FORTHE PEOPLE

FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

J ML. cCi
HISTORY

OF

BRITISH BIRDS,

INDIGENOUS AND MIGKATORY.

HISTORY

OF

BRITISH BIRDS,

INDIGENOUS AND MIGRATORY :

INCLUDING

THEIR ORGANIZATION, HABITS, AND RELATIONS ;

REMARKS ON CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE ;

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF BIRDS, AND

OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE TO PRACTICAL

ORNITHOLOGY. ^

ILLUSTRATED BY

NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

BY WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY, A.M., F.R.S.E.

MEMBER OF THE WERNERIAN NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH, OF THE NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA, OF THE ROYAL PHYSICAL AND CUVIERIAN

SOCIETIES, &C. ; AND CONSERVATOR OF THE MUSEUJl OF THE ROYAL

COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF EDINBURGH.

VOL. L

RASORES, SCRAPERS, OR GALLINACEOUS BIRDS ^

GEMITORES, COOERS, OR PIGEONS;

DEGLUBITORES, HUSKERS, OR CONIROSTRAL BIRDS;

VAGATORES, WANDERERS, OR CROWS AND ALLIED GENERA.

LONDON :

PRINTED FOR SCOTT, WEBSTER, AND GEARY,

36, CHARTERHOUSE SQUARE,

1837,

0>

W. BURNfiSSj TRINTEE, EDINBURGH.

PREFACE.

The object which I had in view, when, many years ago, T
commenced the observations recorded in this work, was at
some convenient season to lay before the public Descriptions
of the Birds of Great Britain, more extended, and, if possible,
more correct, than any previously offered. To accomplish so
ambitious a purpose, I judged it necessary to direct my attention
to the living objects themselves, rather than to their skins in
collections, or their portraits in books, to follow them in their
haunts, observe their manners, procure unmutilated specimens,
carefully examine all their parts, and thus be enabled to bring
forward facts that had been entirely overlooked, and place
others in a light in which they had not previously been viewed.
Short specific characters, slight descriptions or notices, and
measurements of parts, I could easily have obtained by visit-
ing museums and consulting books ; but the elaboration of a
detailed account of the species, such as is to be found in the
following pages, could obviously be accomplished only by much
labour of a different kind.

They who have always contented themselves with the
meagre and unsatisfactory notices given by systematic writers,
or with the vague though often florid accounts of closet natu-
ralists, may judge a great part of this labour uncalled for and
unnecessary. The mere describers of skins on the one hand,
and the mere observers of the manners of birds on the other,
will no doubt find in protracted descriptions much that they

ii PREFACE.

must deem superfluous. Yet the plan which I have followed
is calculated in some measure to please all parties, for he who
dislikes minute observations relative to form and structure, may
confine his attention to the descriptions of habits and manners.
To those really desirous of information respecting our native
species, I would say, Let us betake ourselves to the fields and
woods ; let us traverse the hills and valleys together ; let us there
study our favourites, pursue them from brake to bush, procure
as many as we need, and returning to our homes, inspect their
exterior, look closely to their bills, feathers and feet, and not
resting content with this, open them up, examine their internal
organs, and record as much of our observations as we may judge
useful to ourselves and others. A full description of any spe-
cies would occupy considerable space ; and were the anatomy
of an eagle, a raven, a heron, or a gull, detailed with as much
fidelity as that of our own species has been, it would form a
work equal in size to one containing an entire system of orni-
thology, graduated and circled out according to the most
approved principles, and with due regard to affinities and ana-
logies, types and aberrations. But books of this kind could
not, in the present state of zoology, obtain general approbation,
and, moreover, could be introduced to the public only by men
possessing the gifts of providence in a more than usual degree.
I have therefore judged it meet to steer a middle course be-
tween the tediously expanded, and the frivolously contracted,
feeling, assured that my observations, if accurate, will in due
time attract attention, and promote the progress of science.

In this volume are contained descriptions of the Gallinaceous
Birds, the Pigeons, the Huskers or Conirostral Granivorous
Birds, and the Crows and Starlings, of which the ordinal, family,
and generic characters are given at length. The specific forms
are minutely described, reference being made in each case to
the general appearance, the bill, the feet, the wings, the tail,
the plumage, the organs of sense, the intestinal canal, the sexual
distinctions, the variations, the modes of walking and flying,
the ordinary habits, the nestling, the food, and the various uses
and relations of the bird treated of. The changes that take
place in the plumage, the distribution of the species, their mi-

PREFACE. iii

grations, natural affinities, and other circumstances, are also
described ; and, when occasions are offered, critical and ex-
planatory remarks respecting families, genera, and species, are
introduced. Many of the details are illustrated by figures en-
graved on wood and steel, from drawings made by myself, —
the former executed by Messrs. Sclater and Son, the latter by
Mr. Gellatly.

Some anatomical details are introduced as absolutely neces-
sary to be known before any real knowledge of the relations of
the species can be obtained. The entire series of the digestive
apparatus, comprehending the bill, the tongue, the throat, the
gullet, the crop, the proventriculus, the stomach or gizzard,
the intestine, and its coecal appendages, has been described in
all cases, excepting those in which it was found impossible to
procure recent specimens. The physiology of these organs
forms a most convenient centre of relations, affording, as it
were, a key to the more intelligible functions, and determining
the food, the haunts, the flight, the mode of walking, and other
actions of the bird. It also throws much light upon the affini-
ties of groups, and tends to prevent the frequently absurd asso-
ciations imagined by persons who form systems by arranging
birds"* skins on their parlour floors. All the primary groups of
birds may be readily determined by a little attention to tlio
nature of the digestive organs, as may be seen on comparing the
details given in the following pages with their illustrations.

As the actions and various relations of the species cannot be
properly understood without reference to the nature of the dis-
tricts which they inhabit, I have considered it useful occasion-
ally to introduce descriptive sketches of scenery. Although
in all cases I have been anxious to copy nature with scrupulous
fidelity, I have not considered a mysterious gravity or an as-
sumed dignity in any degree tending to benefit my readers.
A pompous ornithologist is of all characters one of the most
absurd ; and the solemnity of scientific pride sits ill upon
him who is alternately scaling precipices and wading bogs,
chasing the ptarmigan on the weather-beaten summits of
the Highland hills, and pursuing the flights of plovers along
the sandy shores of our bays and estuaries. The man who

IV PREFACE.

would eftectually learn from nature, must approach with affec-
tion, and receive her instructions with a humility that would
ill accord with any subsequent vain display of the knowledge
acquired.

Although my qualifications for the task which I have thus
undertaken will be best judged of by the manner in which it
has been executed, yet I may be permitted to intimate that I
have not spared time or labour to enable me to perform it with
credit to myself and advantage to the public. About twenty
years have elapsed since I commenced the study of ornithology,
and, though a very large portion of that time has been devoted
to other pursuits, I have always eagerly availed myself of the
opportunities which occurred of accumulating facts relating to
it. For the purpose of making myself acquainted with the
natural productions of the country, I have undertaken many
long journeys, performed numerous short excursions, traversed
the cultivated districts, wandered among the wild moors of the
interior, and visited the distant islands to which the sea-birds
resort. I have endeavoured further to qualify myself for the
task by attending to the observations and inferences of other
students of nature, as recorded in their works, and by inspect-
ing the objects contained in museums of Natural History. My
education having had reference to the medical profession, I have
been enabled to profit by the taste for anatomical pursuits which
I had imbibed in the course of it. The importance of the di-
gestive organs in particular has seemed to me so great that I
have, as already mentioned, been induced to pay particular
attention to them. Not content with accumulating notes and
drawings as I had opportunity, I have finally formed an exten-
sive collection of preserved skins, not of British birds only, but
of species from all countries ; that, while preparing my obser-
vations for the press, I might be enabled to compare my
descriptions, so far as they have reference to the external parts,
with the originals themselves, and thus correct errors and sup-
ply deficiencies. Anatomical preparations I have also procured
for the same purpose. In short, according to my ability, I
have done all that seemed necessary for the occasion ; and may,
without presumption, hope that I shall not be considered as

PREFACE. V

having rashly ventured upon an undertaking for which I am
not qualified.

In an Introductory Discourse I have endeavoured briefly to
explain my views as to classification and nomenclature. Some
remarks are then made on the Structure of Birds ; and, for the
benefit chiefly of the student, but also for that of those ornitho-
logists who openly profess to disregard internal structure, the
osseous, muscular, digestive, and dermal systems are partially
described. An outline is next given of two modern systems
of classification, followed by an announcement of the manner
which I intend to follow in this work. For the purpose of
introducing the reader to the objects of our common study, I
have further conceived it meet that he should accompany me
in idea into the fields, the objects seen in which suggest ob-
servations relative to the details of what may be called Prac-
tical Ornithology. This expedient, which is resumed at
intervals, affords an opportunity of conveying information on
subjects that cannot with propriety be treated of in connection
vs^ith the regular descriptions.

It is unnecessary to present a catalogue of books that have
been consulted, as they are all repeatedly referred to in the
course of the descriptions ; but it may be proper here to men-
tion the names of those individuals who have afforded me aid
in my researches.

To Professor Jameson I am indebted for permission to ex-
amine the birds in the museum of the University of Edinburgh.
Mr. Macduff Carfrae, preserver of animals to that institution,
has most obligingly procured for me numerous recent birds,
bodies, and skins ; as have Messrs. Fenton and Edmondston,
bird-stuffers, Edinburgh. Of the individuals who have sent
me recent birds, those to whom I am more especially indebted
are : — Sir Thomas G. Carmichael, Bart, of Skirling; Dr. Th. J.
Aitkin, Edinburgh ; the Rev. Mr. George Gordon, Morayshire ;
the Rev. Mr. Adam, Peebles ; William Stables, Esq., Nairn-
shire ; Mr. Falconar of Carlowrie, Linlithgowshire ; Captain
Graham, Stirlingshire ; Dr. IMacdonald of Ballysher, Argyle-
shire ; William Craigie, Esq., Aberdeenshire ; Andrew Mur-
ray, Esq., advocate, Aberdeen ; and Mr. Alexander Campbell,

vi PREFACE.

Edinburgh. Skins and eggs have been sent to me by G. H.
GREExnow, Esq., Northumberland; Mr. Henderson, GifFord,
East Lothian ; Mr. Alexander Brand, Peterhead ; and Mr.
Roderick Betiiune, Harris. Lastly, valuable observations re-
lative to the habits of various species of birds have been com-
municated by Th. Durham Weir, Esq. of Boghead, Linlith-
gowshire ; Mr. William Hogg, shepherd, Stobo Hope, Peebles-
shire ; W. Smellie Watson, Esq., Edinburgh ; and, through
Dr. Aitkin, by James Barclay, Esq., Shetland.

To the individuals who have thus generously lent me their
aid, I beg leave to offer my most sincere thanks.

And now, having announced the purport, and given some
intimation of the quality of the work, I may be permitted
to express a hope that it will be found useful by those who
may be disposed to take me as their guide in the pleasant
pursuits from w^hich I have derived much of the happiness
that a beneficent Providence has been pleased to confer
upon me. It would be folly of a kind not common in those
who have taken some note of the fluctuations of public
opinion, and have observed the diversity of taste with refe-
rence to objects of art or science, to expect that all who may
read this volume should be pleased with it, or that its author
should be so fortunate as to obtain the confidence and approba-
tion of all who are qualified to judge of its merits and defects ;
but he yet trusts that it may prove useful, both as affording
correct descriptions of a considerable number of our indigenous
birds, and as tending to introduce a more rational method of
study than that hitherto followed, by evincing the practica-
bility of applying characters derived from their internal struc-
ture to the purpose of classification.

W. MACGILLIVRAY.

Edinburgh, 1*/ May 1837.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

Remarks on Classification and Nomenclature, - 3

System of Linnaeus, - - - ] 0

System of M. Yieillot, - - - - 12

Arrangement adopted in this work, - - 16

Remarks on the Structure op Birds, - - 20

The Skeleton, - -- - _ 20

The Muscular System, - - - - 33

Structure of the "Wing, _ - _ 34

Muscles of the Tail, - - - - 46

The Feet, - - . _ 46

The Nervous System, - - - ^48

The Skin, - - - - 52

The Digestive Organs, - - - - 52

The Tegumentary System, - - - 67

The Plumage, - - - - 67

Parts observable in the exterior, - - 86

Plates illustrative of the above, - - - 96

HISTORY OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Essential Characters of the Orders, - - 99

ORDER I. RASORES. SCRAPERS. OR
GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
Characters of the Rasores, - - - 103

FAMILY I. GALLING. FOWLS, PHEASANTS, &c. 108

Genus I. Phasianus. Pheasant, - - 109

1. Phasianus Colchicus. The Common Pheasant, 114

vm CONTENTS.

FAMILY II. PERDICIN^. PARTRIDGES, GROUSE, &c. 127

Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Perdicinae, 131

Genus I. Tetrao. Grouse, - - 134

1. Tetrao Urogalhis. The Wood Grouse, - 138

2. Tetrao Tetrix. The Black Grouse, - 145

Genus II. Lagopus. Ptarmigan, - - 165

1. Lagopus scoticus. The Brown Ptarmigan, or Red

Grouse, - - 169

2. Lagopus cinereus. The Grey Ptarmigan, - 187

Genus III. Perdix. Partridge, - - 211

1. Perdix rubra. The Red Partridge, - 215

2. Perdix cinerea. The Grey Partridge, - 218

Genus IV. Ortyx. Colin, - - 226

1. Ortyx virginiana. The Virginian CoHn, 228

Genus Y. Coturnix. Quail, - - 231

1. Coturnix dactyhsonans. The Common Quail, 233

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. FIRST LESSON, - 237

Flight of Birds.

Distinctions of species into permanent, migratory, and accidental

-vdsitants.
Character of an ornithologist.
Critical remarks on fanciful affinities.
Common birds.

ORDER n. GEMITORES. COOERS. OR PIGEONS.
FAMILY I. COLUMBIN.E. PIGEONS OR DOVES, - 249

Synopsis of the British Doves, - - 254

CONTENTS.

Genus I. Columba. Dove, - - - 255

1 . Columba Palumbus. The Ringed Dove, or Cushat, 259

2. Columba Livia. The White-backed, or Rock Dove, 268

3. Columba (Enas. The Blue-backed Dove, - 287

4. Columba Turtur. The Turtle Dove, - 291

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. SECOND LESSON, - 295

Winter excursion during a snow-storm from Edinburgh to Peebles.

Birds observed in the Valley of Eddlestone.

Bat-hunting in Nidpath Castle.

The VaUey of the Tweed.

Birds found around Edinburgh in winter.

Snow-storm in the Outer Hebrides viewed from the summit of Clisheim.

Birds found there in winter.

ORDER III. DEGLUBITORES. HUSKERS. OR
CONIROSTRAL BIRDS.

Characters of the Deglubitores, - ^ 311

FAMILY I. PASSERINiE. SPARROWS, FINCHES, &c. - 319

Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Passerinae, 323

Genus I. Fringilla. Finch, - - 327

1. Fringilla Coelebs. The Chaffinch, - 329

2. Fringilla. Montifringilla. The Mountain Finch,

or Brambling, - _ _ 335

Genus II. Passer. Sparrow, - - 338

1. Passer domesticus. The House Sparrow, - 340

2. Passer montanus. The Tree Sparrow, - 351

Genus III. Coccothraustes. Grosbeak, - 353

1. Coccothraustes atrogularis. The Black- throated

Grosbeak, or Hawfinch, - - 356

CONTENTS.

Genus IV. Linaria. Linnet, - - 363

1. Linaria Chloris. The Green Linnet, or Greenfinch, 365

2. Linaria cannabina. The Brown Linnet, 371

3. Linaria flavirostris. The Mountain Linnet or Twite, 379

4. Linaria minor. The Smaller Redpoll Linnet, 383

5. Linaria borealis. The Mealy Redpoll Linnet, 388

Genus V. Carduelis. Thistlefinch, - - 391

1, Carduelis elegans. The Red-fronted Thistlefinch,

or Goldfinch, - . - 393

2. Carduelis spinus. The Black -headed Thistlefinch,

or Siskin, - - - 400

Genus VI. Pyrrhula. Bullfinch, - - 405

1. Pyrrhula pileata. The Common Bullfinch, 407

2. Pyrrhula Enucleator. The Pine Bullfinch, - 411

Genus VII. Loxia. Crossbill, - - 414

1 . Loxia europsea. The Common European Crossbill, 41 7

2. Loxia Pytiopsittacus. The Parrot Crossbill, - 429

FAMILY II. EMBERIZANiE. BUNTINGS & ALLIED SPECIES, 433
Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Emberizana?, 436
Genus I. Emberiza. Bunting, - - 438

1. Emberiza Miliaria. The Corn Bunting, - 440

2. Emberiza Citrinella. The Yellow Bunting, 445

3. Emberiza Cirlus. The Cirl Bunting, - 450

4. Emberiza Schoeniculus. The Reed Bunting, 453

5. Emberiza Hortulana. The Ortolan Bunting, - 457

Genus II. Plectrophanes. Lark-Bunting, - 458

1. Plectrophanes nivalis. The Snow Lark-Bunting, or

Snowflake, _ - _ 460

2. Plectrophanes lapponica. The Lapland Lark-

Bunting, _ - - - 469

CONTENTS. xi

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. THIRD LESSON, . 473

General view of the midland parts of the middle division of Scotland.

Birds observed there.

Beauly Frith, and birds seen on it.

Description of Cromarty Frith.

Sea-birds found on it.

Friths of Tay and Forth.

Wandering naturalists.

ORDER IV. VAGATORES. WANDERERS. OR CROWS
AND ALLIED GENERA.

Characters of the Vagatores, - - 483

FAMILY I. CORVIN/E. CROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES, 487

Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Corvinae, 491

Genus I. Corvus. Crow, - - 494

1. Corvus Corax. The Raven, - _ 498

2. Corvus Corone. The Carrion Crow, - 5X6

3. Corvus Cornix. The Hooded Crow, - 529

4. Corvus Frugilegus. The Rook, - 535

5. Corvus Monedula. The Jackdaw, - - 552

Genus IL Pica. Magpie, - - 559

1. Pica Melanoleuca. The Common Magpie, - 562

Genus III. Garrulus. Jay, - - 573

1. Garrulus Glandarius. The Blue-winged Jay, 576

Genus IV. Nucifraga. Nutcracker, - 581

1. Nucifraga Caryocatactes. The Nutcracker, 583

Genus Y. Fregilus. Chough, - - 585

1. Fregilus Graculus. The Long-billed Chough, 587

FAMILY II. THREMMAPHILINiE. COW-BIRDS AND ALLIED

SPECIES, ... 590

Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Thremma-

philinae, _ _ - :. 592

xii CONTENTS.

Genus I. Sturnus. Starling, - - 593

1. Sturaus guttatus. The Spotted Starling, - 595

Genus II. Thremmaphilus. Cow-bird, - 609

1. Thremmaphilus roseus. The Rose-coloured Cow-
Bird, - - - - 612

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. FOURTH LESSON, 616

Return of spring.

Arrival of summer visitants.

Bird-nesting.

Directions for preserving eggs, nests, and skins of Birds.

Conclusion.

Plates Illustrative of the Digestive Organs, 621

Index to the Species, . _ - 625

General Index, . - _ 627

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES.

PLATES.

I. Skeleton of the Golden Eagle, Aquila Chrysaetus.
II. Wing of the Domestic Pigeon, Columba Livia.
III. Bones and Muscles of the Wing of the Domestic Pigeon.
IV. Digestive Organs of the Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus.
V. Digestive Organs of the Snowy Owl, Syrnia Nyctea.
VI. Digestive Organs of the Brown Ptarmigan, Lagopus scoticus.
VII. Digestive Organs of the Rock Dove, Columba Livia.
VIII. Digestive Organs of the House Sparrow, Passer domesticus ; Corn
Bunting, Emberiza Miliaria ; Green Linnet, Linaria Chloris ;
European Crossbill, Loxia europsea ; and Field Lark, Alauda
arvensis.
IX. Digestive Organs of the Carrion Crow, Corvus Corone ; Jay, Garrulus
Glandarius ; and Starling, Sturnus guttatus.

Of these plates the first five, having reference to the Introduction, are
placed immediately after it, at p. 96 ; the rest being illustrative of the Orders,
are placed at p. 624. The figure in PL I. is one fourth of the natural size ;
those in the other plates are generally one half.

WOOD CUTS.

Fig. 1. Skull of the Raven, Corvus Corax, viewed laterally, page 21

2. Skull of the Raven, viewed from beneath, - - 23

3. Two ribs of the Golden Eagle, Aquila Chrysaetus, - 26

4. Sternal apparatus of the Golden Eagle, - - 27

5. Tail of a Thrush, Turdus musicus, with muscles, - 45

6. Muscles on the lower surface of the tail of a Thrush, 46

7. Brain of a Sparrow, Passer domesticus, from above, - 48

8. Brain of a Sparrow, from behind, - - - 48

9. Brain of a Sparrow, from beneath, - - 48
10- Eyeball of an Owl, viewed laterally, - - - 50

11. Eyeball of an Owl, in front, - - - 50

12. Head of a Thrush, - - - - 50

13. External ear of a Thrush, - _ . 50

14. Aperture of the glottis of a Thrush, - - 50

15. Tongue of a Thrush, - - - 50

ERRATA.

At p. 18, line 11, in " Nuthatchers" deleter.

At p. 26, 6th line from the bottom, for " These processes do," read This process does.

At p. 85, in 4th line of note, for . substitute ,

At p. 93, 3d line from the top, read The skeleton in PI. I, is reduced to one fourth ; the other

objects are generally represented of half the natural size.
At p. 129, line 2, for " always," read generally.
At p. 130, line 16, for " Phasianinae," read Gallinae.
At p. 296, line 20, delete " other."

At p. 305, for " Crucirostra " read Loxia, and for " Loxia " read Coccothraustes.
At p. 310, for •• more proportionally," read proportionally more.
At p. 332, line 4, for " Grosbeaks" read Linnets.
At p. 402, Une 7, delete " in a field."
At p. 439. Fig. 77, the foot of the Snowflake, is misplaced.

INTRODUCTION.

Were the method which I have judged the most useful in de-
scribing birds in no essential respect different from that usually
employed, I should not consider it necessary to offer any pre-
liminary remarks, but should proceed directly to treat of the
various species, supposing the readers of a work like the present
to possess a sufficient knowdedge of the terms in common use.
The case, however, being very different, insomuch that with
respect both to the arrangement of the species, and to the mode
of description which I have chosen, some explanations are
required to enable the reader to view^ the objects introduced in
the same light as that in which they are considered by the
writer, I need not apologize for offering here a few observa-
tions calculated to facilitate the progress of the former, and to
induce him to tolerate what might otherwise seem the not
altogether relevant discourse of the latter. The arbitrary, one
might almost say mechanical, gradation of arrangement in gene-
ral use, though presenting as many modifications as there are
writers, appears not to be commonly understood to be of so
empirical a character as that in which it presents itself to my
view ; I shall therefore, in the first place, offer some observations
respecting it, accompanied by remarks on nomenclature. An
attempt to communicate as much information regarding the
structure of birds, as may render the subsequent descriptions
perfectly intelligible even to the unscientific reader, will occupy
the second place. Many persons are deterred from studying

2 INTRODUCTION.

the anatomy of birds by a vague apprehension of the extreme
difficiihy of making any proficiency in it. But the study of
the organization of these animals is certainly a much easier
task than that of their habits, manners, distribution, and mi-
grations, seeing that any educated individual, having a moderate
acuteness of observation, with some patience, may quietly,
and with little labour, and less expense, inspect in his closet
the entire anatomy of a variety of species readily procurable in
the markets of any of our cities ; whereas the observer of habits
must perform laborious, expensive, and sometimes dangerous
journeys, and after all his exertions, may count himself singu-
larly fortunate if he has succeeded in discovering some interest-
ing facts previously unnoticed, and still more so if, after com-
municating them to the public, he escape the abuse of the
envious and prejudiced, who, with a little of the slight know-
ledge that the mere collector of specimens can ever possess,
presume to pronounce judgment upon his performance. The
study of the structure of birds is a delightful, as well as an easy
occupation ; for at every step it discloses the most beautiful
illustrations of divine wisdom ; but to what rational purpose
it can be applied by an intellect which vainly strives to render
itself independent upon its Creator, I am unable to apprehend.
Even a very slight general knowledge of their organization will
give an interest to the details of their habits and economy
which can scarcely be felt, or at least adequately experienced,
by him who merely knows that they are organized beings.
Having given the necessary explanations on this subject, I
shall finally offer some remarks on the habits of birds, and
proceed to describe the species selected for the present occa-
sion.

REMARKS ON CLASSIFICATION AND
NOMENCLATURE.

The class of Birds is perhaps the most distinctly defined in
the entire series of organized beings ; bnt the general similarity
of the different species upon which the obvious connexion of
the whole depends, renders it extremely difficult to separate
them into groups distinguishable from each other by well-
marked characters. Hence the great diversity of opinion re-
specting the limits of the genera, families, and orders of this
class ; which, in fact, is such that no two original writers on
the subject have adopted the same divisions, and that while
in the system of one there are only four great sections, there
are not fewer than thirty-eight in that of another. The modifi-
cations of form and structure, and the minute gradations by
which the species are multifariously connected, while they
seem to render it impossible to elicit a symmetrical and gene-
rally intelligible arrangement, render it easy to invent classifi-
cations, founded on partial views, so apparently simple and
philosophical, that he only Vvdio is tolerably well acquainted
with a considerable number of facts and phenomena, can be
truly sensible of their numerous absurdities.

The apparent facilities afforded in studying birds by the
diversified development and colouring of their plumage, the
multiplied forms of their bills, feet, and wings, and their gene-
ral distribution over the globe, have rendered them favourite
objects of examination, and led some persons boldly to assume
the character of legislating ornithologists, before making them-
selves acquainted w^ith even the rudiments of the science ; the
foundation of wdiich, as of every department of zoology, exists
only in the anatomical structure of the objects to w^hich it

b2

4 INTRODUCTION.

refers. When we find the authors of the most imposing systems
making the most absurd statements in almost every page, we
ought to become diffident of our own powers, and reflect that
the mysteries of creation are scarcely to be understood even by
him who to great acuteness adds great perseverance and great
humility.*

IVIuch of the discrepancy of opinion respecting the limits of
the genera and families of birds arises from forgetfulness of the
fact that species alone exist in nature. Most persons acknow-
ledge this truth when it is forced upon them ; but few act
under its impression. A species, composed of individuals of
two sexes, capable of producing similar individuals, varying
however within certain, but hitherto undefined limits, and ca-
pable of continuing the race, which remains the same for ages,
and of which the varieties, when placed in ordinary circum-
stances, tend to return to the original type, is all that we can
consider as having a positive existence. It is merely because
species are so numerous, and our faculties so limited, that we
throw them into ideal groups, for the purpose of facilitating
our recollection of their forms and qualities. Species are more
or less allied to each other ; thus, a Raven is very similar to a
Carrion Crow, less so to a Magpie, and in a much smaller
degree to an Auk or a Penguin. The alliances exhibited
between species give rise to the idea of connecting them in
various degrees ; but the limits of the groups thus formed being
undefined, it is not in the nature of things that those arbitrarily
fixed by one man should be acknowledged by all others. It is
very evident that genera, families, orders, and all the mediate
sections of a class, must ever remain fluctuating, and that dis-

* " The structure of birds," says tlie author of a recent work, " adapts
them for inhabiting an element from which quadrupeds, and even man, is ex-
cluded." One naturally asks, What element can this be ? man lives in air,
walks on earth, and swims in water ; so do quadrupeds and birds. Othei-s
inform us that the Raptores, or birds of prey, have the body very muscular ;
the upper mandible the longest ; and that they nidificate in lofty situations :
whereas the body of a Pheasant is greatly more muscular than that of a Sparrow-
hawk ; the upper mandible of a Parrot or an Albatross, in fact, of almost all
birds, is the longest ; and the Merlin nestles on the ground, as do the Moor
Buzzard and the Henharrier.

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 5

cussions respecting them will continue to be keenly engaged
in until men clearly perceive that instead of fighting in earnest,
they are merely beating the air. What is a genus ? " The first
collocation of species in a system." An order ? " The last or
most general group in a class." What constitutes a genus ?
" Certain palpable resemblances." But what are they I " Come,
let us go on, and you shall see." There is no need of quarrel-
ling about genera. Let us be courteous : what you call a
genus, allow me to consider as a family ; let it be a tribe with
another, and an order in the system of a fourth. No classifica-
tion of birds has ever been generally adopted ; and none has
stood for twenty years. And w^hy ? Because no system-maker
ever acquired a clear perception of all the phenomena of nature.
Without the wisdom of a Solomon, and the longevity of a
Methuselah, with many other advantages to boot, no ornitholo-
gist will ever arrange the ten thousand species which probably
exist in the world, in an order conformable to the plan of their
creation. Then let us just understand that all systems must
be arbitrary ; that a genus, if it be any thing at all, is some-
thing as shado\^y as one of Ossian's ghosts ; that a naturalist
who has studied birds, and described their structure, form, and
manners, adds to our knowledge, although he may not choose
to impose upon species the newest and most fashionable names ;
and that the first principle in the classification of natural ob-
jects is, that species alone exist in nature.

It must be very obvious that to acquire a general knowledge
of birds, a person must examine many species, and not only
those that much resemble each other, but those that differ in
the greatest degree. Whether at one time, or at difterent
times, he must at some time look to the details of the internal
structure, inspect the outer parts, attend to the actions and
habits, and thus discover the faculties and relations of the ob-
jects. But many may be desirous of forming an acquaintance
with birds, without the hope, or even the desire, of inventing a
system, or of describing all the species of a country ; and some
may content themselves with studying a few, and with being
able to refer a particular bird to its place in a system or cata-
logue, to discover its name, and thus by reading its history as

6 INTRODUCTION.

narrated by one or more authors, add to their store of know-
ledge, or find relaxation from more important occupations. In
composing the present work I have kept in view the interest of
the scientific as well as the general student ; and while I have
entered into the details of structure and form, I have paid
equal attention to the manners and habits of the different
species.

As to their arrangement, I have thought it prudent, in the
present unsettled state of opinion on the subject, and under
the conviction that all existing systems are defective, to adopt
the opinions of no systematist, but to group the species accord-
ing to their obvious relations. Although the number of spe-
cies that occur in Britain is not sufficiently great to aiFord a
connected view of the entire series of genera and families, yet
it is sufficiently so to admit of observations respecting their
connection and mutual affinity. The Rapacious Birds gene-
rally occupy the first rank in systems, and I am not aware of
any good reason for depriving them of it ; but as I have lately
submitted to the public a description of them, and as it may be
more advantageous to begin with a tribe of birds having a
more remarkable construction of the digestive organs, which I
conceive to have been too much neglected by ornithologists, I
shall first treat of the Gallinaceous birds and Pigeons.

In all arrangements of birds hitherto published, whether
professing to be derived from the consideration of the aggre-
gate of the organization, or from particular organs, the modifi-
cations in the form of the bill have afforded the principal
characters. After much consideration, however, and after
examining the digestive organs in a great number of birds
belonging to nearly all the families, I have resolved to adopt
the intestinal canal as a central point of reference. Instead,
then, of describing merely the bill, I attend to the mandibles,
the mouth, the tongue, the throat, the oesophagus, the crop,
the proventriculus, the stomach, the intestine, and the coecal
appendages ; the modifications of which seem to me to throw
more light upon the affinities of the larger groups than those
of any other organ.

In some systems the modifications in the form of the feet

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 7

aftbrd the most general distinctions ; and attention is also paid
to those of the wings ; but in all, the internal organs have been
too much neglected. An arrangement may be founded on the
variations of any part : — the brain, the heart, the feet, the bill,
or the sternum ; but classifications resulting from such partial
considerations must be extremely imperfect. As the various
organs do not undergo similar or analogous changes in the dif-
ferent species, linear series are not capable of connecting them
by general affinity. The idea that in a given group, each of
its divisions is represented analogically by a corresponding
division in another group, is certainly, to some extent, counte-
nanced by appearances ; but when it is attempted to be carried
through the entire series, it gives rise to the most fanciful and
forced substitutions ; such, for example, as that of conceiving
a cock to be analagous to a horse, because, as it is alleged,
both kick, or to a bull, because its spurs are somewhat similar
to horns. In one point of its structure, a species may be
allied to another, while in a second point it may resemble
a third species. Thus, a Pterocles, or Sand Grouse, resembles
the Pigeons in its general form, and in that of its wings, while
its feet are similar to those of a Grouse, and its tail not unlike
that of some Parrots, as well as of many other birds. In some
respects a bird may be very similar to another, while in one
or more particulars it may manifest some relation to a species
extremely different in everything else. In a linear series,
therefore, it is impossible to place species in the order of their
affinities ; nor can those of species or genera be exhibited by
disposing them in circles, parallel series, quincuncial rows, or
any other figures, on a flat surface, that is, in diagrams on
paper. To present affinities, species would require to be fixed
in empty space, and represented by forms bearing no resem-
blance to birds, but having parts more and less elongated, to
meet parts of other near and distant species ; so that such an
arrangement, were it made by a being v/ho understood all the
relations of the species, would, by exhibiting such a multitude
of reticulations, be just as unintelligible to us as is the order of
things studied in the economy of nature such as we see it.
When objects, then, are placed in linear series, whether di-

8 INTRODUCTION.

rectly extended, circularly bent, or otherwise disposed, tliej
cannot manifest any other relations than those that refer to the
structure of a single organ ; and thus, all arrangements must
be merely artificial, as we have no means of disposing our
descriptions of species otherwise than in elongated series. The
only remedy is to indicate in words all the relations that have
been observed, while some principal organ is chosen as a gene-
ral medium of connection.

It is only, however, in a systematic arrangement embracing
all the kno^AHi species that a nice attention to their location,
and to the subordination of characters is of importance. In
the Fauna of a district or country, the gaps would be so nu-
merous as to break off the affinities at every step. My ideas
of a general arrangement of birds being as yet very imperfect,
I will not obtrude them at present upon the public ; but dis-
pose the species with which we are more immediately concerned,
in such an order as may preserve some of their principal points
of connection.

As the limits of the genera are continually fluctuating, the
names imposed uj)on them are liable to frequent change, in so
much that in twenty years an ornithologist may liave seen a
given species referred to three or four genera. These changes
cannot be avoided, and therefore it is useless to cry out against
them. But as the species have a real existence, and being
once correctly described can always be recognised, the names
imposed upon them by their discoverers ought never to be
altered. If the specific name be fixed, it is not of much im-
portance that it be coupled with this or that generic name.
Those imposed by Linnseus, the first great reformer of natural
history, ought to be held inviolable, as well as all that have
been applied by the principal systematic writers. There are
cases, however, in which, owins^ to a faultiness in its construc-
tion, its inapplicability to the species, its leading to misconcep-
tion, or its manifest absurdity in some respect or other, a
specific name ought to be rejected. When a group is broken
up, a specific name ought never to be converted into a generic
one, although this has been a prevailing practice in Botany as
well as in Zoology ; for the alteration thus made is productive

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 9

of much confusion in the minds of those who have heen accus-
tomed to associate a particular form with a particular name ;
and it is always easy to find a new generic name. Very many
specific names converted into generic ones are most obviously
quite inapplicable ; for example, those referring to colour, as
Rubecula, Ruticilla, Phcenicurus. Among the most absurd
names are those of gods, goddesses, kings, queens, men and
women of various ranks, trades, professions, and such like,
applied without change to genera : Of this kind are Zeus,
Venus, Orpheus, Tyrannus, Pastor, &c. In short, the general
principles of nomenclature as laid down by Linnaeus, AVill-
denow, and other botanists, although not ahvays acted upon
by them, ought to be adopted. Generic names in particular
ought to be of Greek or Latin origin, always with a Latin
termination ; and persons defective in taste and classical
knowledge ought to be interdicted the use of dictionaries,
because in framing names from Greek or Latin words, they
are ever prone to produce the most absurd compounds. They
should always refer to the schoolmaster.

As to English names, very little needs be said, further than
that, were the genera positively fixed, which they cannot be
for many years, if ever, it might be well to give them ver-
nacular names, in which case each species ought in like man-
ner to have a distinctive epithet or substantive name. Thus,
we shall suppose a genus named Corvus, to consist of five
species named Corax, Corone, Comix, Frugilegus, Monedula.
The English generic name being Crow, we might name the
species Raven Crow, Carrion Crow, Hooded Crow, Rook
Crow, Daw Crow. But in all cases single substantive specific
names would be the best : for example, the Raven, the Corby,
the Hoody, the Rook, the Daw. Some person proposes a
general meeting of British Ornithologists at London, York, or
Edinburgh, for the purpose of determining the English nomen-
clature of our native birds ; but such a meeting, were it to
take place, would disperse without accomplishing the object in
view, unless indeed its members were placed on the Bass Rock,
and interdicted fire and food until they had settled all their
differences, and sworn perpetual friendship. Even then, some

10 INTRODUCTION.

malicious Celt, capable of subsisting a month on dulse and
tangles, with an occasional raw limpet or mussel, might hold
out until, rather than be starved, the philosophers should leave
the birds to him to do with them as he pleased. In sober
earnest, it is impossible to remedy the acknowledged defects
in nomenclature, so as to render it universally acceptable.
Some persons who do their best to render the subject still more
intricate, are extremely sensitive on the point of uniformity ;
but, in my opinion, however much they w^ho are ambitious of
being legislators in this matter may desire conformity to their
views, there will always be more to spurn the yoke than to
yield to authority, which is gradually falling to its proper
standard. In fact, no two ornithologists have ever used the
same names for five hundred birds ; nor could two be found
who should employ the same nomenclature in describing even
the birds of Britain. There is really no cause of regret in all
this : were there no differences in politics, religion, and science,
the world would probably be much worse than it is. I am
therefore under the necessity of using my ov/n discretion in
bestowing English, Gaelic, and Latin names on the birds which
I propose to describe ; and I request that my readers scruple
not to reject whatever they find indicative of bad taste or bad
feeling.

Of the numerous systems, or modes of arranging birds, that
have been proposed by authors, two of the most celebrated
may be here given in outline, that the student may be enabled
to judge whether it be probable that any method so constructed
can be in harmony with nature.

The System of Linnseus, which for a considerable number of
years was extensively adopted, is founded chiefly upon the form
of the bill and feet. The six orders of which it is composed
are named and characterized as follows : —

I. AcciPiTREs. Bill more or less curved ; upper mandible
dilated on either side behind the point, or armed with a tooth ;
nostrils open. Feet formed for clutching, short, robust ; toes
tuberculate beneath the joints ; claws arcuate, very acute.
Head and neck muscular ; skin toucfh ; flesh unfit for being

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 11

eaten. Food the flesh of animals. Nest in high places ; eggs
about four ; the female larger ; monogamous. Analogous to
the Feras, or predaceous quadrupeds.
Ex. Vultures, Falcons, Owls, Shrikes.

II. Pice. Bill cultrate, with its back convex. FejBt formed
for walking, short, stoutish. Body toughish, unfit for being
eaten. Food of all sorts of substances. Nest in trees ; the
male feeds the female while incubating ; monogamous. Ana-
logous to the Primates, — to Man, Monkeys, and Bats.

Eiv. Parrots, Hornbills, Crowds, Humming-Birds.

III. AxsEREs. Bill smooth, covered with cuticle, enlarged
at the point. Feet formed for swimming, the toes being con-
nected by a membrane ; the tibi?e compressed and short. Body
fat, the skin tough, the feathers more perfect. Food in the
water, of plants, fish, &c. Nest more frequently on the land ;
the mother more rarely feeds her young ; more commonly poly-
gamous. Analogous to the Belluse, — ^the Horse, Hippopotamus,
Hog, and Rhinoceros.

Ex. Ducks, Auks, Pelicans, Gulls, and Divers.

IV. Grall.e. Bill somewhat cylindrical. Feet formed for
w^ading, the thighs being half bare. Body compressed, the
skin very thin ; tail short ; flesh savoury. Food in marshes, of
animalcula. Nest more frequently on land ; nuptials various.
Analogous to the Bruta, — the Elephant, Walrus, Sloth, and
Ant-eater.

Ex. Ibises, Snipes, Bails, Plovers, Bustards, and Ostriches.

V. Galltx.e. Bill convex ; upper mandible arched over
the lower ; nostrils arched with a cartilaginous membrane.
Feet formed for running, the toes being rough beneath. Body
sebaceous, muscular, fit for being eaten. Food on the ground,
of seeds, which are macerated in the crop. Dusters. Nest on
the ground, artlessly constructed ; eggs numerous. The food
is pointed out to the young. Polygamous. Analogous to the
Pecora, — Camels, Deer, Sheep, Bulls.

Ex. Peafowls, Turkeys, Pheasants, Grouse.

12 INTRODUCTION.

VI. Passeres. Bill conico-acuminate. Feet formed for leap-
ing, tender, slit. Body delicate, fit for being eaten in the gra-
nivorous species, but not in the insectivorous. Food in trees, of
seeds or insects. Nest artfully constructed. Food put into
the mouth of the young. Monogamous. They have the
faculty of singing. Analogous to the Glires, — Hares and Mice.

Ex. Finches, Buntings, Sw^allows, Thrushes, Larks, and
Pigeons.

Any criticism applied to such a system would be useless,
for, notwithstanding the merits and celebrity of its author,
there is scarcely an unexceptionable character in the whole
series. " If,"'* says M. Vieillot, " we direct our attention to
the characters which they (Linna3us and Latham) have indi-
cated as referring to the bill in the Picse, Grallce, and Anseres,
do we not discover that they are not applicable to very many
of the genera of these orders ? Have all the Picas a cultrato
bill with a convex back I Is this the case with the Todies,
Creepers, Humming-Birds, Hornbills, &c. ? Have all the Grallae
a subcylindrical bill : — the Flamingoes, Avocettes, Spoonbills,
&c. 2 May not the same question be asked respecting the
Anseres or Palmipedes, to which these systematists have given
as a general character a bill covered with cuticle and enlarged
at the end, Avhich in fact is the case only with the Geese,
Swans, and Ducks ? For it cannot be said with truth that
such is the bill of the Auks, Guillemots, Petrels, Darters, Fri-
gate-Birds, Cormorants, Boobies, Divers, Gulls, and others.""*

M. Vieillot, therefore, finding the bill inefficient, employs
the feet for his primary characters. His system is composed
of five orders, with fifty-eight fiimilies.

I. AccipiTREs. Feet robust, short or moderate ; legs entirely
covered with feathers ; tarsi naked or clothed in whole or in
part ; toes tuberculate beneath, three before, one behind ; pol-
lex on the same level as the rest ; claws very strong, mobile,
retractile, arched, pointed, or a little blunted. Bill stout,
covered with a cere at the base, hooked towards the end.
Tribe 1. Diurnal. Eyes lateral.

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 13

Fam. 1. Vulturini. Vultures.
2. Gypaeti. Lammer-geyer.
S. Accipitrini. Eagles and Hawks.

Tribe 2. Nocturnal. Eyes in front.
4. ^golii. Owls.

II. Sylvicol-e. Feet short or moderate ; legs entirely
feathered ; toes a little flattened beneath, two before and two
behind, or three before and one behind, very rarely two be-
fore and one behind ; the pollex on the same plane as the rest ;
claws slender, mobile, slightly retractile, curved, pointed, sel-
dom blunt. Bill of various forms.

Tribe 1. Zygodactyli. Two toes before, two behind.

1. Pslttacini. Parrots.

2. Macroglossi. Woodpeckers.

3. Aureoli. Jacamars.

4. Pteroglossi. Toucans.

5. Barbati. Trogons.

6. Imherhi. Cuckoos.

7. Frughori. Plantain-eaters.

Tribe 2. Anisodactyli. Three toes before; the outer
directed forwards ; the pollex sometimes versatile.

8. Granhori. Grosbeaks, Finches, Buntings.

9. uEgithall. Tits, Manakins.

10. Pericalles. Tanagers.

11. Textores. Orioles.

12. Leimonitcs. Starlings.

13. Carunculati, Grakles.

14. Paradlsei. Birds of Paradise.

15. Coraces. Crows.

16. Bacckori. Chatterers.

17. Chelidones. Swallows.

18. Myiotheres. Flycatchers.

19. Colluriones. Shrikes.

20. Canori. Thrushes, Wagtails, Wrens.

21. Anerpontes. Nuthatchers, Creepers.

22. Anthoimjsi. Humming-birds,

23. Epopsides. Hoopoes.

14 INTRODUCTION.

24. Pelmatodes. Bee-eaters, Kingsfisliers.

25. Antriades. Rock-birds.

26. Prioniti. Hornbills.

27. Lyriferi. Meniiras.

28. Ophlophagw. Snake-eaters.

29. Cohimhlni. Pigeons.
SO. Alectrides. Penelopes.

III. Gallinacei. Feet short, or moderate, somewhat robust ;
legs entirely covered with feathers ; tarsi naked, or feathered ;
toes callous beneath, three before and one behind, or none be-
hind ; pollex when present higher than the rest, resting on the
ground by its tip, or not reaching it ; claws short, not retract-
ile, generally somewhat blunt, rarely compressed, arched, and
acute. Beak vaulted ; upper mandible covering the edges of
the lower.

1. Nudipedes. Turkeys, Peafowls, Pheasants, Partridges.

2. Plumipedes. Grouse, Ptarmigans.

IV. Grallatores. Feet moderate, or long, robust, or slen-
der. Legs half-bare ; toes slit or webbed, sometimes margined ;
two before only, three before only, or three before and one be-
hind ; pollex raised from the ground, or resting upon it only by
the tip, or reposing upon it in its whole length ; claws of varied
form, not retractile. Bill of various shapes.

Tribe 1. Two or three toes before, none behind.

1 . Megistanes. Ostriches, Cassowaries.

2. Pedionomi. Bustards.

8. uEgialltes. Long-shanks, Oyster-catchers, Plovers.
Tribe 2. Three toes before, one behind.

4. Elonorni. Lapwings, Turnstones, Snipes, Curlews.

5. Falcirostres. Ibises.

6. Latirostres. Spoonbills.

7. Herodiones. Herons.

8. ^rQplionl. Cranes.

9. CoUoramphi. ►Sheath-bills.

10. Uncirostres. Screamers, Serpent-eaters.

11. Hilehatw. Trumpeters.

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 15

12. Macronyches. Jacanas.

13. Macrodacti/U. Rails, Gallinules.

14. Pinnatipedes. Coots, Phalaropes.

15. Palmipedes. Avocettes, Flamingoes.

V. Natatores. Feet short, placed in the centre of gravity,
or at the hind part of the hody ; legs denuded on their lower
part ; toes webbed, sometimes lobed, three before and one be-
hind, three before and none behind, or four before and none
behind ; claws short, rarely moderate, compressed, or flattened.
Bill of various forms.

Tribe 1. Tellopodes. Four toes; pollex directed for-
wards and connected by a membrane with the next,
or turned back and free.

1. Syndactyli. Cormorants, Pelicans, Tropic-birds.

2. TJrinatores. Grebes, Divers.

3. Dermorhynci. Geese, Swans, Ducks.

4. Pelagii. Gulls, Terns.

Tribe 2. Atellopodes. Three webbed toes before, none
behind.

5. Siphorini. Petrels, Albatrosses.

6. Brachypteri. Guillemots, Auks.

Tribe 3. Ptilopteri. Four toes, three palmate, pollex
directed forwards and free.

7. Splienisci. Penguins.

These are samples of systems, of which however there are
multitudes of all shapes and sizes, formed on various principles,
some apparently on no principles at all, but all doubtless ex-
cellent and admirable in the eyes of their inventors. Yet I pre-
sume any person must be sensible of the absurdity of characters
like those given to the fourth order, Grallatores, of the above ar-
rangement. I cannot venture upon the magnificent systems of
the present day, in which, if we believe their authors, the
order and harmony of nature are demonstrated with absolute
certainty ; although to me they seem like fragments of old
chaos, or dreams of monomania. For my part, I confess
my inability to discover the principles according to which

16 INTRODUCTION.

the All-wise and All-powerful has created and disposed the
various objects that form the garniture of our globe ; yet, as
some method must be followed in describing the birds of which
I have undertaken to give the history, it is necessary that I
should here say a few words on the subject.

In the first place, or preliminarily, I must endeavour to con-
ciliate the grammarians, by humbly intimating my intention of
considering avis as of the feminine gender, although for many
reasons it might be preferable to employ masculine termina-
tions. Many systematists in fact have used this privilege ;
but I am not disposed to take shelter under authority, seeing
that some employ two genders indiscriminately. The orders,
however, may be denoted by masculine substantives indicative
of their nature, and similar in termination ; the families by
adjectives derived from one of the genera contained in them ;
and the genera by substantives of regular construction, but of
any gender.

Without professing to propose a general arrangement of birds,
I may state that those of Europe may be primarily divided
into four groups, sections, or subclasses, determined by their
mode of life.

1. Some species, as Falcons and Swallows, seek their prey
by open flight, and either seize it in the air, or pounce upon
it on the ground, but are incapable of searching for it by
walking, leaping, or climbing. Indeed, although they all
perch with facility and security, and therefore have a peculiar
claim to the denomination of Perchers, which, however, has
been applied by authors to another group, they are for the
most part incapacitated from walking effectively. Some of
them take their stand on a twig or stone, and launch into the
air after insects, or into the water after fishes, returning imme-
diately to their post. The former of these form the transition
to the second section, the latter to the fourth. Although all
birds respire air exclusively, and are therefore aerial^ yet these
being especially addicted to the use of that element in moving
from place to place, may in a comparative sense be named
Aerial Birds^ Arcs Acria% or Volatoriw.

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. I7

2. Other species, as Grouse, Pigeons, Finches, Crows, and
Warblers, obtain their food by searching for it on the ground
or on plants, employing their wings to carry them to the places
in w^hich it is likely to be found. The birds of this section,
then, are peculiarly Terrestrial^ Ates Terrestres^ oy Ambulator ice.

3. Many, as Gallinules, Plovers, Snijies, and Herons, are
adapted by their long slender legs, bared above the heel, for
searching the shores or marshy grounds, although some, uniting
this group with the preceding, run on dry land, and others,
not expert at running, take their stand in the water or by its
margin, and seize their prey when it comes within reach.
The birds of this group may be tQviw^^ Ainphibious ov Wading,
Aves Litorales^ or Grallatorice.

4. Lastly, there are species, as Ducks, Divers, and Gulls,
w^hich are formed for swimming, and of which many dive,
while others plunge into the water, and some reach at substan-
ces beneath its surface. They are all capable of walking in
some degree. These are the Aquatic Birds^ Aves Aquaticw, or
JS/'atatoriw.

All these primary groups, which I consider merely as sec-
tional, and as coming in the place of those, familiar to every
person, of Land Birds and Water Birds, are composed of
orders equivalent to each other, and characterized by pecu-
liarities of form and structure. Thus,

CLASS IL AVES. BIRDS.

SECTION I. AVES VOLATORI^. AERIAL BIRDS.
Order.

1 . Raptores, Plunderers or Birds of Prey : Vultures, Eagles

and Hawks, Owls.

2. Excursores, Snatchers : Shrikes and Flycatchers.

8. Volitatores, Skimmers : Swallows, Bee-eaters, and Goat-
suckers.

4. Immersores, Dippers: Kingsfishers.

SECTIOX II. AVES AMBULATORI.E. LAND BIRDS.

5. Easores, Scrapers or Gallinaceous Birds : Pheasants,

Grouse, Partridges.

c

18 INTRODUCTION.

Order.

6. Gemitores, Cooers : Pigeons.

7. Degluhltores, Huskers, or thick-billed granivorous birds,

as Finches, Buntings, Larks.

8. Vagatores^ Wanderers, as Crows and Starlings.

9. Cantatoi'es, Songsters, as Thrushes, Warblers, Wrens.

10. Scansores, Climbers, as Woodpeckers.

11. Beptatoresy Creepers, as Creepers and Nuthatchers.

SECTION III. AYES GRALLATORI.E. WADING BIRDS.

12. PalpatoreSy Gropers, as Rails, Gallinules, Coots.

13. CursitoreSy Runners, as Plovers.

14. ExploratoreSy Probers, as Snipes and Curlews.

15. ExpectatoreSy Watchers, as Herons.

SECTION IV. AVES NATATORI.E. SWIMMING BIRDS.

16. Cribratores, Sifters, as Geese and Ducks.

17» UrinatoreSy Divers, as Grebes, Divers, Auks, and Guille-
mots.

18. Mersatores^ or Plungers, as Gannets, Gulls, Terns.

19. Spoliator eSy or Robbers, as the Jagers.

Each of these orders contains several families, under which
the genera are arranged.

The species of each family may be disposed in a circular man-
ner, or parallel to each other, or in various ways ; and many of
the families may be viewed as representing each other in their
several stations. Thus, the Rasores or Scrapers are analogous
to the Cribratores or Sifters, as well as to the Palpatores or
Gropers ; and the Ra^tores of the first section are represented
by the Vagatores of the second, the Serpent-eaters of the third,
and the Spoliatores of the fourth. All the genera, in fact, may
easily be arranged in a circle, and that so as to preserve seve-
ral of their affinities. It is not, therefore, of much importance
whether we commence our descriptions with one class or ano-
ther ; and, for various reasons, I prefer beginning with the Ra-
sores, the first order of the Terrestrial Birds.

In describing the birds of a very small portion of the globe^

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 19

it is impossible to exhibit the relations of the different species
and genera, without entering upon considerations the develop-
ment of which would occupy more space than could with pro-
priety be devoted to it. I do not, therefore, profess to add a
new system to the many already in partial use, or that have
passed away like their authors. Those of Linnaeus, Latham,
Blumenbach, Illiger, Vieillot, Temminck, and Cuvier, may all
be said to be extinct, for none of these worthies can muster half
a dozen followers at the present day. Indeed their systems
were never generally adopted even in a single country of Eu-
rope. Methods spring up and die like mushrooms, and for the
same reason : — they are composed of flimsy and unsubstantial ma-
terials, easily elaborated ; and having no solid frame to give them
stability, they fall suddenly into decay, withered by the breath
of criticism, which but serves to invigorate that which is pos-
sessed of real stamina. JNIy object, therefore, in offering the
above sketch, is merely to disclose the order which I conceive
to be best adapted for the present work.

The first section, or the Aerial Birds, I reserve for a separate
volume, both because I have recently published a short account
of the Rapacious species, which is not yet out of print, and be-
cause I am desirous of obtaining additional information respect-
ing them before giving their extended history to the public.
The second section, or that of the Terrestrial Birds, affords the
materials for the present volume, in which are described
the orders Rasores, Gemitores, Deglubitores, and Yagatores ;
the Scrapers, Cooers, Huskers, and Wanderers ; or the Gallin-
aceous Birds, Pigeons, Conirostral or Granivorous Birds, and
Omnivorous Birds, of authors.

The nomenclature and sectioning are matters on which I can-
not expect that my readers should all agree with me. I have
endeavoured to render them as consistent with nature as I
could ; but, after all, they must ever be in some measure
arbitrarily dealt with.

20

REMARKS ON THE STRUCTURE OF BIRDS,

Birds constitute the second class of Vertebrate Animals, and
are characterized by having an internal skeleton ; a twofold,
that is, a general, and a pulmonic, circulation ; as well as a
double respiration, the air passing beyond their lungs into cells
distributed through various parts of the body, and even into
some of the bones ; by being warm-blooded, oviparous, fur-
nished with four extremities or limbs, of which the two
anterior are converted into wing^s ; and bv havino: their skin
covered with feathers. The last circumstance is peculiarly
distinctive of the class. They never approach in magnitude
to many s}:)ecies of Mammalia, Reptiles, and Fishes; and,
being organized for flying, are proportionally lighter than
animals of equal dimensions belonging to those classes. Their
specific gravity, in fact, is less than that of water, so that they
all float on the surface of that element, and many of them are
adapted for swimming upon it, or for plunging or diving into
it. By far the greater number, however, are confined to the
air, most of them obtaining their food by walking on the
ground or on trees, while a few procure their prey on w^ing,
and are incapable of walking without difficulty.

Although it is unnecessary to enter here into a minute ex-
planation of all the organs of birds, I consider it exj)edient to
describe as much of their structure as may enable the reader
not previously acquainted with their anatomy to follow me
through the various details which I shall have to present. I
will therefore give an outline of the osseous, digestive, and
dermal systems, accompanied by illustrative figures.

The Skeleton of birds is composed nearly of the same parts as
that of the Mammalia, but with modifications suited to the
peculiarities of their kind of life. As in man, it is divided
into the head, the neck, the trunk, the anterior, and the pos-
terior extremities.

The Head, which is generally small, is at an early age com-

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 21

posed of several distinct bones, which, however, soon unite, so
that all traces of their sutures become obliterated. In the
skull properly so called, or cranium, there are two frontal, two
parietal, two temporal bones, with an occipital, a sphenoid, and
an ethmoid. The cavity formed by these bones is in some
measure divided into two portions, of which the anterior eon-
tains the cerebrum, while in the posterior are lodged the cere-
bellum, the Q-ptiQ lobes, and the medulla oblongata. The face
is composed of the nasal, intermaxillary, malar, lachrymal,
superior maxillary, and palatal bones, with the vomer, and the
lower maxillary bone. The upper jaw, composed of all the
bones mentioned except the last, is united at its base with the
frontal, the ethmoid, and the temporal bones, but in such a
manner as generally to allow a considerable degree of motion,
wdiich is not however effected by joints properly so called, but
by the elasticity of the parts. Viewed from beneath, it pre-
sents two outer or anterior, and two posterior, slender branches,
which are articulated behind to a bone of irregular, somewhat
square form, named the t}Tiipanic bone, or os quadratum, which
is itself articulated to the temporal bone, and forms the anterior
edge of the cavity of the ear, having the membrane of the tym-
panum attached to its posterior margin. This arrangement,
owing to the motion given to the t}Tnpanic bone, and the
elasticity of the parts at the junction of the frontal and nasal
bones, allows the upper mandible a degree of motion varying
in the different families. The lower jaw of an adult bird is
formed of a single bone, having the sides generally thin and
nearly vertical, and articulated to the tympanic bone.

Fig. 1 represents
the skull of the Ra-
ven, Cortus Cor ax ^
viewed laterally. The
occipital bone, «, ori-
ginally composed of
Fig. 1. Skull of Raven. f^^j. pieces, the an-

terior or basilar; the posterior, spinous, or superior; and
the two lateral or condyloid. The temporal bone is com-
posed of the petrous portion, b, containing the ear ; the

22 INTRODUCTION.

squamous portion, c ; to which is articulated the tympanic
portion, or os quadratum, d. The parietal bone, e, intervenes
between the occipital and the frontal. The latter, /, besides
forming the anterior part of the covering of the brain, also
constitutes the upper edge of the orbit or cavity in which the
eye is lodged, its posterior process, ^, bounding it behind, while
its antorbital process, /i, margins it before, and is connected
with the lachrpiial bones. The lower part of the orbit is
thus left incomplete, as it is in various degrees in all birds, ex-
cepting some of the parrots. The sphenoid bone is originally
composed of several distinct parts : a basilar portion, united to
that of the occipital bone ; two orbital plates, /, constituting
part of the orbits and of their septum ; two cranial plates, /,
corresponding to the wings, and forming the posterior part of
the orbits ; and two pterygoid or interarticular portions, k,
which are articulated posteriorly to the tympanic bones. The
ethmoid bone forms the anterior portion of the septum of the
orbits, /, and separates them from the cavity of the nose. Ex-
cepting the OS quadratum, c?, and the pterygoid process of the
sphenoid bone, k, these bones are all anchylosed or united in
the Raven and other Crows, as is indeed the case with most
adult birds.

The Face is primarily divided into the upper jaw, m^ formed
of a number of bones, and the lower jaw, ??, formed of a single
bone. The nasal bones, o, occupy the basal part of the upper
jaw, and bend obliquely downwards behind the nasal cavity.
The lachrymal bones, j9, are articulated with the antorbital
process of the frontal bone, h, the nasal, o, and the malar
bones. The latter, q, are here articulated posteriorly with the
lachrjTnal bones, anteriorly and above with the nasal, and
below with the long slender process of the upper maxillary.
The intermaxillary bones, r, form the greater part of the
upper mandible, extending from its extremity along the ridge
and sides, and are united with the superior maxillary bones.
The latter, 5, are generally small. They send a long slender
process, t, backwards, along the edge of the upper mandible,
to be articulated to the tympanic bone, 3. This process is by
some considered as analogous to the zygomatic arch, and

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS.

25

by others held to be the malar bone. The palatal bones,
forming the roof of the mouth, are scarcely visible in this
view. The vomer separates the cavity of the nostrils, w, when
complete.

Fig. 2 represents the cranium and upper
^ jaw of the Raven, viewed from below. The
occipital bone, a, b, b, c, of which a is the
basilar or anterior portion ; 6, b, the two
lateral portions ; c, the posterior. The oc-
cipital foramen for the passage of the spinal
cord is seen, of a somewhat triangular form,
having on its anterior margin a small hemi-
spherical prominence for the articulation
of the first cervical vertebra. The temporal
bones, d, d. The tympanic bone, or os
quadratum, e, e. The basilar portion of the
sphenoid bone,/,* its pterygoid bones or
ossa quadrato-palatina, g, g ; and its large
orbital plates, h, h. The palate bones, i, i.
The malar bones, j, j. The os quadrato-maxillare, k, k, or
slender process of the upper maxillary bones, /, /. Lastly, the
intermaxillary bones, m, m, of which the superior part is seen
behind the aperture of the nares, ',

Fig. 2. Cranium and Upper
Jaw of Raven.

The lower jaw. Fig. 1, oc, n.

originally composed of

twelve pieces, which remain more or less disunited in many
of the waders and aquatic birds for a considerable time, is
here completely ossified. Its two thin, broad, erect sides, are
named the rami or branches, v ; the union of which anteriorly,
from w to the point, is named the symphysis, and determines
the outline of the lower horny mandible. Behind the middle
of the ramus, there is in many cases a vacuity, y, in others
two, and sometimes none. The part by which the articulation
is effected with the os quadratum, z, is the condyle, and is of
various forms, with several processes in its vicinity.

The upper jaw preserves a degree of mobility in its union
with the cranium, which is effected by the medium of the
slender quadrato-maxillary bone. Fig. 1, t. Fig. 2, k, by which
the motion of the os quadratum, Fig. 1, c?, is communicated to

24 INTRODUCTION.

the maxillary bone, s. The lower jaw admits only of a direct
hinge-like motion. Both together constitute the general organ
of prehension in birds, and undergo great modifications of form,
according to the nature of the food.

It is only necessary further to observe here that the skull
contains the cerebrum, cerebellum, and optic lobes, constituting
the central organ of the nervous system ; that in the temporal
bone, Fig. 1, ^, is contained the organ of hearing; while in
the large cavities formed between the cranium and face, at ^,
A, p^ named the orbits, are placed the organs of vision ; those
of smell being situated in the cavity at the base of the upper
jaw, 0, s ; and that the organs of taste and deglutition, with
the entrance of the respiratory apparatus, are placed in the
mouth and throat.

Plate I. represents the skeleton of the Golden Eagle, Aquila
Chrymetus^ reduced to one fourth of its natural size. The parts
already spoken of may, for the most part, be readily traced in
the head, which has an additional small bone, appended to the
lachr^Tiial, and named the superciliary. It is the basis of the
thin-edged projection which gives a peculiar character to the
eyes of the birds of prey. The cranium is marked a, the upper
jaw 6, the lower c.

The vertebral column, or spine, along the centre of which
runs the spinal cord, is divided into three regions : the cervical,
from ^ to ^ ,• the dorsal, from eio f ; the sacral, or united lum-
bar and sacral, from / backwards ; and lastly, the caudal or
coccygeal, g. The number of vertebrae, or pieces of which it
is composed, varies much in this class of animals.

The cervical vertebrae, f?, ^, are here thirteen. The articula-
tion of the skull with the first takes place by a single condyle,
or hemispherical knob, seen in Fig. 2, and a corresponding
depression in the first cervical vertebra, which is of an annular
form. This sort of joint allows a much freer motion than in
the mammalia. The other vertebrae are articulated by alter-
nate concave and convex surfaces, but so as to permit extended
motion, the upper vertebrae moving more easily forwards, those
in the middle backwards, and the lower forwards or down-
wards ; in consequence of which the ordinary flexure of the

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 25

neck resembles the letter y. The spinous processes, ^, A, are
generally very small, unless in the lower vertebrae. The trans-
verse are large, directed forw^ards, and have a pointed process,
2, ^, analogous to a rib, and aiFording attachment to the muscles
of the neck.

The length of the neck varies exceedingly, being dependent
upon the nature of the food. It therefore in land birds, and
the waders, bears a proportion to that of the feet ; but in those
swimming birds which reach at their food under the water, as
the swan, it is greatly elongated, while the feet are short.
The number of vertebrae varies from nine in the sparrow to
twenty-three in the swan ; but in general it is from twelve to
fifteen.

The dorsal vertebrae, from ^ to a little beyond /, are those
forming the region of the back properly so called, and to which
the ribs are attached. They vary in number from six to
eleven, being generally seven or eight, which is also the num-
ber of the ribs. Here it is observed that six of them, from e
iof^ are free, with thin projecting spinous processes, while the
two posterior are united with the large bone extending back-
wards beyond/*. They are generally shorter than the cervical,
are not articulated by intervening cartilages ; and in many
birds, some of them, generally those nearest the sacrum, are
anchylosed. Their bodies are usually much compressed, and
the anterior have inferior spinous processes, to which some of
the muscles of the neck are attached. The transverse processes
are articulated with the ribs, which are also joined to their
bodies.

The vertebrae of the back having to sustain the other parts,
and withstand the shock of the muscles, in flying, the reason of
their partial anchylosis is easily understood. But such an
union is still more requisite in the posterior vertebrae, which
have to support the generally more or less horizontal body, in
standing and walking, and transfer its weight to the legs,
which are articulated far behind the centre of gravity. The
lumbar and sacral vertebrae are therefore anchylosed, and more-
over united with the pelvis, to form the great mass of bone
extending from / to g. These vertebrae, commonly named

26 INTRODUCTION.

sacral, of which the number can be determined only by count-
ing the foramina by which the spinal nerves issue, vary from
seven to twenty, and in the Golden Eagle are eleven.

The caudal or coccygeal vertebra3, g^ vary from six to nine,
and in the present bird are eight. They are narrow, generally
mobile, with superior and inferior spinous, and frequently with
transverse processes. The last bone is much larger, of an ir-
regular oblong form, without processes, much compressed ; and
affords a basis to the tail-feathers.

The Body, properly so called, is composed of the dorsal,
sacral, and coccygeal parts of the vertebral column above,
laterally of the ribs and pelvis, and beneath, of the sternum,
together with the soft parts contained in it, and those without.
Its anterior part is named the thorax, the posterior the pelvis.
The Thorax is composed of the dorsal vertebrae, the ribs, and
the sternum. It contains the heart, the lungs, the liver, the
lower part of the oesophagus, and a portion of the intestine, be-
sides vessels and nerves. The ribs, k, k^ w, n^ vary in number
from six to eleven, and in the Golden Eagle are eight. That part
of them which is nearest the sternum, m, is not cartilaginous, as
in the Mammalia, but bony, whence two sets of ribs are de-
scribed by authors, the dorsal and the sternal. In plain lan-
guage, each rib is divided into two parts, one, ^, attached to
the dorsal vertebrae, the other, m^ to the sternum, both meeting
with a moveable articulation, k. The ribs have two attach-
ments to the vertebrae, one by their head
to the body, the other by the angle to the
transverse process. From about the mid-
dle of their dorsal or upper portion, a thin
slender process, n^ n^ passes obliquely up-
wards and backwards, over the next rib
behind, by which the strength of the tho-
rax is obviously augmented. These pro-
cesses do not exist on the first rib, which
is generally incomplete below, nor on the

Fig. 3. Rihs of Golden Eagle. ][^g^^ whcrO it WOuld be USclcSS.

Fig. 3 represents two ribs of the GoldenEagle : — «, a, the
vertebral portion ; h, h. the sternal portion ; c, c, the angle or

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS.

27

process by which the ribs are articulated to the transverse pro-
cesses of the dorsal vertebrae ; c7, <^, the heads of the ribs arti-
culated to the bodies of the vertebrae ; 6, ^, the thin laminar
processes.

The thorax is completed anteriorly by the sternum, w^hich
is marked in Plate I. by the letters o, ^, q\ but which, form-

FiG. 4. Sternal Apparatus of Golden Eagle.

ing with the clavicles and scapulae, perhaps the most curiously
modified part of the skeleton of birds, requires a separate illus-
t rat ion.

Fig. 4 then represents the Sternal Apparatus. In it are seen
the sternum, «, h, r, c?, e, f; the seven sternal ribs, g, g, g, g ;
the coracoid bones, A, h ; the scapulae, ^, i ; and the furculae,
j, j, j. As is seen in Plate I, the sternum is a large expanded

28 INTRODUCTION.

plate, extended over the whole anterior part of the thorax, and
even covering more or less of what may be considered the
abdomen. In the Golden Eagle, Fig. 4, it is of an elongated
quadrilateral form, deeply concave internally, and having a pro-
minent ridge or keel along the middle externally, so that, espe-
cially with the costal ribs appended, it forcibly reminds one of
the form of a ship. It varies greatly in the different tribes of
birds, insomuch that it has been proposed as a basis for a
methodical arrangement of the class, but in all is more or less
four-sided, and externally convex. In the present case, its an-
terior margin has a medial prominence, &, named the manubrial
process, to which is attached a ligament from the furcula, j ;
and two oblique lateral grooves, h, ^, in which are fitted the
lower ends of the coracoid bones, ^, h. The lateral edges, c, d^
are nearly straight, and afford attachment to the ribs, ^, g.
The posterior margin, f/, e, is nearly straight and transverse.
In other species, however, it is variously cut into by sinuses or
notches, and consequently exhibits a great diversity of ap-
pearance. One object of the large sternum of birds being to
afford a basis to the powerful muscles by which the wings are
moved, its surface is expanded, and in the median line elevated
into a projecting lamina, «,/, named the crest or ridge, by
which the muscular masses are kept from blending together.
This part, by its greater or less size, indicates a corresponding
degree of power in the pectoral muscles, and consequently the
strength of flight, although by no means the actual velocity,
which depends upon the form of the wing as much as upon
the vigour of its muscular apparatus. In the ostrich and other
birds of its family, of which the diminutive wings are not used
for flying, the crest of the sternum is wanting. This bone has
received so extended a development partly to afford a support
to the v/ings, the rapid and powerful motions of which ren-
dered such an arrangement necessary. These organs come
next to be spoken of.

The Anterior Extremities of birds are modified so as to
render them subservient to the aerial progression which these
animals have in common with Insects. They are converted
into \Aings by having appended to them series of long stiff

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 29

feathers, variously proportioned, according to the kind of flight
required by the species ; and as they are not used for supporting
it on the ground, as in quadrupeds, or for enabling it to cling
to an inclined surface, the claws are obliterated, and even the
fingers so modified as to be scarcely distinguishable. The
coracoid bone, /^, resembling the clavicle in man and quadru-
peds so much as generally to have been mistaken for it, is on
the contrary considered analogous to the coracoid process of the
scapula in the mammalia, while the furcular bone, j^ is taken
for the acromial process. These parts, however, being very
remarkably modified in birds, I shall speak of them as the
coracoid bones, /^, h ; the scapulas, z, i ; and the furcul^E, j^ j.

