes for scandal, or prejudicial to the consciences of the inhabitants of the country. Since these In- dians covet certain things which come from the Kingdom of Portugal, namely, shirts, jerkins, iron tools, and similar things, they sell one an- other in exchange for these articles to the Portu- guese; these, on the other hand, capture as many as they want and do them many injuries without any one's checking them [the Portuguese].10' But now there is no longer this disorder in the land or the traffic in slaves as formerly. For, after the Fathers saw the unreasonableness with which they were treating the Indians, and the slight service to God proceeding from these acts, they took this business in hand and prohibited, as I said, the many assaults which the Portuguese themselves were making on these shores : for they were burdening their consciences heavily by seiz-
OF SANTA CRUZ 115
ing unlawfully many Indians and by waging unjust wars upon them. And to avoid all this, the Fathers ordered and arranged with the Gov- ernours and Captains of the land that there should be no more trading in slaves in the same way as in the past, nor were any Portuguese to be allowed to go to an Indian village without the permission of the Captain himself. And if they disobeyed, or did wrong to the Indians in any way, even if they had a permit, they were well punished for the deed according to the crime. Aside from this, in order that there may be more frankness in that part of the country, whatever slaves are newly come out of the sertao, or from one Captaincy to another, all go first to the custom house where they examine them and ask them questions : who sold them and what were the terms of purchase; for no one has the right to sell them save their fathers (if in case of dire necessity) or those who have captured them in a just war; those whom they find acquired illegally, they set at liberty. In this way the Indians who are pur- chased are fairly acquired, and the inhabitants of the land do not fail on this account to make good progress with their possessions.
The Fathers have done many other benefi- cent and pious deeds in those parts, and are continuing to do so, and in truth one can not deny
118 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
great and populous cities, which possessed much riches, and very long streets in which the only occupation was working in gold and precious
f stones.rHere they remained a few days with the inhabitants, who seeing among them some iron tools which they carried with them, asked from whom they had been obtained and by what means they had come into their hands. They replied that there was a certain people who lived by the sea toward the east, who wore beards and were of a different appearance from themselves, from whom they had gotten these things, and that these were Portuguese. J These Indians [the in- habitants of the cities] gave similar reports about the Castillians of Peru, telling them [the travel- ling Indians] that they had news from the other sea-coast that there was a similar people there,
. and then they gave them discs covered with sheets of gold and set with emeralds: and they asked them to take these [objects] with them, in order that in case they reached their own land [still possessing] them, they should tell the Portuguese that they wished to barter such and similar ob- jects with them [Portuguese] for the iron utensils, and to have communication with them, and they [inhabitants of the cities] did so because they were ready to receive them [Portuguese] with much good will. After this, they [travelling In-
OF SANTA CRUZ 119
dians] left there and came to the River of the Amazons where they embarked in canoes which they made: and after navigating thereon more than two years, they arrived in the Province of Quito, a land of Peru peopled with Castillians. The latter, seeing a new people, were much sur- prised, and did not know how to determine whence they had come, nor for what reason. But soon they were recognized, by some Portuguese who hap- pened to be in that country, as aborigines from the Province of Sancta Cruz. And asked by them the reason for their coming, they related the matter in detail, making known all that had happened to them. Thus the news came to us, both through the Castillians of Peru where these discs were sold for a great price, and from the Portuguese who were there when the event happened, and with whom certain people in Portugal have spoken, people of authority and worthy of credit ; these have tes- tified that they have heard them relate all this in detail, just as I am relating it. It is well known that all these riches lie within the land belonging to the King of Portugal, and that they are un- doubtedly nearer to the towns of the Portuguese than to those of the Castillians. This is clearly shown by the short length of time the Indians took to reach there [the rich cities], and the great length of time which they spent going from there
120 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
to Peru, which was two years, as I have said. Aside from the reliability of this information which we have from these channels, there are ] many other Indians in the country who also affirm Ltbat there is much gold in the sertdo : these reports, although emanating from people of little trust- worthiness and credence, are believed in that re- gion, because they are for the most part from eye- witnesses, and [Indians] in various parts of the country speak [all] in the same tenor. It is primarily a matter of public belief that there is a very large lake in the interior of the country, in which rises the river Sao Francisco of which I have treated: in this [lake], they say, are many islands on which many cities are built, and there are also many other large cities on the shore, where there is also much gold, a greater quantity of it (they affirm) than in any other part of the Province. Moreover, inland not very far from the Rio da Prata, the Castillians have discovered
'
a mine of the metal, from which they have taken gold to Peru, and from each quintal of ore they say they have taken five hundred and seventy cruzados ; and from another source, three hun- dred and more [from each quintal] : they obtain also, from the same ore, an infinite amount of copper. They have discovered also other mines of white and green stones, and stones of other
OF SANTA CRUZ 121
colours: and they all have five or six facets like
diamonds, and they are cut by Nature as if it had
been done by human skill.104 These stones grow
in a rock the size of a cocoanut which is entirely
hollow, with more than four hundred stones in
the interior, stuck into the shell with the points
projecting inward. Some of these rocks are found
in an imperfect state; because they say that, when
it is time for them to burst, they do so with as
much noise as though a whole army had shot off
their arquebuses: and so they find many which
(as they say) the force of the explosion has
caused to be embedded in the ground to the depth
of one or two estadios.™1 I do not speak here of
their value, for at the present time it is not
known : but I do know that of these and of other
varieties there are many, and very fine ones, in
the Province, and many metals, from which one
may extract infinite wealth. May God permit
all of these things to be found, even in our days,
so that this wealth may greatly augment
the crown : and we hope that thus (by divine
favour) the Kingdom shall soon be placed
in so happy and prosperous a condition,
that more can not be desired.
The end.
Printed in Lisbon, in the office of Antonio Gonsalvez. In the Year 1576.
120 HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
to Peru, which was two years, as I have said. Aside from the reliability of this information which we have from these channels, there are j many other Indians in the country who also affirm Lthat there is much gold in the sertdo : these reports, although emanating from people of little trust- worthiness and credence, are believed in that re- gion, because they are for the most part from eye- witnesses, and [Indians] in various parts of the country speak [all] in the same tenor. It is primarily a matter of public belief that there is a very large lake in the interior of the country, in which rises the river Sao Francisco of which I have treated: in this [lake], they say, are many islands on which many cities are built, and there are also many other large cities on the shore, where there is also much gold, a greater quantity of it (they affirm) than in any other part of the Province. Moreover, inland not very far from the Rio da Prata, the Castillians have discovered a mine of the metal, from which they have taken gold to Peru, and from each quintal of ore they say they have taken five hundred and seventy cruzados; and from another source, three hun- dred and more [from each quintal] : they obtain also, from the same ore, an infinite amount of copper. They have discovered also other mines of white and green stones, and stones of other
OF SANTA CRUZ 121
colours: and they all have five or six facets like
diamonds, and they are cut by Nature as if it had
been done by human skill.104 These stones grow
in a rock the size of a cocoanut which is entirely
hollow, with more than four hundred stones in
the interior, stuck into the shell with the points
projecting inward. Some of these rocks are found
in an imperfect state; because they say that, when
it is time for them to burst, they do so with as
much noise as though a whole army had shot off
their arquebuses: and so they find many which
(as they say) the force of the explosion has
caused to be embedded in the ground to the depth
of one or two estadios™ I do not speak here of
their value, for at the present time it is not
known: but I do know that of these and of other
varieties there are many, and very fine ones, in
the Province, and many metals, from which one
may extract infinite wealth. May God permit
all of these things to be found, even in our days,
so that this wealth may greatly augment
the crown : and we hope that thus (by divine
favour) the Kingdom shall soon be placed
in so happy and prosperous a condition,
that more can not be desired.
The end.
Printed in Lisbon, in the office of Antonio Gonsalvez. In the Year 1576.
Treatise ON THE J(and o
IN WHICH Is CONTAINED
INFORMATION CONCERNING
THE CONDITIONS IN THOSE
PARTS:
BY
Pero de Magalhaes
Introduction
Among the few writers in Portugal who have dealt with Brazilian affairs, Pero de Magalhaes deserves a distinguished place; for, going over to that continent something like seventy years after its discovery, he remained there a long enough time to acquire detailed data about the natives of those portions of the land nearest to our settle- ments, about their customs, and about some of the products with which liberal Nature has enriched that country.
Upon his return to the Kingdom (in order to urge his compatriots to settle new colonies in that fertile region) he wrote a Relation of what he had seen and learned, under the title of His- toria da prouincia sacta Cruz, a que vulgarmete chamamos Brazil, a book which today is exces- sively rare, there never having been any edition of it but the first, printed in 1576.
Besides this opuscule and one other which he printed on the Orthography of the Portuguese Language, no other works of Pero de Magalhaes were known, when chance brought to light the one which we now offer to the public: it is preserved in manuscript of a handwriting contemporary with that period.
126 TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL
From the dedication which accompanied it, it is known that after his return from Brazil the author wrote a Tratado of all that he had seen there, which he offered to the King, Dom Sebas- tian, who then wielded the sceptre of the Portu- guese Monarchy: and that a few days afterward he offered this one to the Cardinal, Prince Dom Henrique: it being very probable that after the completion of both he undertook the last one, per- haps the most extensive of any: which for that reason he destined for the press, and dedicated to Dom Lionis Pereira, a former Governour of Malacca, through the intervention of the great Luis de Camoes.
In spite of the fact that the manuscript we offer today is more succinct than the printed ac- count, it should not be considered lacking in in- terest, for in it the author refers to some particu- lars which he omitted in the other, and even when he relates the same facts, it is not only with a dif- ference in expression, but also many times with a difference in details. The reader who takes the trouble to compare these two works will easily be convinced of their difference and importance.108
TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL 127
To THE VERY EXALTED AND MOST SERENE
PRINCE, DOM ANRRIQUE, CARDINAL,
INFANT OF PORTUGAL.
The fact that a few days ago I presented another Summary of the Lands of Brazil to the King our Master, was primarily in fulfillment of that obligation which we all owe as subjects to our King: and for the same reason it seems necessary to me (very exalted and most serene Sir) to offer this as well to Your Highness, to whom is due all praise for the increase and flourishing condition of the Kingdom: for you were always very solicitous in increasing the realm and keeping its subjects and vassals in perpetual peace. Understanding this and knowing how ac- ceptable to Your Highness are good services rendered to the realm, I communed with myself as to what I could bring from those parts to give as a testimony of my pure intentions; and I found that a greater service (although it may not seem so) could not be expected fvom an insignificant individual than to write this Relation on the Land of Brazil (something which until noiv no one has undertaken), so that here in the Kingdom its fertility might be divulged and many poor persons might be induced to go live in that Prov- ince: for in this way will the Province be happy and increase. Because Your Highness realizes how great a service to God and the King our Master this descrip- tion will be, I determined to compose it with the in-
128 TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL
tention of offering it to Your Highness; its ungracious reception on your part will greatly grieve your humble servant; but with the favour of your acceptance I shall be gratified, beseeching our Lord to bestow upon you many prosperous years of life, and to grant that you enjoy perpetual felicity in your royal state. Amen.
The humble vassal of Your Highness,
Pero de Magalhaes, etc.
TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL 129
PROLOGUE TO THE READER.
My intention in this Summary (discreet and inquiring reader) was only to announce in few words the fertility and abundance of the Land of Brazil, in order that the reputation of that coun- try might reach many persons who live in poverty in the Kingdom, and that they might not hesitate to choose it for their relief: because the land it- self is so natural, and so favourable to strangers, that there is room for all, and to every one is offered relief, however poor and without re- sources he may be; and the country is constantly becoming more prosperous: and as soon as the luxuriant fields (which are today unsettled for lack of people) are occupied large ranches will be established there, such as the inhabitants in the land have already established in the fields they possess: moreover, it is hoped that in time this Province will flourish in wealth as have those of the Antilles of Spain: for it is certain that the soil in itself is very rich, and has in it many metals which till now have not been discovered, either because there were no people in the land to start the enterprise, or because of the negligence of the inhabitants who do not care for this work:
130 TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL
whatever the reason for failing to do it, I do not know: but our Lord will permit the discovery there of great treasure even in our day, as much for the increase and service of Your Highness as for the advantage of the vassals who wish to serve you.
DESCRIPTION or THE COAST.
The coast of Brazil lies toward the west and runs north and south. From the first settlement to the last is a distance of three hundred and fifty leagues. There are eight Captaincies, all of which have very safe harbours, where any ships, no matter how large they may be, can enter. There are no Portuguese settlements inland, be- cause the Indians prevent them : moreover, on ac- count of assistance from and dealings with the Kingdom, it was necessary for the settlements to be near the sea, to facilitate the exchange of mer- chandise; therefore they all live by the coast.
TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL 131
[FIRST PART]
CHAPTER I.
THE CAPTAINCY or TAMARACA.
The town of the first Captaincy, and the old- est one, is on an island called Tamaraca, very close to the mainland : the island is three leagues long, and two wide: the Captaincy has a coast- line of thirty-five leagues: the coast to the north belongs to Dona Jeronima Dalbuquerque, former wife of Pero Lopes de Sousa, who has appointed a Captain over it. Here there is a sugar mill, and now two more are building, and much brazil- wood and cotton. There may be about one hun- dred citizens. In this Captaincy there is much good land for settling and establishing ranches.
132 TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL
CHAPTER II.
THE CAPTAINCY OF PERNAMBUCO.
The Captaincy of Pernambuco is five leagues from Tamaraca toward the south, in the altitude of eight degrees, and the Captain and Governour is Duarte Coelho Dalbuquerque. There are two towns; the principal one is called Olinda and the other Garassu, which is four leagues inland. There are about a thousand inhabitants in this Captaincy. There are twenty-three sugar mills of which three or four are not yet completed. Some mills function with oxen, and these are called tripiches; they make less sugar than the others, but the majority of them in Brazil func- tion with water. Each one of these mills makes three thousand arrobas [of sugar] per year. In this Captaincy they make more sugar than in the others, for there are years when they exceed fifty thousand arrobas, although the yield is not cer- tain but depends upon the crop and the weather. This is one of the rich districts of Brazil; there are many Indian slaves, which are the principal commodity of the region: here they buy them and take them to all the other Captaincies, because there are more of them and they are cheaper than
TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL 133
anywhere else on the coast: there is much brazil- wood and cotton, from which the inhabitants are getting rich. The haven where the ships enter is a league from the town of Olinda : they disembark on the beach, and also in a little river which flows right up to the city itself. More ships from Por- tugal come to this Captaincy each year than to any of the others. There is in the Captaincy a monastery of the Fathers of the Company of Jesus.
RIVERS.
There are two mighty rivers as far as the Bahia de Todos los Santos : one is called S. Fran- cisco; it is in ten and a half degrees; it enters the sea with such fury that its waters run twenty leagues into the ocean. The other river is in eleven and two-thirds degrees and is called Rio Real : it is also very large and its waters run far into the ocean.
134 TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL
CHAPTER III.
THE CAPTAINCY OF BAHIA DE TODOS LOS SANTOS.
The Captaincy of Bahia de Todos los Santos is one hundred leagues from Pernambuco, in the altitude of thirteen degrees. It belongs to the King our Master, and there reside the Gov- ernours, Bishop and Ouvidor Geral of the whole coast. This is the part of Brazil most thickly populated by Portuguese. There are three towns, the principal one of which is the City of Sal- vador: another is Villa Velha located by the bar: this was the first settlement in the Captaincy. Later Thome de Sousa, the Governour, built the City of Salvador half a league farther along the Bahia [bay], as it was a more suitable and advantageous location for the inhabitants. Four leagues inland, there is the other town called Paripem. There are about eleven hundred in- habitants in this Captaincy; and eighteen sugar mills, some recently constructed. They also get much sugar, although the inhabitants give more attention to cotton than to cane because it grows better in that soil. Within the city there is a monastery of the Fathers of the Company of
TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL 135
Jesus, where they have a school for teaching Latin and Moral Theology. Besides this, there are five churches inland among the free Indians,101 where some of the Fathers live to Christianize and to marry the Indians, so as to prevent concu- binage.
The Bahia of this Captaincy is very large and beautiful, three leagues wide and navigable fifteen leagues inland. There are many islands of luxuriant soil which produce an infinite quantity of cotton: this Bahia divides into branches within, with many arms and coves. The inhabitants of the region all use it to go by boat to their ranches.
RIVERS.
Twelve leagues from Bahia de Todos los Santos, there is a river called Tinhareem, where ships going to the other Captaincies gather. Three leagues up it, one Bastiam da Ponte has a sugar mill near which are many fields uncultivated for lack of settlers, which will give a profit to who- ever will occupy them. Farther on, there is a river called Camamu in thirteen and two-thirds degrees, up which any ship whatsoever may safe- ly sail for four or five leagues: beside this river are many fat fields, and streams of water which can be applied to the sugar mills, all of which
136 TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL
are vacant because of the lack of people to settle them. There are many rich islands in the river well suited to the establishment of ranches. There is an extremely large quantity of fish in it, and on its banks, of game, wild hogs and deer: here could be built a town where all the inhabitants might live in plenty, and found many ranches. There is another river called Rio das Contas, in fourteen and a half degrees, not so large as the last, but still many ships may enter it also. In all these rivers there is an abundance of fish and game.
TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL 137
CHAPTER IV.
THE CAPTAINCY OF ILHEOS.
The Captaincy of Ilheos is thirty leagues from Bahia de todos los Santos, in fourteen and two-thirds degrees: it belongs to Francisco Gi- raldes, who has appointed a Captain.10* There are about two hundred inhabitants. Near the town there is a river where the ships enter, and which divides into many arms within; and the inhabitants use canoas in which to go about. There are eight sugar mills in this Captaincy. In the town there is a monastery of the Fathers of the Company of Jesus, which has recently been built. Only seven leagues inland from the city, there is a lake of fresh water three leagues long and three leagues wide, the depth of which they say is fifteen fathoms or more. There runs out of it a small stream where they are going to have skiffs. There is an outlet from this lake into the river, so narrow that it will hardly hold a skiff, and when one has entered the lake one can scarcely distinguish the entrance. There is so much water in it that any sailing ship whatso- ever may navigate, and when the wind blows hard as furious waves rise up as on the seas during a
138 TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL
storm. There is an infinity of fishes large and small: many manatis [sea-cows] grow there which have the muzzle of cows and two flippers which they use as arms to swim with: they have no scales, nor any other resemblance to fish save the tail: they kill them with harpoons: they are fat and so large that some weigh thirty or forty arrobas. It is a very savoury fish, and resembles beef absolutely, and tastes like it too: roasted it seems like loin of pork, or venison; it is boiled with cabbage or cooked like beef: no one who eats it believes it fish, unless he knew it before- hand. The females have two breasts for suckling their young which are raised on milk (a thing not occurring with any other fish). They are found in other bays and rivers on the coast, and although they grow in the sea, they are accus- tomed to drink fresh water, and assemble in this lake or where some stream empties into the sea. There are also many sharks in this lake, and alligators, and snakes, as well as other different kinds of marine monsters. There are many fields and very rich ones round about it, and much game: and in the stream which runs out of it, innumerable fish. In a word, this Captaincy of Ilheos is one of the best provided of all Brazil with food-stuffs.
TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL 139
CHAPTER V.
OF A RACE OF ABORIGINES WHICH is
FOUND IN THIS CAPTAINCY.
Throughout this Captaincy, as far as Spirito Sancto, there is found a certain nation of Indians which came from the sertao five or six years ago : they say that other Indians, enemies of theirs, came to attack them in their country and destroy them, and those who fled are the ones who are on the coast. They are called Aymores; their lan- guage is different from that of the other Indians ; no one understands them. They are so tall and large of body that they seem almost like giants; they are very fair, and do not resemble the other Indians of the country, nor do they have houses or towns to dwell in, but live in the thicket like brute beasts: they are exceedingly powerful and carry very long bows, thick in proportion to their strength, and the arrows likewise. These Indians have done much damage to the settlers, since they came to the coast, and have killed some Portu- guese and slaves, for they are enemies of every- body. They do not fight in the open, they have not the courage for that, but hide behind a tree near a path, and when any one passes by they
140 TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL
shoot him through the heart, or in a vital place, and never miss their shot. Finally, they have no honest dealing with any one, but always play a treacherous part. Their women carry fire-hard- ened clubs with which they fight. These Indians live by the bow; their food is game, insects, and human flesh: they build fires under ground so as not to be seen, and so no one will know where they are. Many rich fields near this Captaincy have been abandoned, for they can not be held by land to his ranch, without taking with him A sure means of destroying them has not been found, because they have no fixed dwelling place, and they never come out of the thicket. When we think that they are fleeing before those who pur- sue them, they remain behind, hidden, and shoot those who pass heedlessly by them; and in this way they kill people. All the Indians of Brazil are their enemies, and fear them greatly, because they are so treacherous a race: consequently, in a region where they are to be found, no settler goes by land to his ranch, without taking with him fifteen or twenty slaves armed with bows and ar- rows. These Ay mores are very fierce and cruel: one can not find words with which to express the cruelty of this people. They do not travel to- gether, but scattered in every direction: when they wish to assemble they whistle like birds or
TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL 141
like monkeys, and in this way they communicate with and recognize one another. The Portuguese also have killed some of them, and have destroyed many, especially in this Captaincy of Ilheos, for they are now aware of their craftiness and know their malice.
142 TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL
CAPTAIN VI.
THE CAPTAINCY OF PORTO SEGURO.
The Captaincy of Porto Seguro is thirty leagues from that of Ilheos, in seventeen and a half degrees. It belongs to the Duque Daveiro who has appointed a Captain. There are three towns: the principal one is Porto Seguro, which is near the haven where the ships enter: another, a league away, is called Santo Amaro: another, Santa Cruz, which is about four leagues to the North. There may be two hundred and twenty inhabitants. There are five sugar mills. There is a monastery of the Fathers of the Company of Jesus : the Aymores also infest this Captaincy, and injure the inhabitants as in Ilheos. It is a region well furnished with game, and they catch many fish in the river near the town.
TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL 143
CHAPTER VII.
THE CAPTAINCY OF SPIRITO SANCTO.
The Captaincy of Spirito Sancto, of which Vasco Fernandes Coutinho is the Captain and Governour, is fifty leagues from Porto Seguro, in twenty degrees. There is only one sugar mill, but they get from it the best sugar of all Brazil. There are also much cotton and brazil-wood here. There may be about one hundred and eighty in- habitants. In the town there is a monastery of the Fathers of the Company of Jesus. It [the Captaincy] has a very large river where the ships enter, in which they find more manatis than in any other river of the coast. In the sea by this Captaincy they kill a great quantity of all sorts of large fish; in the river as well there is abun- dance of fish. There are many very large planta- tions in this Captaincy, where the inhabitants are well provided with both native and cultivated products. And when the Fortress of Rio de Janeiro of this same Captaincy of Spirito Sancto was taken, everybody was nourished, and those who defended the place were always provided with the necessary food, as long as they were in the country.109
144 TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL
RIVERS.
Beyond this Captaincy, in the altitude of twenty-one degrees, is the Rio de Paraiba; it is very large and beautiful, and full of fish. Near Cabo Frio, in the altitude of twenty-two degrees, lies Bahia Fermosa, where one could found a Captaincy of many inhabitants, and where many fields are useless because of the lack of settlers. There are many other rivers in these regions, which I do not write about because they are small and unimportant, and because it was my inten- tion only to treat of the most notable where one might establish towns, and improve the surround- ing fields near the coast which are now un- occupied.
TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL 145
CHAPTER VIII.
THE CAPTAINCY OF Rio DE JANEIRO.
The City of San Sebastian, Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, is sixty leagues from Spirito Sancto, in twenty-three and a third degrees, and belongs to the King our Master. There are about one hundred and forty inhabitants in it, and now new settlers are coming in. It is the richest and most fertile region in Brazil. The fields are choice, and there is much water power for the sugar mills. There is much brazil-wood from which the inhabitants derive good profit. This Captaincy has a very large and beautiful river which divides into several branches, and all the fields on its shores are profitable, either for rais- ing food, or for sugar-cane or cotton, for the soil is very fertile and the best of all in Brazil. In this City there is a monastery of the Fathers of the Company of Jesus, whose numbers are in- creasing in the country; and they wish to see the country settled with numerous inhabitants be- cause, as I say, the lands of this Captaincy are broad, and they know how advantageous they are for the poor people who come to settle on them.
146 TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL
In time there will be large ranches there, and he who goes to live there with the ambition [of own- ing one] will not be disappointed.
TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL 147
CHAPTER IX.
THE CAPTAINCY OF SAN VICENTE.
The Captaincy of San Vicente is seventy leagues from Rio de Janeiro, in twenty-four de- grees. It belongs to Pero Lopes de Sousa, who has appointed a Captain there. This Captaincy and that of Rio de Janeiro are the coolest lands in Brazil; there are frosts in winter time about as in Portugal. They used to raise wheat in this Captaincy ; but now they do not plant it, for there are other food-stuffs less costly. There are towns, and a fortress which is on an island near the mainland, four leagues to the north, called Briti- oga, which with its artillery is the defense of this Captaincy against the Indians and the French. The principal town is called Santos, where there is a monastery of the Fathers of the Company of Jesus: there is another town a league farther on, beside the river, called San Vicente: there, too, is another monastery of the Fathers of the Com- pany. Inland ten leagues these same Fathers built a town among the Indians which is called Campo,110 where there are many inhabitants, the majority of them Mamelukes, sons of Portuguese men and native Indian women. Here and in
148 TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL
other Captaincies these Fathers of the Company have had much success, and have secured the in- crease of the land ; and they labour to Christianize the Indians, and to impose peace among men. They also secure the restoration of liberty to the Indians whom some of the inhabitants have illegally enslaved: and they always come to the assistance111 of those who deviate from the service of God or of Your Highness. There may be \ about five hundred inhabitants in this Captaincy, j and four sugar mills, and many rich fields from / which the inhabitants get much food, and crops, and all live in plenty. This is the last Captaincy in this region of Brazil.
TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL 149
[SECOND PART]
Or MATTERS COMMON TO THE WHOLE COAST or BRAZIL.
CHAPTER I.
THE RANCHES.
The inhabitants of this coast of Brazil all hold lands in fee [sesmaria], granted and guar- anteed by the Captains of the land; and the first thing which they seek to obtain is slaves to work the land and to till their plantations and ranches, because without them they can not maintain themselves in the country ; and one of the reasons why Brazil does not flourish much more is that the slaves revolt and flee to their own land and run away every day; and if these Indians were not so fickle and given to flight, the wealth of Brazil would be incomparable; the crops from which they obtain the greatest profit are sugar, cotton, and brazil-wood, and, because there is little money in the country, they pay with these the merchants who bring them goods from the Kingdom; thus they sell and exchange one mer- chandise for another at its just value. All the inhabitants of this country have plantations of
150 TREATISE ON THE LAND or BRAZIL
food-stuffs and sell much manioc flour one to the other, from which they also derive much profit.
The majority of cattle on this coast are oxen and cows of which there is great abundance in all the Captaincies, because there is much grass and the country is always covered with verdure ; except in Porto Seguro where cattle thrive only in the first year, in which time, they say, they become so fat that they all die from excessive fat. Of goats and sheep there are very few up to the present, but now they are beginning to multiply again. Goats breed better than sheep and have two or three young at a time. The inhabitants make money from this kind of cattle raising also. There are mares and stallions, too, but so far they are dear because they are not numerous in the land. They bring them from Cabo Verde here and they succeed very well. One finds also on the coast much ambergris which the sea throws up in nearly every instance when there is a storm and high water. Then many persons send their slaves to the shore to collect it in those places where it is usually cast up. Often it happens that they thus become rich upon what their slaves find, as well as by trading in it with the free Indians, [which inures to] the happiness and benefit of each one. The clothes which are made in this country are of cotton, the most of which comes
•1
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from the Kingdom; there are also many Guinea slaves.1" These are more certain than the In- dians of the country, because they never flee as they have nowhere to go. There is also much breeding of hogs, hens, mallards [adens], and wild ducks [patos da terra]. These are the stock and crops of the inhabitants of Brazil.
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CHAPTER II.
THE CUSTOMS or THE COUNTRY.
As soon as persons who intend to live in Brazil become inhabitants of the country, how- ever poor they may be, if each one obtain two pairs or half a dozen slaves, which might cost somewhere in the neighborhood of ten cruzados, he then has the means for sustenance; because some fish and hunt, and the others produce for him maintenance and crops ; and so little by little the men become rich and live honourably in the land with more ease than in the Kingdom, be- cause these same Indian slaves hunt food for themselves and in this way the men have no ex- pense for the maintenance of their slaves, nor for their own persons. Most of the beds in Brazil are hammocks hung up in the house on two cords, and one stretches out in them to sleep. This cus- tom they took from the native Indians. The in- habitants of these Captaincies treat one another very well and are more lavish than the people of the Kingdom, both in eating and in the clothing of their persons. They enjoy helping one another with their slaves, and they favour the poor new arrivals in the country, for this is the custom in
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'T' W these parts; and they perform many other pious
deeds, as a result of which all have the means of life and no poor ask alms from door to door, as in the Kingdom.
\
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CHAPTER III.
THE QUALITY or THE SOIL.
In these parts of Brazil there are six months of summer and six months of winter ; the summer months are from September to February, those of winter from March to August ; so, when it is win- ter in the Province of Brazil, here in the Kingdom it is summer, and the days are almost of the same length as the nights, increasing and diminishing only one hour. In the winter months the prevail- ing winds blow from the south and southeast, in the summer from the northeast. The waters of the coast always run with the wind ; thus it is impossible to sail from some of the Captaincies to others unless one wait for the monsoons when wind and water move in the same direction, be- cause, as I have said, the winds blow six months in one direction and six in the other; hence fre- quently voyages are precarious, and when ships sail against the weather they run much risk, and [are obliged to] return in most cases to the port from whence they set forth. Eight days before All Saints Day, in the height of summer, a storm of south wind arises which lasts a week. Its oc- currence at this period is so certain and general
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that some ships wait for it to make their voyages. It is always warm in that country, almost as warm in winter as in summer; the viragao of the pre- vailing wind takes place at about midday: this breeze is so fresh and cool that one no longer feels the heat, and is refreshed in body. This wind from the sea lasts till daylight ; then it turns warm again by reason of the vapours of the land which still the wind. When it dawns the sky is all covered with clouds, and most mornings it rains in these regions, and the ground remains covered with mist because there are many clumps of trees, and the earth draws to itself all moisture. And, as soon as the prevailing wind dies out, a gentle wind begins to blow from inland where it arises, until the sun with its warmth in turn checks it, and the day clears up again, and re- mains bright and serene ; then the accustomed sea breeze starts. This land breeze is very dangerous and unwholesome; and if it happen to continue several days many people die, Portuguese as well as native Indians; but it is our Lord's will that this happen rarely; aside from this evil, it is a very healthful land of good climate, where people find themselves well disposed and live many years ; old folks especially have better health and appear to become young again, and for this rea- son some of them do not wish to return to their
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native lands, fearing that thus death would come to them sooner. The air in the morning is very fresh and healthful ; many people are accustomed to rise early to take advantage of it at its best. The land itself is slack and lazy; there men find themselves a little weak and their strength less than that they had in the Kingdom, on account of the heat, and the food that is used there. This applies to people who are new in the land ; but in time, after they become accustomed to it, they are as lusty and strong as if this land were their na- tive country. In this country they order pork given to sick people, because it is beneficial in any illness and harms no one ; the fish also has the same property and furnishes much nourishment to the ailing. The soil is very rich and fertile, entirely covered with exceedingly high leafy trees, whose verdure persists winter and summer; this is the reason for its raining often and for not having cold weather to harm whatever the land produces. The shadow beneath these trees is dense and the undergrowth so thick that the ground never receives heat or light from the sun, but is always damp and oozing with fresh water. The drinking water of the country is very health- ful and sweet ; however much of it one may drink, it does not injure one's health. The most of it turns at once to perspiration and the body re-
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mains free of fats and healthy. Finally, this land is so delightful and temperate that one never feels cold nor excessive heat.
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CHAPTER IV.
THE FOOD-STUFFS OF THE COUNTRY.
In these parts of Brazil they neither sow wheat nor grow any other food-stuff of this King- dom; what they eat there in place of bread is manioc flour, which is made of the root of a plant called mandioca which resembles inhame [yam] ; as soon as they get it out of the ground, it is soaked in water three or four days and, after it is soaked, they crush or scrape it very fine and squeeze the juice out of it, so that it remains quite dry, because the water which comes off it is so poisonous that any person or animal who drank it would die instantly. After they have cured it thus, they put a large earthen vessel over the fire, and, as this warms up, they pour into it the man- dioca and let it cook for a half-hour in the heat; then they take it out and it is ready to eat. How- ever, there are two varieties of flour, one called "war-flour" and the other "fresh flour;" the war- flour is very dry and is made in a way to keep longer and not spoil ; the fresh flour is whiter and more substantial; lastly, it is not so hard as the other, but does not last more than two or three days, after which time it quickly spoils: of this
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mandioca they make another kind of food which is called beijus: they are very white and much thicker than breas [wafers] ; the inhabitants of the country use these a great deal because they are very healthful and more easily digested than [European] flour. There is another plant that produces a root called hypim [aypim] of which they make cakes which resemble fresh bread in the Kingdom; and this root is also eaten roasted like sweet potatoes : any way it is cooked it is very tasty. There is also much milho zaburro in this land: it grows in all the Captaincies and of it they make a very white bread. There are plenty of inhames and sweet potatoes and other vege- tables in the land. There is great abundance of shell-fish and fish along the entire coast; with these foods the inhabitants of Brazil sustain themselves without making an outlay to diminish their possessions.
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CHAPTER V.
THE GAME or THE COUNTRY.
One of the things which gives much suste- nance and abundantly furnishes the inhabitants of this land of Brazil is the quantity of all sorts of game found in the forests; the native Indians kill it either with arrows or with the ingenuity of their snares and pitfalls by which they are ac- customed to take the greater part of it.
There is much deer and a large quantity of wild hogs of many varieties; there is one variety of small ones which have thick, rough, coarse hair; these have the navel on the back; many of them are killed, and other large ones which have not this quality. There are many antas which are almost as large as cows; they graze on grass like any other cattle and their flesh has the taste of beef; the skin of this animal is very thick and tough. There are also rabbits, but they have a different kind of ears [from Portuguese rabbits], smaller and round. There are other animals larger than hares which they call pacas whose meat is also very savoury. There are also other animals in the land which they eat and consider the best game in the forest. They are called tatus;
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'(/I
they are about the size of rabbits and have a shell like a cdcado [land-turtle], but divided into many jointed laminations; they closely resemble an armoured horse and have a long tail covered with the same kind of shell; their muzzle is like that of a sucking pig, and they obtrude only the head beyond the shell; their legs are short, and they live in burrows; their flesh has almost the taste of chicken; this game is highly esteemed in the land. There are also many forest fowls which the Indians kill with arrows, and many large savoury birds better than partridges. Of these and of many other varieties of game there is great abundance in Brazil.
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CHAPTER VI.
Or THE FRUITS OF THE COUNTRY.
A very savoury fruit grows in the land of Brazil, more prized than any other; it grows on a humble stalk close to the ground; it has spines like thistles ; its fruit grows like artichokes ; it re- sembles pine-cones and is called pineapple. When they are ripe they have an excellent odour; they gather them at the proper time, and with a knife cut off the coarse rind and carve them in slices, and in this way they are eaten; they are better in flavour than any of the fruits which grow in the Kingdom, and everybody likes them so much that they order entire fields planted with them, resembling thistle patches; they bring many of these pineapples preserved to our Kingdom. Another fruit grows upon large trees which are not planted, but grow wild in quantities in the forest; this fruit when it is ripe is very yellow; they resemble long pear-mains [pero repinal] and are called cashew; they are very juicy and on the end of them, on the outside, there grows a nut the size of a chestnut, and this grows before the fruit itself; its shell is more bitter than gall; if one only touch with it the lips, the bitterness lasts a long time and causes the whole mouth to
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blister; on the other hand, these nuts roasted are much more palatable than almonds; they are extremely hot by nature. There are so many of these nuts in the land that they measure them by alqueires [bushels].113 They also have a fruit which they call banana, and in the Indian lan- guage pacovos; there is a great abundance of them in the country; they resemble cucumbers in form and grow on very tender trees, and these trees are not very high nor have they branches, but only very long, broad leaves ; these bananas grow in bunches; some are found which have more than one hundred and fifty in the bunch, and often the weight of them is so great that it causes the trunk of the tree to break in the middle; at the proper time they gather these bunches, and after they are gathered they ripen ; as soon as these trees have produced fruit they cut them down, because they do not bear after the first time, and new shoots come up from the root: this is one of the best and most palatable fruits of the country; it has a skin like that of the fig which is taken off before eating, and if one eat many of them it in- jures the health and produces fever in whosoever overindulges; roasted ripe, they are very health- ful and they order them given to sick people; they feed the major part of the slaves of the coun- try on this fruit, for roasted green they are almost
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as good sustenance as bread. There are two varieties of this fruit, one small like borjassotes [borcejote, hard-rinded fig] and the other larger and much longer. The little ones have within a very strange thing; namely, when one cuts them with a knife in the middle or in any other part, one finds in them a sign like the crucifix which it entirely resembles.114 There is another fruit called fracazes, which are like meddlars, and even though one eat many of them, they do not harm the health. There is a native pepper which is eaten green; it burns very much. There are many other varieties of fruit in the forest which are so plentiful that, when people have found themselves in the forest they have lived on them many days without any other sustenance. Those fruits which I describe here are the ones which the Portuguese esteem most highly, and are the best of the country. Some of the fruits of the Kingdom grow in those parts, many varieties of melons, cucumbers, many varieties of figs, pome- granates, many grape-vines which yield grapes two or three times in the year; as soon as one va- riety is out of season others begin to yield. And thus Brazil is never without fruit; there is an infinite variety of lemons and oranges, and these thorny trees grow very well in the land, and in- crease more rapidly than the others.