From the anterior margin of the sternum, in an elongated
fossa of which they are articulated, proceed obliquely outwards
the two coracoid bones, or posterior clavicles, /^, 7^, which are
the strongest of those forming the shoulder, and aftbrd the chief
support to the wing. Near its anterior extremity, on the outer
side, is a small hollow, /, which, with a corresponding one on
the scapula, m^ forms the glenoid cavity, for the reception of
the head of the humerus.

The scapula, ?', /, is a narrovv^ elongated bone, flattened to-
wards its posterior extremity, generally curved, and lying over
the ribs. At its anterior end it is articulated to the coracoid
bone behind the glenoid cavity, ?z, and by a process to the fur-
cula, 0.

The furcula, or anterior clavicle, J, y, J, varies extremely in the
different families of birds. It commonly presents the appear-
ance of a single bone, bent so as to resemble a V or U ; but in
some few cases its two sides are not united below. Sometimes
its angle is anchylosed to the sternum, but more commonly
connected by a membrane with it. The use of this bone being
to prevent the humeri from being driven inwards by the action
of the pectoral muscles in flying, it is stronger, and has a wider
arch, in those species which have the most powerful flight.

Turning again to Plate I, where the coracoid bone is marked
r ; the furcula, 5, s ; and the scapula, t ; we can trace the other
bones of the wing, which resemble those of the human arm.

The OS humeri, or arm-bone, «, u^ is of a cylindrical form,

30 INTRODUCTION.

greatly enlarged and flattened at its anterior end, at the ex-
tremity of which is the articular surface corresponding to the
glenoid cavity, /, ?w, in Fig. 4. The upper edge or crest of this
enlarged part is curved a little forwards, and affords insertion
to the pectoral muscle, wdiich pulls the wing downwards ; while
its lower edge is rounded and curved backwards. Behind this
part is an orifice by w^hich the air gains access to its cavity.
The outer extremity of the bone is also flattened, curved a little
outwards, and presents two rounded surfaces, the lower, larger
for the ulna, the other for the radius. This bone varies ex-
tremely in length, being very short in the Sw^allows, of moderate
length in the Gallinaceous birds, longer in the Crows, very long
in the Gannets, and excessively elongated in the Albatross. In
the Golden Eagle, it is also seen to be of great length. As the
power of the wing depends partly upon the size of the quills,
the elongation of the humeral bone does not correspond with
the velocity of the bird ; but in those species which have a
buoyant flight, produced by a slow^ motion of the wings, it is
always long.

The cubitus, or fore-arm, is composed of tAVO bones, the ulna,
«, T, and the radius, u\ w. The former is a cylindrical bone,
enlarged at both extremities, and generally marked by the at-
tachment of the cubital quills, or those usually termed secon-
daries. The radius is nearly of the same form, but more
slender.

The carpus, betw^een t, %*, and x, is formed of two small
bones, intervening betwixt the anterior extremity of the radius
and ulna, and the metacarpus, so as to confine the motion to
flexion and extension. The metacarpus, ^, is usually formed
of two bones, united at both extremities. At its base externally
is a single small bone, y, free or anchylosed, w^hich is analogous
to the thumb, and to which are attached the feathers of the
pinion, alula, or bastard wing. Appended to the outer meta-
carpal bone are usually two digital bones, z ; and generally
to the inner a smaller bone of the same nature. The quills
named primaries, usually ten in number, correspond to the
metacarpus and digits.

The inferior extremity is attached to the pelvis, which in

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 31

birds is united to the sacrum, forming a large mass of bone
indicated in the plate by the letters/, y.

The pelvis, which is always open in front, excepting in the
Ostrich and American Rhea, is composed, as in the Mammalia,
of the ilium, ischium, and pubes, denoted by the Greek letters,
a, /5, 7. The ilium is anchylosed with the sacrum, and gene-
rally with, the two posterior dorsal vertebrae, as well as w^ith
the ischium, and frequently the pubes, which latter is a long
narrow bone curving backwards, and not meeting its fellow on
the opposite side, as in the mammalia. The ischiadic notch, 5,
is closed behind by the union of the ilium and ischium ; and the
obturator foramen, g, is generally completed by the pubes, but
sometimes merely forms a notch. The great size and solidity
of the pelvis were rendered necessary for the support of the
bird, which, when not flying, is essentially bipedal ; and its
separation in front, for facilitating the passage of the eggs.

The os-femoris or thigh-bone, ^, is cylindrical, slightly curved,
with a single large trochanter, and a small hemispherical head,
standing off at right angles to the body of the bone, without a
neck. Its lower extremity has two condyles, >j, >j, to w^hich the
tibia, d, is articulated, but to the outer of which the fibula, /, is
also joined. Anterior to the joint is seen the small patella
connected as usual with the tibia by a ligament. The thigh-
bone is generally very short, and being concealed in the body,
leads superficial observers to consider the leg as the thigh.

The leg, composed of the tibia ^, and the fibula, /, is always
much longer than the femur. The fibula is merely a slender,
gradually attenuated bone, generally adherent to the tibia,
w^hich is straight, of a triangular form above, and flattened below,
w^here it is articulated by two condyles.

The tarsus and metatarsus are united so as to form a single
bone, generally named the tarsus, X, X, which varies greatly
in length and size, as well as in form, being roundish, square,
flattened transversely or compressed. At its upper extremity
it has two cavities corresponding to the pulley of the tibia,
generally with an intervening prominence or tubercle in front,
which being received into a depression of the tibia, tends to
strengthen the joint when the bird is standing. At its lower

32 INTRODUCTION.

extremity are three prominences for the articulation of the toes.
In most birds there is at the inner and back part a small bone,
/*, sometimes anchylosed, to which the hind toe is attached.

The toes, 1, 2, 3, 4, are never fewer than three, or more than
four, unless the spur of the Gallinaceous birds might be con-
sidered as the first toe, in the same manner as that on the first
digit of the wing has been by some. In very many birds the first
or hind toe is wanting, and in others reduced to a rudimentary
state. The toes vary extremely in their length and direction.
In all birds the outer or fifth toe has five bones, the fourth or
middle toe four, the third or inner three, the second or hind
toe two, and the first or the spur one. Some birds however
have naturally two spurs or even more on the tarsus. The spur,
being merely a rudimentary toe, cannot be in the least degree
indicative of an analogy between the Gallinaceous Birds and
Ruminating Quadrupeds, as Mr. Swainson appears to consider
it. The horns of a bull might as well be viewed as hoofs
placed on his head for special purposes, and the horny man-
dibles of birds as claws appended to the jaws as a substitution
for the fingers.

This superficial inspection of the osseous system of Birds
will suffice to render the relations of the external parts intel-
ligible, and prevent the student of ornithology from falling into
those strange mistakes to which persons are liable whose know-
ledge is not more than skin deep. I may be allowed to ad-
duce a few examples from " the Natural History and Classifi-
cation of Birds, by William Swainson, Esq."' " The leg,"
he says, " is obviously divided into three parts : 1. the thigh ;
2. the shank or tarsus ; and 3. the foot itself, composed of the
toes. The thigh is subject to very few variations beyond relative
lenofth, and in being more or less clothed with feathers. In
aquatic birds it is generally naked before it reaches the knee
joint.'' Never, in any aquatic bird, is the thigh naked ; but it
is obvious that Mr. Swainson is not aware that birds have a
thigh, or that part of which the bone is marked ^ in Plate I.
The knee joint, which he considers to be at ^, is at x, as a
little reflection might shew any person, and what he calls the
thigh is the leg or tibia. Again, '' the humerus " (referring to

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 33

the extremity of the cubitus) " is generally termed the
shoulder; ikiQ fleximi^^ (pointing to the wrist) " is the shoul-
der joint; and the aa;///a "' (reference to the pollex), "which
corresponds to the cubitus^ is commonly called the shoulder
margin." Errors like these are deplorable, more especially as
their author is in many respects an estimable writer. To
mistake the wrist joint for the shoulder joint is a blunder
which might have been avoided by inspecting a skeleton, or
even feeling for the bones in the wing of any common bird.

The Muscles of birds are generally of a deep red colour, their
fasciculi remarkably distinct, their tendons glistening and pecu-
liarly liable to become ossified, especially those of the inferior
extremities. In the Gallinaceous species, however, and some
others, the muscles are often very white. It is not necessary
here to enter into a particular description of these organs of
motion ; but as the mechanism of the wings is of especial inte-
rest, and as I shall often have occasion to speak of the flight of
birds, it may be well to endeavour to afford some general de-
scription of it.

The bones of the wing have already been pointed out in the
skeleton of the Golden Eagle, and are again represented in
Plate III, Fig. I. It may here be further stated with re-
spect to them that the frame-work of the wing is composed
of a series of bones fixed by a joint to the solid apparatus of
the scapula and clavicles, and folding up by hinges into three
pieces, the humerus, the cubitus, and the hand, so as, wdiea
not in use, to be conveniently disposed of by the side of the
body. The first bone, the os humeri, or bone of the arm, or
brachial bone, ^, c, is articulated by a small rounded surface to
a corresponding cavity formed betw^een the coracoid bone, ^, and
the scapula, a, in such a manner as to allow great freedom of
motion. When at rest this bone is directed backwards, more or
less parallel to the spine. Its distal extremity forms, w^th the
proximal extremity of the cubital bones, the ulna and radius, c,
d^ an oblique hinge-like joint, c^ which allows the cubitus to
be folded up parallel to the brachium, and nearly in the same
plane. The third portion, the hand, d^ e^ /, on the contrary, is
jointed so as to fold under the cubitus in a perpendicular

34 INTRODUCTION.

plane. These solid parts are moved upon each other, and upon
the scapula, hy a complicated muscular apparatus ; and the
arm, thus constructed, is converted into an instrument of flight
by having appended to its posterior edge a large lamina or plate,
composed of a series of strong, elastic feathers, named quills,
and varying in firmness, form, length, and relative proportion,
according to the kind of flight necessary for the species. When
about to be employed, the parts, which in a state of rest vrere
folded up, are stretched out so as to unfold the feathers some-
what in the manner of a fan, and form a horizontally expanded
lamina, which being alternately raised and forcibly pulled down,
furnishes a lever by which the body is elevated into the air ;
when, by repeated strokes, by which the wing is alternately
drawn upwards, forwards, and inw^ards, and then more forcibly
outwards, downwards, and backwards, the bird advances, direct-
ing its course by the tail, but more especially by a difference
in the action of the two wings.

In Plate II. is represented the wing of a domestic Pigeon,
Columba Livia^ deprived of all its feathers excepting the quills,
and viewed, first from above. Fig. 1 ; then from beneath. Fig.
2. In these figures, «, is a portion of the body ; ^, c, the
humerus ; (?, d^ the cubitus ; d^ e^ the carpus and metacarpus ;
^, /, the digital bones ; ^, the poUex. The ten quills attached
to the hand, from d to /, are the primary quills ; those at-
tached to the cubitus, from c to c?, are the secondary quills.
They are arranged, as is observed, in two distinct sets. Those
on the first finger, g^ are named the alula, or spurious wing :
they are few, and of small size. Besides these, there are large
feathers, not however so strong, attached to the skin along the
edge of the humerus, ^, c ; but these, which are named tertiary
quills, have been removed. Now the order of nomenclature,
if numerical, ought to have commenced at the part nearest the
body ; those on the first joint or brachium, ought obviously to
have been named primary ; those on the second, secondary ;
those on the third, tertiary. A decidedly preferable mode,
however, is to name the quills according to their relations :
those on the arm, brachial ; on the fore-arm, cubital ; on the
hand, digital ; on the outer finger, alular.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 35

Plate III. represents the muscular apparatus of the wings,
seen after the feathers and skin have been removed. Fig. 1 .
shews the bones, which have already been explained. In
Fig. 2, which represents the wing seen from above ; and
in Fig. 3, representing it seen from beneath, the regions are
marked as in the figures of Plate II. ; a, being a portion of the
body ; 6, c, the brachium or arm ; ^, c?, the cubitus or fore-
arm ; c?, ^, the carpus and metacarpus ; 6, y, the digital bones ;
^, the pollex. The muscles to be described are : 1^^, those
inserted into the scapula ; 2dly^ those inserted into the brachial
bone ; Mly^ those inserted into the hand. In the figures the
same muscles bear the same numbers.

I. Muscles inserted into the scapula.

1. The first muscle is the trapezius^ which, arising from the
spines of the last cervical and all the dorsal vertebrae, except-
ing the last two, is inserted into the dorsal edge of the scapula
and the extremity of the furcula. Its action is to draw the
scapula towards the spine, and to fix it during flight.

Under this are the rJiomboideus^ which passes from the spines
of some of the anterior dorsal vertebrge, to the dorsal edge of
the scapula ; and the levator scapidw^ which, arising from the
transverse process of the last cervical vertebra and a few of the
anterior ribs, is inserted into the dorsal edge of the scapula,
which it pulls upwards and forwards.

2. The serratus magnus anticus arises by digitations from the
last four ribs excepting two, and is inserted into the extremity
of the scapula. A slender slip, 2 a, separates from it, to be
inserted into the skin of the posterior edge of the brachium.

There is also a serratus parriis anticus^ or costo-scapularis^
which arises in like manner from the first two ribs, and is
inserted into the anterior part of the lower edge of the sca-
pula.

II. Muscles inserted into the humeral or brachial bone.

3. The two superficial slips seen on the back are analogous
to the latissimiis dor si in man. They arise from the spinous
processes of the last cervical and some of the anterior dorsal

36 INTRODUCTION.

vertebrcT. The first, 3 a, is inserted into the coracoid bone, the
other, 3 ^, into the middle of the linea aspera, or dorsal ridge of
the humerus, which it draws toward the back.

The other muscles which arise from the trunk, to be inserted
into the humerus, are situated in front.

4. Pectoralis major ^ Fig. 2, arises from the whole length
of the crest of the sternum, from its posterior and lateral mar-
gins, and from the outer edge of the furcula, forming a trian-
gular mass of vast size, sometimes exceeding in bulk all the
other muscles of the body together. Its fibres run obliquely
forwards and outwards, pass over the shoulder joint, and are
inserted fleshy into the anterior or upper crest of the head of the
humerus, and by a flat tendon where they cross the insertion of
the next muscle. Its action has not been correctly described.
Its anterior part raises the humerus, and brings it forward ; its
middle part brings the wing downward ; and its posterior part
brings the humerus backward, close to the body. Its combined
action is powerfully to depress the wing, and bring its anterior
edge downward, by which the quills are obliquely raised.

5. Under the great pectoral muscle is seen, in Fig. 4, the
•pectoralis medius. It arises, properly speaking, over the other,
from the whole length of the under surface of the sternum, and
the upper half of its crest, and from the fore edge of the cora-
coid bone and the membrane between it and the furcula. The
fibres converge into a central tendon, extending its whole length,
which passes forwards between the coracoid bone and furcula,
curves round the joint, and is inserted upon the upper tubercle
or crest of the humerus, close to the insertion of the pectoralis
major, and anterior to it. Although this muscle is similar in
its origin to the pectoralis major, its action, owing to the direc-
tion of its tendon, is the reverse of that muscle, as it elevates
the humerus and brings it forward.

6. The pectoralis minor is a small muscle which arises from
the lower two-thirds of the outer edge of the coracoid bone and
the anterior margin of the sternum, under the articulation of
the ribs, forms a small round tendon, which passes outwards
and forwards, and is inserted into a prominent internal tubercle
of the humerus, which it pulls downwards and backwards.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 37

7. Above and before the pectoralis minor is a small muscle,
which arises from the upper part of the coracoid bone, and a
strong fascia extended from its base to its extremity above, passes
obliquely upwards, and is inserted anteriorly to the pectoralis
minor. Its action is to draw the humerus directly downwards.

The muscles which arise from the scapula to be inserted into
the humerus, are the following :

8. The siipra-spinatus^ Fig. 1, arises from the fore part of the
scapula, and is inserted into the posterior or inner crest of the
humerus externally of the tendon of the pectoralis minor.

9. The infraspinatus arises from the outer surface of the
scapula as far as its extremity, and is inserted into the same
prominence as the last. These two muscles draw the humerus
backward.

The suhscapularis arises from the fore part of the inner or
under surface of the scapula, and is inserted into the same pro-
tuberance.

10. The deltoides arises from the fore part of the scapula,
and from the top of the coracoid bone, its anterior fibres being
in contact with those of the pectoralis major. Its anterior por-
tion is inserted into the outer and back part of the edge of the
anterior crest of the humerus, its posterior into that bone as far
as the origin of the supinator radii longus, that is, for four-fifths
of its length. A thin flap is attached to the skin in the bend
of the winsr. The deltoid muscle raises the humerus.

Under the deltoid is the coraco-brackialis, which arises from
the tip of the coracoid bone and adjoining part of the scapula,
and is inserted into the proximal part of the crest of the humerus.
Its action is to pull the humerus forward and upward.

The muscles inserted into the cubitus or fore-arm come next
in order ; but it may be proper here to describe a very curious
apparatus existing in the bend of the wing, anteriorly, between
the shoulder and wrist joints, b and d. At that part the edge of
the wing is formed by a fold of the skin enclosing an elastic
substance, and edged with an elastic tendon or fibre, which has
at its commencement at the shoulder joint a small muscle de-
tached from the pectoralis major.

11. This muscle, named the tensor pUcw alw^ or stretcher of

38 INTRODUCTION.

the fold of the wing, has its terminal insertion in the prominence
at the base of the metacarpal bone, at d. Another smaller slip
comes off behind from the anterior ridge of the humerus, and
immediately forms a very slender tendon, which passes along
the humerus to the radius.

About the middle of the fold, at 7^, is a dense mass of cellular
and elastic tissue, to which is attached a thin flap from the
deltoid muscle, seen in Figs. 2 and 3 of Plate III, at h.

12. Besides which, there is a thin muscle arising from an
aponeurotic base, from the lower part of the deltoid near its in-
sertion, attached to the cellular mass, and sending off from its
lower edge a very slender tendon, inserted along with that of
the tensor plicae. This muscle, which does not appear to have
been previously observed, may be named the retractor plicce.
I have not met with it in any other birds than Pigeons. In
the Thrushes its place seems to be supplied by an enlargement
of the slender muscle of which the tendon is seen between 11
and 13, in Fig. 3, and which in them is inserted into the ulna.

III. Muscles inserted into the cubitus.
The muscles which move the fore-arm on the arm are two,
a flexor and an extensor.

13. Flexor cubit I, or biceps flexor^ arises tendinous from the
upper extremity of the coracoid bone, passing, flat, under the
insertion of the pectoralis major, and also from the flat surface
and edge of the inferior crest of the humerus, runs along the
anterior and inferior face of that bone, and is inserted by a short
tendon into the radius, and by a more slender slip into the
ulna, between the supinator radii longus, and pronator radii
teres. Its action is to bend the cubitus on the humerus.

14. Extensor cubiti arises from the anterior extremity of the
scapula, from the head of the humerus, by another distinct ori-
gin from the lower ridge of that bone, and from the greater part
of its posterior edge or linea aspera, and is inserted by two ten-
dons into the olecranon or upper extremity of the ulna. Its
action is to extend the cubitus, and raise it a little.

lY. Muscles inserted into the hand.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 39

As these muscles are numerous, it is expedient to describe
them in the order in which they are seen in the two views.

Fig. 2, Plate III, represents the lower face of the wing. In it
are observed the following muscles.

15. Extensor metacarpi i^adiaUs longm\ or supinator radii lon-
gus. It is the muscle seen on the fore edge of the cubitus. It
arises from the outer condyle of the humerus, fleshy and penni-
form, runs along the anterior edge of the fore-arm, and ter-
minates in a tendon, which is inserted into the protuberance
on the head of the radial metacarpal bone, anterior to the first
digit. Its action is to bend the arm and extend the hand, or
bring it into a straight line with the cubitus. The insertion
of the biceps cubiti is between the head of this muscle and that
of the pronator radii teres.

16. Of the muscles that arise from the inner condyle, the
first or most external is the flexor carpi ulnaris^ which comes
off by a tendon from the lowest i3art of the condyle, passes
along the inner and posterior side of the ulna, in contact with
the bases of the cubital quills, and on the anterior side with
the palmaris longus, and is inserted by a short tendon into the
projecting point of the ulnar carpal bone, analogous to the os
pisiforme. Its action is to bend the hand, or bring it back to-
wards the fore-arm.

17. The palmaris longus arises from the inner condyle of the
humerus, immediately above the flexor carpi ulnaris, and, cover-
ing the flexor carpi radialis, runs superficially over the flexor
digitorum, and is inserted partly into the base of the posterior
carpal bone, partly into the fascia which covers the lower sur-
face of the metacarpus, partly into the ulnar carpal bone, and
sends an extremely slender tendon along the radial metacarpal
bone and the first phalanx, to be inserted into the base of the
second phalanx. Its action is to bend or adduct the hand, and
at the same time extend the digit.

18. T\iQ flexor digitorum is a small muscle arising under the
palmaris longus from the inferior and posterior surface of the
ulna, along four-fifths of its length, the upper fifth excepted.
Its fibres pass obliquely forwards, and it sends off a very long
tendon, which runs anterior and parallel to that of the palmaris

40 INTRODUCTION.

longus, and has a similar insertion. Another tendon also
passes to be inserted into the base of the radial metacarpal
bone, under that of the supinator radii longus.

19. The JIea:or carpi radialis arises from the inner condyle
immediately below the origin of the pronator radii teres, and
concealed by the palmaris longus. Its fibres pass obliquely for-
wards along the lower and posterior edge of the radius, in con-
tact anteriorly with the pronator radii teres, and posteriorly
Avith the flexor digitorum. It is inserted fleshy along the pos-
terior edge of the radius. Its action is to draw the arm ob-
liquely downw^ards and forwards.

20. Under these muscles is a shorter one which arises from
the posterior edge and lower surface of the ulna for two-thirds
of its length, and forms a short strong tendon, which passes
over the wrist joint, to be inserted into the base of the radial
metacarpal bone. Its action is to assist in extending the hand
and brinofincr it into a line with the cubitus.

A thin fleshy muscle extends obliquely forwards from the
outer edge of the ulna, in nearly its whole length, to be inserted
along two-thirds of the lower surface of the radius. It is a
pronator of the radius, which, although fixed when the wing is
extended, has considerable motion when bent, in which case
it tends to elevate the hand. This muscle is analogous to the
pronator^ radii quadratus.

21. The most anterior muscle of those that come from the
inner or posterior part of the lower extremity of the humerus is
the pronator radii te?'es. It arises from the upper part of the
inner condyle of the humerus, at a considerable distance up
the arm, by a tendinous origin, passes obliquely outwards, in
contact first w^ith the insertion of the biceps flexor cubiti, then
on the same or anterior side of the fore-arm with the extensor
carpi radialis longior, and on the other side with the flexor
carpi radialis ; and is inserted into tvT^o-thirds of the length of
the radius. Its action is to bend the fore-arm obliquely down-
wards and inwards.

The small muscles on the hand may be described afterwards.
Let us now turn to the upper surface of the cubitus, seen in
Fig. 2, Plate III.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 41

The most external muscle, of which a portion is seen along
and behind the ulna, is the flexor carpi ulnaris^ 1 6, which has
already been described.

22. The next muscle is the extensor carpi ulnaris, which arises
from the lower extremity of the outer condyle of the humerus,
runs along the middle of the fore-arm, with the ulna imme-
diately behind, and terminates in a long slender tendon, which
passes over a pulley at the extremity of the ulna, and is in-
serted into the posterior edge of the radial metacarpal bone.
Its action is to extend the hand, and when extended, to bring
it upwards. It is not by any means an adductor of the hand,
as stated in several books.

23. Extensor primi digiti arises from the outer condyle of
the humerus, runs along the fore-arm parallel and anterior to
the last, and forms a very slender tendon, which, passing over
that of the next muscle, goes to be inserted into the base of the
bone of the first finger, which it draws upward and backward.

24. Extensor digitorum arises from the outer condyle of the
humerus, and from the anterior edge of the ulna and the pos-
terior edge of the radius ; its tendon passes over the wTist joint,
and runs along the radial metacarpal bone to be inserted into
the last phalanx. Sometimes several slips are given off by this
tendon. Its action is to pull the hand or pinion upwards and
outwards.

25. Extensor carpi radialis hrems arises also from the inner
condyle, and from nearly the whole length of the inner edge
of the radius, and is inserted by a slender tendon into the pro-
minence at the base of the metacarpal bone near that of the
extensor carpi radialis longior, 15, already described, and w^hich
is the muscle on the anterior edge of the fore-arm.

There now remain the small muscles on the hand.
The first finger, g^ has three muscles.

26. Flexor primi digiti arises from the base of the radial
metacarpal bone, and is inserted into that of the first finger,
wdiich it draws dow^n wards.

27. Adductor primi digiti arises from the metacarpal bone,
and is inserted along the inner or posterior edge of that of the
first finger, which it draws toward the next.

42 INTRODUCTION. -

28. Abductor primi digiti arises from the insertion of the
tendon of the supinator radii longus, 15, and draws the first
finger outwards from the second.

29. Abductor digiti arises from the whole length of the outer
edge of the radial metacarpal bone, and is inserted into the
base of the first phalanx, which it draws forward.

80. Adductor digiti arises from the ulnar carpal bone, and
the whole length of the ulnar metacarpal, and is inserted into
the edge of the third or little finger, which is so firmly attached
to the second as to have no motion of its own. The action of
this muscle therefore is to draw the fingers outwards.

31. Supinator or extensor digiti fills up the space between
the two metacarpal bones, and is inserted fleshy into the base
of the first phalanx, and by a tendon into that of the second.
It pulls the second finger upwards and backwards.

By this complex apparatus, then, the wings are made to
perform all those powerful, delicate, and varied motions neces-
sary for ordinary flight, for escape, pursuit, and the numberless
inflexions used every day by birds in their usual avocations.
These motions will be better understood by inspecting the
figure than by following a laboured description, and still better
by dissecting the wing of a Pigeon, or any other bird of mode-
rate or large size.

The adaptation of the form and structure of birds to flying
or progression in the air, is obvious and intelligible. Their
body is oval, with the larger end forwards, and the more power-
ful muscles placed on the breast, so that when the horizontal
direction is assumed, the centre of gravity comes between the
wings, and is kept near the lower part by the weight of the
pectoral muscles. The length and flexibility of the neck en-
able the bird to make the necessary changes in the centre of
gravity, w^hile the solidity of the dorsal spine gives advantage
to the action of the muscles ; the head is terminated by a
pointed bill, which aids in cleaving the air ; the feet, when
short, are draA\^i up and concealed under the feathers ; w^hen
long, stretched out beneath or beyond the tail, which is more
or less expanded, and helps to support the body in the air, as
well as, by acting in the manner of a rudder, to change its

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS, 43

direction, or by being stretched out to break its descent. In
proportion to their bulk birds are also much lighter than any
vertebrate animals, and their lightness is produced by the intro-
duction of air into their tissue, and even into the bones, as well
as by the great bulk of the feathers, which in those having a
very buoyant flight, as Owls and Gulls, is much greater than
that of the body.

When a bird intends to fly, it loosens its wings from their
ordinary position, throws its body forward, and gives it a sudden
impulse by means of the legs, which would merely produce a
leap, but the w^ngs being in the meantime spread out and ele-
vated, they are again brought down with force, so that their
points generally strike against the ground. Whether or not,
they act as levers, and by repeated strokes, carry the bird up-
wards. AVere its ascent vertical, the rapid action of the wings
in the same plane would suflice to raise it, provided the down-
ward stroke w^ere much more powerful than the upward, the
wing, moreover, being drawn in during the latter, and stretched
out during the former. But, for progression in a horizontal direc-
tion, it is necessary that the downward stroke should be modi-
fied by the elevation in a certain degree of the free extremities
of the quills, and that the pinion should be pulled backwards.
The best subject in which to study the motions of the wrings
during flight, is one of the larger gulls, in which the wings
being very long and the flight remarkably buoyant, and per-
formed by slow beats, one may trace their alternations with ease,
provided he be near enough. In these birds, the wings are
never extended to their full length, the elbow-joint being always
more or less bent, and the hand or pinion always inclined back-
w^ards. During the elevation of the wing, it is drawn in a little,
the humerus is directly raised, but the cubitus inclines down-
wards to some extent, and the fore-edge of the hand is depressed,
so that the primary quills are elevated, by which arrangement
little resistance is offered to the air. Then the wing is stretched
out, brought strongly down, first with its whole concave surface
direct, but presently with the quills raised a little behind, so as
to procure an oblique stroke on the air. The Gannet, when
viewed at hand, shews these alternate motions still more decided-

44 INTRODUCTION.

ly. A person vaguely observing the flight of a bird might sup-
pose that the wing is stretched out stiif, but on the contrary, it
undergoes an undulatory motion during its descent. Many birds,
however, as the Golden Eagle and the Raven, having given
themselves a sufficient impetus by repeated vigorous exertions,
can glide with extended wings over a considerable space. This
mode of flying has by some been called sailing, but the nomen-
clature of flight is at present in a most barbarous condition, being
confined to the general terms, flying, gliding, sailing, hovering,
skimming, and a few others. Birds in flying always beat their
wings synchronously, never alternately, even in executing rapid
turns, w^hich are effected by the contraction of one wing and the
extension of the other, aided by the tail.

The modifications of flight are numerous, different fami-
lies of birds, and sometimes even different species of a genus,
exhibiting marked peculiarities with respect to it. Thus
Grouse and Partridges, which have short, rounded, concave
wings, fly by quickly repeated strokes ; while Gulls and Terns,
which have long, pointed, straight wings, fly by slowly repeated
strokes, in a light and buoyant manner. The modifications in
the form of the wing are not less numerous than those in the
mode of flying ; but as both will be amply illustrated in the
following pages, it is unnecessary to treat of them here.

As connected with flight, however, it may be proper to say a
few words respecting the tail, and the muscular apparatus by
which it is moved.

Fig. 5. represents, as seen from above, the tail of a Thrush,
Tardus musims, from which have been removed all the smaller
feathers and the skin. A portion of the sacrum and pelvis, a ;
the large tail-feathers or quills, b, h. These feathers have their
basis supported by the last coccygeal bone, and firmly bound to-
gether by a strong ligamentous band, composed of interlaced
fibres. On its upper surface rests the uropygial gland, celebrated
by the field and closet naturalists, being one of the few points of
the structure of a bird accessible to them, and containing a quan-
tity of oily matter mixed with an aqueous fluid ; while on its
lower surface is a layer of cellular tissue containing a similar
substance. Both are apparently destined for nourishing the

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS.

45

feathers, or, at least, are connected with their growth. I have
observed that at the period of moulting, and especially when the
tail-quills are growing, that they are very highly developed, and,

as is well known,
sometimes inflame
and suppurate in
domestic birds,
w^hereas in birds of
which the moult
has been complet-
ed, I have generally
found them greatly
diminished, and
frequently entirely
shrunk. This fact,
analogous to that
of the periodical
enlargement of the
testes in birds, af-
fords a key to the
knowledge of the nature and use of the uropygial gland, which
has hitherto eluded the sagacity of physiologists ; for the appli-
cation of the oil contained in it by the bill is certainly fanciful.

Fig. 5. The Tail of a Thrush.

The muscles seen in this view are :

1. The levator coccygis^ which arises from the lower extremity
of the sacrum, and from the sides of the coccygeal vertebrae,
to be inserted into the tips of their spinous processes, and into
the base of the last vertebra. This muscle is, in fact, rather
a series of small muscles of w^hich there is one for each verte-
bra. Its use is to elevate the tail in various degrees ; and,
when acting singly, to draw it obliquely to a side. It is op-
posed by the depressor coccygis.

2. The quadratiis coccygis arises from the sides and trans-
verse processes of the coccygeal vertebrae, and is inserted into
the base of the ligamentous fascia investing the base of the quills,
its fibres curving also round the edge of the tail, and being partly
inserted beneath. Its action is to spread out the tail-feathers.

46 INTRODUCTION.

8. The iscMo-coccygeus arises from the posterior edge of the
ischium, passes laterally along the coccyx, and is inserted be-
neath into the edge of the last vertebra, and the adjoining part
of the ligamentous fascia. It draws the tail laterally, and
tends to depress it.

4. The pubi-coccygeus arises from the pubes and adjoining
part of the ischium, and is inserted into the base of the fascia
of the quills. Its action is to bend the tail to a side, and to
spread the quills.

Fig. 6. represents the lower surface of the
tail ; the feathers, ^, b, being cut short, and
the skin removed. The pubi-coccygeus, 4,
is seen in its whole length ; the ischio-
coccygeus, 3, is also seen passing over the
latter, and inserted into the last vertebra ;

Fig. 6. Lotoer Surface of . , /» , i i x ^

Tail. as IS part ot tne quadratus, z.

5. The remaining muscle is the depressor coccygis^ which is
much more powerful than the levator. It arises from the pos-
terior edge of the pelvis beneath, and from the sides of the
vertebrae, to be inserted into the inferior spinous processes, and
into the sides of the last vertebra. The action of the two
muscles is to depress the tail ; but when acting singly it draws
it outwards and downwards.

The feet of birds afford a subject of observation as varied and
interesting as the wings ; but as numerous opportunities of
describing them will occur in the course of the work, it is un-
necessary to treat of them here. They vary in the proportional
development of their parts, and even in the number of the toes,
as well as in their position and degree of connection or separa-
tion, according to the different modes of progression used by
the different species. Some birds walk by bringing their feet
alternately forward, others by a simultaneous motion of these
organs ; some run with great velocity, while others are scarcely
able to walk ; some can hardly even stand ; most birds walk
only on a flat surface, but some are enabled to ascend a vertical
plane ; and many, by having their toes joined by membranes,
have their feet converted into paddles, and are thus fitted for
advancing on the water.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 47

In flight the centre of gravity is brought forward beneath
the origin of the wings ; but in standing it is carried in various
degrees backwards. As the legs are always articulated very
far behind, it becomes necessary that they should be much
bent, and that the toes should project anteriorly beyond the
vertical line drawn through the centre of gravity, in order to
give stability. When the feet are very short and placed far
behind, whether the neck be long or not, the bird is obliged to
stand and walk with the body nearly in an erect position ; but
when the bones of the leg are moderate or large, and esj)ecially
when the neck is long and flexile, the feet are brought forward
and the head backward, so that the body remains nearly in a
horizontal position. Birds generally rest upon one leg, the
other being drawn up towards the side ; and many species are
enabled to employ this attitude without fatigue by a peculiar
arrangement of the tarsal joint, there being a process from
the anterior part of the head of the metatarsal bone, which fits
into a corresponding cavity at the lower end of the tibia, from
w^hich it is not again withdrawn without an effort on the part
of the bird. Other birds are rendered secure during repose by
the weight of the body, which, bending the joints of the legs,
brings into a state of tension the long flexor tendons that go to
the extremities of the toes, which they thus cause to grasp their
perch. Some birds in reposing lie flat upon the ground, and this
posture is that adopted by most species during incubation.

In walking, a bird throws its centre of gravity to one side,
raises and brings forward the leg of the other side, impels the
body forward by the foot that rests on the ground, shifts its
centre of gravity to the other side, and thus continues, the neck
all the" while undulating from side to side. These motions are
easily observed in hea^y birds, as Geese and Ducks. In birds
of a lighter form, as Pigeons and Crows, the alternate forward
and backward motion of the neck during walking is very con-
spicuous and often graceful, and is of course employed for
balancing the body. Those birds w^hich move by hopping or
leaping, throw the body forwards by bending all the joints of
the legs, and then by suddenly extending them give it the ne-
cessary impulse, which causes it to perform a curve in the air.
Some birds, as eagles, in thus leaping, use their wings also ;

48

INTRODUCTION.

and others, as the ostrich and cassowary, which run with great
velocity, employ their short wings to balance their bodies ; but
the more ordinary swift-footed birds, as the Plovers and Cur-
lews, do not avail themselves of their wings in running.

On the water, birds are propelled like a boat, by means of
their webbed feet, w^hich act alternately in the manner of pad-
dles. Those species which dive in pursuit of their prey, propel
themselves under water by alternate motions of their feet, but
also, and that more especially, by the synchronous action of
the wings, which are used precisely in the same manner as in
aerial flight, as I have frequently observed. A flock of Red-
breasted ^lergansers, in pursuit of sand-eels, in one of the shal-
low sandy bays of the Outer Hebrides, has frequently afforded
me, from a concealed station on some prominence, a most in-
teresting sight. These birds seemed to move under the sur-
face with almost as much velocity as in the air, and often rose
to breathe at the distance of 200 yards from the spot at which
they had dived.

The Nervous System of birds, which, although less developed
than that of some of the mammifera, is greatly superior to that
of the other oviparous vertebrate animals, exhibits a remark-
able uniformity in the structure and form of the brain and
spinal marrow in the different tribes. Figs. 7, 8, and 9, re-
present the brain of a sparrow, Passer domesticus, as seen from
above, Fig. 7 ; from behind, Fig. 8 ; from beneath, Fig. 9,

The Brain of a Sparrow.

Fig. 9.

6

Fig. 7.

In Fig. 7. are seen, besides the bill and part of the skull, ;r,
and the eyes, z, the cerebrum, composed of two lobes or hemi-
spheres, a, a, which are destitute of convolutions, as well as of
the corpus callosum or great commissure ; and the cerebellum, b,

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 49

transversely grooved, and formed almost entirely of the middle
lobe, which in the mammifera is comparatively small. In the
posterior view, Fig. 8, are seen, besides the cerebral lobes «, «,
and the cerebellum, ^, the oval bodies, c^ c^ named optic lobes,
analogous to the corpora quadrigemina in man, and situated
between the cerebrum and cerebellum beneath ; together with
the medulla oblongata^ d, a large uniform mass placed beneath
the cerebellum and behind the optic lobes. In Fig. 9, repre-
senting the base of the brain, the same parts are seen, namely,
the cerebrum, a, a^ the cerebellum, 6, the optic lobes, c, c, and
the medulla oblongata, c?, which is observed to be destitute of
the prominences seen upon it in the mammifera. The nume-
rals refer to the cerebral nerves. The first pair, or olfactory^ 1,
come off from near the anterior extremity of the cerebral lobes,
pass along the septum of the orbits, and are distributed upon
the pituitary membrane of the upper spongy bone. The second
pair, or optic nerves, 2, are remarkably large, and unite so as
apparently to be perfectly incorporated. Of the rest it is un-
necessary to speak. The spinal marrow is generally of great
length, and has two dilatations or enlargements, corresponding
to the origin of the nerves of the wrings and legs. The posterior
enlargement is generally greater than the anterior, more decided-
ly so in those birds which do not fly. The spinal nerves cor-
respond in number to the vertebrae, and therefore vary exceed-
ingly. The brachial plexus is formed by the last two cervical and
first two dorsal nerves ; and the nerves of the posterior extremi-
ties are furnished by the posterior lumbar and the sacral nerves.

An intelligible description of the organs of sensation would
occupy more space than can be devoted to the subject here ;
and as my object is to bring into notice certain parts which
have been too little regarded by ornithologists, not to present
an elementary treatise, I shall merely offer a few remarks on
them, reserving the exposition of the eye and the ear especially
for the convenient opportunities which will be presented when
I come to treat of the Hawks and Owls.

The eyes of birds are remarkable for their great size, for the
convexity of the cornea, for having the sclerotic coat formed
anteriorly by a circle of bony plates, and for the existence of a

E

)0

INTRODUCTION.

plaited membrane, named the pecten, projecting from the retina
in the direction of the chrystaUine lens. The pnpil is, I be-
lieve, always round, although it has been alleged to be trans-
versely or longitudinally elliptical in certain species, the Owls
and Pigeons for exam23le ; the iris extremely contractile, and
frequently of the most vivid colours, although for the most part
of different shades of brown. The eyeball is moved by six
muscles, four of which are straight and two oblique ; but in
many birds it possesses very little motion, and in some of the
Owls is so closely fitted into the orbit as to be absolutely im-
moveable. There are two eyelids, of vfliich the lower is gene-
rally largest, and a nictitant membrane moved by two muscles
so as to sweep over the surface of the cornea.

^-^^^ ...r,*^ ^ig- 1^- represents the eyeball of an

Owl viewed laterally : — «, the cornea,
which is very convex ; Z>, the sclerotica,
depressed, and at its anterior part, c,
contracted and surrounded by bony
plates. Fig. 11. is an anterior view of the same, in which the
central dark part represents the pupil dilated, the zone sur-
rounding it the iris, then the circle of bony plates ; and exter-
nally the sclerotic coat.

Fig. 12. represents the head of a Thrush, Turdus musicus :
«, the upper mandible ; &, the lower mandible ; c, the tongue ;
e, the nostril ; ^, the feathers covering the ear. Fig. 13. is
the external ear of the same bird, margined with feathers, of
some of which only the shafts are represented. Fig. 14. is the
roof of the mouth. Fig. 15. the tongue, a ; and the glottis or
top of the windpipe, h.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12. Head of a ThrusTi.

Fig. 13.

The organ of Ii earing has a somewhat less complex structure
than in the mammifera. There is no conch or external auricle

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 51

properly so called, unless in the Owls, in which the external
ear is excessively large, and generally furnished with lateral
flaps or opercula, by which it may be closed. The want of
this part however is compensated by a circle of feathers, which
are capable of being erected or depressed, Fig. 13. The mea-
tus externus is a very short membranous canal, in many cases
scarcely appreciable ; the membrana t}Tnpani is generally of
an elliptical form, somewhat convex externally, and having
attached to its inner surface a single ossiculum ; the cavity of
the t}^npanum is of moderate size, and communicates with
numerous cells, analogous to the mastoid cells in the mammi-
fera, but w^hich extend over the greater part of the skull. The
eustachian tubes, wdiich communicate w^ith this cavity, are
large, entirely osseous, and open, either separately or united,
into the aperture of the posterior nares or back part of the
mouth. The vestibule and cochlea are small ; and there are
three semicircular canals, of wdiich the bony walls are easily
separated from the surrounding cellules.

The nostrils. Fig. 12, e^ are generally small and placed apart,
being separated by the intermaxillary bones. They are of vari-
ous forms, sometimes open, sometimes covered by feathers, and
in other cases having an arched horny or membranous opercu-
lum. The nasal cavities are situated at the base of the upper
mandible. Their septum is generally complete, but sometimes
perforated. They have three turbinated laminae on their
outer side, and are covered by a pituitary membrane of delicate
texture, bedewed with a lubricating fluid. The posterior nares,
Fig. 14, open in the form of a longitudinal slit margined wdth
papillae upon the roof of the mouth. It is very doubtful whe-
ther the sense of smell be acute in any order of birds, for it has
been most satisfactorily proved by Mr. Audubon, that in the
Vultures, at least in those of the genus Cathartes that occur in
North America, wiiich were supposed to possess it in the
greatest perfection, it is so inefficient as not to indicate to them
the existence of putrid flesh in their immediate vicinity.

As birds generally swallow their food w^ithout mastication,
and as their tongue is small and sheathed with a horny case.
Fig. 15, rt, it is not probable that they possess the sense of

e2

52 INTRODUCTION.

taste in any considerable degree. The bill, Fig. 12, a, ^, and
the tongue. Fig. 12, r, are in fact more properly organs of
prehension than of gustation.

The skin, being covered with feathers or hard ^ales, is sup-
J30sed to be very imperfectly adapted for communicating a
knowledge of the presence and nature of external objects ; and
it is very doubtful if those soft parts about the head, which are
destitute of feathers, such as combs, wattles, and ceres, are ever
employed for such a purpose. The bill however in many spe-
cies, especially Ducks and some of the Grallatores, being abun-
dantly supplied with nerves, and covered by a comparatively
soft membrane, is undoubtedly an efficient organ of touch.

We come now to the consideration of the digestive organs,
which merit especial attention, on account, not so much of
their great importance in the economy of birds, as the nervous,
vascular, and other systems are not behind them in this re^
spect ; but because, exhibiting great diversity of form and
structure, in accordance with the nature of the food^ they are
more obviously qualified to afford a basis for the classification of
the numerous species of birds. The parts of which the intestinal
canal are composed are the bill, the tongue, the cavity of the
mouth, the pharynx, the oesophagus, the crop, the proventri-
culus, the stomach, the small intestine, the coeca, the large in-
testine, and the cloaca ; to which may be added as accessory
organs, the salivary glands, the liver and the pancreas. Now,
as the object of these introductory observations is, not to give
a comparative view of the organization of birds, either with
reference to other animals, or as modified in the different orders
or families, but to disclose so much of it as may suffice to en-
able the reader to follow me in the generic and specific de-
scriptions, I shall take a bird of the Falconine family, as
presenting a form and structure of the digestive organs well
adapted for exhibiting all their parts, and for affording an ob-
ject of comparison with other tribes.

In Plate IV. are represented the digestive organs of the
Peregrine Falcon, Falco ijeregrinus. Fig. 1, the bill ; 2, the
roof of the mouth ; 3, the tongue ; 4, the intestinal canal, con-
cealed in part by the trachea, the heart, and the liver ; 5, the

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 53

portion hidden in Fig. 4 ; 6, the rectum, cloaca, and coeca ; 7,
the internal surface of the proventriculus ; 8, part of a section
of that organ; 9, four of its glandules; 10, a portion of the
inner surface of the stomach ; 11, the pylorus, or commence-
ment of the intestine.

The bill of the Peregrine Falcon, Plate IV, Fig. 1, is shorter
than the head ; the upper mandible, a, has at the base a cere, ^,
or bare coloured skin, of a peculiar dense texture, closely re-
sembling that of the scales on the feet ; its dorsal outline, c, is
slightly convex, as far as the edge of the cere, then curved so
as to form about the third of a circle ; the ridge on the cere is
broad and convex, on the horny part narrow^er but convex ; the
sides at the base are nearly flat and sloping, towards the end
more erect and convex ; the edges towards the base, d^ are soft,
being covered with skin, continuous with the membrane of the
mouth, beyond the nostrils sharp, hard, and projecting towards
the end, so as to form a thin rectangular process, which is
characteristic of the genus Falco ; the tip decurved, subtri-
gonal, acute. The mouth being wide, the lower jaw, e, has its
rami widely separated at the base, so that the angle formed at
the base of the horny mandible, f, is broad and rounded ; its
dorsal outline, ^, is convex, the back broad, towards the end
narrowed ; the sides rounded ; the edges at the base covered
with skin, towards the end horny, inflected and sharp, with a
deep sinus or notch near the tip, which, viewed vertically, is
truncate. The process of the upper mandible is represented
by many ornithologists as entering the sinus of the lower,
which, however, is not the case, as it merely overlaps that part
of the low^er mandible on which it is situated.

The palate. Fig. 2, is flat, at the sides smooth, and sloping a
little upwards, in the middle bearing a longitudinal depression,
«, a, into which the tongue fits. This depression is bounded by
two nearly parallel ridges of skin. In it, behind the base of
the tongue, is the narrow, posteriorly sub-elliptical aperture of
the nares, ^, of which the anterior slit, ^, extends forwards
nearly to its termination. At the commencement of the slit
behind is on each side a curved papillate line or edge, d ; and
behind the aperture is another, ^, having several rows of

54 INTRODUCTION.

pointed papillae ; at its anterior extremity is a soft prominence,
from which proceeds forwards a soft ridge, f. The tip or horny
part is slightly, the lower mandible deeply, concave. The
small conical papillae are not glandular, but prominences
sheathed with a substance of a horny or cuticular nature, al-
though generally soft.

The tongue, Fig. 3, is short, fleshy at the base, rather nar-
row, concave above ; its sides nearly parallel ; the tip, «,
rounded, its free part beneath. Fig. 4, a, sheathed with a
horny substance ; the lower surface of the sides toward the
base furnished with large crypts, secreting a fluid analogous to
saliva, but viscid ; the base, ^, concave in its outline, and
fringed with pointed papillae directed backwards. The space
between the base of the tongue, 6, and the aperture of the
windpipe, <?, is covered with mucous crj^ts, of which there are
also lateral series, <^, d ; and the posterior part of the pharynx,
€., is supplied w^ith similar bodies irregularly disposed. The
aperture of the glottis, c, is defended by the papillar base of
the tongue ; and behind it are two flaps, /, /, covered with pa-
pillae, directed backwards.

Fig. 4. represents, besides the alimentary canal, «, the
tongue ; 5, ^, the hyoid bones ; c, d, the trachea or windpipe,
composed of numerous narrow rings, and dividing at the lower
part of the neck into two bronchi, ^, which open into the
lungs ; /, the heart, of which the right side, g^ has been laid
bare, while the left, /^, is covered with the pericardium ; /, j,
the rio-ht and left lobes of the liver. The heart and liver cover
the lower part of tlie oesophagus, a portion of the stomach, and
the lungs. The oesophagus, 6, c?, measured from the base of the
tonofue to the stomach is six and a half inches long. At the very
commencement, where its diameter is nearly an inch, it begins
to enlarge, and continues rapidly widening, so as about the
middle of the neck to form a crop, h, capable of being distended
to a diameter of nearly two inches, and lying towards the right
side, the trachea, c, d, passing along the left, or rather running
straight down the neck.

Fig. 5. represents the continuation of the oesophagus, and the
rest of the alimentary canal. On entering the thorax at /, the

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 55

cesophagus contracts to about three-fourths of an inch in diame-
ter, and at its termination, ??^, enlarges to ten-twelfths, forming
the proventriculus, m^ which is about an inch long.

At its upper part, the oesophagus has a slight outer layer of
inconspicuous longitudinal muscular fibres. In its whole length,
it is encircled by transverse fibres, forming a distinct muscular
coat. The inner or mucous coat is thrown into longitudinal
rugoe, when the organ is contracted ; otherwise it is smooth
and even.

At this stage of the description, it must be mentioned that
the tube extending from the mouth, a, 5, to the stomach, w, o,
is by some considered as properly speaking the oesophagus, of
which the dilatation, or crop, k^ and the thickened part or pro-
ventriculus, ?», are only parts ; while others maintain that the
crop, ^, is in reality the first stomach, and the proventriculus,
w, the second ; n^ o, being the third. The oesophagus, then,
according to these observers, is that part which extends from
the mouth to the commencement of the crop ; and the tubular
pai-t between the crop and the proventriculus John Hunter
named the second or low^er oesophagus. Were these views cor-
rect, the Peregrine Falcon has no proper cesophagus, for its
dilatation begins at the mouth. As in many other questions
of this nature, " much may be said on both sides f' for which
reason it may be judiciously referred to the debating societies.
In the meantime, the entire tube, wdiether dilated or not, from
the mouth, a, to the stomach, w, I shall consider as the oeso-
phagus.

At the lower part of the oesophagus, just before it joins the
stomach, it presents a second enlargement, m, named the pro-
ventriculus. The calibre of this portion, or organ, is generally
less than that of the adjoining portion of the oesophagus, so that
the greater diameter of the proventriculus is made up by a
thickening of its walls, there being interposed between its mus-
cular and mucous coats numerous glandules or sacs, placed la-
terally in apposition, nearly at right angles to the surfaces of these
coats. Fig. 8. represents a longitudinal section of the thickest
part of the walls of the proventriculus, of the natural size : a, the
outer or muscular coat ; 6, the inner or mucous coat ; the glau-

56 INTRODUCTION.

dules which are longer in the middle, and shorter towards the
two extremities of the organ, being interposed between them.
These glandules, of which four are represented of the natural
size by Fig. 9, are of a cylindrical form, and have a central
cavity, with thick walls, and a spongy or villous inner surface.
Their inner extremity is narrower, and they open on the mu-
cous membrane, ^, by an inconspicuous aperture, placed in the
centre of a small rounded eminence. The intervals between
these orifices on the mucous surface are minutely granulate.
Fig. 7. represents the proventriculus in its whole length, laid
open. There is an entire belt, an inch in length, composed of
the glandules, which are placed close together, and open by
minute orifices, for the most part irregularly disposed, but in
many places arranged in lines. This belt becomes thinner
toward the two extremities, a, 5, and is longitudinally furrowed
by four broad gi-ooves, but not separated, the glandules being
merely shortened. The fluid secreted by these glandules, and
copiously poured out so as to cover the entire surface of the pro-
ventriculus, as well as part of that of the stomach, is of a greyish-
white colour, clammy, and when cold having the consistence
of slightly coagulated albumen.

The stomach, w, o. Figs. 4. and 5, which may be considered as
commencing at the lower edge of the proventriculus, is of a
roundish or broadly elliptical form, two inches in length, an inch
and three-fourths in breadth, and an inch and a quarter in depth.
Under its peritoneal covering, which has been removed, is a Jarge
quantity of fat. Its muscular coat is thin, compared with that
of birds of other families, but yet of considerable thickness, and
is composed of fibres arranged in fasciculi, which are broader in
their middle, or along the edges of the organ, and are inserted
into two thin tendinous spaces, o, one on each side. At the
upper or anterior part, these fibres diverging, leave an angular
space on each side, in and above which the fibres are circular.
Within the muscular coat is the second, or cellular, thin and
composed of a whitish interlaced fibrous tissue. The inner coat.
Fig. 10, is of a softish homogeneous texture, elevated into strong
rugae running in various directions. That part of it nearest
the proventriculus is generally in birds of prey found dissolved

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 57

by the proventricular fluid ; and sometimes the whole is re-
duced to a pulpy substance ; so that for a long time I con-
sidered the internal surface of the stomach of rapacious birds
to be entirely destitute of epithelium or cuticle ; but have lived
long enough to see my error. In the Peregrine Falcon, this
epithelium varies in thickness from half a twelfth to a twelfth
and a half of an inch, and is of a reddish- white colour.

At its commencement the oesophagus is placed directly in
front when not distended, but wdien filled inclines immediately
to the right side, on which the crop lies. At the lower part of
the neck it inclines to the left side, passes into the thorax in the
centre, when the trachea or windpipe, ^, c?, which passes along
the left side, comes in front of the oesophagus, and bifurcates
immediately behind the base of the heart. The oesophagus con-
tinues inclining to the left side behind the left lobe of the liver,
and joins the stomach opposite the last ribs. The stomach
occupies the middle and left side of the abdomen, and when
distended fills a very large proportion of its cavity. Between
it and the sacrum are interposed a portion of the intestines and
the kidneys ; the duodenal part of the intestine lies between it
and the walls of the abdomen on the right side ; a portion of the
liver lies over it in front ; the greater part of its anterior sur-
face is in contact with the abdominal parietes, as is also its left
edge.

The intestine comes oft' from the stomach at p^ close to its
upper or cardiac orifice. The entrance to it is named the py-
lorus, and frequently has a valvular structure, which in the
Peregrine Falcon presents the appearance of a rim with three
knobs. Fig. 11. The leng-th of the intestine is four feet three
inches. It first inclines to the left, />, q, along or anterior to
the edge of the stomach, until it nearly reaches the back,
and is then bent back in a parallel direction, q, r, and curves
forwards to pass under the right lobe of the liver at r.
This fold, which is named the duodenum, or duodenal curve,
is connected by a reflection of the peritoneum, on which lies
the pancreas, 5, which is a long narrow gland similarly folded
upon itself, and of which the ducts enter the intestine near r.
After receiA^ng them and the biliary ducts, ^, r, it becomes at-

58 INTRODUCTION.

tached to tlic mesentery, turns back, and forms a small fold ;
then forms a number of convolutions, ?/, r% occupying the space
behind or above the stomach ; runs up behind that organ, then
forms a small fold, and passing backwards along the sacrum,
forms the rectum, zc, Avhich terminates at the anus, a\

The duodenal portion of the intestine has a diameter of about
five-twelfths of an inch ; the remaining part gradually dimin-
ishes to three-twelfths, until about nine inches from the extre-
mity, when it slightly enlarges. The terminal part is named
the rectum or large intestine ; and being only partially seen in
Fig. 5, at ii\ ^, is figured apart.

The rectum, Fig. 6, a, b, is that part of the intestine com-
mencinof fit the coeca, a, and terminatinsj at the anus, b. It
generally enlarges at once in the rapacious birds, and continues
to widen, but in the Peregrine Falcon is not much wider than
the duodenum. It is seen to dilate at the end, so as to form
an elli^^tical cavity, ^, b. This part, which has a rim or valve
internally at <?, is an imperfect kind of bladder, into which
open the two ureters, ^, d^ upon a prominent fiap or rim at e.
Immediately below them is seen the larger a2:>erture of the
Bursa Fabricii, an oblong sac lying behind the extremity of
the rectum, and secreting a mucous fluid. The space between
the edge on which the ureters enter and the extremity of the
gut at ^, is usually called the cloaca ; and into it also the ovi-
duct enters.

Besides the peritoneal covering, the intestine has a muscu-
lar and an inner or mucous coat. The former is thickest in
the duodenal portion, the inner surface of which is delicately
villous. On the rest of the small intestine internally are long,
extremely slender villi, which, towards its lower part, become
more sparse. The inner surface of the coeca has a cellular
appearance ; that of the rectum is furnished at its anterior
part with numerous mucous crypts. The cloaca is smooth
within.

This description and the figures are taken from a male bird
shot in December 1836, on the Pentland Hills, near Edin-
burgh. Some persons being fond of knowing the numerical
proportions of the organs of birds, I subjoin the measurements.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 59

Length from the point of the bill to the end of the tail, 19^ in,
Length from the point of the bill to the end of the rump, 11^ r,-

Tongue about

CEsophagus, 6i

Intestine, 51

Intestinal canal, 58^ 'f

If the whole length of the bird be taken, its intestinal canal
is in proportional length as 3.025 to 1 ; but if only the body
excluding the feathers, as 5.064 to 1.

The uses and relations of the parts described may now be
briefly stated. The bill, it is observed, is a very powerful in-
strument of prehension and offence ; its short, bulging, convex
form, with its sharp edges, prominent tooth-like process, and
strong curved acute point, rendering it well adapted for tearing
up the skin, flesh, and entrails of birds and other animals on
which the Falcon feeds. The long pointed wings of this bird
furnished with dense and large muscles, enable it to cleave the
air with gTeat rapidity ; while being in all respects organized
for a life of rapine, its whole frame is firm and compact, even
the feathers havins^ a close texture ; and its louGf, flexile toes
are furnished with curved claws, tapering to a fine point, and
capable of being thrust in opposition to each other into the
vitals of its victims. It preys entirely on living animals,
which, after capturing, it deprives in a rude manner of part of
their hair or feathers ; when, keeping its prey firm with its
foot, it tears up and swallows fragments of the flesh. If the
subject be large, it fills the stomach, and then the crop and
cesophagus, up to the very jaws, these parts being capable of
containing five or six ounces of flesh. Notwithstanding its
great agility and vigour, the capture of a suitable prize is not
always of easy accomplishment, and therefore it is that the
crop is added to the oesophagus, that enough of nutritious mat-
ter may be stowed away to last for a considerable time. That
part is merely a recipient for the food, v*diich is found in it quite
unaltered. In the individual above described the mass of flesh,
bones, and feathers contained in the oesophagus, was perfectly
fresh ten days after it was killed, the juices seeming to have a

60 INTRODUCTION.

conf?ervatlve in place of a solvent power ; and I have observed
the like in the Buzzard, Sparrow-Hawk, and other species.
When the crop, stomach, and intermediate space are found
filled, the solvent action is first perceived in the proventricular
space ; and it is probable that the secretion from its glandules
effects the solution of the food in all species, for in those of
which the epithelium or inner coat is horny and thick, there
can be no effusion from the stomach itself. The mass of flesh,
mixed with feathers, hair, and bones, being in the stomach re-
duced to a kind of pulp, the nutritious parts pass into the in-
testine through the pylorus, which rejects the indigestible sub-
stances. These, including the inner coats of gizzards, seeds,
and other vegetable substances, are, by the contraction of the
muscular fibres, thrust into the oesophagus, and voided in
rounded dense pellets, which falconers term castings. In
the duodenum the pulpy mass is further diluted by the pan-
creatic fluid, assumes a homogeneous appearance, and is of
a light red colour. On being mixed with the bile it acquires
a greenish tint, and deposits the chyle on the surface of the in-
testine, whence it is absorbed. The matter adheres tenaciously
to the villosities, so as to be with difficulty washed off, and is
found along the whole length of the small intestine. The re-
fuse enters the rectum, where it is farther diluted by the urine,
and is finally ejected in a semifluid state, of a dull green colour,
mixed with flakes of white, being projected to a considerable
distance.

The modifications which the several parts of the digestive
organs undergo in the different families of birds are very numer-
ous. Thus, the oesophagus is extremely wide in some, and very
narrow in others ; the crop is sometimes altogether wanting,
sometimes small, or large, or extremely developed, membranous,
or muscular, forming merely a dilatation of the oesophagus, or
assuming the form of a large bag having a small orifice ; the
stomach is very thin, or has extremely thick, firm, and power-
ful muscles, very small, or very large ; the intestine is long or
short, wide or narrow ; the coeca rudimentary, moderate, long,
or so highly developed as to have a greater capacity than the
whole intestine besides. I shall have occasion to describe

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 61

several of these differences in treating of the birds whose his-
tory I propose to sketch. It will in the meantime be useftil
to give a short account of the form of intestinal canal presented
by a family very closely allied to that of which the Preregrine
Falcon is a member.

Plate V. represents the digestive organs of a Male Sno^^'y
Owl, Sf/mia Nyctea. Fig. 1. is a front view of the oesophagus,
trachea, heart, liver, and part of the body. Fig. 2. shews the
lower part of the oesophagus, the stomach and the intestines,
which were concealed by the parts shewn in Fig. 1. Fig. 3,
the tongue and glottis ; 4, part of the inner surface of the pro-
ventriculus ; 5, a transverse section of the proventriculus; 6,
four of its glandules enlarged ; 7, the inner surface of the sto-
mach ; 8, the rectum, cloaca, and coeca.

The bill of the Snowy Owl is formed on the same plan as
that of the Peregrine Falcon, although differing considerably
in its details, and in particular wanting the tooth-like process
of the upper mandible ; and the feet are similarly organized,
although covered with feathers. The tongue, Fig. 3, «, is
short, broad, and flattened above, the tip notched, the base, &,
deeply emarginate and papillate. The aperture of the glottis,
c, is destitute of papillce on the edges, but has two central coni-
cal papillae behind, together with two papillate flaps.

Fig. 1. represents, besides the oesophagus, «, the tongue ; ^,
^, the hyoid bones ; r, ^, the trachea, flattened, five and a half
inches long, composed of numerous narrow rings, with wide
intervals, and at the lower part of the neck dividing into two
bronchi, ^, e ; f\ the heart, with the pericardium removed ; <7,
/^, the right and left lobes of the liver. The stomach and intes-
tines are covered by the abdominal parietes, i ; but at j are
seen three of the large air-cells which are distributed through
the body. The oesophagus, 6, ^, /, is nine inches long. At the
commencement its diameter is an inch and a half, and it gra-
dually contracts to less than an inch, but enlarges to an inch
or a little more before entering the thorax, when it again con-
tracts. It differs therefore from that of the Peregrine Falcon
in having no crop ; but in other respects is similar, its coats
beinof of the same natm-e.

62 INTRODUCTION.

Fig. 2. shews the coiitiiiiiation of the digestive organs. The
oesophagus, I, w?, ??, enlarges at ?i, to form the pro vent riciikis,
of which the walls, seen in Fig. 5, are thin, the glandules
being very short, only about a twelfth of an inch in length,
and a twenty-fourth in diameter. The glandules open on small
rounded papillae, which are seen enlarged in Fig. 4, while Fig.
6. represents sections of three of them enlarged.

The stomach. Fig. 2, ?^, o, is two inches long, an inch and
three-fourths in breadth ; its muscular coat composed of dis-
tinct fasciculi, its tendons, o, upw\ards of half an inch in dia-
meter ; its cuticular lining thick, soft, of a whitish colour, and
w^ith numerous tortuous rug?e, as represented by Fig. 7.

The intestine, from the pylorus, p, to the extremity, iv, mea-
sures only thirty-eight inches. The general diameter of the
duodenal portion, p, q^ ?•, is half an inch ; and the remaining
part of the small intestine gradually diminishes to four and a
half twelfths. The pancreas, 6?, which is seen occupying its
usual position in the duodenal fold, is double, and has several
ducts, which enter the intestine towards r, where it receives
the biliary ducts. The general course of the intestine is similar
to that of the Peregrine Falcon. It comes off from the sto-
mach at ^j», close to its cardiac orifice, inclines to the left, run-
ning along the edge of the stomach, until it nearly reaches the
back at ^, w^hen it returns in a contrary direction to ?•, where
it curves under the liver, passes upwards and backwards, is
convoluted above or behind the stomach, and at length ter-
minates in the rectum.

Fig. 8. represents the latter portion of the intestine, together
with the coeca. These organs, a^f^ present a different aj^pear-
ance from those of the Falcon, being the one five, the other
five and a half inches long, for two inches and a half, only
about two and a half twelfths in diameter, but afterwards en-
larged to a diameter of ten-twelfths, and finally tapering away
to a blunt point. The rectum, which commences at «, is four
inches long, including the cloaca ; for two and a half inches it
has a diameter of about five-twelfths of an inch, and is then
dilated into an oblong sac, c, &, an inch and a half in its greatest
diameter. At the commencement of this sac, c, is internally a

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 63

kind of valve or thickened rim. The ureters, d., d, are seen
opening upon a prominence at e, below which is the larger
orifice of the Fabrician bursa.

The functions are as described with reference to the Peregrine
Falcon. The Snowy Owl is essentially a rapacious bird, and
is organized for seizing live animals of various kinds, which it
kills by thrusting into them its long, curved, tapering, extreme-
ly acute claws. After tearing off the feathers and hair in a
partial manner, it tears up the flesh with its hooked and sharp-
edged bill, and swallows it in fragments, until it has filled not
only the stomach, but also the oesophagus, w^hich, although not
dilated into a crop, is yet wide throughout, and capable of con-
taining a large quantity. The food is gradually dissolved in
the stomach by the action of the proventricular fluid, and the
feathers, hair, bones, scales of fishes, and other indigestible sub-
stances, ejected in pellets. The changes already described take
place as the chyme descends ; but, as the intestine is, for some
unknown reason, comparatively short, the alimentary mass
passes into the coeca, where it undergoes a further elaboration
and absorption. The refuse at length enters the rectum, and
accumulates in the cloaca, where it is farther diluted by the
urine, and whence it is finally ejected at once, and cast to a con-
siderable distance.

The length of a male Snowy Owl, from the point of the bill

to the end of the tail, is 23 inches.

Length from the point of the bill to the end of the

rump, 14 V

Tongue, i^

(Esophagus, 9
Intestine, .,.S8

— Intestinal canal, 48 '/

The intestinal canal is therefore to the whole length as 2.086
to 1 ; and to the length of the body, without the feathers, as
3.428 to 1. But if the two coeca are added, the proportional
length of the canal is considerably greater.

Now, the points in which the digestive organs of the Pere-

64 INTRODUCTION.

grine Falcon and the Snowy Owl agree and differ are the fol-
lowing. In both the oesophagus is wide, the proventriciilar
glands very numerous and small, the stomach roundish or
elliptical, with thin walls, and having a rugous inner mem-
brane, the rectum short, with an oval enlargement. They also
agree in the general structure of these parts, and in various cir-
cumstances which it is not necessary here to point out. They
differ 2)rincipally in the form of the oesophagus and coeca ; for
while the former is uniformly wide in the Owl it has a great
enlargement or crop in the Falcon ; and while the coeca are
rudimentary and merely secrete a mucous fluid in the Falcon,
they are large and perform the assimilatory function in the
Owl. These birds may be taken as types of their respective
flmiilies, for all the other species which I have examined, about
twenty in number, agree in the principal details. One may
therefore in general easily recognise the digestive organs of a
Falconine or a Strigine bird ; and we shall see in the sequel
that the different families are similarly distinguishable.

The thin stomach of these birds is of that kind usually termed
membranous, although they are by no means of a membranous
structure, but are so named in contradistinction to those which
have very muscular parietes, and Avhicli are commonly denomi-
nated gizzards. These and other modifications of the digestive
organs will be described in course. In the meantime we pro-
ceed to present a brief account of such of the other organs as
it may be useful to notice, taking first those immediately con-
nected with the digestive canal.

Of these the first are the salivary glands, which are generally
simple follicles, similar to those already described in the pro-
ventriculus, and are situated under the tongue, along its sides,
and in the space behind it. In the Gallinaceous birds, they
form an aggregated mass in the angle of the lower jaw, open-
ing by several pores ; and in a few species they assume the
conglomerated form, and open into the mouth by a single duct.

The pancreas, Plate lY, Fig, 4, 5, s, 5, is usually a long
narrow gland, always situated in the duodenal fold of the in-
testine, into which its secretion is poured by two or more ducts.

The liver, Plate IV, Fig 4, ?, j, and Plate V, Fig. I,

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS.

65

<7, /^, is of very largo size, situated between the heart and the
intestines, generally formed of two lobes, of which the left is the
largest, and filling a great portion of the thoracic and abdominal
cavities. The bile is carried directly into the intestine by the
hepatic duct, and by the hepatico- cystic into the gall-bladder,
whence it issues by the cystic duct.

Fig. 16. represents the heart,
«, h ; the liver, c, d ; the gall-
bladder, e\ the hepatic duct,
/; the hepatico-cystic duct, g\
the cystic duct, h ; and a portion
of the intestine, /,/, of theSnow^y
Owl. The gall-bladder is want-
ing in the Pigeons, in which, as
in many other respects, they dif-
fer from the Gallinaceous birds.
The heart, Plate IV, Fig. 4,
g, /^ and Plate V, Fig. 1, /,
occupies the anterior part of tho
Fro. iG. thorax, and is of a conical form,

its apex passing between the two lobes of the liver, these organs
not being separated by a diaphragm, as in the Mammifera.
It is invested with a strong pericardium, Plate IV, Fig. 4, /«,
wdiich is prolonged between the lobes of the liver. There is
little perceptible distinction between the auricles and ventricles;
the auriculo-ventricular apertures are secured by an oblique
fleshy band ; the left ventricle has its parietes of from three
to five times the thickness of the left, which is much larger,
and is curved round it, and there are scarcely any indications
of columnae carnese. The aorta divides at its very base into
three principal branches, Plate V, Fig. 1, a, /5, 7 ; of which one
on each side is for the anterior extremity or wing, and the head,
while the branch forming the aorta proper, y, curves backward
to the right, over the bronchus of that side. The consideration
of the distribution of the arteries, veins, and lymphatics, must
be deferred to another opportunity, as it would occupy much
space, and is not essential to my descriptions, which cannot
comprehend the entire anatomy of the species.

66 INTHODLX'TIOX.

The Respiratory Apparatus differs in many respects from that
of the Mammalia. The trachea, or windpipe, Fig. 4, Plate
IV, f, d, is composed of bony rings, which are in almost all
cases complete, although they vary greatly in breadth and form
in different species, being sometimes contracted in the middle
anteriorly, sometimes alternately larger at the sides. The up-
per larynx. Fig. 3, is composed of several pieces, and has an
aperture in the form of a slit, c, destitute of an epiglottis, but
capable of being firmly closed by muscles, and defended by
the base of the tongue. In the Falcon the trachea is a little
flattened, and gradually tapers in a slight degree ; but in many
birds it presents dilatations and contractions, and in others is
variously curved. Two slender muscles, the sterno-tracheales,
which run along its sides, and serve to contract it, are observed
in Fig. 4. coming off to be inserted into the sternum. Except-
ing these, and the muscles of the upper larynx, there are none
attached to the trachea in many birds, while others, and espe-
cially the species noted for their musical powers, have several
pairs at the lower larynx, which is the part where it bifurcates.
The structure of this part I shall endeavour to explain in treat-
ing of the Blackbird. It is that which is considered as the
principal organ of voice in birds. The bronchi, Plate IV,
Fig. 4, e, and Plate V, Fig. 2, z, z, or divisions of the trachea,
are short, membranous, and have their narrow rings incomplete
behind.