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CHAPTER VII.
ON THE CONDITION AND CUSTOMS OF THE INDIANS OF THE COUNTRY.
It is impossible to enumerate or to know the multitude of barbarous people which Nature has sown throughout this land of Brazil, because no one can safely travel through the sertao, nor travel overland without finding villages of In- dians armed against all peoples; and as they are so numerous God granted that they are enemies one against the other, and that there is amongst them great hatred and discord, because other- wise the Portuguese would not be able to live in the land, nor overcome the great power of the in- habitants. There were many of these Indians on the coast near the Captaincies; the whole coast was inhabited by them when the Portuguese be- gan to settle the country; but, because these In- dians revolted against them and practised much treachery upon them, the Governours and Cap- tains of the land overthrew them little by little, and killed many of them; the others fled to the sertao; thus the coast remained unpopulated by the natives, near the Captaincies; however, some Indian villages, peaceful and friendly toward the Portuguese, were left.
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All the people of the coast have the same language; it lacks three letters, namely, /, I and r, a fact worthy of wonder because they also have neither Faith, Law, nor .Ruler; hence they live without justice and in complete disorder. The Indians go naked without any covering whatever, the males as well as the females; they do not cover any portion of their body, but all that Na- ture gave them goes uncovered. They all live in villages; there may be seven or eight houses in each. These houses are built long like rope- walks ; and each one of them is filled with people, each of whom has his stand on one side or the other, and the net in which he sleeps hung up there; thus they are all together, ranged in order, one after the other, and in the middle of the house there is an open aisle for passage. As I have said, there is among them no king nor jus- tice, but in each village there is a head-man who is like a Captain, to whom they give voluntary obedience, but not through force; if this head- man dies, his son takes his place; he serves no other purpose than to go with them to war to take counsel with them as to the method they should employ in fighting, but he does not punish their wrong-doing, nor does he command them in any respect against their wills. This head-man has three or four wives ; he has the greatest considera-
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tion for the first one and has more respect for her than for the others; they do this as a matter of position and dignity. They do not worship anything, nor do they believe that there is in an- other life glory for the good nor suffering for the wicked; they all believe that after this life ends their souls die with their bodies. Thus they live like beasts without thought, without regret and without restraint. These Indians are warlike and wage great wars, one tribe against the other; they are never at peace with one another, nor can they live on friendly terms, because one tribe fights against another, many are killed, and so their hatred goes on increasing more and more [with each encounter], and they remain real enemies perpetually. The arms with which they fight are bows and arrows; whatever they aim at they hit ; they are very accurate with this arm and much feared in war; they are expert in its use, and are much inclined to fight; they are very valiant and impetuous against their adversaries; and therefore it is a strange sight to witness two or three thousand naked men on opposite sides, shooting arrows at one another with shrieks and cries; all during this contest they are not still a moment, but leap from one place to another with much agility, so that the enemy can not aim at them nor shoot at any particular person : some of
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the old women are accustomed to gather up the arrows on the ground and serve them while they fight. This is a very bold people which fears death but little; when they go to war, it always seems to them that victory is certain and that none of their company is to die; and when they leave they say, "We are going out to kill," without any other thought, nor do they believe that they them- selves can be conquered.
They spare the life of none of their captives, but kill all and eat them, so that their wars are very perilous and should be considered seriously, because one of the reasons which have been the undoing of many Portuguese has been the great indifference with which they regarded fighting with the Indians, and the small concern which they felt for it; and so many of them have died miserably for not having prepared themselves as they should have ; among them there have been disastrous deaths, and this is happening at each step in those regions. If at the time of their im- petuous rush these Indians do not kill, but cap- ture some of their enemies, they bring them alive to their villages, whether they be Portuguese or of some enemy Indian tribe. As soon as they arrive at their houses, they place a very thick rope about the neck of the captive in order that he may not flee; they hang up for him a net in which to
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sleep, and give him an Indian girl, the most beau- tiful and honoured in the village, to sleep with him ; she is also charged with guarding him, and he goes nowhere unaccompanied by her. This Indian girl is charged with providing him well with food and drink; and after they have kept him in this way five or six months, or as long as they please, they decide to kill him. They cele- brate great ceremonies and feasts in those days, and prepare much wine on which to get drunk; this is made of the root of a plant called aypim which is first boiled; after it is cooked, some Indian virgins chew it and spit the juice into large jars, and in three or four days they drink it. On the morning of the day on which they kill the captive, they take him to bathe in a stream, if there is one near the village, with much singing and dancing; when they arrive with him in the village they tie about his waist four cords, one stretching in each direction, with three or four Indians attached to each end; in this way they lead him to the mi'ddle of the plaza, and pull so much on each of these cords that it is impos- sible for him to move in any direction : they leave his hands free because they enjoy seeing him de- fend himself with them. The man who is desig- nated to kill him first decks his whole body with parrot feathers of many colours ; this executioner
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must be the most valiant and most honoured of the country. He carries in his hand a sword of very hard, heavy wood, with which they are ac- customed to kill; and he comes up to the victim saying many things to him, threatening his entire posterity and his relatives: having insulted him with many injurious words, he gives him a heavy blow on the head which breaks his head in pieces and kills him on the spot. There is an old Indian woman by with a gourd in her hand who, as soon as the victim falls, approaches very quickly and puts this to his head, in order to catch the brains and blood. Finally, they cook or roast and eat every part of him, so that none of him remains. This they do more for the sake of vengeance than on account of hatred or to satisfy their appetites. After they have eaten the flesh of these enemies, they remain more confirmed in their hatred; be- cause this injury is felt keenly, they are always desirous of taking vengeance. If the girl with whom the captive slept is pregnant, they kill the child she bears, after it is weaned; they cook it and say that that child, boy or girl, is verily their enemy, and therefore they are very desirous of eating its flesh and taking vengeance upon it. And because the mother knows the end destined for the child, often when she is pregnant she kills the child in the womb and produces abortion. It
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sometimes happens that she falls so deeply in love with the captive and becomes so enamoured of him that she flees with him to his country, in order to save his life ; hence there are living today some Portuguese who have thus escaped. Many Indians have saved themselves in the same man- ner, although some of them are so brutish that they do not wish to flee after they have been taken. Once there was an Indian already tied in the plaza to be killed, and they gave him his life ; he did not desire it, but wished them to kill him, for, said he, his relatives would not consider him brave, and all of them would avoid him: hence it comes about that they do not fear death; and when that hour arrives they are imperturbable, and show no sadness in that pass. Finally, those Indians are very inhuman and cruel; no piety moves them; they live like brute beasts without the order or concord of men ; they are very disso- lute and given to sensuality, yielding to vice as though they lacked human reason; although they always have certain reserve, the males and fe- males in their congress, thereby manifesting a certain sense of modesty. They all eat human flesh and consider it the best of their dishes, not that of their friends with whom they are at peace, but that of their enemies. These Indians have this quality, that whatever they eat, however small
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the quantity, they must invite all present to share with them; this is the only charitable conception found among them. They eat whatever insects grow in the country, rejecting none, no matter how poisonous, except spiders. The male In- dians have the custom of pulling out all their beard, and do not allow hair to grow on any part of the body except the head, and they pull it out even from the lower part of this. The females pride themselves much on their hair, and wear it braided with ribbons. The males are accustomed to wear the lips pierced and a stone placed in the hole for decoration ; there are others who have the entire face full of holes, thereby appearing very ugly and disfigured; this is done to them when they are children. Some of these Indians also have the entire body painted with a certain dye, in lines of many patterns; they always paint themselves with the same designs; they do not wear these designs unless they have performed some deed of valour. Moreover, the males as well as the females are accustomed to dye them- selves with the juice of a fruit which is called genipdpo; this is green when squeezed out, and after they have placed it on their bodies and it has dried, it turns very black; however much one bathes, it can not be removed for nine days : they do all this for adornment. These Indian women
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are faithful to their husbands and are very friendly with them, because adultery is not toler- ated. Most of the men marry their nieces, the daughters of their brothers or sisters; these are their true wives, and the fathers of the women can not refuse their request. In these regions there are some Indian women who take an oath of chastity, and hence do not marry, or have com- merce with men in any respect; nor would they consent to it, even if their refusal meant death. These give up all the functions of women and imitate the men, pursuing the functions of the latter as though they were not women; they cut their hair, wearing it in the same way as the males ; they go to war with their bows and arrows, and hunt: in a word, they always go in company with the men, and each one has a woman to serve her, who provides food for her as if they two were married. The Indian men live very much at ease; they think about nothing except eating, drinking, and killing people; for this reason, they grow very fat, and when anything worries them they become very thin ; if any one is vexed at anything, he eats earth; and in this way many of them die like beasts. All are prone to follow the advice of the old women; their every sugges- tion is acted upon, and is believed to be true; hence it occurs that many inhabitants will not
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buy the old women [for slaves] , so that these will not have an opportunity to cause their slaves to flee. When these Indian women give birth, their first act after the birth is to wash themselves in a river, after which they are just as lusty as if they had not given birth. Instead of the woman, her husband remains in his hammock, and is visited and treated as though he were the one who had given birth. When one of these Indians dies, they are accustomed to bury him in a hole seated upon his feet, with the net in which he slept at his back, and then for the first few days they place something to eat over the grave. There are many other bestialities practised among these Indians which I shall not describe, for my intention was not to be lengthy, but to treat this entire subject briefly.
ABOUT TRADE.
These Indians have no possessions, nor do they try to acquire them like other people; they covet only a few articles which come from this Kingdom; namely, shirts, jerkins, iron tools, and other things; these they value highly and ear- nestly desire to obtain from the Portuguese : in ex- change for these, they used to sell one another; the Portuguese used to obtain many of them by purchase, and used to seize as many as they
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wanted, without hindrance; but now seizure and purchase are no longer accomplished as they used to be, for, after the Fathers of the Company came to these regions, they took in their hands this business, and forbade the Portuguese making raids along the coast; they [the Fathers] heavily charged the consciences [of the Portuguese] with the unjust seizure of Indians, and the causing of unjust wars; hence the Fathers commanded and obtained from the Captains of the country that slave trading [with the Indians] should cease, and that no Portuguese should go to the villages without the Captain's permission. And all slaves which today come from the sertao, or from the other Captaincies, are first taken to the custom- house where they are examined and questioned: who sold them, how they were purchased; be- cause no one has the right to sell them except their parents, or their captors in a just war; and those who are found to be wrongfully acquired are set at liberty: in this way, all Indians purchased today are legally acquired, and the inhabitants of the land are not failing on this account to in- crease their possessions.
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CHAPTER VIII.
THE WILD BEASTS OF THE COUNTRY.
It does not seem inappropriate to me in this summary to discuss somewhat the wild animals that grow in these regions; for everything [imaginable] exists in this country; nevertheless this means only that there is a great difference and variety of animals in different parts of the country. There are in these parts many very wild and poisonous animals, principally snakes of many species and different names. Some of them are so enormous that they can swallow a whole deer; it is affirmed, too, that this snake has the following property, that, after having eaten, it bursts at the belly, and all the flesh of its body rots, nothing remaining in healthy condition ex- cept the backbone, the head, and the point of the tail ; and, after it has remained for a time in this condition, little by little the flesh begins to grow again, until it is covered anew with flesh, as com- pletely as before : the above process many Indians have seen and witnessed; in their language this snake is called giboyossu.115 There are others of a different variety, much larger and more poison- ous; they are so exceedingly large that scarcely
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could seventeen Indians lift one of them which they killed by the seashore near the Portuguese [settlements] ; this snake is called sucuriju. An- other variety of them which they call boiteninga has on the point of its tail a thing which sounds very much like a rattle; and wherever this snake goes, it always makes this noise; it is one of the fiercest serpents of the land. There is another one which is called hebijares; it has two mouths, one in its head and the other in its tail, and it bites with both: this snake is white and very short; most of the time it is under ground; it is the most poisonous of all ; whoever is bitten by it can not live many hours; nor will any person bitten by the others live more than twenty-four hours. There is another kind which have no teeth and do not bite; these are not poisonous, nor are they very large; they are called japaranas. Some men affirm, moreover, that they have seen serpents in this land with very large wings, and frightful, but they are rarely found. There are many large alligators in the rivers of fresh water and in th^ thickets; their testicles smell better than musk, and whatever cloth is touched by them retains the odour for many days. The fiercest and most harmful of the beasts in the land are tigers; these animals are about the size of a heifer ; they go to the cattle corrals of the inhabi-
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tants and kill many cattle, and they are so fierce and strong that they can strike a young cow or steer a blow with their paw, and dash its brains out, and carry it off to the forest. Inland, some- times, they kill and eat the Indians when they are famished; they climb trees like cats; there they wait for game to pass beneath them and pounce upon it; and in this way nothing can escape them: the inhabitants of the country kill some of them in snares.
The entire land of Brazil is overrun with ants, large and small ; they do some damage to the grape-vines of the inhabitants and to the orange trees in their orchards; and if it were not for these ants there would perhaps be many vineyards in Brazil; although they are of small necessity, because so much wine is exported from the King- dom that this country is always well provided with wine.
There is also an infinite number of mos- quitoes, principally along the river banks, among a variety of trees which are called mangu [man- grove]; no one can endure them; in the forest, when there is no viragao, they are very plentiful and torment people excessively. There is also a variety of rats which carry their young hanging on their belly; thus attached, they grow until they are large. There are numerous monkeys of
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many varieties, as is already known. As soon as the female monkeys give birth, the young ones fasten themselves to their backs, and always go astride their mothers until they are well grown; if the mothers are pursued and killed, the young do not wish to let go of them. There are also many seals and capivaras [water-hogs] which grow in the ocean and on the land. Many other animals grow inland in these regions, of which it will be impossible to know or write, so great is their number; for, the land being very large, God has created in it many kinds and forms of crea- tures.
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CHAPTER IX.
Or THE COUNTRY CERTAIN MEN OF THE CAP- TAINCY or PORTO SEGURO WENT TO DIS- COVER AND WHAT THEY FOUND IN IT.
Inasmuch as it was my intention to treat in this summary only of those things which are common to the coast of Brazil by which all the inhabitants of the country benefit, it seems to me necessary and fitting, in justice to the country, to indicate also in this chapter the wealth of metals which, they affirm, exist inland, all of this having been proven by the persons who found and examined them by exploration; and this is the manner in which the discovery took place:
Certain Indians arrived in the Captaincy of Porto Seguro, from the sertao, giving news of the existence of green stones in a mountain range many leagues inland; and they brought some with them as samples; they were emeralds, but not of very great value: the Indians themselves said that they were plentiful, and that this moun- tain range was beautiful and resplendent. As soon as the inhabitants of this Captaincy were notified of the fact, fifty or sixty Portuguese made
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ready, with native Indians, and left for the sertao inland, with the determination of attaining the mountain chain where the stones were. There went as Captain of this band one Martim Car- valho,116 who now dwells in Bahia de Todos los Santos; they went inland some two hundred and twenty leagues, where most of the mountains they found and observed were of very fine crystal; the entire land was very rugged, and there were many other mountains of blue earth in which they [Indians] assured them there was much gold, because * * *,11T between two mountains: in this way they came upon a river which flowed at the foot of one of them; in it they found among the grains of sand some little yellow grains which the men, upon biting them, found soft; but they could not be disintegrated. Finally, all agreed that these grains were gold, nor could it be any other metal, since gold, wherever it is found, oc- curs in this manner. They gathered in the sand on the river bank a handful of these grains which they found very heavy, which was also a proof that it was gold; but they could not make the test, because this was desert country where for many days they suffered great hunger ; they had nothing to eat except grass, and a snake which they had killed. They went on, determined, upon their return, to go again into this country, provided
182 TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL
with food, in order to try to explore the mountain from which this gold was washed down to the river bank. They found in the forests a great quantity of c ana fistula;1'18 and on this journey they found other metals which they did not know; nor could they delay, on account of the wars the Indians raised against them. Some Indians gave them news ; according to their report, there might be about one hundred leagues to the mountain of green stones which they were seeking, and it was not very far from there to Peru. Finally, on account of the enemies whom they feared, and on account of the people who were sick, they turned back again in canoes down a river which is called Cricare; there, in a rapid, was lost one canoe, in which were the grains of gold that they were bringing back as samples.
They spent eight months on this trip, and, completely worn out, they returned again to the Captaincy of Porto Seguro.
Those who survived this experience affirm that there is much gold in those regions, accord- ing to the signs and samples which they found, and that if people properly prepared should re- turn thither with all necessary equipment, taking with them experts in this line, they would dis- cover in that land great mines.
TREATISE ON THE LAND OF BRAZIL 183
I wished to write more minutely about the peculiarities of this Province of Brazil; but, in order to satisfy everybody with brevity, I have guarded against being prolix; for the praises of the land demand another book, more copious and of greater size, in which could be explained in detail the excellence and diversity of things to be found there, for the relief and profit of men who go there to live. Inasmuch as the happiness and increase of this Province consists in being popu- lated with many people, there need be no poor people in the Kingdom; for these poor people should, with the assistance of Your Highness, go to live in these parts where all men live in plenty, and free from the hardships suffered in the King- dom. Thus may it please God that this land of Nova Lusitania shall flourish; and may it con- tribute to the increase of the crown of the King- dom ; and may the Kingdom be envied by others ; for we shall not covet other peoples' lands, inas- much as our own promises such richness and prosperity to those who go out to it for their own good.