In birds the respiratory function is more energetic than in
the mammifera ; they consume a larger quantity of oxygen,
and produce a greater degree of heat. Yet their lungs are
small, placed in the upper part of the thorax only, where they
are confined on each side to a cavity bounded above by the ribs,
and below by the imperfect diaphragm. But they are perforated
by tubes which communicate with membranous cells, distri-
buted over the thoracic and abdominal cavities, between the
muscles, and beneath the skin, often in all parts of the body.
The air even penetrates many of the bones, although the num-
ber thus supplied varies in the different tribes, an arrangement
which contributes to render them lighter, in proportion to their
aerial habits, for in some aquatic birds the bones are filled with

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 6t

marrow, and in those which run rather than fly, some of them
are impervious to air.

I have now only some observations to offer respecting the
dermal system, or skin and feathers, after which it may be
useful to consider the exterior of the bird, and mention the
principal terms applied in describing it.

The Dermal or Tegumentary System is composed of the
dermis, the rete mucosum, and the epidermis or cuticle. The
skin, thus constituted, is connected with the subjacent parts
by loose cellular tissue, which often contains a great quantity
of fat, and is moved by the cutaneous muscles, by which the
feathers are elevated and depressed. The dermis is generally
very thin ; and the rete mucosum, although usually colourless
in the parts that are covered Avith feathers, often exhibits on
those that are exposed the most beautiful and varied tints. The
epidermis is generally scaly or scurfy on the feathered parts of
the body ; but on the tarsi and toes assumes a smooth and
polished appearance, and to form the claws and mandibles be-
comes thickened, and acquires a horny texture.

Birds, like quadrupeds, are invested with a covering, which
is connected with the skin, and lies immediately upon it. This
covering is chemically of the same nature as the hair of mam-
mifera. and the scales of reptiles and fishes, but it differs essen-
tially in respect to its mechanical structure, being much more
complex in its constituent parts than the envelope of these
classes of animals. To this general envelope the name of
plumage is given. In ordinary language it is more frequently
called the feathers.

It may be presumed that the plumage of birds serves to pro-
tect them from the injurious agency of external powers, such
as cold, heat, rain, and hail, and that it operates in retaining
the heat generated in the body, and in developing or fostering
electricity. The varieties of structure, magnitude, and propor-
tion, and the degrees of connection, which its parts present,
together with the diversified hues, and the varied capabilities
of absorbing or reflecting light which it possesses, must, in a sys-
tem where everything is the result of design, originate from
peculiar specific necessities, and be subservient to the welfare,

f2

68 INTRODUCTION.

or even the existence, of the individuals composing this beauti-
ful, and, in many respects, highly interesting class of beings.
Upon considerations like these it is not my design to enter.
Their development would constitute a task more than suffi-
cient to confound the pretensions of the wisest ; and I should
more admire the mind that had discovered the causes, relations,
connections, ends, and objects of a feather, than that w^hich
had measured the magnitudes and distances of the planets,
traced their orbits, and calculated the velocities of their revolu-
tions. The plumage also answers another very important end
in the economy of birds, being the medium of their locomotion
in the air, — a faculty which gives them so many advantages
over quadrupeds, and which is not possessed, in an equal de-
gree, by any other class of animals.

The plumage, then, is the general covering of a bird, which
usually invests all its parts, excepting the bill, eyes, tarsi, and
toes. It consists of a great number of individual parts, which
are denominated feathers. Besides these parts, however, so
denominated, there are in most birds others, which, lying con-
cealed among the former, and not making their appearance at
the surface, are apt to be overlooked by superficial observers.
These are the down-feathers, and hairs, or piliform feathers,
which will be described in course, but which, for the sake of
simplification, may be for the present overlooked. These indi-
vidual parts or feathers are disposed upon the skin in what is
called quincuncial order; that is, in lines intersecting each
other at acute angles, and in such a manner as to lie over each
other, like the tiles on the roof of a house ; a circumstance de-
noted in zoology', as well as in botany, by the term imbrication,
their general direction being backwards, or from the head of
the bird to the tail and extremities.

The plumage, as has just been observed, does not cover the
whole surface of a bird ; but, besides the parts mentioned, as
being altogether bare, there are others, which, although covered
over bv the feathers, vet do not give oriofin to them, and are
thus, in a particular sense, bare. These parts are : a line from
the base of the upper mandible to the eye, called the lore or
bridle ; a line from the ear to the shoulder, on either side of

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS.

69

the neck ; a broader line from the fore part of the sternum to
the vent ; a space upon the sides under the wings ; and in
female birds, and frequently in males also, during incubation,
two circular spaces, or one transversely oblong space, of greater
or less size, upon the abdomen. Other parts also occur in par-
ticular species or genera, which w^ill become the subject of dis-
tinct consideration in their own place.

A feather, Figs. 17, 20, may be defined an indivi-
dual constituent of the plumage, having a distinct
existence of its own, and by its association with
fjL others contributing to form the general envelope ;
\ or, in another sense, it may be defined, a mass of in-
lurated albuminous matter, inserted by one extre-
mity into the skin, connected by apposition in the
greater part of its extent with others, and in a por-
tion of one of its terminal surfaces touching the air,
having a root or proximal part, of a tubular form,
continued into an elongated and attenuated stem,
laterally giving insertion to a series of connected fila-
ments. A feather of the ordinary kind, or what may
be assumed as a perfect feather, consists of the fol-
lowing parts :

1. The tube or barrel, Fig. 17, «, is the tubular
part, by which it is fixed into the skin. It consists
of a thinnish transparent tube or hollow cylinder,
having the colour and texture of a thin plate of clear horn,
and being chemically of the same nature. This tube, which is
more or less protracted, being in some feathers scarcely a
fortieth part of their length, as in the hypochondrial feathers
of Paradisea apoda, while in others it exceeds a third, as
in the quill-covers of the Flamingo, is abruptly narrowed
at the lower, or, with reference to the connection of the
feather with the skin, the proximal end, where it is closed
up by a dry membrane, forming part of an apparatus that
has been subservient to the growth of the other parts of the
feather, and which now, in a dry and shrivelled state, ex-
tends along the whole length of the tube, in its interior.
This part, when taken out of the tube of the feather, presents

Fig. 17.

70 INTRODUCTIOX.

the appearance of a very thin transparent membranous tube,
divided internally by transverse dissepiments. At each of
these dissepiments the tube separates on pulling it gently, and
each portion so obtained presents the appearance of an inverted
funnel, the prolonged extremity of which, being continued into
that of the next above it, an internal tube is produced, which
occupies the centre of the membrane. This membrane is, in
ordinary language, teniied the pith^ from its resemblance, if not
in nature, at least in position, to the pith of a plant. It might,
wdth more propriety, be named the internal membrane of the
tube. The tube is invested externally with a sort of close
sheath, consisting of several layers of condensed cellular mem-
brane. With regard to the texture of the tube itself, it would
seem to be composed internally, and in its greatest thickness,
of a uniform horny substance, which, in many species, however,
shews longitudinal fibres, while the outer part, though not to a
great depth from the surface, is composed of transverse or an-
nular fibres. Hence the reason w^hy, in making a pen, the slit
is always cleanest when the outer layer has been scraped oiF.
The longitudinal fibres are distinctly seen in the quills of the
domestic cock, and of Gallinaceous birds in general. The tube
terminates above, that is, distally with respect to the body of
the bird in the shaft.

2. The shaft or stem^ Fig. 17, ^, is a continuation of the
tube, but considerably altered in form. It is generally as fol-
lows : From being of equal diameter with the tube, it gradu-
ally diminishes, so as to terminate in a point. Considered in
respect to its length, it is more or less curved, the outer, upper,
or anterior part, or back, as it may be called, being convex, the
inner, under, or posterior part, or face, concave. The back is
more or less convex, but generally in a small degree, considered
in its transverse section. The face is formed of two convex
surfaces, separated by a groove which runs along its whole
length, or of two inclined planes meeting at an obtuse angle.
The two sides are more or less plane, and gradually approxi-
mating, as is equally the case with the back and face, from the
base toward the tip, where all four meet, and so terminate in
a point. Internally the shaft consists of a soft, compact, elas-

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 7I

tic substance, of a white colour, having much of the mechanical
nature of cork, and which may be named the internal suberose
substance of the shaft. It is separated longitudinally by a line
proceeding from the groove of the face of the shaft, and this
division can be traced along its whole extent, even to the back,
on the external surface of which there is sometimes a corres-
ponding sunk line ; but the two pieces of the corky matter are
in close contact along this dividing line, and do not even se-
parate distinctly by tearing them asunder. The external part,
or horny envelope or case of the shaft, is much thinner than
the tube, the latter of which is prolonged farther along the back
of the shaft than along its face, although there is no line of
distinction between them. Some further explanations, however,
are necessary here, before the structure of the shaft can be
rightly understood. Where the tube terminates on the face of
the feather, and where the groove of the shaft commences, the
line of union of the dorsal and lateral surface of the shaft meets
its fellow of the other side, having gradually left the posterior
margin of the shaft, crossed its side obliquely, and become an-
terior at this point ; so that, at the commencement of the shaft,
what is naturally considered as the back of the shaft forms the
whole circumference of it, and does not become the real or
geometrical back, until it has reached a certain height. It is
this back only w^hich is the true continuation of the shaft. We
may suppose the corky matter imposed upon its anterior sur-
face, and covered over by a prolongation of it, forming the
coating of the sides and face of the shaft. The posterior w^all
of the shaft is much thicker than the others, and marked with
a number of longitudinal grooves internally, or where it meets
the pith. The anterior walls are considerably thinner, and
the lateral comparatively very thin. About the point of union
of the two lines mentioned, on the face of the feather, the
corky matter commences, and is in contact w^th the anterior
coat of the shaft, but posteriorly it leaves a vacuity, which ex-
tends some way up the shaft. The internal membrane of the
tube having reached this point, divides, a portion passing up-
wards into the posterior vacuity, another passing to the surface
of the feather, by a small aperture at the commencement, of

72 INTRODUCTION.

the median groove of the shaft, over which lies a small laminar
prolongation of the tnbe. This arrangement is what is ob-
served in qnill-feathers in general ; but in most ordinary
feathers there is no vacuity behind, and the internal membrane
makes its exit undivided at the commencement of the gTOOve.
The shaft is distinguished from the tube by its being opaque,
which is caused by the internal corky substance, the external
horny coat being of the same nature as the tube, only attenu-
ated, and more so, as has been said, on the back, than on the
fj\ce or sides of the shaft.

o. The wehs, of which there are two. Fig. 17, c, d, one on
either side of the shaft. The web is a lateral prolongation of
the external layer of the coat of the shaft, into a series of fila-
mentous substances, ordinarily placed in apposition, and by
their association in this manner forming a stiffish elastic ex-
pansion. The filaments of which the web consists are named
barbs.

The barb, Fig. 18, a, b, c, is a very thin
linear membrane, being an attenuated
continuation of the outer pellicle of the
shaft, and arising from it at the angle
Fig. 18. Barbs. Barbiih: formed by the meeting of the dorsal
and lateral surfaces, along the edge of the latter. The
direction of the barbs is obliquely outwards with respect
to the shaft, that is, inclining more or less at an acute angle
toward the tip of the shaft. Each barb is flattened or com-
pressed vertically with reference to the shaft, considering it
horizontal with its face downwards, concave on the side next
the tip, convex on the other, so as to fit to its neighbour on
either side. It terminates at its lower part, or that on the
concave surface of the feather, in a sharp edge, generally dia-
phanous, which is reflected in the direction of the tip of the
feather. The body or substance of the barb is pretty uniform
in thickness, and it is only when viewed in connection with
the barbules that it could with any propriety be said to be
triangular.

From the upper part or edge of each barb there proceed two
sets, one on either side, of minute filaments, having a direction.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 73

with respect to the barb, similar to that of the barbs with re-
spect to the shaft. These smaller filaments are named barbules^
Fig. 18, d. It is by means of them that the barbs are firmly-
kept in apposition. The manner in which this is done, is not
by the barbules of one barb interlocking with those of another,
in the manner of dove-tailing, or as the teeth of two combs
might be made to alternate by mutual insertion, as has gene-
rally been supposed. The position and direction of the barbules
do not admit of such union, seeing they meet each other at an
angle, and therefore cannot interlock, which could only happen
were they to meet vertically. The barbules of the side next
the tube are shorter and more adpressed ; those of the side next
the tip of the feather are longer and more patulous. The latter
are curved downwards at the extremity, w^hile the former are
curved upwards, and being placed in apposition, they form two
distinct and continuous edges, the incurvate or anterior series
of one barb overlapping and hooking into the recurvate poste-
rior series of the barb next to it. Although the connection of
the barbs may not be easily seen in the ordinary feathers, yet
it may in general be discovered in the quills and tail-feathers,
without the aid of a glass. When the barbs are pulled asunder
in the plane of the web, their cohesion is found to be very con-
siderable in most feathers. When the posterior barb is pulled
downwards out of the plane of the web, the cohesion is found
still greater ; but when the anterior barb is pulled downwards,
or the posterior barb upwards, there is found to be no cohesion
at all. The curved form of the barbules is distinctly seen by
the naked eye in the tail-feathers of Buceros galeatus.

The barbules themselves frequently present an appearance
similar to that of barbs, giving off laterally two series of fila-
ments which may be termed barbie els, Fig. 19. These fila-
ments are much more sparse than those of the barbs, but their
object appears to be the same, namely, that of connecting the
barbules, and retaining them in apposition. They are very dis-
tinctly seen, with the aid of a small magnifying power in the
quills of Aquila Chrysaetus, Diomedea exulans, and Buceros
galeatus.

It may here be remarked, that while what has been assumed,

74 INTRODUCTION.

for the purjDOse of general description, as a perfect feather, is,
what is termed in botany, supra-decompound, there is yet in
feathers the following gradation in resj^ect to division :

1^^. A feather may only have a tube and a shaft, without
any other part ; for example, the quill of the Cassowary.

^dly. There are feathers which have a tube, a shaft, and
barbs destitute of barbules, as in the crest feathers of the Golden
Pheasant.

Zdly. Feathers consisting of tube, shaft, barbs, and barbules ;
as in most birds.

Attlihj. Feathers composed of tube, shaft, barbs, barbules, and
barbicels, as in the examples mentioned above.

A barb also may have barbules in one part, and be simple
toward its extremity, which is a case of very frequent occur-
rence.

Feathers, then, in general, consist of three parts, — the tube,
the shaft, and the webs ; or they may be primarily divided
into two parts, the tube and the vane, the latter of which con-
sists of the shaft and webs. The webs consist of barbs fur-
nished with barbules.

With respect to the immediate consequences of their me-
chanism, it may be remarked of feathers in general, that, from
being convex above, they resist flexion or fracture more from
beneath upwards than in any other direction ; pulled to either
side also, they feel stronger than when bent downward in the
direction of their concavity. They are elastic, and this pro-
perty, together with their curvature, tends to keep them close
together, and enables the bird to present, when occasion re-
quires, a more or less compact surface to the air. When the
barbules are disjoined, they readily unite again, on being placed
in apposition. The weaker the feather is, provided it be com-
plete in all its parts, the greater is the cohesion between its
barbs. Compare, for example, the quills of the Golden Eagle
and Barn Owl.

The webs ordinarily consist of united barbs, more or less
stiff, although elastic, and compact in their whole length, ex-
cepting toward the junction of the shaft with the tube, where
they are of a looser texture, often entirely disunited and float-

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 75

ing. The lateral lines, from which the barbs arise, incline
toward the median line of the shaft at this place, as has already
been explained, and meet at its commencement.

At this point there is, in the feathers of a large
portion of birds, a plumiform process, or small
feather. Fig. 20, 5, which is of the following de-
scription : From the fore part of the tube, at the
commencement of the shaft, and lying over the
aperture by which the internal membrane of the
tube escapes, rises a thin lamina, being a con-
FiG. 20. tinuation of the substance of the tube. It gra-

dually narrows, and is continued in the form of a very deli-
cate thread, for a greater or less extent. From the sides of
this shaft rise two series of barbs, and from the barbs two series
of barbules, as in the ordinary feather itself, all the parts being
extremely fine, and entirely disunited. The barbules are very
much elongated, and loose, resembling in these respects those of
the lower part of the webs of feathers in general. This minia-
ture feather may be called the accessory feather or plumule.
In feathers possessed of this structure, the internal membrane
of the tube comes out entire between the accessory feather and
the feather properly so called, and is not continued internally
along the back of the shaft.

With respect to this accessory plumule, there is a curious
and beautiful gradation among birds, from the diving species,
in which it scarcely exists, to the gallinaceous order, in which
it is two-thirds of the length of the feather, and the Cassowary
and Emu, in which it equals the feather. Previous to the
publication of my paper on feathers in the Edinburgh Philoso-
phical Journal, the double-feather had been noticed in the
Emu, Cassowary, and Ptarmigans ; but in the other birds
there mentioned its existence does not seem to have been
known. Since that period, however, considerable attention
has been paid to the form and texture of feathers, although I
am not aware that any person excepting Dr. Richardson and
Mr. Audubon have so much as mentioned my observations.
In birds possessing this sort of feather, the quills and large
tail-feathers, as well as the first row of superior and inferior

76 INTRODUCTION.

quill-coverts, are in most cases perfectly simple, although there
are some birds, especially among the Rasores, and, in particu-
lar, the Ptarmigans, which in those feathers have a very dis-
tinct rudimentary accessory feather, existing in the form of a
short tapering lamina, fringed along its free edges with small
simple barbs.

Feathers, considered with regard to their uses, may be dis-
tinguished into two kinds. Those which are more especially
employed as the medium of locomotion, are much stronger,
more compact, and more elongated than the others. Of this
kind is the row of feathers bordering the wing behind, and that
terminating the coccygeal extremity or tail. The name of
quills ought to be applied to these latter, although it is usually
confined to the former. The feathers which lie immediately
over the wing-quills, on both sides of the wing, partake in this
respect of the nature of the quills themselves ; but those
which lie over the tail-quills are seldom, if ever, of so dense
a texture. '

In the feathers of many birds, the downy part. Fig. 20, c^
occupies by far the greater portion ; in some it is merely the
tip that is compact, while in others the loose part is limited to
a very small extent, and in others scarcely exists. As an ex-
ample of feathers all downy, may be mentioned the subcaudal
feathers of the Peacock, and the abdominal feathers of Owls.
The Gallinaceous birds and Pigeons have a very large pro23or-
tion of down upon their feathers, although the latter are desti-
tute of the accessory plumule so highly developed in the former.
The crest-feathers of many birds are almost entirely destitute
of downy filaments, which is also the case with quills. In the
downy barb the filament or shaft is nearly equal in all its dia-
meters, and is extremely attenuated. The barbules are also
elongated in many of the Gallinaceous birds, for example, being
twenty times the length of the barbules of the apicial part of
the feather. These barbules are in all cases biserial like the
others, but very frequently they assume a direction the reverse
of these, coming off from the filament, not in the plane of the
web, but at right angles to it, or, in other words, from the face
and back of the web, so as to present on these surfaces a layer

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 77

of minute silky filaments. This arrangement is especially re-
markable in the Gallinaceous birds. Frequently the filament
becomes spirally twisted, in which case the barbs seem to have
a circular arrangement, although they are still biserial.

With respect to relative magnitude, the following is an ac-
count of the ordinary distribution of the feathers. From the
head, backw^ards to the tail, they increase in length and size ;
those on the face, or around the base of the bill, being smallest,
the tail-coverts lonofest. The w4no[-feathers are much shorter
than those of the body, and also increase backwards. Those
of the upper or dorsal half of the body are almost ahvays
shorter than those of the lower or abdominal ; and the dispro-
portion seems to have reference to the degree of obliquity of
the body in its ordinary posture; for in those birds which
have a nearly vertical position, such as Penguins, Auks, and
Guillemots, the feathers of the lower surface are scarcely
longer than those of the upper. The feathers of the upper
parts are also more compact than those of the lower.

Besides the feathers properly so called, there enters into the
composition of the plumage or general envelope, another modi-
fication of the same general nature. On removing the wdiole
of the feathers whose tips appear externally, in certain orders,
and especially in the aquatic birds, we find the skin still co-
vered with a more or less dense envelope of a very soft, fila-
mentous, highly flexible, and very elastic substance, the down.
It also consists of individual parts, plumules or down-feathers,
and is analogous to the soft hair or fur of quadrupeds, while
the feathers themselves represent their long hair or pile.

The iilumule or down-feather consists of two parts : — a small
tube, very narrow, and soft in texture, not well defined in its
lower or proximal part, and having its walls composed rather
of soft scales than of one continuous piece ; and a pencil of
filaments issuing from the base of this tube internally, without
any connecting shaft. These filaments vary in length and
number according to the species. In all cases they are ex-
tremely slender, pliant, sinuous, and more or less spirally
twisted. They consist of an extremely delicate shaft, along
the sides of which there come off, in general, two sets of short

78 INTRODUCTION.

delicate filaments. The former may be denominated the fila-
ments, the latter the filamentules, corresponding to the barbs
and barbules of the feather. These filamentules have the
same relation to the filament, their shaft, that the barbules of
the feathers have to their barb, and are, in general, equally
distichous ; but they enter into no connection, remaining per-
fectly loose, and, owing to the manner in which the shafts are
twisted, have the appearance of coming off all round them.
Unlike the barbules of the feather, they generally come oflf at
right angles to the filament.

As the down is well known to be a bad conductor of caloric,
it is presumed that it serves in the aquatic birds, and particu-
larly in those of cold climates, to retain the heat generated in
their bodies. In birds which are not furnished with down,
but which yet inhabit cold countries, the deficiency might be
supposed to be supplied by the downy feathers which w^e ob-
serve in those birds, as in the Snowy Owl, White-tailed Sea
Eagle, and Golden Eagle. In the Gallinaceous birds, the ac-
cessory feather might, in like manner, be imagined to be sub-
servient to this purpose. But when we reflect that the Eagles,
Owls, and Gallinaceous birds of cold climates are at least not
much better furnished with down or downy feathers than
species of the same genera inhabiting warm climates, we na-
turally look for some other reason for which birds are fur-
nished with down. In most of the land birds there is no uni-
versal layer of down immediately covering the skin.

In the Falconine family, and especially the larger spe-
cies, besides down of the above nature, there exist plumules of
the following description. From the upper part of a short
tube there issue two filamentary shafts, which are flattened
and exceedingly delicate. From these there branches out on
either side a series of extremely delicate filaments, having each
two lateral series of filamentules. The whole has the appear-
ance of a single tuft of extreme fineness, and silky texture.
The filaments have a considerable degree of elasticity. The
tube is open above, between the two shafts, there being a direct
continuation of it on either side into the shafts, and at this
opening the pith comes out and terminates. These plumules

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 79

being largest on the belly, may be best seen there ; they exist,
however, in the other parts of the body, but are not readily dis-
tinguishable from the down-feathers, properly so called. If it
be necessary to give these feathers a name, they may be called
flahe-featliers.

In most birds, after the feathers have been removed, we
find a sort of envelope, consisting of hairs as it were, set so
widely, and so small in themselves, that they might readily be
overlooked. These are the hairs that are singed off in a fowl
after it has been plucked. In the Pheasant their structure is as
follows : — from a very short bulbiform tube rises a very slender
roundish piliform shaft, resembling a hair of the human head,
but much smaller, and straight, which, at the extremity, gives
off two or three short simple barbs on either side. This is the
most simple modification of the feather, if we except the quill
of the Cassowary.

In all nestling birds, before they have received their full
plumage, the skin is covered w^ith a greater or less quantity of
down, resembling that described above as occurring in adult
birds. This down is generally more or less developed, even
before exclusion from the q^^^. It consists of two orders of
plumules. One set, which is connected solely with the skin,
is similar in structure and relations to the down of the adult
bird, each plumule consisting of a tube, out of w^hich issues a
pencil of filament, furnished with filamentules. The other set,
which, at first sight, is not distinguished from the former, being
blended with it, is of the following nature. The plumules at
first arise from the skin in the ordinary manner and form, but
having fewer filaments than the others. Shortly after, w^hen
the feathers begin to sprout, they are observed to be elevated
from the skin, being borne upon the tips of the feathers. The
tips of the extreme barbs of the feathers are drawn together,
and united into a point by a scaly envelope, similar to that
which encloses the feather itself during the first stages of its
growth. From this point there proceeds a pencil of filaments,
consisting of a variable, but generally small, number. These
filaments have tw^o lateral series of filamentules, and are loose
and floating, and more or less spirally twisted. The filaments

80 INTRODUCTION.

are continuous with the tips of the barbs, as is proved by dis-
cussing the point of adhesion with a needle, when the scales
fall off, and the filaments remain attached to the tips of the
barbs, and continue so until rubbed off, which, in some species,
and in certain parts of the body, the head in particular, does
not take place until the bird has been fully fledged.

Considered with respect to situation, feathers may be named
as follows :

Frontal^ on the fore part of the head.

Vertical^ on the upper part of the head.

Occipital^ on the hind part of the head.

Genal^ on the side of the head, under the eye.

Loral^ on the space between the bill and the eye.

Marginirostral^ round the basal margin of the bill.

Auricular^ about the aperture of the ear.

Palpebral^ on the eyelids.

Ciliary^ on the edges of the eyelids.

Cervical, on the neck ; anterior, lateral, posterior ; upper,
middle, and lower.

Anterior, medial, and ^^osterior dorsal, on the fore, middle,
and hind parts of the back.

Pectoral, on the breast ; anterior, middle, and posterior, on
the fore, middle, and hind parts of the breast ; lateral pectoral,
on the sides of the breast.

Abdominal, on the belly.

Hypocliond7'ial, on the sides of the body, under the wings.

Upper Alar, on the upper part, or dorsal aspect of the wings.

Lower Alar, on the lower part or sternal aspect of the wings.

Alar quills, or wing quills, large feathers projecting from the
posterior edge of the wing.

Primary or digital quills, those on the hand or pmion.

Secondary or cubital quills, those on the cubitus or fore-arm.

Tertiary or humeral quills, those on the humerus or arm.
Some writers consider the inner elongated feather-like cubital
quills as the tertiary.

Quill-coverts, a row of feathers immediately covering the base
of the quills ; — there are humeral, cubital, and digital quill-
coverts on both surfaces of the wing, and therefore upper and
lower.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS.

81

Scaptila)'s, a bunch or series of long feathers, situated at the
proximal extremity of the arm, apparently on the back.

Accillary feathei^s^ a series of long straight feathers, situated
at the proximal extremity of the humerus, under the wing.

Tibial feathers^ covering the tibia or leg.

Tarsal^ covering the tarsus.

Digital^ covering the toes.

Caudal quills^ terminating the body behind.

Caudal quill' cot erts^ upper and lower, feathers covering the
caudal quills at their base, above and beneath.

Caudal feathers^ upper and lower, on the coccygeal region.

I have judged it necessary to be thus minute on the subject
of the feathers, because they are of the utmost importance for
distinguishing the sj^ecies and genera, and because the plumage
affords one of the most beautiful illustrations of the divine
wisdom, the considerations connected with which will so
readily present themselves to any person who examines its
structure, that it is needless to indulge here in any remarks on
the subject.

The ordinary terminology applied to the leaves of plants is
that which I adopt for distinguishing the forms of feathers.
Thus,

Ovate^ having the outline of an egg. Fig. 21.

Lanceolate^ tapering at both ends. Fig. 22.

Lineal^ narrow, with the edges parallel. Fig. 23.

Fig. 23.

Abrupt^ cut even at the end. Fig. 24.

Bounded, having the extremity broadly rounded. Fig. 25,

Obtuse, narrowly rounded. Fig. 23.

Acute^ sharp-pointed.

Acuminate, with a long taper point. Fig. 22, 26, b.

INTRODUCTION.

Acciiminate and ahrupt. Fig. 26, a.
Emarglnate^ having a notch at the end.

Fig. 27.

h-

Fig. 24.

tf^i

Fig. 20, a.

Fig. 2G, h.

Fig. 27.

The proportional size of the quills on the cubitus and hand,
together with their form, gives rise to several important distinc-
tions, which, being characteristic of the different families and
orders, will be pointed out in the body of the work. A few
circumstances however may be here mentioned as relating to
the wings.

The breadth of the wing depends chiefly upon the length of
the cubital quills ; its length principally upon that of the digi-
tal. Considered as a whole, the wing may be very long, while
its bones are very short, as in Swallows, Fig. 29, and Hum-
ming-birds, in which the cubitus in particular is extremely
diminutive. In some birds, as Gulls and Eagles, the humerus
and cubitus are very long ; in others, as partridges, very short ;
and the same remark may be made as to the digital quills.

The wing is short,
broad, convex, and
rounded, in Grouse,
Partridges, and other
Rasores, Fig. 28 ;
long, broad, straight,
and pointed in most
Pigeons. In the Pe-
regrine Falcon, it is
acuminate, the second
quill being longest,
^ and the first little
shorter ; and in the
Swallows is still more
so, the first quill being
longest, and the rest rapidly diminished in length, Fig. 29.
Between these long, pointed wings, and the short, rounded ones

Fig. 28. Wing of Grouse.

Fig. 29. JFing of Swallow.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS.

83

of tlie Rasores, Fig. 28, there are various orradations. The
primary and secondary quills vary greatly in form, but the
former are almost always narrower than the latter.

The tail, by which is here meant the feathers of that organ,
may be extremely short, short, moderate, long, extremelv long,

Fig. 31. Finch.

Fig. 32. Black Martin,

Fig. 30. Tail ofDvvc

and of all intermediate gradations ; even, Fig. 30 ; rounded,
graduated, or wedge-shaped, Fig. 33, at the end ; tapering,
pointed, emarginate. Fig. 31 ; or forked,
Fig. 32. The number of its quills varies
from eight to twenty or more, although in
by far the greater proportion of birds it is
twelve.

The tints or varieties of colour presented
by the plumage are almost endless, and
greatly excel in beauty those of any other
class of animals, although our native birds
are more distinguished for elegance of form,
than for gaudiness of attire.

The development of the feathers takes
place by means of an elongated cylindrical
matrix consisting of a capsule, a bulb,
and intermediate membranes, by w^hich
the matter secreted by the bulb is moulded.
Fig. 33. Tail of Parrot. Like the foliage of trces, the plumage
of birds is shed and renewed annually. In many cases the
change takes place twice every year. The feathers being en-
tirely extravascular, or, when full-grown, destitute of blood-

g2

84 INTRODUCTION.

vessels and completely inorganic, like horns, hoofs, and other
parts of the skin, do not undergo any other change of colour
than that produced by the fading of their tints from long ex-
posure to the weather, or that caused by the abrasion or fall of
the extremities of their filaments, when a fresh surface of a dif-
ferent colour is exposed. Many birds attain the permanent
colours of their plumage at their first moult, while others take
four or five years before they acquire their full dress. On this
subject various misstatements have been made by authors,
some of which I shall endeavour to rectify, when opportunities
occur, in describing the species in which the appearances al-
luded to are most prominent.

Those who may be desirous of prosecuting the anatomy of
birds will find it advantageous to consult more especially Cu-
vier's Lecons d' Anatomic Comparee ; Carus's work on the same
subject ; the article Birds, by Macartney, in Rees' Cyclopaedia ;
Dr. Granfs Outlines of Comparative Anatomy; the article
Aves, by Mr. Owen, in Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and
Physiolog}^ and Dr. Milne Edwards' Elemens de Zoologie ;
of the details in some of which I have occasionally availed my-
self in drawing up these observations, although in no case have
I set doMTi any thing that I have not seen and examined in
nature for myself. It is necessary to remark, however, that no
progress can be made in comparative anatomy without repeated
and varied dissections ; and that to derive the full advantage
from zoological descriptions, it is requisite to have the bird
treated of, or at least its skin or its portrait, at hand for inspec-
tion. Above all modes of acquiring a knowledge of birds, that
is to be recommended in which nature is chiefly consulted,
and books, especially those composed of critical disquisitions
respecting names and classifications, referred to only on rare
occasions. If one should know the structure and habits of a
species, although he should be ignorant of its name, or rather
its half-dozen names, — for it must be a rare bird indeed that
has not in the present improved state of science at least as many
as a German princess, — he may consider himself more fortunate
than if he had learned to distinguish a dozen species in a
museum.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 85

Some ingenious writers have attempted to show that a know-
ledge of the internal structure of animals is not essential to the
zoologist, who, it is said, may get on remarkably well, and
form the most natural arrangements, by attending merely to
the exterior. The views of such persons are not likely to find
much favour in the eyes of those wdio have studied animals as
organized beings, and who do not remain satisfied with inspect-
ing their surface.* Zootomy regards the entire structure of ani-
mals, which must be examined in all their parts, before the
zoologist can arrange them according to their affinities. The
study of their interior must in fact form the basis of all arrange-
ment ; and although many natural groups may be formed by
attending exclusively to the exterior of animals, it is only be-
cause their internal organization is presumed to be similar.
The external parts afford an index to the internal ; and if we
find a bird having a short hooked bill and curved claws, w^e
shall not be WTong in inferring that it has a wide oesophagus
and a large membranous stomach. The great divisions of

* As affording a sample of the once prevalent, but now declining, notions of
this class of ornithologists, who, although they boast of being in advance in the
matter of the manufacturing of genera, subgenera, and names, are yet at least a
century behind in every thing that relates to structure. I may adduce a portion
of the 24th paragraph of Mr. Swainson's " Natural History and Classification
of Birds.'^ " Comparative anatomy regards two distinct portions of the structure
of an animal, — its inivard and its ontivard organization. The study of the first
is not so essential to the zoologist as the last ; and, although both are intimate-
ly connected, they may Ise, and have been, pursued separately. It is, for in-
stance, by no means necessary for the clear understanding of the ruminating-
quadrupeds, that the naturalist should be informed that they possess more sto-
machs than any other animal ; nor is it essential to his object of defining and
classifying them, that he should know which species ruminate their food, and
which do not. But were he to neglect the study of the external anatomy of
these beasts, and disregard the foi'm, direction, and substance of their horns,
the size and situation of their teeth, and other parts of their external anatomy,
he would be utterly unable to proceed ; nay, more — he would be scarcely able
to define what difference there was between an ox and an elephant. As with
quadrupeds, so with birds. The form and structure of the body, and all its va-
rious members, is comprised under the head of external anatomy ; audit is from
the various modifications and appearances which these parts assume, that the
ornithologist is capable of drawing such discriminating characters as enable him
to form clear conceptions of their respective peculiarities. Were he, on the
other hand, to make their internal anatomy the basis of his system, he might

86

INTRODUCTION.

zoology can be laid out only by a zootomist ; but the details
of the system may occasionally, perhaps frequently, but never
with absolute certainty, be elaborated by him who regards only
the exterior. No rational system of ornithology has ever ap-
peared, for these two reasons : because no system-maker has
been equally acquainted with the internal structure, the exter-
nal parts, and the habits and actions of birds ; and, more espe-
cially, because birds have not yet been subjected to a sufficiently
minute examination. I have been induced to offer these re-
marks because I regret that the science has been degraded by
having been left entirely in the hands of those who appear to
despise, because they have no knowledge of, the internal struc-
ture of birds ; and I have considered it my duty to impress
upon the student the necessity of dissecting with all diligence.
Were it possible to cast away all the knowledge already ac-
quired, and commence anew upon the plan of considering birds
as admirable specimens of divine workmanship, to be examined
in all their details, we should, I believe, be great gainers in
real knowledge.

I have now to point out briefly the parts observable in the
exterior of a bird, and for this purpose make reference to the
figure of a Kestrel in outline. Fig. 34.

It has already been stated that a bird may be primarily di-
vided into certain parts : The head, a ; the neck, h ; the body,
^, c ; the tail, d ; the anterior extremities or wings, e ; and the
posterior extremities or legs, /. The basis of all these parts

be able to classify those native birds which, from being common, might be pro-
cured for dissection ; but thousands of others must be left undetermined : and
after all, however elaborate might be his system, it vrould be utterly useless for
practical purposes, and unintelligible to all but professed anatomists." A
serious refutation of opinions like these, which belong to the " dark ages,"
would seem in some measure ludicrous ; and therefore I offer no comment upon
them. Yet the same writer elsewhere exultingly exclaims — " How superficially
do we study nature !" We truly, — men in general, — but not the discoverers of
" the only natural method." Yet also, Mr. Macleay, the founder of the cir-
cular system, distinctly declares that " the only probability of our ever under-
standing the great scheme of the creation must dejyend on studying the method
hi which the organs and proiierties of natural beings vary ;'''' and Mr. Swainson
quotes this with approbation, even while recommending a method constructed
of bills, feet, and feathers, without a single muscle or nerve.

I

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 87

has been seen in the skeleton figured in Plate I. The head is
composed of the brain, its membranes, the bones of the skull
and face, the organs of sight, hearing, smelling, and tasting,
with those of prehension and deglutition, and various other
parts. The neck is the more or less elongated and flexile part
by which the head is joined to the body, and is composed of
the cervical vertebras, various muscles, the oesophagus, the
windpipe, nerves, and blood-vessels. The body is the basis of
the whole, consisting of the dorsal and sacral vertebra, the ribs,
the sternum, the clavicles, the scapula, the heart, bronchi,
lungs, liver, stomach, intestines, kidneys, genital organs, and
various other parts. The tail is composed of the coccygeal
vertebrae, their muscles, and the quills. The anterior extre-
mity consists of the bones of the humerus, cubitus, and hand,
w^ith the muscles, and quills ; the posterior extremities of the
femur, leg, tarsus, and toes, with their muscles. All these
parts, excepting the bill, the nostrils, the eyes, the tarsi, and
the toes, are generally covered with feathers.

Now, considering the Kestrel with reference to its exterior
only, we observe the following parts :

The hill^ 1, 2, composed of two mandibles^ an upper, 1, and
a lower, 2, which are formed of horny substances ensheathing
the jaws.

In the upper mandible are distinguished the base, 3 ; the
culmen or ridge, 4, of which the outline is named the dorsal
line ; the edges, 5 ; the point, 6.

In the lower mandible are seen the base, 7, 8, distinguished
into the crura, 7, covering part of the rami of the jaw, and the
angle, 8, or junction of the crura ; the ridge, 9 ; the edges,
10 ; and the point.

The cere, 11, which is not of general occurrence, is a portion
of bare skin at the base of the upper mandible.

The nostrils, 12.

The angle of the mouth, 13.

The lore, 11, or part between the angle of the mouth and
the eye.

The eye, 15, in which are distinguished the pupil or dark
central part, the iris or coloured circle surrounding the pupil,

88 INTRODUCTION.

the eyelids, upper and lower, the supraocular ridge, 16, not
general in birds. There are besides frequently a bare space
about the eye, or a membrane above it, and various fleshy or
carunculated appendages.

There are also frequently bristle-like feathers at the base of
the mandibles, as well as tufts of feathers on the head.

The anterior part of the head is named the forehead, or
frontal region, 17 ; the upper part, the crown, or vertical re-
gion, 18 ; the hind part, the occiput, or occipital region, 19.
The sides of the head include the space from the ear to the
angle of the mouth, in which are distinguished especially the
ear-coverts, 20. The feathers on these parts are named frontal,
vertical, occipital, and lateral, or facial.

The neck may be divided into the upper, middle, and lower
parts, each of which has a posterior, a lateral, and an anterior
portion, w^hich however it is not always necessary to specify.
The feathers covering this part are named cervical, and may
be anterior, lateral, posterior, superior, and inferior. Those on
the upper part or throat, 21, are often named gular ; on the
lowxr anterior part, 22, jugular ; on the upper hind neck,
nucha, or nape, 23, nuchal. The part at the angle of the jaw,
or interspace of the crura of the lower mandible, some name
the chin ; but this term is absurd, birds having no chin pro-
perly so called, and the part in question not being at all an-
alogous to the chin in man.

In the body, the following parts are distinguished :

The back, of which there are the anterior, 24, the middle,
25, and the posterior, 26, regions.

The scapular region, 27, is that over the scapula and humerus.

The h^^ochondrial space, or side, lies under the wing.

The breast commences at the anterior part of the sternum, 28,
and extends to near its posterior extremity, 29 ; or, as the thorax
and abdomen are not separated by a diaphragm, as in quadru-
peds, it may be better to consider the entire space defined by
the sternum as the fore part of the thorax.

The abdomen, 30, in that case, is the space from the pos-
terior edge of the sternum to the anus or vent.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS.

89

The feathers covering the back are named dorsal ; the breast,
pectoral ; the sides, h}'pochondrial or lateral.

In the tail are distinguished the tail-feathers, or tail-quills,
31 ; and the upper and lower tail-coverts, the latter marked 32.

Fig. 34. The Kestrel.

The wings are the anterior extremities, in which are distin-
guished the different parts already pointed out in speaking of
the skeleton ; the humerus, cubitus, and hand or pinion.
Hence the quills, or large feathers, are divided into humeral,
usually termed tertiary by ornithologists, who begin to count
at the wrong end, 83 ; cubital, or secondary, 34, and Fig. 29,

90 INTRODUCTION.

a., and digital or primary, 35, and Fig. 29, b. Those on
the first finger, 35, are named akilar. The series of large
feathers immediately covering the quills is composed of the
larger coverts, which are also named humeral, cubital or secon-
dary, 36, and digital or primary, 37. The other feathers of
the wing are named the smaller wing-coverts. The lower sur-
face of the wing is similarly feathered.

In the posterior extremities, or legs, are distinguished the
femoral region or thigh, generally concealed ; the leg properly
so called, or the tibia, 38, generally feathered, sometimes bare
for a gi'eater or less extent above the ancle joint, which is gene-
rally mistaken for the knee ; the tarsus, 39, almost always bare,
and covered with scales or plates, of various forms, and vari-
ously disposed.

Lastly, we have the toes, 40, which vary in number, al-
though there are ncA^er more than four, unless the spur be con-
sidered as a toe, nor fewer than three ; for the Ostrich, which
was formerly held to have only tw^o, has lately been shewn by
Dr. Riley to have moreover a rudimentary inner toe. They
are covered above w^ith scales of large size, laterally with
smaller, beneath with papillae, and have their extremities
sheathed with horny claws, varying much in length and form
in the different species, and in the present bird, the Kestrel,
long, curved, and tapering to a fine point.

These introductory observations will sufiice to enable the
reader to follow me in my descriptions, which comprehend,
besides the details of the exterior, several particulars respecting
the internal structure of the different species. To acquire a
satisfactory knowledge of any bird, one must, in the first place,
obtain a general idea of its external appearance, so as not only
to be able to distinguish it at sight, but also to knov>^ in what
respects it resembles others, or differs from them. Then he
ought to examine its interior, and more especially its digestive
organs, which indicate the nature of its food, the latter neces-
sarily determining its haunts. He now seeks it there, and
observes its mode of walking and flying, its favourite places of
resort, and its ^'arious actions, listens to its notes, follows it to

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 91

its nest, which he inspects, and takes note of its migrations or
local shiftings. The food can be detected with accuracy only
by opening the crop and gizzard ; and the changes in the
colour of the plumage can be ascertained only by procuring
individuals at different seasons. In attending to these and
other particulars, one necessarily requires much enthusiasm,
and consumes much time. Indeed the task of writing the
history of a bird not of common occurrence, such as the Golden
Eagle, the Raven, or the Rock Pigeon, is by no means so easy
as might be imagined, unless to those who merely compose it
from the accounts given by original observers, whom they fre-
quently greatly excel in popular estimation, although in very
many instances they cannot so much as have seen the objects
of which they so confidently write. When the student has
rendered himself familiar with a few species, his pursuits daily
become more interesting ; and if he at the same time compare
his notes with the descriptions given by authors, he will find
additional pleasure in observing the particulars in which there
is a mutual agreement, and perhaps in occasionally detecting
errors in his own or their statements. But at what precise
period he becomes an ornithologist, I cannot venture to affirm :
whether the first day on which he brings home a Sparrow or a
ChaflSnch, or after he has studied an hundred birds, and read
the works of half as many authors.

Notwithstanding the impediments presented by the necessary
restrictions preventing persons carrying guns from strolling
over the country, there is scarcely any district in Britain that
does not present a good field for ornithological research. The
uncultivated moors, the craggy summits of the mountains, the
wooded glens, the birch and pine forests of the north, the plan-
tations and parks of the south, the cultivated fields, the pastures
and downs, the sandy beaches, the rocky shores, and the
islands of the sea, have all their peculiar species, whose history
can be satisfactorily traced only in connection with the physi-
cal geography of the districts or tracts in which they reside.
For this reason, some knowledge of geology and botany, will
always be useful to the ornithologist. The subject of the dis-
tribution of birds, even in our own island, small as its extent

92 INTRODUCTION.

is, has not yet received much attention ; so that, in occasionally
presenting local lists of species, accompanied by explanatory
remarks on the nature of the districts, I shall not be unneces-
sarily extending my observations ; and the general results, to
be presented at the conclusion of my labours, will, I trust,
prove of considerable interest.

In the meantime, it may be mentioned that the number of
species hitherto observed in Britain amounts to about two hun-
dred and ninety-five. Of these about a hundred and twenty-five
reside in the country throughout the year ; sixty visit us in
summer, and depart in autumn ; thirty are winter visitants ;
and the rest, about eighty, may be included in the class of
straoforlers, or accidental, or irreofular visitants. Besides these,
a species, formerly plentiful in certain districts, the Great
Wood Grouse, Tetrao Urogallus, has been extirpated ; and
the same may be said of the Crane, Grus cinerea^ of which one
or two individuals only have been seen of late years.

93

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES ILLUSTRATIVE
OF THE INTRODUCTION.

The ohjects are represented half the natural size.

Plate I. Skeleton of the Golden Eagle, Aquila Chrysaetus.

a, the cranium.
h, the upper jaw.

c, the lower jaw.

d, e, cervical vertebrse.

e, y, dorsal vertebrae.

y, ff, sacral and caudal vertebrse.
h, h, spinous processes of cervical ver-
tebrae.
i, i, their transverse processes.
j,f, united sacrum and pelvis.
/c, k, ribs.

If spinal portion of rib.
m, sternal portion.
n, n, processes of ribs.
0, py q, sternum.
0, crest of sternum.
p, body of sternum.
q, its posterior margin.
r, coracoid bone or clavicle.
s, s, furcula.
t, scapula.
u, u, humei'al bone.
V, IV, cubitus.
V, V, ulna.
w, IV, radius.

x, w, the two carpal bones between these
letters.

X, metacarpal bones.

y, first digit.

z, bone of first phalanx of finger, to
which is appended another.

a, /3, y, OS innominatum.

a, ilium.

/3, ischium.

y, OS pubis.

^, ischiadic foramen.

{, obturator notch.

Z,, n, thigh bone.

Y), 7i, its two condyles.

6, bones of the leg.

6, tibia.

I, fib Vila.

», ancle joint.

X, tarsus and metatarsus united, com-
monly called tarsus.

fx,, small metatarsal bone of first toe.

1, first or hind toe.

2, second or inner toe.

3, third or middle toe.

4, fourth or outer toe.

Plate II. Wing of the Domestic Pigeon, Columba Livia,

Fig. 1. Upper surface of Wing, the
small feathers removed.

a, b, junction of ^dng with the bodJ^

b, c, humerus or arm.

c, d, cubitus or fore-arm.

d, e,f, hand or pinion.

e, alula or spurious pinion.

c,f, quills.

0, d, cubital or secondary quills.
d, f, digital or primary quills.
ff, e, alular quills.

Fig. 2. Lower surface of Wing. The
same 2mrts marked by the same
number's as in Fig. 1.

94

INTRODUCTIOX.

Plate III. Bones and Muscles of the Wing of the Domestic
Pigeon, Cokimba Livia.

Fig. 1. Bones of the Wing.

a, scapula.

h, tip of coracoid bone.

b, c, OS humeri or arm-bone.

c, d, cubitus or ulna and radius.

d, carpal bones.

d, e, metacarpal bones.

e,f, the two phalanges of the finger.

g, pollex or first finger.

Fig. 2. Muscles seen on the upper side
of the Wing.

a, the body.

b, c, humerus or arm.

c, d, cubitus or fore-arm.

d, e, f, g, hand.

1, trapezius.

2, serratus magnus anticus.

3, latissimus dorsi.

3, a, its anterior portion.

3, bf its posterior portion.

4, pectoralis major.

8, supra-spinatus.

9, infra-spinatus.

10, deltoides.

11, tensor plicae alae.

12, retractor plicae alae.

13, flexor cubiti, or biceps flexor.

14, extensor cubiti.

16, flexor carpi ulnaris.

22, extensor carpi ulnaris.

23, extensor primi digiti.

24, extensor digitorum.

25, extensor carpi radialis brevis.

27, adductor primi digiti.

28, abductor primi digiti.

29, abductor digiti.

30, adductor digiti.

31, supinator or extensor digiti.

Fig. 3. Muscles seen on the lower side
of the Wing.

a, the body.

b, c, humerus.

c, d, cubitus.

d, e,f g, hand.

4, pectoralis major,

11, tensor plicae alae.

12, retractor plicae alae.

13, biceps flexor.

14, extensor cubiti.

15, extensor metacarpi radialis longior,

or supinator radii longus.

16, flexor carpi ulnaris.

17, palmai-is longus.

18, flexor digitorum.

19, flexor carpi radialis.

20, extensor carpi.

21, pronator radii teres.

26, flexor primi digiti.

27, adductor primi digiti.

28, abductor primi digiti.

29, abductor digiti.

30, adductor digiti.

Fig. 4. Muscles concealed by the pec-
toralis major.

5, pectoralis medius.

6, pectoralis minor.

7, clavicularis.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate IV. Digestive Organs of the Peregrine Falcon, Falco

peregrinus.

Fig. 1. Head.

a, upper mandible.

b, cere, and nostril.

c, dorsal outline of upper mandible.

d, angle of mouth.
d, e, lower mandible.

d, b, base of upper mandible.

d, f, base of lower mandible.

y, angle of lower mandible.

g, dorsal outline of lower mandible.

Fig. 2. Roof of Mouth.

a, b, c, posterior aperture of tlie nasal
organs.

a, a, its anterior part, or palatal slit.

b, €, series of pointed papillte.

c, a, a, flat surface, on which the tongue

is applied.

d, curved series of papillae.

f, edges of upper mandible.

Fig. 3. Tongue and aperture of Wind-
2)ipe.

a, b, tongue, soft, rounded.

b, papillae at base of tongue.

c, aperture of glottis.

d, d, sides of pharynx.

e, posterior part of pharynx.
f,f, pointed papillae.

Fig. 4. Tongue, Trachea, Intestinal
Canal, Heart, and Liver.

a, b, b, tongue and hyoid bones.

c, d, trachea,

d, e, bronchi.

e,f, divisions of aorta.

g, h, heart.

h, pericardium left on one side.
i, j, lobes of the liver.
a, b, d, oesophagus.

k, Jc, dilatation of oesophagus, or crop.

/, commencement of intra- thoracic por-
tion of oesophagus, passing be-
hind the heart and liver, but
shewn by Fig. 5.

n, 0, stomach.

0, one of its tendons.

p, q, r, duodenal fold of intestine.

X, anus or vent.

Fig. 5. Part of (Esophagus, Stomach,
and Intestine.

I, m, lower part of oesophagus.

m, proventriculus.

n, muscular fibres of stomach,

0, one of its tendons.

p, q, r, duodenal fold of intestine.

p, pylorus.

r, entrance of biliary ducts.

s, s, pancreas.

t, gall-bladder.

u, V, w, intestine.

w, cloaca.

X, anus.

Fig. 6. Rectum and Cceca.

a, b, rectum.

a, a, cceca.

c, d, ureters, entering at e, below which

is the aperture of the bursa of

Fabricius.

Fig. 7. Proventriculus laid open.

a, b, longitudinal section of proventri-
culus.

1, 2, 3, 4, proventricular or gastric
glandules slightly divided into
four masses ; their orifices seen
on the inner surface.

96

INTRODUCTION.

Fig. 8. Section of Proventriculus.

fl, a, its outer coats.
b, its inner coat.

The cylindrical glandules are seen
between them.

Fig. 9. Glandules of natural size.

Fig. 10. Inner surface of Stomach.

The soft epithelium, or inner coat, ele-
vated into tortuous rugse.

Fig. 11. Valve of pylorus.

Plate V. Digestive Organs of the Snowy Owl, Spnia Njctea.

Fig. 1. Tongue, Trachea, Intestinal
Canal, Heart, and Liver.

a, tongue.

b, b, hyoid bones.

c, d, trachea.

e, e, bronchi, or division of trachea.

f, heart, with pericardium removed.

g, h, lobes of liver.

i, abdominal parietes.
J, two air-cells.

b, 1c, I, oesophagus, very wide, without
dilatation or crop.

Fig. 2. Digestive Organs concealed in
Fig, I.

I, m, n, lower part of oesophagus.

m, proventriculus.

n, 0, stomach.

n, its muscular fibres.

o, one of its tendons.

p, pylorus.

p, q, r, duodenal fold of intestine.

s, s, pancreas.

r, extremity of intestine.

Fig. 3. Tongue, and aperture of Glottis,
a, b, tongue, having the base emarginate
and papillate, the tip notched.

Fig. 4. Part of inner surface of Pro-
ventriculus.

Fig. 5. Longitudinal section of Pro-
ventriculus, shewing the apertures
of the Glandules.

Fig. 6. Three proventricular Glandules
of natural size.

Fig. 7. Inner surface of Epithelium or
lining of Stomach, shewing tor-
tuous inigcB.

Fig. 8. Rectum, Cloaca, and Cceca.
a, a,f, coeca, enlarged towards the an-
terior extremity.

a, a, b, rectum.

b, c, cloaca.

d, d, ureters, entering at e, below which
is seen the larger aperture of the
bursa of Fabricius.

PuhKshed'bj ScotOVebsrer & Geary; QLaxtefhouse SrrtisreJ^andan..

Pablisied by Scott.A'elDstsr &-.Gear)', Qiaxter iiOTis e Scnare.Lon.iDn

PXATE iv:

PL^TE T

Uideslive OrdaxLs of fhii

s:N"0'WTr oM^x,

HISTORY

OF

BRITISH BIRDS,

INDIGENOUS AND MIGRATORY.

I. RASORES. SCRAPERS, or GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.

II. GEMITORES. COOERS, or PIGEONS.

III. DEGLUBITORES. HUSKERS, or CONIROSTRAL BIRDS.

IV. VAGATORES. WANDERERS, or CROWS and ALLIED GENERA.

ESSENTIAL CHAHACTERS OF THE ORDERS.

The Orders of which the British species are described in this
volume, may be distino^uished by the following brief characters,
of which the most important, or those derhed from the diges-
tive organs^ are represented by the accompanying sketches.

Fig. ^.

Fig. 37.

Fig. 33.

Rasores. Gemitores.

Deglubitorks, Vagatores.

By simply inspecting the intestinal canal of a bird belonging
to any of these species, one can invariably refer it to its proper
order. It is to be observed, however, that the various charac-
ters are elsewhere given in detail.

h2

100 CHARACTERS OF THE ORDERS.

ORDER 1. RASORES. SCRAPERS.

Bill short, of moderate strength ; upper mandible with a
flattened nasal membrane, its extremity arched and rather de-
pressed, with overlapping edges, and obtuse tip. CEsophagus
narrow, with a very large globular crop having a small aper-
ture ; proventriculus bulbiform, with oblong sacculated glan-
dules ; stomach a powerful gizzard, with very thick lateral
muscles, a prominent distinct inferior muscle, and thick ru-
gous epithelium or inner coat. Intestine of moderate length
and nearly uniform diameter, but having appended two cceca of
extreme size, being together of equal capacity with the intestine.
Legs strong, short or of moderate length ; toes rather short,
strong, flattened beneath ; three before, spreading, united by a
web at the base ; hind toe very short and a little elevated, or
wanting ; claws arched, more or less depressed, and obtuse.
Wings short, curved, and much rounded ; the primaries attenu-
ated and separated towards the end. Fig. 85, and PL VI.

ORDER II. GEMITORES. COOERS.

Bill of moderate length, slender ; upper mandible with a bare,
tumid, fleshy nasal membrane, its extremity enlarged and com-
pressed, with sharp edges, and narrow blunt tip. CEsophagus
immediately dilated into an extremely large transverse crop,
internally reticularly rugous in the breeding season, and hav-
ing a small aperture ; proventriculus bulbiform, with oblong
glandules ; stomach a powerful gizzard, Math very thick lateral
muscles, a prominent distinct inferior muscle, and thick rugous
epithelium. Intestine long, and narrow ; the coeca reduced
to very small cylindrical adnate mucous tubes. Legs short, of
moderate strength ; toes three before, spreading, rather short,

CHARACTERS OF THE ORDERS. 101

flattened beneath ; one behind, in the same plane, shorter than
the two lateral, which are equal ; the third or middle toe much
longer ; claws short, compressed, moderately arched, rather
blunt. Wings long, straight, more or less pointed, with the
second, third, and fourth quills longest. Fig. 36, cmd PI.
VII.

ORDER III. DEGLUBITORES. HUSKERS.

Bill short, or of moderate length, very strong, conical ;
upper mandible slightly emarginate at the base, with a very
short, broad, feathered nasal membrane, its edges involute, the
tip acute. CEsophagus gradually dilated above into a mem-
branous bag of moderate size, lying on the right side, and
sometimes curving round the back of the neck ; proventricu-
lus oblong, w^ith cylindrical glandules. Stomach a powerful
gizzard, with very thick lateral muscles, a prominent inferior
muscle, and thick rugous epithelium. Intestine short and
rather w^ide ; coeca minute, oblong, adnate. Feet rather short,
of moderate strength ; toes compressed, three before, mode-
rately spreading ; one behind, stronger but shorter than the
two lateral, which are equal, and much exceeded by the third,
the latter united at the base to the fourth ; claws rather long,
arched, much compressed, acute. Wings of moderate length,
acute, but with the three or four outer quills nearly equal, tho
first, w^hich is extremely small, not included. Fig. 87, and
PL VIII.

ORDER IV. VAGATORES. WANDERERS.

Bill of moderate length, strong, tapering, compressed, pointed;
upper mandible with a rather long basal sinus, filled by the
nasal membrane, which is covered by stiiF reversed feathers.

102 CHARACTERS OF THE ORDERS.

CEsophagus rather wide, Avithout crop or dilatation ; proven-
triculus bulbiforin, with oblong or cylindrical glandules. Sto-
mach rather large, roundish, more or less compressed ; its
muscular coat of moderate thickness, not separated into distinct
muscles, but composed of uniform fasciculi inserted into circu-
lar tendinous spaces ; the epithelium thin, and slightly rugous.
Intestine of moderate length and diameter ; coeca very small,
cylindrical, adnate. Legs of moderate length, rather stout ;
toes three before, one behind ; the first of about the same
length as the second and fourth, the third much longer, and
united at the base with the fourth ; claws arched, stout, com-
pressed, acute. Wings of moderate length, much rounded,
the primaries narrowed and separated towards the end, the
first very short, the fourth and fifth longest. Ficf. 38, and

103

I. RASORES. SCRAPERS.

OR GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.

The extensive order of the Rasores, or Gallinaceous Birds,
is composed of species whose direct utility to man is more ob-
vious than that of any other group, the flesh of all of them af-
fording a much esteemed and wholesome food, for which reason
several of the larger kinds have been reduced to a state of do-
mesticity, in which they are found to be highly profitable. In
this respect, as well as in the nature of their food, and there-
fore also in the structure of their digestive organs, they bear
an obvious analogy to the Ruminating Quadrupeds, as the
Bull, the Ram, and the Goat. To this important series belong
the Turkey, the Peacock, the Common Fowl, the Pheasants,
and the numerous species of Grouse and Partridge, which, al-
though not capable of being collectively defined by characters
derived from the exterior, are yet clearly separated from all
other birds by the peculiar form of their intestinal canal. The
Pigeons, which by many ornithologists have been referred to
this order, I consider as constituting a family, nearly allied in
some respects, but in others so difl^erent that several authors
have associated them with the " Insessores " or " Passeres.'"'
The Ostrich, Cassowary, and Bustard, are, in my opinion, so
unlike the true Rasores, that they could be ranked with them
only by persons whose preconceived theoretical arrangements
rendered such an association necessary.

Taking a general view of the diiferent species, and disposing
them into genera and families, we should find the following

104 RASORES. SCRAPERS.

classification not obviously inconsistent. The first family,
Patoninw^ is composed of the genera Meleagris, Pavo, and
Diplectron ; the second, Gallinw^ of Argus, Phasianus, Gallus,
Lophophorus, and Tragopan ; the third, Cracinw^ of Crax,
Ourax, and Penelope ; the fourth, Perdicinw, of Numida, Cryp-
tonyx, Tetrao, Perdix, Coturnix, Ortyx, and Pterocles. Be-
sides these genera, several other groups have been referred to
this order. Of the families mentioned above, only one, that of
the Perdicinse, contains birds naturally indigenous in Britain ;
although the Common and Ring-necked Pheasants, now gene-
rally distributed over the country in a semi-domestic or natu-
ralized state, belong to the second family.

It is extremely difficult to elaborate characters equally ap-
plicable to all the species of this order. They are generally
heavy birds, having the body full, the neck of moderate length,
the head rather small and oblong, the feet stout, short, or of
moderate length, the toes four, rather short, the hind one very
short, or sometimes wanting ; the claws slightly arched, more
or less flattened and obtuse. The bill is for the most part short,
with the upper mandible arched, transversely concave, its edges
overlapping, and the tip blunt. It will serve to elucidate the
characters of the digestive organs to refer to Plate VI, which
represents those of the Brown Ptarmigan, Lagopus Scoticus,
The bill. Fig. 1, «, is short, broad, triangular, and acute.
The fauces are of moderate width, or rather narrow. The
oesophagus, 6, c, d, e, is narrow, but about the middle of the
neck is expanded into a large subglobular sac or crop, c, d, of
which the upper walls are reflected over the trachea and oeso-
phagus, and terminates below in an oblong or bulbiform pro-
ventriculus. Fig. 8, b, completely lined with rather large ovato-
oblong glandules. The stomach, /, is a powerful gizzard, of
which the outer coat is composed of two pairs of very thick
muscles, inserted into two tendinous centres ; the middle coat
thick and tough ; the inner or cuticular coat, forming two thick,
elliptical, transversely rugous plates, opposite the muscles, but
in the other parts thinner. The form and structure of the
stomach will be better understood on referring to Figs. 3. and
4, the former representing its exterior, the latter its interior.

RASORES. SCRAPERS. 105

In Fig. 8, a^ is the lower part of the oesophagus ; 6, the proven-
triculus ; c^ c?, ^, g^ the stomach or gizzard ; h^ the commence-
ment of the intestine. The very strong lateral muscles, d^ e,
have their tendons inserted into an oblong or circular space of
a white colour, /, where the walls are very thin. A distinct
transverse muscle, ^, occupies the lower part or bottom of the
organ, and its fibres are inserted into the central space, f\ under
the edge of the kind of bridge formed by the tendons of the
lateral muscles ; while at the upper part there is also a muscu-
lar apparatus, ^, thinner than the rest. In Fig. 4, the oesopha-
gus, a, the proventriculus, 6, and the gizzard, c, cZ, are laid
open, the section being through one of the lateral tendons, /*,
of Fig. 3. At ^, are seen the oblong glands in the section of
the proventriculus, and on the inner surface of that organ their
apertures in the middle of rounded eminences. The lateral
muscles are seen at c7, e. The three coats or layers are marked :
the muscular or outer, /; the middle, r/ ; the inner or cuticu-
lar, ^, its inner surface longitudinally rugous. The mass of
food, of a cylindrical form, z, is impressed with rugae, from the
action of the organ. The intestine is long and rather wide,
and is seen convoluted at ^, /^, «*, j^ Jc^ in Fig. 1. The coeca
are in these birds very remarkable, as in them they receive
their greatest development, so as sometimes to exceed the in-
testine in capacity. They are represented by Fig. 2, in which
a, ^, is a part of the intestine ; and are seen coming off at c,
where for some length they are narrow, but afterwards enlarge,
are marked w^ith longitudinal lines, are contorted along the
course of the intestine, ^, /*, and terminate in nipple-like
points, «7, h. The structure of these parts will be more par-
ticularly explained when I come to speak of the Grouse and
Ptarmigans.

The legs are generally strong ; the tarsi of moderate length or
short, stout, and either scutellate or feathered ; in the former case
sometimes having a knob or spur behind. Fig. 40. There are always
three anterior toes, connected at the base by membranes, which
however are sometimes scarcely apparent ; and w^hen a hind toe,
or poUex, exists, it is generally small, and elevated above the rest.
The claws are moderately arched, depressed, and obtuse. The

106 RASORES. SCRAPERS.

wings are generally concave, short, or of moderate length ; but
the tail varies from extremely short to excessively long, and
exhibits numerous modifications of form.

The arrangement of the plumage is as follows : — There are
four kinds of feathers : quills, feathers, down-feathers, and hair-
feathers.

The quills, inserted along the posterior edge of the wing
vary in number, but are generally twenty-five, ten being pri-
mary. Five pollical quills. From twelve to twenty tail-
feathers inserted close together, the two middle above the line
of the rest.

The feathers properly so called are inserted on the head all
round ; but in many cases there are bare spaces on the head,
cheeks, eyebrows, or throat ; on an elevated line along the back
of the neck, expanding on the back, and continued to the
uropygial gland ; on a similar line down the fore part of the
neck, at the middle of which it forks, each division becoming
broader as it passes along the side of the breast, where it ter-
minates opposite the knee ; from a narrovv^ space near the cen-
tre of the thorax and abdomen, on which it terminates before
the anus ; on a narrovv^ line coming off from that on the fore-
neck, and running along the edge of the wing, then crossing
the humerus, and ending on its posterior edge, giving rise to
the feathers named scapulars ; on both sides or surfaces of the
wing, there being above a band composed of the smaller upper
wnng-coverts, and a line of upper large coverts, — below, a nar-
rower band of smaller lower coverts, and a line of large lowTr
coverts ; on a broad surface from the knee-joint above, laterally
to near the rump ; from the w^hole surface of the leg or tibia ;
on a small transverse space above, and another below the tail.
The ears and anus are also margined with a distinct circle.

The down-feathers cover the intervals between these feather-
ed spaces, and are interspersed among the feathers. All the
surfaces from which the feathers com^e off are sparsely covered
with very slender hairs, which are penicillate at the tip. or ter-
minated by a few short barbs.

The feathers vary extremely in form and texture, and the
plumage of the males is generally more richly coloured, and

RASORES. SCRAPERS. IO7

more developed than that of the females ; but in all the species,
the plumule, or accessory feather — Fig. 20, 6, p. 75 — is very
large and tufty, in which respect the Rasores differ essentially
from the Gemitores.

Representatives of this order are found in all parts of the
w^orld, from the forests and jungles of the Indian isles, where
the Peacock unfolds his gorgeous train, to the frozen shores of
Labrador and Greenland, where the Ptarmigan burrows among
the snow in search of the scanty herbage. Certain genera arc
peculiar to particular regions, as the Turkeys to America, the
Argus to India and China, the Pheasants to the v/arm and tem-
perate parts of Asia, the Guinea-fowls to Africa; wdiile others,
as the Grouse and Partridges, are generally distributed. The
affinities of the Rasores are A^aricus : on one hand, with the
Pigeons, through Crax and Penelope ; on the other with the
Bustards, which lead to the Plovers ; and with the Gallinules
and Rails.

They feed on seeds, berries, fruits of various kinds, and on buds,
twigs, and herbaceous plants, as well as occasionally on insects
and worms. Their digestive organs are peculiar, in possessing
the large globular crop or recipient of their food, and the ex-
tremely large coeca, in which it undergoes a second elaboration
after passing through the small intestine. Their bill is, of course,
admirably adapted for cutting, breaking off, or wTcnching, the
vegetable substances on which they feed ; and which are ground
to a coarse pulp in the stomach, the action of which is aided
by the numerous particles or fragments of quartz swallowed
for that purpose. The food, being comparatively innutritions,
besides undergoing the usual elaboration in the intestine, re-
quires for its complete assimilation a very great length of tube,
which is supplied by the coeca. They seek their food on the
ground, on which very many constantly reside ; but some are
of arboreal habits. They run with great celerity, and many
have a strong, rapid, and continued flight, although for the
most part they fly heavily, by continued quick flaps of their
short curved wings. Their nests are always placed on the
ground, and very artlessly constructed, being usually a slight
hollow, with some blades of grass, twigs, or leaves. The eg^;^

108 RASORES. SCRAPERS.

are numerous, and the young, which are born with their eyes
open, and their body covered with close stiffish down, are able
to run about in a few minutes or immediately after exclusion.
From the nature of their food, they do not always require the
care of their male parent, but are led by their mother, who
manifests the greatest anxiety for their welfare, protects them
from cold and wet under her wings, feigns lameness to draw
intruders after her, while they remain squatted, and eagerly
points out to them the substances on which they may feed.
Many of the Gallinaceous birds habitually scrape up the earth
and dry leaves with their feet, for the purpose of exposing the
seeds or insects ; and it is for this reason that they have ob-
tained the name of Rasores or Scrapers. They have also a
habit, like the Pigeons, Huskers, and some other birds, of lying
in the sand or dry earth, and scattering it over them with their
feet and wings ; or rather, they are fond of basking in the sun,
and of lying in warm sheltered places.

The British species are too few and too little diversified to
render it useful to speak generally of them here ; further than
that, being all of moderate or large size, excepting one, they
are exposed to numerous enemies, of whom, however, man,
while he fosters them, commits greater havock among them
than all the rest. They belong to the genera Phasianus^
Tetrao^ Lagopus, Perdix^ Coturnix^ and Ortyx. The first of
these belongs to the family of Gallinae, of which it is not ne-
cessary to give the general characters, as our only species and
the Domestic Fowl, with which every person is familiar, are
representatives sufliciently characteristic to afford a good gene-
ral idea of those beautiful birds, whose natural residence is in
the warmer and temperate parts of Asia, especially India and
China.

109

PHASIANUS. PHEASANT.

Bill short, strong, slightly decurved, deeper than broad at
the base, depressed at the end. Upper mandible with a
deep nasal sinus, the dorsal outline sloping at the base, ar-
cuato-declinate towards the end, the sides convex, the edges
slightly arched, horny, sharp, and overlapping nearly in their
whole length, the tip rounded and thin-edged. Lower man-
dible narrower than the upper, its angle of moderate length and
rounded, the dorsal outline very slightly convex, the back
broad, the sides convex, the edges direct, thick, and rather
blunt, the tip obtuse.

Mouth rather narrow ; mandibles internally concave. Palate
flat, with two curved longitudinal, slightly papillate, soft ridges,
terminating behind the aperture of the nares in a slight papil-
late lobe. The aperture of the posterior nares is oblong behind,
linear before, papillate in its whole length, its posterior lateral
space covered with very small sparse papillae, the anterior with
several transverse series of papillae. A soft ridge from the
fore part to the mandible, and on each side a deep groove
within the edge of the mandible. Tongue of moderate size,
fleshy, tapering to a point, triangular in its transverse section,
slightly concave above, horny beneath, with two transverse
rows of papillae at the base. There are two masses of mucous
crypts in the angle of the lower jaw ; also a series on the lower
side of the tongue on each side towards the base ; and a great
quantity in the space between the root of the tongue and the
aperture of the glottis, which is defended by two transverse
flaps of pointed papillse.

Oesophagus narrow, but opening into, or enlarged so as to

110 PHASIANUS. PHEASANT.

tbriii, a crop of great size, lying over the fore part of the neck
and thorax, its internal or intra-thoracic part also narrow. In
its whole extent it is abundantly supplied with mucous follicles,
and below the crop, which is glandular only at the base, the
inner membrane is raised into longitudinal rugse. The pro-
ventricular glands are few, very large, oblong, sacculate, placed
very obliquely. Stomach a powerful gizzard of a subrhom-
boidal form, with the tw^o lateral muscles transverse, the lower
thin, its fibres inserted into the central tendons under the rest ;
the middle coat rather thin and tough ; the inner or cuticular
with longitudinal rugae on the sides. The pyloric orifice is
situated in a transverse depression, between the slight upper
lobe and the lateral muscle, and has no valvular apparatus.
Intestine long, rather wide, of nearly uniform diameter ; cceca
very long, wider than the intestine ; rectum long, cylindrical.
The duodenum is nearly smooth internally ; the small intes-
tine villous ; the rectum granulated.

Nostrils linear-oblong, slightly recurved, in the lower and
fore part of the nasal membrane, which is thick, rather firm,
vaulted, and smooth. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids bare,
.and with a large space surrounding them, and extending along
the whole side of the head to the bill, bare, and covered with
small cutaneous papillae, intermixed with series of plumules.
External ear of moderate size, roundish, the inner aperture
transverse, in the form of a slit.

Head oblong, rather small, compressed, the forehead sloping.
Neck of moderate length. Body large, full. Legs, Fig. 40, of
moderate length, strong ; tarsi of moderate length, stout, a little
compressed, anteriorly covered with two series of alternating
scutella, continuous with the third and fourth toes, posteriorly
also with two series, the inner interrupted by the spur, which
is short, conical, obtuse. Toes strong, the anterior connected
at the base by thick webs ; the third much longer than the
other two, which are nearly equal ; the first very small, and
a little elevated. Claws of moderate size, slightly arched, fiat
beneath, rather compressed, and rather blunt.

Plumage various, the feathers generally ovate or oblong,
compact, on the head and neck of the males splendent. The

PHASIANUS PHEASANT. Ill

feathers are curv^ed, have very short tubes, rather large spongy
shafts, their downy part extended to two thirds of their length,
the plumule long, narrow, and densely downy. The wings
are short, broad, rounded, curved, the third and fourth quills
longest, the secondary quills nearly as long as the primary.
Tail long, graduated, slightly curved or straight, of eighteen
tapering feathers.

The skeleton, more than perhaps any other portion of the ani-
mal structure, excepting the digestive organs, affords charac-
teristic differences, which are readily perceptible by a practised
eye. The skeleton of the Common Pheasant, Phasianus col-
chicus, compared with that of birds belonging to other fami-
lies, exhibits the following peculiarities, most of which are
more or less distinctive of the Gallinaceous order, excluding
always the Pigeons, which are in many respects very dif-
ferent.

The head is comparatively small, its occipital portion rather
elongated, the frontal outline sloping. The orbits, large in all
birds, are comparatively of moderate size, the septum between
them complete. The superciliary bone is rather large, the
nasal vacuity elliptical. The jaws are comparatively short,
the upper tapering and a little decurved, the lower also curved
a little downwards. The jugal bone is slender, and the os
quadratum to which both jaws are articulated, is forked above.
The cervical vertebrae are twelve ; the dorsal nine. There are
nine ribs, the first merely rudimentary, the second very short
and not attached to the sternum, the rest complete, that is, hav-
ing a vertebral and a sternal portion ; five of them are fur-
nished with posterior ascending processes ; and they are all
very slender and thin. There are thirteen lumbar and sacral
vertebrae, anchylosed with the pelvis into a large thin bone.
Six of the dorsal vertebrae are also anchylosed or united. The
coccygeal are seven, the first generally united to the sacrum,
the last apparently composed of two united.

The sternum is long, but very incomplete, there being two
deep vacuities, filled with membrane, on each side, leaving only
two very slender processes ; the central piece is also very nar-

112 PHASIANUS. PHEASANT.

row, but the ridge or crest is very prominent. The clavicles
are stout ; the furcula narrow, with slender rounded crura,
their junction expanded into a triangular plate, which is con-
nected with the sternum by a ligament. See Fig. 41, which,
although representing the sternum of a bird belonging to
another genus, exhibits all these characters.

The scapula is slender and sabre-shaped ; the humerus strong
and rather short ; the cubitus of about the same length. The
pollex is tapering ; the metacarpus is composed of two bones
united at the extremities, and having between them an ellip-
tical space ; the first phalanx is also double, but the pieces are
united by a bony lamina ; the terminal phalanx tapering.

The sacrum, ilium, and ischium are united, the only separate
bone being the os pubis, w^hich is very slender and curved ; but,
as in other birds, the pelvis is separated in front. The sciatic
foramen is elliptical ; the thyroid very small and narrow. The
thigh-bone is of moderate length and stout ; the tibia a third
longer ; the fibula extremely slender and incomplete for a third
of its length ; the metatarsus is a little shorter than the femur,
with a posterior thin edge, on which is developed the short con-
vex nucleus of the spur. The pollex is elevated, and composed
of three short bones ; the second toe of three also ; the third
of four ; the fourth of five phalanges.

The form of the jaw^s is obviously indicative of being adapted
for vegetable food. The legs are strongly constructed, and as
the claws are not much curved or pointed, the animal must be
a powerful walker. The short but strong wings, having power-
ful muscles attached to them, indicate a strong, but heavy, and
not protracted flight. The pectoral muscles must be very large,
judging by the great height and length of the crest of the ster-
num, and as these are the principal organs of flight, that action
is necessarily powerful, but, as the wings are short, performed
by frequent beats. A buoyant flight, on the contrary, requires
a long wing, whether its length be owing to the elongation of
the bones, or of the quills, or of both. In many of these re-
spects the Gallinaceous Birds diftcr from the Pigeons as much
as any two groups of land birds differ from each other.

PHASIANUS. PHEASANT. 113

The genus Phasianus is composed of birds of rather large
size, which inhabit the warmer and temperate parts of Asia,
and portions of Africa. They reside in woods and thickets,
seeking their food chiefly on the ground, reposing either there
or on trees, and nestHng among the herbage. Their food con-
sists of seeds of various kinds, and vegetable substances in
general, as well as occasionally larvag and insects. It is first
deposited in the crop, then pounded in the gizzard, reduced to
a pulpy state in the duodenum, and partially deprived of its
nutritious parts in the small intestine, which is of moderate
length. The finer parts of the residue enter the coeca, and are
further acted upon there, while the refuse passes into the cylin-
drical rectum in a concrete form, and is voided in a small
heap.

114

PHASIANUS COLCHICUS. THE COMMON
PHEASANT.

COMMON, RING-NECKED, AND BOHEMIAN PHEASANT.

Fig.:

Phasianus Colchicus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 270.

Phasianus Colchicus. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 629.

Common Pheasant. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Phaisan Yulgaire. Phasianus Colchicus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. II. 453.

Common Pheasant, Phasianus Colchicus. Selb. Illustr. I. 417.

Phasianus Colchicus. Common Pheasant. Jen. Brit. Yert. An. 166.

Male icith the head and upper part of the neck of various
tints of green and blue ; the lower part of the neck and the sides
yelloidsh-red^ the feathers terminally margined with dark blue ;
those of the fore p^art of the back and the scapulars hating three
bands of yellowish^ blacky and red^ parallel to the edges. Fe-
male with the plumage greyish yellow^ variegated with black and
broicn,

Male. — The Pheasant, ahhough not originally a native
of Britain, yet having become naturalized, and being now

COMMON PHEASANT. 115

generally distributed over the country, has acquired a right to
be admitted into the list of British Birds. At the same time,
it appears very doubtful if it should maintain its footing were
it entirely left to its own resources. !More splendid in its ap-
parel than any really native bird of the Gallinaceous order, it is
a favourite with those persons whose chief business is to gratify
their taste for whatever is ornamental ; and more delicate than
most as an article of food, it has become an object of general
culture. It is about the average size of the domestic fowl, or
somewhat smaller ; but as its general form, and the structure
of the bill have been sufficiently explained in the generic cha-
racter, it is unnecessary to describe them here.

The mouth is rather narrow, and furnished with numerous
mucous crypts, of which there are two masses in the angle of
the lower jaw, a series on each side of the tongue, and two
series parallel to the hyoid bone. The oesophagus, which is
nine and a half inches long, measured from the base of the
tongue to the stomach, is narrow, having a diameter generally
of half an inch. At the distance of five inches from the tongue
it opens into the large membranous crop, of which the aper-
ture is an inch and a quarter in lenglh. The proventriculus
has a length of an inch and four-twelfths, with a diameter of
three-fourths of an inch. The whole inner surface of the
upper part of the oesophagus is covered with apertures of mu-
cous crjq^ts, which also extend about an inch into the crop ;
that of its lower part is slightly elevated into rugae, and also
furnished with crypts. The proventricular glands are very
large, oblong, oblique, externally lobed, and having a branch-
ed sacculated cavity ; their apertures being placed at a great
distance from each other, one might, on opening the proven-
triculus, suppose a space between them filled with a diffe-
rent texture ; but the whole organ is completely surrounded
by the glands. The stomach is a strong gizzard, of a some-
what rhomboidal form, two inches long ; the lateral muscles
are directly transverse ; the lower is distinct ; the upper part
is furnished with circular fibres. The middle coat is thin and
tough. The cuticular lining is longitudinally rugous, hard,
and harsh to the touch ; that part which covers the pyloric

1 2

IW PHASIANUS COLCHICUS.

lobe with grooves crossing each other. The intestine is five
feet ten inches long, nearly uniform in diameter, at the upper
part half an inch across. The duodenum or first fold is ten
inches long ; the rectum, which is cylindrical, six inches ; and
the coeca, which at their commencement are narrow, but after-
wards enlarged to a diameter of three-fourths of an inch, are
thirteen inches long. The upper part of the intestine is inter-
nally smoothish, the rest villous, until within two inches of the
rectum, when it is covered with rounded papillae. At the
commencement of the rectum is a sort of valve similar to that
at its extremity. The rectum is internally covered with round-
ed papillae, which are larger towards the lower end. The nar-
row part of the coeca, for three inches, is glandular, the rest
with seven or eight elevated longitudinal lines, which are here
and there connected by transverse ones. The cloaca, properly
so called, is only a quarter of an inch long, being separated from
the rectum by a slight ring, on which the ureters open, and
behind which is the aperture of the bursa of Fabricius. The
mesentery is attached to a short space between the lobes of the
liver ; and the mesorectum extends forwards as far as the pro-
ventriculus.

,_,^-^v^:c355n52j^

The legs are strong ; the tarsi, which are stout and a little
compressed, have about seventeen plates in each of their an-
terior series. The first toe, which is very small, has five, the
second twelve, the third twenty-two, the fourth nineteen scu-
tella. The spur on the back of the tarsus is conical, blunt, and
about a quarter of an inch long.

The feathers of the uj^per part of the head are oblong and

COMMON PHEASANT. 117

blended, of the rest of the head and the upper part of the neck
imbricated and rounded, of the fore -neck and breast broad,
slightly emarginate or abruptly rounded ; of the back broad
and rounded, of the rump elongated, with loose filaments ; of
the sides very long, of the abdomen downy, of the legs soft and
rather short. Directly over the aperture of the ear is a small
erectile tuft of feathers. The wings are short, very broad,
curved, rounded, of twenty-four quills ; the primaries attenuated
from near the base, rounded, the third and fourth longest, the
first equal to the seventh ; the secondaries broad, rounded,
and little shorter than the primaries. The tail is very long,
slightly arched, remarkably cuneate or tapering, of eighteen
tapering feathers, of which the lateral are incurved, the central
straight. Four pairs of the longest tail feathers are concave
above towards the end, or channelled.

The bill is pale greenish-yellow, the nasal membrane light
brown or flesh-coloured. The bare papillar patch on the side
of the head is scarlet, in parts approaching to arterial blood-red,
or at some seasons crimson. The eyelids are flesh-coloured,
the iris yellow. The feet are light grey, tinged with brown,
the claws light chocolate brown.

The feathers of the upper part of the head are deep brownish-
green, w^ith yellowish marginal filaments. The upper part of
the neck is deep green behind, laterally and anteriorly greenish-
blue and purplish-blue. The lower part of the neck is reddish-
orange, anteriorly tinged with purple ; the breast and sides
brownish-yellow ; each feather terminally margined w^ith pur-
plish-blue, the dark margin indented in the middle, but the in-
dentation gradually diminishing on the breast. The middle
of the lower part of the breast is blackish-brown, glossed with
green, the margins of the feathers being of the latter colour.
The fore part of the back is yellowish-red, each feather slightly
margined with black, and having a central oblong spot of the
same. The scapulars are redder, with a slight black tip, the
central part dull yellow mottled with dusky, margined with a
black band. On the middle of the back the feathers are some-
what similarly variegated, with additional spots of light blue
and purple c Those on the rump are of a deep red, with green

US PHASIANUS COLCHICUS.

and greyish tints. The inner wing-coverts are similar to the
scaj^ulars, but edged externally with dark red, the outer yel-
lowish-grey, variegated with whitish and dusky. The quills
are light brownish-grey, variegated with pale greyish-yellow ;
the secondaries more tino^ed with brown on the outer edges.
The tail is dull greenish-yellow, variegated with yellowish-
grey, the feathers Avith narrow transverse bars of black, a broad
longitudinal band of dull red on each side, the loose margins
red, glossed with green and purple. On the abdomen and legs
the feathers are dull greyish-brown ; under the tail variegated
w^ith reddish. The lower surface of the wing is yellow-
ish-grey.

Length to end of tail 3^ inches ; extent of wings 82 ; wing
from flexure 10 ; tail 18 J ; bill along the back 1 j^*^, along the
edge of upper mandible lj% ; tarsus Sj% ; first toe j\^ its
claw /g ; second toe 1/^, its claw j% ; third toe 2j, its claw
1% ; fourth toe 1^^, its claw 4i twelfths.

Of three other individuals the length 31, 35, 36 inches.

Female. — The female is similar in form to the male, but
with the tail much shorter. The bill and feet require no par-
ticular description. The anterior scutella of the tarsus are
about seventeen in each row ; the first toe has five, the second
fifteen, the third twenty-two, the fourth eighteen. As in the
male there is a bare space under the eye, but scarcely papillar,
and more feathered. The feathers of the upper part of the
head are somewhat elongated ; those of the rest of the head
short ; of the neck and body oblong and rounded ; of the
rump not elongated as in the male.

The general colour of the upper parts is greyish-yellow,
variegated with black and yellowish-brown ; the top of the
head and the hind-neck tinged with red. The wing-coverts
are lighter ; the quills pale greyish-brown, mottled with grey-
ish-yellow, as in the male. The tail is yellowish-grey, minutely
mottled with black, and having, in place of transverse bars,
oblique irregular spots of black centred with a pale yellow
line. The lower parts are lighter and less mottled, the throat
whitish, and without ppots. The bill is horn-colour, tinged

COMMON PHEASANT. 119

with green ; the tarsi wood-browTi, the toes darker, the claws
of the same tint.

Length 26 inches ; extent of wings 30 ; wing from flexure
94 ; tail Hi ; bill along the back 1^ ; tarsus 2i ; first toe i,
its claw ^2 '•> second toe lj%, its claw j% ; third toe 1^§, its
claw j\ ; fourth toe l/^, its claw j%.

Variations. — The Pheasant, like other birds more or less
subjected to the direct influence of man, undergoes numerous
modifications in the colour of its plumage. The first or
slightest change is that in wdiich an incomplete ring of white
appears on the neck at the lower margin of its dark-coloured
part. This ring may be seen in different states. Sometimes
there are merely a few white tips on each side, while in its
highest degree two-thirds of the circumference of the neck are
marked with a white band, which is broader at its anterior
extremities. I am aware of all that has been said on this sub-
ject ; but I am perfectly persuaded that all the Ring-necked
Pheasants which I have seen Avere merely varieties of the
Common Pheasant, and very slight varieties too, the form,
size, and plumage being precisely similar. Some waiters, in
order to make out a good case, have misrepresented the objects,
and put into their specific characters difterences which have no
existence. I have therefore selected from among many an in-
dividual in perfect condition, that the descriptions of the two
may be compared.

E-iNG-NECKED Pheasant. — The proportions of the parts are
precisely the same as in the Common Pheasant. The tarsi
have about seventeen scales in each of their anterior series.
The first toe has five, the second nine, the third twenty, the
fourth seventeen scutella. The spur is conical, blunt, and
four-tw^elfths of an inch long.

The feathers of the upper part of the head are oblong and
blended ; of the rest of the head and the upper part of the neck
imbricated and rounded ; of the fore-neck and breast broad,
slightly emarginate, or abruptly rounded ; of the back broad
and rounded ; of the rump elongated, with loose filaments ;
of the sides very long ; of the abdomen downy ; of the legs

120 PHASIANUS COLCHICUS.

soft and rather short. There is the same tuft of small feathers
over the ear. The wings and tail are precisely similar, even
to the concavity of the extremities of the longer feathers of the
latter.

The bill is horn-colour, or greyish-yellow, tinged with green ;
the nasal operculum flesh-colour. The iris is yellow, and the
bare papillar space about the eye crimson.

The upper part of the head is brownish-green, the forehead,
sides, and tuft, deep green. The upper part of the neck is deep
blue, glossed with purple and green, the latter predominating
behind. At the lower edge of this dark-coloured part is a
white band, extending along two-thirds of the circumference
of the neck, narrow behind, broader at the two anterior extre-
mities. This band is composed of white tips only. The rest of
the fore part of the neck is of a rich coppery tint, glossed w4th
purple in some lights, fading below into brownish-yellow, of
wdiich colour also are the sides. On the neck and breast each
feather has a terminal margin of purplish-blue, which in some
lights is black. This margin is distinctly indented, but the
emargination gradually disappears on the lower feathers. The
middle and lower part of the breast is blackish-brown, glossed
wdth green. The fore part of the back is yellowish-red, each
feather slightly margined with black, and having a central ob-
long spot of the same. The scapulars are redder, with a slight
black tip, the central part dull yellow mottled with dusky, and
margined with a black band. The hind part of the back is
confusedly variegated with yellowish-red and green. The fea-
thers of the rump are of a deep red at the ends, variegated with
green tints. The tail-feathers have the shaft dusky, the cen-
tral part dull greenish-yellow, with transverse black bars, ex-
terior to which is a broad longitudinal band of dull red, then
the broad loose margin glossed with green and purple. The
lateral feathers are gradually more mottled with black. The
upper wing-coverts are dull yellow, the inner edged with dull
red ; the quills wood-brown tinged with grey, barred with
greyish-yellow ; their coverts similar.

The oesophagus is 9 inches long. The crojD commences at
4 inches from the top. The stomach is 2i inches long. The

COMMON PHEASANT. 121

intestine 6 feet 6 inches; of which the duodenal portion is 11,
the rectum 6. The coeca are 16^ inches long, their greatest
diameter \ § , their extremity obtuse.

Length to end of tail 35 inches ; extent of wings 32 ; bill
along the back 11, along the edge of lower mandible 1/,^ ;
tarsus 3 ; first toe j\, its claw 3| twelfths; second toe li, its
claw 5i twelfths; third toe 2, its claw ^^^ ; fourth toe 1/^?
its claw j%.

Length of another individual 35 inches ; wing from flexure
lOi; tail 20^; bill along the back 1/^, along the edge of
lower mandible lj\ ; tarsus 2f ; first toe i\^ its claw j%; se-
cond toe lj2-> it^ claw 5i twelfths ; third toe 2^, its claw {'^ ;
fourth toe l/o, its claw j% ; spur i.

The female of this variety I am unable to distinguish from
that of the other or common kind.

There is before me at present an individual in all respects
precisely similar to that above described, only that the ring is
reduced to a slight spot on each side of the neck, four or five
feathers there having a white tip. \Yere these five feathers
pulled out, there would be no difference between it and the
common bird.

In general the common ringless Pheasant has the colours
somewhat deeper than the ringed variety ; but in both kinds
there are slight variations in the colouring. Individuals speck-
led or patched w^ith white are not uncommon ; and others en-
tirely w^hite are sometimes seen. A more beautiful variety is
that which has been named the Bohemian Pheasant, which,
like the Ring-necked, may be considered as a distinct race.
All the races and varieties breed together, and the produce is
equally prolific ; a fact w^hich of itself is sufficient to provo
their specific identity.

Bohemian Pheasant. — This variety is in form, proportions,
and texture of plumage, similar to the common. The bill and
feet are nearly of the same colour, or somewhat paler. The
top of the head is dull grey ; the rest of the head and the upper
part of the neck, dark green and blue, but much less glossy
than in the common variety. The feathers of the lower part
of the neck, the breast, and the sides, have a terminal band of

122 PHASIANUS COLCHICUS.

blackish-blue, forming a deep indenture, which gradually dis-
appears on the lower feathers. Those of the hind-neck have
also a narrow terminal edge, with a central spot of black. On
the back, the dark markings of the Common and Ring-necked
Pheasants are retained ; as are the transverse bars of the tail.
The ground colour of the whole plumage however, excepting
that of the head, upper part of the neck, and middle of the
breast, is pale reddish-grey or cream-colour, deeper and more
glossy on the fore-neck. The hind part of the back is chiefly
a pale dull green . The middle of the breast is blackish-brown,
the feathers tipped with green. The quills and tail-feathers
are mottled with pale brown. On the tarsus are about nine-
teen scales in each of the anterior series, on the first toe seven,
the second fifteen, the third twenty- two, the fourth seventeen.

Length to end of tail So inches ; tail 21 ; wing from flexure
10; bill along the back IJ ; tarsus 2| ; first toe {'^^ its claw
8 J twelfths ; second toe I/2, its claw y% ' third toe 2/2, its
claw -/g ; fourth toe 1/2, its claw d\ twelfths ; spur \.

This Bohemian Pheasant cannot of course be considered in
any other light than as a mere variety or race. I am informed
that it as often has a white ring on the neck as not. It is also
alleged by some gamekeepers that the Ring Pheasants have
not the white ring until the third year.

A very remarkable variation, which, however, occurs in other
Gallinaceous birds, is exhibited by some females, which, in a
less or greater degree, assume the plumage of the male.

Habits. — The Common Pheasant is generally supposed to
have been originally brought from the banks of the Phasis,
one of the rivers of Colchis, whence its name, Phasianus Col-
chicus ; and our Ring-necked Pheasant is alleged to be the
spurious descendant of another species, Phasianus torquatus,
introduced into this country from China. The pale-coloured,
or Bohemian, is merely an accidental variety, which appears
occasionally in preserves. The species is said to be generally
distributed over Europe, excepting the northern parts, which
are too cold for its constitution. It is now very abundant in
most parts of England, and in the southern and middle di-

COMMON PHEASANT. 123

visions of Scotland, being harboured, on account of its beauty,
the excellence of its flesh, and the sport which it affords, by
most of the great landed proprietors. Although scarcely able
to subsist, if left to itself, it is yet in a great measure natural-
ized. Its favourite places of resort are thick plantations or
tangled woods by streams, where, among the long grass, bram-
bles, and other shrubs, it passes the night, sleeping on the
ground in summer and autumn, but commonly roosting in the
trees in winter. Early in the morning it betakes itself to the
open fields to search for its food, which consists of the tender
shoots of various plants, grass, bulbous roots, roots of gi-asses
and Potentilla anserina, turnip tops, as well as worms and
insects. In autumn, and the early part of winter, it obtains
a plentiful supply of grain, acorns, beech nuts, and small fruits.
In severe weather, however, especially where great numbers
are kept, the pheasants require to be fed with grain, when they
learn to attend at the call of the keeper.

This bird walks and runs much in the same manner as the
domestic fowl, which it greatly resembles in its manners. Al-
though it betakes itself to trees either for repose, or when dis-
turbed by an intruder, its proper place is on the ground, where
it runs with great speed, keeping its tail nearly horizontal.
When feeding without apprehension, it holds the tail more
elevated, the w4ngs rather drooping, traverses the ground in a
stooping posture, running at intervals ; and on being alarmed,
either speeds on foot to the nearest cover, or flies off. Its flight
is hea-sy, direct, performed by rapid beats of the wings, the tail
expanded.

From its habits it becomes an easy prey to the sportsman
and poacher. Its great size and direct flight render it no dif-
ficult matter for an indifferent marksman to hit it, while the
paths which it forms in the thickets, vvhence it issues to search
the neighbouring fields, afford favourable places for snares. It
is even caught on its roost with a noose affixed to a long pole,
or suffocated with the fumes of sulphur.

The males generally keep by themselves during winter, and
in spring separate, each selecting a particular spot, where he
struts, and invites the females by crowing and clapping his

]24 PHASIANUS COLCHICUS.

wings. The crowing of the pheasant resembles that of a young
domestic cock in its earliest attempts, and is often heard in the
woods in April and May. The female, after depositing her
eggs among the long grass, or under the shade of a bush, hav-
ing merely scraped a slight hollow which she has scantily
lined with dry leaves, is deserted by the male, and performs
the task of bringing forth and leading about the young with-
out his assistance. The eggs, from six to ten in number, are
of a regular oval form, smooth, but minutely dotted, averaging
in length an inch and ten- twelfths, in breadth an inch and
five-twelfths, and varying in colour from pale greenish-brown
to greyish- white, tinged with green, being generally very simi-
lar to those of the Common Partridge. Comparatively few
of the eggs, however, are hatched by the parent birds, they
being for the most part put under domestic hens, and the
young, when grown up, are let loose.

Young. — The young when fledged resemble the female,
being of a dull greyish-yellow, variegated with broAvn and
black. The male may be distinguished from the female by
having the bare space under the eye less feathered, and the
colouring somewhat richer. Young Pheasants are very sub-
ject to a distemper called the gapes^ occasioned by a parasitic
worm, Fasciola trachece, which lodges in the wind-pipe, and
by causing it to inflame produces suffocation. Montagu has
given an ample account of this disease, and of the best mode
of treating it. Garlic, chives, or young onions, he states, may
be given very beneficially in the early stages ; but in the ad-
vanced state of the disorder, nothing is so eflectual as fumiga-
tion with tobacco, the diseased chickens being confined in a
box, having a door on one side, with its hinges so placed as to
open downwards. The smoke is blown in with a common
pipe, and the birds exposed to its influence until they are re-
duced to a state of stupefaction.

One of the most remarkable facts relative to this bird that
have come under my observation, was the occurrence of a very
large quantity of fronds of Polypodium vulgare in the crop of

COMMON PHEASANT. 125

one which I opened in the winter of 1835. I am not aware
that any species of fern has ever been found constituting part
of the food of either a ruminating quadruped or gallinaceous
bird ; and if it should be found by experiment that the Phea-
sant thrives on such substances, advantage might be taken of
the circumstance.

In England, Pheasants are extensively bred for suppl}^ng
preserves, and in the southern parts of that country are there-
fore to be found only in a semidomesticated state, so as to af-
ford little sport to a person who finds pleasure in pursuing
game in its wild haunts. The quantity killed at the winter
convocations of persons addicted to this sort of slaughter is
often immense, from 800 to 1000 head of game, the greater
part Hares and Pheasants, being, according to Sir William
Jardine, a frequent daily amount at the Christmas batteau.
These exploits are scarcely more manly or dignified than
those of Jonathan Duggins, Esq., as recorded in the Comic
Annual for 1837. — " Heard some pheasants crowing by the
side of a plantation. — Got within gun-shot of two of the birds,
vich Higgins said they vos two game-cocks : but Hicks,
who had often been to Vestminster Pit, said, No sitch thing ;
as game-cocks had got short square tails, and smooth necks,
and long military spurs. Shot at 'em as pheasants, and believe
ve killed 'em both ; but hearing some orrid screams come out
of the plantation immediately hafter, ve all took to our eels
and ran avay vithout stopping to pick either of 'em up. — At
the end of a mile came suddenly upon a strange sort of bird,
vich Hicks declared to be the cock-of-the-woods. Sneaked
behind him and killed him. Turned out to be a peacock."
For my part, having had no practice in this way, I am much
inclined to persuade myself, as the fox did when he could not
get at the grapes, that a brace of ptarmigan brought home after
a day's hard marching to the cragg}" summit of some misty hill
in the Gael-land, would afford more pleasure than a Avhole
thicketful of pheasants.

Instances of crossing between these birds and the domestic
fowl sometimes occur ; and more rarely, between them and
the Black Grouse, of which one is recorded in the Maorazine

126 PHASIANUS COLCHICUS.

of Zoology and Botany, for February 1837, as described by
William Thompson, Esq. of Belfast. He states that only
three other cases have occurred to him in the course of
his inquiries on this subject : one mentioned by White in
his Natural History of Selborne ; the second exhibited at a
meeting of the Zoological Society of London, on the 24th of
June 1834, by Joseph Sabine, Esq. ; the third, announced to
the same society, on the 12th of May 1835, by T. C. Eyton,
Esq.

127

PERDICIN.E.

PARTRIDGES, GROUSE, AND ALLIED GENERA,

The beautiful family of the Perdicinae, represented in Britain
by the Red Partridge, the Grey Partridge, the Virginian Colin,
the Quail, the Black Grouse, and the Brown and Grey Ptar-
migans, is composed of birds varying in size from that of a
Sparrow or Corn Bunting to that of a Turkey, but presenting a
general similarity by which they are readily distinguished by the
most untheoretical observers as belonging to one and the same
group. The Partridges being even by the supporters of our
newest and most fashionable system considered as forming
the " t}^ical " family or genus, it is obviously inconsistent to
deny them the honour of giving name to this group, which,
for reasons similar to those that have given rise to the idea of
their systematic preeminence, I have elevated to the dignity
due to them. Some of the Grouse are more or less allied
to the Turkeys, Peacocks, and Pheasants; the Partridges
to the latter, the Grouse, and the genus Pterocles, which
in its turn indicates an affinity to the Pigeons ; but both
groups are so nearly allied, and so run into each other, that
Linnaeus considered then as forming a single genus. It is very
doubtful if the Tetrao paradoxus of the older authors, the Syr-
rhaptes of Temminck, belong to the Rasores. It seems to me
to be much more allied to the Gemitores ; but its place can be
determined only by reference to its digestive organs.

The birds composing this family are generally robust, having
the body full and rather heavy, the neck short or of moderate
length, the head rather small and oblong, the feet short and stout.
The bill, Figs. 41, 44, 46, 47, is short, strong, and slightly curv-
ed ; the upper mandible with its dorsal outline at first straight.

]28 PERDICINiE.

then arcuato-declinate, the edges sharp and overlapping, the tip
rounded but sharp-edged ; the gape-line more or less arched ;
the lower mandible narrower, with involute edges, and a
slightly convex dorsal outline. Both mandibles are internally
concave ; the palate flat ; the tongue short, triangular, flat above,
and acute. The pharynx is of moderate width, or rather nar-
row. The oesophagus, Plate VI, Fig. 1, is narrow, but opens
on the middle of the neck by a small aperture into a very large
globular membranous crop, c, d ; the proventriculus bulbiform,
and studded w4th ovato -oblong glandules of large size. The
stomach, Figs. 8, 4, is a powerful gizzard, roundish, com-
pressed, w^ith two strong lateral muscles d^ e^ having radiated,
tendons, a lower distinct muscle, g ; and a dense tough, longi-
tudinally rugous inner coat. Fig. 4, h. The intestine is of
moderate length, of nearly uniform diameter throughout, and
having tw^o extremely long, internally ridged, generally cylin-
drical coeca. Fig. 2, c, c?, ^, ^, /^, the capacity of which is often
equal to that of the intestines.

The eyes are of moderate size ; the eyelids feathered or bare,
their edges crenate. External ear of moderate size, roundish.
Nostrils oblong, in a rather broad, feathered membrane, co-
vered with a horny operculum, and generally concealed by the
feathers.

The legs are short or of moderate length ; the tarsus with a
double row of scutella before, and scutellate or scaly behind,
or covered with feathers. Some species have a spur or knob
behind, indicating their affinity to the Pavoninae and Gallinas,
while those that approach the Grouse have none. Toes rather
strong, with numerous scutella above, or feathered ; three be-
fore, one behind, first toe very small and elevated, second a
little shorter than the fourth, w^hich is much exceeded by the
third, the anterior slightly webbed at the base. Claws rather
strong, arched, blunt.

The plumage is generally full, soft and blended, but some-
times compact ; the feathers generally ovate, with a long tufty
plumule ; those at the base of the bill small and rounded. The
wings are short, broad, concave, and rounded or blunt; the
primary quills ten, strong, narrow^ed towards the end; the secon-

PARTRIDGES, GROUSE, Sec.

129

dary numerous, rounded. The tail varies in length, form, and
the number of feathers, which are always more than twelve.

The skeleton of these birds presents the following characters.
The cranium is proportionally small and narrow ; the septum
between the orbits generally complete ; the lower jaw w^ith a
large oblong aperture in the ramus. The cervical vertebrae are
generally fourteen ; the dorsal seven, and commonly anchylosed,
excepting the anterior two, as well as frequently the last two ;
the lumbar and sacral fourteen ; the coccygeal seven. The pel-
vis is very broad, but thin, the pubic bone linear and distinct.
There are generally seven slender flat ribs, with posterior linear
thin processes. The sternum, Fig. 43, a, b, c, d, e, /, y, is in

Fig. 43.

reality large and very broad ; but, having two very deep sinuses
on each side, leaving only two linear lateral processes, /, y,
having their interspaces filled w^ith membrane, it seems re-
duced to a very narrow plate, 6, e ; its crest, a, e, long and
anteriorly high, but with a very large and oblique anterior
sinus, «, b, and a thin crest-like process, b, between the cora-
coid bones. The latter, h, are rather stout, but spread little.
The furcula, i, in the form of the letter U, is very slender, with
a flattened triangular process beneath the union of its crura,
attached to the anterior edge of the crest of the sternum by a

130 PERDICIN^.

ligament. The scapula is linear, and gently deflected towards
the end. The humerus is short and of moderate strength ;
the cubitus of the same length ; as is the hand, composed
of two carpal bones, a thin slender pollex, two distinct me-
tacarpal bones, two digital united by a thin plate, and a
slender tapering extreme phalangeal bone. The femur is of
moderate length and thickness ; the tibia rather long, and
slender ; the fibula extending for two-thirds of the length of
the leg downw^ards, very slender and tapering ; the tarsus short,
depressed, with a thin incomplete ridge behind. The hind toe
is composed of a distinct metatarsal bone and two phalanges ;
the second of three ; the third of four ; the fourth of five ; the
extreme phalanges short, slightly arched, and somew^hat com-
pressed.

The digestive organs are of the same nature as those of the
Phasianinse. The Grouse have the coeca much larger, indi-
cating that they live upon substances requiring more elabora-
tion, while in the Partridges they are comparatively short,
these birds being more granivorous. The foeces pass in a more
or less solid form, resembling in their appearance those of
some Ruminating Quadrupeds.

The Partridges are generally distributed, but more abundant
in the temperate and warmer regions ; while the Grouse are
more numerous in the temperate and frigid countries of the
northern hemisjihere. These birds reside chiefly on the ground,
but some of them seek their food at times on trees, and several
occasionally perch. Of the species which occur in Britain, the
Black Grouse prefers low, dam^), grassy or ferny places in
the neighbourhood of woods or thickets ; the Brown Ptarmi-
gan resides on the open heaths ; the Grey Ptarmigan is found
on the summits of the higher mountains ; the Partridges and
Quail choose the cultivated parts, finding food and shelter in
the enclosed fields and neighbouring grounds.

All these birds run with great speed, although they generally
prefer skulking to avoid danger, and have a strong steady uni-
form flight, performed by regular beats of the wings, which
produce a whirring sound. Their cries are various, but alw^ays
harsh and strong. They nestle on the ground, and rear a

PARTRIDGES, GROUSE, &c. 181

numerous progeny, seldom breeding more than once in the
season. They are objects of keen research to the sportsman
and his dogs, who commit great havock among them ; but
being protected by legal enactments, and the care of landed
proprietors who foster them on account of the pleasure or profit
yielded by them, they are in no danger of being extirpated.
Their flesh is much esteemed, but in delicacy is inferior to that
of many smaller birds, as the Snipe, Land Rail, and all the
Huskers, as well as Thrushes, Larks, and other birds, which
escape persecution only on account of their insignificant size, or
because they are not known to be so savoury as they are.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES,

GENUS I. TETRAO. GROUSE.

A bare papillate space over the eye. Bill short, strong, slightly
curved; upper mandible having its dorsal outline nearly straight
at the base, then arcuato-declinate, the edges arched, the tip
rounded; lower mandible with its dorsal outline slightly convex.
Tarsi short, anteriorly and laterally feathered; toes bare, covered
above with numerous transversely elongated scutella, laterally
pectinated with linear projecting scales, the hind toe small and
elevated ; claws rather short, strong, arched, somewhat com-
pressed.

1. Tetrao Urogallus. Wood Grouse. !Male with the tail
rounded, the upper parts minutely undulated with grey and
black, the throat and lower parts greenish-black. Female
variegated with yellowish-red, white, and brownish-black.
Extinct.

2. Tetrao Tetrix. Black Grouse. Male with the tail much
forked, the four lateral feathers on each side elongated and
curved outwards ; the general colour of the plumage black.
Female with the tail slightly forked, its lateral feathers
straight ; the general colour yellowish-red, spotted and undu-
lated with brownish-black.

K 2

132 PERDICINiE.

GENUS II. LAGOPUS. PTARMIGAN.

A bare papillate space with a loose fringed edge over the eye.
Bill short, strong, slightly curved ; upper mandible having its
dorsal outline arcuato-declinate, the edges arched, the tip
rounded ; lower mandible with its dorsal outline straight.
Tarsi short, covered w4th feathers ; toes also feathered above,
without lateral prominent scales ; the hind toe very small and
elevated ; claws rather long, arched, depressed, with parallel
edo^es.

1. Lagopiis Scoticus. Broicn Ptarmigan. lilale with the
plumage chestnut-brown, inclining to red on the neck, on the
body variegated with black, on the breast blackish, mottled
with white. Female reddish-yellow, spotted and barred with
black. The tints of the summer plumage lighter.

2. Lagopus cinereus. Grey Ptarmigan. At all seasons, the
tail black, the wings and lower parts white, the shafts of the
primaries brown. In winter, the male and female white ; the
former with a black band from the bill to the eye. In spring
both sexes white, mottled with dark grey. In summer the
upper parts and sides spotted and barred wdth yellow and
brownish-black. In autumn the upper parts and sides finely
barred with greyish-white and greyish-black ; the head, neck,
and sides retaining the yellow summer feathers longest.

GENUS III. PERDIX. PARTRIDGE.

Bill short, strong ; upper mandible having its dorsal outline
arcuato-declinate, the edges arched, the tip blunt ; lower man-
dible with its dorsal outline slightly convex. A bare space
behind the eye. Tarsi short, strong, anteriorly covered with
two series of scutella, posteriorly with two series of scales, and
in the male bearing a blunt or flattened tubercle. Toes mar-
ginate, with numerous scutella above ; claws short, strong,
moderately compressed, arcuato-declinate. Wings with the first
quill longer than the seventh. Tail short, rounded.

1. Perdix rubra. Picd-legged Partridge. Bill and feet red ;

PARTRIDGES, GROUSE, &c. 133

upper parts uniform greyish-red ; forehead ash-grey ; throat
and cheeks white ; a black band from the bill down the neck.
2. Perdix cinerea. Grey Partridge. Bill and feet bluish-
grey ; upper parts barred with grey, brownish-red, and black ;
forehead and throat yellowish-red.

GENUS IV. ORTYX. COLIN.

Bill very short and strong ; upper mandible having its dorsal
outline much arched, the sides convex, the tip blunt ; lower
mandible with its dorsal outline convex. A bare space behind
the eye. Tarsi short, strong, anteriorly covered with two series
of scutella, posteriorly with two series of scales, but without
spur or tubercle. Toes marginate, with numerous scutella
above ; claws short, stout, compressed, arcuato-declinate.
Wings rounded. Tail of moderate length, much rounded.

1. Ortyx mrginiana. Virginian Colin. About ten inches
long ; brownish-red variegated with black ; throat and a band
over the eye white ; loral space and a band down the neck
black.

GENUS V. COTURNIX. QUAIL.

Bill very short, compressed ; upper mandible with its dorsal
outline sloping at the base, then arcuato-declinate, the edges
direct, arched, the tip very narrow ; lower mandible with its
dorsal outline straight. Head entirely feathered. Tarsi short,
compressed, stout, anteriorly covered with two series of scutella,
posteriorly with two series of scales forming a sharp edge, but
without spur or tubercle. Toes rather slender, slightly margin-
ate ; claws slender, short, slightly arched, compressed. Wings
with the first quill scarcely shorter than the second. Tail ex-
tremely short, the feathers weak and decurved.

1. Coturnix dactylisonans. Common Quail. Eight inches
long ; upper parts variegated with greyish-yellow, reddish and
black ; three whitish bands on the head, and numerous pointed
streaks of the same on the neck and back.

134

TETRAO. GROUSE.

Bill short and strong, slightly curs'ed ; upper mandible hav-
ing its dorsal outline nearly straight at the base, towards the
end arcuato-declinate, the ridge broad and convex, the sides
convex towards the end, the edges nearly straight, and ascend-
ing to beyond the nostrils, then declinate, sharp, and over-
lapping, the tip rounded and thin-edged ; lower mandible
with its angle broad and rounded, the dorsal outline slightly
convex, the back broad, the sides convex, the edges arched,
thin, erect, the tip rounded.

Mouth narrow ; upper mandible concave internally, with a
prominent central ridge ; lower mandible concave, with a
broad central gi'oove, and two prominent lines. Palate flat,
with two slightly papillate soft ridges, from which a papillate
flap proceeds to the middle of the nasal aperture, and another
curves behind it. Aperture of the posterior nares oblong be-
hind, anteriorly linear, its edges papillate ; the anterior space,
defined by the soft ridges, covered with pointed papillae in trans-
verse series, the posterior space sj^arsely covered with smaller
papillae. Tongue short, triangular, flat above, papillate at the
base, horny beneath at the end, acute. Two masses of mucous
crypts in the angle of the lower jaw ; also a series on the low^er
side of the tongue on each side, and a great quantity in the
space between the root of the tongue and the aperture of the
glottis. The latter is defended behind by two transverse flaps
of pointed papillae.

G^sophagus narrow at its two extremities, enlarged into a
crop of great size, lying over the forepart of the neck and
thorax. In its whole extent it is abundantly supplied with
mucous follicles, as is the crop for a short space around its

TETRAO. GROUSE. 135

aperture. The proventriculus is somewhat bulbiform, its glands
few, large, placed rather obliquely. Stomach a powerful giz-
zard, of a roundish, subrhomboidal form, with the two lateral
muscles transverse, the lower muscle thin, its tendinous fibres
passing under those of the rest ; the middle coat rather thin ;
the inner or cuticular strong, hard, longitudinally rugous. The
cardiac orifice is situated in a transverse depression, betw^een
the slight cardiac lobe and the ujDper edge of the lateral mus-
cle, and has no valvular apparatus. Intestine long, rather
wide, of nearly uniform diameter. Coeca extremely long,
wider than the intestine, cylindrical in the greater part of
their length. Rectum long, cylindrical. The intestine within
is beautifully marked with regular series of small depressions ;
towards the coeca are numerous roundish soft papillae disposed
in series ; there is a slight circular valve or margin at the com-
mencement of the rectum, w^hich is covered w^th mucous
crj^ts at its upper j^art, w4th rounded papillae at its lower,
and marked wdth faint longitudinal rugae. The cloaca is small,
and separated from the rectum by a circular valve.

Nostrils basal, lateral, oblong or elliptical, with a thick
arched operculum, and concealed by the short feathers. Eyes
of moderate size ; eyelids feathered ; over the upper is a semi-
lunar space of bare skin, covered wdth papillae, and having a
thin fringed margin. External ear of moderate size, roundish,
its thick margin surrounded w^ith a circle of feathers.

Head small, oblong, rather compressed. Neck rather short.
Body full and large. Legs rather short, strong ; tarsi covered
with feathers anteriorly and on the sides, behind with round-
ish scales, concealed by the feathers. The toes are rather small
and slender ; the first very small and elevated ; the second and
fourth of moderate length, and about equal ; the third much
longer ; the anterior connected at the base by a short scaly
membrane ; they are covered above with numerous trans-
versely elongated scutella, on each side of which is a single
row of squarish scales, then a marginal series of linear, flat-
tened, obtuse scales, projecting like the teeth of a comb. Claws
rather short, strong, considerably arched, obtuse, somewhat
compressed, flattened beneath.

136 TETRAO. GROUSE.

Plumage full, close, compact or blended. The feathers at
the base of the bill small, on the head oblong ; on the body
generally oblong; more than half of their length is downy,
and the plumule is nearly as long ; the tube short, enlarged
at the base. The feathers on the hypochondrial species and
abdomen downy. The wings are short, broad, curved, and
much rounded ; the primary quills ten, strong, narrowed from
near the base, the fourth longest, the third and fifth nearly as
long, the first longer than the eighth ; the secondary quills from
fifteen to eighteen, decurved, rounded. Tail of sixteen or
eighteen feathers, varying in length and form.

The Grouse, of which only a single species exists in Britain,
but of which there are several on the continent of Europe, and
many more in Asia and America, are generally strong, heavy
birds, varying in size from that of a Turkey to that of a com-
mon Pigeon. They live upon vegetable substances, twigs, and
leaves of trees and shrubs, grasses, berries, and seeds. Al-
though they generally gather their food on the ground, some
of them also betake themselves to trees for that purpose, and
many of them perch on occasion. The food is collected in the
crop, where it remains unaltered, or merely becomes moistened.
It gradually passes into the gizzard, where, besides being mixed
with the proventricular fluid, it is triturated by the action of
the muscles, and the rugse of the cuticular lining, aided by
numerous particles of quartz. Thus comminuted, it passes
into the intestine in a pulpy state, but with the vegetable fibres
still distinct, and is there further diluted. As it passes down-
ward, the mass gradually becomes more dry, and at length
enters the rectum in a concrete form ; but in passing the coeca,
all the finer parts remaining are carried into them, and there
subjected to further elaboration and absorption. The foeces
form a heap of cylindrical fragments.

The species have a strong, often rapid, and protracted flight,
which is performed by quick beats of the wings, with occasional
intermissions. They walk and run with agility, and fre-
quently prefer eluding their enemies by skulking among the
shrubs and herbage to flying off to a covert. They nestle on
the ground, producing numerous eggs, generally spotted, cloud-

TETRAO. GROUSE. 137

ed or freckled with dark brown. The young run about as soon
as they are born, and follow their mother until winter. The
males generally separate from the females after the breeding
season.

Only one species of this genus, the Black Grouse, is now
found in Britain, the Capercailzie, or Wood Grouse, having
become extinct.

The diiferences between the Grouse, properly so called, and
the Ptarmigans, are so inconsiderable, as may be seen by
comparing the detailed characters which I have given, and
the smaller Grouse are so similar to the Ptarmigans, that I
have hesitated much to admit them as distinct genera. Their
essential characters have been already given, and it has been
seen that it is chiefly in the clothing and w^ant of pectina-
tion of the toes that the Ptarmigans differ. Compared with
our Grouse, the Black Cock, their tail might be considered
distinctive, but many foreign species have that organ pretty
similar.

138

TETRAO UROGALLUS. THE WOOD GROUSE.

WOOD GROUSE. COCK OF THE WOODS. CAPERCAILZIE. CAPULL-COILLE,
COILEACH-COILLE.

Tetrao Urogallus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 273.

Tetrao Urogallus. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 634.

Wood Grouse. Mont, Orn. Diet.

Tetras Auerhan. Tetrao Urogallus, Teram. Man. d'Orn. II. 457.

Tetrao Urogallus. Wood Grous. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 168.

Male with the tail rounded ; the upper parts minutely undu-
lated with grey and black ; the throaty lower part of fore-neck,
and fore part of breast^ blacJc^ the tips of the feathers glossy dark
green ; the lower icing-coterts and feathers under the tail^ white.
Female variegated with yellowish-red^ ichite^ and brownish-black.

Male. — This magnificent bird, the chieftain of the Grouse
tribe, aUhough once plentiful in Scotland, where it was known
by the name of Capercailzie, has long ceased to be a denizen of
our forests. It might therefore be judged unnecessary to
describe it in a work like the present ; and I should certainly
be of that opinion had I not some particulars to relate respect-
ing the structure of its digestive organs, which are interesting
as presenting the peculiar characters of the genus in the high-
est degree of development.

The Wood Grouse is a bird of great size, being not much
inferior to the Turkey, and proportionally more robust. The
body is full ; the neck of moderate length and strong ; the
wings rather short ; the feet of moderate strength ; the tail
rather long.

The bill is very strong, short, as broad as deep at the base ;
the upper mandible with its dorsal outline nearly straight to

WOOD GROUSE. 139

beyond the nostrils, towards the end declinato-convex, the
ridge convex, as are the sides, the edges a little inclined and
sharp, the tip rounded and sharp- edged ; the lower mandible
has the angle rounded, the dorsal line slightly concave, the
back very broad, the sides very convex, the edges inflected,
arched, strong, and very thick.

The mandibles are deeply concave internally, the upper with
a prominent central line, the lower with a central groove and
two prominent lines. The aperture of the posterior nares is
narrow, with papillate edges ; the palate in its vicinity covered
with transverse series of papillse. The tongue is triangular,
acute, flat above, horny beneath, an inch and three and a half
twelfths long. The oesophagus is fourteen inches and a half
long ; its general diameter one inch ; but the pharynx dila-
table to two inches. The crop, which has an orifice of two
inches in length, commencing at the distance of seven inches
and a half from the tongue, is capable of being inflated to a
diameter of seven inches. The proventriculus is two inches
long, an inch and a quarter in diameter, its glands oblong and
lobulated. The gizzard is obliquely elliptical, its transverse
muscles extremely large, that of the left side thicker ; the
longest diameter three inches and a quarter ; the lower muscle
prominent, of moderate thickness ; the cuticular lining thick
and longitudinally rugous. The pylorus is without a valvu-
lar apparatus, and lies in a groove between the upper edge
of the right lateral muscle and the proventricular lobe. The
intestine is eighty-nine and a half inches long ; the duodenum
being thirteen and a half; from the entrance of the gall duct
to the coeca sixty-six ; the rectum ten. The duodenum has a
diameter of about four-twelfths, the rest of the intestine gene-
rally seven-twelfths ; the rectum one half. The coeca, which
are thirty-nine and a half inches long, are for the first seven
inches narrow, their diameter being from three to four twelfths ;
then enlarged, their greatest diameter ten-twelfths ; they are
marked internally with eight longitudinal ridges. The rectum
is nearly uniform in diameter, and not much wider than the
rest of the intestine.

The nostrils are oblong, and small, being four-twelfths long.

140 TETRAO UROGALLUS.

The aperture of the ear has a diameter of six-twelfths within
the margin. The eves are of moderate size ; the bare papil-
late supraocular space small and of a semilunar form.

The feet are short, and of moderate strength ; the toes of mo-
derate size ; the first very small and elevated, with ten scales ;
the second a little shorter than the fourth, with eighteen scales ;
the third much longer, with thirty scales ; the fourth with
twenty-one. On each side of the series of scutella, is a row of
square scales, below which is a lateral pectiniform series of
linear scales directed obliquely forwards. The webs connect-
ing the fore toes are comparatively large. The claws are
rather short, strong, arched, Vvdth declinato-convex sides.

The plumage is ordinary, the feathers generally oblong and
rounded. Those of the throat are elongated, compact, and
glossy. The wings are of moderate length, broad, much
rounded, convex ; with twenty-eight quills ; the fourth pri-
mary longest, the third almost equal, the first intermediate
between the seventh and eighth. The tail is rather long,
rounded, of eighteen feathers. The tarsi are covered with
rather downy feathers.

The bill is yellowish-grey ; the iris brow^l ; the supraocular
space scarlet ; the toes and claws dark g^eyish-bro^^^l. The
head, upper part of the neck, and the back, are undulated with
grey and black transverse lines ; the elongated fea^thers of the
throat black, glossed with green. The lower part of the neck
anteriorly and laterally, and the fore part of the breast, are
black, the broad tips of a glossy dark green. The breast is
brownish-black, some of the middle feathers tipped with white ;
the sides are undulated with grey and black ; the axillaries
white ; the lower wing-coverts, excepting some of the outer,
white ; the vent feathers mostly white ; the lower tail-coverts
black, tipped with white. The upper wing-coverts are brownish-
red with black undulations. The alula, primary coverts and
quills, are greyish-bro\ATi. Half of the outer webs of the se-
cond, third, fourth, and fifth quills are w^hite, towards the end
undulated ; the outer webs of the secondaries are undulated
with reddish-brown ; the edge of the alula is white, as is that
of the wing under it. A white spot from the axillar feathers

WOOD GROUSE. 141

appears externally. The tail is black and glossy ; but there
are some white irregular marks on the feathers about a third
from the end. The feathers of the legs are greyish-brown
tipped with white ; those of the tarsi greyish-brown, minutely
undulated with reddish-brown.

Length to end of tail 34 inches ; extent of wings 52 ; wing
from flexure 16; tail lOf ; bill along the back 2, along the
edge of lower mandible 2 ; tarsus 3 ; first toe f , its claw 7i
twelfths; second toe If, its claw -^-^ -^ third toe 2^, its claw
10| twelfths; fourth toe 2, its claw ^^.

Of another individual, the length 34 inches ; extent of wings
48; w4ng from flexure loj ; tail lOi ; bill along the back
2i, along the edge of lower mandible 2i ; tarsus 3 ; first toe f ,
its claw ^2 '-> second toe 1^^, its clawy^ ; third toe 2j\, its
claw I ; fourth toe 2, its claw 8^ twelfths.

Female. — The female is much smaller, and has the plumage
variegated with yellowish-red, brownish-black, and white.

Remarks. — The native Wood Grouse has not been seen in
Scotland for at least half a century. Some attempts have since
been made to naturalize it by introducing individuals from Nor-
way ; but, in so far as I can learn, without success. Were it
to be propagated from the foreign race, it could no longer, how-
ever, be considered as an indigenous species. An account of
one of these attempts is given by Mr. James Wilson in the
Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for July 1832. Ac-
cording to various authors, it is plentiful in many of the wooded
mountainous districts of the Continent, and especially in Nor-
way, whence were imported the individuals from which I ob-
tained the description given above. A very full and interesting
account of its habits is given in Lloyd's Northern Field Spoils,
from which the following particulars are extracted.

" In the forest, the Capercailzie does not ahvays present an
easy mark ; for, dipping down from the pines nearly to the
ground, as is frequently the case, they are often almost out of
distance before one can properly take aim. Tow^ards the com-
mencement of, and during the continuance of the winter, they

142 TETRAO UROGALLUS.

are generally in packs. These are usually composed wholly of
cocks (the hens keeping apart), and do not separate until the
approach of spring. These packs are sometimes said to contain
fifty or a hundred birds, usually hold to the sides of the numer-
ous lakes and morasses with which the northern forests abound ;
and to stalk the same in the winter-time with a good rifle is no
ignoble amusement. Among other expedients resorted to in
the northern forests for the destruction of the Capercailzie is
the following : — During the autumnal months, after flushing
and dispersing the brood, people place themselves in ambush,
and imitate the cry of the old or young birds, as circumstances
may require. By thus attracting them to the spot, they are
often enabled to shoot the whole brood in succession. In other
instances, the Capercailzie is shot in the night-time, by torch-
light. This plan, which is said to be very destructive, is, I
believe, confined to the southern provinces of Sw^eden, for in
the more northern parts of that country I never heard of its
being adopted. In Smaland and Ostergothland, this is said to
be eftected in the following manner : — Towards night-fall,
people watch the last flight of the Capercailzie before they go
to roost. The direction they have taken into the forest is then
carefully marked by means of a prostrate tree, or by one which
is felled especially for the purpose. After dark, two men start
in pursuit of the birds : one of them is provided with a gun,
the other with a long pole, to either end of which a flambeau
is attached. The man with the flambeau now goes in advance,
the other remaining at the prostrate tree, to keep it and the
two lights in an exact line with each other. By this curious
contrivance they cannot well go astray in the forest. Thus
they proceed, occasionally halting, and taking a fresh mark,
until they come near to the spot where they may have reason
to suppose the birds are roosting. They now carefully examine
the trees ; and w^hen they discover the objects of their pursuit,
which are said stupidly to remain gazing at the fire blazing
beneath, they shoot them at their leisure. Should there be
several Capercailzies in the same tree, however, it is always
necessary to shoot those in the lower branches in the first in-
stance ; for, unless one of these birds falls on its companions,

WOOD GROUSE. 143

it is said the rest will never move, and, in consequence, the
whole of them may be readily killed.^'

In the Hktoria Scotorum " nobilis et prsedocti viri Hectoria
Boethii Deidonani," we find the following passage relative to
this species : — " Avium raptu viventium, Aquilas sunt, Fal-
cones, Accipitres, et id genus alise. Cseterum Aquatilium,
tam varius ingensque est numerus, ut pro miraculo notari hand
ridiculum est. Sed medii inter eas quaedam generis prseter
caetera reperiuntur aliis regionibus incognita. Unum magni-
tudine corvum paulo superans Auercalze, i. silvestris equi apel-
lati, solius pinus arboris extremis flagellis victitantes. Al-
teram illo minus galli gallingeque sylvestres vocati, frumento
abstinentes, cibum habentes enascentia minutaque cytisi folia.
Utrumque humanse guise admodum suave. Tertium genus
Fasiano carne ac magnitudine simillimum at nigra pluma
rubentibus admodum palpebris, sylvestrem gallum nostrates
dicunt, estque frumento victitans.'" — Scot. Regn. Descript.
Fo. xii. 47. That is to say : — " Of birds of prey there are
Eagles, Falcons, Hawks, and others of the same kind. As to
water fowls, their number and variety are so great as to be
really wonderful. And of an intermediate kind between these
some among others are found which are unknown in other
countries. One kind, a little larger than a Crow, w^hich is
called Auercalze, that is, wood-horses, and feeds entirely on the
extreme twngs of the fir tree. Another, of smaller size, called
Wood cocks and hens, does not feed on corn, but uses as food
the young and small leaves of the broom. Both are very plea-
sant to the palate. A third kind, much resembling a Pheasant
in flesh and size, but with black plumage, and bright red eye-
lids, our country people name the Woodcock, and it feeds on
corn." This is a very lame account of the matter ; but we
may at least conjecture that the birds here meant are Tetrao
Urogallus^ Lagopus Scotlcus^ and Tetrao Tetrix. If the " very
learned man " had possessed a tithe of the knowledge of one
of our modern rustics, he might have known that the Black-
cock no more feeds on corn than the Moorfowl on broom tops.
The only good authority on the subject of the former occur-
rence in Scotland of the Capercailzie, is Pennant, in whose

144 TETRAO UROGALLUS.

*' Tour in Scotland," (1769) is the following notice : — " Near
Castle Urquhart is the broadest part of the loch (Loch Ness),
occasioned by a bay near the castle. Above it is Glen Mori-
ston, and east of that Straith Glas, the Chisolm's country, in
both of which are forests of pines, where that rare bird, the
Cock of the Wood, is still to be met with ; perhaps in those
near Castle Grant. Formerly w^as common throughout the
Highlands, and was called Capercalze and Auercalze ; and in
the old law books Capercally."" In his British Zoology he says :
" This species is found in no other part of Great Britain than
the Highlands of Scotland, north of Inverness, and is very rare
even in those parts. In our country I have seen one specimen,
a male, killed in the woods of Mr. Chisolme, to the north of
Inverness.""

The Wood Grouse is obviously a bird not fitted for the pre-
sent po]3ulous condition of Britain ; and, doubtless, its great
size, beauty, and especially the quantity of wholesome food
supplied by it, were the causes w^hich gave rise to its destruc-
tion ; just as the same circumstances have already produced
the disappearance of the Turkey in many parts of America,
where, before the axe of the white man resounded in the
forests, it was abundant. In the times of the Celt and the
Red Indian, these birds w^ere permitted to stock the woods ;
but when the swarms of the civilized races invaded their re-
spective countries, they ceased to prosper, and at length disap-
peared. It is indeed melancholy to think of the fate of birds
and men ; and, although the Capercailzie is no longer a deni-
zen of the wild woods of Albyn, I hope I may be excused for
paying this tribute to his memory, as some future historian
may do to that of the ancient Gael, w^hen their destiny has
been fulfilled.

But Vv^e have still remaining a very fine species of Grouse,
inferior though it be to the great Cock of the Woods ; and hav-
ing done our duty to the dead, we may now turn to the living.

145

TETRAO TETRIX. THE BLACK GROUSE.

BLACK GAME. BLACK GROUSE, BLACK COCK, COILACH DUBH,— THE MALE.
GREY or BROWN HEN, CEARC LL\TH,— THE FEMALE.

Tetrao Tetrix. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 272.

Tetrao Tetrix. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 635.

Black Grouse. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Tetras Birkhan. Tetrao Tetrix. Temm. Man. d'Orn. IL 460.

Black Grouse. Tetrao TetrLx. Selb. Illustr. I. 423.

Tetrao Tetrix. Black Grouse. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 169.

Male with the tail much forked^ the four lateral feathers on
each side elongated and curted outwards ; the general colour of
the plumage hlacJc, the neck and hack glossed with deep blue ; the
lower wing-coterts^ lower tail-coverts^ and bases of the secondary
quills^ white. Female icith the tail slightly forked, its lateral
feathers straight ; the general colour yellowish-red, spotted and
undulated with brownish-black.

Male. — The Black Grouse is one of the most beautiful, and
in several respects one of the most remarkable, of our native
birds. Its form is robust and rather heavv, and, althouofh a

146 TETRAO TETRIX.

strong bird, it does not in ordinary circumstances exhibit much
vivacity. The body is very full, the neck of moderate length,
the head of ordinary size, oblong, and rather compressed. The
feet are rather short and strong ; the tarsus is short, feathered
anteriorly and on the sides, covered behind with roundish scales
concealed by the feathers. The toes are rather small and slender

for so large a bird ;
the first very small,
the second and fourth
of moderate length
and about equal, the
third much longer ;
the anterior connect-

FxG. 42. . 1 , ,

ed at the base by
short scaly membranes ; the soles padded, soft, covered with
large, soft, rounded tubercles. On the first toe are ten, on
the second eighteen, on the third thirty, on the fourth twenty-
two transversely elongated, imbricated scutella ; on each side
of which is a single row of squarish scales, then a marginal
series of linear, flattened, obtuse scales, projecting like the
teeth of a comb. These linear scales are wanting on the
hind toe. The claws are rather short, strong, considerably
arched, obtuse, somewhat compressed, flattened beneath.

The wings are short, broad, curved and much rounded. The
quills twenty-five ; the primary strong, decurved, narrowed
from near the base ; the fourth longest, the third and fifth al-
most as long, the second longer than the seventh, the first
longer than the eighth ; the secondary incurved, truncato-
rotundate and acuminate. The tail is composed of eighteen
feathers ; those in the middle short and truncate, the four late-
ral on each side gradually elongated, curved outwards, truncato-
i*otundate, with a slight notch.

The plumage in general is remarkably full, the feathers be-
ing abundantly do^Amy at the base, and furnished with rather
long plumules. About the base of the bill they are very short,
rounded, and compact ; on the head small, narrow, and round-
ed ; on the neck large, broad, abruptly rounded ; on the fore

BLACK GROUSE. 147

part of the back also large and rounded ; on the rest of the back
smaller, oblong, but with a broad extremity ; on the breast
nearly of the same form ; on the sides elongated ; on the ab-
domen rather downy ; under the tail large and full, some of
the coverts extending about an inch beyond the middle of the
tail-feathers; the upper tail-coverts only about half an inch
shorter ; on the legs short, with disunited filaments ; on the
tarsi short and soft anteriorly, longer and hair-like on their
sides. The lustre is ordinary, but the feathers of the head,
neck, and hind part of the back, are highly glossed, and have
a silky smoothness.

Over the eye is a bare space, an inch and a twelfth long, half
an inch in height, covered with long tapering, flattened papillae,
and without an upper free margin. The eyes are of moderate
size, the eyelids thinly covered with very small feathers, and
having a narrow crenate margin. The aperture of the ear is
circular, four-twelfths of an inch in diameter, with a thickened
slightly elevated margin. The nostrils are oblong, with a thick
arched opercular margin, and concealed by the feathers which
cover the nasal membrane.

The bill is very strong, but proportionally not larger than in
the Brown and Red or Willow Ptarmigans, and many other
species belonging to all the sections of the genus. The upper
mandible is deeply siriuate in its basal outline ; its dorsal out-
line is nearly straight at the base, towards the end arcuato-de-
clinate, the ridge broad and convex, the sides convex towards
the end, the edges nearly straight and ascending to beyond the
nostrils, then declinate, sharp and overlapping, the tip rounded
and thin-edged. The lower mandible has the angle broad and
rounded, the dorsal outline slightly convex, the back broad,
the sides convex, the edges arched, thin, erect, the tip rounded.

The upper mandible is concave within, with a central and
two lateral prominent lines ; the lower deeply concave, with a
broad central and two lateral grooves. The mouth is rather
narrow ; the palate flat, anteriorly covered with pointed pa-
pillae arranged in transverse series, posteriorly with smaller
scattered papillae ; the space corresponding to the tongue bound-
ed by two lateral longitudinal lines, having a transverse papil-
la 2

148 TETRAO TETRIX.

late line behind the tongue, and terminating behind the aper-
ture in a curved papillate flap. The posterior portion of the
internal nares oblong, narro%y ; the anterior linear ; the edges
of both papillate. The tongue is short, eight-twelfths of an
inch in length, broad, triangular, flat above, acute, emarginate
and papillate behind. The aperture of the glottis with two
papillate transverse flaps behind.

The fauces are of moderate width. The oesophagus, which
is twelve inches long, has for two inches a diameter of an inch
and a quarter, then contracts to nine-twelfths. About the
middle it is anteriorly and laterally expanded into a very large
subglobose sac or crop, of which the posterior walls are re-
flected upwards over the trachea and oesophagus, and doAvn-
wards over the anterior part of the thorax, so that the portion
of the oesophagus which forms part of the sac is only about a
fifth of its whole leno^th. On entering the thorax, the ceso-
phagus contracts to a diameter of eight-twelfths, and then
enlarges to form the proventriculus, which is of an ovato-oblong
form. Its internal diameter, however, is not greater than that
of the rest of the oesophagus, its bulk being produced by the
interposition between its walls of numerous oblong, sacculated
or branched glandules, placed obliquely, and opening on small
rounded papillce on the inner surface, with numerous small
mucous crA^pts in the intervals. Some of these glandules are
half an inch long. The whole inner surface of the oesophagus
is abundantly supplied with mucous crypts, and the upper and
lower orifices of the crop, especially the latter, have the walls
thickened and furnished with scattered glandules.

The stomach is a very powerful gizzard of a roundish, sub-
lobate or subrhomboidal form, considerably compressed. Its
structure may be described as follows : On the middle of each
of its two flattened surfaces is a roundish thin tendinous centre,
from which on each side diverge tendinous filaments terminat-
ing in muscular fibres, which thus pass from the one to the
other tendon, forming two very thick muscles, the inner fibres
of which are complexly reticulated, although disposed in laminas
attached to the subjacent coat. Of these, the lateral muscles,
the left is somewhat larger, and has a thickness of nine-twelfths,

BLACK GROUSE. 149

that of the right half an inch. The upper part is surrounded
by transverse muscular fibres, and forms a small sac on the
right side, between which and the upper edge of the lateral
muscle is the pylorus. The lower part, or fundus, has also a
muscular coat, comparatively thin, and composed of fasciculi
converging towards the central tendons. Applied internally
upon the muscular coat of the stomach is a thin tough dense
layer of compact cellular tissue, elastic, and nearly of cartila-
ginous toughness, marked with ridges and depressions, and
on both surfaces minutely -s-illous. It adheres firmly to the
muscular coat, and is more easily separated from the inner or
cuticular. The latter is about one twenty-fifth of an inch in
thickness, tough, elastic, formed of transverse glistening fibres,
and undulated with rugas, which are impressed on the middle
coat. These rugae are longitudinal on the sides, continue over
the fundus, where they are transverse to the muscular fibres,
and are transverse on the pyloric lobe. The upper part of this
cuticular coat, or that next the proventriculus, is much softer
and of a lighter colour ; over the two lateral muscles it is thick-
ened, forming two elliptical plates ; and over the lower muscle
it is thin. The interior of the gizzard, as defined by the cuti-
cular coat, is an oblong, or subcylindrical cavity, with longitu-
dinal rugae, and having on the right or upper side a sac, in a
transverse fissure of which is the pylorus. The stomach is two
and a half inches long, two inches and a quarter in breadth,
one and three quarters in thickness.

The intestine, measured from the pylorus to the extremity, is
seventy-one inches long ; its diameter varies from six-twelfths
to five-twelfths at the uj^per part, and diminishes to four-
twelfths near the cceca. It first, as usual, forms a fold along
the edge of the stomach, five inches long, including the pan-
creas, then curves under the right lobe of the liver, passes
do\vnwards on the same side, bends upwards and is convoluted
on the mesentery behind and to the right of the stomach, over
which it gives oif the two coeca ; which, although thirty inches
long, are contorted only along ten inches of the intestine, with
which they are connected by narrow mesocoeca. The rectum
is six inches and a quarter long, at its commencement four-

150 TETRAO TETRIX.

twelfths in diameter, but towards the end enlarged to eight-
twelfths. The cloaca, marked by an obscure valve or rim, on
which are seen the orifices of the ureters, and behind which is
the entrance of the bursa of Fabricius, is only half an inch long.
The coeca are nearly half the length of the intestine, being
thirty inches long. They come off vrith a large oblique aper-
ture, for six inches are nearly of the same diameter as the in-
testine, varying from three to four twelfths, then enlarge to
about twice its size, from eight to ten twelfths, and so continue
to the extremity, which is oblong, narrowed, with a nipple-like
termination.

Under the tongue, in the angle of the lower mandible, is a
large mass of mucous cr}^3ts, of which there is also a series on
each side on the edoje of the tono^ue. The fauces and the whole
extent of the oesophagus are abundantly supplied w^th mucus
from cr}^3ts scattered over their whole surface, and which are
larger at the aperture of the crop. The latter organ, which is
extremely thin, has no mucous cryj^ts excepting around its
orifice. The proventriculus emits from its glandules a very
copious clammy fluid of a greyish colour, as well as a mucous
secretion from small crypts. These fluids pass into and line the
cavity of the gizzard. The inner surface of the small intestine
is even and villous in its whole length, excepting towards the
entrance of the coeca, where it is covered for about tw^o inches
with flattened tapering projections, which are larger below, and
disposed so as to form a kind of ring or imperfect valve between
the small intestine and the rectum. The latter is smooth and
even within, glandular, and plentifully supplied with mucus.
The coeca are internally villous, and, excepting for six inches
at the commencement, have their inner coat raised into seven
or eight longitudinal prominent ridges, which are thick, vil-
lous, and, being white, are seen externally through the muscular
and peritoneal coats.