Notes
Notes
1 The XVI century name for the Malaccan Penin- sula.
2 Achem was a king of one of the tribes in the Malaccan Peninsula.
8 Refers to the attempt of the Spaniards to settle in Santa Catarina, near the mouth of the La Plata, and of the French to settle in Rio de Janeiro, Pernam- buco, and other places along the coast.
4 Dom Manuel the Fortunate reigned in Portugal 1495-1521.
8 Pedro Alvarez Cabral, or Pedralvarez Cabral, or more correctly, Pedro Alvares de Gouvea, is sup- posed to have been born in 1467; he died in 1526. He came of an old and distinguished family of the lesser nobility. The castle of Belmonte had been in the pos- session of the Cabrals since about 1400, and here Pedro Alvarez was born of Fernao Cabral and Izabel de Gouvea. He was a second son. Save of his trip to India, very little is known of his life.
"There is perhaps no distinguished discoverer re- garding whose life, apart from his discoveries, we know so little as we do regarding the life of Pedral- varez Cabral. We know only that he was the son of an important judicial functionary, that he was one of a somewhat large family — there were four sons be- sides Pedralvarez, and two daughters — that his wife Izabel was a member of a noble family, and that his wife, two sons and one daughter, or two daughters, survived him." James Roxburgh McClymont — Pedralvarez Cabral, his progenitors, his life, and his voyage to America and India. London, 1914.
190 NOTES
The Brazilian historian Adolfo Varnhagen, Vis- conde de Porto Seguro, discovered his tomb, a slab of marble thirteen palms long and half as wide, in the sacristy of the Convento da Grac,a, Santarem. On it was the, following inscription in Gothic characters :
"Aquy Jaz Pedralvarez Cabral e dona Isabel de Castro sua molher, cuja he esta capella he de todos seus Erdeyros aquall, depois da morte de seu marydo foi camareira mor da infante dona Marya fylha de el rey do Joao nosso snor he terceiro deste nome."
6 There was probably more interest and pomp in the departure of the fleet commanded by Cabral than in that of any fleet which had so far sailed on a voy- age of exploration. The remarkable accounts of India brought back by Da Gama in the preceding year were accountable for the vast preparations for this expe- dition. Both Joao de Barros, in his Asia, and Damiao de Goes, in his Chronicle of King Emanuel, give a detailed account of the ceremonies which took place at Belem on the day before the departure of the fleet and the day of its departure, presided over by the King of Portugal and the Bishop of Lisbon. After an open- air mass at which the Bishop of Lisbon officiated, the banner of the Order of Christ was blessed and raised and presented by the King himself to Pedro Alvarez Cabral. On the ninth of March, the day of sailing, nearly the entire population of Lisbon assembled on the shores to bid farewell to the fleet of thirteen ves- sels, a remarkably large fleet for the period. The names of the commanders as recorded by de Barros are: Pedro Alvarez Cabral, in command; Sancho de Thoar, second in command; Simon de Miranda; Ires Gomez da Silva; Vasco de Athaide; Pero de
NOTES 191
Athaide nicknamed Inferno; Nicholao Coelho, who had made the trip to India with Vasco da Gama; Bartholomeu Diaz, who discovered the Cabo de Boa Esperanga; Pero Diaz, his brother; Nuno Leitao; Caspar de Lemos; Luis Pires; Simon de Pina. Mc- Clymont suggests that, as several of the Chroniclers give other names of commanders as well as those mentioned above, one must accept all, which would bring the number of vessels up to seventeen.
The earlv authorities are not entirely agreed as to whether the fleet became separated on account of the storm or otherwise. Joao de Barros, Damiao de Goes and others affirm that the separation of the fleet was due to a storm. Antonio Galvao, in his Treatise on the Routes to India, says that one of the ships lost its way, and Pero Vaz de Caminha, secretary to the fleet, and an eye-witness to the events, states definitely (Letter of Vaz Caminha. Alguns Documentos do Archivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo dcerca das Navegaqoes e Conquistas Portuguezas. Lisbon, 1892.) that "Vasco d'Athaide with his ship became lost from the fleet, although there was no heavy weather nor any opposing wind." Pedro Alvarez Cabral tried to find the ship, but unsuccessfully. Athaide eventually returned safely to Lisbon.
7 In accordance with the opinion of cosmogra- phers, manners were ordered to avoid the shoals and calms of the north African coast, by sailing well out to sea, proceeding due south to the latitude of their destination, and then sailing east until they reached the African coast. This emphasizes the fortuitous cir- cumstances under which the discovery of Brazil was made.
192 NOTES
8 This cape was originally known as Cabo dos Tormentos. It was first passed by Bartholomeu Diaz in 1487 ; he was in command of one of Cabral's vessels on this expedition, and was lost when his vessel foundered in a storm before reaching the Cabo de Boa Esperanga.
9 "On Easter Sunday in the morning the captain determined to hear mass and a sermon in that island, and he ordered all the captains that they take their stations in the boats and follow him, and this was done. He ordered them to prepare an awning on the island, and under it to erect a well appointed altar; and there before all of us he ordered high mass to be celebrated. Father Frei Amrique (Enrique) was the celebrant assisted by all the other Fathers and priests who were there; and that mass, according to my opinion, was heard by everybody with much pleasure and devotion. The captain had with him there the banner of Christ with which he left Belem, and which throughout the service stood erect on the side of the Evangel. When mass was over, the Father took off his vestments and mounted in a high pulpit, and we all knelt upon the sand; and he preached to us a solemn and profitable sermon on the history of the Evangel; at the end of it he spoke of how our coming and how the finding of this land coincided with the Sign of the Cross under whose auspices we had come, which seemed to me very fitting and created much devotion." (Vaz Caminha's Letter. Op. cit, p. 108.)
10 Vaz Caminha relates (Letter of Vaz Caminha. Op. cit., p. 108) that after mass Cabral summoned a council of his captains at which Vaz Caminha attended
NOTES 193
as official secretary to the expedition. Here Cabral proposed to send back the provision ship under Caspar de Lemos with an account of the land discovered, so that the King might send a new expedition to explore that land further. In this proposal all the captains concurred.
11 Coelho and Vespucci in 1501. Vespucci again in 1502. It is sometimes asserted that Christovao Jaques was sent in 1503. Fernao de Noronha in 1504 and 1506. Alfonso d'Albuquerque in 1503, Tristao d'Acunha in 1505, and Francisco d' Almeida in 1506, all three on their way to India.
12 Most authorities are agreed that the discovery of Brazil took place on the 22nd of April. According to Vaz Caminha's account (Letter of Vaz Caminha. Op. cit, p. 108), the expedition remained about ten days on the Brazilian coast. Rohan (Henrique de Beaurepaire Rohan. Breve Discussao Chronologica acerca da Descoberta do Brazil. In Institute Brazileiro, vol. XXXIII, pt. iii. p. 230) has attempted to har- monize the date given by Vaz Caminha in his letter with the story of the origin of the name, by suggesting that the error occurred when the calendar system was changed from the Julian to the Gregorian, making a difference of ten days and some hours. This change, however, did not take place until 1582, which would be too late to account for the statement made by Magalhaes.
13 The Order of Christ was created in Portugal in 1319 to take over the possessions of the Order of Knight Templars which had been dissolved in that year. The head of this ancient organization wielded vast power, and gradually the office fell into the hands
194 NOTES
of the higher nobility. Prince Henry the Navigator, brother of the King of Portugal, became Grand Master, and during his administration the Order reached the highest point of its power. He received from the Pope confirmation in his office and suzerainty over the heathen peoples in all lands he had discovered or should in the future discover. One of the objects of the Order was to carry Christianity among the heathen peoples, and for this purpose a tax of ten per cent was levied on all revenues derived from the new lands. This ten per cent was to pay the expenses of main- taining the cult among Christians and to extend it among the aborigines in Portugal's new possessions. Upon the death of Henry the Navigator, the Grand Mastership passed to his brother the King, and shortly thereafter the Pope made the King of Portugal, Joao II, his successor, the hereditary Grand Master of the Order. It is important to bear this fact in mind in studying early Brazilian history, for most of the acts of the King of Portugal in regard to Brazilian colonial affairs were performed, not as of the King, but as of the Grand Master of the Order of Christ.
14r The evolution of the name of the country now known as Brazil is very interesting. Amerigo Ves- pucci made three voyages along the coast from the Equator southward, and his fame as an explorer of those regions suggested to Waldseemuller (Hyloco- milus) that the continent should be named America after him.
Both Vaz Caminha and Joao Physico, eye-wit- nesses to the discovery in 1500 by Cabral, called the land, now known as Brazil, Vera Cruz, a fact which has led some writers to suggest that Sancta Cruz was
NOTES 195
originally the name of a factory established near Porto Seguro in 1503, and that this name was applied soon thereafter to the whole province. In early French accounts the country was known as Terre du Bresil or Terre des Papagaies, and the hispanic forms of these two denominations occur very early. In the Ruysch Map of 1508 the land is called Terram Bresiliam. Among the Portuguese, however, the name of Provincia da Sancta Cruz persisted through cen- turies, and even today a Portuguese will understand if you talk to him of the Terra da Sancta Cruz.
The history of the word "brazil" is no less inter- esting, as will be seen upon reading the following note kindly written for me by Professor Leo Wiener of Harvard University:
HISTORY OF THE WORD BRAZIL
In a letter to Rusticus Monachus, ascribed to Jerome, but which is unquestionably an VIII. century forgery (See L. Wiener, Contributions toward a His- tory of Arabic o-Gothic Culture, vol. IV. p. 160 f.), there occurs the following passage: "Those who navi- gate the Red Sea, in which we wish the true Pharao be submerged with all his army, with many difficulties and perils arrive at the city of Axuma. On both shores there are nomad people, nay, the most ferocious beasts live there. Always prepared, always in arms, they carry with them a year's supply of food. Everything is full of hidden rocks and difficult shoals, so that the watch and guide, sitting in the crow's nest of the mast, directs the steering and maneuvering of the ship. It is a lucky voyage, if after six months they can reach port at the above-said city, where the ocean begins to
196 NOTES
open up, over which one can scarcely in a year reach India and the Ganges River (which Holy Writ calls Phison), which glows about the whole land of Evila, and is said in its stream to bring down all kinds of pigments. Here the carbuncle and emerald are born, and the shining pearls, for which the ambition of noble women is eager, and there are golden mountains, which it is impossible for men to reach, on account of the griffins and dragons, and monsters of enormous size, in order that we may learn what watchmen avarice possesses." (Migne, Patrologia latina, vol. XXII, col. 1073f.)
Here the River of Paradise is placed in India, that can be reached by the Ocean which surrounds the earth, and this region produces the emerald and the carbuncle. An uncertain poet, of about the same time, similarly describes Paradise, "where a stream of pure water flows through the buildings, which with its liquid waters irrigates the famous gardens and cuts them into four parts. Rich Phison floods it with its auriferous waves, and from its rough abyss brings forth the famous gems, one of which is called prasinus, the other carbunculus or dens" (ibid., vol. II, col. 1099.) The story is the same as in Jerome, but here the emerald is called prasinus, while the carbuncle is denominated "burning."
Here we meet for the first time with the prasinus as a gem, for in Pliny the prasium is a cheap kind of green stone. The Greek prasion means "leek," and apparently emphasizes its greenness, since prasinos, prasios generally refers to the deep-green colour of many plants, but we have two very ancient references to a very different hue. Plato, in the Timaeus, says
NOTES 197
that auburn with black produces prasion (XXX. In R. D. Archer-Hind's The Timaeus of Plato, London 1888, p. 253), while Democritus, in a fragment, says that prasinon arises from purple and woad, or from green and purple (III. 38). Indeed the emerald is not only green, but in the proper light shows a purple or red scintillation, and it is apparently this that the ancient Greeks had in mind when they used the words prasinon or prasion.
A confusion of the emerald with the carbuncle, with which it is associated in the reference to Paradise, is apparently of an extremely early origin, for the old words for emerald, Greek smaragdos, Sanskrit mara- kata. Hebrew barqat, all go back to a root represented in Hebrew by baraq "to shine, burn," while Hebrew nopek "carbuncle" is similarly derived from a root napak, "to shine, burn." It is also, no doubt, a borrow- ing from the Semitic baraq that is represented in Cop- tic mersh, fresh, persh "yellow, red," for which there seems to be no Egyptian antecedent. The Arabic it- self shows the evolution from "green" to "fiery red" in a root which is borrowed from or related to the Greek prasion.
The usual "green" root in the Semitic and Hamit- ic languages, including Egyptian, is waraq, to which unquestionably is related Latin vireo, viridis, etc. But in Arabic, and only there, there arises a root waras, in which the changes of meaning may be easily ob- served. Here warasa means "it became green," but wars is "a certain plant of a yellow colour, resembling sesame, with which one dyes, and of which is made a liniment called gomrah for the face, existing in El- Yemen, and nowhere else, being there sown," and Avi-
198 NOTES
cenna says that it is "a certain thing of intensely red colour, resembling powdered saffron, brought from El- Yemen, and said to be scraped or rubbed off, or to fall off, from its trees." In the early translation of Avicenna into Latin, the Latinized form of this word is mes; in Bellon's translation (A. A. Bellunensis, Avicennae Liber Canonis, Venetiis 1582, p. 132), it is written gures. In the Serapion, an Arabic work on medical plants, which was early translated into Latin, and was later, in 1497, printed at Venice, this Arabic term is written as inrz (P. Guigues, Les noms arabes dans Serapion, Paris 1905, p. 114). The plant from which the dye was derived has been identified as the Mermecylon tinctorium.
We have already passed over from the green and red stones to the red dye, but we must retrace our steps, and once more emphasize the confusion of pra- sion and carbunculus ardens, which led in a tenth cen- tury gloss to the equation brasas carbones (G. Goetz, Corpus glossariorum latinorum, Lipsiae 1892, vol. III., p. 598). This is found in a list of medical terms, and so, no doubt, arose from the medical use of Arabic vres, which Avicenna described as of an intensely red colour. This, again, gave rise, chiefly in the Romance languages, to words for "a burning coal," hence French braise, Spanish brasa, Italian bragia, brascia "burning coal," etc. But soon a more important use for the Arabic and Greek words for "red" represented itself in the ever-growing trade in logwood imported from Asia, which took the place of the Mermecylon tincto- rium. Already in the eighth century the Arabic baq- qam, the name of the sappanwood (See L. Wiener, Contributions toward a History of Arabico-Gothic
NOTES 199
Culture, vol. I, p. xxxff.), was applied to a variety of imported timber and found its way into Gothic as bagms, into German as Baum, into Anglo-Saxon as beam, originally "hard wood in log form." As the main colour produced by the sappanwood was the al- ready popular Greek prasion, prasinon, Latin prasi- num, Arabic warsi, which in the Latinized form be- came virz or vres, it is no wonder that we early find it as Italian versino, French brasil, etc., as the denomi- nation of sappanwood or similar imported plant dyes.
Unfortunately the data for the history of dyes are exceedingly scanty, and only mere guesses are possible here. Pegoloti, writing in the first half of the four- teenth century, speaks of domestic, wild, and colombino brazil-wood, and in another place of colomni, ameri, and seni, in order of their value. It has been shown that colombino, colomni is identical with coilumin of Marco Polo and refers to Kaulam in India, where the sappanwood grows, but nothing definite has been ascertained in regard to the last two. (H. Yule, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian, Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East, London, 1871, vol. II., p. 315.) They are, however, much older than Marco Polo's time, for brasile domesticum, silvaticum is already recorded in the twelfth century. (A. Schaube, Handelsgeschichte der romanischen Volker des Mit- telmeergebicts bis sum Ende der Kreusziige, Mun- chen und Berlin 1906, pp. 157, 164.) It is likely that one of these is, or both are, a different dye stuff from the logwood.
In 1402 Bethencourt first landed in the Canary Islands. On Lancerote "the master and crew of the bark were moreover very anxious to secure some of
200 NOTES
the produce of these parts, which would bring them great profit in Castile, such as skins, fat, orchil (our- solle), (which is very valuable, and is used for dye- ing), dates, dragon's blood, and many other things" (R. H. Major, The Canarian, or, Book of the Conquest and Conversion of the Canarians in the Year 1402, London 1872, p. 64), and "orchil (oursolle) grows here, and a large and profitable trade is carried on in it." (ibid., p. 139.) In Fortaventura he saw a plant "which is very valuable, called orchil (oursolle). It is used for dyeing cloth and other things, and is the best plant for that purpose that is known anywhere; and if only this island be once conquered and brought into the Christian faith, this plant will prove of great value to the lord of the country." (ibid., p. 134f.) This orchil is scientifically called Lichen roccella and grows abundantly in Madeira, in the Canaries, but especially in the Azores. It is a greenish grey lichen which grows on rocks and walls, and produces beautiful violet and purple colours. (G. Gravier, Le Canarien, livre de la conquete et conversion des Canaries (1402- 142 2) par Jean de Bethencourt, Rouen 1874, p. 57.) There can be little doubt that Bethencourt here uses a derivative of vres, read as ures, employing the Arabic term for the dye, which in Italian produced verzino. It is only since Bethencourt's time that the word found its way into the Romance languages as French orseille, Spanish orchilla, Portuguese orzilha, orzelha, Italian orcigla, as the designation of the lichen.