The liver is of two unequal lobes, the right two inches and
three quarters, the left two inches, long. There is no gall-
bladder; and the biliary ducts enter at the distance of ten
inches from the pylorus.

The bill is brownish-black, as are the claws ; the toes wood-

BLACK GROUSE. 15l

brown ; the soles chocolate. The iris is brown ; the eyelids
flesh-coloured. The superciliary mepibrane, or pad of linear
flattened papillse, is of an arterial blood-red, or deep carmine.
The general colour of the plumage may be described as black.
The head, neck, middle and hind part of the back, are highly
glossed with deep blue ; the scapulars and w^ngs tinged
with brown ; the primary quills deep bro\^Ti, with bro^vnish-
white shafts ; the secondary slightly tipped with whitish. The
bases of the secondary quills, of the inner primaries, of the pri~
mary and secondary coverts, and of the alular quills, are white, a
conspicuous band of which is seen on the secondaries. The
lower wing-coverts, excepting those on the edge of the wing,
are also white ; and when the wing is closed, a few of them
are seen at its bend. The breast and sides are brownish-black ;
the abdominal feathers tipped with white ; the legs and tarsi
have whitish specks. The lower tail-coverts and adjacent
feathers are white ; the upper brownish-black ; the tail-feathers
deep black.

Length to end of middle tail-feathers 19f inches, to extremity
of tail 23 i ; extent of wings 83 ; bill along the back 1, along
the edge of lower mandible 1 ; wing from flexure 10 ; middle
tail-feathers 4^ ; outer feather extended 8i ; tarsus 2^ ; first
toe i, its claw /^ '■> second toe li, its claw /^ ; third toe 2, its
claw i\ ; fourth toe 1^, its claw 41 twelfths.

Of another individual the dimensions w^ere as follows. Length
to end of tail 23 inches, to end of middle tail-feathers 20 ; ex-
tent of wings 30 ; bill along the back lj%, along the edge of
lower mandible 1 ^^g ; eye j% ; ear j% ; tarsus 2^ ; first toe i,
its claw y\ ; second toe l^^, its claw -^% ; third toe l^f, its
claw j% ; fourth toe l^^, its claw j% ; w^ng from flexure lOi ;
middle tail-feathers 4i, outer along the curve 8i. Tongue ^g
long; oesophagus 12 ; intestine from pylorus to coeca 52 ; rec-
tum 6 ; coeca 30, convoluted along 10 inches of the intestine.

Female. — The female of the Black Grouse, which among
sportsmen and others bears the name of Grey Hen, has a con-
siderable resemblance to the Red Grouse both in colour and
proportions. The body is full ; the neck of moderate length ;

J 52 TETRAO TETRIX.

the head rather small and oblong; the wings rather short,
broad, and curved ; the tail short ; the feet of moderate length,
and rather stout. The general form, in short, is in most respects
similar to that of the male, as is that of the bill and toes.

The oesophagus is nine inches long. The crop, which com-
mences at the distance of three inches and three-fourths from
the tongue, is four inches long, its orifice one. The average
diameter of the oesophagus, when dilated, is half an inch. The
gizzard is two inches long, one inch and three-fourths in
breadth, an inch and a half in thickness. The entire length
of the intestine is sixty-six inches, the rectum being seven.
The duodenum has a diameter of four and a half twelfths, and
the rest of the small intestine continues of about the same
thickness ; that of the rectum is five-twelfths. The coeca,
which are twenty-nine inches long, are four-twelfths in diameter
at their commencement, contract to two and a half twelfths,
then at the distance of five inches enlarge to seven-twelfths,
and so continue until near the end, when they contract a little.
They are marked with seven or eight longitudinal white bands.

The plumage is full, close, and rather blended ; the feathers
generally oblong, rounded, with ordinary gloss. The wings
are of the same form as in the male, the fourth quill being
longest, the third almost equal, the first longer than the eighth.
The tail differs considerably in form, being broadly emarginate
or retuse, the four outer feathers a little longer, but in no degree
curved. It is very short, and composed of eighteen feathers,
as in the male.

The bill, feet, and eyes are coloured as in the male. The
superciliary membrane, which is villous and much smaller, is
scarlet tinged with carmine. The general colour of the head
and neck is yellowish-red, barred with brownish-black, each
feather on the head with three, on the neck with four bars of
the latter. On the fore part of the back and the scapulars the
bars are broader and curved, the last bar forming a pointed
patch. The hind part of the back is of a deeper red, barred
with brownish-black ; the upper tail-coverts similar. The
breast and sides are of the same colours, but with the dark
bars curved, the ends greyish-white, the sides with more red.

BLACK GROUSE. 153

The legs and tarsi are greyish-white, obscurely mottled with
reddish and blackish ; the lower wing-feathers and axillars
white, those toward the edge barred with dark brown. The
primary quills and coverts are grejdsh-brown, their edges mot-
tled with red ; the secondary quills similar, but their coloured
edges broad and undulated, their tips white ; those of the se-
condary coverts also white. The upper wing-coverts are marked
like the back ; a tuft of white feathers appears at the bend of
the wing, as in the male. The lower tail-coverts are greyish-
white, some marked with irregular patches of brown and red
along the centre towards the end.

Length to end of tail 18 inches ; extent of wings 31 ; wing
from flexure 9 ; tail 4f, the shorter feathers y§ shorter than the
rest, the outer ^ shorter than the third, which is the longest ; bill
along the back 1, along the edge of lower mandible 1 ; tarsus
lj§ ; first toe /g, its claw -^-^ ; second toe l^^^, its claw /^ ;
third toe 1/^, its claw /^ ; fourth toe l/^, its claw 3^^.

Variations. — Old males vary little in colour, the brown
shades being merely lighter or deeper according to the season.
In length they vary from 22 to 24 inches, in extent of wing
from 30 to 33. Young males have the tints less deep, and
the feathers more or less mottled. The intestinal canal of four
individuals measured as follows :

Edge of lower mandible 1

(Esophagus in length 12

Stomach in length 1\

1

1

1

12

12

12

2i

21

2i

2i

2i

2i

^0

51

^h

30

32i

30

6

6A

6i

in breadth 2 J

Small intestine 52

Coeca 30

Rectum 6

It is only in the length of the intestine that the difference is
considerable, and there it amounts to rather more than a foot.
Great apparent differences may be found in the dimensions of
the parts. Thus, the crop when empty contracts to the size
of a walnut, and may be inflated to a diameter of more than

154 TETRAO TETRIX.

four inches. To obtain uniform measurements therefore, the
parts ought to be inflated.

Habits. — If we take the digestive organs, with their functions,
as a point from which to set out in tracing the habits of this of
any other bird, we shall be enabled to present a more connected
account of them than is usually found in our most approved
works. Let us suppose that, early on a sunny morning in
October, excited by a peculiar sensation which we denominate
hunger, the Black Grouse is seen threading his way among
tufts of heath in some wild glen of the Grampians. By means
of its short, strong, sharp-edged bill, it picks off small portions
of the fresh twigs of Erica cinerea, Calluna vulgaris, Yaccinium
Myrtillus, Willows, and other shrubs, with which, and occa-
sionally other substances, such as berries of Vaccinium Vitis-
idsea, Vaccinium Myrtillus, and Empetrum nigrum, and leaves
of various plants, it gradually fills its crop, which is capable of
containing a very large quantity, in fact a globular mass from
three and a half to four inches in diameter. These twigs are
all cut of a length not exceeding half an inch, arrive in the crop
slightly moistened, and remain there for a time without ap-
parently undergoing any other change than that of being in a
small degree moistened. A quantity passes into the gizzard
until it is filled, when it is acted upon by the powerful muscles
of that organ and its cuticular lining, of which the action is
aided by numerous fragments of quartz, many of which, by
long use, are often rounded and polished. The crude food
passes down the oesophagus in the form of a compact cylinder,
completely filling it, sliding along its lubricated surface, and in
passing through the proventriculus receiving a quantity of fluid
from its glands. In the gizzard it presents the same form, im-
pressed with the rugae of the inner coat, and being intimately
mixed with the fragments of quartz, is triturated into a coarse
pulpy but slightly moistened mass, in which state it enters the
intestine by the pylorus, which seems to have the power of re-
jecting the mineral particles, as none of them are ever found
beyond the stomach. In the upper or duodenal part of the in-
testine it is diluted with the pancreatic and biliary fluids, and

BLACK GROUSE. 155

has a yellowish-green colour. Beyond this, it assumes a grey-
ish-brown tint. The nutritious parts are extracted in this
course by the lacteals, and as the mass passes into the rectum,
the finer particles are absorbed or drawn in by the coeca, the
contents of which are a uniform pultaceous mass of a dull yel-
lowish-brown colour, in w^hich the vegetable fibres can no longer
be distinguished by the naked eye, whereas in the rectum they
are very perceptible. It would appear that the coarser parts
pass directly from the small into the large intestine, and that
the more comminuted only enter the coeca, adhering to the
villous surface, and especially to the rug^ of which we find
an impalpable deposit, which is absorbed. The foeces in the
rectum are comparatively dry, and form a continuous cylinder,
in wdiich state, mixed w^ith the urine, they are voided, forming
a small heap of cylindrical fragments.

According to the season, the food varies, although heath twigs
always form the principal part. In spring the tops of eriophora,
carices, blades of grass, willow-catkins, and buds of trees ; in
summer leaves of various shrubs ; and in winter juicy twigs
of all kinds, are found in the crop.

The Black Grouse, then, like other species of the genus, is
a phytophagous bird, which, feeding on substances containing
comparatively little nourishment, introduces a large quantity
at a time, like a ruminating quadruped, and gradually tritu-
rates it in the gizzard. In feeding, it walks about among the
shrubs and herbage, where it has time to select fragments of
the proper size and quality. The crop is merely a recipient,
in which the food undergoes little or no change. It passes
thence into the gizzard, mixed with the juice from the proven-
tricular glands. When triturated, it enters the duodenum,
where it assumes a pulpy appearance, and undergoes the pro-
cess of digestion. The nutritious parts are absorbed as it passes
along ; but as its passage requires to be rapid, it undergoes a
farther elaboration and absorption in the extremely large coeca,
into wdiich, however, the coarser fibres do not enter.

In searching for food, the Black Grouse frequents the lower
grounds of the less cultivated districts, not generally removing
far from the shelter of woods or thickets, to which it betakes

]56 TETRAO TETRIX.

itself as occasion requires. In spring its fare consists principally
of twigs and catkins of alder, birch, and willow ; in summer of
tops of heath, Vaccinium IMyrtillus, and Empetrum nigrum ;
in autumn of heath, and of cro wherries, cranberries, blaeberries,
and whortleberries ; in winter of tops and buds of these plants
and of fir ; but at all seasons its staple food is heath and vacci-
nia. It sometimes makes an excursion into the stubble-fields
in search of seeds of the cereal plants, and in summer and
autumn occasionally includes those of graminese and juncese
among its desiderata. While thus employed, it walks and
runs among the herbage with considerable agility, and when
apprehensive of danger, flies off to a sheltered place, or settles
down and remains motionless until the intruder passes by.
It perches adroitly, and walks securely on the branches, but
its ordinary station is on the ground, w^here also it reposes at
night. It may often, especially in spring, be seen on the turf
top of the low walls enclosing plantations. Its flight is heavy,
direct, and of moderate velocity, and is capable of being pro-
tracted to a great distance.

This species, however, does not wander far from its ordinary
haunts, nor, like some, make excursions into the neighbouring
districts. Its favourite places of resort are the lower slopes of
hills covered with coppice, interspersed with heath, rank grass,
and ferns, or valleys flanked by rocky and wooded ranges. In
such situations it is plentiM in many parts of the northern
and middle divisions of Scotland, including some of the larger
islands, such as Mull and Skye ; but in the Shetland and
Orkney islands, and in the long range of the Outer Hebrides,
which are destitute of wood, it is never seen. In some parts
of the southern division it also occurs in great abundance,
more particularly in the border districts, and in wooded glens
of the hilly regions. ^Mr. Selby states that " in Northumber-
land it is very abundant, and has been rapidly increasing for
some years past, which may be partly attributed to the nume-
rous plantations that, within that period, have acquired con-
siderable gro^vth in the higher parts of the country, as supply-
ing it both with food and protection.'^ Montagu observes that
" population and culture have driven it from the south, except

BLACK GROUSE. 157

in a few of the more wild uncultivated parts ; in the New
Forest in Hampshire, Dartmoor, and Sedgemoor in Devon-
shire, and the heathy hills in Somersetshire, contiguous to the
latter. It is also found in Staffordshire, and in North Wales,
and again in the north of England." But it is more especially
in the north of Scotland that it seems to find an abode best
suited to its nature, although even there it undergoes the same
alternate protection and persecution as in other places, and
with its brethren the Red Grouse and Ptarmigan, is sold to
furnish a somewhat barbarous pastime to the " Southrons,"
who now make their autumnal irruptions into the ancient land
of the Gael, with more security than in the days of Waverley
and Rob Roy.

In autumn, the Black Grouse, from its habits and mode of
flight, falls an easy prey to the sportsman ; but in winter and
the early part of spring, it is shy and difficult to be procured.
As the males weigh from three to four pounds, and the females
about two, it ranks among the most important of our native
birds as an article of food. Its flesh is whiter than that of the
Red Grouse, especially the smaller pectoral muscles, which are
nearly as light-coloured as those of the Pheasant. The natural
enemies of the Black Grouse are foxes, polecats, and a few of
the larger rapacious birds, in particular the Golden Eagle and
Peregrine Falcon. It is alleged that in some districts, and
especially in the south-western parts of Scotland, great injury
is inflicted on the Black Grouse by the adders or vipers, which
abound on the heaths, and in the plantations, and which destroy
the eggs as well as the young birds.

Like the polygamous, or rather promiscuously-breeding
quadrupeds, such as the Stag, the males separate from the
females and young, and during autumn and winter keep by
themselves in small flocks, living together in harmony. To-
wards the middle of spring they separate, quarrel whenever
they meet, and engage in desperate combats, in which several
individuals frequently join. So intent are they on this occu-
pation that a person may easily get near enough to shoot them.
At this season the supraocular space assumes a deeper red, and
the bird manifests much activity and vivacity, but the gloss of

158 TETRAO TETRIX.

its plumage, as alleged by some writers, following the popuMr
notion that in the breeding season all birds are more gorgeously
apparelled, is not brighter than in winter. Although destitute
of spurs, it fights in the same manner as the domestic cock,
lowering its head, erecting and spreading its tail, and leaping
against its adversary, endeavouring to drive him oif and if pos-
sible tear him to pieces. These combats, however, are less
bloody than those of our game-cocks, although they are engaged
in with so much earnestness that an unscrupulous fowler might
easily carry destruction among the gallants. A cock who has
beaten oiF his opponents from his favourite station, betakes
himself to it morning and evening, struts in a pompous manner,
with spread tail, and stiftened wings rustling against the ground,
calls aloud with a harsh grating voice, and invites the neigh-
bouring females, or rather challenges those of his own sex with-
in hearing to come forward and dispute his claims to the favour
of his elect bride. When this season of excitement is over, the
males, forgetting their animosities, meet together, and endea-
vour to recruit their diminished energies by following their
ordinary occupations in peace.

The females meanwhile, having sought out a fit place, gene-
rally in the shelter of some low bush, or among rank grass,
and formed in it their inartificial nest, composed of withered
grass and occasionally a few twigs placed in a slight hollow,
deposit their eggs, to the number of from five to eight or ten.
They are of a regular oval shape, generally two inches long,
one inch and seven-twelfths broad, with a ground colour vary-
ing from yellowish- white to very pale yellowish-red, irregularly
spotted and dotted with brownish-red. As the nests are usually
placed in low situations, it frequently happens that in ver}^ wet
seasons, they are partially or entirely inundated.

The following letter with which I have been favoured by
Mr. W. Smellie Watson, better known as a distinguished por-
trait-painter, than as a naturalist, although in the latter capa-
city he inherits the spirit of his ancestor, the celebrated author
of the PJiilosophy of Natural History, will, I have no doubt, be
read with much pleasure, as affording information derived from
personal observation of the habits of this interesting bird :

BLACK GROUSE. 159

" My Dear Sir — Agreeably to your request, I have the plea-
sure of sending you a few remarks respecting Black Game,
which I made in the course of my shooting excursions in Dum-
friesshire and Galloway. Black Grouse were j)articularly
abundant in the year 1831. About the end of the month of
August of that year, my friend and I started after breakfast to
have some sport upon his own estate, in the parish of Parton,
six or eight miles from Castle Douglas, which ever was cele-
brated for this species of game. In the course of two hours,
not more I am sure, we bagged thirty birds, and had we not
been interrupted by a very hea\^^ thunder shower, we should
have doubled that number. The unusual proportion of young
cocks attracted our attention, as we did not follow the usual
method of picking them out, but killed indiscriminately : out
of thirty, only three were hens. It is not easy to distinguish
the young cocks early in the season. I used to pick them
out on the wing by their white feathers, and they always
appeared to me to be more shy than the hens. Later in
the season, say the middle of September, the cocks are easily
made out. Previous to and during rain Black Grouse are
very restless and wild. I never found this species far from
water; and the many nests I have stumbled on, generally
in a heather bush or among long grass, were invariably within
thirty yards or so of a spring. The nests were composed
of hay, nicely put together. On approaching a brood, I re-
marked that the first bird which rose was the old hen, and
always at a considerable distance from her progeny, in a flut-
tering manner, so that a person unaccustomed to see this strata-
gem would suppose her to be wounded. She conducts herself
in fact precisely as the hen Partridge when similarly disturbed.
With the Red Grouse it is the old cock that rises first. Early
in the season I have frequently observed the old Blackcock
with the brood, and he too is famous for leading the dogs from
them. I have often followed the run of an old cock for a great
distance before he would rise, and afterwards returned to the spot
from whence I started, and found the young brood. The cocks
do not challenge when disturbed, as those of the Red Grouse

160 TETRAO TETRIX.

do. Farther on in the season, the old cocks are most frequent-
ly found among ferns, and very deep heather or long grass,
near to water. I have also often found them among loose grey
stones, near to craggy cliffs, sometimes three or four together.
On one occasion I killed a very fine Blackcock in rather a sin-
gular way. I happened to be near to an old plantation, and my
friend at least six hundred yards into the moor, when he called
Mark ! I turned round, and observed a cock flying directly
towards me. Raising my gun, I waited until I judged him
sufficiently near, w^hen I fired, and brought him dead to the
ground. It is very difficult to shoot a bird flying directly
towards you, and I have no doubt that in this instance his
eyes were directed towards the dogs, and not to me. At
the beginning of the season, the 20th of August, they sit
so close that I have again and again taken them alive with
my hands in a heather bush. When wounded they always
get to the first hole they can find, or bury themselves deep
in the heather. Near to Craigdarroch, the seat of Cutlar
Fergusson, M. P., my friend and I had a day's shooting,
and although we travelled over excellent ground, we did
not see above eight old hens, five of which we killed.
They were all barren, and not one young bird did we meet
with. I remarked that the old hens kept together, and if my
memory does not deceive me, the five were all killed in one
field. My friend always made it a rule to kill the barren hens,
for he alleged they fought with their prolific neighbours and
destroyed their young. Late in the season, and in very stormy
w^eather, they all get into packs, in the same manner as the
Red Grouse, and then defy the skill of the sportsman. Their
feeding time seems to be the morning and evening. I have
shot many in corn fields, but never far from their cover. They
seem to be particularly fond of barley. It is supposed by many
that Black Game are driving the Red Grouse from their ground.
This, however, I do not think is the case, as I have always ob-
served that the former prefer low marshy ground, and the lat-
ter young heather on high ground. When the old Red Cock
raises his head from the heather (a phenomenon which sports-

BLACK GROUSE. 1(51

men designate by the phrase Bottle-neck)^ to discover the cause
of alarm, there is no hope of getting within shot, for he imme-
diately calls, and all take wing that instant. I have shot this
species also in corn-fields, near to heather."

Young. — The young are at first covered with close fine
down. The bill is umber browTi, its tip paler. The general
colour of the down is greyish-yellow ; the upper parts mottled
with black and chestnut ; the sides and fore part of the head
spotted with black, its upper part reddish-brown, not bordered
with black as in the Brown Ptarmigan. The sides and back
of the neck are minutely mottled with dusky ; the tarsi are
yellowish-grey, the toes pale greyish-brown. They are easily
distinguished from the young of the Brown Ptarmigan, by the
want of down on the toes, and by the lighter brown of the top
of the head. At first it is difficult to distinguish the males
from the females ; but by the time their first moult commences
they are very easily known.

In the male, when its first plumage is complete, the colours
are as follows. The upper parts are pale reddish-brown, banded
with brownish-black ; the lower similar, but paler, the dark
markings narrower. The tail-feathers are also barred, as are
the quills, although minutely ; the secondaries broadly tipped
with white, their bases of the same colour. The abdominal
feathers are loose, grey and barred with dusky, as are the tarsal.
Those on the throat are greyish- white. The bill is brownish-
black ; the feet light brown.

The young female differs little, having the colours merely
somewhat paler.

Progress towards maturity. — The young male after the
first moult, resembles the adult ; but the feathers of the neck
are minutely barred with chestnut, as are the w4ng-feathers.
The white band on the wing is distinct. The tail-feathers are
curved outwards, but not so much as in the adult. As the
bird advances in age, the colours assume a deeper and purer
tint, the minute mottling of the dorsal and other feathers be-
coming less apparent at each successive moult.

M

162 TETRAO TETRIX.

Remarks. — The peculiar form of the tail in this bird is by
no means sufficient to cause it to be separated from the other
Grouse, and to constitute a genus of itself, for in all other essen-
tial respects it agrees with the other species. The female has
the tail but slightly forked, and in colour and form greatly re-
sembles the female Brown Ptarmigan or Red Grouse. There
is reason to believe that these two species sometimes breed
together ; at least I have seen three s-pecimens which pre-
sented intermediate characters. One of these, a male, I had
the good fortune to inspect when entire and afterwards dissect.
It was obtained by Mr. Fenton, preserver of animals in
Edinburgh, on the 6th December 1836, and is now in the
possession of ISIr. W. Smellie Watson of that city. It was
much emaciated, but in perfect plumage. The following de-
scription I transcribe from my note-book.

In form and proportion it is similar to a female Black
Grouse. The bill is of the same form as in that bird. The
supraocular membrane resembles that of the Red Grouse, hav-
ing a ihm free fringed margin^ which is not the case with that
of the Blackcock. The feathers are generally oblong, broadly
rounded, and have a large tufty plumule. The tail is com-
plete, slightly forked, as in the female Black Grouse, but of
only sixteen feathers, as in the Red Grouse. The quills are
twenty-six. The tarsi are feathered all round, without a bare
space behind. The toes are also feathered a third down, as are
the interdigital membranes, and the plumage of these parts is
as bushy as in the Red Grouse. They are margined with
psctiniform scales, as in the Black Grouse. The claws are
very long, arched, with thin parallel edges, like those of the
Red Grouse and Grey Ptarmigan.

The bill is browTiish-black ; the supraocular membrane scar-
let ; the toes wood-brown ; the claws brownish-black. The
upper part of the head is minutely mottled with brownish- red,
broAvnish-black, and grey ; the hind-neck with a larger propor-
tion of grey. The rest of the neck is black, with a tinge of
reddish-purple. On the throat the feathers are margined with
white, on the sides of the neck obscurely barred with brownish-
red. On the lower parts generally the feathers are black,^

BLACK GROUSE. 163

tipped with white ; those of the sides banded with red, of the
lower part of the tail black, w4th a large white terminal space.
The lower surface of the wing and the axillar feathers are
white.

The upper parts generally are very minutely undulated with
brownish-black and brownish-red, with very narrow terminal
bands of white. The wing-feathers and secondary quill-coverts
are similar, as are the secondary quills, which are all tipped
with greyish-w^hite. The primary quills, their coverts, and
alular feathers, greyish-brown ; the outer edges of the primaries
mottled with white. A white spot appears at the axilla, but
there is not a white band on the wing, as in the Black Grouse.
The tail is black, the two middle feathers very obscurely mot-
tled with reddish ; the eight middle narrowly tipped with
white. The tarsal feathers are greyish-white, those on the
outer side mottled with red.

Length to end of tail 20i inches ; extent of wings 31 ; bill
along the back i|, along the edge of lower mandible li^g 5
wing from flexure 9^ ; tail to end of middle feather 5^, to end
of lateral feather 6j% ; supraocular membrane j% in length,
and j^j^ in height; middle toe Ij, its claw \l.

On inspecting the body, the cause of emaciation was obvious.
The trachea and bronchi were much inflamed, the left lung
perfectly sound, but the right gorged with blood. The rectum
was dilated in its lower part to the diameter of 1^ inch, and
filled with a substance resembling putty, and composed chiefly
of uric acid, which completely obstructed the passage of the
foeces. The kidneys were natural, but the right ureter was
much enlarged, and filled with a substance similar to that in
the rectum, but softer. The testes oblong, one 3i twelfths, the
other j% in length ; but I failed in tracing their ducts, and
have some reason to believe that they did not exist.

(Esophagus 8 inches long ; stomach 2 ; intestine only 42, of
which the rectum 6 ; coeca 26 long, their greatest diameter
half an inch.

In form and size this bird resembled a female or a young
male Black Grouse, to which it was also similar in its internal
organization, but with the intestinal canal much shorter and of

m2

164 TETRAO TETRIX.

nearly the same dimensions as in the Red Grouse. In the
plumage and colouring it was as exactly intermediate between
the two species as could be imagined. The imperfection of the
genital organs also corresponds with the idea of its being a hy-
brid.

Hybrids are alleged to be occasionally produced between the
Pheasant and Black Grouse ; but I have not seen a specimen,
and were it not for Mr. Thompson's observations already alluded
to, should have imagined that the birds supposed to be of this
character were merely young Blackcocks,

165

LAGOPUS. PTARMIGAN,

Bill short and strong, slightly curved. Upper mandible hav-
ing its dorsal outline arcuato-declinate, the ridge broad and
convex, the sides convex towards the end, the edores straisfht
and ascending to beyond the nostrils, where they are inflected,
then declinate, sharp and overlapping, the tip rounded and
thin-edged. Lower mandible narrower than the upper, its
anofle broad and rounded, the dorsal outline straiorht, the back
broadly convex, the sides nearly erect and convex, the edges
arched, thin, and erect, the tip rounded.

Mouth narrow ; upper mandible concave internally, with a
prominent soft central ridge and four convergent lines ; lower
mandible concave, with a broad central groove, and two promi-
nent lines. Palate flat, with two curved slightly papillate soft
ridges, from which a papillate flap proceeds to the middle of
the nasal aperture, and another curves behind it. Aperture of
the posterior nares oblong behind, anteriorly linear, its edges
papillate ; the anterior space defined by the soft ridges covered
with several transverse rows of pointed papilla?, the posterior
space sparsely covered with smaller papilloe. Tongue short,
triangular, flat above, papillate at the base, horny beneath at
the end, acute. Two masses of mucous crypts in the angle of
the lower jaw ; also a series on the lower side of the tongue on
each side, and a great quantity in the space between the root
of the tongue and the aperture of the glottis. The latter is de-
fended behind by two transverse flaps of pointed papillae.

(Esophagus, Plate VI, Fig. 1, «, 6, c, c?, ^, narrow at its two
extremities, enlarged or opening into a crop of great size, lying
over the fore part of the neck and thorax. In its whole extent
it is abundantly supplied with mucous follicles, as is the crop

166 LAGOPUS. PTARMIGAN.

for a short space around its aperture. The proventricuhis, Fig.
8, &, is somewhat bulbiform, its glands few, large, oblong, placed
rather obliquely. Stomach, Fig. 3, <?, d, ^,/, ^, a powerful giz-
zard, of a roundish, subrhomboidal form, with the two lateral
muscles, c7, e^ transverse, the lower muscle, g^ thin, its tendinous
fibres passing under those of the rest ; the middle coat rather
thin ; the inner or cuticular, Fig. 4, h^ strong, hard, longitudi-
nally rugous. The cardiac orifice is situated in a transverse de-
pression, between the slight cardiac lobe, and the upper edge of
the lateral muscle, and has no valvular apparatus. Intestine
long, rather wdde, of nearly uniform diameter. Coeca, Fig. 2, Cj
d, e, /, g, 7i, extremely long, w^ider than the intestine. Rectum,
h, c, long, cylindrical. The intestine within is beautifully mark-
ed with regular series of small depressions ; towards the coeca are
numerous roundish soft papillae disposed in series ; there is a
slight circular valve or margin at the commencement of the
rectum, which is covered wath mucous crj^Dts at its upper part,
with rounded papillae at its lower, and marked with faint longi-
tudinal rugae. The cloaca is small, and separated from the rec-
tum by a circular valve.

Nostrils basal, lateral, oblong or elliptical, margined and
concealed by the short feathers which cover the nasal mem-
brane. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered ; over the
uj)per is a semilunar space of bare skin covered with papillae
and having a thin fringed margin. External ear of moderate
size, roundish, its thick margin surrounded with a circle of
feathers.

Fig. 44. Brown Ptarmigan. Fig. 45. Grct/ Ptarmigan

Head small, oblong, rather compressed. Neck short. Body
full and laro^e. Leos rather short, strono^ ; tarsi covered with
feathers, as are the toes anteriorly, which are rather small and

LAGOPUS. PTARMIGAN. 167

slender ; the first very short and elevated, the third much
longer than the second, which is about the same length as the

fourth ; they have all a few
terminal scutella, and the an-
terior three are webbed at the
base. The claws are rather
long, arched, depressed, with
the rido^e narrow, the sides

Fig. 46. Foot of Broicn Ptarmigan. , °

slopmg, the edges thni, the tip
obtuse ; that of the hind toe smaller and more curved.

Plumage full, close, compact, imbricated. The feathers at
the base of the bill small and slender ; those on the head ob-
long ; on the body generally oblong ; more than half of their
length is downy, and the plumule is nearly as long ; the tube
short, enlarged at the base. The feathers on the h}^ochon-
drial spaces and abdomen are entirely downy. The wings
are short, broad, curved and much rounded ; the primary quills
ten, narrow, rounded, the first six cut out from near the base,
so that when the wing is extended intervals are left between
them ; the fourth longest, the first about the length of the
seventh; secondary quills fifteen, decurved, rounded. Tail
short, broad, slightly rounded and retuse, of sixteen feathers,
the two middle ones situated above the line of the rest.

The Ptarmigans, of which only five species are known, viz.
Lagojnis scoticus^ L. vulgaris., L. saliceti., L. 7'upestris, and L.
leucurus^ of authors, are natives of the colder regions of Asia,
Europe, and America. They live upon vegetable substances,
twigs and leaves of shrubs, grasses, seeds, and berries, which
they pick up on the ground. The food is collected in the crop,
where it remains unaltered, being merely bedewed with the
mucus necessary for deglutition. It gradually passes into the
gizzard, where, besides being mixed with the proventricular
fluid, it is triturated by the action of the muscles, and the rugag
of the cuticular lining, aided by numerous particles of white
quartz. Thus comminuted, it passes into the intestine in a
pulpy state, but with the vegetable fibres still distinct, and is
there further diluted, first by the pancreatic, then by the biliary
fluids, when the chyle is absorbed, and the mass gradually be-

168 LAGOPUS. PTARMIGAN.

comes more dry, and passes into the rectum in a concrete form ;
but in passing the coeca, all the finer parts remaining are car-
ried into them, and there subjected to further elaboration and
absorption. The foeces form a heap of cylindrical fragments.

The species have a strong, rapid, and protracted flight, which
is performed by quick beats of the wings, with occasional inter-
missions. They walk and run with great agility, and generally
elude their enemies by skulking among the shrubs and herbage,
although when roused they fly off to a great distance. They
never betake themselves to the covert of woods, but live on
open shrubby or stony ground. They have numerous eggs,
which are spotted w^ith dark brown. The young run about
as soon as they are born, and follow their mother until winter,
when several families often unite. The males accompany the
broods.

In Britain there are two well-known species of this genus or
group, the Brown Ptarmigan or Red Grouse, and the Grey Ptar-
migan. The former inhabits the heaths from the level of the
sea to the height of two thousand feet or more ; the latter is
found on the sides and summits of hills that exceed that eleva-
tion, although in winter it occasionally descends lower. These
species never perch on trees. They collect into flocks in au-
tumn, separate towards the beginning of spring, and rear a
single brood in the season. They are in much request as food,
especially the Brown species, as well as for collections and as
domestic ornaments when stuffed.

One of our native species becomes white in winter, except-
ing the tail-feathers, and two bands on the face ; the other
retains its colour in winter. In the former, the change is very
gradual, and is effected by a substitution of white for coloured
feathers, not by a change of colour in the same feather. In
both species alike the moult is very gradual ; and of neither
have I ever examined a specimen at any season that did not
exhibit old and new feathers.

169

LAGOPUS SCOTICUS. THE BROWN PTARMIGAN,
OR RED GROUSE.

RED GAME. RED GROUSE. RED PTARMIGAN. MUIR-FGWL. MOOR-FOWL. MOOR-
COCK, MOOR-HEN. GOR-COCK. COILEACH-FRAOICH, CEARC-FHRAOICH.

Tetrao Scoticus. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 641.

Red Grouse. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Tetras Rouge. Tetrao Scoticus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. II. 450.

Red Grouse-Ptarmigan. Tetrao Scoticus. Selb. Illustr. I. 427.

Tetrao Scoticus. Red Ptarmigan. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 170.

Of the adult male in winter the general colour of the plumaae
diestnut-hrown^ inclining to red on the necJc^ on the body variegated
with hlack^ on the breast blackish with many of the feathers tipped
li'ith white. Of the female in winter the general colour of the
plumage yellowish-red^ spotted and banned with black.

The male in summer chestnut-brown^ minutely barred and spotted
with blacky the head and neck also barred^ the breast darker and
more obscurely barred. The female yellowish-red^ spotted and
barred with blacky most of the feathers on the upper parts tipped
with yelloicish-wh ite.

The Brown Ptarmigan, or Red Grouse, as it is usually-
named, although generally distributed in the heathy districts
of this country, and abundant in our markets, has hitherto
been very inaccurately described, as has also been the case with
the Common or Grey Ptarmigan. The variations of colour
exhibited by the latter species have been misunderstood and
misrepresented ; and, although the former does not change to
w^hite in winter, its variations are otherwise analogous. For
this reason, at the risk of being thought tedious, I have deter-
mined to oiFer to the public a very full account of both.

170 LAGOrUS SCOTICUS.

Male. — The well-kno\\Ti " Red Grouse " is a strong, full-
bodied bird, having a short stout neck, a rather small head,
broad rounded wings, a short tail, and legs of moderate length,
which, with the toes, are feathered.

The bill is short, broader than high, a little curved ; the up-
per mandible has the ridge indistinct and rounded, the sides
convex, the edges inclinate, sharp, and overlapping, the tip
broadish, rounded, and sharp-edged ; the lower mandible con-
siderably shorter, its back broadly convex, the edges inflected,
the tiji rounded. The upper mandible is internally concave,
with a prominent central fleshy ridge ; the lower with a deep
groove and two prominent lines. The palate flat, w^th trans-
verse series of j^apilla?, and anteriorly with four lines converg-
ing forwards. The oesophagus, Plate VI, Fig. 1, a, ^, c^ c?, ^,
measured from the base of the tongue to the stomach, is six
and a half inches long, its diameter about four-twelfths of an
inch. Anterior to the furcula, it is expanded into a large
membranous bag, of a depressed roundish form, ^, r7, ^, three
inches in diameter, its aj^erture about an inch in length. The
proventricular portion. Fig. 3, 5, is bulbiform, with a diameter
of three-quarters of an inch. The mouth is abundantly sup-
plied with a mucous fluid from the crypts in the angle of the
lower jaw, on the sides of the tongue and at its base ; the upper
part of the oesophagus is also covered with cr}^3ts, as is the crop
at its entrance only ; the inner coat of the intra -thoracic portion
is raised into longitudinal folds, and plentifully supplied with
mucus ; the proventricular glands. Fig. 4, ^, are oblong, three-
twelfths of an inch in length. The stomach. Fig. 3, ^, ^, ^,/, g^
is a powerful gizzard, of a roundish subrhomboidal form, an
inch and ten-twelfths in its greatest diameter ; its lateral mus-
cles, f/, ^, extremely thick, their outer fibres converging to form
a large tendon, /, on each side, under which are inserted the
tendinous fibres of the lower muscle, g ; and on the upper part
is a slight j^yloric sac, c. The middle coat, g^ is thin and tough,
and impressed with the rugae of the inner, /^, which is fibroso-
cartilaginous, longitudinally rugous, the rugae on the sides op-
posite the tendons, in the fundus, and in the cardiac sac, crossed
by others. The intestine, Fig. 1, g^ h^ e, j^ is forty inches long ;

BROWN PTARMIGAN. I7I

its diameter in the duodenal or upper portion is five-twelfths,
and diminishes very little, so that at the coeca it is still four-
twelfths. The rectum. Fig. 2, &, c^ is of the same diameter at
its upper part, and is but slightly enlarged below. It has a
slight flap or valve at its commencement, and is separated in
the same manner from the cloaca, which is about a quarter of
an inch long. The coeca, Fig. 2, ^, d, ^,/, ^, /^ are twenty-nine
and a half inches long, and are convoluted along the intestines
for seven inches ; their greatest diameter is half an inch, and for
four inches at the base it is only three-twelfths. The inner coat
of the intestine in its whole length is raised into minute undula-
tions running in transverse series, and delicately villous. For
two inches above the coeca it is covered with pretty large papillae
disposed in longitudinal series, the lower being larger and form-
ing a transverse line or valve on the level of the orifices of the
coeca, which open obliquely. The narrow part of the coeca is
cellular, the rest marked with seven longitudinal rugae, which
are minutely villous. The inner surface of the rectum is co-
vered with distinct mucous crjq^ts, which pour out a large
quantity of fluid, and is marked with several longitudinal
rugJE.

The eyes are of moderate size ; the eyelids feathered ; over
the upper is a semilunar papillate space, having its upper mar-
gin fringed and free ; the length of this membrane is ten-
tw^elfths, its height five-twelfths. The nostrils are oblong, in
the fore part of the nasal membrane, and concealed by the
small rounded feathers with which it is covered. The exter-
nal aperture of the ear is roundish, three-twelfths in diameter,
surrounded by a thick margin beset with feathers.

The legs are short and strong; the tarsus covered with
feathers, as are the toes on their upper surface and sides. The
first toe is extremely short, the third longest, the fourth a little
longer than the second ; all tuberculate and reticularly granu-
late beneath; the anterior webbed at the base, and havinof
three conspicuous terminal scutella. The claws are rather
long, arched, depressed, with sloping sides, thin edges, and
obtuse tips. The number of scutella that may be clearly
traced is on the several toes, three, five, nine, and six.

172 LAGOPLS SCOTICUS.

The plumage is full, compact, soft, with common lustre ; the
feathers all rounded, with a long downy plumule. Feathers of
the nasal membrane short, stiffish ; those of the head short ;
of the neck, back, and breast ovate and of ordinary length ;
the ventral loose and soft ; the tarsal and digital downy, ter-
minated by a bristly point ; the middle tail-coverts as long
as the tail-feathers. The wings are short, broad, rounded ;
the primary quills ten, narrow, tapering to a rounded point ;
the third and fourth longest, the fifth longer than the se-
cond, the first about the length of the seventh ; secondary
quills fifteen, broad, rounded with a slight acumen. Tail
short, straight, slightly rounded, of sixteen broad, rounded
feathers.

The bill is brownish-black ; the iris hazel ; the superciliary
papillar membrane vermilion ; the claws blackish-brown at
the base, greyish-yellow at the end.

The general colour of the plumage is reddish-brown, ap-
proaching to chestnut, minutely barred with brownish-black.
The head, breast, and sides are deep chestnut brown, the top of
the head and the hind-neck irregularly transversely barred with
brownish black, as are the breast and sides. The palpebral
feathers, and a few on each side at the base of the lower man-
dible, are white. The middle of the breast is blackish-brown,
the transverse bars of chestnut being much narrower than the
black ones ; some of the feathers are white at the end. The
lower tail-coverts are chestnut, tipped with a bar of black and a
terminal one of white. The lower surface of the wing is pure
white. The upper parts are transversely and minutely barred
with brownish-black, on a reddish-brown ground, most of the
feathers also having a patch of black. The primary quills, the
alula, and most of the secondaries, are chocolate brown, t]^e
outer margins of the latter minutely mottled with reddish-
brown, and the inner five like the feathers of the back. The
two middle tail-feathers are like their coverts, the next two
slightly barred, the rest greyish-brown, darker towards the end,
the tips freckled. The tibial feathers are greyish-brown, those
of the tarsi light grey mottled with brown, of the toes pale
grey.

BROWN PTARMIGAN. ]73

The following are the principal dimensions of several indivi-
duals.

Length to end of tail 16f

Extent of wings 25i

Wing from flexure 8i

Tail 4f

Bill along the ridge ~\

Ed^e of lower mandible 1

16

15i

16

15}

26

28

28

27

8i

Si

8i

81

U

H

4f

4f

f

1 0
12

5
4

i

1

u

1

1

If

ll

1-J

u

5
1^

5
12

3
12

T2

4

5
12

i\

A

1 0
12

8
13

1 0
12

f

tV

8
12

12

6
12

li

H

h%

U

8
12

-J

8
12

/^

1

ii

U

1 0
12

15

6
12

12

12

Tarsus 1 1

First toe ■j%

Claw of first toe j\

Second toe |

Claw of second toe j\

Third toe lj%

Claw of third toe ^

Fourth toe i§

Claw of fourth toe i

Female. — The adult female is considerably smaller, and of
a somewhat less robust aspect, than the male. The supraocu-
lar membrane is smaller, being seven-twelfths of an inch long,
four-twelfths in height, and of a less vivid red. The bill,
claws, and iris, are as in the male. The ground-colour of the
plumage is of a yellowish brown tint, or of a lighter red than
that of the male. The dark transverse markings are broader
and more distinct, and the undulations are few^er on the back.
The quills are of a lighter brown, more tinged with grey ; the
secondaries more undulated, but duller. The four middle
feathers of the tail are like the back ; the rest all barred with
reddish except towards the tips, which are yellowish-grey.
The breast is dull brownish red, barred with brownish-black ;
the lower wing-coverts white, some of them brown, and others
barred. The whitish marks on the eyelids, and near the base
of the bill are duller.

Length to end of tail 15i inches; extent of wings 25i ;
wing from flexure 8:^ ; tail 4{ ; bill along the ridge j% ; tarsus
If ; middle toe and claw 2.

174 LAGOPUS SCOTICUS.

Variations. — Scarcely two males can be found with pre-
cisely the same markings. In some individuals, the whole
under parts are nearly black, together with a large portion of
the back, wdiile in others there is a good deal of white on the
belly. Sometimes the axillaries and lower wing-coverts are
pure white ; but the latter are frequently spotted and barred
w^ith brown. The diiferences, however, are not such as to alter
in any material degree the general appearance. Birds from
particular districts frequently exhibit a great similarity, those
from one place being much darker than those from another.
Individuals more or less spotted or patched with white are
sometimes met with. I have seen others of a pale greyish-
yellow colour, faintly mottled with dusky.

As the abo\'^ descriptions refer to the colours of the winter
plumage, it is necessary to describe the appearance assumed in
summer. The change is very gradual, and young feathers are
found at all seasons.

Male in Summer. — The bill, claws, and supraocular space
undergo no change. The ground colour of the plumage re-
mains nearly the same, being only a little lighter ; but the
head and neck, which in winter were nearly pure chocolate,
are barred all over with brownish-black, as are the breast and
sides. On the upper parts the reddish tints are lighter, and
the tips of most of the feathers are yellowish. The quills and
tail-feathers remain the same.

Female in Summer. — The changes which the female under-
goes are similar. The ground colour of all the parts, especially
of the neck and head, assuming a much yellower tint, and most
of the feathers being tipped with yellowish white. The diffe-
rences are not easily described, but are very perceptible in in-
dividuals killed in September and October, when patches of
winter plumage are contrasted with that of summer.

Habits. — The Brown Ptarmigan, generally known by the
name of Red Grouse, as compared with the Black Grouse, in-
habits the heaths of Great Britain and Ireland, to which coun-
tries it is peculiar, it never having been found in any other part
of the globe. It is especially abundant in Scotland, where it

BROWN PTARMIGAN. 175

is met with on all kinds of surface, provided it be covered with
heath, whether Calluna vulgaris or Erica cinerea, from the level
of the sea to the height of about two thousand feet. The low
sandy heaths of the eastern counties of the middle division ap-
pear to be less favourable to it than the more moist peaty tracts
of the western and northern districts, where the shrubs on
which it feeds attain a greater size. In the central and deso-
late regions of the Grampians it is equally abundant as on the
moors of the Hebrides ; and on the hilly ranges of the south,
the Pentlands, the Lammermuir, and the mountains of Peebles,
Dumfries, and Selkirk, it is still plentiful. Yet it seems al-
most marvellous that a species which furnishes sport to so many
of the idle, and supplies with healthy exercise so many of the
industrious and enterprising, should continue to exist in such
quantities in the country.

It is impossible to study the manners and habits of this bird
in continuity, owing to its peculiar mode of skulking and con-
cealing itself among the heath ; but a person who has for years
traversed the moors, started hundreds of individuals at all seasons,
engaged in the exciting sport of grouse-shooting, and obtained
specimens in spring and summer as well as in winter, may,
by bringing together the results of his observations, contrive
to furnish a tolerably correct history of it.

It is pleasant to hear the bold challenge of the Gor-cock at
early dawn on the wild moor remote from human habitation,
where, however, few ornithologists have ever listened to it. I
remember with delight the cheering influence of its cry on a
cold morning in September, when, wet to the knees, and with
a sprained ancle, I had passed the night in a peat bog, in the
midst of the Grampians, between the sources of the Tummel and
the Dee. Many years ago, when I was of opinion, as I still
am, that there is little pleasure in passing through life dry shod
and ever comfortable, I was returning to Aberdeen from a bo-
tanical excursion through the Hebrides and the south of Scot-
land. " At Blair Atholl I was directed to a road that leads
over the hill, and which I was informed was much shorter than
the highway. By it I proceeded until I reached Blair Lodge,
where I obtained some refreshment, of which I stood greatly

]7<3 LAGOPUS SCOTICUS.

in need. The good-woman very benevolently exerted herself
to persuade me to remain all night, the hills being, as she said,
bleak and dreary, entirely destitute of every thing that could
aftbrd pleasure to a traveller, and even without human habita-
tion, the nearest house being fifteen miles north. It was now
six o'clock, and I was certain of being benighted ; but 1 had
promised to be at the source of the Dee by noon of next day,
and all the dragons of darkness could not have prevented me
from at least striving to fulfil my engagement. They had never
heard of the spring in question, nor even of the river ; no Cairn-
gorm could be seen ; and a woman just arrived from the Spey in-
formed me that I should be under the necessity of going through
Badenoch before I could get to it. I placed more confidence
in my travelling map. All however shook their heads when
I disclosed my plan, which was to proceed eastward, cross a
stream, get to the summit of a ridge of mountains, and so forth,
until I should reach the first burn of the Dee, where I expect-
ed to meet my friend Craigie. It was sunset when I got to
the top of the first hill, whence I struck directly east, judging
by the place where the sun disappeared behind the rugged and
desolate mountains. After traversing a mile of boggy heath,
I found myself put out of my course by a long deep rocky val-
ley or ravine, which I was obliged to double ; and before I had
accomplished this night fell. I travelled on however about
two miles farther, and coming upon another but smaller val-
ley, in which I was apprehensive of breaking my neck if I
should venture through it, I sat down by a rock, w^eary, and
covered with perspiration. Rest is pleasant, even in such
a place as this ; and w^hen I had experienced a little of its
sweets, I resolved to take up my abode there for the night.
So, thrusting my stick into the peat between me and the ravine
below, I extended myself on the ground, and presently fell into
a reverie, reviewed my life, gave vent to the sorrow of my soul
in a thousand reflections on the folly of my conduct, and ended
w^ith resolving to amend ! Around me were the black masses
of the granite hills rising to heaven like the giant barriers of an
enchanted land ; above, the cloudless sky, spangled with stars ;
beneath, a cold bed of wet turf; within, a human spirit tor-

BROWN PTAR:\iIGA>r. 177

tured with wild Imaginings and the pangs of a sprained foot.
' In such a place, at such a time,' and in such a mood, what are
the vanities of the world, the pomp of powder, the pride of renown,
and even the pleasures of bird-nesting ! Having in a short time
become keenly sensible that a great portion of vital heat had
oozed out of me, I looked out for a warmer situation ; but, alas,
with little success ; for although I pulled some stunted heath and
white moss, with which I covered my feet, and laid me down
by another crag that afforded more shelter, I could not sleep.
After a while, having experienced a fit of shivering, I got up to
gather more heath, with which I formed a sort of bed, and lay
down again. But even heath was not to be obtained in suffi-
cient quantity, so that for a covering I was obliged to bury
myself in moss and turf, with the soil adhering. At long, long
length, the sky began to brighten in what I supposed to be
the north-east, and I was anxiously looking for the approach of
morn, when gradually the pale unwelcome moon rose over a
distant hill. It was piercing cold, and I perceived that a strol-
ling naturalist, however fervid his temperament, could hardly,
if scantily clad, feel comfortable even among moss, in a bog of
the Grampians. What a blessing a jug of hot water would have
been to such a stomach as mine, aching with emptiness, and
nothing, not even tripe-de-roche, to be got to thrust into it.
However, morning actually came at last, and I started up to re-
new my journey. It was now that I got a view of my lodging,
which was an amphitheatre formed of bare craggy hills, covered
with fragments of stone and white moss, and separated by patches
of peat bog. Not a house was to be seen, nor a sheep, nor even
a tree, nor so much as a blade of green grass. Not a vestige of
life can be found here, thought I ; but I was reproved by a cry
that startled me. The scarlet crest and bright eye of a moor-
cock were suddenly protruded from a tuft of heather, and I heard
with delight the well-known hoh^ hok^ of the ' blessed bird,^
as the Highlanders call him. It was a good omen ; the
night and dulness had fled, and I limped along as cheerily as I
could. My half frozen blood soon regained its proper tempera-
ture ; ere long I reached the base of the rocky ridge, and after
passing some hills, traversing a long valley, and ascending a

178 LAGOPUS SCOTICUS.

mountain of considerable height, I took out my map, and look-
ing eastward below me, saw", to my great satisfaction, a rivulet
running for several miles directly in the course marked. I was
assured that this stream, whether the source or not, ran into
the Dee, as it proceeded eastward ; and therefore I directed my
steps toward it. But here too a scene occurred which gave me
great pleasure. Some low" croaking sounds came from among
the stones around me, and presently after a splendid flock of
Grey Ptarmigans, about fifty in number, rose into the air, and
whirred past me, on their way to the opposite eminence. On
the brow of the hill I found two large fountains, the sources of
the stream below, of each of which I drank a mouthful, and
proceeded. My friend, however, was not to be seen ; but it
was too early ; and so to pass the time I explored another of
the sources of the rivulet, that rose farther up in the glen.
But at length, the scene became too dreary to be endured : —
desolate mountains, on whose rugged sides lay patches of snow
that the summers' suns had failed to melt ; wild glens, scantily
covered with coarse grass, heath, and lichens ; dark brown
streams, gushing among crags and blocks, unenlivened even by
a clump of stunted willows ; — and I followed the rivulet, judg-
ing that it would lead to the river, and the river to the sea.
For seven long miles I trudged along, faint enough, as you may
suppose, having obtained no refreshment for eighteen hours,
excepting two mouthfuls of cold water ; so that even the mul-
titudes of grouse that sprung up around me, ceased to give much
pleasure, although I had never before started so many, even with
a dog, in a space of equal extent. At one o'clock, ho'wever, I
came to a hut, tenanted by a person named ISIacHardy, who,
expressing his concern at my having been out all night, treated
me to a glass of whisky, and some bread and milk. At this
place, Dubrach, stood three half-blasted firs, and about a mile
and a half farther down I came upon a wood, the first that I
had seen since I left Blair. The silver Dee now- rolled plea-
santly along the wooded valley, and in the evening I reached
Castleton of Braemar, where, while seated in the inn, at a
little round table, reading Zimmerman on Solitude, which, to
my great joy 1 had found there, and sipping my tea, I heard a

BROWN PTARMIGAN'. I7U

rap at the door. ' Come in,"* said I ;"" — it was my best friend,
with whom I spent a happy evening, in which, I believe, little
mention was made of Ptarmigans, grey or brown.

The latter bird feeds for the most part upon the tops of
heath, Calluna vulgaris and Erica cinerea, and also picks the
leaves and tender twigs of Vaccinium ^lyrtillus, and Empetrum
nigrum, with the young heads of Eriophorum vaginatum, shoots
of Galium saxatile, carices, grasses, willows, and other plants.
It is also said to eat the berries of Empetrum nigrum, Vacci-
nium Myrtillus, and Vaccinium Vitis-idaea. In two instances,
I have found its crop filled with oat-seeds, to which it is said
to be very partial, although it rarely ventures upon cultivated
land. While feedinof, it walks amono^ the heath, selecting the
fresh tips of the twigs, which it breaks oiF nearly of a size, the
largest pieces not exceeding half an inch in length. Along
with these substances, fragments of white quartz, from one to
two twelfths of an inch in diameter, are found in the crop and
gizzard, being introduced for the purpose of aiding the action
of the latter in comminuting the food. The process of assimi-
lation is performed in the same manner as has already been
described in the history of the Black Grouse. When the
Brown Ptarmigans have filled their crops, they repose among
the heath, or bask on a sunny bank, under the shelter of the
shrubs or tufts of herbage.

On ordinary occasions, this species does not fly much, but
keeps concealed among the heath, seldom choosing to rise un-
less its enemy comes very near. On the approach of danger,
it lies close to the ground, when, being of a colour not contrast-
ing strongly with that of the plants around, it is with difficulty
perceived by rapacious birds, among which its principal enemies
are the Golden Eagle, the Peregrine Falcon, the Common
Buzzard, and the Hen Harrier. The quadrupeds which occa-
sionally prey upon it are the Polecat, the Pine Martin, the Fox,
and, in the wilder districts, sometimes the Domestic Cat. \^^hen
traced by a dog, it either runs to some distance, or squats at
once, and often remains thus concealed for a long time, or ac^ain
runs and squats. I have seen them run in this manner four

n2

180 LAGOPUS SCOTICUS.

or five hundred yards before they were put up. On such occa-
sions, the male is generally the first to rise. He erects him-
self among the heath, stretches out his neck, utters a loud
cackle, and flies off, followed by the female and young, aflfording
by their straightforward, heavy, though strong, flight, an easy
mark to a good shot. Some persons scarcely ever see these
birds when squatted, while others can discover them without
much difficulty. To do this it requires a sharp eye and consi-
derable experience. In the Hebrides, I generally succeeded
in shooting them on the ground, which, unsportsmanlike, I
preferred to the ordinary method ; but w^hen the heath is high
and close, it is impossible to discover them among it. Young
birds often allow a person to come within a few yards or even
feet before they fly off", and even the old males, unless previously
harassed, rise within shooting distance.

In a district where there is choice of situation, the Brown
Ptarmigans prefer the slopes of hills not exceeding two thou-
sand feet high ; but they are to be found on the lowest and
most level peat-bogs, especially if there are large tufts of heath
surrounded by banks. Those which in summer and autumn
reside on the heights, usually descend in winter ; but even
during that season, individuals may be found in their highest
range, which is bounded less by actual elevation than by the
disappearance or scantiness of heath. When there is frost, and
the snow lies heavily, they may be traced without a dog by
their footmarks, or seen at a distance ; but the sport of follow-
ing them is by no means so easy as to entice one who regards
his comfort. In the island of Harris, having gone to the moors
during a snow storm, without stockings, my shoes having been
so contracted by a previous day's wetting that I could not get
them on in the usual manner, I had my ancles so cut by the
ice that they afterwards inflamed, ulcerated, and were more
than two months in healing.

The Brown Ptarmigan generally flies low and heavily, mov-
ing its wings rapidly, with a whirring noise, and proceeding in
a direct course without undulations. Occasionally, when at
full speed, and especially when descending parallel to a decli-

BROWN PTARMIGAN. 181

vity, it sails at intervals, that is, proceeds for a short time with
expanded and apparently motionless wings. Its flight is strong,
and often protracted to a considerable distance.

When disturbed while feeding, the male often boldly starts
lip and utters a loud cackle, which may be imitated by quickly
repeating the syllable hok^ with a deep voice. In spring and
summer they are often heard uttering the same sound without
being disturbed, whether as a call of defiance to their fellows,
or of warning or protection to their mates or young. Early in
the morning, as well as late in the evening, but also occasion-
ally through the day, you may hear on the moors a loud cry,
w^hich is easily syllabled into go^ go^ go^ go^ go-hack^ go-hack^
although the Celts naturally imagining the moor-cock to speak
Gaelic, interpret it as signifying co, co^ co^ co^ mo-chlaidh^ mo-
cMaidh — that is, who^ who (goes there V) my sv/ord, my sword !

Mr. William Hogg, Stobo-hope, Peebles-shire, has kindly
furnished me with the following observations relative to this
species. " The Common Grouse is a hardy fowl, peculiar, as
every body knows, to tracts covered with heath ; that gene-
rous shrub affording it by its thick bushy growth shelter from
storms, and by its brown colour concealing it from its numerous
enemies, while its tender shoots supply the principal part of
its food. Although these birds feed upon the spontaneous pro-
duce of the moors, they eat corn to excess if it be growing in
the neighbourhood of their haunts, as I have had an opportu-
nity of knowing from my own observation. Sir James Mont-
gomery sowed a field which had recently been taken in from
their original range. I think they did not visit it until after
it was cut ; but then, every morning until it was carried home,
when all was quiet, groups of them were busy on the stooks,
eating voraciously of the ripe grain. One of the shooting par-
ties told me that the fowls which were shot in the neighbour-
hood of the field, were the plumpest and fattest of any which
they killed. The field was immediately laid out to grass, and
I am certain that the fowls which escaped and remained never
ate corn after, as they had never done before. During the
time of their incubation, the Carrion Crow makes dreadful
havock among their eggs, and young broods. However impro-

182 LAGOPUS SCOTICUS.

bable it may appear, I am certain they carry the eggs from a
great distance to their young, and a nourishing treat they no
doubt are to them. No creature can be more dihgent for the
attainment of any object than these merciless phmderers are
for the discovery of the moor-fowls' nests. They watch and
listen on the heaths all the time the Grouse are hatching ; for
you must know that every now and then, especially about the
time when the young perforate the shells, there is a tender or
motherly chuckle emitted by the hen. This sound is a signal
for a search near the place from whence the sound proceeded.
Another leads them to the very point, when a desj)erate battle
ensues. But two moor-fowls are not a match for a single crow%
especially wdien stung with hunger herself, or when she knows
her own young are clamorous at home for food ; and when she
gets the mastery, the scene is truly pitiable. The embryos
swimming in their native fluid are torn out of the shells, and
swallowed at a single gobble by the greedy hoddy, or carried
off to her young. I have often relieved the poor moor-fowl,
though I knew it was only to prolong her sufferings. The
Carrion Crow^ no doubt persecutes and destroys the young grouse
until grown, but when the latter gets fairly to the wing, it is
no longer in danger. The Grouse sit very close among the
heath in a den rounded by art, in which they certainly con-
tinue a long time, for often there will be a dozen of separate
pieces of their excrement left, sometimes many more. When
snow" storms are on the hills, they congregate to the number of
sixty or a hundred in a flock, but disperse as soon as the snow
melts away. They live in great terror of the Goshaw^k (Pere-
grine Falcon), and indeed he is their most deadly enemy, scarcely
living on anything else, and seldom missing his quarry after fix-
ing on it. He either trusses it in the air, or drives it to the
ground, and then kills it. I once saw this strong hawk carrying
what I took to be a moor-fowd in his talons. A wing of the dead
bird was hanging down. Some ravens and two or three hawks
were diving at him in the air. Annoyed by them, he allowed the
grouse to slip out of his grasp ; but it had not descended many
yards, when he dived after it with great rapidity, trussed it
again far from the ground, and flew off with it. I have often

BROWN PTARMIGAN. 183

seen this hawk carrying a fowl through the air, holding it in
its talons close up to the body."

The Brown Ptarmigan pairs early in spring. The male is not
polygamous, as some assert, nor does he at any time desert his
mate. When incubation is over, and the young run about, they
are tended by both parents, the female manifesting great anxiety
for their safety, and feigning lameness to induce a person w^ho
has approached them to follow her. Sometimes she falls a sa-
crifice to her solicitude, for I have known instances of herds and
other persons killing her with a stick under such circumstan-
ces. When surprised on the nest, she flies with a low un-
decided flight to a short distance, and runs off" among the heath.
The young are soon able to fly, and the flock keeps together
until the end of autumn, unless thinned and scattered by sports-
men and vagabonds. Towards the beginning of winter several
flocks often unite and keep together, forming what are called
packs. They are then generally more shy, and continue so until
the beginning of spring, when they separate and pair, without
manifesting any remarkable animosity, for although the cocks
may occasionally fight, they have not those regular periodical
battles described by authors as enacted by many species of the
Grouse genus.

The diversion which " grouse-shooting'' aflbrds is well known,
few persons residing in districts where the Brown Ptarmigan
abounds not having to some extent engaged in it, in despite of
game laws and other impediments. In my opinion, it is a
pitiful and barbarous sport, as pursued by a regularly equipped
and legally qualified slaughterer, who, even without the labour
of charging his gun, still less of carrying home the produce of
his idle industry, destroys as much game in one day as might
serve for a dozen. But in a district where the birds are not
very numerous, and w^here, to procure half-a-dozen braces, one
is obliged to traverse a large extent of ground, he cannot fail to
find enjoyment, who, starting early with his dog, accompanied
by a friend, travels over mountain *id moor, inhaling the
balmy air of the heathery hills, and renovating his spirits by
vigorous exercise, until the declining sun warns him to retrace
his course, and he returns to his home, where the comforts of

184 LAGOPUS SCOTICUS.

social enjoyment are prepared for him. The pleasure experi-
enced by the young sportsman, who, after much blundering
perhaps, returns from a day's long excursion, with two or three
braces of ptarmigan, and as many plovers, is scarcely attainable
by the experienced wholesale slaughterer. Indeed, it is neither
the quantity nor the quality of the game that aftbrds pleasure ;
for I have been as much delighted with obtaining half-a-dozen
thrushes, two or three vrater- ouzels, or a few wagtails, as an
entire burden of large birds, such as rock pigeons, grouse, or
v»'ild geese.

The nest of the Brown Ptarmigan is found in the midst of
the heath, in a shallow cavity, and formed of bits of twigs,
grass, and sometimes a few of its own feathers, irregularly put
together. The eggs are from eight to twelve, or even more,
generally an inch and seven-twelfths in length, an inch and
three-twelfths across, of a regular oval form, yellowish-white,
pale yellowish -grey, or brownish -yellow, thickly clouded,
blotched, and dotted with blackish and umber-brown. The
young leave the nest soon after they are freed from the shell.

Young. — At first the young are covered with a fine close
down of a pale greyish-yellow tint, mottled beneath with pale
brown, patched above with deep brown, the top of the head
chestnut, margined with darker brown. When about a
month old, they are as follows : — The bill is brownish-black,
the tip of the upper mandible whitish ; the irides dark ; the
claws pale brown ; the superciliary membrane pale red. The
general colour of the upper parts is brownish-black, each
feather edged and barred with yellowish-red ; the outer webs
of the quills and the tail pale greyish-brown irregularly edged
and barred with pale reddish-yellow. The throat and fore-part
and sides of the upper portion of the neck still downy, and
greyish-yellow. The lower parts are yellowish-grey, barred
with brownish-black ; the tarsi yellowish-grey.

Young birds of both sexes, when fully fledged, are some-
what similar to the adult female, having the head and neck of
a pale yellowish-red, barred with blackish-brown ; the upper
parts mottled and barred with brownish-black and pale yellow.

BROWN PTARMIGAN. 185

most of the feathers having a small whitish spot at the tip.
The quills are greyish-brown, barred with greyish-yellow, as
are the tail-feathers, which are tipped with whitish. The
lower parts are paler. The eyelids and angles of the mouth
are not marked with white.

Progress toward INIaturity. — When the first moult is com-
pleted, which does not happen until the middle of winter, it
being very gradual, the males are nearly as described in their
adult winter plumage ; but the head and upper part of the
neck, which in old birds are nearly free of spots, are barred
and spotted all over ; the lower parts are mostly brownish-
black, tinged with grey, and many of the feathers largely tipped
with white ; the legs brown, the tarsi and toes grey. The
female has most of the feathers tipped with whitish, is of a
lighter or more yellow colour than the adult, and has all the
tail-feathers more or less barred. In very old males, the neck
is pure chestnut, without spots. The summer plumage is
lighter, and more mottled with yellow and whitish than that
of winter.

Remarks. — This species, as has already been observed, is pe-
culiar to the British islands, and is the only one of the Ptarmi-
gan or lagopede group that does not become w^hite in winter.
At the same time, it is in all other essential respects precisely
similar to the Willow Ptarmigan, Lagopus saliceti, of the
north of Europe and A^merica, which is the species that comes
nearest to it, but which is easily distinguished by its larger
bill, and by having its summer plumage of a light red colour,
but with the quills, wing-coverts, and some other parts white.
Next to Lagopus saliceti, the nearest species is the Grey Ptar-
migan, which also occurs in Britain, and will presently be
described.

The Brown Ptarmigan is capable of living in a state of
domestication, and then feeds on grain, bread, potatoes, and
other substances, although it always prefers its natural food.
A few instances have been known of its breeding in captivity ;
but, from its habits, it does not seem probable that it could be
trained in subjection, like the domestic fowl.

186 LAGOPUS SCOTICUS.

In the more remote parts of Scotland, it is considered a bird
of good omen. By its crowing at dawn, the evil spirits of night
are put to flight, or deprived of their power. But the poetry
of superstition is gradually giving place to the prosaic senti-
ments of philosophy ; and the highland lairds are so intent on
making gain of their Grouse and Ptarmigan, that one might
apprehend their total extinction in many districts at no distant
period. Indeed, judging merely from the quantity seen in the
markets of our principal towns, the number killed every year
must be prodigious.

As an article of food, the Brown Ptarmigan is highly
esteemed. The flesh is very dark-coloured, and has a peculiar
somewhat bitter taste, which by some is considered as ex-
tremely pleasant, while others aftect to relish it because it is
fashionable to do so.

I have only to add, that a reason may here be assigned for
altering the common name of this bird. The English name
of Tetrao being Grouse, and that of Lagopus being Ptarmigan,
it is obviously improper to bestow the appellation of Red Grouse
on a species of the latter genus. But, it may be said, the dis-
tinctive " Red " ought to be retained. I think not. Lagopus
saliceti is more properly red, Lagopus scoticus is more browTi
than red, Lagopus cinereus is grey in autumn, Lagopus ru-
pestris yellow in summer, and Lagopus leucurus has a white
tail, in which respect it differs from all the rest. Therefore I
name these birds : — Lagopus saliceti. Red Ptarmigan ; L. sco-
ticus. Brown Ptarmigan ; L. cinereus, Gi'ey Ptarmigan ; L.
rupestris. Yellow or Bock Ptarmigan ; and L. leucurus. White-
tailed Ptarmigan. At the sametime, I am very doubtful re-
specting the existence of Lagopus rupestris as a species distinct
from L. cinereus.

187

LAGOPUS CINEREUS. THE GKEV PTARMIGAN,

PTARMIGAN, WHITE GAME. WHITE GROUSE. GREV PTARMIGAH,
ROCK GROUSE. AN TARMACHAN.

Tetrao Lagopus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 274,

Tetrao Lagopus, Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 631),

Ptarmigan. Mont. Ornith. Diet.

Tetras Ptarmigan. Tetrao Lagopus. Teram. Man. d'Orn. IL 468,

Common Ptarmigan. Lagopus mutus. Selb. lUustr. L 430.

Tetrao Lagopus. Common Ptarmigan. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 170,

The male in wijiter wJiite^ with a black land from the hill to
the eye^ the tail-feathers greyish-black, based and tipped with
white, the shafts of the primaries broicn. Female in winter whitCy
the feathers between the bill and the eye black at the base only,
the tail-feathers brownish-black, based and tipped icith tchite, the
shafts of the primaries brown.

In spring, both sexes white, mottled icith dark-grey and yellow
feathers, which are barred with black ; the wings, lower jmrts, and
tail as in wiiiter.

In summer the head, neck, upper parts and sides spotted and
barred with yellow and broicnish-black ; the icings, lower p>arts,
and tail as in winter.

In autumn, the plumage of the upper parts and sides finely
barred with greyish-tchite and greyish-black ; the head, nech, and
sides retaining the yellow summer feathers longest ; the wings,
lower parts, and tail as in icinter.

Young, spotted and banned with yellow and dark brown ;
wings white, the shafts of the primaries dusky ; tail brownish-
black, the middle feathers barred with yellow and dark-grey.

The Grey Ptarmigan resembles the Brown, as well as tlie
Red, in external form and proportions, the body being full, the

188 LAGOPUS CINEREUS.

wings rather short and broad, the neck of moderate length and
rather slender, the head small and oblong, the feet short and
rather strong. As this bird has never been described with suf-
ficient accuracy, and as in its summer plumage it has been re-
presented, and indeed generally admitted, as a species distinct
from itself in autumn, I shall present a very detailed account
of it, and trace the changes in its plumage, beginning with its
full winter dress. In the first place then, I shall describe the
species as represented by a male and a female shot in Suther-
land in the end of December 1835, and received by me in the
beginning of the following month. In this, as in every other
instance, unless it be particularly stated to the contrary, I de-
scribe only entire birds, not skins.

Male in Winter. — The bill is short and strong ; the upper
mandible straight and slightly declinate to the nostrils, then
arcuato-declinate, the ridge convex, the sides convex towards
the end, the edges straight, and ascending to beyond the nos-
trils, where they are much inflected, then declinato-incurvate,
sharp and overlapping, the tip compressed, rounded, and thin-
edged ; the lower mandible with the angle broad and rounded,
the dorsal outline straight, the back broad and convex, the
sides nearly erect and convex, the edges arched, thin, erect, the
tip rounded.