The Canary Islands were known to the Genoese in the XIII. century, but in their region the Fortunate Islands had been placed since dim antiquity and may have been known long before their settlement by the
NOTES 201
Genoese. The Arabs obtained their story of these isles from the Romans and named them Fortunans (A. Millares, Historia general de las Islas Canarias, Las Palmas 1893, vol. II, p. 21), which is obviously the Latin Fortunatus written in Arabic, where t and n differ from each other by a dot. But the Arabs also translated this word "happy" into their own language and called them sa'ida, which without the vowel signs would read sida. This led to the confusion with Spanish and Catalan ciudad "city," wherefore, on Behaim's Globe Antillia appears as the Septe Cidade (ibid., p. 16), "The Seven Cities," which, as is well known, later led the Spaniards to look for the seven cities in the west of North America. (J. Mees, His- toire de la decouverte des lies Azores et de Vorigine de leur denomination d'lles Flamandes, Gand 1901, p. 30.) The importance of this lies in the fact that ancient stories of a western world passed through an Arabic medium, before they later led to the infusion of further Arabic stories in the discovery of America. Thus, for example, the story of the remora, which, as was shown, evolved from the cormorant story, and a sea- calf story through an Arabic source (L. Wiener, Once more the Sucking-Fish, in The American Natu- ralist, vol. LV, p. 165ff.) is based on the fact that one of the islands of the Azores is in the Catalan Map of 1375 given a? "Insola de Corvi Marini," while an Italian map has Vechi marini "sea-calves," and this, passing through an Arabic source, caused Columbus to indulge in the remora story. Indeed, XIV. century Catalan Maps read in this place rays marnos (ibid., p. 80), apparently "marine rays," that is, fishes which are, no doubt, a corruption of the reves used later by
202 NOTES
Columbus for the remora. This shows that Columbus or his friends concocted the story of the remora from the Catalan Maps, a fact which is again brought out by the name Islabella of the West Indies, which is merely a repetition of the Illabela of the Azores in the Catalan Maps.
Similarly the Insulae Purpureae "Purple Islands" of Pliny, who gives them as belonging to the Canaries, led the Arabs to translate this by "Islands of a mate- rial from which purple was made," namely "Islands of Wars" and this produced the Brazil, Brasil, Brazi, Bragir of the XIV. and XV. century maps, somewhere in the region of the Azores. It is doubtful whether the Insulae Purpureae of Pliny are genuine, since so much of this author is interpolated. Most likely this is already a Christian myth, based on the classical myth of the Island of the Blessed. This is proved to be the case from the inscription on the Catalan Maps of 1375, which reads as follows : "The Fortunate Isles are situ- ated in the Great Sea, to the left, touching the border of the West ; they are not far out to sea. Isidore says so in his XV. book: 'These isles are called Fortunate, because they abound in everything good, corn, fruits, and trees. The pagans thought that there was Para- dise, because of the gentle warmth of the sun and the fertility of the earth.' Isidore also says that the trees grow there at least one hundred and forty feet high, and bear much fruit and have many birds. One finds there honey and milk, especially on Goat Isle, so called from the multitude of goats found there."
This makes it clear that at first the western islands were supposed to contain Paradise and this was confused with India, wherefore the Catalan Maps con-
NOTES 203
tinue the above account by saying: "The pagans of India believe that their souls, after death, inhabit those isles, and continue to live there eternally on the perfume of these fruits. They believe that it is their Paradise, but, to tell the truth, this is a fable." (J. A. C. Buchon et J. Tastu, Notice d'un atlas en langue catalane, in Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la bibliotheque du roi et autres bibliotheques -, Paris 1841, p. 67f.) That this, too, went through an Arabic source is shown by the fact that the Canary Islands were known to the Arabs as Gezair el Khaledat "islands of eternity." (A. Millares, op. cit., p. 30f.) But, in Paradise was the prasinus "the purple stone," and this led to the "Purple Isles," and when the purple was generally connected with the dye plant producing pur- ple actually found there, the name of the dye stuff was
naturally attached to one of these western isles. * * *
Joaquim Caetano da Silva (Institute Brasileiro, Vol. 29, pt. 2, p. 5) has pointed out the early use of the word brazil in its Italian, French, or Spanish form, and variations from the year 1151, on. It is frequently found in the commercial documents of the Middle Ages with countless variations, such as bersi, bersil, bersilicum, brisil, brisilh, brisilien, brisilicum, brisi- lians, brisolum. The Italian forms would follow these with the initial letter changed to v instead of b.
15 The mention of Joao de Barros as a source gives the opportunity to point out that there is scarcely a statement made by Pero de Magalhaes which has not been made at an earlier date by other travellers in Brazil. It is often difficult to realize that Magalhaes speaks as one who has been to Brazil, although the dedication preceding the Tratado makes it quite clear
204 NOTES
that he visited that country. Often the similarity of his text to the text of the letters of the Jesuits, or to the text of Joao de Barros, is striking.
16 There is an interesting letter in existence writ- ten by Diego Nunes, a Portuguese in the service of one of the Peruvian conquist adores. It is dated 1538, and in it he requests the King of Portugal to send out settlers from the Algarbe to establish a colony in the region which he calls Machifalo. He tells how he had gone into that region and found it suitable for settlement, and tells the King how many men and horsemen and how much ammunition would be re- quired to establish a colony. Nunes probably was in the company of Captain Gonsalo Dias de Pineda, who was sent by his chief, Sebastian de Velalcazar, to ex- plore the country of the Quijos and Canelos, toward the mouth of the Rio Magdalena, in 1536. His report to Velalcazar of the riches of the country inspired Gon- salo Pizarro to attempt an exploration in 1539 in the same region, the result of which was Orellana's voy- age down the Amazon in 1541.
17 The early accounts of travellers in Brazil abound in references to the healthfulness of the Brazilian climate, but this seems to be mere propa- ganda. As a matter of fact, the letters of the Jesuit Fathers indicate that they suffered a great many hard- ships due to illness. One must bear in mind that the tenor of the first accounts was to inspire people to seek Brazil. Cardim (Narrative Espistolar) , however, as late as 1590, relates that in Sao Paulo he saw four men whose combined ages totaled 500 years. This would accord with the statement that Pigafetta makes but which he gives at second hand ; namely, that there
NOTES 205
are many who are 125 years old, and some who reach the age of 140 years. The Neue Zeitung also states that many of the inhabitants of Brazil attained the age of 140 years. The probability is that the older Indians from whom they had information regarding their age figured by generations rather than by actual years, and the Spaniards in calculating did not consider the earlier maturity of the Indians. We also have state- ments from the earlier travellers that the Brazilians could not count above ten. Moreover, aborigines of all countries have the appearance of great age by the time they have reached seventy. These facts, no doubt, account for the exaggerated statements made by some observers.
Not every one of the travellers to Brazil was so pleased with the climate. Luis Ramires (Letter of Luis Ramires. Institute Brasileiro. Vol. XV, p. 14), speaking of a point on the coast near Sao Vicente where he and his men had remained thirteen months and a half to build a ship, relates that nearly all his people fell ill before the ship was completed, and the illness was so sudden that many fell on the spot, a few of his men died, and nearly all were sick, either while in port or after they had left.
18 Viraqao is a word derived from the verb virar, to turn, as does a weather-vane, and is applied to the daily winds which in Brazil blow from sea to land in daytime, and in the opposite direction at night and in the early morning.
19 Sertdo means the wooded back-lying interior of a region. In Brazil, in these days, it means the central portion of the country within the rim of moun- tains which parallel the coast.
206 NOTES
20 This is the true significance of the name, first applied by Orellana because he had fought with women in the upper part of the river when he made his voyage of discovery in 1541.
21 Maranhao is an old name for the Amazon. In Magalhaes' description, he apparently refers to the southern mouth of the Amazon, which flows south of the island of Mara jo into the sea.
22 I have not been able to identify the voyage. It may have been a ship from the expedition sent out by Joao de Barros and Ayres da Cunha. Or Duarte Coelho may have sent out some one to explore. Or, again, it may have been an expedition under Antonio Cardoso de Barros, one of the original captains.
23 This lake and the inhabitants are described in the last chapter. It was while seeking permission to explore this inland country up the river Sao Francisco that Gabriel Scares de Sousa spent several years in Madrid and wrote his Tratado Descriptivo do Brazil.
24 Asuncion was founded by Juan de Salazar y Espinosa under orders from Pedro de Mendoza, Gov- ernour of the Province of Paraguay, in 1536.
25 It was generally believed in the XVI century that there was a large lake in the interior of the coun- try, from which several rivers flowed in various direc- tions. The elimination of this lake from the maps did not take place until after 1700. The origin of this belief was probably due to the fact that in the rainy seasons the rivers in the interior of Brazil overflowed. Many early travellers relate coming upon vast ex- panses of water due to these overflows. Federmann in his Journey to the Oronoco (Niclaus Federmann —
NOTES 207
Indianische Historia. Hagenau, 1557) describes what he thought was the southern sea when he looked from an eminence across the Oronoco River and could not see the other bank. He adds, however, that the day was hazy.
28 The following incomplete table is compiled from notes collected for my third volume, which have not yet been finally corrected. The most interesting thing to note is the apparent injustice of the grants if one judges by the area. The King surely desired that Martim Affonso should profit handsomely from his gift, but, actually, the territory he received was one of the smallest allotted. Undoubtedly this unfairness came from the fact that there were very few data re- garding the geography of the country and from the fact that the Line of Demarcation had not been located.
27 The Line of Demarcation has had an interesting history. Upon the return of Columbus from the New World after his first voyage, Ferdinand and Isabella requested of the Pope the suzerainty of the new lands just discovered. The Pope, Alexander VI, a Spaniard and supposedly friendly to the Spanish King, acceded and decreed the famous Bull of 1493, dividing the world into two zones by a line drawn from Pole to Pole one hundred leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. His right to do so was face- tiously questioned by the French King, Francis I, who when informed of the decree asked some one to show him Adam's will. The Pope's right to grant suze- rainty over all lands not ruled by Christian princes was not universally accepted among the contempo- raries, even by high churchmen. But, having obtained the Pope's sanction, King Ferdinand was satisfied.
208
NOTES
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NOTES 209
Almost immediately King John II. of Portugal pro- tested. His protest has given rise to much discussion as to whether the Portuguese had made prior dis- coveries in the New World. At any rate, the new decree of the Pope was in violation of the older de- crees of Popes Nicholas and Calixtus, who had granted to the King of Portugal the suzerainty of the lands to the south and southwest of Portugal which might be discovered. The fact that both the Pope and the Kings of Spain acquiesced in a revision of the decree which placed the line 370 leagues to the east of the Cape Verde Islands, a revision which was agreed to under the treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, leads one to believe that the reasons submitted by the King of Portugal were cogent. Columbus was in the New World on his second voyage when the treaty of Tor- desillas was signed, and although the King informed him of the terms of the treaty, it is not recorded that Columbus ever acquiesced or consented to them.
There were many attempts made to locate the Line of Demarcation, and for that purpose both Spain and Portugal appointed their best cosmographers and geographers to sit in council and determine the method of locating the Line. There was a difference of opin- ion as to the number of leagues to a degree. This dif- ference varied from sixteen and one-third to twenty and one-half. While it was possible for the navigators of those days to determine latitude with a fair degree of accuracy, it was not possible for them to do so for longitude. The method of determining longitude was not known until the invention of the telescope in 1666. There were several joint attempts made by Spain and Portugal to settle the dispute, but for one reason or
210 NOTES
another no decision was reached. Between 1511 and 1521 the Kings of both countries seemed content to let the matter rest, but Fernao Magalhaes' circumnavi- gation of the world in 1520 immediately raised the question of where the Line should run in the eastern seas, and the whole debate was started again over the question of whether the Molucca Islands should be- long to Portugal or to Spain.
After a considerable discussion, an agreement was reached whereby the Portuguese took the Islands and paid Spain 350,000 ducats as indemnity. So far as Brazil is concerned, the Line of Demarcation was never actually traced, and if it had been the country would not have more than one-third its present area. The discussion about it, however, did serve to keep alive border warfare between the Spanish colonies in the La Plata River basin and in Venezuela, and later between the French settlers in Guiana and the Brazilian colonists, and the final decision as regards the boun- daries of Brazil was not reached until within the last fifty years.
28 It is my intention to give in another volume of this work a translation of a Carta Regia da Doagao and a Foral creating a Captaincy.
29 Frei Vicente de Salvador in his history writ- ten in 1627 states that "the Portuguese were losing a great opportunity for increasing their wealth, because they had not undertaken to explore the interior of the country, but were content to live along the sea-coast like crabs."
30 The son of the original Pero Lopez.
31 The meaning of this word Paranambuco is thus given by Dr. Cabral (Annaes da Bibliotheca Na-
NOTES 211
cional de Rio de Janeiro. Vol. VIII, p. 215) : The Indian word para meaning "river," parana meaning "large river," similar to a sea, plus mbug, equivalent to pug meaning "to burst forth," puka-mbuka, "burst- ing forth." Hence, Paranambuco, "the bursting or flowing out of the great river."
32 The Ouvidor Geral is the principal judicial official in the country. It is difficult always to distin- guish clearly the functions corresponding to the vari- ous officials. Usually we find the same official exer- cising both judicial and administrative functions.
33 The Indians rose and killed Coutinho about 1547, which was one of the immediate reasons why the King of Portugal created the Captain-Generalcy of the whole Province. Father Nobrega says that when he arrived there with the first Captain-General, Thome de Sousa, there were forty-five colonists in the town, survivors of the twelve years of effort of Coutinho.
84 The Portuguese used the following words: povoaqao to mean "settlement" or "village;" villa to mean "town," and cidade to mean "city." The villa had its own government, but no charter, and resembles in its structure the New England town. The cidade was raised to that rank by the receipt of a special char- ter granted by the King or the chief magistrate of the country in which it was located. In this charter were stated certain rights and privileges, exemption from taxation, etc., which its citizens might enjoy. A bishop might not reside in a villa, but might in a cidade. It was, therefore, necessary to grant the charter to the city of Salvador de Todos os Sanctos before the arrival of the first Bishop of Brazil, who came out in 1551.
212 NOTES
85 Rio de Janeiro: the city of Sao Sebastiao founded January 18, 1567. Prior to that time, it had been in French hands. Mem de Sa drove out a colony of Villegaignon in 1560, and his nephew, Estacio de Sa, in 1566 drove out other Frenchmen who had re- established themselves. Cabo Frio had always been a feitoria.
36 A fathom equals ten palmos; a palmo equals 21.92 centimetres; a fathom, then, equals about six and one-half feet. This is the rock of which Nicolas Barre (Copie de Quelques Lettres} says:
"In the middle of the afore-mentioned entrance (which is about one-half a league wide) there is a rock one hundred feet long and sixty wide, on which M. de Villegaignon built a wooden fort, placing there a por- tion of his artillery to prevent the enemy's causing him damage. This river is so spacious that all the ships in the world could arrive there and rest safely at anchor. It is covered with fields and beautiful islands always clothed with green woods. On one of them (which is within cannon range of the one he has for- tified) he has put the rest of his artillery and estab- lished all his people."
87 Martim Affonso received promise of a gift of land in a letter from the King of November 20, 1530; but the choice of it was left open. He was to make a settlement for the King where it seemed to him best, and choose his land later. Finally the gift of Sao Vicente was confirmed by a Foral dated October 6, 1534.
88 The oldest "city" in Brazil. The evidence re- cently brought forward by Medina (Toribio Medina — Nunes de Balboa. Santiago, 1912) shows that
NOTES 213
there was a town in Sao Vicente in 1529, and probably earlier. In all likelihood there had been a feitoria at every point along the coast where the first settlements in the Captaincies were started.
39 From the date of the discovery on, the French had been making illegal trading voyages to the coast of Brazil. As the Portuguese population increased, armed force was resorted to to prevent their coming, and French vessels acted as pirate ships and were treated as such. A few years after the period in which Magalhaes wrote his history, the entire coast of Brazil suffered from the inroads of English, as well as French, pirates.
40 Magalhaes is mistaken in this statement. The original grantees received their Captaincies from and owed allegiance to no one but the King. Twelve or fifteen years of experience showed that this system of independent governments was not working success- fully, because of the lack of co-ordination in meeting the resistance which the Indians offered to them, as well as the threats of the French to found colonies in Brazil, as reported to the Portuguese King through his ambassador at Paris. The Captain-Generalcy of Brazil was created by royal act on January 7, 1549. By this act the King withdrew many privileges which he had formerly granted to the Captains, but he in- creased tremendously the development and the effi- ciency of the colony.
41 The government of Brazil was divided into two districts by royal decree, December 10, 1572, and was re-established into one by royal decree on April 12, 1577.
214 NOTES
42 The mud huts of South America were usually made of wattle with the interstices filled with clay. In this respect they differed from the adobes of Mexico and the Southwest of the United States, which are usually made of bricks of clay sun-baked, cemented together with clay of the same nature, moistened.
43 These allotments were granted under an instru- ment called sesmaria, in which the boundaries of the land and the rights of the cultivator were set forth. In Brazil they corresponded almost to the deeds of the same period in England.
44 There is little doubt that slavery was the major factor which caused all of the excesses committed in Brazil for the next two centuries. In 1550 Father Nobrega wrote as follows:
"In this country the majority of the inhabitants have their consciences heavily weighted down because of the slaves whom they hold unjustly, besides the many slaves who were purchased from their fathers and whom the inhabitants will not free, but, on the contrary, have made slaves of by the treachery which they employ against them ; and for this reason few of them can be absolved, for they do not wish to abstain from such a sin, nor to purchase them, although in this I blame them greatly, saying that the father has not the right to sell his son, except in extreme necessity, as is allowed by the imperial laws ; and in this opinion I have against me the population and also the con- fessors in the country; and thus Satan has all these souls in his power in such a way that it is very diffi- cult to deliver them from these abuses, because the men who come out here find no other means of liveli- hood than by the work of their slaves, who fish and
NOTES 215
hunt food for them, and slothfulness rules them to such a degree, and they are so given up to sensuality and various vicious habits, that they are not disturbed at being excommunicated, provided they keep the slaves." (Cartas do Bresil, p. 79.)
45 There are many varieties of manioc known in Brazil, but the one most used is manihota utilissima. It has generally been considered that this plant and its use were indigenous to America. Professor Wiener, however (Africa and the Discovery of America. Philadelphia, 1920), shows that the words used by the natives of America for the plant are nearly all of Afri- can origin, and suggests that there might have been pre-Columbian contact between Africa and South America. There is a long and detailed account of the planting and raising and the preparation of this plant for food purposes in Las Casas — Apologetica Historia de Las Indias (p. 28 ff). All the early authors refer to manioc and maize as the principal vegetable food- stuffs of the natives of the New World. Nicolas Barre says :
"The land produces only millet which they call in our country bled sarrazin, with which they make a wine together with a root which they call maniel which has a leaf like the paeonia mas; and I thought truly that it was this. It grows like a tree of the height of san- bucus. Of it they make a soft flour which is just as good as bread."
48 It seems to me this is an error, and that the author meant thirty months.
47 The translation of popular food names is most difficult, for there are no exact equivalents in foreign languages. The beijus were a kind of cake made of the
216 NOTES
manioc flour in South America and are described in Gabriel Scares de Sousa's Tratado Descriptivo. Obrea means "wafer," and the nearest English equivalent to filhos is "pancake." Many of the modern tribes of Brazil use a three-legged pottery vessel with a slightly concave top eighteen inches or so in diameter, the legs of which are about a foot long, in which they cook their manioc paste over an open fire, spreading the paste thinly over the entire surface of the vessel as on a griddle. I have seen the same process on a flat soap- stone griddle among the Hopi and Navajo Indians in the Southwest; only in that area the paste is made of ground corn and water.
48 Here again the modern Portuguese and the old Portuguese give several meanings for the word. It means a cake made in a loaf like pound cake. It is applied also to the thin round loaves of bread which are cooked in the mouth of a brick oven used by the peasants in Portugal while the oven is cooling off sufficiently to put the batch of loaves in the interior and close the mouth. These bolos, quickly cooked this way, are meant to be eaten at once, as are tea bis- cuits or any of the other hot breads which are served so extensively in the southern portion of the United States.
49 Oviedo (Sumario de la Natural y General Istoria de las Indias. Toledo, 1526. Fol. xiv a) states that the introduction of bananas into the Antilles took place in 1516.
60 Piso (G. Piso and G. Marcgraf — Historia Naturalis Brasiliae. Amsterdam, 1648) describes two or three species of the tree, and states that the Tapuyas, one of the Indian tribes, used the shells for drinking
NOTES 217
cups and as other containers, that the shredded bark was used for caulking boats, and that the excessive use of the nut caused the hair to fall out.
51 There is a typographical error in the text; the initial letter should be t and not g.
52 Although Piso and Barre agree on the pleasant taste and odour of the fruit, they both state that it is indigestible.
53 Pero repinaldo is the name for a variety of apple which is very long and slightly concave on the sides. The word for "pear" is applied to it on account of the old botanical error of classifying both apples and pears under the genus pirus.
54 Piso considered the cashew and its tree one of the most valuable products of Brazil, the wood being among the best, the fruit delicious for eating, and the oil and rind of the nut useful for medicinal purposes. The rind of the nut in particular was useful for poul- tices for application to ulcers caused by the small worms (niguas) that entered the skin, under the finger nails especially, which were one of the greatest pests of all tropical America.
56 Piso relates that the monkeys spent much time in the branches of these trees, and that the trees when tapped in the full moon would yield in three hours about twelve pounds of sap. He also enumerates many medicinal uses.
00 The balsam obtained from the caborahiba comes from the bark rather than from the interior of the tree, and is used by the inhabitants for the bites of animals and poisonous insects. Frei Vicente de Salva- dor (Annaes da Bibliotheca National. Vol. 18, p. 13)
218 NOTES
relates: "that the high pontiff has declared that the balsam of the caborahiba tree is legal substance for su- preme unction and chrism and, as such, it is mixed up and consecrated, as sacred oil when that of Persia is lacking."
57 Obira paramaqaci, "wood for ills:" I have made diligent search to identify this tree or shrub, but so far without success. Dr. A. Hamilton Rice suggests that it is the plant used by natives to poison fish in streams.
58 It should be noted that none of the earliest ac- counts of Brazil describes the tobacco plant, although there are a few references to it as used by the natives for ceremonial purposes about 1530-50.
69 Bicho is used by the Portuguese to indicate any animal or insect lower than a quadruped. It is also used to designate small quadrupeds which are annoy- ing to mankind, such as rats and mice.
60 The importance of the assistance rendered by horses in the conquest of Spanish America appears to be entirely unknown in the early accounts of Brazil. The Indians had great fear of horses, and the Spanish conquistador ~es taking advantage of this fear told them that their horses were gods and capable of all sorts of remarkable feats. Every one of the early relations speaks of the horse as being the most important and valuable part of the expedition. The raising of horses in Brazil seems to have been only a commercial propo- sition in the XVI century.
61 The peccary, the animal "with the navel on the back," is described many times in the XVI century literature relating to America. These animals were called by the first Spanish travellers puercos monteses,
NOTES 219
and the object which the early observers took to be the navel is only a gland giving forth a disagreeable odour, which had to be removed immediately after killing to prevent the contamination of the flesh. This gland serves the same purpose with these animals as the musk glands of the musk rat and the musk ox, and the odour glands of the goat.
62 Capivara, the largest known rodent.
63 Also called aguti.
6* There is another version of this story in An- chieta's Latin Letter of 1560. In this, the tree up which the Indian climbed stood near a muddy pool. When the Indian fell he became imbedded in the mud, but the tiger was so insistent upon obtaining his prey that he too became caught in the mud, and in the morning when the Indians came back he and his victim had been suffocated in the mud.
65 Both Piso and Anchieta state that this animal smells very badly. Piso adds that the tail dried and triturated is used by the inhabitants of America for medicinal purposes.
66 The Brazilians called it alg or ai.
67 This was the variety most sought for exports. Pigafetta mentions them. "There are also a variety of monkeys very beautiful to see, of a yellowish colour, which resemble little lions." Several of them are mentioned in the cargo of the ship Bretoa, 1511.
68 This is undoubtedly the snake called by the natives sucuryuba, or tapiiara, about which Anchieta (Latin Letter) relates the following:
"These snakes, they say, will swallow certain large animals and are called by the Indians tapiiara
220 NOTES
* * * then, as their stomach is not able to digest it, they lie on the ground as though dead, without being able to move, until the belly decays at the same time as the meal. Then the birds of prey tear out the stomach and eat it with its contents, after which the snake much disfigured and half devoured begins to take shape again, new flesh grows and skin extends over it, and it comes back to its former appearance."
69 Anchieta (Latin Letter) calls these jararacas and says that they are encountered everywhere, even in the houses. Although these snakes are very poisonous, Anchieta says there is a remedy against their poison which is sometimes successful; and the Indians say that, if a man once escapes death, he can be bitten in the future any number of times without running the risk of his life, and actually the man bit- ten feels less pain than at the time of the first bite.
70 Las Casas (Apologetica Historia Sumaria. Madrid, 1909, p. 27), says "although this odour is very sweet, it is so penetrating that it becomes nauseating, taking away all desire for food. At the present time I have some of it which has been in my possession more than sixteen years, and is as strong today as though it had just been obtained."
It is not the testes which are meant, but the musk glands located near the cloaca.
71 According to Piso, the skin is in three layers. But the writer's intent seemed to be to describe the three separate folds of meat which in a roast fowl would naturally appear distinct. To any one who has carved the breast of a roast turkey the meaning will be clear.
NOTES 221
72 According to Piso, one of the pheasant species a little smaller than a hen, which took its name from its peculiar cry, iacu, iacu.
73 Probably a species of wild mallard duck.
7* The variety of parrots from Brazil is infinite, and it is hardly within the limit of this book to iden- tify the various species in modern terms. Magalhaes' descriptions are scarcely sufficient to enable one to be scientifically accurate in all cases. However, here are submitted a few of them: Tupi camindes, called by the Portuguese arara vermelho, (L) "macrocercus ;" araras, "macrocercus macao;" coricas, "Psittachus aestivus;" tuyns, "Psittachus Conurus;" marcandos, "Psittachus Illigeri."
75 Hans Staden, in his Captivity (p. 54), says: "And a peculiarity of the said birds Uwara is that
when they are young the first feathers which they grow are whitish gray, the next, however, when they become fledged are of a blackish gray, and with these they fly about a year. After which they become as red as any red paint."
76 Anchieta, in his Latin Letter, calls them anhima. Piso states that they are like the turtle-dove in this respect, that when one of them dies the mate grieves to death over its companion.
77 According to Piso the native name was nhandu-guagu. He says that they are much praised as food by the inhabitants; that they are similar in habits to the ostrich, but their feathers are not so fine. It is the Emu or Rhea Americana.
78 Thevet (France Antarctic que} relates how the natives used the leather of the manatee for shields and
222 NOTES
foot wear and how they sought a stone in its head which cured the owner of calculus, how the natives rendered much oil from them with which the African negroes used to rub their bodies, and how a Spaniard had taken one back to Spain where it lived thirty years in a tank, and became so tame it would eat out of his hand. Anchieta (Latin Letter) says the native name was iguaragua.
79 The arroba equals about 32 pounds.
80 Tamoatds, called in Portuguese peixe do matto, "forest fish," or soldado, "soldier."
81 This is a fish very much resembling the catfish, except that it has not the poisonous spikes and the long whiskers.
82 Pero Lopez in 1532, on his way home, en- countered so many whales in the district near Rio de Janeiro that he says: "they (the whales) were so large and so numerous in this locality and came so close to the ships that we were in great fear of them."
83 Wiener has related in his article on the remora (Leo Wiener — Once More the Sucking-Fish. The American Naturalist. Vol. LV. March- April, 1921) that in the X century the Arabs used to hunt whale with the sucking-fish in the Indian Ocean to get am- bergris.
84 I have not been able to find a correct interpre- tation of balso. I have been informed that this is the name which in Portugal is given to a plant that yields a thick gummy juice often used for covering wounds.
85 Nobrega (Cartas do Brazil) relates the same facts about the wealth derived from the trade in am- bergris, and Cardim (Narrativa Epistolar) mentions a
NOTES 223
man who had gathered in one year ambergris to the value of eight thousand crusados.
86 I have met the account of this marine monster in only one other place, namely, in the History of Vicente de Salvador, in 1627, where, apparently, it had been copied from Magalhaes.
87 The identity of this animal, if the incident re- lated ever did occur, is problematical. Young Baltasar Ferreira may have had an encounter with a walrus or a sea-elephant, or some similar animal. Anchieta, in his Latin Letter, mentions a "spirit" which the natives called Igpupiara; that is, "he who dwells in the water ;" and he adds that it kills the Indians. He says :
"Not far from us there is a river settled by the Christians, and which formerly the Indians used to cross in their small canoes which they make of the bark of a single tree trunk, and where very often they were drowned by devils before the Christians came to that point."
In those days, however, much credence was placed in the existence of marine monsters. Thevet relates :
"I do not wish to overlook the fact that it was told to me as having been seen near the Castle of Mina that there was a marine monster of the form of a man, which the tide had thrown up on the beach. And that there was heard also the female who returning with the tide criea aloud and grieved at the absence of her mate, a thing which is worthy of much admiration."
It will be recalled that Columbus gravely asserts that he saw sirens during his first voyage to America.
88 Vaz Caminha says: "Their appearance is dark brown, somewhat reddish. They have shapely faces,
224 NOTES
shapely noses, and shapely figures, and they go naked."
89 The reader is referred to Gabriel Scares de Sousa (Tratado Descriptivo. Chap. CLVI) for a description of the vices and sensuality of the Tupin- nambas. One may recall that the earliest accounts of the natives of this continent accused them of sodomy. A large portion of Las Casas' defense of the Indians was to show that this charge was unfounded.
90 Burial in a sitting posture is a common habit among primitive peoples, and the custom of placing articles of daily use and food in the grave or on the grave is so wide-spread that it needs no comment. A reading of the literature of the ancient Egyptians gives one the best idea of the primitive psychology underlying these customs.
91 Nicolas Barre says: "In each village he who has been the most valiant, that is to say, he who has captured and killed the most prisoners, is by them ap- pointed their king. * * *"
92 Nobrega relates that a father before bestowing his daughter in marriage exacts a certain amount of labour from the suitor. He does not state the term of service.
93 It may have been that Orellana during his descent of the Amazon encountered some of these women, either fighting in the ranks with the men, or in sufficient number by themselves to be noticed. Hav- ing in mind the stories of the Amazons of antiquity, he did not hesitate to give the same name to the native Brazilian women whom he encountered, and to call the river the "River of the Amazons."
NOTES 225
04 The origin of the custom of the couvade (from French "couver," to brood) is lost in antiquity. The early Roman historians mention its prevalence among many of the so-called barbarous tribes, and since then it has been noted by travellers and explorers in nearly every part of the world. In the so-called civilized countries of today it appears only in survivals in folk- lore. The custom has been observed especially among the natives of Guiana, as well as in other parts of South America and in North America, and extensive accounts are readily accessible (Brett — The Indian Tribes of Guiana: their Condition and Habits. London, 1868. Lafitau — Moeurs des Sauvages Ameriquains. Paris, 1724). It is believed the custom began early in tribal development during the period of change from matriarchal descent to patriarchal descent, when the ceremony was tantamount to formal acknowledgment of the paternity of the child on the part of the father, and the acceptance of the child as his ward, to be properly brought up by him and instructed in tribal matters. The ceremony was usually accompanied by numerous taboos, abstention from animal food, so that the child might not acquire the characteristics of the animals eaten, and so on.
95 Cardim relates that "the Indians are accus- tomed to have a fire day and night, summer and win- ter, because fire is their clothing and they are very miserable without fire."
96 The origin of the word "canoe," which for many years was considered aboriginal American, is so interesting that it is worth while to recall it at this time. This ghost word probably resulted from the careless-
226 NOTES
ness of a XV century scribe, who while transcribing a MS. of Columbus's Latin Letter misread "scapha," the Latin word for "small boat," as "canoa," because of the similarity in appearance. The word not being understood was not translatable and was adopted to indicate boats of the American aborigines. Subsequent travellers to America introduced it among the Ameri- can aborigines. The word became popular and spread rapidly over North and South America in those re- gions where there was Spanish or Portuguese contact ; and here it was noted by later explorers.
97 This is equivalent to the English proverb "Take the will for the deed."
98 There was no other custom of the natives of Brazil which so impressed the Portuguese as the cus- tom of anthropophagy, or cannibalism. There are, however, people who hold the opinion that the early accounts are quite exaggerated, and that the use of the custom was very slight, if not entirely absent. Pigafetta relates the following legend about the origin of this custom in Brazil :
"They eat human flesh, but only that of their enemies, not doing it habitually, nor because that flesh seems of superior quality to others. The custom originated in the following tradition: An old woman had an only son who was killed in combat by the enemies of his country. The war continued, and shortly afterwards they took prisoner the man who had killed the young man, and led him before the mother. She, in an access of fury, snapped at him like a mad dog, and bit him. Later on, the prisoner succeeded in fleeing, and having come up with his own people he told them that the enemies had wished to eat him alive,
NOTES 227
and showed them as proof the tooth marks which he had on his shoulders. From that time on, the inhabi- tants of that district began to eat in earnest the enemies which they took prisoner, who in their turn followed the same example."
The practice of cannibalism has been noted among nearly all peoples at some time or other during their development. The underlying idea seems to be that he who eats the flesh of an enemy gains the courage of his enemy and waxes braver than before. Hence, certain parts of the body were especially sought, the heart for instance, as it was considered the seat of courage. It is rarely found that human flesh was eaten because of a fondness for its flavour, but often in times of scant food supply it was indulged in faute de mieux.
99 In an unpublished MS. of 1570, in my posses- sion, written by one Pero Lopez, there is an account of the Spaniards' going into one of the Indian houses in a district now within the territory of the State of Ecua- dor, and finding there longuinazas, smoked meat which a vaquiano (an experienced warrior) told them was made of human flesh.
100 The following story is related of Jeronymo Albuquerque: After he had been captured in war with the Indians in Pernambuco, January 2, 1548, his life was saved by the daughter of the chief, who became enamoured of him. She not only saved his life, but was the medium by which friendly relations were established between natives and Portuguese. It is a story very similar to the tale of Captain Rolfe and Pocahontas. There are other instances in the litera- ture of the period.
228 NOTES
101 There is in existence a great number of ac- counts of the ceremony of eating human flesh in Brazil, substantially the same, but varying in the de- tails. The earliest one I have come on is that con- tained in the letter of Luis Ramirez, written from Rio de la Plata, July 10, 1528. Next, the account in Santongeois' Cosmo graphic, 1544; then, Father An- chieta (Letter), 1554; Nicolas Barre (Copie de Quelques Lettres), 1556; Antonio Blasquez (Letter}, 1557; Thevet (France Antarcticque) , 1558. It would seem from Blasquez's letter that he was an eye-witness to the event. Allusions to eating human flesh occur very much earlier, even in Columbus's accounts of his voyages.
102 Nicolas Barre says: "I believe (if God does not take pity on them) that it will be very difficult to reduce them to Christianity, and only with hard labour may one take away from them the pitiable habit of eating one another."
103 The meaning of Magalhaes is this: The evil habits and manners of the Portuguese among them- selves, especially in their relations with the Indians, not only placed the Portuguese in a serious position with their confessors, but also set a very bad example to the Indians whom the Jesuits were trying to con- vert. The Indians "appreciate our clothes, our arms, and everything which comes from our country, despis- ing gold, silver and all precious stones which we esteem greatly." (Nicolas Barre — Copie de Quelques Lettres.)
Magalhaes has already stated that the road to wealth in Brazil was the possession of slaves. If they
NOTES 229
could not do with their slaves as they pleased, they could not become rich. Hence the opposition between the Jesuits and the colonists. The contention between them dealt chiefly with the method of acquiring slaves. It would seem that the most humane of the Captains obtained their first slaves by offering them articles of European manufacture in exchange for their services for a given length of time. The word constantly used in the Portuguese is resgate, which means "ransom ;" but when a sufficient number of slaves could not be obtained in this way to meet the requirements of the colonists, they sent out expedi- tions to capture others and made treaties with one tribe of natives whereby they would purchase from them as many prisoners as they could bring in. This was the method the Portuguese had been pursuing in Africa for one hundred years. At no time had the enslavement of the Indians been specifically authorized by the Portuguese monarch, although it was tolerated until later than the year 1570. In the case of one tribe, the Caete, who had killed and eaten the first bishop of Brazil, a decree was issued placing them in perpetual slavery, an edict which was not capable of enforcement because there were many Indians of this tribe living peacefully in Jesuit villages near the set- tlements of the colonists. Upon the representation of the Jesuits, this edict was nullified. During the year of great pestilence, 1563, many Indians preferred to sell themselves into slavery, rather than starve to death. It is to be supposed that the Portuguese colon- ists succeeded in inducing many Indians to become slaves for a term of years on agreement of giving them freedom, either after a certain amount of labour
230 NOTES
had been accomplished, or a certain time served; then when the period was up they refused to fulfill their promise. The rights of the Indians and of the colonists in regard to the enslavement of the Indians are confused, and all that can be gleaned for certain from the contemporary accounts is that the Portuguese colonists desired to exploit unscrupulously all Indian or negro labour and that the Jesuits were opposed both on moral grounds and on the grounds of right and justice.
104 I have seen a very large emerald, over two inches long and an inch in diameter, with twelve sides, which was similar in appearance to those Magalhaes describes; although the facets were not polished, they were as flat and accurately shaped as though they had been mechanically cut.