The upper mandible is concave within, the lower deeply
concave, with a central and two lateral grooves, separated by
two ridges. The aperture of the posterior nares is oblong be-
hind, linear before, with papillate edges. The tongue is short,
broad, triangular, acute, notched and papillate behind. The
mouth is narrow, measuring seven-twelfths of an inch across.
The cESophagus is six inches and a quarter in lengih. It lies,
as usual, to the right of the trachea, which passes at first
directly along the middle of the neck, and at three and a half
inches from the top oj)ens by an aperture one inch long into the
crop, which is a membranous sac capable of being dilated to
the diameter of about three inches. The general diameter of
the oesophagus is about three and a half twelfths ; the proven-
tricular portion is bulbiform, with a diameter of five-twelfths ;

GREY PTARMIGAN. 189

its glandules ovato-oblong, about two-twelfths long, with a
narrow aperture. The stomach is a powerful gizzard of a
roundish sublobate form. Its upper part is muscular, with
transverse fibres, and forms a large lobe on the right side, from
the lower part of which comes off the intestine. The lateral
muscles are transverse, extremely thick, their outer fibres con-
verging to form a large tendon on each side. The lower
muscle is moderately strong, its tendinous fibres inserted
under the lateral tendons. The strong dark-red muscular
fibres of the large muscles pass across from the one tendon
to the other, and are also inserted into the whole outer sur-
face of the middle thick subcartilaginous coat, within which
is the cuticular, thickened, with longitudinal rugas opposite
the bellies of the lateral muscles ; the rugae crossed by others
on the sides opposite the tendons, the fundus, and the cardiac
sac. The intestine is forty-seven inches long ; a little below
the pylorus enlarges to four-twelfths of an inch in diameter ;
six inches farther is only three- twelfths, continues varying from
four to three twelfths, but enlarges a little towards the coeca.
The rectum is five inches long, uniformly cylindrical, three-
twelfths in diameter. The coeca are twenty-nine inches long ;
for four inches their diameter is about three-twelfths ; they
then gradually enlarge to eight-twelfths, and so continue to
the end ; the extremity a little narrowed, with a small mam-
milliform tip. The inner coat of the intestine is villous, w^th
minute undulations in transverse series ; for two inches above
the coeca, it is covered with flattened papillae, some of which
are nearly one-twelfth long, disposed in longitudinal series, the
lower larger, and forming a transverse flap or valve. The rec-
tum is even and papillate within ; the coeca are villous ; in the
whole extent of their dilated part, the inner coat is raised into
from five to seven longitudinal white prominent lines.

The eyes are of moderate size ; the eyelids feathered ; over
the upper is a semilunar papillate space, having its upper mar-
gin fringed and free. The nostrils are elliptical, two and a
half twelfths long, margined and concealed by short feathers.
The aperture of the ear is circular, two and a half twelfths in
diameter, with a thick margin.

190 LAGOPUS CINEREUS.

The logs are short and strong ; the tarsus feathered, as ara
the toes on their upper part and sides, but not beneath as in
Lagopus saliceti. The first toe is very short and elevated, the
third much longer than the second, which is about the same
length as the fourth. The anterior toes are webbed at the
base, and have three terminal scutella ; the hind toe has two
series of scales or dimidiate scutella. The claws are rather
long, arched, depressed, their sides sloping, the ridge narrow,
the edges thin, the tip obtuse ; that of the hind toe smaller
and more curved.

The plumage is full, close, compact, imbricated. The feathers
at the base of the bill are very small and slender ; those on the
head small and oblong. On the other parts of the body they
are oblong, more than half downy, the plumule nearly as long,
the tube short, subcylindrical, enlarged at the base. On the
hypochondrial spaces and abdomen, the feathers are entirely
downy. The wings are short, broad, and much rounded ; the
primary quills ten, decurved, narrow, rounded, the first six cut
out from near the base, the fourth longest, the third little
shorter, the second and fifth a little shorter, and nearly equal,
the first two inches shorter than the fourth, and a little longer
than the seventh. Secondary quills fifteen, decurved, slightly
incurved, and rounded. Tail short, broad, slightly rounded,
and retuse, of sixteen feathers, the two middle ones situated
above the line of the rest. The tibife, tarsi, and toes are covered
with feathers having disunited hair-like filaments ; those on
the tarsi and toes are shorter, with stiff shafts, and much worn
behind.

The bill is blackish-brown ; the supraocular membrane
scarlet ; the iris brown ; the claws dark-brown, with horn-
coloured edges and tips.

The general colour of the plumage is pure white. The
feathers at the base of the bill, and between it and the eye, as
well as a few behind it, are black. The tail-feathers are
greyish-black, with a narrow terminal edging of white, that
on the two middle feathers much larger ; all the tail-feathers
have more or less white at the base, and their shafts are
of the same colour there, but in the rest of their extent black ;

GREY PTARMIGAN. 191

the two middle feathers are mottled with grey on part of
their inner webs. The tail- coverts are white, and the two
middle ones so long as almost to equal the two middle tail-
feathers. The shafts of all the primary quills are dark-bro^^Tl,
excepting at the base. Some coloured feathers are interspersed
among the rest, more especially on the neck and wings. Of
these feathers those on the upper part of the neck are trans-
versely barred with pale yellow and blackish-grey ; the rest are
brownish-grey minutely and undulatingly barred with blackish-
grey. These coloured feathers have the extremity white ; some
have a coloured patch on one web only, others on both ; on
some the patches are very small, on others very large ; but in
all, the line of separation between the coloured and white part
is distinct and abrupt, shewing that no gradual fading has
taken place. The downy base of the feathers is more or less
grey on all parts of the body.

Length to end of tail 15| inches; extent of wings 25 ; wing
from flexure 8 ; tail 4 j ; bill along the back 9i twelfths,
along the edge of lower mandible 10§ twelfths; tarsus 1|;
first toe /j, its claw 4i twelfths ; second toe j\, its claw 6^
twelfths; third toe 1, its claw 7i twelfths; fourth toe 8i
twelfths, its claw j%.

Another individual examined several years ago at the same
season, had the bill brownish-black, the claws dark-brown at
the base, lighter towards the end ; the supraocular membrane
vermilion. The general colour of the plumage pure white ;
a broad line from the bill to the eye, and a shorter one bevond
it, black ; tail-feathers bro^^Tlish black, the tips white, of the
two middle to a larger extent ; shafts of primaries deep brown.
Length 15i inches; extent of wings 28; bill j% ; tarsus If ;
middle toe and claw If.

In many individuals I have found one of the upper middle
tail-feathers white, the other partially so ; in some others both
the middle tail-feathers were entirely white.

Female in Winter. — The female is similar to the male, with
slight differences. The general colour of the plumage is white.
The bases of the feathers before the eyes are black, and those

192 LAGOrUS CINEREUS.

of many en the head and neck are broadly barred with yellow
and blackish-grey. The shafts of the primary quills are blackish-
brown, and some small spots of the same are sprinkled on the
webs in their vicinity. The tail-feathers are browniish-black,
their tips wdiite, their bases more or less mottled with white ;
the two middle feathers variegated with yellow disposed in
transverse undulating bands on a deep brown ground.

The oesophagus is six inches long, its average diameter threc-
tw^elfths ; the proventriculus bulbiform, its greatest diameter
five -twelfths. The crop wdien dilated has a diameter of about
three inches. The gizzard is an inch and ten-tw^elfths long,
an inch and two-twelfths in breadth ; one inch in thickness.
The intestine is forty-two and a half inches long ; the rectum
beine: five and a half. The average diameter of the duodenal
part of the intestine is five-twelfths ; its smallest diameter near
the ca3ca, one-fourth. The coeca, which are twenty-eight inches
long, are about a fourth of an inch in diameter at their com-
mencement, but in the rest of their extent eight-twelfths.
They are marked internally with seven longitudinal rugae or
prominent lines. Internally the intestine is villous and even ;
but, about two inches above the coeca, covered with short flat-
tened prominences. The rectum in its upper part is glandular,
and its surface abundantly covered with mucus.

Length to end of tail 141 inches ; extent of wings 23 ; wing
from flexure 7i ; tail 4i ; bill along the back |, along the
edge of lower mandible /^ ; tarsus li ; first toe Z^, its claw
4i twelfths ; second toe j%, its claw j% ; third toe 1, its claw
7i twelfths; fourth toe i\, its claw j%.

Two remarkably beautiful females from Banftshire, examined
on the 16th December, had the plumage white, most deli-
cately tinted with rose-colour. In one, a few of the scapulars
had some irregular dark marks ; but the loral space was pure
white. The shafts of the primary quills brown ; the tail-
feathers white at the base for one-third of their length, the rest
of their extent black, excepting the tips, which were white ; the
two middle feathers minutely undulated and dotted with grey
and reddish-brown.

In the other the colour was similar, but there were a few

GREY PTARMIGAN. 193

black feathers on the loral space ; the tail black, tipped with
white, its basal third white, the tw^o middle feathers entirely
white. The bill of both black, the claws greyish-brown, the
supraocular membrane very pale red.

Length to end of tail of first 14i of second 14i

Extent of wings '/ 24 " 25

Wing from flexure '^ 7i^sj " y/^

Tail '' 4 rr 41^2

Bill along the back '/ j\ // j\

Tarsus " 1^

Middle toe and claw '^ 1-

2 " ^<2

(Esophagus '/ 64 '/ 6i

Stomach " ^J% " 1 ^^^

Intestine " 45 '/ 44

Rectum, // 4 ,,4

Cceca, » 22 " 20

I never before observed the delicate and most beautiful blush
so remarkable in these two birds, and resembling that of the
lower parts of some Gulls and Terns, but it is probable that it
occurs more or less in all individuals in their pure winter
plumage. The soles are always bare, by which character this
species is easily distinguished from Lagopus saliceti.

The winter plumage continues wdiite until the middle of
spring, when the head and neck first begin to assume the sum-
mer markings, that is, to be covered with feathers banded w^ith
yellow and black ; and blackish feathers barred with greyish-
white appear on the back. In the beginning of April, the
bird is in what may be called its spring plumage. A specimen
shot in Argyllshire about the 10th of April, and examined in
Edinburgh on the 15th of that month, 1827, was as follows : —

Male in Spring. — The bill is brow^nish-black ; the iris brown ;
the supraocular membrane vermilion ; the claws brownish-
black, pale towards the end. The breast, excepting its fore part,
the belly, the sides, the quills, the wing-coverts, the lower tail-
coverts, the feathers of the throat, cheeks, and forehead, pure

194 LAGOPUS CINEREUS.

white. The feathers of the head and neck have alternate
broader bands of browTiish-black and narrower bands of reddish-
yellow, and are slightly tipped with white. The lower part
of the fore-neck, the upper part of the breast, and the sides,
are deep bro\\'nish-black, with a few interrupted narrow irregu-
lar bars of reddish-yellow, and a white spot on the tip. The
feathers of the back are irregularly and narrowly barred with
brownish-black and reddish-yellow, their tips white. Some of
them, however, have bluish-grey in place of yellow. The pri-
maries and first alular quill have the shaft brownish-black, with
a small portion of the webs on either side at the tip. The tail-
feathers are brownish-black, excepting the two shorter central
or superior, which are white.

Length 14^ ; extent of wings 26 ; wing from flexure 8 ; bill
I ; tarsus If ; middle toe and claw If.

Female in Spring. — The female is similar, the only remark-
able difterence being that the two middle tail-feathers are
barred with yellow and black.

Length 14 inches; extent of wings 25.

Male in Summer. — A specimen examined in the end of May
had the same parts white as described above. The head and neck
were broadly barred with yellow and brownish-black ; the upper
parts, including the scapulars, some of the inner primaries and
their coverts, minutely and undulatingly barred with the same
colours ; some of the feathers, however, barred with greyish-
white in place of yellow. The two middle tail-feathers like
the back, the rest brownish-black. The summer bars are
much broader than those of autumn.

Female in Summer. — The female diifered in nothing remark-
able.

Male in Autumn. — The black and yellow summer plumage
gradually disappears, and is substituted by mottled grey, as
the autumn advances. In September the appearance is as fol-
lows : — The bill brownish-black ; the iris brown ; the supra-

GREY PTARMIGAN. 195

ocular membrane vermilion ; the claws dark brown at the
base, yellowish -brown towards the end. The feathers of the
head, and many of those of the neck and sides, are the same as
in summer ; but on the neck are numerous feathers barred with
white and brownish-black. Those on the back and sides are
for the most part minutely undulated with greyish-white and
black, some of them having considerable patches of the latter
in the central parts. The greater part of the breast, the abdo-
men, the legs, the quills excepting some of the inner, the pri-
mary and some of the secondary coverts, are white ; the shafts
of the primary quills dark bro^^^l. The tail-feathers are brown-
ish-black, tipped with white, and by this time the two central
feathers are often white.

Lenofth to end of tail 15 inches; extent of wino^s 24 ; winof
from flexure 8 ; tail 4^ ; bill along the back 8c^ twelfths ; along
the edge lOj twelfths ; tarsus lj% ; first toe j%, its claw y\ ;
second toe j%, its claw j'^^ ; third toe 1, its claw 7i twelfths;
fourth toe 8^ twelfths, its claw 5^ twelfths.

Female in Autumn. — The female differs in no essential re-
spects from the male.

As the season advances, the yellow feathers gradually disap-
pear, and the grey ones become substituted by others of a white
colour. The white is first established on the flanks and wrings,
then on the neck, and finally on the back and rump. In a
male examined on the 21st October 1831, the parts which still
retained the autumnal plumage were the head, the neck, the
whole of the back and rump, and part of the hypochondria.
The wing-coverts, the breast, belly, lower tail-coverts and legs,
w^hite. The tail-feathers brownish-black tipped with wdiite,
the two middle ones white. The general tint of the mottled
plumage very light bluish-grey, sprinkled and undulated with
brownish-black, many of the feathers more or less tinged with
reddish-yellow ; those of the upper part of the head reddish-
yellow, mottled with black and white.

Length 15 inches, extent of wings 26 ; bill along the back
f, along the edge of lower mandible ^% ; tarsus 1^, middle toe
and claw 1|.

o 2

196 LAGOPUS CINEREUS.

When much mottled with white the bird has a singular ap-
pearance, although it is not then nearly so beautiful as in the
grey plumage of September and the beginning of October.

It appears to me that the moult takes place in the following
manner : The quills and tail feathers are changed only once in
the year, new ones beginning to appear about the middle of
summer, and the growth of all being generally completed by
the end of October. The middle tail-feathers are later than
the rest. The smaller feathers are changed four times every
year ; for white in winter are substituted dark grey, and black
on the greater part of the body, yellow and black on the head
in spring ; for these, yellow and black feathers in summer ;
then white and black, or the grey plumage, in autumn ; and
lastly pure white, completed by the end of December, and con-
tinuing until the beginning of spring. But at no period are
the colours characteristic of the seasons to be found pure, ex-
cepting occasionally for a short time in winter, although even
then it is very rare to find an individual without some coloured
feathers interspersed among the white. The Grey Ptarmigan
thus undergoes a perpetual moult, but so partial and gradual,
that no part is ever denuded. The feet are not so thickly
clothed in winter as some represent them ; nor are they more
so at any period than those of the Brown Ptarmigan or Red
Grouse. The case, however, is diiFerent with the Willow or
Red Ptarmigan, which has even the soles most densely covered
in vv^inter v^^ith bushy feathers. The notion of the coloured
plumage of summer and autumn being changed to white, not
by a substitution of feathers, but by a bleaching of those exist-
ing, is certainly untenable, not being in the least degree coun-
tenanced either by the appearances presented during the progress
of change, or by analogy. IMost of the wdiite feathers that
gradually spring up towards winter are found to be white to
the base, even while still partially enclosed in their sheaths.
The action of cold, then, in changing to w^hite previously
formed coloured feathers, does not apply to them ; although
it is very probable that cold produces the effect. Possibly
the reason why birds inhabiting equally cold regions, do not
become white in vrinter, is that they do not moult like the

GREY PTARMIGAN. 197

Ptarmigan at that season ; and it would be curious to try the
effect of plucking the feathers of a bird, such as the Raven, and
exposing it to cold while they were growing again. Moreover
those feathers in the Ptarmigan which, springing in winter,
are partially coloured, are found to have their coloured part,
which is generally basal, defined by an abrupt line, usually
darker even than the rest, which would not be the case were
the cold gradually to whiten the coloured feathers. Still less
can the alleojed cause account for those feathers which in Octo-
ber are found having their basal half v/hite, and their terminal
half coloured.

Vahiations. — The changes which the plumage undergoes
have already been detailed, so that it only remains here to be
mentioned that adult individuals in all the stages of their
coloured feathering differ considerably from each other, some
being very finely banded or dotted, others more strongly, and
some even patched or spotted with black. The oldest indivi-
duals, I believe, have the finest markings, and those which are
of the lightest grey in autumn are probably older than those
much tinged at that season with yellow or black. As to size,
individuals differ greatly, as will readily be believed by those
who have compared the variations of any well-known species,
the Magpie or Blackbird for example, in that respect. The
shortest male that I have measured w^as 13i inches long, the
longest loi. But as the feathers of the tail are not fully de-
veloped until winter, measurements ought to be taken, for
comparison with other species, real or supposed, at that season
only.

Habits. — The Grey Ptarmigan inhabits the bare and weather-
beaten summits of the higher mountains of the middle and
northern divisions of Scotland. It is stated to have occurred
formerly in Wales and the north of England ; but there is no
evidence that it has been seen there within the last forty years ;
and even in the transition range of the south of Scotland, many
of the mountains of which, being more than two thousand feet
high, seem well adapted for it, no individuals are ever met

198 LAGOPUS CINEREUS.

with. I have frequently chased it on Ronaval and other moun-
tains, in Harris ; and it is said to occur on Eachdla in South
Uist, on the Park and Uig hills in Lewis, on the Cuillin and
Strath mountains in Skye, as well as in Mull and Jura. On
all the elevated summits of the north of Scotland it is not un-
common ; and on most of those of the Grampians, but especially
the great granitic and slaty masses from which issue the sources
of the Dee, the Spey, and the Tay, it may be said to be even
abundant. Great numbers are annually killed, but as the
haunts of this Ptarmigan are not so easily accessible as those of
the brown species, it is not at all likely to be exterminated.

To observe the manners of this interesting bird, let the stu-
dent betake himself to Castleton in Braemar, whence he is
ready to start early on a fine autumnal day ; — or if he is un-
willing to ascend one of those distant masses of rock, let him
accompany me in idea, which is by far the most comfortable
mode of travelling. Fording the Dee above the entrance of
the stream which passes the village, one day in September 1820,
I lingered a while on a small island, to gather the berries of
Rubus saxatilis, which I found to be of a somewhat acid taste,
and rather agreeable. On reachinor the bank, I obtained a fine
view of the valley of the Dee, with its ancient castle, its cul-
tivated patches, its scattered habitations, its beautiful river, and
its rounded hills covered with pine and birch. In one of these
woods I started a small covey of Black Grouse, which at the
time, being a noyice, I mistook for the Capercailzie, and proceed-
ing northward, came to a deep ravine or " den,"" in which were
some native trees of Pyrus aucuparia, Populus tremula, and Be-
tula alba. Following this stream for several miles up a heathy
valley, I entered a decayed forest of white birch. Few" objects
present a more melancholy picture of the ruin of a primeval
world than those blasted trunks, some prostrate and crumbling
into fragments, others scattered along the hills like an army of
giants, suddenly scathed by the wrath of heaven. On emerging
from among those ruins, I amused myself for a while with
picking the berries of Vaccinium Myrtillus, Vaccinium Vitis-
idsea, and Empetrum nigrum, the latter of which were much
larger than thev are usuallv found in the lower districts. But

GREY PTARMIGAN. 199

now, having reached the head of this long dull valley, I be-
held straight before me the great mountain which had attracted
my attention the day before, and to ascend which was the
object of my present excursion. Crossing a small stream, by
which grew in abundance Gnaphalium supinum, Galium saxa-
tile, and the beautiful though very common Digitalis purpurea,
I sat down to consider what might be the best route, and
reconnoitre the face of the huge rounded mass, which I divided
into three portions : — first, a plain or platform, rising gently at
the farther end, and forming a pretty steep acclivity, terminat-
ing about a third up ; secondly, the middle part, consisting of
fragments of rock, stones, and gravel, intermixed with a little
vegetation ; thirdly, the remaining part, three or four hundred
feet high, similar to the last, but more sterile. If one traces
his proposed route in this manner, he finds it in general easy
enough to ascend a hill without a guide, whereas if he pro-
ceeds at random, he is very liable to become involved among
diflaculties. Hitherto the sky had been clear, but now clouds
began to gather around the summits of the mountains, although
that before me was still unshrouded. As I ascended, I saw to
the west the remains of a natural forest of pine, scattered along
the sides of a valley, and on entering the second region, found
the heath and other plants greatly diminished in size, while
A'arious species occurred that indicated an approach to what in
botany is called an alpine station. Near the summit of a pro-
jecting mass of rock, in this region, I sat down among the
crumbling blocks of granite to compare the Aira flexuosa,
which grew in tufts, with its characters in Smith's Compen-
dium ; and when I rose, a large covey of Ptarmigans sprung
from among the stones about a hundred and fifty yards beneath
me.

These beautiful birds while feeding, run and walk among the
weather-beaten and lichen-crusted fragments of rock, from which
it is very difl[icult to distinguish them when they remain motion-
less, as they invariably do should a person be in sight. Indeed,
unless you are directed to a particular spot by their strange low
croaking cry, which has been compared to the harsh scream of
the missel-thrush, but which seems to me much more like the

200 LAGOPUS CINEREUS.

ciy of ca frog, you may pass through a flock of ptarmigans with-
out observing a single individual, although some of them may
not be ten yards distant. When squatted, however, they utter
no sound, their object being to conceal themselves ; and if you
discover the one from which the cry has proceeded, you gene-
rally find him on the top of a stone, ready to spring off the
moment you shew an indication of hostility. If you throw a
stone at him, he rises, utters his call, and is immediately joined
by all the individuals around, which, to your surprise, if it be
your first rencontre, you see spring up one by one from the bare
ground. They generally fly ofl" in a loose body, with a direct
and moderately rapid flight, resembling, but lighter than, that
of the Brown Ptarmigan, and settle on a distant part of the
mountain, or betake themselves to one of the neishbourinsr
summits, perhaps more than a mile distant.

On reaching the top of the hill, near which I observed a soli-
tary specimen, still in flower, of Statice Armeria, I found it to
be a long, broad, rounded ridge, covered w^ith stones, gradually
sloping to the west, but on the eastern side suddenly ter-
minated by a magnificent precipice, several hundred feet
high, and at least half a mile in length. The scene that now
presented itself to my view was the most splendid that I had
then seen. All around rose mountains beyond mountains,
Avhose granitic ridges, rugged and tempest-beaten, furrowed
by deep ravines M^orn by the torrents, gradually became dim-
mer as they receded, until at length on the verge of the horizon
they were blended with the clouds, or stood abrupt against the
clear sky. A solemn stillness pervaded all nature ; no living
creature was to be seen ; the dusky wreaths of vapour rolled
majestically over the dark A'alleys, and clung to the craggy
summits of the everlasting hills. A melancholy, pleasing, in-
comprehensible feeling creeps over the soul when the lone wan-
derer contemplates the vast, the solemn, the solitary scene,
over which savage grandeur and sterility preside. How
glorious to live in those vast solitudes, a hunter of the red
deer and the forest boar, in the times of old, when the pine
woods covered all those long and winding valleys, now strewn
with decayed trunks, or bare as the hill-tops around.

GREY PTARMIGAX. 201

The summits of the loftier momitains ; Cairngorm on the
one hand, Ben-na-muic-diii, and Benvrotan, on the other, and
Loch-na-gar in the south, were covered with mist ; but the
clouds had rolled westward from Ben-na-buird, on which
I stood, leaving its summit entirely free. The beams of the
setting sun burst in masses of light here and there through the
openings between the clouds, which exhibited a hundred vary-
ing shades. There, over the ridges of yon brown and torrent-
worn mountain, hangs a vast mass of livid vapour, gorgeously
glowing with deep crimson along all its lower fringed margin.
Here, the white shroud that clings to the peaked summits,
assumes on its western side a delicate hue like that of the petals
of the pale red-rose. Far away to the north, glooms a murky
cloud, in which the spirits of the storm are mustering their
strength, and preparing the forked lightnings, which at mid-
night they will fling over the valley of the Spey.

From a small lake, in a rocky corry, at the distance of five
or six miles, a white streamlet rushes down an alpine valley
bounded by precipitous rocks. To the west and north-west,
the mountains recede, range beyond range, apparently undi-
minished in grandeur, but toward the east, their ridges rapidly
fall. The summits of those around are flat or rounded, com-
posed of crumbling stones, with cairns of granitic rock protrud-
ing here and there. They are furrowed in many places by
persons who, some years ago, gained a subsistence by gathering
the rock-crystals and other minerals which are occasionally
found among the disintegrated fragments. ISIany of them pre-
sent vast precipices, and corries, or great cavities surrounded
by rocks, in which is sometimes found a blue lake of un-
fathomed depth.

Descending from the highest part of the summit, I proceeded
eastward for about half a mile, until I came to a corry facing
the south, down a rapid slope, about the centre of which I de-
scended with all possible speed, the sun having by this time
sunk behind Benvrotan. Having got to the bottom of the
slope, I began to run, and coming unexpectedly upon a flock
of Brown Ptarmigans that had settled in their night's quarters,
started them, to my own momentary alarm. A little farther

202 LAGOPLS CINEREUS.

down I saw two does, and as I approached the stream ah'eady
mentioned was somewhat alarmed by a succession of short
brays or grunts, which increased in loudness and frequency, so
as at length to become really frightful. It was now quite dark,
so that I could see nothing distinctly at the distance of twenty
yards ; and whether the sounds proceeded from a rambling
stag, or a water kelpie, I haye neyer been able to learn. Cross-
ing the stream, and ascending a low" ridge, I fell in with a kind
of footpath, which I followed, until I arriyed oyer a deep glen,
which I recognised. About a mile farther, finding that I was
too high, I w^ith difficulty descended the side of the glen about
a quarter of a mile, until I came upon another footpath much
more distinct than the upper, which led me to the place where
I had seen the mountain-ash, poplar, and birch, by the stream.
At length, after walking two hours in darkness, I gained the
valley of the Dee, when the moon began to throw an obscure
ligfht over the shoulder of a hill, and I forded the river without
accident, and reached the inn at half-past nine. Now, although
after all my labour, I had only obtained half a dozen plants
that were new" to me, and observed the flight of a flock of
Ptarmigans, I conceived myself amply recompensed.

Two nights after this, having ascended Glen Dee in the
afternoon, I found myself at sunset in a valley bounded by very
lofty and rugged mountains, and terminating on the side of a
vast mass towering above the rest. Before I reached the head
of this magnificent but desolate valley, night fell, and I was
left to grope my way in the dark, among blocks of granite, by
the side of one of the sources of the Dee, ten miles at least from
human habitation, and with no better cheer in my w^allet than
a quarter of a cake of barley and a few crumbs of cheese which
a shepherd had given me. Before I resolved to halt for the
night, I had unfortunately proceeded so far up the glen that I
had left behind me the region of heath, so that I could not
procure enough for a bed. Pulling some grass and moss, how-
ever, I spread it in a sheltered place, and, after some time
succeeded in falling into a sort of slumber. About midnight
I looked up on the moon and stars that were at times covered
by the masses of vapour that rolled along the summits of the

GREY PTARMIGAX. 203

mountains, which, with their tremendous precipices, completely
surrounded the hollow in which I cowered, like a Ptarmigan
in the hill-corry. Behind me, in the west, and at the head of
the glen, was a lofty mass enveloped in clouds ; on the right a
pjTamidal rock, and beside it a peak of less elevation ; on the
left a ridge from the great mountain, terminating below in a
dark conical prominence ; and straight before me, in the east,
at the distance apparently of a mile, another vast mass. Find-
ing myself cold, although the weather was mild, I got up and
made me a couch of large stones, grass, and a little short heath,
unloosed my pack, covered one of my extremities with a night-
cap, and thrust a pair of dry stockings on the other, ate a por-
tion of my scanty store, drank two or three glasses of water
from a neighbouring rill, 2:»laced myself in an easy posture, and
fell asleep. About sunrise I awoke, fresh, but feeble, ascended
the glen, passed through a magnificent corry, composed of vast
rocks of granite, ascended the steep with great difficulty, and
at length gained the summit of the mountain, which was
covered with light grey mist that rolled rapidly along the
ridges. As the clouds cleared away at intervals, and the sun
shone upon the scene, I obtained a view of the glen in which
I had passed the night, the corry, the opposite hills, and a
blue lake before me. The stream which I had followed I
traced to two large fountains, from each of which I took a
glassful, which I quaffed to the health of my best friends.
Near these wells I met with a covey of Grey Ptarmigans, and
a Titling. These species are undoubtedly those which occupy
the highest station in Britain as their ordinary residence ; but
although the latter, Anthus pratensis, is occasionally found on
the very summits of Ben-na-muic-dui and Ben Nevis, it is more
frequently met with on the sea-shore, and in all the intermediate
country, but especially the hilly pastures. Silene acaulis was
still in flower, and the whole summit was covered with Salix
herbacea, both of which are eaten by the Ptarmigan.

Descending from this summit, I wandered over a high moor,
came upon the brink of rocks that bounded a deep valley, in
which was a black lake, proceeded over the unknown region
of alternate boofs and craos raised several flocks of Grey Ptar-

204 LAGOPUS CINEUEUS.

migans, and at length, by following a ravine, entered one of
the valleys of the Spey, near the mouth of which I saw a
Water Ouzel. It was not until noon that I reached a hut, in
which I procured some milk. In the evening, at Kingussie,
I examined the ample store of plants that I had collected in
crossing the Grampians, and refreshed myself with a long sleep
in a more comfortable bed than one of granite slabs with a
little grass and heather spread over them.

It is delightful to wander far away from the haunts, and even
the solitary huts of men, and ascending the steep mountain, seat
one's self on the ruinous cairn that crowns its summit, where,
amid the grey stones, the Ptarmigan gleans its alpine food.
There, communing with his own heart, in the wilderness, the
lover of nature cannot fail to look up to nature's God. I be-
lieve it in fact impossible, in such a situation, on the height
of Ben-na-muic-dui or Ben Nevis, for example, not to be sen-
sible, not merely of the existence, but also of the presence of a
Divinity. In that sacred temple, of which the everlasting hills
are the pillars, and the blue vault of heaven the dome, he must
be a fiend indeed who could harbour an unholy thought. But,
to know himself, one must go there alone. Accompanied by
his fellows, he may see all of external nature that he could see
in solitude, but the hidden things of his own heart will not be
brought to light. To me the ascent of a lofty mountain has
always induced a frame of mind similar to that inspired by
entering a temple ; and I cannot but look upon it as a gross
profanation to enact in the midst of the sublimities of creation
a convivial scene, such as is usually got up by parties from our
laro^e towns, who seem to have no higher aim in climbing to
the top of Benlomond or Benledi than to feast there upon
cold chicken and " mountain dew,"" and toss as many stones as
they can find over the precipices.

I have scarcely ever visited the summit of any of those
mountains without meeting with a covey or a pack of Grey Ptar-
migans. These birds gather into large flocks at an earlier
period than the brown species ; even by the end of July.
From the beginning of spring to the close of autumn, they reside
on the summits or rocky slopes of the hills, seldom or never

GREY PTARMIGAN. 205

entering the region of heath ; but in winter, during snow-
storms, they shift their residence, and betake themselves for a
while to a somewhat lower station. Their food consists of vari-
ous plants, chiefly of a shrubby nature. Thus, in the crops of
the individuals first described above, was contained a large
quantity of fresh green twigs of Calluna vulgaris, Vaccinium
Myrtillus, and Empetrum nigrum, the largest fragnients not
exceeding five-twelfths of an inch in length. Leaves and twigs
of Vaccinium Vitis-idaea, Salix herbacea, seeds of various
Juncese and Cyperaceae, and other plants, with berries in
autumn, also form part of their food ; which is thus, in fact,
for the most part the same as that of the Brown Ptarmigan.

It is a remarkable fact that all the Grouse and Ptarmigans
which I have examined invariably select small fragments of
white or hyaline quartz to aid the trituration of their food in
the gizzard. Indeed, most of the phytiphagous birds do the
same, although I have also found in the gizzards of many of
them fragments of felspar, and in those of some even bits of
coal and other substances. The process of digestion and assimi-
lation is performed in the Grey Ptarmigan in the same man-
ner as in the Brown species and the Black Grouse ; but as
persons who enter into anatomical details have been accused of
neglecting physiological explanations, I may be permitted to
state the progressive changes which the food undergoes.

The fauces and oesophagus, v/hich are smooth and even, are
profusely covered with a mucous fluid, which is more abundant
at the aperture of the crop. This organ is extremely thin and
but slightly bedewed. The proventricular glands exude a very
copious viscid juice. The inner surface of the intestine is vil-
lous, even, and constantly moist ; towards the entrance of the
coeca, its mucous coat is covered with flattened tapering pro-
jections directed upwards. The rectum is smooth and even
within, but in its upper part glandular and plentifully supplied
with mucus. The coeca are internally villous ; and excepting
at the commencement, have their inner coat raised into about
seven longitudinal white prominent lines, which are thick, vil-
lous, and appear externally through the muscular and perito-
neal coats. The walls of the intestine seem thick at the upper

206 LAGOPUS CINEREUS.

part, and gradually become thinner ; but this appearance arises
from the deposition of the chyle upon the inner surface.

By means of the short, strong, sharp-edged bill, the bird
breaks off small portions of the fresh twigs of Erica cinerea,
Calluna vulgaris, Vaccinium Myrtillus, willows and other
shrubs, with which and occasionally spikes of Eriophora,
carices and junci, berries and other vegetable substances, it
gradually fills its crop, which is capable of containing a mass
upwards of three inches in diameter. These twigs are all cut to
the length of from one to five twelfths of an inch, arrive in the
crop slightly moistened, and there appear to undergo no ma-
ceration, it being merely a recipient. A quantity passes into
the gizzard, a powerful muscular apparatus, in which are
lodged numerous fragments of quartz, that is a mineral sub-
stance harder than glass, with wdiich it is mixed ; and being
compressed by the action of the lateral muscles, is pounded
into a kind of dryish pulp, the herbaceous tissue being com-
minuted, and the woody fibres broken and torn. In this pulpy
state, the mass passes into the upper lobe of the stomach, and
enters the duodenum by the pylorus, which rejects the mineral
particles. It is then diluted, and has a yellowish-green colour.
Beyond the entrance of the biliary ducts, it becomes of a green-
ish-brown tint, and tow-ards the coeca is more dry. The chyle
adheres copiously to the walls of the upper part of the intestine.
The contents of the coeca are a uniform pultaceous mass of a
dull yellowish-brown colour, in w^hich vegetable fibres can
scarcely be distinguished by the naked eye. In the rectum,
on the contrary, the fibres are easily perceived, some of them
being from one to two twelfths of an inch long. It would thus
appear that the coarser parts pass directly along from the intes-
tine into the rectum, and that the more comminuted only enter
the coeca. The foeces in the rectum are comparatively dry,
and form a continuous cylinder, in wdiich state, mixed w^ith
the urine they are voided, forming a small heap of cylindrical
fragments, having a dull greenish-yellow colour, mixed with
white.

The Grey Ptarmigan, then, is a bird which, feeding on vege-
table substances containing comparatively little nourishment,

GREY PTARMIGAN. 207

introduces a large quantity at a time, like a ruminating quad-
ruped, and gradually digests it while reposing. In feeding, it
walks about among the shrubs and herbage, where it is little
liable to be interrupted, so that it has time to select fragments
of the proper size and quality. The food is collected in the
crop, gradually pounded in the gizzard, where it is mixed with
the solvent juice of the proventriculus, farther diluted in the
duodenum, and deposits the chyle along the intestine, whence
it is carried off by the lacteals. As, perhaps on account of
its being less nutritious than animal or farinaceous matter,
it requires to pass rapidly along, the parts that have not
been assimilated undergo a further elaboration and absorp-
tion in the very large coeca, which are ajDpendages to the
intestine, performing the same office as they, but into which
the coarser fibres do not enter, being carried directly into the
rectum.

Early in spring the Ptarmigans separate and pair. The nesl;
is a slight hollow, scantily slrewn with a few twigs and stalks or
blades of grass. The eggs are of a regular oval form, about an
inch and seven twelfths in length, an inch and from one to two
twelfths across, of a white, yellowish- white, or reddish colour,
blotched and spotted with dark brown, the markings larger than
those of the Brown Ptarmigan. The young run about imme-
diately after leaving the shell, and from the commencement are
so nimble and expert at concealing themselves, that a person who
has accidentally fallen in with a flock very seldom succeeds in
capturing one. On the summit of one of the Harris mountains,
I once happened to stroll into the midst of a covey of very
young Ptarmigans, which instantly scattered, and in a few
seconds disappeared among the stones, while the mother ran
about within a few yards of me, manifesting the most intense
anxiety, and pretending to be unable to fly. She succeeded so
eifectually in drawing my attention to herself, that when I at
length began to search for the young, not one of them could be
found, although the place was so bare that one might have
suj)posed it impossible for them to escape detection. It seems
wonderful, after all, how a young bird, such as a Lapwing or
Snipe, sitting motionless on the ground, which it always does,

208 LAGOPLS CINEREUS.

unless it thinks it has been observed, should generally elude
the most diligent search.

YouxG. — The young are at first covered v^^ith a light yellow-
ish-grey down, patched on the back with brown, and having
on the top of the head a light chestnut mark, edged with darker.
When fledged, they are very similar to the young of the Brown
Ptarmigan, but banded and spotted with brighter reddish-
yellow. This plumage soon changes, so that in the beginning
of August many of the yellow and brown feathers of the back
are exchanged for others spotted and barred with pale grey
and brown, and the under parts are white, as well as the
wings.

Progress toward Maturity. — Young birds become w^hite
the first winter like older ones ; but their spots and bars are at
first larger, and continue so in a less degree the second sum-
mer. In old birds the dark markings are reduced to very slen-
der undulated lines, or even to series of dots.

Remarks. — It has been made apparent by the preceding de-
scription that the Grey Ptarmigan exhibits very considerable
differences in the tints and markings of its coloured plumage,
and also that it varies in size, like the Red Ptarmigan and the
Partridge, probably from some diiference in its food, or in the
abundance in which it may be procured. In the next place,
I have to remark that a dissimilarity as to size, in birds other-
wise similar, in recent specimens, and still more in individuals
represented by skins stuffed according to the varying tastes of
preservers of natural objects, is not a sufficient ground on
which to found the assertion of such birds being of different
species. Thirdly, Ptarmigans obtained in summer will be
somewhat smaller than others of the same species obtained in
autumn and winter, because they will in the former season be
more or less in moult, and their tail-feathers do not attain their
full length until the end of November. These things are ob-
vious, and cannot be denied.

Now, if we consider the descriptions given by authors of
their Rock Ptarmigan or Grouse, Laaopus or Tetrao rupestris

GREY PTARMIGAN. 209

we shall find that that species differs in nothing of the least
importance from the Grey Ptarmigan as above described.
Captain Sabine, who first pointed out the differences which he
considered sufficient to distinguish the Rock Grouse from the
Ptarmigan of Scotland, states that " the distribution of the
coloured plumage of the Rock Grouse corresponds both in the
male and female with the Ptarmigan, the same parts of both
species remaining white ; but there is much difference in the
colour itself, the upper plumage of the Ptarmigan is cinereous,
with undulating and narrow black lines and minute spots ;
whereas in the Rock Grouse each feather is black, cut by trans-
verse broad lines or bars of a reddish-yellow, which do not
reach the shaft, and have spaces of black between them broader
than themselves ; the feathers are tipped, in the male, with a
light colour, that approaches to white in the female." Now,
as the parts that remain white in summer are the same in
both, and as both are equally white in winter, these two cir-
cumstances tend to induce us to consider the two species as the
same. Secondly, the coloured summer plumage above described
corresponds with that of young birds of the Grey Ptarmigan,
which differ greatly from old birds in the breadth of their
markings ; and the feathers being tipped with a light colour or
with white, is an additional proof that Captain Sabine's Rock
Grouse in summer is merely the young Grey Ptarmigan. Fur-
ther, by the statements of both Captain Sabine and Dr. Rich-
ardson, the difference as to the length of the birds is not greater
than what occurs in undoubted specimens of the Grey Ptarmi-
gan, of which I have seen a male not exceeding 13i inches,
while the longest was two inches more. And if the measure-
ments be taken in summer, it must be remembered that the tail
does not attain its full length until November. In the Fauna
Boreali-Americana, the length of a female killed in summer,
and which had the white tips of the tail-feathers worn off, was
yet 14 inches, only half an inch shorter than female Scottish
Ptarmigans in winter, with complete plumage, not in the least
worn. Finally, I have examined the birds from which Dr.
Richardson's descriptions in the appendix to Captain Parry's
second voyage were taken, and I have not found one individual

210 LAGOPUS CINEREUS.

presenting any characters different from those which I have
found in individuals of the Grey Ptarmigan killed in Scotland.
As to a difference in size observed by persons visiting museums,
I have only to remark, what every collector must know, that
two birds of equal size prepared either as skins or as stuffed
specimens by two individuals, may differ exceedingly in size.
I knew a bird-stuffer who in preparing Grouse, crammed
them to the utmost, to make them look fine large birds ; and
a person who has collected about a hundred skins of British
birds for me, has almost invariably made them much too short.

It may further be mentioned that the soles of both are bare,
and that w^hat Latham states of the Rock Ptarmigan, " rupi-
bus insidens collo porrecto stertentis hominis sonum frequenter
emittit," is equally applicable to the Grey Ptarmigan. There-
fore, considering all circumstances, having examined a multi-
tude of Scottish Ptarmigans in all states, and having inspected
several so-called Rock Ptarmigans from North America, and
one or two considered as such and killed in Scotland, I am
almost persuaded that the Lagopus mutus and Lagopus rupestris
of North America, are merely the species which I have, to
avoid confusion, named the Grey Ptarmigan, Lagopus cinereus.
At the same time, I have not seen American specimens of any
kind that exhibited the beautiful pale grey colour of our Scot-
tish Ptarmigans. As to those from the continent which I have
examined, I have found in them nothing but the great breadth
of the yellow and black bars that indicated any remarkable
difference. Lagopus leucurus^ from its small size and white
tail, is very probably a true species.

Finally, I object to the specific name mutus^ given to the
Grey Ptarmigan, that the bird is not mute ; and to alhus^ that
the Willow Ptarmigan is equally white in winter. The latter
species is in summer the only one of the three that is red ; and
therefore I would name it the Red Ptarmigan ; while the
species commonly called the Red Grouse, being less red than
that just mentioned, and presenting a brown mottled appear-
ance, might be named the Brown Ptarmigan ; and the present
species, being the only one that is at any time grey, ought
therefore to be called the Grey Ptarmigan.

211

PERDIX. PARTRIDGE.

Although the Partridges bear a great resemblance to the
Ptarmigans, and many species of Grouse, they differ from them
in having the tarsi always bare, and sometimes furnished with a
tubercle behind, and in generally having a bare space behind or
about the eye, while they w^ant the superciliary membranes.
There are other points of difference, which may be observed on
comparing birds of these genera, or on perusing the following
generic characters. The genus Perdix of Temminck, which he
merely divides into three sections, the Francolins, Partridges,
and Quails, is now generally formed into a number of genera,
bearing the names oi Francolinus^ Perdix^ Ortyx^ and Coturnix^
the first composed of birds of which the males have spurs, and
often present a marked affinity to species of the pheasant family ;
the second of those destitute of spurs, and having a bare space
near the eye ; the third of the thick-billed American species ;
and the fourth of the smaller species, of which the head is
entirely feathered. Of the Francolins no species occur in
Britain. The Partridges, of which we have two, one natu-
ralized in some counties of England, the other indigenous, pre-
sent the following characters.

Bill short, strong, slightly curved. Upper mandible having
its dorsal outline arcuato-declinate, the ridge broad and convex,
the sides convex, the edges straight and ascending to beyond
the nostrils, where they are inflected, then declinato-arcuate,
sharp and overlapping, the tip rounded and thin-edged. Lower
mandible narrower, its angle broad and rounded, the dorsa]
outline convex, the back broadly convex, the sides also convex,
the edges erect or slightly involute and sharp, the tip rounded.

Mouth rather narrow ; upper mandible concave internally,

p2

212 PERDIX, PARTRIDGE.

but with a prominent convex soft central part ; lower mandible
concave, with a broad central groove, and two prominent lines.
Palate flat, with two slightly papillate soft ridges, from which
a papillate line proceeds to the middle of the nasal aperture,
and another curves behind it. Aperture of the posterior nares
oblong behind, anteriorly linear, its edges papillate, as is the
space on either side. Tongue short, triangular, flat above, pa-
pillate at the base, fleshy, horny beneath at the end, acute.
Two masses of large mucous crj^ts in the angle of the lower
jaw ; also a series on the lower side of the tongue on each side,
and a great number in the space between the root of the tongue
and the aperture of the glottis, which is defended behind by
two transverse flaps of pointed papillae.

(Esophagus narrow, but enlarged or opening into a crop of
great size, lying over the fore part of the neck and thorax. In
its whole extent it is abundantly supplied with mucous folli-
cles, as is the crop for a short space around its aperture. The
proventriculus is somewhat bulbiform, its glands large, oblong,
and placed rather obliquely. Stomach a powerful gizzard, of
a roundish, subrhomboidal form, with the two lateral muscles
somewhat oblique, the lower distinct, its tendinous fibres pass-
ing under those of the rest ; the inner coat or epithelium strong,
hard, and longitudinally rugous. The cardiac orifice is situated
in a transverse depression, between the slight cardiac lobe and
the upper edge of the lateral muscle, and has no valvular ap-
paratus. Intestine long, rather wide, of nearly uniform diame-
ter. Coeca very long, narrow at the commencement, enlarged
and somewhat oblong, being of much greater diameter than the
intestine. Rectum long, cylindrical. The intestine within is
marked with regular series of minute depressions ; towards the
cceca are numerous roundish soft papillce ; there is a slight cir-
cular margin at the commencement of the rectum ; and the
cloaca is small and separated by a circular valve.

Nostrils basal, lateral, circular behind, linear before, covered
above with an exposed oblong horny operculum ; the nasal
groove very broad and feathered. Eyes rather small ; eyelids
covered with very small feathers, their margin crenate ; a nar-
row space beneath the lower, and a larger space behind the

PERDIX. PARTRIDGE. 213

eye and over the ear, ba^e and generally coloured. External
ear small, circular.

Head small, ovate or oblong ; forehead rounded. Neck
short. Body full and large. Legs generally short, especially
the tarsus, which is rather stout, moderately compressed, co-
vered anteriorly vrith two series of scutella, laterally with small
scales, behind with two series of large scales. Frequently the
males have a flattened knob on the tarsus behind. Toes rather
stout, covered above with numerous transverse scutella, be-
neath rounded, padded, and covered with round flattened gra-
nules ; the first toe very short and elevated, the third much
longer than the lateral, of which the inner is considerably
shorter than the outer ; the anterior toes webbed at the base.
The claws are stout, short, flat or a little concave beneath, with
a convex ridge, sloping sides, and blunt point, that of the hind
toe very small and curved.

Plumage full, generally soft and blended, but various. The
feathers oblong and rounded, broader on the upper parts, with
a large tufty plumule more than half their length. The wings
are very short, broad, curved, and rounded ; the primary quills
ten, narrow, rounded, the first six cut out on the inner web
from near the base, so that when the wing is extended, intervals
are left between them ; the fourth alid fifth longest, the first
about the length of the seventh ; secondary quills fifteen, de-
curved, rounded, the first or outer very short. Tail short,
rounded, generally of sixteen feathers, which are nearly straight
and moderately strong, the two middle ones situated above the
line of the rest.

The Partridges are generally distributed in the temperate
and warmer parts of the old continent, occurring not only in
cultivated fields, but in pastures, on hilly and mountainous
tracts, and even in thickets and sometimes woods. They live
upon vegetable substances, seeds as well as buds, and the her-
baceous parts of plants. The food is collected in the crop,
and undergoes the same changes as have been described in the
Grouse and Ptarmigans. The species have a strong, whirring
flight, performed by a fluttering motion of the wings, or by
regularly and quickly repeated beats. They run with great

214 PERDIX. PARTRIDGE.

speed, conceal themselves from danger by skulking among the
herbage and shrubs, and emit a harsh or creaking cry. The
nest is slight, in a hollow scraped in the soil ; the eggs are
numerous, generally unspotted ; the young are at first covered
with down, and run about immediately after exclusion, their
parents leading them with great tenderness, and feigning lame-
ness to draw their enemies from them.

The largest of our two species is properly speaking a native of
France and other countries of Europe, but has been introduced
into the south of England, in some parts of which it is not so
uncommon as not to merit a place here as a naturalized bird.

215

PERDIX RUBRA. THE RED PARTRIDGE.

RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE. GUERNSEY PARTRIDGE. FRENCH PARTRIDGE.

Fig. 47.

Perdix Rufa, /?. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 647.

Guernsey Partridge. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Perdrix Rouge. Perdix Rubra. Temm. Man. d'Orn. II. 485.

Perdix Rubra. Red-Legged Partridge. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 172.

The hill and feet bright red ; upper parts reddish brown tinged
with grey ; forehead ash-grey ; throat and cheeks white ; a black
band from the bill to the eye^ and thence down the neck^ becoming
broader on its fore part^ which is spotted icith the same colour ;
lower parts ash-grey and light red; sides transversely banded
with ash-grey^ ichite^ blacky and red ; tarsus of the male with a
large flat tubercle.

Male. — This beautiful species is somewhat larger and more
robust than the Common Partridge, which it resembles in form
and proportions, the body being full, the neck rather short, the
bill stout, as are the feet. On the fore part of the tarsus are
two series of broad scales, each composed of twelve, and on its
hind part the scales are obliterated by a large oblong flattened
tubercle placed about the middle. On the first toe are five, on

216 PERDIX RUBRA.

the second sixteen, on the third twenty-two, and on the fourth
eighteen narrow scutella. The plumage is soft and blended.
The wings, which are very short, have seven of the primaries
cut out on the outer web, the second, third, and fourth nearly
equal and longest, the first almost as long as the sixth. The
tail is short, and much rounded, of sixteen straight rounded
feathers.

The bill, naked space about the eye, and feet, are bright red,
the claws a little dusky ; the irides red. The upper part of the
head and the hind-neck are reddish-brown, the forehead ash-
gre}^ The back, wrings, upper tail-coverts, and four middle
tail-feathers are reddish-brown tinged with grey. A portion
of the outer web of all the primaries except the first, and of
seven of the outer secondaries is ochre-yellow. The six lateral
tail-feathers on each side brownish-red. The throat and cheeks
are w^hite tinged with grey ; a band of black from the bill to
the eye, and thence down the side of the neck, becoming broader
and meeting its fellow on the fore part, where it expands.
Sides and fore part of neck greyish-white, tinged with brown,
and spotted with black. This part is margined below with
greyish-brown, succeeded by a broad band of ash-grey. The
middle of the breast, abdomen, lower tail-coverts, and tibial
feathers are light red ; the feathers of the sides with a broad
band of light red, succeeded by another of ash-grey, then two
narrow bands, one white, the other black, and a terminal band
of red.

Length to end of tail 14 inches ; extent of wings about 21 ;
wing from flexure 6i ; tail 4i ; bill along the ridge 8i twelfths,
along the edge of lower mandible l^ ; tarsus l^'^^ ; hind toe j\,
its claw ^^ ; second toe 1, its claw 4^ twelfths ; third 1|, its
claw j% ; fourth 1 inch li twelfth, its claw j%.

Female. — The female is somewhat less, wants the knob on
the tarsus, aijid has the colours as in the male, but a little fainter.
The black crescent on the neck is narrower, and the spots of
the same colour on its lower part are much smaller.

Length to end of tail 13 inches; wing from flexure 6j% ; bill
along the ridge 7i twelfths ; tarsus Ij''^ ; middle toe and claw If.

RED PARTRIDGE. 217

Manners. — As I cannot speak from observation of the habits
of the Red Partridge, of which the specimens above described
w^ere skins of birds shot in the south of England, I may be
excused from entering largely upon its history. It is said
to occur in various parts of Asia and Africa, and to be plen-
tiful in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the south of France, where
it inhabits the low grounds, feeding on seeds, grain, and in-
sects. It has also been found, though rarely, in Austria and
Bohemia, as well as Switzerland. In England, where it is
now not uncommon in some places, it is said to prefer waste
heathy ground to corn fields, and to afford less sport than
the common species, as it runs before the dogs, the individuals
composing a covey dispersing, and rising one after another.
It is accused moreover of driving oif the Common Partridge,
which it is feared may in time be extirpated by it, as the
Black Rat has been by the larger and more mischievous brown
species.

Remarks. — M. Temminck states that there are eighteen
feathers in the tail, which is also the number he allots to the
Common Partridge ; but I have not succeeded in finding more
than sixteen in either. Mr. Jenyns also counts eighteen in
that of the latter bird. However, I must hold to the truth,
which I am pleased to find has in this case been held by Mon-
tagu to be as I have represented it.

218

PERDIX CINEREA. THE GREY PARTRIDGE.

COMMON PARTRIDGE. CEARC-THOMAIN.

Tetrao Perdix. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 276.

Perdix cinerea. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 645.

Common Partridge. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Perdi-ix Grise. Perdix cinerea. Temm. Man. d'Orn. II. 488.

Common Partridge. Perdix cinerea. Selb. Illustr. I. 433.

Perdix cinerea. Common Partridge. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 172.

Male with the hill and feet greyish-blue ; upper parts miniiteli/
barred icith ash-grey^ yellowish -brown^ brownish -blacky and
brownish-red^; scapulars and wing-coverts darker, with longi-
tudinal u'hitish streaks ; forehead, cheeks, and throat light red ;
neck ash-grey, minutely undulated icith black ; sides broadly
handed with brownish-red, of which there is a large patch on the
breast. Female similarly coloured, but with the upper parts
more brown, their markings larger, the top of the head streaked
with yellowish, and the spot on the breast smaller.

It might be judged unnecessary to describe a bird so common
as the Partridge ; and I should not dissent from this opinion,
were I not aware that many familiar objects are apt to receive
less notice than those which, although not more beautiful, nor
of greater utility, are more difficult to be procured, and per-
suaded that the species under consideration is as worthy of
regard as any other of its family. Though neither elegant in

GREY PARTRIDGE. 219

form, nor gaudily attired, its neatness, and the curiously intri-
cate markings of its plumage, entitle it to be considered as a
beautiful bird, and its use as an article of food recommends it
in an economical point of view. Ornithologically considered,
it presents a marked affinity to the Ptarmigans, and in parti-
cular to the Brown species, or " Red Grouse."

Male. — The Grey Partridge is proportioned pretty much
like the bird just named, having the body full, the neck short,
the head small and oblong, the wings and tail very short, and
the feet short and rather strong. Its bill is short and stout ;
the upper mandible with its outline considerably curved, its
sharp edges overlapping, and its rounded but thin-edged tip
extending beyond that of the lower mandible. The salivary
or mucous glandules below the tongue are very large and dis-
tinct ; the tongue seven and a half twelfths of an inch long,
triangular, pointed, flat above, emarginate and papillate at the
base. The space on either side of the palatal slit is marked
with transverse papillate ridges. The oesophagus, measured
from the fauces to the stomach, is six and a half inches long,
its diameter four twelfths as far as the crop, which is globular,
two inches and three fourths in diameter, membranous, but
with very numerous mucous crypts around its aperture, which
is eight twelfths long, and four and a half inches from the
tongue. The oesophagus then contracts to three twelfths, and
in its intrathoracic course has its inner coat slightly raised into
longitudinal rugae, and abundantly covered with mucus from
its glandules. The prove ntriculus is elliptical, three fourths of
an inch long, and having large ovato-oblong slightly lobulated
glandules. The gizzard is obliquely transverse, sub-elliptical,
compressed, its greatest diameter an inch and eight twelfths,
its left muscle much larger than the right, the former eight
twelfths in thickness, the latter seven twelfths, so that the
cavity of the organ is reduced to a small cylindrical space, lined
with the rather thin, but very tough longitudinally rugous epi-
thelium. The intestine, from the pylorus to its extremity, is
twenty-seven inches long. Its duodenal portion varies in
diameter from five twelfths to half an inch ; the rest gradually

220 PERDIX CINEREA.

diminishing to three twelfths, as far as the coeca, the rectum a
little enlarged. The coeca, which are seven inches long, Avith
a diameter at first of three, and afterwards of four and a half
twelfths, and marked internally with about seven longitudinal
villous ridges, come off at the distance of three and a half inches
from the anus.

The eyes are of moderate size ; the eyelids feathered, but the
lower having at its base a curved bare space. The nostrils are
roundish with an anterior narrow slit, and covered by an ob-
long operculum, which together with a small portion of the
cere, is bare. The external aperture of the ear is circular and
small, measuring only one eighth of an inch across.

The tarsus, which is short, has anteriorly twelve transverse
scutella in each, of the two series, and about ten smaller in each
of the posterior series, the sides scaly. On the hind toe, which
is very small, are five, on the second fifteen, on the third
twenty, and on the fourth fifteen scutella. The claws are rather
short, stout, and blunt. In young birds however they are
longer and more pointed.

The plumage is rather blended, soft, and full, the feathers
ovate or oblong, and rounded ; those of the rump and sides
proportionally much longer. There is a bare space of a bright
red colour behind the eye. The wings are very short, concave,
and much rounded ; the primary quills strong, narrowed, and
obtuse, the fourth longest, the third scarcely shorter, the fifth
about the same length, the first and seventh nearly equal ; the
secondary quills fifteen, the first very short, all rounded and
decurved. The tail is very short, straight, rounded, of sixteen
broadly rounded feathers.

The bill and opercula of the nostrils are light greyish-blue ;
the irides hazel ; the feet pale greyish-blue tinged with yellow ;
the claws dusky. The forehead, a broad band over the eye,
the cheeks, and the throat, are light yellowish-red, that colour
being narrowly edged behind w4th ash-grey. Between the
nostrils is a scarcely observable bandlet of minute black feathers.
The upper part of the head is greyish-brown, with slender yel-
lowish shaft-lines. The upper parts are minutely banded with
dots of brownish-blacky lines of brownish-yellow and grey, with

GREY PARTRIDGE. 221

bars of brownish red, which latter become broader towards the
tail ; the shafts yellowish. The scapulars, wing-coverts, and
secondary quills are darker, and more strongly marked, besides
being conspicuously streaked with yellowish- white, there being
a line of that colour along the centre of each feather. The
primary quills, their coverts, and the alula, are greyish-brown,
widely banded with greyish-yellow. The tail is brownish-red,
the two middle feathers and the edges of the next pair marked
like the back, the tips of all reddish-white. The neck, sides,
and breast are ash-grey, minutely undulated with blackish-
brown ; the feathers of the flanks with a broad subterminal
band of brownish-red, and white shaft-streaks ; those of the
sides of the rump dull yellowish-brown, also longitudinally
streaked, and transversely undulated with dusky. On the
breast is a large, recurved patch of brownish-red or chestnut,
margined with yellowish- white. The feathers of the abdomen,
the lower tail-coverts, and the inner sides of the legs pale yel-
lowish-grey or whitish.

Length to end of tail 12^ inches ; extent of wings 20; wing
from flexure 6^ ; tail 3 ; bill along the ridge Z^, along the edge of
lower mandible 10^ twelfths ; tarsus 1 inch 5^ twelfths ; first toe
/j, its claw /ij ; second toe }§, its claw ^\ ; third toe 1 inch 3i
twelfths, its claw /^ ; fourth toe {|, its claw 3g twelfths.

Female. — The female is a little smaller than the male, and
is similarly coloured, with the following diiferences. The yel-
lowish-red of the face and throat is lighter ; the crown of the
head is marked with small oblong yellowish- white streaks ; the
upper parts are darker, their bands larger, and their longitu-
dinal yellowish-white streaks broader ; the red patch on the
breast is not so large, and sometimes is reduced to a few spots
in the midst of a greyish-white space ; but frequently it does
not diifer much from that of the male.

Length to end of tail 12 inches ; extent of wings 19 ; wing
along the edge 6^ ; tail 3 ; bill along the ridge j% ; tarsus 1 j% ;
middle toe and claw l-[\.

Variations. — Both males and females exhibit considerable

222 PERDIX CIXEREA.

variations in the tints and breadth of the markincrs, the older
birds having them lighter and finer. Individuals white or
cream-coloured, or with numerous w^hite feathers, or with the
tints much faded, are occasionally met w^ith. The variety
named the JMountain Partridge, Perdix montana^ which is
yellowish-red, variegated with yellowish, does not, I believe,
occur in Britain. Although the red spot on the breast is some-
times quite as large in the female as in the male, and therefore
is no criterion, the sexes can be distinguished by the characters
given in the description of the female.

Habits. — The Grey Partridge is generally distributed, being
found in all the lower parts of England and Scotland, with the
exception of some districts in the latter country, such as the
whole range of the Outer Hebrides. Although not peculiar to
cultivated land, it thrives best in those parts that are most
extensively covered with crops, among which it finds compara-
tive security during a considerable part of the year. It is of
rare occurrence in the narrow valleys of the moorlands, and on
the heaths is seldom seen unless in the immediate vicinity of
corn fields. At the same time however, it is fond of ram-
bling into ^vaste or pasture grounds, which are covered with
loncj grass, furze, or broom ; but it does not often enter woods,
and never perches on trees. It runs with surprising speed,
when alarmed or in pursuit of its comj^anions, although in
general, it squats under the apprehension of danger, or when
nearly approached takes flight. Its mode of flying is similar
to that of the Bro^vn Ptarmigan ; it rises obliquely to some
height, and then flies oft' in a direct course, rapidly flapping
its wings, which produce a whirring sound.

The food of this species consists of tender blades of grass or
corn, grain of all the kinds cultivated in this country, pease, even
field beans, seeds of polygona and other small weeds, as well as
of wild orramineae, together with insects, pupae, and larvae. These
substances are ground in the powerful gizzard, with the aid of
numerous small particles of white quartz, which seldom exceed
the eighth of an inch in diameter. A second elaboration takes
place in the coeca ; but as the food of the partridges is more nutri-

GREY PARTRIDGE. 223

tlous than that of the Grouse, these organs are much smaller in
the former birds. They feed principally in the morning and to-
wards night, betake themselves during the middle of the day to
places covered with shrubs or ferns, or bask under the hedges,
having, like other Gallinaceous birds, a propensity to flutter
and sun themselves in dry sheltered places. In the evening,
before betaking themselves to rest, they are often heard in the
fields uttering their harsh, sharp cry, apparently for the pur-
pose of apprising each other of their position, so that the strag-
glers may come up, or the male join his mate. They repose at
night on the ground, generally in an open and comparatively
bare place.

During winter the Partridges keep together in coveys, seek-
ing their food among the stubble ; but early in spring they
separate, and by the beginning of March are generally paired,
although the eggs are not laid until June. The place which
they select for their nest is various, it being found in corn and
grass fields, in pastures, among shrubs, by hedges, sometimes
even by road-sides. It is merely a slight hollow scraped in the
soil, with a few straws, and ultimately contains from ten to
fifteen eggs, of a pale greenish-brown colour, smooth, thick-
shelled ovato-pyriform, averaging an inch and a half in length,
and an inch and a twelfth in their greatest breadth. The cry
of the male is frequent in spring, and at that season he is very
pugnacious, driving off intruders from his territory, and guard-
ing his mate. Although he takes no part in incubation, he re-
mains in the neighbourhood of the nest, and on apprehension
of danger to it comes up and endeavours to entice from it the
person who may have approached too near for its safety.

The young are led about by both parents, who manifest the
greatest anxiety for their safety, and have recourse to the expe-
dients usual among birds of this order and many of the Gralla-
tores to withdraw the attention of intruders from them. So
gi*eat is the affection of the partridge for its young that in the
very cold and wet summer of 1836, as I have been informed by
my friend Mr. Weir of Boghead, several pairs were found dead
in the fields near Bathgate, with their broods under their wings,
they having perished under the influence of cold and hunger

224 PERDIX CIXEREA.

rather than expose their teuder charge to the iucleiiieiicy of tlie
weather. Mr. Selby relates that two partridges, to protect
their young brood from a Carrion Crow, gave battle to the
ravenous bird, and actually held him until he was seized and
taken from them by a person who happened to be engaged in
a field in the neighbourhood. The principal food of the young
is insects and larvre, and especially those of ants ; at least al-
most all authors so allege, and I am unable to confirm or con-
tradict the statement, not having dissected them at this early
stage. During autumn and winter the brood remain ^vith their
parents, and towards the commencement of the latter season,
several families sometimes unite into a pack.

Partridge-shooting is a favourite and exciting diversion,
which, in districts aboimdiug in this kind of game, is liberally
engaged in. But. notwithstanding the vast numbers annually
destroyed, these birds seem to be rather increasing than dimi-
nishing in number, so that, as an article of food, they are not
beyond the reach of the middle classes of society, the average
price of a pair being hah-a-crovm.

Young. — At first, the bill is greyish-brown, the tip of the
upper mandible yellowish. The general colour of the do^vn
is li^ht greyish-yellow ; the forehead, sides of the head and
neck, back, sides and wings, marked ^vith black spots ; the top
of the head chestnut-bro^ATi. patched with brownish-black ;
the wings and rump clouded with brown : the feet yellowish-
brown. The yoimg of the Brown Ptarmigan are very similar,
but have the top of the head darker, the fore-neck more brown.
and are always easily distinguished by ha^'ing the tarsi and
toes covered with down.

When fledged, they have the bill and feet greyish-brown,
the face and throat pale yellowish-red. the upper parts greyish-
brown, barred with brownish-black, the wings and scapulars
patched with brownish-red.

Progress toward Maturity. — After their first moult they
resemble the old birds, but are darker above, with larger mark-
ings ; the red patch on the breast is smaller, in the females

GREY PARTRIDGE. 225

generally wanting ; and the four middle tail-feathers are
barred.

Remarks. — The Partridge thrives in a state of captivity
when properly fed, but refuses to breed in that condition. It
is said by authors to be very extensively distributed in Europe
and Africa ; and, although a permanent resident in some coun-
tries, to be migratory in others. As might be expected in a
bird apparently so dependent upon the labours of man for shel-
ter and subsistence, the Partridge varies considerably in size,
it being found that in the valleys of the hilly and little culti-
vated districts it usually attains a smaller size than in the rich
plains, where it finds an abundant supply of nutritious food.
Even birds and quadrupeds which do not approach the haunts
of man exhibit considerable diversity in this respect, according
to the scarcity or abundance of food in the districts inhabited
by them ; but it is chiefly, I believe, in the phytophagous tribes
that this takes place. Slight differences as to size in Ptarmi-
gans can no more be accounted specific distinctions than in
Partridges, and the dimensions of the latter vary just as much
as those of the former.

226

ORTYX. COLIN.

The Colins, which are peculiar to the American Continent,
form a group, distinguished from the Quails and Partridges
more especially by the greater thickness and depth of their
bills. They resemble the former in having the tarsi destitute
of spurs or tubercles, but differ from them in having a rather
strong, rounded, straight tail, a bare space behind the eyes, and
rounded wings. Their principal characters are as follows :

Bill very short, remarkably stout, rather broad at the base,
high, compressed towards the end. Upper mandible with its
dorsal outline arched from the base, where the ridge is narrow
but convex, the sides sloping and a little convex, the edges
direct and overlapping, the tip rounded. Lower mandible
with the angle broad and rounded, the dorsal outline slightly
convex, the back broad and convex, the edges involute. The
gape-line nearly straight and ascending for two-thirds of its
length, then decurved.

Nostrils linear, covered above by a bare horny oblong oper-
culum. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered ; but with
a bare space behind. External ears of moderate size, round.

Head ovate, a little compressed. Body compact, full. Legs
short and stout ; tarsi short, stout, compressed behind, anterior-
ly covered with two series of scutella, about fourteen in each,
posteriorly with two series of scales meeting so as to form a
sharp edge, and without spur or tubercle. Toes rather long
and stout ; first very small and elevated, second and fourth
equal, third much longer. Claws of moderate length, com-
pressed, slightly arched, rather blunt.

Plumage blended or compact, the feathers ovate, those on
the upper part of the head generally elongated. Wings short,

ORTYX. COLIN. 227

broad, concave, much rounded ; primary quills incurved, the
third, fourth, fifth, and sixth longest; secondary quills decurved,
rounded, the inner long. Tail of moderate length, much
rounded.

The Colins are intermediate between the Partridges and
Quails, from both which groups they are readily distinguished
by the form of their bill, although at first sight one can
scarcely perceive much difference in their general appearance.
They are migratory birds, having habits similar to those of the
Partridges, frequenting bushy places, breeding on the ground,
and feeding on seeds and other parts of vegetables. Their
pugnacity at least equals that of the other groups, and they are
not less gregarious. One species, Ortyx borealis, the Virginian
Colin, has been reared in several preserves in England, and is
said to be naturalized in Sussex, so that it has nearly an equal
claim to our consideration as the Red Partridge.

228

ORTYX VIRGINIANA. THE VIRGINIAN COLIN.

VIRGINIAN PARTRIDGE. NORTHERN COLIN.

Tetrao Virginianus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 277.

Perdix Virginiana. Lath. lud. Orn. 11. 650.

Quail or Partridge. Perdix Virginiana. Wils. Amer. Orn. VL 21.

Virginian Partridge. Perdix Virginiana. Audub. Orn. Biog. I. 388.

Perdix Virginiana. Virginian Partridge. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 173.

Male tcith the upper parts hrownish-red^ xariegated with
black ; throat and a broad band over the eye white^ loral space,
and a broad band passing down the neck and crossing it in
front, black ; lower parts greyish-white, undulated with black.
Female icith lighter tints, the throat and a band over the eye
light yellowish-red.

The Virginian Colin is considerably larger than the Com-
mon Quail, and presents the general proportions of the Grey
Partridge, but with the bill stouter. The markings on its
neck resemble those of the Red Partridofe.

o

]\Iale. — The plumage is soft and rather glossy, the feathers
generally ovate and rounded ; those on the upper part of the
head longish, forming an erectile tuft ; those on the sides
elongated. The quills are twenty-three, and the tail-feathers
twelve. The wings are short and much rounded, the fourth
quill longest, the fifth next, the third and seventh about equal.
The tail is short and much rounded.

The bill is black ; the feet bluish-grey tinged with brown,
the claws dusky. The fore part of the head is black, of which
colour a band passes over the eye, between which and it is a
broad band of white, extending from the bill to halfway down
the neck. A black band from beneath and behind the eye,
down the neck, enlarging, and meeting its fellow in front, the

VIRGINIAN COLIN. 229

throat above it being white. Top of the head chestnut red,
the central part of the feathers black ; hind part and sides of
neck variegated with chestnut, black, and w^hite. The upper
parts are light brownish-red, slightly barred w^ith black, of
which colour chiefly are the feathers on the middle of the
back ; those on the rump having a central band or streak of
the same. The quills are greyish-brown, the inner secondaries
variegated like the back. Tail greyish-blue, undulated towards
the end with yellowish-red. The lower part of the fore-neck
and the breast are greyish-white, transversely undulated with
black ; the feathers on the sides bright brownish-red, w^ith
lateral sinuous black lines and w^hite marginal spots. Lower
tail-coverts light yellowish-red, with central dusky streaks and
w^hitish tips.

Length to end of tail 9i inches ; bill along the ridge 74
twelfths, along the edge of lower mandible i\ ; wing from
flexure 4/^ ; tail 2^ ; tarsus Vj%; hind toe j%, its claw 2i
twelfths ; second toe j\, its claw j^^ ; third toe 1 inch 2i
twelfths, its claw j% ; fourth toe lOi twelfths; its claw 3i
twelfths.

Female. — The female is somewhat smaller, and differs con-
siderably in colouring. The throat and sides of the head, with
the band over the eye, being light yellowish-browm ; the former
margined w^ith black, brown and yellowish-red spots. The
upper parts are paler than in the male, the tail more un-
dulated with red and greyish-white. The lower part of the
fore-neck and the breast light red ; the rest of the lower parts
nearly as in the male.

Length to end of tail 9 inches ; bill along the back 6i
twelfths; wing from flexure 5i ; tarsus \j% ; middle toe and
claw 1-1%,

Remarks. — With the habits of this species, as observed in
Britain, I am not acquainted ; and as its description in this
respect belongs peculiarly to the authors of the Faunas of its
native country, I must refer the reader to Mr. Audubon's
Ornithological Biography, where he will find a very interest-

230 ORTYX VIRGINIAXA.

ing account of it. Judging from his and Wilson's accounts, it
seems very probable that the species would thrive in all parts
of Britain. The above descriptions I have been obliged to take
from American skins, not having been able to procure English
specimens, which it seems are not easily obtained, as Mr.
Jenyns, who resides nearer their head-quarters, states that his
account is copied from Temminck. Mr. Audubon states that
it " has been introduced into various parts of Europe, but is
not much liked there, being of such pugnacious habits as to
drive off the common Grey Partridge, which is considered a
better bird for the table/'

231

COTURNIX. QUAIL.

The Quails are birds, generally of small size, which by the
older writers were considered as forming part of their genus
Perdix, but which have been by recent ornithologists not im-
properly formed into a distinct genus, of which the characters
are as follows.

Bill very short, moderately stout, rather compressed. Upper
mandible with its dorsal outline sloping at the base, then ar-
cuato-declinate, the ridge narrowed at the base by the nasal
membranes, towards the end narrow, but convex, the sides
convex, the edges direct, the tip narrow. Lower mandible
with the angle short and rounded, the dorsal outline straight,
the back convex, the edges involute.

Nostrils linear, covered above by a bare horny oblong oper-
culum. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered. External
ears of moderate size, roundish.

Head oblong, small, the forehead rather flattened. Body
ovate, compact. Legs short and moderately stout ; tarsi short,
compressed, stout, anteriorly covered with two series of square
scutella, about twelve in each, posteriorly with two series of
scales meeting so as to form a sharp edge ; and without spur
or tubercle. Toes slender ;. first very small and elevated, se-
cond considerably shorter than fourth ; third a good deal longer
than the latter.

Plumage generally compact, the feathers ovate. Wings
short, broad, slightly convex ; primary quills incurved, broad,
but at the end tapering, the three outer nearly equal, the rest
slowly graduated ; secondary quills rounded, about twenty.
Tail very short, much rounded, of twelve feeble, decurved,
rounded feathers, concealed bv the coverts.

232 COTURNIX. QUAIL.

The Quails differ from the Partridges chiefly in having the
head entirely feathered ; the wings straighter and more pointed,
with the secondary quills shorter ; the tail much smaller, so as
to be concealed by the neighbouring feathers, and decurved ;
and the feet weaker, without any knob or tubercle on the tar-
sus. They are extensively distributed on the old continent,
and some of them at least are migratory. The males are said
to be polygamous, and extremely pugnacious. In most other
respects these birds resemble the Partridges, living on seeds of
gramineffi and other plants, herbaceous subsiances, and insects,
and residing in grassy pastures, cultivated fields, and shrubby
-svastes. Only one species occurs in Britain, w^here it is merely
a summer visitant, although occasionally individuals have been
met with in winter.

233

COTURNIX DACTYLISONANS. THE COMMON
QUAIL,

Tetrao Coturnix. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 278.

Perdix Coturnix. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 651.

La Caille. Perdix Coturnix. Temm. Man. d'Om. II. 49 L

Perdix Coturnix. Common Quail. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 174.

Upper parts I'ariegated with reddish^ (j^^y-> (^^^^d hroxcnuh-hlack^
and marked icith whitish longitudinal pointed streaks, of which
are three bands on the head. Male with the throat dark hrown^
and a double interriqjted black band on the fore-neck. Female
u'ith the throat yeUoicish-grey.

Male. — This beautiful bird, the smallest of its order found
in Britain, being inferior in size to the Corn Crake, has its
colours disposed in so intricate a manner that it is difficult to
describe them. The plumage is soft and rather glossy, the
feathers generally ovate on the upper parts, and oblong on the
lower. The quills are twenty, and the tail-feathers fourteen.
The first three primaries are of almost equal length, but the
second is the longest ; the second and third slightly cut out on
the outer web near the end, the first with a slight sinus on the
inner edge.

The bill is greyish-brown above, greyish-blue beneath, the
tips yellow^ish. The feet and claws greyish-yellow. The
upper part of the head and hind-neck is black, the feathers
edged w^th brown ; a narrow band of yellowish- white, formed
by central marks on the feathers, occupies the middle of the
head ; and a broader band of feathers of the same colour passes
over each eye and down the side of the neck. The upper parts
are variegated with brownish-black, light red, and yellowish-
grey, and on the back and scapulars are four longitudinal bands
of yellowish-white pointed streaks. The wings are wood-

234 COTURNIX DACTYLISONANS.

brown, banded on the outer webs with pale red, the first quill
with its outer edge white. The tail dark brown, centrally marked
and transversely barred with whitish. There is a longitudinal
band of dusky brown on the throat, of which the sides are
light reddish-brown mottled with whitish ; the loral space and
a double crescent on the fore-neck brownish-black. The sides
of the neck and the fore part of the breast are light yellowish-
brown or reddish, the former spotted with black and yellowish-
white, the latter marked with whitish shaft-lines. The middle
of the breast, abdomen, and lower tail-coverts are of a paler
tint approaching to whitish ; the sides light brownish-red, each
feather with a central band of white, edged with brownish-
black.

Length to end of tail 8 inches ; extent of wings 14; wing
from flexure 4i ; tail If ; bill along the ridge ^^ ; tarsus 1 ^-^^ ;
middle toe |§, its claw 3§ twelfths.

Female. — The female is similarly coloured above, but with
the longitudinal streaks shorter and tinged with yellowish -red.
The throat is reddish-w^hite, without crescentic dark bands ;
the sides and fore part of the neck, and the fore part of the
breast are light yellowish-red, spotted with brownish-black.

Length to end of tail 7i inches ; wing from flexure 4^ ;
tarsus 1 ; middle toe and claw ly^^.

Variations. — In old individuals the tints are brighter and
deeper than in younger ones ; but the variations are not other-
wise very remarkable. Individuals occasionally occur in coun-
tries w^here this bird is common, of a pure or yellowish- white
colour, sometimes dusky all over, or spotted with white ; but
with us variations of this kind must be very rare, as I have
not met with any in the museums.

Habits. — The Common Quail is, according to authors, ge-
nerally distributed over Europe, and a great part of Asia and
Africa. In the former region it is migratory, arriving in the
beginning of summer, and departing in September, generally
in vast straggling flocks. In the countries on the Mediter-

COMMON QUAIL. 235

ranean, their arrival is watched with anxiety, and prodigious
slaughter is made among them, by means of nets and guns,
the greater part of the male population being on the alert, and
a kind of jubilee kept, similar to that described by Wilson,
Audubon, and Cooper, as held in America, when the migra-
tory Pigeons extend their dense masses over the country. Ac-
cording to an eye-witness, " enviable is the lot of the idle ap-
prentice, who, with a borrowed old musket or pistol, no matter
how unsafe, has gained possession of the farthest accessible
rock, where there is but room for himself and his dog, which
he has fed with bread only all the year round for these delight-
ful days, and which sits in as happy expectation as himself for
the arrival of the Quails.""* They perform their flights in the
evening, or by moonlight, or early in the morning, and rest
during the day, when it is necessary for them to procure food.
As they advance northward, some remain in all the districts
over which they pass, until at length they are all dispersed, when
they commence the important arrangements for rearing their
broods. The males are extremely pugnacious, and indeed are in
some countries trained for fighting, so that when they meet each
other in their haunts they engage in desperate combats; and it is
asserted that they are of a roving disposition, and in fact poly-
gamous, which however seems doubtful, for during the breed-
ing season each female seems to have a mate, who, although he
leaves her to incubate, yet joins her when she leads forth her
young, of which he assists in taking charge. The food of the
Quail consists of seeds, herbage, and occasionally insects ; and
its haunts are chiefly the cultivated fields and pastures, where it
continues during the season, never entering the woods or perch-
ing. The nest is a slight hollow scraped in the loose soil, with
some dry blades, on which it deposits its numerous eggs, which
sometimes amount to twenty. They are of a regular oval form,
having a ground-colour varying from yellowish- white to reddish-
yellow or greenish, and marked all over with brown spots and
blotches, in which respect they more resemble those of the
Grouse than of the Partridges. The males utter a loud shrill
cry, composed of several notes, which have been considered as
constituting a kind of song, in consequence of which these birds

230 COTURNIX DACTYLISONANS.

are often kept in cages on the continent. Quails are caught
in various ways, usually by nets or traps, into which they are
led by imitating their cries ; and in autumn are shot like other
field game.

Their arrival in England takes place about the middle of
May. They never appear with us in great numbers, but com-
ing quietly, like the Corn Crake, spread over the country un-
observed, and are pretty generally distributed, although no-
where plentiful, and in the northern counties very rare. It is
seldom that they are now met with in Scotland ; yet even
there the species is not to be considered as one of the very
rarest birds, as specimens now and then come into the hands
of the bird-stuffers. I have heard of its occurring in Moray-
shire ; but the most northern locality known to me with cer-
tainty is the parish of Towie in Aberdeenshire, whence my
friend Mr. Craigie sent me twelve eggs that were found in a
grass field by a mower. They are from an inch and a twelfth
to an inch and two-twelfths long, their greatest transverse dia-
meter ten-twelfths or a little more, reddish-wdiite tinged with
green, dotted and spotted all over with dark brown.
- The Quail is the smallest and the last in order of our Ra-
sores. In appearance and habits it shews some aflSnity to a few
of our Huskers, especially the Corn Bunting, as well as to the
Lark, and more especially the Corn Crake, which belong to dif-
ferent orders.

237

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

FIRST LESSON.

FLIGHT OF BIRDS. DISTINCTION OF SPECIES INTO PERMANENT, MIGRA-
TORY, AND ACCIDENTAL VISITANTS. CHARACTER OF AN ORNITHO-
LOGIST. CRITICAL REMARKS ON FANCIFUL AFFINITIES. COMMON
BIRDS.

However interesting it may be to examine the structure of
birds, compare the diversified forms w^hich they present, and
collect from the writings of authors whatever has reference to
the species with which we are desirous of being intimately ac-
quainted, our task cannot be satisfactorily completed until we
go forth and study their characters for ourselves, as they are
exhibited by the living objects pursuing their ordinary avoca-
tions. Wherefore, good Pupil, having prepared you for ob-
serving the animals to which we purpose to devote our attention
for a time, by entering upon considerations relative to their
organization, classification, and nomenclature, and by giving
in detail the history of an entire group, I believe we cannot
do better than equip ourselves for a walk, which I hope will
be a pleasant one, the day being fine, and this, the end of Oc-
tober, the very season of all best adapted for an ornithological
ramble.

With all my heart. I suppose I need no preparation, as I
am no shot, and will be content with witnessing your exploits.
vSo let us start.

This Newington is a pleasant place. You are here ready
to step into the fields whenever you please. The city is behind,
and the hills lie before us. You perceive Libberton Kirk on
the height, the Braid Hills to the right, Craigmillar to the
left, extensive fields now bared by the sickle, and some patches
of wood, in which we may find objects to interest us. In the

238 rilACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

meantime you observe the flocks of Sparrows that harbour in
the hedges, now keeping up an incessant chatter, and presently
all mute. They have a merry time of it : the fields aiford
them an abundant store of wheat and oat seeds. See how
they drop one by one, now in groups, among the stubble. Let
us go near.

There they rise, and fly back to the hedge. But is it not a
foolish thing to chase sparrows ?

The folly of chasing sparrows depends upon the object you
have in view. If the divine wisdom and power have been exer-
cised in creating them, and the good providence of God display-
ed in caring for them, it cannot be foolish in us to study their
habits, provided we look upon them with relation to the au-
thor of their being. However, let us go on : they have flown,
and you see that they move about in flocks, that is, are gre-
garious at this season, as many species of small birds are
in winter, the Lark, for example. Linnets, and Buntings.
Before us are some birds in the hedge, Chafnnches, which, as
you observe, fly in a manner somew^hat different from that of
the Sparrows. Then, the Rooks, which you see high in the
air, moving steadily and sedately along, with regularly-timed
beats of their expanded wings, and now, as if seized with some
sudden panic, or impelled by some frolicsome propensity, dash-
ing down headlong, crossing each other, whirling and undulat-
ing : how diflerent is their flight from that of those Wood
Pigeons, which advance w^ith rapidity, moving their wings with
quick strokes, and making the air whistle as they glide along ;
while the two w4iite Gulls, with their outstretched, long, arched
wdngs, float buoyantly in the clear sky, bending gently to either
side, as they advance from the sea.

There certainly is a striking difference. I never thought of
comparing the flights of birds.

In time you will be able to distinguish by their modes of
flying, small birds so distant that you cannot perceive even the
general tints of their plumage. Birds might be classed by their
flight, and an arrangement having that faculty for its basis,
would, I believe, prove as useful as one founded on the form of
the feet, or of any other organ. But there goes a Wren. See

FLIGHT OF BIRDS. 239

what a right forward, short, whirring flight the little thing has ;
how it flits along the fence, perches on a stum]3, jerks up its
tail, chirps its small sharp notes, nods and becks, and is off.
There too a Hedge-Sparrow, which some call Shufflew^ing,
from a habit of slightly raising and shaking its wings ; it hops
away very quietly but nimbly, gets among the roots, shifts along,
and flies in under the brambles, where it conceives itself secure.

AVell, all this is very amusing, but of what use ? What is
the amusement of school-boys cannot w^ith propriety be the
sober pursuit of men.

We are all school-boys, or at least scholars, and when we
forget that w^e are so, we become fools. If we go to the school
of Nature, and study God's providence, w^e can be better em-
ployed only when in the school of revelation w^e study God's
grace. Let us ever retain our school-boy feelings, so long as
they are innocent. There is a freshness of heart manifest in
every real lover of nature, — a delightful feeling, gratif^dng not
to one's self only, but to his companions. When it is gone,
and the frost of worldly wisdom has chilled the affections, the
naturalist becomes a pompous, pedantic, stiff-necked, cold-
blooded thing, from which you shrink back unwittingly. I
have the pleasure of being familiar with an ornithologist who
has spent thirty years in study ; who has ransacked the steam-
ing swamps of Louisiana, traversed the tangled and trackless
woods of the Missouri, ascended the flowery heights of the Alle-
ghanies, and clambered among the desolate crags of cold and
misty Labrador ; who has observed, and shot, and drawn, and
described the birds of half a continent. Well, what then I Has
this man the grave and solemn croak of that carrion-crow, or
the pertness and impudence of that pilfering jackdaw. No, I
have seen him chasing tom-tits with all the glee of a truant
school-boy, and have heard him communicate his knowledge
w^th the fervour and feeling of a warm-hearted soul, as he is.
Why, the man of all men for a naturalist, is he who watches
larks in the fields, pursues dippers by the brooks, wades into
bogs after snipes, climbs trees to get at crows' eggs, thinks
nothing of fording the Esk in the midst of a snow-storm, or of
scouring Guillon Sands in the dog-days. After all, tempera-

'240 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

ment, education, and rank, must modify the vivacity of the
individual. Wilson, the Scotch ornithologist of America, was
grave and distant and discontented ; yet he was a true lover of
nature ; — Bufl'on, vain and affable, and self-satisfied ; and he
too was a distinguished naturalist ; — Linna3us, hasty, vindic-
tive, and egregiously conceited ; and yet his merits were such,
that all the outcries of his numerous detractors will never
drown the clear bold notes of praise that have been raised to
him by those who could best estimate his faculties.

It is indeed difficult to judge of character, and impossible to
determine motives, unless in certain cases, where there are
manifest indications. But there goes a Magpie : run, and have
a shot at him.

It is needless to pursue : a magpie chase is generally as
fruitless as a wild-goose one. It is a cunning bird, sly, and
sagacious ; a wag too, if we may judge by its tail ; a genuine
chatterer, though not a Bohemian. Here is a flight of small
birds drifting over the trees. Ah, there — a Sparrow -Hawk.

You have hit. Down he comes whirling through the air.
He has got on his back, the fierce little fellow ! How he
clutches the cane, and screams. Shall I kill him ?

Do : — ^lie is doomed, and it is well to terminate his woes at
once. Hit him on the back of the head. By the by, there
are several ways of killing a wounded bird. One is to take it
by the body and knock its head against the gun, which is not
always effectual, for I have seen birds so stunned revive a long
time after. Another is to press the ribs against the heart with
^-^our finger and thumb, and this is an excellent method. But
the best of all, because the quickest and surest, is to thrust a
pin between the occipital bone and first cervical vertebra, and
cut the spinal cord, which extinguishes life in an instant.

It is a barbarous business this practical ornithology of yours,
and one not well adapted for benevolent persons.

Say not so ; a surgeon is not necessarily a savage. Ladies
indeed cannot become practical ornithologists, although they
make no scruple in spitting insects ; nor, I believe Quakers,
who, although they will not kill cows, yet eat beef. I cannot
account for these inconsistencies. Botany is the best study for

HABITS OF BIRDS. 241

ladies and other gentle beings ; and geology for the stout-
hearted rough-shod gentlemen who do not choose to stick
beetles on pieces of cork, or fumble among piles of paper for
dry blades. For my part, I have tried them all, but the study
of Birds and Quadrupeds, with the aid of powder and shot, is
that which I prefer ; and I know few occupations more de-
lightful than that of poring over the entrails of a rare bird until
you have satisfied yourself as to some minute point of structure.

De gustibus nil, as the saying is. Let us go on. It is a
lovely day. The few remaining leaves of the poplars have as-
sumed a bright yellow tint, and the red foliage of the beeches
rustles like a corn-field in an autumnal breeze. Few flowers
are now to be seen.

Not many : there is the purple knapweed ; the w^hite dead-
nettle by the hedge ; the ragwort in the field ; plenty of wild
mint, chick weed, and groundsel among the stubble. Were
it summer, we should find several beautiful plants on these
clinkstone rocks ; the delicate Dianthus deltoides, the glowing
Lychnis viscaria, the rare Potentilla argentea. This is Black-
ford Hill, which they are fast demolishing for road-metal. The
hills on the other side are of clay stone.

What bird is that in the field I It stands, runs forward,
hops a little way, stops, falls a picking at the ground, swallows
something, stands again, and hops along. There are several.
One utters a hoarse scream, and they are all off.

By your description I should readily know the birds. They
are Missel Thrushes, the largest of the family. They too, you
observe, have a peculiar flight, somew^hat like that of a Spar-
row-Hawk, but with intermissions of the beats of the wing at
regular intervals. They are shy enough now% but very bold in
the breeding season, so as to drive oft' the prowling ^lagpie,
and even attack the smaller birds of prey. See, far off in the
field, a flock of birds, darker, but having similar habits. They
are Fieldfares, winter visitants, which appear in flocks about
the end of October, and leave us in April or May. Such birds
are termed migratory, and w^e have some that arrive in spring,
breed here, and return southward in autumn, as the Wheatear,
Corn Crake, Cuckoo, and Quail ; and some that spend the winter

242 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

in Britain and other temperate countries, arriving in autumn,
and leaving us in spring for the northern regions, in which they
rear their young. The Woodcock, the Fieldfare, the Red-
wing, and the Snow Bunting, are of this latter kind. Again,
there are birds that make their appearance in flocks, or soli-
tarily, at uncertain periods, or once in many years, and these
are called stragglers, or rare visitants. Those birds, on the
other hand, such as the Rook, the Sparrow, and the Partridge,
that remain with us all the year round, are said to be perma-
nent residents. The birds of all kinds that occur in Britain
in a wild state amount to nearly three hundred species.

Hark ! what a singular cry that stout little bird on the top-
twig utters.

Yes, an Orcadian naturalist called it a skirls some one else a
reessle. It is the Corn Bunting. You perceive that its legs
dangle, or rather hang, for some time, as it flies off", at first
with a straight whirring flight ; but now^ it speeds away, rising
and falling. The best sample of an undulating flight, however,
3^ou have in that Wagtail, high over head, that shoots past like
an arrow, ascends with a rapid motion of its wrings, closes them,
and darts along, then descends, and mounts again, describing
Hogarth's line of grace, or the curve of gently-heaving billows.
These Partridges fly in quite a diiferent style : — whirr, up,
away, right forward, their short concave wings flapping smartly;
then a short sail, with stift- stretched pinions, — and again whirr.
ISIost of the Gallinaceous birds fly in the same manner. The
sportsman coming up behind the fence will have a shot presently.

Is it not cruel after all to shoot birds, especially for mere
sport ?

Perhaps it is. Some kill birds for food; and I suppose
they do right. Others slaughter them to make money ; and
possibly they too are blameless. Some shoot for study, and
some to supply the naturalists and the museums with speci-
mens. Consider what would become of us if we had no skins.
All the binary, ternary, and quinary arrangements; the rank and
file extensions ; the circular, inosculant, anastomosing, normal,
and aberrant delineations would never have existed had there
been no skins to arrange on the carpet. W^ithout skins for

REMARKS ON FANCIFUL SYSTEMS. 243

comparison, how could the marvellous discovery have been
made, that the snout of a Nasua, and the "Avocetta,"" were
" as like as it is possible, considering that one is a quad-
ruped and the other a bird." The proboscis of an Elephant
you could hardly conceive to be the counterpart of a Snipe's
bill ; nor the horn of a Highland Bullock that of a Game-
Cock's spur ; nor can I comprehend how a hea\'y short- winged
Black Grouse should " represent in its own circle " the light,
aerial, long-pinioned swallow, merely because both have a
forked tail. But a real systematist thinks no more of swallow-
ing a palpable absurdity than a Boa Constrictor does of en-
gulphing a curly-headed " nigger "' — poor fellow. As to the
persons who shoot birds for mere sport, all I can say of them
is that they are mere sportsmen. I have known very good
men among them, and bad ones too.

But, in good earnest, do you say that in your classifications
a Cow's horn is equivalent to a Cock's spur.

In the classification of some, certainly not in mine. " These
appendages," says a writer whose book, just come out, I have
put into my pocket, having found it so interesting that I
thought a passage or two from it might amuse you, " are ana-
logous, and perform the same functions as the horns of the
ruminating quadrupeds, which represent this order in the
circle of the mammalia. It is very curious, indeed, to trace the
numberless points of analogy between these two groups, and
to see how nature herself, in despite of their different forms,
makes them to represent each other. Rasorial birds and un-
gulated quadrupeds (ungulata) are the only vertebrated animals
which defend themselves by kicking their enemies."

You surprise me ; but are you not in jest ?

There : Read for yourself. The singularity of a fact is no
proof of its want of authenticity. But, for my part, I can per-
ceive no analogy between a spur and a horn, further than that
they are both somewhat similar in form and structure. The
horn of an Ox is a bony excrescence covered with a horny
sheath, and so is the spur of a Cock ; but the latter is the ana-
logue of the first toe of a quadruped, and so is placed on the
foot ; while the former, being situated on the head, can scarcely

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HABITS OF BIRDS. 245

searches the bark, commencing at the bottom and ascending
to the twigs, then flies off, and alights near the base of another
tree. The activity of these tiny creatures is astonishing, for
you may watch them for hours without observing the least in-
termission in their labour, if labour it may be called. Let us
now cross the hill in the direction of Gilmerton. Some larks
spring up from among the grass, with a peculiar flittering and
undulating motion, and the pipits which you hear emitting their
sharp notes, fly as if hesitating which way to direct themselves.

A full corn-yard is a very pleasant sight. These stacks are
neatly built, and doubtless a judicious plan it is to support
them on cast-iron props. Here is a small stream. Do you
see that white spot by the burn ? It moves. Is it foam ?

No, the Dipper, or, as it is here called, the Water Crow ; a
pleasant, active, little bird, ever found by streams, but by no
means by burns or brooks only, being as often seen on our
largest rivers, as the Tay and the Tweed. It feeds upon aquatic
mollusca and insects, for w^hich, although not web-footed, it
dives. There, it shoots past with a rapid, bouncing, direct flight,
very like that of a humble bee. It follows the stream, and now
it perches on a stone. Stay here, and I shall procure it. I
know it well, and can circumvent it.

Let me see it : — a very beautiful little fellow ; black, with
a white throat, and reddish-brown breast. What a number of
holes in the bank !

These are the burrows of the AVater Rat, Articola ampJiihiiis^
which is most easily procured in the evening, or early. One
moves the water among the bur-reeds. No, it is a Water Hen.
Observe how lightly it swims, jerking up its tail, and shewing
the white spot beneath it. Here, take a shot, and be a field
naturalist in earnest. Well done ! you have it. Now, let us
go across the fields. * * *

We have arrived at the Gilmerton limestone. The quarries,
you observe, have been excavated along a continuous line, and
there you see the bed has been followed to a great depth, pillars
being left to support it. Here among the fragments are re-
mains of encrinites, terebratulae, and other organic productions.
The same limestone, after passing under the valley of the Esk,

246 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

rises to the surface at the Roman Camp, and extends over a
portion of East Lothian. Let us seat ourselves on this green
mound, in sight of Arthur's Seat, and all those pleasant knolls
and hollows. Here is a whole thicket of Dog and Downy-
leaved Roses, all in fruit. AVhen the hard weather comes,
these scarlet heps will aiford a temporary supply to the small
birds and thrushes. Do you see the large flock of Gulls hover-
ing over the ploughed field ?

I do. Is it not uncommon to see Gulls so far inland ?

Not in winter. But they are off. Let us get across the
fields to Craigmillar Castle, not regarding game-keepers, of
whom I seldom fall in with more than one in a year, or steel-
traps and spring-guns, of which I have never met with any,
although the notices would have us believe there are scores of
them in every wood. You see there is a considerable number
of birds in this district. First, let us count those that may
occur along the lane : — the Sparrow, the Chafiinch, the Yellow
Bunting, the Blackbird, the Thrush. We have already seen
the Rook, the common Gull, the AVren, the Hedge Sparrow,
the Magpie, the Sparrow-Hawk, the Missel Thrush, the Field-
fare, the Corn Bunting, the Golden-crested Wren, the Black
Tit, the Blue Tit, the Creeper, the Lark, the Common Pipit,
the Dipper, and the Water Hen. Most of these you might
easily procure in a single day. There is the old castle ; but
see, on that very large field, where the ploughs are going,
two flocks of birds, — Gulls and Lapwings. What a glorious
sight ! three hundred at least, beautiful, pure white-breasted
gulls — a sure sign, the farmers say, of bad weather, when
they fly over the land in this manner. They are all up ; they
wheel round, and are ofl" over the trees. I always regret that
these lovely birds should have so vulgar a name as Gulls.
Why a stupid fellow among ourselves, easily cheated, should
be called a gull, is perhaps because that bird may often be
caught with a small fish on a hook. But see, another most
splendid flock of Lapwings, w^ith their large, broad, black
wings, and glancing white sides. I believe there are several
hundreds ; but there is no chance of a shot.

The ruins of Craigmillar Castle, once a favourite residence of

MODE OF STUDY. 247

royalty, now a habitation for Owls and Jackdaws. What a
beautiful view ! Arthur's Seat, with its green and craggy
slopes ; Duddingston, and its quiet lake edged with reeds ;
the grounds and mansion of Sir Robert Dick ; the village of
New^ington ; Edinburgh, with its magnificent castle-rock ;
the Braid Hills, and all the intervening fields and woods.

It is a delightful district for a naturalist to live in. The
numerous eminences afford a great variety of trap or igne-
ous rocks, while the low tracts are composed of the coal for-
mation, having beds of sandstone, shale, ironstone, and lime-
stone, which are easily studied in the numerous quarries, and
in the natural sections along the streams. Various interesting
organic remains have been found in the strata : huge trees in
Craigleith Quarry, teeth and scales of fishes in the Burdie
House limestone, and abundance of shells in that of Gilmerton.
All these the student mav have the advantage of having demon-
strated by the celebrated Professor of Natural History, who is
a field naturalist too. Then, there could not be a better dis-
trict for plants, the science that refers to which finds many
keen cultivators under the guidance of its eminent Professor,
as well as several not less active teachers. Of animals too,
especially birds, there is good store, although I am not ac-
quainted with a single bona fide shooting, dissecting, and col-
lecting ornithologist in the district. In the city there are a
few tolerable libraries, two good museums of natural history
and comparative anatomy ; plenty of societies ; and, I believe,
many excellent people of all classes, although I am not much
acquainted with them, nor they ^vith me.

Let us now cross the fields to gain the highway, return to
our homes, continue our investigations, and, living as much as
possible at peace with all men, endeavour to confer, and be
ready to receive that mutual solace and aid, of which we all
have need in this uncertain and eventful stage of our exis-
tence.

Although a single walk does not make a naturalist, yet the stu-
dent may learn more of the habits of birds in a day in the fields,
provided he take note of every occurrence, and ponder upon it,
than he could in a week in his closet. But in studying ornitho-

248 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

logy it is necessar}^ to have recourse to books and preparations as
well as to the objects, alive or recently killed, themselves. Ac-
cess to a museum will greatly facilitate one's progress, and it is
indispensable to have a collection of skins. Every one cannot
keep a large series of preparations in spirits ; but a few skele-
tons, and skulls of all the common birds may easily be pro-
cured. Some of course make greater progress than others,
and while one prefers the habits of birds, another attaches him-
self more especially to their external distinctive characters, and
a third to their anatomy ; a fourth perhaps studies more parti-
cularly their nidification, and confines his collection to eggs.
But whatever be their progress, whether they be convinced
they have discovered the order of nature, as some have im-
agined they have discovered the perpetual motion, or have
humbler views of their own powers and faculties, there is no
necessity for indulging in contemptuous language towards each
other, as has too often been done by naturalists of all classes.
Nor is it in the least becoming that one whose opinions or as-
sertions are questioned or contradicted, should, in the pride of
a spirit that ill brooks to be thwarted, consider as an indica-
tion of personal hostility the animadversions that may be dic-
tated by a sincere regard to truth. For my own part, I have
resolved never to pass over a serious error when it comes in
my w^ay, and never to seek it out merely for the purpose of
exposing it. If there be men so egregiously puffed up with
their own importance as to believe themselves beyond the
criticism of the humblest conscientious cultivator of science,
they would do well to keep their pride on spare diet. In ac-
cordance with these principles I shall alw^ays be pleased to
have my errors corrected, although certainly it shall be my
endeavour to leave as few as possible for correction. The great
object of ambition ought to be the attainment of truth, not the
support of a favourite theory ; and although I have selected
the digestive organs as preeminently w^orthy of attention, I
have not done so because I have supposed them capable of
affording a key to the natural system, but because the nature
of the food determines not only the form and structure of the
bird, but also the greater part of its daily occupations.

249

II. GEMITORES. CODERS.

OR PIGEONS.

The peculiar characters of this order are those of the single
family of the Columbine, of which, in so far as is known, it is
exclusively composed.

COLUMBINiE.

PIGEONS OB DOVES,

The beautiful, very extensive, and generally distributed fa-
mily of birds commonly known by the names of Pigeons, Doves,
and Turtle-Doves, appears to form an order of itself, separated
by w^ell-defined limits, but yet, as in other cases, presenting
modifications of form indicative of its affinity to conterminous
groups. The peculiar shape of the head and bill, more than
any other external feature, serves to render the different species
readily cognizable as belonging to a single tribe ; for, whatever
may be the size, colour, or even shape of a pigeon, it cannot
be mistaken. But the relations of the family, it would appear,
are not so readily perceived, some of our most approved sys-
tematists having associated them with the Passerine, others
with the Gallinaceous birds, while a few consider them as con-
stituting a distinct group. Linnaeus included them all under
the single genus Columba, which has merely been sectioned by
M. Temminck, and from which M. Vieillot has only separated
two genera under the names of Treron and Lophyrus, while

250 COLUMBINE.

Mr. Swainson and other ornithologists have converted it into
several generic groups, such as Vinago, including the thick-
billed sj^ecies ; Ptilonopus, Columba, Turtur, Ectopistes, Pe-
ristera, and others, characterized by differences in the wings and
tail, and Loj^hyrus, formed by Vieillot of the Great Crowned
Pigeon. The latter seems to connect this family with the
Cracinae, which belong to the Gallinaceous order, while other
groups manifest an affinity to the Partridges and allied genera.

The Pigeons vary much in form, some having the body full,
others slender, while the tail is very short, moderate, or greatly
elongated. In all however, the head, Figs. 52, 53, 54, is small,
oblong, compressed, w^th the forehead rounded, a circumstance
depending partly upon the form of the skull, and partly upon the
absence of feathers at the base of the bill. The latter organ is
characterized more especially by having the nasal membrane
bare, generally scurfy, fleshy and tumid, with the narrow longi-
tudinal nostrils placed under its anterior margin. It varies in
size, but the upper mandible has its ridge always obliterated
at the base by the encroachment of the nasal membranes, and
its extremity horny, arched or convex, more or less compressed,
with a blunt thin-edged point. The tongue is fleshy, tapering
to a point, and triangular in its transverse section. The throat
is very narrow. The oesophagus, PI. VII, Fig. 1, a, ^, c, c?,
e^ f^ g^ is of moderate width, but expanded, or opening into a
large crop, c, (?, e^ /, placed on the lower part of the neck and
the fore part of the breast, and terminates below in an oblong
proventriculus, g^ completely surrounded w4th large oblong glan-
dules. The stomach, /^, «', y, A*, /, is a powerful gizzard of a
somewhat rhomboidal form, and furnished with two very thick
lateral muscles, ?, y, inserted into two tendinous centres, /, with
an inferior thinner muscle, Ic^ inserted into the same tendons.
The middle coat is thick and somewhat cartilaginous ; the inner
or cuticular with two thick elliptical, transversely rugous plates,
the parts opposite the edges of the organ thinner and also ru-
gous. The intestine, m^ n^ o, p^ ^, r, is long and slender ; the
coeca, Fig. 4, c, ^, very small and cylindrical ; the rectum, b, c,
very short, and but slightly enlarged.

The tarsi are generally short and stout, either scutellate or
feathered. The foot, Figs. 50, 51, is of that kind equally adapted

PIGEONS. 251

for walking and perching, having three toes before and one be-
hind ; the middle toe considerably longer than the two lateral,
which are nearly equal, and the hind toe directed backwards and
shorter than the lateral. They are covered above with numerous
short scutella, laterally margined, beneath flat and papillate.
The claws are short, compressed, moderately arched, rather
blunt.

The plumage is various, so that no general character can be
derived from it, further than that the feathers have the tube
very short, the shaft commonly thick, and are entirely desti-
tute of the accessory plumule, which is largely developed in
the Gallinaceous birds. The wings are for the most part large,
more or less pointed, with the second, third, and fourth quills
longest ; but the primary quills vary in form, and present seve-
ral very curious modifications. The tail is even, rounded,
cuneate or graduated.

The skeleton of the Pigeons diifel-s very materially from that
of the Gallinaceous birds. The skull is small, oblong, com-
pressed ; the jaws slender, the lower considerably bent, and
without an aperture or vacant space in its ramus. It bears a
great resemblance to that of the Common Plover, Lapwing,
and other Cursores. The intermaxillary bone is extremely
slender, the nasal bones, which are joined to it on either side,
remarkably small, and the nasal fossa long and slender. There
are generally twelve cervical, seven dorsal, twelve united lumbar
and sacral, and seven coccygeal or caudal vertebra). The middle
three dorsal vertebrae are commonly anchylosed. There are
seven flat ribs, the^first incomplete, and, with the last, destitute
of the thin broad process, with which the rest are furnished.
The sternum. Fig. 49, is very large. On comparing it with
that of a Gallinaceous bird, Fig. 43, the differences and points
of agreement will at once be seen. In the Pigeons, Fig. 49,
the body, ^, c, d^ e^ g^ has the appearance of being broader,
which is owing to the union of the posterior lateral processes,
seen distinct in Fig. 43, ^, which, however, are only partially
united, an aperture. Fig. 49, ^, being still left. The anterior
processes, /, remain free, as in the Gallinaceous birds. The
crest, a, 6, is proportionally large and of great length ; nor is it
obliquely truncate at its anterior part, as in the Rasores.

252

COLUMBlNiE.

Fig. 49.

There is a similar, but smaller, crest-like process, ^, between
the coracoid bones. These latter, /^, ^, are rather stout, but

spread little. The furcula, e,
is very slender, narrow, in the
form of the letter U, and wants
the flattened triangular process
seen at the point of union of its
crura in the Gallinaceous birds.
The scapulae, j, j^ are long,
linear, and slightly deflected at
the end. The humerus is very
short and strong, its crests very
large ; the cubitus a fourth
longer, the ulna curved out-
wards ; there are two distinct carpal bones ; the hand is longer
than the cubitus ; the two metacarpal bones are united at the
ends, the inner curved and very slender; the first phalanx united,
broad, and thin-edged ; the last phalanx long, tapering, with
a thin edge ; the pollex trigonal and pointed. The bones of
the pelvis are very thin, and the limits of the sacrum are gene-
rally perceptible ; the pubic bone is linear and distinct, an
elongated narrow space being left betw^een it and the ischium.
The obturator foramen is complete, and the sciatic far removed
from the margin. The femur is nearly straight, cylindrical,
and short ; the tibia rather long, the fibula about a third of its
length ; the tarsal bone is flattened transversely. The first toe
has a distinct metatarsal bone, and two phalanges, the second
toe three, the third four, the fourth five phalanges.

The Columbinse feed on vegetable substances, some chiefly
on soft fruits, others on nuts, seeds of grasses and other plants,
some on the herbaceous parts of plants. The process of assi-
milation seems to take place in the following manner. The
bird gradually fills its crop with seeds or other vegetable sub-
stances, which scarcely undergo any change there, it being to
appearance merely a receptacle. A portion being introduced
into the stomach, where it is mixed with numerous particles
of quartz, is there squeezed by the action of the powerful mus-
cles, aided by the rough and dense cuticular lining, and mixed
with the mucous fluid of the proventricular glands. It is then

PIGEONS. 253

forced out by the pylorus, and in the duodenum is reduced to
a thin pulp. In this part of the intestine it seems to undergo
the process of digestion properly so called. Being then farther
diluted by the biliary and pancreatic fluids, it deposits the
chyle in the rest of its course, ^yhich is gradually absorbed, the
residuum becoming thicker, until in the rectum it assumes a
more or less concrete cylindrical form, in which state it is
voided along with the urine. The intestine is about double
the length of that of a rapacious bird of the same size, a circum-
stance probably owing to the greater difficulty of assimilating
vegetable matter. It is also much longer than that of a Gal-
linaceous bird ; but in the latter the difference is made up by
the great develoi^ment of the coeca, which in the Pigeons are
merely rudimentary, that is, extremely small, and secreting a
mucous fluid only.

A great difference between Pigeons and Gallinaceous birds
therefore is found in the structure of the intestine. The oeso-
phagus, crop, and gizzard, are similar in the two orders, as
well as to a certain extent in the thick-billed granivorous birds.

Although their legs are short. Pigeons walk with great ease,
and even celerity. Their flight is very unlike that of the Gal-
linaceous birds, being strong, rapid, and protracted. Their
nests are generally placed on the branches of trees or bushes,
sometimes in holes, and even on the ground. They are formed
of a broad basis of twigs, often without any lining, but also
often lined with various soft substances, and for the most part
flat. The eggs are generally two, elliptical, and pure white ;
but some of the species that reside chiefly on the ground are
said to lay several or numerous eggs. The young are at first
scantily covered with soft down, and are fed with farinaceous
or pulpy substances which have undergone some degree of
maceration in the crop of the parent bird, from the m.outh of
which they receive it by introducing their bill sidewise. In
this respect also the Pigeons differ greatly from the Gallinaceous
birds. In their mode of drinking also a remarkable difference
is observed ; for while they immerse their bill to the base in
the water and drink continuously, the Gallinaceous birds take
a mouthful, elevate their head to enable them to swallow it
with ease, and repeat the action until satisfied. The young

254 COLUMBINiE.

remain in the nest until able to fly, soon after which they are
left to shift for themselves ; whereas the young Rasores follow
their mother abroad immediately after birth, and are never fed
from her mouth, but pick up the substances wdiich she points
out to them.

The Pigeons, like many other birds, are fond of basking in
the sun, and of rubbing themselves in the dust or sand, and
scattering it over them. Their cry is a querulous or plaintive
murmuring sound, more or less resembling the syllables coo^
roo^ and popularly termed cooing. It is chiefly uttered by the
male during the breeding season.

These birds are found in all the warm and temperate parts
of the globe, but are much more abundant, and exhibit the
most beautiful tints, in the former, often rivalling the Parrots
in the splendour of their plumage. Only four species occur in
Britain, three of which are resident, the fourth, the Ringed
Turtle-Dove, migratory, remaining in the south of England
during the summer months. They may be briefly character-
ized as follows : —

GENUS I. COLUMBA. DOVE.

Bill rather short, and slender ; upper mandible tumid and
scurfy at the base, horny, arcuato-declinate, convex above, com-
pressed, thin-edged, towards the end. Wings long, broad, rather
acute, the second and third quills longest. Tail of moderate
length, or rather long, straight, even or slightly rounded, of
twelve broad feathers.

1. Columha Palumhus. Binged Dote ov Cushat. Blue, with
tw^o white spots on the neck, a white patch on the wings, the
breast vinaceous.

2. Columha Lima. White-hacked or Rock Dove. Blue, w^ith
two black bars on the wing, the hind part of the back w^hite,
the breast pale blue.

3. Columha (Enas. Blue-hacked Dote. Blue, with two black
bars on the wing, the back blue, the breast vinaceous.

4. Columha Turtur. Turtle Dote. Brownish above, with
two black spots, of which the feathers are tipped with white,
on the neck.

255

COLUMBA. DOVE.

The species of which the genus Cokmiba is composed, al-
though very numerous, extensively distributed over the globe,
and presenting considerable differences in the texture of their
plumage, agree in possessing the folloAving general characters.

Bill shortish, rather slender, straight, compressed. Upper
mandible furnished at the base with two soft tumid, bare sub-
stances, placed over the nostrils, the dorsal outline straight for
one-half of its length, arcuato-declinate towards the end, the
sides convex, the edges nearly straight and soft for two-thirds
of their length, then decurved, direct, and sharp, the tip obtuse
and edged. Lower mandible at its base wider than the upper,
its crura slender and elastic, the angle long, obtuse, the dorsal
outline short and slightly convex, the sides at the base erect,
towards the end convex, the edges soft at the base, towards the
end hard, sharp and slightly inflected, the tip obtuse but
edged.

Mouth narrow ; mandibles internally concave. Palate nar-
row, with two longitudinal ridges of skin diverging backwards,
the space exterior to them ascending. Posterior aperture of
the nares linear-oblong, smooth -edged, its anterior slit papillate
on the edges, and with a series of small blunt papillae on each
side. No transverse flaps on the palate. Tongue sagittate,
narrow, tapering to a point, triangular in its transverse section,
with a medial groove above, papillate at the base, horny be-
neath towards the end. There are two masses of mucous crypts
in the angle of the lower jaw ; also a series on the lower side
of the tongue on each side towards the base. Aperture of the
glottis defended by acute papillae.

(Esophagus, PL VII, Fig. 1, a, b, c, immediately dilated,

256

COLUMBA. DOVE.

and anterior to the thorax enlarged into a crop, c, c?, e^ /, of
great size, projecting equally on both sides, membranous, and
destitute of glandules. The intrathoracic part of the oesophagus,
y, h^ narrow, its inner membrane raised into longitudinal rugae,
covered with mucous follicles. The proventriculus, ^, with large
but short four-sided glandules. Stomach, ^, j^ k^ /, a power-
ful gizzard of a subrhomboidal form, with the two lateral
muscles, e, y, transverse, the lower, ^, thin, its fibres inserted in
the central tendons, ^, under the rest, the upper fibres, h^ ob-
liquely circular. The middle coat rather thick and tough ; the
inner or cuticular with rather regular longitudinal rugae on
both sides. The cardiac orifice is situated in a transverse de-
pression, between the slight upper lobe and the lateral muscle,
and has no valvular apparatus. Intestine, m^ w, o, />, q^ r,
long, slender, wider in its duodenal fold, «^, ??, o, the rest doubled
in the greater part of its length. Coeca, Fig. 4, c, d, very small,
cylindrical. Rectum, ^, c, very short, slightly enlarged. The
duodenum within is smooth, the rest of the small intestine vil-
lous, the rectum granulated.

Nostrils linear, direct, in the lower and fore part of the nasal
membrane, which, as already mentioned, is thick, fleshy, vaulted,
and scurfy. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids generally bare,
destitute of cilise. External ears of moderate size, roundish,
the tube funnel-shaped.

Head oblong, small, com-
pressed, the forehead promi-
nent. Neck rather short. Body
ovate, compact. Legs short,
rather strong ; tarsi very short,
roundish, anteriorly covered
with one or two series of scu-
tella, behind scurfy. Toes of
moderate size ; the first on the
same level as the rest, direct-
ed backwards, about half the
length of the third ; the second
and fourth intermediate and nearly equal, the outer being very
little longer ; all covered above with numerous short scutella,

Fig. 50.

Fig. 51.

COLUMBA. DOVE. 257

beneath flattened and covered with roundish depressed papillae,
the margins rounded and papillate, without basal webs. Claws
short, arched, compressed, rather acute until worn.

Plumage various, the feathers generally ovate or oblong,
compact, unglossed in the British species, excepting on the
neck. Exotic species however differ in some of the characters
of the plumage ; but all that I have examined agree in the
following respects : — The feathers have extremely short tubes ;
thick, internally spongy shafts ; their downy part extended to
near the end, and the plumule or subsidiary downy feather
wanting. The wings are long, broad, rather pointed, the se-
cond quill longest, the first little shorter ; the quills about
twenty-five ; the primaries somewhat narrowed towards the
end, a few of the outer with obscure indications of a sinus on
the edge of their inner web ; the secondaries broad and oblique-
ly rounded. The tail is generally of moderate length, even
or rounded in various degrees, and composed of twelve broad
feathers.

The genus Columba, as above defined, is composed of birds
varying in size from that of a Crow, Corvus Corone, to that of
a Thrush, Turdus musicus. It has representatives in almost
every habitable part of the globe ; and the species are remark-
able for elegance of form and beauty of colouring. Their
flight is rapid, as might be inferred from the structure of the
wings. They reside in woods, thickets, and rocks, nestling in
elevated j^laces, but usually feeding in the open country. Their
food, consisting of seeds of gramina and other plants, nuts,
fruits of various kinds, with roots, and other parts of vege-
tables, is first deposited in the crop, then pounded in the giz-
zard, reduced to a pulj^y state in the duodenum, deprived of
its nutritious parts in the small intestine, which is longer than
in the Gallinaceous birds, and its refuse passed in a more or
less concrete cylindrical form. They differ from the birds just
mentioned in having the coeca undeveloped, in being destitute
of gall-bladder, and in many other important circumstances
mentioned m the character of the family.

The flight of the Pigeons affords a beautiful example of that
peculiar kind which is direct, rapid, light, and steady. By

258 COLUMBA. DOVE

direct, I mean performed in a straight course without undula-
tions ; by rapid, ordinarily swift, and capable on occasion of
being urged to great celerity ; by light and steady, a kind of
buoyancy, intermediate between the laboured flight of hea^^''
birds, and the wavering motion of those which have very long
wings and a short tail. The flaps of a pigeon's wing are smart,
and the interval occupied in raising and extending the wing is
greater than the time of its downward and inward action. On
this subject I shall take occasion to speak elsewhere, it being
one of great interest. Birds might be classed by their modes
of flight so as to form natural groups, and at least twenty dis-
tinct kinds of flight are presented by the S2:)ecies which inhabit
our own country.

Four species of this genus are found in Britain. Of these,
three, the Kinged Dove, the Blue-backed Dove, and the Rock
Dove, are permanently resident, while the fourth, the Turtle
Dove, is a summer visitant. They agree in forming a rude
flat nest, in having two elliptical, smooth, white eggs, in rear-
ing more than one brood in the year, in uttering a plaintive
murmuring note, in feeding in open places, and in being more
or less gregarious, even in the breeding season.

259

COLUMBA PALUMBUS. THE RINGED DOVE,
OR CUSHAT.

RING DOVE. WOOD PIGEON. CUSHAT. QUEST. CUSHIE DOO.
CALMAN-CHOILLE.

Fig. 52.

Columba Palumbus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 282.

Columba Palumbus. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 60 L

Ring Dove. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Colombe Ramier. Columba Palumbus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 444.

Ring-Dove or Cushat. Columba Palumbus. Selb. Illustr. I. 406.

Columba Palumbus. Ring-Dove. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 161.

Plumage of the upper parts greyish-hlue ; wings and scapulai's
tinged with brown ; hind part and sides of the neck bright green
and purplish-red^ inth two cream-coloured patches ; fore part of
neck and breast light reddish-purple ; a white patch on the wings,
i?icluding the four outer secondary coverts.

Male. — The Ringed Dove, ^yood Pigeon, or Cushat, which
is the largest of our native species, is perhaps not remarkable
for elegance of form or beauty of colouring, when compared
with other birds of this extensive family, although it is by no
means deficient in either quality. It is a strong bird of its
size, having the body large and full, the neck rather short, the
head small, the feet short and strong, the wings and tail rather
long.

s2

260 COLUMBA PALUMBUS.

The bill is of moderate length, rather slender, straight ; the
tumid basal membrane irregularly granulated, the dorsal out-
line of the upper mandible to\Yards the end arcuato-declinate,
the sides convex, the edges straight and soft for two-thirds of
their length, then decurved, direct, horny, the tip obtuse and
edged ; the lower mandible svith the angle long, narrow and
rounded, the dorsal outline slightly convex, the edges sharp
and decurved towards the tip, wdiich is rather acute.

Both mandibles are internally concave, the upper with a
central ridge. The palate is flattened in the central space, and
externally of the two soft diverging ridges slopes upwards.
Parallel to the anterior slit, which is papillate on the margins,
on each side is a single series of small papillae. The oesopha-
gus, which is seven inches and a quarter long, measured from
the base of the tongue to the stomach, dilates immediately, and
continues enlarging, until it is suddenly expanded into a mem-
branous sac, or crop, two inches and a quarter in length, three
inches and a quarter in breadth, and lying across the neck and fore
part of the thorax. On entering the latter, the oesophagus gra-
dually contracts to half an inch. The transverse muscular fibres
are conspicuous, the inner coat smooth until at the lower aper-
ture of the crop, when it is raised into seven longitudinal rugae,
three inches long, converging downwards, and terminating near
the proventriculus. These rugae are covered with mucous
crypts. The proventriculus is one inch long ; its glands ovate
and large. The gizzard is an inch and three-fourths in length,
an inch and a half in breadth, and three-fourths in thickness.
Its muscular coat is composed of two thick lateral muscles, a
lower thin muscle over the fundus, and a series of circular
fibres at the upper part. The middle coat, which is continuous
with the inner membrane of the oesophagus, is thick and tough.
The inner or cuticular coat is marked with regular longitudinal
rugae on the transversely elliptical spaces opposite the thickest
parts of the muscles.

The pylorus is situated in a fissure between a small bulging
and the upper edge of the right muscle, and is destitute of any
valvular apparatus. The intestine is six feet six inches long.
The first fold incloses the pancreas as usual, which is two inches

RINGED DOVE, OR CUSHAT. 261

and a half in length ; it continues ui^wards beneath the right
lobe of the liver, receiving the biliary ducts, then curves down-
wards on the right side, is convoluted on the mesentery, being
for the greater part of its length doubled, the descending por-
tion distinguishable from the ascending by its lighter colour.
The rectum is two inches long ; the coeca four-twelfths of an
inch in length, cylindrical, rather pointed, one-twelfth in diame-
ter. The inner surface of the duodenal portion is smooth, of
the rest villous, of the rectum granulated and glandular. The
diameter of the intestine is four-twelfths in its upper part,
three-twelfths in the lower ; that of the rectum is four-twelfths
and a half.

The eyes are rather small ; the eyelids bare, and without
ciliary bristles, their aperture four and a half twelfths. The
nostrils are linear, wider at the fore part, three-twelths long.
The aperture of the ear is roundish, of moderate size, three-
twelfths in diameter, the tube funnel-shaped.

The feet are short and rather strong ; the tarsi very short,
feathered anteriorly nearly half-way down, with five large scu-
tella, the hind part with flat granules. The first toe, which
is shortest and thickest, has eight, the second eleven, the third
sixteen, the fourth fifteen scutella. The claws are small, arched,
compressed, and rather acute.

The plumage is of ordinary texture above, rather blended
beneath. The feathers are generally ovato-oblong ; those of
the head short, of the sides and hind part of the neck imbri-
cated, with flattened shining filaments. The wings are long
and broad. The primary quills ten, broad, obliquely rounded ;
the second and third longest, the first nearly as long as the
fourth. The secondaries twelve, broad, rounded, the inner
short. The tail is long, very ample, slightly rounded, of twelve
very broad, rather abruptly rounded feathers.

The bill is horn-coloured, or greyish-yellow, at the end, its
soft basal parts deep red, the tumid portion whitish. The iris
is pale yellow, the eyelids flesh-coloured, the bare skin in their
vicinity blue. The tarsi and toes are anteriorly carnaine-purple,
posteriorly flesh-coloured ; the claws dark-brown.

The head and upper part of the neck are greyish-blue ; the

262 COLUMBA PALUMBUS.

imbricated feathers of the neck bright green, some of the late-
ral on each side cream-coloured ; under them is a broad zone
of purplish. The fore part of the back and the upper surface
of the wings are greyish-blue, tinged with brown. The alula,
primary coverts and primary quills, are greyish-black, the outer
edges of the latter white. There is a large patch of white on
the wing, extending from the flexure to the four outer secondary
coverts. The middle and hind part of the back light greyish-
blue, the tail-coverts darker. The tail is dull greyish-blue at
the base, lighter in the middle, greyish-black at the end ; its
lower surface is greyish-black, with a medial band of bluish-
grey. The lower part of the neck anteriorly is brownish-purple,
that colour on the breast and sides gradually fading into light
greyish- blue, which is the colour of the feathers on the legs and
under the tail, as well as of the lower wing-coverts and axil-
laries. The downy part of the plumage is greyish- white.

Length to end of tail l7i inches ; extent of wings 30 ; wing
from flexure lOi ; tail 7 ; bill along the back 1, along the edge
of lower mandible 1 /^ ; tarsus 1 ^^ ; first toe ^-^ , its claw -{^ ;
second toe \\^ its claw ^^ ; third toe l/^, its claw j\ ; fourth
toe ij, its claw 4 J twelfths.

The dimensions of another individual were : — Length to end
of tail 18 inches ; extent of wings 31 ; wing from flexure 10 ;
longest quill 7i ; tail 6i ; bill along the back \\^ along the
edge of lower mandible 1^^^ ; tarsus If ; middle toe and claw
If. (Esophagus 6 inches long ; gizzard 2 ; intestine 7 feet, the
two small coeca 2 inches from the extremity.

Female. — The female differs very little from the male in ex-
ternal appearance, the colours being merely a little duller, the
quills and dark parts of the tail tinged with brown. Length
174 inches, extent of wings 30.

Variations. — I have not met with any remarkable variations
of colouring in this species. The tints of the plumage undergo
little change from the period of the moult, until it drops off.
New feathers may be seen on this bird at all seasons, excepting
in the middle of winter, shewing that in it, as in the grouse

RINGED DOVE, OR CUSHAT. 263

and ptarmigans, the shedding of the phimage is a very gradual
operation.

Habits. — The Ringed Dove reposes on the larger branches
of tall trees, especially beech, ash, and pine, in hedge-rows,
avenues, or plantations, whence it issues at sunrise, to search the
open fields for its food, which consists of seeds of the cultivated
cereal grasses, — wheat, barley, and oats ; as well as of legumi-
nous plants, — beans and pease ; and of the field mustard and
charlock. In spring it also feeds on the leaves of the turnip, and
picks the young blades of the red and the white clovers. At
this season, I have several times found its crop distended with
the farinaceous roots of Potentilla anserina, obtained in the
ploughed fields. This root is highly nutritious, and formerly,
in seasons of scarcity, was collected in the West Highlands and
Hebrides as an article of food, and eaten either boiled, or roasted
in the peat ashes. In summer they eat grasses and other vege-
table substances ; in autumn grain, beech masf, acorns, and
leguminous seeds. The beech-nuts and acorns they swallow
entire, their bill not being sufficiently strong tohreak them up.

The species is generally distributed, being 7 3und in all the
more or less wooded districts of England and Scotland ; but it
prefers cultivated tracts, avoiding those which are bare and
rocky ; and as it does not repose at night on rocks, it is not
met with in the unwooded isles of the north. In winter it
appears in large flocks, sometimes amounting to many hundreds,
when the individuals of a district congregate in some favourable
locality, although in ordinary circumstances it is not so decid-
edly gregarious as the Rock Dove. It has a strong and rapid
flight, performed by quick beats of the half-extended wings,
with occasional intermissions, its pinions sounding as it glides
along ; and when on an excursion to a distant part, it flies
high above the trees, whereas the species just mentioned gene-
rally proceeds at a small elevation. A\'hen it has espied a
place likely to afford a supply of food, it alights abruptly, and
usually stands for a short time to look about, after which it com-
mences its search. On the ground its position is a little declined,
the tail nearly touching the surface ; and, when feeding, owing

264 COLUMBA PALUMBUS.

to the shortness of its legs, its breast is but sHghtly elevated.
It walks in the manner of the Domestic Pigeon, that is, with
short and quick steps, moving its head gently backwards and
forwards. The flock disperses and spreads over the field, it
being seldom that two or three individuals keep close together,
and they generally take care not to approach the enclosing walls
or hedges, so that it is difficult to shoot them on the ground.
In the time of snow or hard frost, they frequent turnip fields,
and are more easily approached ; but in general they are very
suspicious and vigilant, ever ready to fly off" on the slightest
appearance of danger. Even by clear moonlight, when I have
tried to shoot them on their roosts, they perceive their enemy
before he can discover them. Frequently, however, in the
woods, more especially in the breeding season, one may sur-
prise them within shooting distance ; and, by waiting for their
arrival at their roosting places in winter, considerable execution
may occasionally be done among them. As the flesh of this
pigeon aftbrds a sufficiently 23alatable article of food, it is abun-
dant in our markets in winter and spring, but generally brings
a low price, from sixpence to a shilling.

The Cushats betake themselves to their roosting places in
the woods soon after sunset, and before settling, usually wheel
round the spot selected. Should they be disturbed, they fly
off* to a short distance, and return ; but if repeatedly molested,
they betake themselves to a distant station. In severe weather
they sometimes perform partial migrations, but in general are
stationary, not finding it necessary to extend their range in the
cultivated and sheltered districts, where turnips may always be
had during the winter.

In fine weather they bask in the sun, on dry banks, or in the
open fields, rubbing themselves, and as it w^ere burrowing, in
the sand or soil, and throwing it up with their wings, as if
washing in water, which they also do, like most birds. In
drinking, they immerse the bill to the base, and take a long
draught, a circumstance in which, as I have already remarked,
the Pigeons differ from the Gallinaceous birds. Nor does the
Cushat scrape up the earth with its feet, when searching for
food.

RINGED DOVE, OR CUSHAT. 265

Early in spring the flocks break up, and by the beginning of
March the individuals of which they were composed have
paired. Their courtship is conducted much in the same man-
ner as that of the Domestic Pigeon, the male strutting with ele-
vated head, protruded breast, and quick step, round the female,
or, if on a branch, performing various movements and often
turning round, as he utters his murmuring love-notes. At
times, he rises in the air, produces a smart noise by striking
the points of his wings against each other, descends, rises again,
and thus continues to gambol in the presence of his mate.
The cooing of this species may be imitated by pronouncing
the syllables coo^ roo^ coo^ coo^ the two last protracted. It is
softer, deeper, and more plaintive than that of the Kock
Dove.

The nests are to be found in \voods and plantations, being
placed on a branch or in the fork of an oak, beech, fir, or other
suitable tree, more especially a fir or pine ; and in the latter
case often only a few feet from the ground. Sometimes a nest
may be seen in a holly or ha\\i:horn bush, or in a hedge, but in
general a thick w^ood is preferred. It is composed of twigs
loosely put together, in a circular form, flat above, and varying
in thickness from two to four inches. The eggs are always
two, of a regular oval or sometimes elliptical form, pure white,
glossy, an inch and seven- twelfths in lenglh, one and two-
twelfths in breadth, the narrowest being a twelfth less. It
w^ould appear that two or even three broods are reared in the
year. The first young are abroad by the beginning of May,
the second in the end of July ; but I am not assured that in
ordinary circumstances, that is, when it is not robbed of its
eggs or young, this bird breeds more than twice in the year.
I have however seen unfledged young so late as October, and I
have before me a pair with down tips to their feathers obtained
in the Edinburgh market on the 26th of that month.

Young. — The young are at first rather scantily covered with
a yellowish down, and when fledged are of the same colours as
the adult, but duller and tinged with brown, the white spots
on the neck and the changing tints of that part being wanting.

266 COLUMBA PALUMBUS.

Birds that require a powerful flight, and find it necessary to
betake themselves to the open country, have their first plumage
nearly as strong as the second ; and this is the case with the
present species, as well as the Rock Dove.

Progress toward Maturity, — At the first moult, the colours
are perfected, the only change that they afterwards undergo
being to a somewhat deeper and purer tint.

Remarks. — According to authors, the Ringed Dove is gene-
rally distributed over Europe, but is more abundant in the
southern parts. The domestication of this species has often
been attempted, but almost always without success ; for al-
though individuals become perfectly tame in confinement, they
embrace the first opportunity to regain their freedom. " We
have been at considerable pains," says Montagu, " to endeavour
to domesticate this bird; and though we have tamed them
within doors, so as to be exceedingly troublesome, yet we never
could produce a breed, either by themselves, or with the tame
pigeon. Two were bred up together with a male pigeon, and
were so tame as to eat out of the hand ; but as they shewed
no signs of prolificacy in the spring, they were suffered to take
their liberty in the month of June, by opening the window of
the room in which they were confined, thinking the pigeon
might induce them to return to their usual place of abode,
either for food or to roost ; but they instantly took to their na-
tural habits, and we saw no more of them, although the pigeon
continued to return."

Mr. Neville Wood however is of a contrary opinion. In a
paper on the habits of this bird, inserted in the third number
of the Naturalist, p. 130, he has the following paragraph : —
" The impossibility of taming this bird and of domesticating
it, in the manner of the Rock Pigeon, has often been mentioned,
but I should imagine this statement has either been copied
from other authorities, or the experiment has not been properly
tried. Two years ago I reared a male Ring Pigeon from the
time when it would have left the nest, always supplying it
with green peas, beans, &c., until it was able to feed itself.
When full grown, I turned it out and fed it with my other

RINGED DOVE, OR CUSHAT. 267

dovecot Pigeons, with which it constantly remained several
months, except on one occasion, when it flew oft' to a consider-
able distance, but returned, to my surprise, after an absence of
a few hours. It found some difficulty in keeping up, on the
wing, with the tame pigeons, several of wdiich were tumblers,
as wild pigeons are not accustomed to turn rapidly and fre-
quently in the air. This bird sickened and died after I had
possessed it six months, and I have not since had an oppor-
tunity of renewing the experiment ; but doubt not it would
succeed with common care.''

268

COLUMBA LIVIA. THE WHITE-BACKED,
OR ROCK DOVE.

WILD PIGEON. ROCK PIGEON. WILD DOVE. ROCK DOVE. DOO.
CALMAN FIADHAICH.

Fig. 53.

Colombe Biset. Columba Livia. Temm. Man. d'Orn. 11. 447.
Rock Dove. Columba Livia. Selb. lUustr. I. 410.
Columba Livia. Rock Dove. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 162.

Plumage of the male light greyish-hlue ; the neck splendent
with green and purplish-red ; the middle of the back and the
lower wing-coverts ichite ; two black bands on the icing^ one on
the six inner secondary quills^ the other on the secondary coverts ;
bill brownish-black. Female similar^ the green and purple of
the neck less extended.

Male. — The Rock Dove, wliicli is the original of our domes-
tic pigeons, is a very beautiful bird, although its style of colour-
ing is less gaudy than that of many exotic species. It is of a
compact form, the body being rather full, the neck rather short,
the head small, the feet short and strong, the wings rather long,
the tail of moderate length.

The bill is short, slender, and straight ; the tumid basal
membrane scurfy, the dorsal outline of the upper mandible
straight for half its length, then arched and declinate, the edges
soft at the base, the tip compressed, ^Yith the edges inflected ;
the lower mandible weak at the base, its sides nearly erect, the

ROCK DOVE. 269

edges towards the end sharp and inflected, the tip obtuse, the
angle small. Both mandibles are deeply concave internally.
The mouth is only four-twelfths of an inch across. The tongue
is very slender, seven and a half twelfths in length, emarginate
at the base, horny towards the end, and pointed.

The eyes are rather small ; the eyelids bare, and having in
their vicinity a bare space of considerable extent. The nostrils
are linear, wider anteriorly, two and a half twelfths long. The
aperture of the ear is roundish or obliquely oblong, a line and
a half in diameter.

The tarsi, which are very short, and feathered anteriorly one-
third do^vn, have five entire and two lower divided scutella,
their hind part soft, without scales, but scurfy. The first toe
has six, the second eight, the third fourteen, the fourth eleven
scutella. The claws are arched in the third of a circle, com-
pressed, rather acute, the dilated inner margin of that of the
third toe usually broken near the tip, and undulated.

The plumage is generally compact, short, and imbricated ;
on the abdomen downy and blended. The feathers are mostly
ovate and rounded, those of the lower part of the neck all
round have their filaments flattened and shining. The wings
are rather long and acute ; the primaries tapering, the second
longest, the first almost equal, the third considerably shorter ;
the secondaries twelve, short, obliquely truncate. The tail is
straight, slightly rounded, the feathers broad and abruptly
rounded.

The horny part of the bill is brownish-black, as is the an-
terior half of its tumid portion, of which the rest is white.
The iris is bright yellowish-red ; the bare space around the
eye flesh-coloured. The tarsi and toes are carmine-purple ;
the claws dark greyish-brown or black.

The general colour of the plumage is light greyish-blue, the
lower parts being as deeply coloured as the upper. The middle
of the neck all round is splendent with green, its lower part
with purplish-red. The back and the upper part of the sides,
from near the shoulders to near the tail, are pure white, as are
the lower wing-coverts and axillaries. The primaries and
their coverts are brownish-grey on the outer web, the former

270 COLUMBA LI VIA.

dusky towards the end, as are the outer secondaries. There
are two broad bars of black on the wing, one extending over
the six inner secondary quills, the other over the secondary
coverts, the outer two excepted. The tail has a broad terminal
band of black, and the outer web of the lateral feather is white.
The downy part of the feathers is greyish- white, excepting on
the white part of the back, where it is pure white.

Lens^h to end of tail 14 inches, to end of wings when closed
12f ; extent of wings 27 ; wing from flexure 9f ; tail 5 ; bill
along the back {§, along the edge of lower mandible 1 ; tarsus
\f^ ; first toe i, its claw y% ; second toe i§, its claw ^^ ; third
toe 1 1\, its claw 5 J twelfths ; fourth toe ^ J, its claw 4g twelfths.

Female. — The only external differences which the female
presents consist of her being a little smaller, and having the
shining colours on the neck less extended. The scutella on
the tarsus of an individual were eight, on the first toe six, the
second nine, the third thirteen, the fourth eleven.

Length to end of tail 13i inches; extent of wings 26^;
wing from flexure 9i ; tail 4j ; bill along the back i§, along
the edge of lower mandible 1 ; tarsus 1-^^ ; first toe i, its
claw 1% ; second toe i§, its claw ^% ; third toe l/j, its claw
5i twelfths ; fourth toe \\, its claw 4i twelfths.

Variations. — Among the vast numbers of undoubtedly wild
birds of this species which I have seen, I have not observed
any remarkable variations of form or colour. The dark-colour-
ed, purple, and white individuals, which are occasionally seen
consorting w^ith the w^ild doves, or residing in maritime caves
or rocks, are in all probability domestic birds that have be-
taken themselves to the original mode of life of the species.
As the moulting season approaches, the blue tint becomes
much paler, especially on the wings. The outer primary quills
are often tinged with brown, in consequence of the bird's strik-
ing the ground with its wings when commencing its flight, and
the bill is frequently more or less crusted with earth or mud,
which, however, is the case with many other birds, as the
Rook, the Blackbird, the Common Thrush, and the Field

ROCK DOVE. 271

Lark. Individuals vary in length from 13 to 14 inches, and
in the extent of their wings from 24; to 27.

Habits. — At the western extremity of Ben Capval, a pro-
montory of one of the remote Hebrides, is a vast mass of rock,
broken by gaps and fissures into projecting crags and sloping
shelves, and looking as if originally produced by the separation
of a portion of the mountain which had sunk into the depths of
the ocean that heaves its billows against the rugged shores.
At the summit is an aggregation of angular fragments, the ter-
mination of an elevated ridge, and midway down is a green
slope, horizontally traversed by several paths formed by the
sheep, which at all seasons, but especially in spring, are fond
of rambling among the crags, in search of fresh pasturage.
The declivity terminates on the sinuous and angular edge of
precipices several hundred feet in height, near the upper part
of which a pair of White-tailed Eagles have fixed their abode,
while the crevices are here and there peopled by starlings.
The shelves of those rocks are totally inaccessible by ordinary
means, although an adventurous shepherd or farmer sometimes
descends on a rope held by half a dozen people above, to de-
stroy an eagle's nest, or rescue a sheep which has leaped upon
some grassy spot, and is unable to reascend ; but on one side,
by a steep and slippery descent in a fissure, one may penetrate
to the base, where he discovers a hole in the rock barely laro-e
enough to admit him on his hands and knees. This hole is
the entrance of a narrow passage in a crevice roofed with fallen
blocks. On one hand is a recess, in which a person might
recline at full length, and which was actually employed as
a bed by Mr. INIacleod of Berneray after the battle of Cul-
loden; and a few yards farther, the crevice opens into an
irregular cave communicating seaward with the open air, and
formed by a rent in the rock, filled above with large blocks
that seem ready to fall. The heavy surges of the Atlantic
continually dash against a heap of stones, which partially block
up the mouth of the cave. On this heap the Crested Cormo-
rants nightly repose, and in summer rear their young. The
little shelves and angular recesses of the roof and upper

272 COLUMBA LIVIA.

parts of the cavern are tenanted by pigeons, the light blue of
whose plumage has a beautiful appearance, relieved as they are
by the dark ground of the moist rocks, and the soft murmur
of whose notes comes upon the ear with a pleasing though
melancholy effect. There, and in other places of a similar na-
ture, have I watched these beautiful birds, until I rendered
myself in some measure familiar with their habits ; and amid
such wild and desolate scenes have I loved to wander and in-
dulge in the not less wild imaginings of a spirit that desired to
hold converse with the unseen but ever present Spirit of the
universe.

At early dawTi the pigeons may be seen issuing from these
retreats in straggling parties, which soon take a determinate
direction, and meeting with others by the way, proceed in a
loose body along the shores until they reach the cultivated
parts of the country, w^here they settle in large flocks, diligently
seeking for grains of barley and oats, pods of the charlock, seeds
of the wild mustard, j>olygona, and other plants, together
with several species of small shell-snails, especially Helix
ericetorum and Bulimus acutus, which abound in the sandy
pastures. When they have young, they necessarily make
several trips in the course of the day ; but from the end of
autumn to the beginning of summer they continue all day in
the fields. In winter they collect into flocks, sometimes com-
posed of several hundred individuals ; and, as at this season
they are anxious to make the best use of the short period of
day-light, they may easily be approached by a person acquainted
with the useful art of creeping and skulking. In general how-
ever they are rather shy, and very seldom allow a person to ad-
vance openly within sixty or seventy yards. It is not uncom-
mon to kill four or five at a shot ; and on this subject I have
heard many marvellous tales in the Hebrides ; but as I intend
to confine my relation to my own experience, I can only state,
that, during a snow-storm, when the pigeons had assembled
in a corn- yard remote from houses, I once killed twenty-three
at three successive shots ; that is, nine for the first, eight for
the next, and six for the third. Two or three wounded made
their escape to the rocks in the immediate neighbourhood.