105 The word estadio means "the height of a man," or a fathom. The word also means 125 geometric paces, as in the ancient Greek.
106 The author of this introduction was probably Jose Maria Dantas Pereira, secretary of the Academia Real das Sciencias of Lisbon at the time the Tratado was printed.
107 The free Indians were those Indians who lived in villages under the protection of the Jesuits, who prevented the use of them as slaves by the Portuguese.
108 When the owner of a Captaincy did not wish to take personal charge of the administration of his property, he appointed a Captain, logartenente, who acted as his agent and performed the greater part of the functions permitted the Captain. He was, of course, recallable at will.
NOTES 231
109 The author probably refers to the capture of Rio de Janeiro from the French, about 1560, under the leadership of the Governour General, Mem de Sa.
110 Santo Andre de Borda do Campo was founded as second villa in Sao Vicente by Joao Ramalho, under authority of Martim Affonso, February 4, 1533.
111 The Jesuits came to the moral assistance of all law-breakers, striving by persuasion or force to con- vert them to a proper Christian frame of mind.
112 The mention of African slaves, whenever the culture of cotton is discussed, is to be noted. Pro- fessor Wiener (Africa and the Discovery of America) has shown the contact between the African negroes and the South American aborigines, and comes to the conclusion that this contact took place prior to the known discovery of America in 1492.
113 A dry measure equivalent to between fourteen and fifteen litres.
114 The African banana is known as musa sapien- tium, and the one with the black heart resembling a crucifix was a variety imported from China, known as musa chinensis. The small hard-rinded banana resembles the borcejote, a fig native of the Algarve, southern Portugal, characterized by the toughness of its skin.
115 Giboya, the boa-constrictor.
116 Martim Carvalho led an expedition of explora- tion during the years 1569-70. All we know of this expedition is told by Magalhaes. (See Jose Luiz Bap- tista — Historia das entradas. In Institute Brazileiro, 1900. Tomo especial. Pt. II., p. 177.)
232 NOTES
117 Several words in the text are illegible. The expedition probably found some grains of gold in the river-bed between two mountains.
118 The cassia fistula: a name applied to the clove cassia in Brazil, the fruit of which had a clove-like odour and the taste of cinnamon. The mention of it here would indicate the finding of spice, which was one of the objects of exploration in the New World.
Some Bibliographical Remarks
Some Bibliographical Remarks
The translator hopes that a perusal of this book will have aroused in the reader an interest in the early history of Brazil. In that case, the appended notices of a few of the most important and most readily ac- cessible works on that period will be of assistance. A consultation of the works indicated will serve as the first step in the pursuit of historical material re- lating to early Brazil.
No one has made a more thorough investigation of the early period of exploration than Henry Har- risse, the results of which he has given in his Dis- covery of North America. London, 1892. Equally important, but of a different class, is the collection of Martin Fernandes de Navarrete, Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos que hicieron por Mar los Espanoles desde fines del Siglo XV. 5 Vols. Madrid, 1825-37. Of the earlier writers, one should not omit the work of the Spanish Chronicler of the Indies, Antonio de Herrera, Historia General de los Hechos de los Castellanos en las Islas i Tierra Firme del Mar Oceano. 4 Vols. Madrid, 1601-15.
238 BIBLIOGRAPHY
XVI CENTURY WORKS RELATING TO BRAZIL
1500 Letter of Pero Vaz de Caminha. To the King of Portugal, Dom Manuel. Signed: "Deste Porto Seguro de vossa Ilha da Vera Cruz. Hoje Sexta Feira primeiro dia de Maio de mil e quinhentos." The original is in the Archi- ve Nacional of Portugal. First printed incor- rectly in Manoel Ayres de Cazal's Chorogra- phia Brasilica. Rio de Janeiro, 1817. Trans- lated into French in 1822. Correctly re- printed in 1826 in the Collecgao de Noticias para a Historia e Geographla das Nagoes Ultramarinas. Vol. IV., No. 3. The text I have used may be found in Alguns Documen- tos do Archivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo dcerca das Navegaqoes e Conquistas Portu- guezas. Lisbon, 1892. The text of this let- ter exists in many places.
1500 Letter of Mestre Joao, Physico d'ElRei, Dom Manuel. Dated: "De Vera Cruz ao I de Maio de 1500." Mestre Joao was the astrono- mer of the expedition. His letter to the King was sent back to the old country at the same time as the one of Vaz Caminha. It was copied in Lisbon by Adolf o Varnhagen and sent to Brazil where it was printed in the Revista Trimensal do Instituto Historico e Geographico Brazileiro. Vol. V., p. 342.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 239
This letter, likewise, exists in many places; I have used the text as given in Alguns Docu- mentos mentioned above.
1500-02 Navegaqao do Capitao Pedro Alvares Cdbral escrita por hum Piloto Portugues. In Col- lecgao de Noticias. Vol. II., No. 2. The origi- nal document is apparently lost. According to J. C. Rodrigues — Catalogo Annotado dos Libros sobre o Brasil, Cabral's account was first printed in the Paesi novamente ritrovati of 1507, whence it was translated into Latin in Grynaeus, from which source Ramusio took it and turned it into Italian. The Academia Real das Sciencias of Lisbon translated Ramusio's text into Portuguese about 1820 for its Collecgao de Noticias. There are many editions of the Paesi printed between 1507 and 1525, and there are early transla- tions of it into Latin and German.
1500-04 Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci. The first dated edition of the Mundus Novus is that of 1504, but some of the undated editions may have been printed in 1502 or 1503. It con- tains the account of Vespucci's voyage of 1501 to Brazil. The texts of Vespucci which I have used are those found in Henri Vig- naud — Americ Vespuce. Paris, 1917; and the reprints of the early editions made by Professor Northup at Princeton University — Vespucci Reprints, Texts and Studies. Trans- lations by George T. Northup. Princeton University Press. 1916.
240 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1503-05 Paulmier de Gonneville — Relation authentique du Voyage du Capitaine de Gonneville es Nouvelles Terres des Indes. Voyage du Navire I'Espoir de Honfteur. The best ver- sion is that of d'Avezac — Annales des Voy- ages de la geographie, de I'histoire et de I'archeologie. Dirigees par V. A. Malte-Brun. Paris, 1869. Tomes II and III.
Another version of this account was written by Jean de Paulmier, great-great- great-grandson of Paulmier de Gonneville's Brazilian adopted son, and is entitled: Memoires tovchant I' Etablissement d'vne Mission Chrestienne dans le Troisieme Monde, Autrement appelle, La Terre Australe, Meri- dionale, Antartique, & Inconnue * * * Par vn Ecclesiastique Originaire de cette mesme Terre. Paris, 1663.
1503-04 Giovanni da Empoli — Viaggo fatto nell' India per Giovanni da Empoli fattore su la nave del Serenissimo Re di Portogallo per conto de Marchionni di Lisbona. In Giovanni Batista Ramusio — Raccolta delle Navigatione et Viaggi. 2nd edition, Vol. I. Venice, 1565. John of Empoli was on the expedition of Albuquerque. The account has been trans- lated from Ramusio into Portuguese in the Collecqao das Nagoes Ultramarinas. Vol. II., No. 6.
1506 Jean Denys — Un navilio d'Onfteur, del quale era capitano Giovanni Dionisio et el pilot o Gamarto di Roana, primamente v'ando, e nell
BIBLIOGRAPHY 241
anno 1508 un navilio di Dieppe detto La Pensee el quale era di Giovan Ango, padre del monsignor lo capitano e visconte di Dieppa, sendo maestre, over patron di detta nave, Thomaso Aubert. Ramusio. Vol. III. Har- risse ascribes this trip to North America, "the same latitude as France."
1511 The Log of the Ship Bretoa. The text was first given by Varnhagen in the notes of the first edition of his Historia Geral do Brasil. Rio de Janeiro, 1854; and as an appendix to the fourth edition of his Diario de Pero Lopes. Rio de Janeiro, 1867.
1515 Copia der Neuen Zeitung aus Presillg Landt. There are three undated early editions of this work known. There is a French translation of it in the Archives des Voyages of Ternaux- Compans. Vol. II. Paris, 1840; and the salient points have been translated into Portu- guese by Varnhagen in his Historia Geral do Brasil. 2nd edition (1880). p. 87 ft.
1515-16 Juan de Solis' Voyage. No direct account of this voyage has come down to us, but all the data pertaining to it have been collected by Jose Toribio Medina in Juan Diaz de Solis. Estudio Historico. Santiago, 1897.
1519 Fernao Magalhaes — The First Circumnaviga- tion of the World. The text of Pigafetta's account of this voyage will be found in the ably edited work of Carlo Amoretti entitled: Primo Viaggo Intorno al Globo * * *
242 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Milan, 1800. The six contemporary accounts of the voyage have been translated into Eng- lish by Lord Stanley of Alderley, under the title of: The First Voyage round the World by Magellan. London (Hakluyt Society), 1874.
1519 Juan de Enciso — Suma de Geografia. Se- villa, 1519.
1525-30 Loaisa's Expedition. Among the papers re- printed by Navarrete in his fifth volume, there are accounts of the Ships Sao Gabriel and Victoria on the coast of Brazil during the years 1526-30.
1526 The Letter of Diego Garcia, who, by his own statement, made a voyage to Brazil in 1512 — Memoria de la navegacion que hice este viaje en la parte del mar Oceano dende que sali de ciudad de la Coruna, que alii me fue entregada la armada por los oficiales de S. M. que fue en el ano de 1526. In Revista do Instituto Brasileiro. Vol. XV.
1526-28 Discorso d'un gran capitano di mare Fran- cese del luogo di Dieppa. Ramusio. Vol. III. The "gran capitano" was Jean Parmentier in the service of Jean Ango, and the reference is to the expedition to the East Indies in the Ship La Pensee, from which Parmentier never returned, having died in the East In- dies in 1530.
1528 The letter of Luis Ramirez. In this letter dated "de Rio da Prata, 10 de Julio" is the
BIBLIOGRAPHY 243
first occurrence of this name for the River. In Revista do Institute Brazileiro. Vol. XV.
1530-32 Pero Lopez de Sousa — Diario da Navegaqao da armada que foi a terra do Brazil em 1530 sob a capitania mor de Martim Affonso de Sousa, escripta por seu irmao, Pero Lopes de Sousa. First printed from the original MS. preserved in the Torre do Tombo, by Varn- hagen. Lisbon, 1839.
1535-54 Ulric Schmidel spent nearly twenty years in the Rio de la Plata region in southern Brazil. His Vera Historia was first published in Sebastian Franck's Weltbuch, edition of 1567. Printed in Latin by Hulsius in 1599.
1538 Letter of Diego Nunes — Carta de Diego Nunes escripta a D. Jodo III. acerca do desco- brimento de Sertoes aonde podia chegar atra- vesando a terra de S. Vicente. Copied by Varnhagen and reprinted in the Revista do Instituto Brasileiro. Vol. II., p. 365.
1540-44 Fr. Caspar Carvajal — Descubrimiento del Rio de las Amazonas segun la Relacion hasta ahora Inedita de Fr. Caspar Carvajal, por Jose Toribio Medina. Seville, 1894.
1541-45 Cabeqa de Vaca — Commentarios de Alvar Nunes Cabega de Vaca, adelantado y gover- nador de la Provincia del Rio de la Plata. Valladolid, 1555.
1542-44 Jean Alphonse Saintongeois — Cosmographie avec espere et regime du soleil et du nord, etc.
244 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Original MS. in Bibliotheque Nationale de Paris. First printed in 1559, Les Voyages Avantureux du Capitaine Jan Alfonce Sanc- tongeois, Poitiers, 1559. The best text is in G. Musset — La Cosmographie d'Alphonse Saintongeois. Paris, 1904.
1543 Gonsalo Fernandes Oviedo — Relatione delta navigatione per il grandissimo Hume Marag- non di Gonsalo Fernando d'Oviedo. Ramusio, Vol. III.
1547-49 Hans Staden — His account first published in Marburg in 1557, entitled: Warachtige His- torie. It has been many times printed in original and in translation. Sir Richard F. Burton translated it for the Hakluyt Society — The Captivity of Hans Staden. London, 1874.
1555-65 Villegaignon's Colony. Nicolas Barre — Copie de quelques lettres sur la Navigation du Chevalier Villegaignon. Paris, 1557 and 1558. Disc ours de Nicolas Barre sur la Navi- gation du Chevalier de Villegaignon. Paris, 1558. Histoire des choses memorables ad- venues en la terre de Bresil, par tie de I'Ameri- que Australe, sous le gouvernement de M. de Villegaignon, depuis I'an 1555 jusqu'a I'an 1558. No place, 1561. Brief recueil ^de I' affliction et dispersion de Veglise des fideles au pays de Bresil, ou est contenu sommaire- ment le voyage et la navegation faicte par Nicolas de Villegaignon, audit pays de Bresil. No place, 1565. All the works pertaining to
BIBLIOGRAPHY 245
Villegaignon's colony may be found in Heu- lard. Arthur Heulard — Villegaignon, Roi d'Amerique, un Homme de Mer au XVI Siecle. Paris, 1897.
1558 Andre Thevet — Les Singularites de la France Antarcticque. Paris, 1558. There is a mod- ern critical edition by Paul Gaffarel. Paris, 1878.
1564 Padre Manuel de Nobrega — Informagoes das terras do Brazil mandada pelo Padre No- brega. In Rcvista do Instituto Brazileiro. Vol. VI., p. 91.
1568-78 Successes da Provincia de Sancta Cruz que vulgarmente se chama Brasil. Anonymous account printed for the first time in the Re- vista do Instituto historico e geographico de Sao Paulo. Vol. III., p. 125. The editor of the article, Dr. Antonio de Toledo Piza, ex- presses the opinion that this was probably the work of a Jesuit priest named Pedro Rodri- gues.
1574 Pero de Magalhaes de Gandavo— Tractado da terra do Brazil. MS. copies in the British Museum and in the Academia Real das Scien- cias de Lisboa. First printed in Collecgao de Noticias. Vol. IV., No. 4.
1576 Pero de Magalhaes — Historia da Provincia de Sancta Cruz. Lisbon, 1576.
1578 Jean de Lery — Histoire d'un Voyage fait en la terre du Bresil, autrement dit Amerique. La Rochelle, 1578.
246 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1578 Trabalhos dos Primeiros jesuitas no Brazil. Anonymous. No date. A copy of a MS. in the Public Library at Evora. Last date mentioned is 1578. It seems like a XVI cen- tury document. Printed for the first time in the Revista Trimensal do Institute Brazileiro. Vol. 57.
1578 A letter written to Mr. Richard Staper by John Whithall from Santos, the 26th of June, 1578. Southey quotes Hakluyt's text in his Supplementary Notes, and Burton in his preface to Hans Staden.
1580 Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa — Relation y derrotero del Viaje y Descubrimento del Estrecho de la Madre de Dios, antes llamado de Magallanes. MS. in Royal Library, Madrid. First printed in Madrid, 1768.
1584 Enforma^do do Brazil, e de suas Capitanias. Jesuit MS. discovered by Varnhagen in Lis- bon. It was printed for the first time in the Revista do Institute Brazileiro. Vol. VI.
1584 Principio e Origem dos Indios do Brazil e seus costumes adoragao e ceremonias. * * * Anonymous. No date. Last date mentioned is 1584. It is a copy of a MS. in the Public Library at Evora and appears to be of the XVI century. Printed for the first time in the Revista Trimensal do Institute Brazileiro. Vol. 57.
1585 Fernam Cardim — Narrativa epistolar de um viagem e Missao Jesuitica pela Bahia, etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 247
The original is in the Library at Evora. It was first printed by Varnhagen in Lisbon in 1847. Purchas used it in his Pilgrimes, but assigned the authorship to Manuel Tristao. Do principio e On gem dos Indios do Brazil, e de seus costumes, adoragao e ceremonias. Rio de Janeiro, 1881.
1587 Gabriel Soares de Sousa — Tractado descrip- tivo de Brazil. First printed in the Collecgdo de Noticias. Vol. III. Then edited by Varn- hagen, as a separate book, in 1839.
In addition to these accounts, there are many documents in the form of letters which have been made accessible in such serials as the Revista Trimensal do Instituto historico e geographico brazileiro, the Re- vista Trimensal do Instituto historico e geographico de Sao Paulo and the Annaes da Bibliotheca Nacional de Rio de Janeiro. A great many of the existing MSS. apparently have not yet been made accessible to the student in North America. Many of the town and city records are still in existence in the original MSS. in Brazil. There are undoubtedly many MSS. in the libraries in Portugal which escaped the search of Varnhagen and others. Particularly interesting would be the correspondence of Dr. Gouveia, Portuguese Ambassador at Paris, with his sovereign, and the let- ters of the Count of Castanheira who was Prime Minister to John III.
One of the most important sources of information of the customs during colonial days in Brazil are the Jesuit letters. Father Nobrega, first chief of the Order in Brazil, was a prolific letter writer. Some of his
248 BIBLIOGRAPHY
letters were reprinted in Spain in 1565 under the title of: Copia de unas cartas enviadas del Brasil, por el Padre Manuel de Nobrega de la Compania de Jesus y otros padres que estan debaxo de su obediencia, al Padre Maestre Simon, proposito de dicha Compania en Portugal y a los padres y hermanos de Jesus de Coimbra. Trasladadas de Portugues en Castellano. Recibidas el ano de
Others also appeared in various early editions of the Jesuit Avisi, in Italian, Latin and Spanish. These letters were finally printed by the Bibliotheca Nacional de Rio de Janeiro under the title : Cartas do Brasil do Padre Manoel da Nobrega. 1549-60. Cartas Jesuiti- cas. I.
There is also another volume entitled: Cartas Avulsas, 1550-68, which reproduces the letters writ- ten by other Jesuits than Nobrega. The half-title of this volume is marked: "Three and Four" of the series Cartas Jesuiticas, which may indicate still others in the series that I have been unable to locate.
Next to Nobrega, the most renowned Jesuit in Brazil was Father Anchieta from whose pen we have the following works: Informagao dos casamentos dos Indios. In Revista do Institute Brazileiro. Vol. VIII. ; Epistola quamplurimam rerum naturalium. First pub- lished by the Academia Real das Sciencias in 1799, and again in the Collecgao das Noticias. Vol. I., No. 3, and translated into Portuguese in the Annaes da Bibliotheca Nacional. Vol. I, p. 275 ft; Arte Gram- matica da lingua mais usada na costa do Brazil. Coimbra, 1595. In the Annaes a great many of his letters are printed for the first time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 249
Besides the works mentioned above, which can be considered as primary sources of information, there are a few important secondary sources which should be mentioned in this connection. First of all, the Portuguese chroniclers:
Caspar Correa (1500P-1561) — Lendas da India. Lisbon, 1858.
Fernao Lopes de Castanheda — Historia do descobri- mento & conquista da India pelos Portugueses. Lisbon, 1552-61. There is an English transla- tion printed in London, 1582.
Joao de Barros — Asia de Jodo de Barros, dos fectos que os Portugueses User am no descobrimento e conquista dos mares e terras do Oriente. Lisbon, 1552.
Antonio Galvao — Tractado * * * dos diversos e des- vairados caminhos por onde nos tempos passados a pimenta e especiaria veyo da India as nossas paries. Lisbon, 1563. There is an English edi- tion translated and printed by Richard Hakluyt in London, 1601.
Damiao de Goes — Chronica do felicissimo rei Dom Emmanuel. Lisbon, 1566.
Jeronymo Osorio — De Rebus Emmanuelis Regis Lusi- taniae Invictissimi Virtute et Auspicio gestis libri duodecim. Lisbon, 1571.
Pedro de Mariz (Died about 1615) — Dialogos da varia historia. Coimbra, 1594.
Luis de Sousa (1559-1632) — Annaes de elRei D. Joao terceiro. Lisbon, 1846.
250 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Next the Brazilian chroniclers:
Fray Vicente do Salvador — The first historian of Brazil born in the country. Descobrimento do Brazil. 1627. First printed in the Annaes da Bibliotheca National de Rio de Janeiro. Vol. 13.
Domingos do Loreto Couto (Period of 1625-35) — Desagravos do Brazil. First printed in the An- naes da Bibliotheca National de Rio de Janeiro Vol. 24.
Padre Simao de Vasconcellos — Chronica da Compan- hia de Jesus do estado do Brazil. Lisbon, 1663. Noticias curiosas e necessarias das cousas do Brazil. Lisbon, 1672.
Fray Raphael de Jesus — Castrioto Lusitano. Entre- presa e restauraqao de Pernambuco e das Capi- tanias confinantes. Lisbon, 1679.
Francisco de Brito Freyre — Nova Lusitania. His- toria da Guerra Brasilica. Lisbon, 1675.
Padre Joao de Sousa Ferreira — America Abreviada. Suas noticias de seus naturaes, e em particular do Maranhao, titulos contendas e instrucgoes a sua conserva e augmento nui uteis. * * * 1693. In /«- stituto Brasileiro. Vol. 56.
Sebastiao da Rocha Pitta — Historia da America Por- tuguesa desde o anno de 1500 de seu descobri- mento ate a de 1724. Lisbon, 1730.
Antonio de Santa Maria Jaboatao— Orbe Serafico novo Brasilico. Parts Primeira da Chronica dos frades menores. Lisbon, 1761.
Caspar de Madre de Deos — Memorias para a historia
BIBLIOGRAPHY 251
da Capitania de Sao Vicente, hoje chamado Sao Paulo do Estado do Brasil. Lisbon, 1797.
In speaking of the Brazilian chronicles, one should not omit the first and foremost English chronicler of the country, Robert Southey, whose History of Brazil is a valuable work. Those who wish a fuller bibliog- raphy on Brazil are recommended to consult the four following catalogues:
P. Lee Phillips — A List of Books relating to Brazil in the Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. Washington, 1901.
Charles Chadenat — Bibliotheca Braziliensis. No. 38 of his catalogue entitled: Le Bibliophile Ameri- cain. It contains about 1760 items ancient and modern, concerning Brazil. Paris (ca. 1910).
A. L. Garraux — Bibliographic Bresilienne. Catalogue des Ouvrages fran$ais et latins relatifs au Bresil 1500-1898. Paris, 1898.
J. C. Rodrigues — Bibliotheca Brasiliense. Catalogo annotado dos livros sobre o Brasil. Parte I. Descobrimento da America: Brazil Colonial 1402-1822. Rio de Janeiro, 1907. Contains des- criptions of over 2,600 items.
Subject Index
Subject Index
Academia Real das Sciencias: Publishes Magalhaes — Tratado da Terra do Brasil — I. 29. Refers to the Historia in its dictionary — I. 28.
Achem, King of— II. 15, 189.
Adornments of the Indians — II. 88, 172.
Aimoret—II. 109, 139.
Aipim—ll. 45, 104, 159, 169.
Alligators— II. 63, 177.
Amazon, The— II. 27, 224.
Ambergris— II. 75 ff., 222.
Ananazes — II. 47.
Anapurus (a variety of parrot) — II. 67.
Autos— II. 55, 160.
Ant-eater — II. 60.
Antonio, Nicholas: Refers to the Historia — I. 27.
Ants— II. 178.
Aranha, Brito: Refers to the Historia — I. 37.
Ardras — II. 68.
Armadillos— II. 56, 160.
Articles of trade — II. 174.
Ascenfao (Ascencion) — II. 30, 206.
Bahia de Todos os Sanctos— II. 34 ff., 134 ff. Bahia Fermosa — II. 144. Balso—II. 77.
256 SUBJECT INDEX
Banana — II. 163. Brought to the Province from the
Island of Sao Thome — II. 46. Baratta, Manuel — I. 15, 16. Barbosa Machado, Diogo: Refers to the Historia — I.
27. Barros, Toao de — II. 203. Quoted by Magalhaes — II.
24.
Batata— II. 45. Beijus—ll. 45, 159, 215. Birds of prey — II. 65. Boa-constrictor — II. 62. Boiteninga (a serpent) — II. 177. Bolos— II. 45,216.
Boundaries of Sancta Cruz, The — II. 25. Bow and arrow, Skill of the Indians with the — II. 93,
167.
Brazil: Called "Nova Lusitania"— II. 183. Brazil, Origin of the word — II. 194 if. Brazil-wood— II. 23, 49, 131, 143, 145, 149. Britioga, The fort of — II. 37. Brown Library, Catalogue of the John Carter: Refers
to the Historia — I. 35. Brunet: Refers to the Historia — I. 41. Burial customs among the Indians — II. 85, 174, 224.
Cabo Frio— II. 144.
Caborahiba—ll. 50, 217.
Cabral, Pedralvarez— II. 20, 189 ff. Departure of his fleet— II. 190. Sends news to the King of Por- tugal—II. 22.
SUBJECT INDEX 257
Cdcado—ll. 161.
Cajus—ll. 47.
Camamu, The River— II. 135.
Camboropins — II. 73.
Camindes — II. 68.
Camoes, Luis de — I. 15, 16. Poems of. . . . — II. 11 ff.
Campo Tourinho, Pero do — II. 36.
Canafistula—Il. 182.
Cannibalism — I. 46; II. 170, 226, 227. Ceremonial oftheTapuyas — II. 111.
Canoa, The Indian— II. 94, 137, 225.
Cape of Good Hope, The— II. 192.
Capivara—ll. 54, 179, 219.
Captaincies, The of Brazil— II. 208. Establish- ment of — II. 31.
Carvalho, Captain Martim — II. 181. Cashew— II. 47, 162, 217. Cerigoes—ll. 58.
Chastity, Vow of.... among the Indian women — II. 89, 173.
Children, Raising the— II. 90. Cidade—ll. 211. Citrus fruits— II. 48.
Climate of Brazil— II. 27, 154. Healthfulness of
....—II. 155, 204 ff. Coati—ll. 55,219. Coelho, Duarte — II. 33.
Cole, George Watson: Refers to the Historia — I. 41. Copaiba— II. 49.
258 SUBJECT INDEX
Coricas—ll. 68.
Cotia—ll.. 55,219.
Cotton— II. 48.
Coutinho, Francisco Pereira — II. 34.
Coutinho, Vasco Fernandas — II. 37, 143.
Couvadf, The— I. 46; II. 90, 174, 224.
Cricare, The River— II. 182.
Crops, Principal. . . .of Sancta Cruz — II. 149.
Customs of the Portuguese in Sancta Cruz — II. 152.
Dalbuquerque, Dona Jeronimo — II. 131.
Dalmeida, Joao — II. 36.
Daveiro, Duque — II. 142.
Davila, Gil Gonsales: Refers to the Historia — I. 25.
Doyes— II. 67.
Ducks— II. 67, 151.
Dwellings of the Portuguese — II. 40, 41.
Eagles: The Indians raise them for their feathers — II. 65.
Emus — II. 71.
Endogamy, The Indians practise — II. 89, 173. Escape of the Portuguese from the Indians — II. 108. Estates of the Portuguese — II. 41.
Execution of prisoners among the Indians — II. 102 ff., 170 if.
Expeditions, Exploring— II. 117 ff., 180 ff. Expeditions, Other early. . . .to Brazil — II. 193.
SUBJECT INDEX 259
Farinha de guerra — II. 45, 158.
Farinha do pdo — II. 44.
Farinha fresco. — II. 45, 158.
Ferreira, Baltesar — II. 80.
Ferreira, Jorge — II. 97.
Field, Thomas W. : Refers to the Historia—l. 36.
Figueiredo Correa, Jorge de — II. 35.
Filhos—Il. 45,216.
Food-stuffs, Cultivation of. . . .among the Indians — II.
91.
Ford, Dr. J. D. M. : Literary Comment— I. 45 ff. Fracazes — II. 164. Fruits, Abundance and variety of — II. 43, 48, 164.
GalosdoPeru—ll. 70.
Game, Abundance of — II. 56.
Garraux: Refers to the Historia — I. 41.
Genipdpo, Use of the dye. . . .among the Indians — II.
QQ 1 T\ oo, 1/J.
Gerardcas (serpents) — II. 63, 220. Giboyossu (a serpent) — II. 176. Giraldes, Francisco — II. 137. Goards—lL 69.
Gold, Finding of — II. 181. Objects of set with
precious stones — II. 118. Golden Chersonese — II. 13, 15. Government of the Indians — II. 85, 166.
Government of Sancta Cruz: Divided into two juris- dictions—II. 40, 213.
260 SUBJECT INDEX
Graesse: Refers to the Historia — I. 41.
Grenville, Thomas: His note about the Historia — I.
33. Guests, Welcoming. . . .among the Indians — II. 87 ff.
Hebijares (a serpent) — II. 177.
Hemas—ll. 71.
Herb a viva — II. 51.
Herrera, Antonio de: Uses the Historia — I. 22.
Hipupidra—ll. 82, 223.
Historia, The: Causes of its rarity — I. 19. Manu- scripts of . . . . — I. 48. Number of copies of. ... — I. 17. Its use by the official chroniclers of Spain — I. 18.
Hitanhaem— II. 38.
Horses brought from the Cape Verde Islands — II. 54.
Houses, Indian — II. 167.
Hunting and fishing among the Indians — II. 92.
lacu — II. 66.
Ibis, Red— II. 69.
Igarofu — II. 33, 132.
Ilheos, The Captaincy of— II. 35, 137 ff.
Indians, The: Different from those of Guinea — II. 21. Their fear of omens — II. 96. Multitude of them — II. 165. Their receptivity to Christianity — II. 22. Similarity of physical type; resemblance to the Chinese — II. 83. Their vindictiveness and daring II. 84, 169.
Inhame—ll. 44, 45, 159.
Intoxicating drink, Preparation of their — II. 169.
SUBJECT INDEX 261
Jaguars — II. 57.
Japaranas (a serpent) — II. 177.
Jesuits, The— II. 113 ff. Their efforts in behalf of the
Indians— II. 114, 115. Joao III, King Dom— II. 31. Juromenha, Viscondede: Refers to Magalhaes — I. 35.
Labret, The: Its use by the Indians — II. 174.
Lake of El Dorado, Belief in the— II. 120.
Language of the Indians, The — II. 84, 166.
La Popelliniere, Lancelot Voisin de — I. 21.
Leclerc: Refers to the Historia — I. 41.
Leon y Pinelo, Antonio de: Refers to the Historia — I. 25.
Les Trois Monde s — I. 21.
Line of Demarcation, The— II. 31, 207 ff.
Lopez de Sousa, Pero (Father) — II. 32.
Lopez de Sousa, Pero (Son) — II. 33, 147.
Luiz, Jeronimo: Designer of illustrations for the His- toria— I. 42.
Macaws — II. 68.
Macucagods — II. 66.
Magalhaes: His association with other literary men —
I. 15. HisRegras— I. 44,45. Maize — II. 45. Mamelukes— II. 39, 147. Manatee— II. 72, 138. Mandioca— II. 43, 158, 215. Mangrove— II. 73, 178.
262 SUBJECT INDEX
Mangues—ll. 73, 179.
Manioc— II. 43, 158, 215.
Manuel, King Dom— II. 20, 189.
Maranhao, The River— II. 28, 206.
Marcandos — II. 69.
Marine Monster, The— II. 79 ff.
Marriage customs among the Indians — II. 89.
Mass, The first celebrated in Brazil— II. 21, 192.
Mayacus — II. 74.
Milho zaburro—II. 45, 159.
Monkeys— II. 61, 180.
Naming, The. . . .of the country — II. 22.
Obird paramafaci — 1 1 . 51. Obreas—ll. 45, 159, 215. Ocanho, Joao de — I. 15, 16. Ocus— II. 66. Olinda— II. 33, 132. On$as—Il. 57. Opossum— II. 58, 178. Order of Christ, The— II. 23, 193.
Pacas—ll. 55, 160.
Paragoahi, The River— II. 30.
Parakeet— II. 69.
Paripe— II. 35, 134.
Parrots, Fondness of the Indians for — II. 67.
Partridges — II. 67.
SUBJECT INDEX 263
Peccary — II. 54.
Pepper— II. 163.
Pereira, Dom Lionis — II. 11, 13, 15, 16, 126.
Pfrguifa—II. 59.
Pernambuco, The Captaincy of — II. 33, 132.
Per os repinaldos — II. 47, 217.
Peru— II. 25, 28, 30, 182.
Pigeons — II. 67.
Pineapple— II. 47, 162.
Pinto de Sousa: Refers to the Historia — I. 28.
Ponte, Bastiam da — II. 135.
Porto Seguro, The Captaincy of — II. 36, 142. The
Discovery of. . . . — II. 21. Portuguese lack of foresight in the Indian wars — II.
168.
Povoaqao — II. 211. Precious stones — II. 121.
Quaritch, Bernard: Refers to the Historia — I. 40. Quito— II. 28.
Ramiz Galvao, Benjamin Franklin: Refers to the His- toria—I. 38.
Rattlesnake, The— II. 63, 177.
Religion of the Indians — II. 85, 167.
Revenge, The Idea of. . . .among the Indians — II. 86, 93.
Rio da Prata— II. 30.
Rio das Contas— II. 136.
264 SUBJECT INDEX
Rio de Janeiro, The Captaincy of — II. 37, 145. The
Fortress of —II. 143.
Rio de Paraiba— II. 144.
Rio Real— II. 133.
Rodrigues, J. C.: Refers to the Historia — I. 41.
Sa, Fernao de— II. 99.
Sa, Mem de— II. 37.
Sabin, Joseph: Refers to the Historia — I. 37.
Sagois — II. 61.
Salvador— II. 35, 134.
Sancta Cruz: Favorable for settlement — II. 26. Rea- son for calling the country. . . . — II. 22.
Sancto Amaro — II. 36, 142.
Sanctos— II. 38, 147.
Santo Andre de Borda do Campo — II. 147, 231.
Sao Francisco, The River— II. 29, 133. Its wealth in precious stones — II. 29.
Sao Paulo— II. 38.
Sao Sebastiao, The city of— II. 37, 145.
Sao Vicente, The Captaincy of— II. 38, 147 8. The town of. . . .—II. 38, 147.
Sea-cows — II. 72.
Sensitive plant — II. 51.
Sertao—ll. 117 ff., 205.
Sesmarias—II. 41, 149, 214.
Slavery— II. 214,228.
Slaves— II. 34,41,152. Guinea. .. .—II. 151,231. The purchase of. . . . — II. 175.
SUBJECT INDEX 265
Sleeping hammocks — II. 91.
Sloth, The— II. 59.
Snakes— II. 176.
Scares de Brito, Joao: Refers to the Historia — I. 26.
Sousa, Martim Affonso de — II. 38.
Sousa, Thome de— II. 34, 35, 134.
Sousa Farinha: Refers to the Historia — I. 28.
Sousa Viterbo, F. M. de: Refers to the engravings in
the Historia — I. 42.
Spirito Sancto, The Captaincy of— II. 36 ff., 143. Stockraising — II. 54, 150. Sucuriju (a serpent) — II. 177, 219. Sugar-cane — II. 48.
Sugar mills— II. 131, 132, 134, 137, 142, 143, 145, 148. Sylva, Innocencio Francisco da: Refers to the Historia
—I. 34.
Tamaraca, The Captaincy of — II. 32, 131.
Tamendoas — II. 60.
Tamoatds — II. 74.
Tapir— II. 55, 160.
Tapuyas — II. 111.
Tatus—ll. 56, 160.
Ternaux-Compans : Refers to the Historia — I. 31. His
translation of the Historia — I. 30. Thorpe, T.: Refers to the Historia— I. 32. Tigers— II. 57, 177. Tinhareem, The River — II. 135. Tratado da Terra do Brasil — I. 24.
266 SUBJECT INDEX
Turkeys— II. 70. Tuyns — II. 69.
Varnhagen, Adolfo: His criticism of the Historia — I.
36.
Villa— II. 211. Villa dos Cosmos — II. 33. Villages, Indian— II. 87. Villa Velha— II. 35, 134. Vipers — II. 63. rirafao—II. 26, 155, 205. Voyage of exploration of 1535 — II. 28.
Warfare, Indian— II. 94 ff., 168 ff. Wars, Origin of Indian — II. 86. Whales— II. 75 ff., 222.
Wiener, Professor Leo: Article on the History of the Word Brazil— II. 195 ff.
Wild boar— II. 54.
Winds, Direction of the — II. 26.
Winsor, Justin: Refers to the Historia — I. 40.
Yam— II. 158. Zabucdes — II. 46.
Errata
Vol. I., page 15, line 15 — For Luis, read Lionis.
Vol. I., page 16, line 14 — For Mycaenas, read Maecenas.
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Done into a book at Philadelphia by Innes &? Sons for the Cortes Society, the whole being completed in July, Nineteen Twenty-two
Magalhaes de Gandavo, Pedro de The histories of Brazil
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