ROCK DOVE. 273

The manners of the Rock Doves are similar to those of our
domestic pigeons, which are evidently descended from indivi-
duals of this species. When searching for food, they walk
about with great celerity, moving the head backwards and for-
wards at each step, the tail sloping towards the ground, and
the tips of the wings tucked up over it. In windy weather they
usually move in a direction more or less opposite to the blast,
and keep their body nearer to the ground than when it is calm,
the whole flock going together. When startled, they rise sud-
denly, and by striking the ground with their wings produce a
crackling noise. When at full speed they fly with great celerity,
the air whistling against their pinions. Their flight is very
similar to that of the Ringed and Golden Plovers, birds w^hich
in form approach very nearly to the Pigeons, as may be seen
more especially on comparing their skeletons ; and as this affi-
nity has not been observed by any other person, I would direct
the attention of ornithologists to it. They usually alight ab-
ruptly when the place is open and clear, and if very hungry
immediately commence their search ; although on alighting
they frequently stand and look around them for a few moments.
On other occasions however, they fly over the field in circles,
descending gradually. When flying from the rocks to the
places where they procure their food, and when returning in
the evening, they do not mount high in the air ; and when
passing over an eminence they fly so low as almost to touch it.
Wlien the wind is very high, and their course is against it,
they fly in the same manner, taking advantage of the shelter.
It used to afford me much pleasure, and probably would be
interesting to most people, to observe from one of the wild
headlands of Harris, the pigeons flying swiftly and silently
towards their homes, along the cliffs, while every now and
then a string of cormorants, gannets, or guillemots would come
up, and a straggling flock of gulls pursue their route in a de-
sultory manner.

The notes of the Rock Dove resemble the syllables cqd-poo-
coo quickly repeated, the last prolonged. It is monogamous,
as I apprehend all ^vild birds, even the Gallinaceous, are, and
its nuptials are celebrated with much cooing and circumambu-

274 COLUMBA LIVIA.

lation on the part of the male. A love-scene among the rocks
is really an interesting sight. Concealed in a crevice or behind
a projecting cliff, you see a pigeon alight beside you, and stand
quietly for some time, when the whistling of pinions is heard,
and the male bird shoots past like an arrow, and is already be-
side his mate. Scarcely has he made a rapid survey of the
place, when directing his attention to the only beautiful object
which he sees, he approaches her, erecting his head, swelling
out his breast by inflating his crop, and spreading his tail, at
the same time uttering the well known coo-roo-coo^ the soft and
somewhat mournful sounds of which echo among the cliffs.
The female, shy and timorous, sits close to the rock, shifting
her position a little as the male advances, and sometimes stretch-
ing out her neck, as if to repel him by blows. The male con-
tinues his strutting and cooing, until the female, inadvertently
coming upon the edge of the shelf, flies off to the dark recesses
of the neighbouring cave, where she has scarcely alighted when
her lover is again by her side.

Matters go on in this manner, and in the meantime a nest is
gradually formed, which consists of withered stalks and blades
of grass or other plants, not very neatly arranged, but disposed so
as to answer the intended purpose. Two beautiful white eggs,
of an elliptical form, one an inch and four twelfths in length, an
inch and one twelfth in breadth, the other a little shorter, are
then deposited, and in due time the young make their appearance.
During incubation the male supplies his mate with food, which
she picks from his throat as he forces it up from the crop. Even
at other times the female often goes up to the male, introduces
her bill on one side into his mouth, and obtains a grain of bar-
ley or a morsel of other food. In about three weeks, the young
come abroad, and after being fed and instructed by their parents
for some days, are left to shift for themselves.

The old birds soon repair their nest, and rear another brood.
I cannot speak with certainty as to the precise number of broods
raised in the course of a season, but I know that there are at
least two. The first eggs are laid about the middle of April,
and the latest young are seen about the end of September. It
appears to me probable, from circumstances which have come

ROCK DOVE. ^75

under my observation, that the same nest is used for different
broods ; and it is commonly believed, and not improbable, that
these birds pair for life. The young are. fed by their parents,
who applying their open mouth to that of the nestling, the
mandibles of which enter the pharynx, force up the food from
their crop so as to be within reach of the bill of the young,
which all the while flaps its wings, and utters a low cheeping
note, indicative of its eagerness to have its wants supplied.

There can be no reasonable doubt that the Rock Dove is
the original of our domestic pigeons, in fact the true Stock
Dove, although that name has been given to another species.
Individuals of the domesticated race which cannot be dis-
tinguished from those of the wild, are of common occurrence ;
and, however highly varieties may be prized, the blue, white-
backed race is certainly the most beautiful. I have seen in
the Hebrides a few house pigeons which had deserted and lived
among the wild doves. In various places along the east coast
of Scotland, as at the Cove near Aberdeen, at Dunottar Castle
near Stonehaven, and the Bass Rock in the Frith of Forth, I
have observed wild pigeons among the rocks. Some of them
presented the pure unvarying tints of the Rock Dove, while
others were of different shades of blue or purple. These were
in all probability domestic pigeons that had run wild, and their
descendants. Two individuals, shot by Mr. De Jersey, in May
1824, on the Bass, were so precisely similar to the Rock Doves
of the Hebrides, that I believed them to be of the genuine
stock ; but the best places for studying the habits of the species,
or for procuring specimens, are the islands of Lewis, Harris,
Uist, Barray, Skye, the northern coasts of Scotland, the Shet-
land and Orkney Islands. I have also received specimens
from the Mull of Cantyre, which were presented to me by Dr.
Macdonald of Ballysher.

The boys in ihe Outer Hebrides often attempt to rear young
doves, but their cares are seldom continued long enough.
They introduce the food, dry barley grain, by the side of the
mouth, which occasions inflammation and swelling of the basal
margins of the mandibles. When a boy, I had a young Rock
Dove, which I fed for some time in this manner, until the bill

t2

27ty COLUMBA LIVIA.

became tumid and sore, when, in consequence of advice from
a friend, I took a mouthful of barley and water, and introduced
the pigeon's bill, when the bird soon satisfied itself, flapping
its ^v'ings gently and uttering a low cry all the w^hile. It grew
up vigorously, shed the yellow down-tips of its feathers, and
began to fly about. Towards the middle of autumn it renewed
its plumage, and assumed the bright and beautiful tints of the
adult male. Whenever I escaped from the detested pages of
Virgil and Horace, the pigeon was sure to fly to me, and some-
times alighted on my head or shoulder, directing its bill to-
wards my mouth, and flapping its wangs. Nor did it ever fly
oW with the wild pigeons, which almost every day fed near
the house, although it had no companions of its own species.
At length some fatal whim induced it to make an excursion to
a village about a mile distant, when it alighted on the roof of
a hut, and the boys pelted it dead with stones. Long and true
was my sorrow for my lost companion, the remembrance of
which will probably continue as long as life. I have since
mourned the loss of a far dearer dove. They w^ere gentle and
lovely beings ; but while the one has been blended with the
elements, the other remains " hid with Christ in God,"' and for
it I " mourn not as those who have no hope."

The domestic varieties of the Rock Dove are very numer-
ous. The most beautiful, in my estimation, is the most com-
mon, the blue, white-backed pigeon, which is in all respects
similar to the wild stock, only in general a good deal larger.
The first remarkable change is when the white of the back is
substituted by blue. Then there are dark-blue, purple, spotted
blue and purple, pale red, white, and variously coloured pigeons,
all without much change of form, and all therefore esteemed
vulgar. Some of the breeds are of great size, without much
diflerence of form, as the Roman and Maltese. Others exhibit
various distortions and disfigurations, which are highly esteem-
ed by pigeon-fanciers. Thus the Jacobine has a rufl:'of in-
curved feathers about the neck ; the Tumbler, a remarkable
increase in number of the tail-feathers, which are kept spread
like a fan ; the Turkish or Carrier pigeon has a kind of wat-
tles about the eyes and the base of the bill ; and the Cropper

ROCK DOVE. 277

is deformed by a vast inflated crop, which is soihetimes double,
forces the bird to draw back its head, and gives its body an Un-
natural degree of obliquity. These monstrosities, like double
flowers, please persons of monstrous tastes, but are inconsistent
with true beauty, and as much inferior to their originals in
grace as a huge city dame, bloated and covered w^ith flounces,
frills, and ribbons, is to a rustic maiden clad in simple attire, and
glowing with the ruddy hue of pure and uncontaminated blood.

YouxG. — The young, which at first are covered with loose
yellow down, are when fledged of the same colour as the old
birds, the head and neck however being of a dull purplish-
blue, without the bright green and purple tints of the old, and
the wings tinged with brow^n. At the first moult, they acquire
their full colouring, only that a little brow^n remains on the
edge of the wings.

Since the above was written, I have received matter for a
continuation to this article, which I trust w411 thereby be
greatly increased in interest. Being very desirous of obtaining
a fresh specimen or two of this interesting bird for dissection,
I intimated my wish to Dr. Th. J. Aitkin, Lecturer on Phy-
siology, Materia Medica, and Botany, in Edinburgh, w^ho
kindly undertook to procure some from Shetland. Accordingly,
I have been favoured with two specimens accompanied with
the following satisfactory account drawn up by James Barclay,
Esq., and communicated in a letter to Dr. Aitkin.

" Although we cannot boast in Shetland of having such
numerous flocks of Pigeons as those which Mr. Audubon men-
tions having seen in America, yet in most of our islands they
are met with in considerable numbers. Their chief places of
resort are the most rocky of our shores, where there are natural
caves, in which they can shelter from the storm, and find con-
venient and safe retreats to build in. In the parishes of Sand-
wick and Dunrossness these birds are more numerous than any-
where else in Shetland, except perhaps Fetlar ; and this may be
accounted for by these places being by far the most extensively
cultivated, and the most fertile grain parishes in these islands.

278 COLUMBA LIVIA.

*' In Dunrossness flocks of many hundreds are frequently
seen feeding on the fields, and many of these flocks in sight at
the same time. A gentleman lately killed at one shot twenty-
seven, besides wounding many that escaped. It takes a heavy
shot to kill Pigeons, and so tenacious are they of life that the
sportsman frequently observes them flying off so desperately
wounded that their entrails are hanging through the wound.

" These birds appear to be regulated with regard to their
time of breeding, according to the scarcity or abundance of food
which the seasons supply. In spring, when they have plenty
of corn to pick from the newly sown fields, they begin to get
fat, and pair ; and again, in harvest, when the corn is cut
do^^^l. They flock twice in the year, first in August or Sep-
tember, and again in winter. That their breeding depends
much on their having plenty of food to fatten them, seems, I
think, evident from the circumstance that, when tamed, w^hich
they easily are, they are observed to breed in every month of
the year. I do not mean that the same pair will breed every
month ; but some in the flock, if well fed, will breed at any
season. It is a popular notion that Pigeons breed every month
but February ; but this is an error. The same pair when
tamed generally breed four times ; and so great is their fecun-
dity that they are frequently seen sitting on eggs long before
the former brood is able to leave the nest, so that the parent
bird has at the sametime young birds and eggs to take care of.
The male and female sit alternately, relieving each other, and
shewing equal marks of tenderness and affection. They sit
for three weeks, and lay only two eggs. Hence the old Scottish
saying, ' a doo's cleckin,' for a family of only two children, a
boy and a girl.

" These interesting birds are much noted for their fidelity in
conjugal love. They are said to be very constant, and never
to change their partners till death puts a period to the con-
nection, or accident or old age prevents the female from breed-
ing. In the event of death, or any final separation, the widowed
bird is seen to feel his bereavement with all the sorrow of a
better creature. He shews by every movement, and every tone
of voice, that some inward perturbation is distracting him ;

ROCK DOVE. 279

and, although he cannot express his grief in words, yet his
language of woe is equally intelligible. The melancholy and
plaintive sound of his cooing, the dull and ruffled appearance
of his whole frame, his disordered feathers, and listless step, are
sufficient evidences of the sincerity of his attachment, and the
keenness of his sufferings. I am told that instances have oc-
curred when the bird has actually perished from grief ; but
this I cannot credit ; — at all events, it is long before he can
again persuade himself to attach himself to another female.

" It is very difficult to speak with any degree of accuracy
respecting the probable length of the lives of these birds. I
have never known an instance where any of them have been
found dead from poverty or any disease, except from accident
or wounds. From many circumstances I should think they
live to a considerable old age. Mr. Andrew Duncan, sheriff-
substitute of Shetland, mentioned to me that he had seen one
tamed which lived in that state fully twenty years. It lost a
wing several years previous to its death ; and this, no doubt,
might accelerate its end.

" Our Rock Pigeon seems to possess the same instinct which
the Carrier has, namely that of conveying intelligence from
place to place, or rather of finding its way back to the place
which it has been taught to regard as its home. Mr. Duncan
tells me he had one tamed some years ago in Lerwick ; and
after keeping it about the house for some time it became so pert
and troublesome that he resolved to send it to the country. It
was accordingly put into a close basket, and sent off to its future
place of destination, which was at least ten miles from town ;
but, to Mr. Duncan's astonishment, next morning it was found
sitting above the door of his house in town, having returned
the instant it was let loose.

" It is easy to distinguish the male from the female by the
size and plumage. The male is considerably larger, and has a
brilliant metallic lustre around his neck, which the female has
not in the same degree. Her appearance is altogether more
subdued than his, her size smaller, and her plumage of a dun-
ner colour. The pair now sent, I am told by those whom I
consider judges, are the best specimens of these birds that it is

280 COLUMBA LIVIA.

possible to procure. They are both old birds, more especially
the. male. I have only to add that their eggs are exactly simi-
lar to those of the domestic pigeons, whose first parents the
Rock Pigeons probably are.'"

*' Lerwick, Shetland, 4th January 1837.''

The individuals sent proved to be, as Mr. Barclay had con-
jectured, the one an old male, the other a young female.

Male. — The bill black, as is the fore part of the tumid nasal
membrane, of which the basal portion is white. Feet carmine,
claws black. The general colour of the plumage is light greyish-
blue, deeper on the lower parts, and much pal^r on the wings
and fore part of the back. The neck is splendent with bright
green and carmine-purple, there being a band of the latter be-
neath the broader band of the former. The middle of the back,
and a part of the sides are pure white, as are the axillar feathers
and the lower wing-coverts. The quills are greyish-blue, the
inner webs lighter, the outer tinged with dusky ; the whole
outer web of the first, a great part of that of the second, and
the extremity of all, greyish-black. There are besides two
black bars on the wing, one extending over the secondary
coverts, except the four outer, the other over six of the inner
secondaries. Tail greyish-blue, with a terminal band of black,
averaging an inch, but broader in the middle ; the outer web
of the lateral feathers white from the base to the black band.

The cosophagus, PI. YII, Fig. 1, «, 5, ^, /, g, is six inches
and a half long, and is immediately dilated to the diameter of
an inch and a quarter, enlarges to an inch and a half, ^, r, at
the distsance of two inches from the commencement, then con-
tracts a little, ^, -and suddenly expands into an enormous crop,
c, d^ e^ /, of a transversely oblong form, its greatest diameter
three inches and a quarter. The crop is quite membranous,
without any appearance of glandules, excepting around the
niouth, and curves round the neck so as nearly to meet be-
hind. The oesophagus then contracts,/, to a diameter^of [four
twelftli^ ; the proventriculus, g, is elliptical, ten twelfths long,
with large glandules of a cylindrical form, about a twelfth and

ROCK DOVE. 281

a half in length, and half a twelfth in breadth, Fig. 2. The
gizzard, ^, ^, /, ^, /, is of an oblong form, oblique, an inch and
eight twelfths long, its transverse diameter one inch. Its
lateral muscles, ?, /, are extremely thick, being six twelfths in
the middle ; the lower muscle, ^, is also strong and prominent.
The inner coat is very strong and thick, and presents two flat-
tened surfaces, which are longitudinally fissured, opposite the
lateral muscles. The cardiac lobe. Fig. 3, ^, is rather pro-
minent. The intestine, Fig. 1, m^ ??, o, p^ q^ r, is three feet
ten inches long ; its duodenal part, m^ n^ o, averages half an
inch in diameter ; but it gradually diminishes, so as to have
a diameter of only three twelfths at the distance of a foot from
the pylorus. It continues thus until near the coeca, when it
enlarges to four twelfths, which is the diameter of the rectum,
Fig. 4, «, 5, c. The coeca. Fig. 4, c, 6?, are only three and a
half twelfths long, and come off at the distance of an inch and a
half from the anus.

The crop contained a large quantity of grain, chiefly bear,
Hordeum mdgare^ the small grey oat, a variety of ^f^??a satha,
a few grains of A'cena fatua^ and some small seeds. In the
gizzard were husks of these seeds, with fragments of quartz and
felspar, varying from one to two twelfths.

Length to end of tail 14/^ inches*; extent of wings 27;
wing from flexure 9i ; tail 4f ; bill along the ridge \%^ along
the edge of lower mandible 1 ; tarsus l^^^ '•> fii'st toe ^3, its
claw 4i twelfths ; second toe 10^ twelfths, its claw /^ ; third
toe 1 inch 2i twelfths, its claw 6i twelfths ; fourth toe lOf
twelfths, its claw 4i tw^elfths.

Female. — The female has the colours rather darker and duller,
the gloss of the neck less splendent, and the green tints of
smaller extent. The black bars on the w4ngs are shaded with
grey ; and the tips of the wings and tail are tinged with
brown. The oesophagus is six inches and a quarter long ; the
crop three inches in breadth ; the stomach an inch and eight
twelfths in its greatest diameter ; the intestine three feet four
inches long, the diameter of its duodenal portion four inches ;
the coeca four twelfths long ; the rectum an inch and three
fourths.

282 COLUMBA LIVIA.

Length to end of tail 13 inches; extent of wings 26; w^ng
from flexure 8f ; tail 4i ; bill along the edge 104 twelfths;
tarsus 1/3 ; middle toe and claw 1 inch 7i tw^elfths.

The Domestic Pigeon being undoubtedly the descendant of
the Rock Dove, I have thought it well to compare the diges-
tive organs of both. Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4, represent those of
the former ; Figs. 5, 6, and 7, those of the latter. The same
letters are used in both cases.

In Fig. 1 . are seen, a, the bill ; a, ^, c^ the part of the oeso-
phagus anterior to the crop, and much dilated ; c, d, e, /, the
crop, transverse and a little contracted in the middle ; /, p, k,
the intrathoracic part of the oesophagus ; y, the proventriculus ;
h, the upper lobe of the stomach ; i, the right lateral muscle ;
j\ the left lateral muscle ; ^, the inferior muscle ; I, one of the
tendons ; m, n, 0, the duodenum ; p, q, r, 5, the rest of the in-
testine.

Fig. 2. represents a section of the proventriculus, shewing
the very short broad glandules.

Fig. 3. shews the upper or posterior face of the stomach ;
p, the proventriculus ; k, the cardiac lobe ; i, j\ the lateral
muscles ; ^, the inferior muscle ; /, the tendon ; w, the com-
mencement of the intestine.

Fig. 4. the rectum, b, c ; and the coeca, d, e.

In the Domestic Pigeon, the parts differ very little. The
crop is generally larger, and the coeca a little longer ; but
in other respects the parts are precisely similar. The oeso-
phagus, a, &, c^f, g^ w^hich is six and a half inches long, is im-
mediately dilated to the diameter of an inch and a quarter, and
gradually enlarges so as to form a sac or crop three inches long,
and about the same breadth. In general, the internal surface
of the crop is smooth ; but when the bird has young, or at
least under certain circumstances, it is rugous, being covered
with reticulated prominent ridges, highly vascular, and secret-
ing an abundant mucous or gelatinous fluid. This structure
is represented by Fig. 6. The lower orifice of the crop has
several very prominent longitudinal rugae, and is plentifully

ROCK DOVE. 283

supplied with mucus. Below the crop, the oesophagus con-
tracts to a diameter of four-twelfths, /. The proventriculus, g,
which is not much enlarged, is studded for the length of three
quarters of an inch with oblong glandules. The stomach,
^, ^,y, ^, ^, is somewhat rhomboidal, an inch and a half in its
transverse diameter ; the lateral muscles, ^, j^ extremely thick,
the left being five twelfths of an inch ; the lower muscle, ^,
prominent. The duodenum, m, w, o, forms a curve three inches
in length, inclosing, as usual, the pancreas ; on the right side,
under the liver, it curves backwards, passes behind to the left,
then turns to the right, forming a second fold ; it is then con-
voluted on the right side, passes behind the stomach, and pro-
ceeds along the middle of the sacrum. The entire length of
the intestine is four feet, its greatest diameter four twelfths, its
least two and a half twelfths. The coeca. Fig. 7, c, 6?, which
arise at the distance of an inch and a half from the anus, are
cylindrical, five twelfths long, one twelfth in diameter.

Not having access to a young brood of domestic pigeons, and
having neglected to note the manner of their feeding, I re-
quested my friend Mr. Weir to send me information on the
subject, which he has done in the following words : — " The
young pigeons, I observe, when they feed, thrust their bills
into the mouths of the old ones, and receive their food in that
manner." It is the same with the young Rock Doves, although
the mode of feeding of Pigeons has been somewhat differently
represented by authors.

Another importation of Rock Doves from Shetland having
taken place since the above was written, I may be allowed
farther to state some particulars respecting the species which
they have enabled me to observe, and to present the few facts
relative to their history supplied by the gentleman, J. Smith,
Esq., Uyea Sound, who transmitted them to Dr. Aitkin. His
statement, w^hich is interesting as confirmative of that of Mr.
Barclay and my own, is as follows :

" The specimens sent are from Fetlar, where these birds
abound. They are said to hatch at all seasons of the year, ex-
cept the month of March, and always to produce at each time

284 COLUMBA LIVIA.

a male and a female. Their nests are placed in caves of the
rocks on the sea-coasts, generally in the most inaccessible of
these, and are constructed in the same manner as those of the
Domestic Pigeon. They are easily tamed when taken young ;
yet it is said that when not particularly attended to, and sup-
plied with abundance of food, they are more apt to fly away
and join the flocks of their own species, than the common tame
pigeon. They are seen in large flocks in the winter and spring
months, when they frequent barn-yards much for food, espe-
cially w^hen the ground is covered with snow. I have also seen
them in large groups in the harvest time, when that happened
late in the year. There is a cave in a holm, on the west side
of North Yell, called the Holm of Gloup, a A^ery high rock,
covered however with a rich soil, in which great numbers build
their nests. There are also many places in the island of Fetlar
of the same description, where they are found. Indeed they
may be said to be abundant throughout the country."

The three specimens sent are two males and a female, which
agree with the others described above as to colouring, and all
other essential qualities, as well as the form and structure of
the digestive organs. The following are the dimensions of
their parts :

Male. Male. Female.

Length to end of tail 14 18 13

Extent of wings 27 2o 25

Wing from flexure 9i 9 9

Tail 4i 4 4

Bill along the ridge \^ {^ ig

Tarsus 1/^ lj% 1^%

Hind toe and claw {I {^ \^

Middle toe and claw 1 j'^g 1 ^2 Ij^

CEsophagus 6^ 6i 6^

Crop in breadth 3 Sj% 3/g

Gizzard 1{^ lj% lj%

Intestine 45 89

Coeca ^% j%

Rectum li I/3

ROCK DOVE. 285

The crops of all were completely filled, up to the throat ;
that of the first with a mixture of barley and oats of the same
species as mentioned above, namely, bear and the small oat,
with a considerable number of what appeared to be eggs of
Helices, being globular, dusky, a twelfth of an inch in diame-
ter, their envelope membranous, and their contents a whitish
fluid of the consistency of pus ; along with these substances
were fragments of pods of Raphanus Raphanistrum. The
crop of the second was crammed wdth oats, among which were
a few seeds apparently of polygona, and fragments of charlock
pods. That of the third contained oat-seeds exclusively. In
the gizzards were numerous fragments of quartz, generally
white, but some tinged with chlorite, and a few of felspar and
either gneiss or granite. They were for the most part highly
polished, and did not exceed two twelfths of an inch in dia-
meter.

The number of oat seeds in the crop of the second amounted
to 1000 and odds, and the barley seeds in that of Mr. Barclay's
female were 510. Now, supposing there may be five thousand
wild pigeons in Shetland, or in Fetlar, which feed on grain for
six months every year, and fill their crops once a day, half of
them with barley, and half with oats, the number of seeds
picked up by them would be 229,500,000 grains of barley, and
450,000,000 grains of oats; — a quantity which would glad-
den many poor families in a season of scarcity. I am unable
to estimate the number of bushels, and must leave the task
to the curious. What is the number of pigeons, wild and
tame, in Britain ; and how much grain do they pick from
the fields and corn-yards ? It is probable that were the quantity
of seeds of the cereal plants, which all the granivorous birds in
the country devour annually, accurately known, it would prove
much higher than could be imagined ; yet by far the greater
part could be of no use to man, were all the birds destroyed,
it being irrecoverably dispersed over the fields.

The Rock Dove, as Mr. Barclay observes, is a strong bird,
and takes a heavy shot. Its feathers, like those of the Ringed
Dove, are very ready to fall off when ruffled, after it has been
shot or wounded, probably owing to the shortness of their

286 COLUMBA LIVIA.

tubes, which is also the case with those of the Grouse and other
gallinaceous birds. Its flesh is rather tough, but otherwise
good.

The great beauty of this bird, its most interesting habits, the
wild character of its places of abode, and associations connecting
it with the years of boyhood, render it a special favourite with
me. Partly for this reason, and partly because I have never
met with any detailed history of it, I have been at considerable
pains, or rather have with much pleasure endeavoured, to ob-
tain by personal observations facts respecting its organization
and habits, sufficient to serve as a sample of the manner in
which I should wish to describe all our native birds.

The history of the next species, which greatly resembles it, I
am unable to give from personal observation. The descriptions
are taken from skins in my collection, presented by G. Head-
lam Greenhow, Esq., Tynemouth.

287

COLUMBA (ENAS. THE BLUE-BACKED DOVE.

STOCK DOVE. WOOD DOVE.

Colombe colombin. Columba (Enas. Teram. Man. d'Om. IT. 445.
Stock-Dove. Columba yEnas. Selb. Illustr. I. 408.
Columba (Enas. Stock Dove. Jen. Brit. Vert. An, 161.

Plumage of the male greyish-blue ; the sides and bach of the
neck splendent with green and purplish-red^ the lower part brown-
ish-purple-red ; the bach and lower icing-coterts blue ; ttvo short
bands of black on the icing ^ one being on the three inner secondary
quills^ the other on three of the secondary coverts. The female
similar^ the green of the neck less extended^ the purplish-red
paler.

Male. — The Blue-Backed Dove, which in descriptive works
still bears the name of " Stock Dove,"" given to it at a time
when it was believed to be the origin of the domestic races,
and of the same species as the Rock Dove already described, is,
in form, size, and general appearance, so similar to the species
just named, that one readily finds an excuse for those who
erroneously considered them identical. They were first clearly
distinguished and separated by M. Temminck.

The bill is short, slender, straight ; the tumid basal mem-
brane scurfy, the dorsal outline of the upper mandible straight
for half its length, then arched and declinate, the edges soft at
the base, towards the end sharp, the tip narrow but rounded ;
the lower mandible with the dorsal outline slightly convex, the
sides nearly erect, the edges toward the end sharp and inflected,
the tip obtuse.

The eyes are rather small, the eyelids bare. The nostrils
are linear, wider anteriorly, three twelfths of an inch long.
The aperture of the ear is roundish, two twelfths in diameter.

The tarsi, which are feathered anteriorly about one-third

288 COLUMBA (ENAS.

down, have five entire scutella, and under them a double series
of four, the hind part soft, and without scales. The first toe
has six, the second nine, the third thirteen, the fourth eleven
scutella. The claws are arched in the third of a circle, com-
pressed, rather acute.

The plumage is generally compact, on the head and fore-neck
blended, on the abdomen somewhat downy. The feathers are
ovate and rounded ; those of the sides and hind part of the neck
with flattened shining filaments. The wings are rather long
and acute ; the primaries tapering, the second longest, the third
almost equal, the first a little shorter ; the secondaries twelve,
short, obliquely rounded. The tail is slightly rounded, of twelve
broad rounded feathers.

The horny part of the bill is light brown, the edges greyish-
yellow ; the soft parts red, excepting the posterior half of the
tumid portion, which is white. The iris is yellowish-red, the
bare space around the eye flesh-coloured. The tarsi and toes
are carmine-purple ; the claws light brown, towards the end
yellowish-grey.

The general colour of the plumage is light greyish-blue, the
lower parts as deeply coloured as the upper. The sides and
hind part of the neck about the middle are splendent with
green and purplish-red ; the lower part of the neck anteriorly
is brownish-purple-red, that colour gradually shaded into the
blue of the breast. The feathers on the fore part of the back,
and the scapulars, are tinged with brown. The primaries and
their coverts are greyish-black, more or less light-blue at the
base ; the secondaries are light-blue, largely tipped with black-
ish. On the outer webs of the three inner and of their coverts,
is a large patch of black. The tail has a broad terminal band
of greyish-black. The downy parts of the feathers are light
grey.

Length to end of tail 14 inches, to end of wings when closed
12; extent of w4ngs 26; wing from flexure 9i ; tail 5 ; bill
along the back !§, along the edge of loAver mandible 1 ; tarsus
1/j ; first toe i, its claw 4^ twelfths ; second toe 9i twelfths,
its claw 3^7j ; third toe 1/^, its claw 5i twelfths; fourth toe
\^y its claw 3 1 twelfths.

BLUE-BACKED DOVE. 289

Female. — The female scarcely differs from the male in ex-
ternal appearance, being merely a little smaller, and having
the colours less pure, the green on the neck less extended, and
the purplish-red much paler.

Length to end of tail 13^ inches ; extent of wings 26 ; wing
from flexure 9i ; tail 5.

Variations. — In adult individuals no remarkable variations
occur, although slight differences are seen in the tints of the
plumage. When the feathers are old, they become paler, and
the quills tinged with brown towards the end.

Habits. — According to those writers who profess to be ac-
quainted with its habits, the Blue-backed Dove resides in woods,
and never betakes itself at night to rocks or old buildings. It
has not been observed in Scotland, and even in England is
confined to some of the midland and southern counties. White
remarks that " as long as it stays with us, from November per-
haps to February, it lives the same w41d life with the Ring-
Dove, Palumbus torquatus ; frequents coppices and groves,
supports itself chiefly by mast, and delights to roost in the tal-
lest beeches." Mr. Selby states that " in its habits it resem-
bles the Ring-Dove, and is a constant inhabitant of woods,
breeding in the hollows of old and pollard trees. In winter
the Stock Doves assemble in large flocks, which are sometimes
found associated with the Ring Dove. Like the latter, they
feed upon all grain and seeds, and for their winter's supply
have recourse to the same diet." Whether these particulars
are given from the author's observation, or on the authority of
others, w^e are not informed.

Mr. Salmon, in a " Notice of the Arrival of Twenty-nine
]\Iigratory Birds in the neighbourhood of Thetford, Norfolk,"
inserted in Loudon's Magazine, Vol. IX, p. 520, has some very
interesting remarks on this bird. The " Stock Dove (Columba
Qj^nas, Linn.), which in all works upon natural history is stated
to be only an inhabitant of woods, abounds in this neighbour-
hood during the spring and summer months, upon our rabbit-
warrens and heaths, to which it annually resorts for the pur-

290 COLUMBA CENAS.

pose of nidlfication ; and it is, in general, tlie first that arrives
in this district for that purpose. The situation which it selects
for its nest differs materially from that chosen by its congeners,
the Ring and Turtle Doves (C. Palumbus, C. Turtur), the
nests of which are always placed either upon trees or bushes :
this species, on the contrary, occupies the deserted rabbit-bur-
rows upon warrens ; it places its pair of eggs about a yard from
the entrance, generally upon the bare sand, sometimes using a
small quantity of dried roots, &c., barely sufficient to keep the
eggs from the ground. Besides such situations, on the heaths
it nestles under the thick furze bushes (Ulex europaea), which
are impervious to rain, in consequence of the sheep and rabbits
eating oiF the young and tender shoots as they grow, always
preferring those bushes that have a small opening made by the
rabbits under the ground. A few pairs occasionally breed in
the holes of decayed trees : this is of rare occurrence in this
district. It generally commences breeding by the end of March,
or the beginning of April ; the young ones, which are very
much esteemed, being ready for the table by the commence-
ment of June. Towards the end of October they all leave this
neighbourhood, none remaining during the winter.^'

The eggs are similar to those of the E-ock Dove. One in
my possession, presented to me by Mr. Greenhow, and from
the above locality, is of a rather elongated elliptical form, an
inch and seven twelfths long, one and one twelfth across, and
of a pure white colour.

Remarks. — This species is easily distinguished by the pur-
plish-red colour of the lower part of its neck, from blue-rum23ed
individuals of the domestic pigeon, with which it was always
confounded until M. Temminck separated the tw^o species.
The name of Stock Dove was given to the present species be-
cause it was conceived to be the original of our domestic pigeons;
but as these are now universally admitted to be the descendants
of the Rock Dove, Columba Livia, it is manifestly absurd to
retain a name founded on an erroneous supposition. The Rock
Dove in fact is the real Stock Dove. To prevent misap-
prehension, I have therefore altered the vernacular name of
Columba CEnas.

291

COLUMBA TURTUR. TURTLE DOVE.

TURTLE. RING-NECKED TURTLE.

Fig. 54.

Columba Turtur. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 284.

Columba Turtur. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 605.

Turtle Dove. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Colombe Tourterelle. Columba Turtur. Temm. Man. d'Orn. II. 448.

Turtle Dove. Columba Turtur. Selb. Illustr. I. 413.

Columba Turtur. Turtle Dove. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 162.

Male with the head light hluish-grey^ the hack greyish-brown^
the scapulars and small wing-coterts black imth broad light red
margins^ the breast pale greyish-purple^ the neck with two large
black spots barred with white^ the quills and tail greyish-brown^
the latter tipped with white. Female similar^ but with the tints
duller.

The Turtle Dove is not only the smallest of our British species,
but also the most elegantly formed, and that whose plumage
exhibits the greatest variety of colours. Compared with the
rest, it seems a delicate and feeble bird, its body being more
slender than theirs, its bill thinner, its wings and tail propor-
tionally longer. Unlike them too it is unable to bear the
severity of our winters, and even during the short period of its
residence with us remains in the southern parts of England,

u 2

292 COLUMBA Tl RTUR.

Male. — The bill is slender, shorter than the head, com-
pressed towards the end, the nostrils linear, the tumid nasal
membrane elongated, the eyes of moderate size, the legs short ;
the tarsi stout, with seven large oblique, and two small anterior
Bcutella ; the hind toe small, with six, the second with nine,
the third with twelve, the fourth with ten scutella ; the claws
of moderate lengih, arched, much compressed, and rather acute.
The plumage is soft, rather blended, without gloss, the feathers
generally ovate. The wings are long and acute ; the second
quill longest, the first almost as long, the third a little shorter
than the first, the other primaries rapidly diminishing and
rounded, the second and third very slightly cut out externally
towards the end, all broad, as are the secondaries, which are
short and rounded. The tail is long, much rounded, of twelve
rather broad rounded feathers.

The bill is greyish-black, the tip of the upper mandible yel-
lowish-brown ; the bare space around the ey-es light red, the
irides light orange, the feet carmine-red, the claws black. The
upper part of the head and hind-neck is light greyish-blue ; the
back greyish-brown, the rump brownish-grey ; the scapulars,
small wing-coverts, and inner secondaries, with a central pointed
black spot, faintly edged with grey, and having broad light red
margins ; the feathers on the edge of the wing, and most of the
secondary coverts ash-grey ; the primary quills, their coverts,
and the outer secondaries, greyish-brown, with narrow whitish
edges ; the tail-feathers are greyish-brown, those towards the
sides blackish ; all tipped with white, that colour becoming
more extended on the lateral feathers, and occupying the entire
outer web of the exterior. On each side of the neck behind is
a roundish patch of black, each of the feathers tipped with
white. The fore part of the neck, the breast, and the sides,
are of a delicate light purplish-red colour, deepest on the lower
fore-neck, and fading into ash-grey behind ; the hind part of
the sides light greyish blue ; the abdomen and lower tail-
coverts white.

Length to end of tail ll/^ inches; extent of wings 21;
wing from flexure 7 ; tail 4| ; bill along the ridge /j, along
the edge of lower mandible lO^ twelfths; tarsus {^ ; hind toe

TURTLE DOVE. 293

5h twelfths, its claw /^ ; second toe /j, its claw, 2^ twelfths;
third toe lOi twelfths, its claw 3i twelfths; fourth toe j%y its
claw 2i twelfths.

Female. — The female has the colours similar, but consider-
ably paler.

Habits. — The Turtle Dove is very extensively distributed,
extending, according to authors, over the greater part of the
old continent, but not entering the arctic regions. In some of
the southern countries it is a permanent resident, but in the
colder is migratory, as in England, where it arrives in the end
of spring. The south-eastern counties are those which it pre-
fers ; and in Kent, as Latham observes, it frequents the pea-
fields in flocks of twenty or more. Montagu states that it is
found, though rarely, as far westward as Devonshire ; but it
does not appear to breed in the northern or even the middle
districts ; although, as stated by Bewick and Mr. Selby, some
individuals have been seen in Northumberland in autumn.
I am not aware of its ever having occurred in Scotland. Ac-
cording to Montagu, Latham, and other creditable writers, it
inhabits the thick w^oods, but frequents the open fields, where
it searches for seeds of all kinds, flies in small flocks, nestles in
the thickest trees, forming a carelessly constructed nest of twigs,
on which it deposits two white eggs, emits a peculiarly plain-
tive cry, and after rearing its young, departs in September. I
believe there is little more to be found in the works of our
most approved authors respecting it ; and I am unable to de-
tail its history from my owm observation. The specimen from
which the above description has been taken I obtained in Lon-
don. Two eggs in my possession are of a narrov/ish oval, rather
pointed form, w^hite, and glossy, one an inch and a quarter in
length, the other a little shorter, their breadth ten tw^elfths.

Young. — According to Montagu, " the young do not throw
out the black feathers on the neck the first year, and the bare
space about the eyes is of a grey colour."

294 COLUMBA TURTUR.

These are all the Pigeons that have any claims upon our
consideration. An individual of the American Passenger or
Migratory Pigeon, Ectopistes migratoria, is recorded by Dr.
Fleming, as having been shot in December 1825, in the neigh-
bourhood of a pigeon-house at Westhall, in the parish of
^lonymeal, Fifeshire. The feathers, according to the de-
scriber of this specimen, " were quite fresh and entire, like
those of a wild bird." Why not ? If it had escaped from
confinement, and resided in a dove-cot for half a year, it
might have its plumage as neat as that of any other bird. Such
a circumstance affords no criterion. A beautiful specimen
of the Dominican Grosbeak, Loxia dominicana, in perfect plu-
mage, was sent to me fresh in the winter of 1831. It had
been shot somewhere near Dalkeith, and I made a drawing
of it for my collection of British Birds; but soon after it
was reported to have escaped from Lady Dalhousie's aviary.
In June 1835, a lovely little bird, fresh and with perfect
plumage, was brought to me from Braid Hermitage near Edin-
burgh, where it had been shot when in company with another
of the same species, supposed to be the female. It turned out
to be the Loxia Astrild. Its skin forms part of my collection ;
but I should no more think of assigning this species a place
among British birds, than of admitting the Migratory Pigeon.
Yet its claims are certainly equal, for its feathers " were
quite fresh and entire, like those of a wild bird,"' and re-
main so to the present day.

295

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

SECOND LESSON.

WINTER EXCURSION DURING A SNOW-STORM FROM EDINBURGH TO PEEBLES.
BIRDS OBSERVED. BAT-HUNTING IN NIDPATH CASTLE. THE VALLEV
OF THE TWEED, BIRDS FOUND AROUND EDINBURGH IN WINTER.
SNOW-STORM IN THE OUTER HEBRIDES VIEWED FROM THE SUMMIT OF
CLISHEIM. BIRDS FOUND THERE IN WINTER.

The naturalist must not confine his observation to objects that
can be contemplated under circumstances conducive to personal
comfort, nor shut himself up in his study when the wintry
winds sweep fiercely over the blasted heath. He who is fami-
liar with the actions and haunts of birds during the fine season
only, knows but half of their history. How do they contrive
to procure the means of subsistence when the country is covered
with snow, especially when the storm has lasted for weeks ;
and what influence is exerted upon their character by the frosts
and tempests of winter ? To solve these problems, let us sally
forth into the fields, now that the snow^ has been two days on
the ground, and the cold blasts of the north-east wind howl
among the leafless twigs. But as it is only half -past two in
the morning, and the clouds are fast pouring down their feathery
flakes, obscuring at intervals the full moon, I can scarcely re-
commend to the comfort-loving citizen to leave his warm bed.
Indeed I feel assured that I shall contribute to his amusement
more eflectually by relating a nocturnal expedition in the midst
of a snow-storm than by dragging him out to shiver in the cold
moonlight on a bleak moor. As to the real enthusiasts in orni-
thology, from Audubon down to myself, they can never rest
contented with the ordinary occurrences of life, but if the tide
of events flows too smoothly, must ruffle it now and then by
throwing some blocks into its channel.

In the morning of Monday the 26th December 1836, the

296 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

ground being covered with snow to a moderate height, the
wind blowing strongly, and the moon about full, I left Edin-
burgh, accompanied by a young friend. It was only three
o'clock when we commenced our expedition, but the moon and
the snow together rendered it quite light, and we tripped along
briskly in the direction of Peebles. Near Greenlaw Barracks,
finding ourselves perspiring copiously, we sat down in a sheltered
place to cool and rest ourselves. Not a living creature, man
or beast, bat or owl, had we seen by the way. All animated
nature seemed buried in sleeji or congealed by the frost, the
effects of which we very soon experienced, and therefore pro-
ceeded on our journey, which aiforded us no other objects of
contemplation than the Pentland Hills wrapped in their cold
white mantles, walls and hedges nearly overtopped with snow,
of which deep wreaths stretched at intervals across the road,
and magnificent clouds driven over the sky, and dissolving into
thick showers, which at times completely obscured the sur-
rounding objects. At Pennicuik we met a man with a lan-
tern, wdio informed us that it was half-past five ; but no other
other living thing occurred until near seven, when, perspiring
profusely, but at the same time having our hands and faces half
frozen, w^e arrived, after wading through a long wreath, and in
the midst of a bitter blast accompanying a heavy showier, at a
large house, wdiich w^e found to be the Wellington Inn, up-
w^ards of twelve miles from Edinburgh. Fortunately some of
the people were up, and there was a large fire in the kitchen,
at which we seated ourselves. In half an hour we were fur-
nished with a comfortable breakfast, which we prefaced and
concluded with a glass of whisky, a practice which, under simi-
lar circumstances, notwithstanding the prohibition of tem-
perance societies, I would strongly recommend as a sovereign
remedy against fatigue.

It was now daylight, and the boys of the house were prepar-
ing their gins. On resuming our march we found ourselves
on an open moor, but with no other birds in view than a few
Rooks. Here the road w^as blocked up for about two hundred
yards by a deep ^vreath, which afforded us some amusement.
A small covey of Partridges flew past us at a distance, and soon

WINTER EXCURSION. 297

after we observed, cowering among the snow-tufts, some large
birds, w^hich I presently discovered to be Bro^^^l Ptarmigans,
alias Red Grouse. Five of them were crouched near the road,
but on our going up, flew off and joined another covey among
some peats. These in their turn removed to a distance, and
finally sped away in company w4th others, forming altogether
a pack amounting to about fifty. As the wind blew strongly
the drift was not so deep as entirely to cover the tips of the
heather tufts, so that these birds could still procure a sufficiency
of food; but they seemed entirely exposed to their enemies,
beinof unable to conceal or even shelter themselves amonoj the
snow, on which their dark colour rendered them very conspi-
cuous. Finding the locks of our guns crusted with snow and
their muzzles filled, we could only w^ish the Grouse a merry
Christmas. The only other birds we met with on the high
moor were a few Rooks, which hovered over the fields, although
they could scarcely obtain anything from them. By a small
stream running towards the Tweed we observed a Dipper, as
cheerful and lively as ever, and in a corn-yard a congregation of
Chaffinches, Greenfinches, and Yellow Buntings, with a few
Blackbirds, all busily occupied.

In the narrow valley of Eddlestone Water the snow lay
deeper than on the high ground, it being sheltered from the
north-east w4nd, which, sweeping the hills almost bare on the
w^indward side, deposited the drift on the lower grounds, so
that occasionally we had some difficulty in making our way
through the wreaths. There is a good deal of wood in this
valley, but in the plantations very few birds were to be seen.
On the open grounds w^ere observed a few Rooks; by the
stream a solitary Dipper here and there ; and in the little rills
or springs which sometimes occurred unfrozen, as well as in the
ditches by the road, we started a few Snipes. These birds rose
without emitting any sound, flew high, and wheeling for some
time, generally alighted again in or near the same place. Above
Eddlestone we observed two Goldfinches discussing the tops of
some thistles that protruded through the snow ; but the only
other small birds that occurred were those common in all parts
of the country, namely, the Chaffinch, Green Linnet, House

298 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

Sparrow, Yellow Bunting, Blue Tit, Black Tit, Hedge Chan-
ter, White Wagtail, Wren, and Gold-crest. A single Stone-
chat also was seen near a cottage. A few Magpies and Jack-
daws, w^ith two Missel Thrushes, were observed ; but of Field-
fares and Redwings, so abundant about Edinburgh, not a single
individual was anpvhere seen. About houses, how^ever, we
met with some Blackbirds and Thrushes, and towards Peebles
saw Rooks and Jackdaws in abundance, some flying slowly
over the fields, others walking along the slopes, a few wading
by the edges of the stream, and numbers pulling at the corn-
stacks, while in the shelter of a fence was a very large flock of
AVood Pigeons, probably amounting to two hundred. But,
upon the whole, the number of species that occurred was much
less than I had anticipated. At length, after a tedious march
alonof the vallev, we arrived in the ancient town of Peebles,
situated on the Tweed, at the distance of twenty-one miles
from Edinburgh, and were welcomed by my excellent and
esteemed friend, the Reverend Mr. Adam.

Next morning, the weather being similar, but the snow
deeper, we resolved to attempt a journey to Nidpath Castle,
about a mile distant, which we accomplished without much
difficulty, although in several places we had to make our w^ay
through snow-drifts of great depth. A Kestrel, some Rooks and
Daws, a AYren, two Missel Thrushes, a Fieldfare, a few^ Black-
birds, andanumberof Sparrow^s, Chaffinches, Yellow Buntings,
and Hedge Chanters, were all the species that occurred. The
gamekeeper had a small collection of stuffed birds, among
which however was nothing remarkable, excepting a Peregrine
Falcon shot in the neighbourhood. Our object in visiting this
building, which is partially in ruins, although the roof is kept
in repair, was to obtain, if possible, a few Bats. We therefore
ascended by a winding stair to the deserted apartments, which
we searched for a long time, but without success, until at length
Mr. Adam discovered one in a very small crevice in the wall.
It was a Pipistrelle, of which the gamekeeper had procured a
specimen some days before. Three stuffed individuals of the
same species also obtained in the castle, and a Long-eared Bat,
Plecotus auritus, formed part of his collection. It is certainly

WINTER EXCURSION. 299

strange that hitherto only two species of Bat, Vespertilio Pipi-
strellus and Plecotus auritus, have been found in Scotland.
We were informed however that a much larger kind had some-
times been seen flying about ; and of it the gamekeeper kindly
engaged to procure a specimen or two in summer. We re-
turned towards evening, without observing anything remark-
able, excepting the ravages committed upon a stack of wheat
by the Rooks, which had very expertly pulled out the straws
in order to get at the grain. Several Dippers and a White
Wagtail were seen by the Tweed, which rolled along its cold
waters, margined with ice, and strewed with lumps of snow^

The town, as I have said, is situated by the side of this beauti-
ful river, at the mouth of Eddlestone Water, one of its tribu-
taries, in a valley enclosed by rounded hills of considerable
height, which, in summer, with their green slopes, and nume-
rous plantations, afford an agreeable prospect. Now that the
whole country was covered with snow, amid which the dark
firs and pines exhibited the only verdure to be seen, they pre-
sented a most chilly aspect, which however was more singu-
lar than disagreeable. Many of the exposed slopes and emin-
ences were almost bared by the strong wind that had blown for
two days, while the sheltered hollows were filled with deep
wreaths. The sheep had been driven into the w^oods for shel-
ter, or gathered into the low grounds, where they were supplied
with turnips, or left to shift for themselves by scraping the
snow from the more prominent parts.

Next day, notwithstanding the increased depth of the snow,
we rambled about the town, and then crossing the Tweed,
made the best of our way through the wreaths to the mouth of
Manor Water, near wdiich, we were conducted by Mr. Adam
to Bellanridge, the farm of his friend I\Ir. ]Middlemass, who
receiA'ed us in the most hospitable manner. His well-stored
stack-yard offered an attraction to the small birds in the neigh-
bourhood, but we observed in it only the common species, some
of which we procured, as well as a Creeper and a Gold-crest.
^Ve had entered rather cold, and wet to the ancles, but were
soon restored to a comfortable temperature by the agency of a
good fire, abundance of substantial fare, and a quantum of

300 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

diffusible stimulus, which putting " life and mettle in our
heels,'' we wished our kind host and his amiable consort good
night, and sallying forth in the dark, ascended the hill by a
short cut, and in due time regained our station by the fire of
Mr. Adam's parlour, where we sat talking until after twelve.

On Thursday the snow continued, but the roads having been
cleared, we returned by the coach, congratulating ourselves on
having obtained a full view of a diversified country clad with
its wintry mantle, and on having ascertained that during snow
storms comparatively few birds are to be seen in the inland
parts. The smaller granivorous species can have no difficulty
in procuring subsistence from the corn stacks ; and some of
the insectivorous, as the Thrushes, find a sufficiently nourishing
food in haws and other berries ; while the Waders and Ducks
chiefly resort to the sea shore.

But now the snow, which has covered the face of the
country for several days, is beginning to dissolve under the in-
fluence of the sun and a change of temperature. The sports-
men are abroad ; you see them scattered along these meadows,
on which are several pools of water, and many patches of green
grass, where you observe large flocks of Thrushes, which, half-
famished, are almost heedless of the dangers that surround
them. Several shots are fired, and they fly off in a loose body
to settle in another place ; but while they are on the way,
they are assailed by a volley ; some of their number fall to the
ground ; and the rest, wheeling about, betake themselves to a
clump of tall trees, where they have scarcely had time to
perch, when a person running up disperses them by a distant
and random shot. No rest can the persecuted birds find ; yet
hunger prevents them from leaving the tempting spot in which
alone they can hope to obtain the means of satisfying their
wants. Fieldfares, Redwings, and Thrushes intermingled are
dispersed in parties over the plain ; while along the hedges,
keenly searching for snails and worms, are here and there seen
the Blackbirds, which do not mingle with their brethren, nor
trust themselves to the open fields. Among those turnips you
observe a large flock of Wood Pigeons, greedily filling their
crops with the blades that project through the snow ; and on

WINTER EXCURSION. 301

the tree tops are multitudes of Linnets, Finches, and Sparrows,
which, having been scared from the corn-yard by some truant
schoolboys, are w^aiting impatiently until they may return with
safety. High over head stretches a long array of Plovers,
silently flying towards the shores, whither we shall follow them.

In this wood are many birds, which in the meantime it may
be well to note, as w^e may leisurely do, for they take no no-
tice of us, as incessantly uttering their shrill and feeble cheeps,
they flit from twig to twig, ever anxious to spy the minute ob-
jects on w^hich they feed. The bright blue tints and lively
appearance of that tiny thing shew it to be the Blue Tit ; its
relative is readily distinguished by the deep black of its head,
broken by a wdiite spot on the occiput ; while the dark stripe
down the yellow breast of that larger species marks it as the
Greater Tit. Now they have shifted from tree to tree, and in
their rear follows a scattered flock of still smaller birds, which
although too distant to be distinctly seen, are known to be
Gold-crests, from their peculiar cry, fluttering motion, and
varied attitudes.

The vicinity of Edinburgh seems especially favourable to
Rooks, for go w^here you will, at all seasons of the year, and
in all sorts of weather, you find them scattered over the fields.
That dunghil behind the wall is covered with them, and on
the road are straggling parties searching for some small fare in
the ruts of the cart-wheels. What these poor Magpies can be
about in the middle of the field I cannot conjecture, unless
they may have discovered a frozen potato, or a dead bird.

The tide is out, and on the muddy flat at the mouth of the
Almond, you observe vast collections of Rooks and Gulls.
Small flocks of Ducks are swimming about in the stream ;
and groups of Sandpipers are diligently probing the mud along
its edges. Far away, at a safe distance, are many Curlews
and Oyster-catchers. But see, scattered all over the sand,
running with a half-hopping motion, and as they rise on wing
displaying the white of their wings and tail, the beautiful
Snow Buntings. At the edge of the water stand in a fixed
and watchful posture a pair of Herons ; and, out at sea, are
seen here and there, a few dark -coloured birds, which may be

302 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

Cormorants or Ducks. A flight of Sandpipers is a beautiful
sight : there they wheel around the distant point, and advance
over the margin of the water ; swiftly and silently they glide
along ; now^, all inclining their bodies to one side, present to
view their under surface, glistening in the sunshine ; again,
bending to the other side, they have changed their colour to
dusky grey ; a shot is fired, and they plunge with an abrupt
turn, curve aside, ascend wdth a gliding flight, and all utter-
ing shrill cries, fly over the stream to settle on the shoal that
stretches out towards Barnbogle Ruins. I have seen the sand-
fords of the Hebrides, in autumn, when these birds descend
with their broods from the moors, almost completely covered
with them and the Golden Plovers.

What interest one could find in merely describing the skins
of these birds in his closet, it is somewhat difiicult to imagine ;
nor is it obvious that the examination of their structure, with-
out any reference to their habits, is a much more rational oc-
cupation. The mere closet-naturalist, and the mere anatomist,
find little to interest them in such a sight as this ; and the
mere field-naturalist, however delighted with it, cannot enjoy
that true pleasure which results from a knowledge of the adap-
tation of means to ends, by which all these species have their
peculiar spheres of action determined.

The birds to be found around Edinburgh, on the Pentland
Hills, and in the neighbouring plains of Corstorphine and Dal-
keith, with the valley of the North Esk, in the winter season,
are rather numerous :

In the gardens, shrubberies, and plantations :

1. The Blackbird. Turdus Merula. Common.

2. Common Thrush. Turdus musicus. Plentiful.

3. Redbreast. Rubecula familiaris. Common.

4. Hedge Chanter. Accentor modularis. Common.

5. Greater Tit. Parus major. Rather common.

6. Blue Tit. Parus coeruleus. Common.

7. Black Tit. Parus ater. Common.

8. Gold-crest. Regulus auricapillus. Not uncommon.

9. Marsh Tit. Parus palustris. Rather rare.

BIRDS IN WINTER AROUND EDINBURGH. 303

10. Long-tailed Tit. Parus caudatus. Not very rare.

11. Goldfinch. Carduelis elegans. Rare.

12. Bullfinch. Pyrrhula pileata. Rather rare.

13. Redpoll. Linaria minor. Rare.

14. Siskin. Carduelis spinus. Rare.

15. Creeper. Certhia familiaris. Common.

16. Magpie. Pica melanoleuca. Rather scarce.

The Granivorous Birds which frequent the stack-yards are :

17. The House Sparrow. Passer domesticus. Abundant.

18. Green Linnet. Linaria Cliloris. Abundant.

19. Brown Linnet. Linaria cannabina. Abundant.

20. Twite. Linaria montium. Scarce.

21. Chafiinch. Fringilla coelebs. Abundant.

22. Corn Bunting. Emberiza ^Miliaria. Not uncommon.

23. Yellow Bunting. Emberiza Citrinella. Abundant.

24. Field Lark. Alauda arvensis. Abundant.

When the weather is open, these birds betake themselves to
the fields, where also are found,

25. The Grey Partridge. Perdix cinerea. Not rare.

26. Missel Thrush. Turdus viscivorus. Not uncommon.

27. Fieldfare. Turdus pilaris. Plentiful.

28. Redwing. Turdus iliacus. Plentiful.

29. Rook. Corvus frugilegus. Abundant.

30. Daw. Corvus Monedula. Rather common.

31. AVood Pigeon. Columba Palumbus. Plentiful.

In meadow and marshy ground the three Thrushes just
mentioned are also frequently found, together with the Lark,
the Lapwing, the common Snipe,

32. The Meadow Pipit. Anthus pratensis. Plentiful.

33. White Wagtail. Motacilla alba. Rare.

On the heaths of the Pentland Hills, the only species not
found in the pastures or cultivated land is

34. The Brown Ptarmigan or Red Grouse. Lagopus scoticus.

304 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

By hedges and walls, or among thickets of gorse :

35. The Common Wren. Troglod}i;es em'opseus. Common.

36. Stone-chat. Saxicola Rubicola. Very rare.

In or by the brooks and ditches are occasionally seen,

37. The Dipper. Cinclus europ^eus. Uncommon.

38. Common Gallinule. Gallinula Chloropus. Not rare.

39. Woodcock. Scolopax Rusticola. Rare.

40. Snipe. Scolopax Gallinago. Common.

41. Jack Snipe. Scolopax Gallinula. Very rare.

42. Water Rail. Rallus aquaticus. Extremely rare.

43. Common Heron. Ardea cinerea. Not common.

44. Kingsfisher. Alcedo Ispida. Very rare.

On Duddingston Loch, besides several of the above, are
frequently found,

45. The Coot. Fulica atra.

46. Golden Eye. Clangula chrysophthalma.

47. Mallard. Anas Boschas.

48. Tufted Pochard. Fuligula cristata.

Frequently in the plains near Corstorphine, and in the fields
about Granton, are observed large flocks of

49. The Golden Plover. Charadrius Pluvialis.

50. Lapwing. Vanellus cristatus.

51. Common Gull. Larus canus.

52. Black-headed Gull. Larus ridibundus.

Along the shore from Queensferry to Musselburgh may be
seen, besides the Common and Black-headed Gulls,

53. The Great Black-backed Gull. Larus marinus.

54. Herring Gull. Larus argentatus.

55. Redshank. Totanus Calidris.

56. Purre. Tringa variabilis.

57. Knot. Tringa cinerea.

58. Ringed Plover. Charadrius Hiaticula.

59. Turnstone. Strepsilas Interpres.

BIRDS IN WINTER AROUND EDINBURGH. 305

60. Saiiderling. Calidris arenaria.

61. Purple Sandpiper. Tringa maritima.

62. Oyster-catcher. Hsematopus Ostralegus.

63. Curlew. Numenius Arquata.

64. Rock Pipit. Anthus aquaticus.

65. Snow Bunting. Plectrophanes nivalis.

Lastly, on the waters of the Frith of Forth are seen,

66. The Cormorant. Phalacrocorax Carbo.

67. Crested Cormorant. Phalacrocorax cristatus.

68. Red-throated Diver. Colymbus arcticus.

69. Red-headed Pochard. Fuligula Ferina.

70. Velvet Scoter. Oidemia fusca.

71. Scaup Duck. Fuligula Marila.

72. Common Shielduck. Tadorna Bellonii.

Besides the above there are a few rapacious birds in the dis-
trict :

73. The Kestrel. Falco Tinnunculus. Common.

74. Peregrine Falcon. Falco Peregrinus. Very rare.

75. Merlin. Falco ^E salon. Rare.

76. Sparrow Hawk. Accipiter Nisus. Common.

77. Common Buzzard. Buteo vulgaris. Rare.

78. Hen-harrier. Circus cyaneus. Rare.

79. Long-tufted Owl. Ulula Otus. Very rare.

80. Short-tufted Owl. Ulula Brachyotus. Very rare.

81. Barn or Screech Owl. Strix flammea. Rare.

Of rare birds, stragglers, or occasional visitants seen in the
district in winter, may be mentioned,

82. The Common Crossbill. Crucirostra europsea.

83. Hawfinch. Loxia Coccothraustes.

84. Hoopoe. L'pupa Epops. Shot near Portobello.

85. Burgomaster Gull. Larus glaucus. Shot at Musselburgh

in December 1836.

86. Curlew Sandpiper. Tringa subarquata. A specimen, shot

at Queen sferry, is in my possession ; and another was
killed by myself at Musselburgh,

306 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

87. Starling. Sturnus varius. Flocks are sometimes seen in

spring.

88. Grey Phalarope. Plialaropus platyrhinclius. Has been

shot near Newhaven.

In most parts of Scotland similarly situated, such as Perth,
Dundee, Aberdeen, and Inverness, nearly the same species are
observed during the winter ; but in others, as the Hebrides
and Orkney and Shetland Islands, the number of species is
considerably less. In these latter districts the marine and
maritime species predominate, while in the former the land
birds are more numerous. A winter scene in the lowlands is
tame, and an excursion there during snow uninteresting, com-
pared with the scenery of the rugged and ocean-washed Hebrides,
and a shooting expedition among their dreary mountains and
pathless moors.

Having in October 1817, as I find by one of my note-books,
left Borve in Harris, in company with the Reverend INIr. Alex-
ander Macleod, minister of the Forest district, I crossed the
sandford and hills of Luskentir, to the little Bay of Kindibig,
where we lodged with a farmer, who next day ferried us over
Loch Tarbert to a place called Urga. We remained there for
a night, and then continued our journey, proceeding up a long
craggy and bleak valley, in which is a very dark-coloured
lake, famous for a goblin-beast which is seen upon it in sum-
mer in the form of a black mass having three humps. " The
wind was exceedingly keen, the hail came in great showers,
and the summits of the mountains were covered with snow. I
left the parson a little above IMarig, a creek on Loch Seaforth,
in which was his dreary-looking habitation, and having re-
solved to ascend the highest hill, in order to witness a Hebri-
dian snow storm in all its glory, I proceeded toward Clisheim,
the height of which is estimated at somewhat more than three
thousand feet. In despite of hail and snow, and the furious
wdiirlwinds or eddying blasts that sw^ept the mountain at inter-
vals, I made my way, though not without labour, to the sum-
mit ; and well was I recompensed, for there I enjoyed a very
sublime spectacle. I was on the highest pinnacle of that range

EXCURSION IN OUTER HEBRIDES. 307

of islands denominated the Outer Hebrides or Long Island,
perched, like a Ptarmigan, on a craggy and precipitous ridge.
The islands of Uist, Harris, and Lewis lay as it were at my
feet. Toward the east and south, in the extreme distance, ap-
peared the mountains of the counties of Ross and Inverness, with
the pointed hills and craggy capes, and sloping plains of Skye.
Westward, a long series of summits, commencing with that
on which I stood, and forming a broad ridge, intersected trans-
versely by deep valleys, extended for several miles. They ap-
peared to be much lower than the mountain on which I was,
and resembled heaps of sand formed by pouring it from a vessel.
The snow lay rather deep on them all, and the whirlwinds that
swept along their ridges scattering it in spiral flakes, present-
ed an indescribably beautiful and sublime appearance. I was
enveloped in one, but it did not prove very boisterous. The
Atlantic was covered with huge clouds, that advanced in dis-
orderly groups, nearly on a level with my position, but the
waving streams of snow and hail that poured from them left
no trace on the stormy waters. Toward the north lay the
dreary flats of Lewis, covered with lakes, and flanked with the
Park and Uig mountains. Having gazed upon the splendid
scene until nearly frozen, I descended with considerable diffi-
culty into a deep valley, where I encountered a fall of snow so
dense as to render me apprehensive of being smothered by it.
I felt too, for the first time perhaps, the benumbing effects of
cold, my feet and fingers having become almost senseless, and
a feeling of faintness having crept over me. However, by
walking^ and runninoj I soon recovered heat enough, and after
passing the deep glen of Langadale, ascended an eminence in
a kind of pass between two mountains, whence I discovered
tokens of cultivation at the distance of three or four miles, so
that I was assured of being in the proper direction toward the
house of a friend whom I had not seen for many years. By a
stream in a desolate valley I fell in with a herd of seven deer,
w^hich however I did not attempt to molest ; and in the even-
ing was welcomed to the cottage of Ewen ^lacdiarmid, at the
head of Loch Resort, one of the dreary inlets of this dismal-
looking coast. Two days' rambling among the mountains pro-

X 2

308 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

cured two specimens of the wild Red Deer, which I left with
my host.

In traversing the interior of these islands in winter the only
birds to be seen on the hills and moors are :

1. The Brown Ptarmigan. Lagopus scoticus.

2. Grey Ptarmigan. Lagopus cinereus.

3. Snow Bunting. Plectrophanes nivalis.

4. Water Rail. Rallus aquaticus.

5. Snipe. Scolopax Gallinago.

6. Jack Snipe. Scolopax Gallinula.

On the lakes however are often met with the

7. Swan. Cygnus ferus.

8. Bean Goose. Anser segetum.

9. Brent Goose. Anser Bernicla.

10. Golden Eye. Clangula chrysophthalma.

11. Dobchick. Podiceps minor.

It is in the pasture and cultivated land along the shores that
the few species of winter residents are chiefly met with ; and
there may be seen, scattered over the fields, and frequenting the
corn-yards, or the neighbourhood of houses,

12. The Field Lark. Alauda arvensis.

13. Corn Bunting. Emberiza Miliaria.

14. Reed Bunting. Emberiza Schoeniculus.

15. Brown Linnet. Linaria cannabina.

16. Twite. Linaria montium.

17. Hedge Chanter. Accentor modularis.

18. Common Wren. Troglodytes europseus.

19. Starhng. Sturnus varius.

20. Rock Pigeon. Columba Livia.

21. Common Thrush. Turdus musicus.

By many of the brooks I have met with

22. The Woodcock. Scolopax Rusticola.

23. Dipper. Cinclus aquaticus.

WINTER BIRDS IN OUTER HEBRIDES. 309

In the pastures are sometimes, but rarely, seen

2-i. The Fieldfare. Turdus pilaris.

25. Redwing. Turdus iliacus.

The predatory and wandering species which occur in winter
as well as summer are :

26. The White-tailed Sea-Eagle. Haliaetus Albicilla.

27. Golden Eagle. Aquila Chrysaetus.

28. Sparrow Hawk. Accipiter Nisus.

29. Hen-harrier. Circus cyaneus.
SO. Kestrel. Falco Tinnunculus.

31. Raven. Corvus Corax.

32. Hooded Crow. Corvus Cornix.

Along the shores are met with,

S3. The Golden Plover. Charadrius Pluvialis.

34. Sanderling. Calidris arenaria.

35. Oyster-catcher. Hsematopus Ostralegus.

36. Ring Plover. Charadrius Hiaticula.

37. Turnstone. Strepsilas Interpres.

38. Lapwing. Vanellus cristatus.

39. Common Heron. Ardea cinerea.

40. Curlew. Numenius Arquata.

41. Dunlin or Purre. Tringa variabilis.

42. Purple Sandpiper. Tringa maritima.

43. Redshank. Totanus Calidris.

44. Greenshank. Totanus Glottis.

45. Rock Pipit. Anthus aquaticus.

46. Common Pipit. Anthus pratensis.

Of Sea Birds properly so called are found :

47. The Great Glaucous Gull. Larus glaucus.

48. Great Black-backed Gull. Larus marinus.

49. tierring Gull. Larus argentatus.

50. Common Gull. Larus canus.

51. Cormorant. Phalacrocorax Carbo.

52. Crested Cormorant. Phalacrocorax cristatus.

310 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

53. Great Northern Diver. Colymbus glacialis.

54. Red-throated Diver. Colymbus septentrionalis.

The prodigious flocks of Plovers that cover the sandfords
and shoals at low water, and the pasture grounds wdien the
tide is up, aftbrd excellent shooting ; as do the Rock Doves,
w^hich in winter traverse the cultivated ground in great num-
bers. To these, as objects of sport, may be added the Brent
Geese, Curlews, Snipes, and Starlings, together with the Ptar-
migans. One very severe winter, when the ground was covered
for six weeks, great numbers of the Pigeons died, and several
dead Woodcocks were found by the frozen rills. Flocks of
Rooks sometimes make their appearance after stormy weather,
althoush these birds breed nowhere in the district. It is sel-
dom, however, that snow lies very long in these islands, at least
along the coasts ; and the frequent storms, accompanied by
rain and sleet, however furious, seem to be rarely fatal to the
birds, although they sometimes prevent the Pigeons and Star-
lings from coming abroad for days. The Ptarmigans and small
birds can always find a secure retreat among the shrubs and
herbage ; and the Grallatores, among the rocks and stones of
the shores ; while for the Cormorants and other swimming
birds there are generally so many small bays and creeks, filled
with the young of the Gadus Carbonarius and other fishes, and
more or less sheltered from the blasts and billows of the Atlan-
tic, that they can seldom have much difficulty in obtaining
food.

It will be seen, on comparing the above lists, that the num-
ber of land birds in winter is much greater in the south than
in the north of Scotland ; and that the littoral and aquatic
species are more proportionally numerous in the latter.

Having thus taken a hasty glance of the ornithological con-
dition of the country in the cold season, we may now continue
our examination of the diiferent species, the next tribe that
comes under our consideration being that composed of the
small thick-billed birds, which are perhaps the most familiar
of all.

311

III. DEGLUBITORES. HUSKERS,

OR CONIROSTRAL BIRDS.

The species of Birds that are found in Britain not being
sufficiently numerous to afford representatives of all the genera
or even families of which the class is composed, it is impossible
to present in this work, in a continuous series, satisfactory in-
dications of that intertexture of affinities, by tracing which one
might acquire some definite idea of the objects w^hich they
unite. The great class of Passeres or Insessores of authors is
so heterogeneous in its composition, that all who have attempted
to characterize it, w^hether in few or in many words, have ut-
terly failed ; for this plain reason, that its various groups are
as unlike to each other as they are to the Raptores or Rasores,
and that, in fact, the only common features which they exhibit
are those of the general organization of birds. A Hornbill and
a Humming-bird, a Parrot and a Wren, a Kingsfisher and a
Swallow, a Starling and a Toucan, not to mention others still
more dissimilar, are surely as unlike each other as a Hawk
and a Shrike, a Pigeon and a Plover, or a Flamingo and a
Pelican. Assuming, therefore, the privilege which every
author arrogates, whether comparable to the small Nuthatch,
that with much labour bores a little hole in a filbert, or to the
Ivory-billed AYoodpecker that demolishes half the bark of a
decayed tree in looking for his morning meal, I have thought
it not presumptuous to separate the genera of our native birds
into large groups or orders, such as, being in a great measure
natural, may be readily apprehended by my readers, for whose

312 DEGLUBITORES. HUSKERS.

accordance with my views however I am not nearly so anxious
as for their rightly understanding the connexion of the objects
to which our attention is directed.

Taking a general survey of the land birds, such as one may
obtain by examining, after previous study, a well-arranged col-
lection, I imagine that among the most remarkably distinct
groups would be considered as one of the most easily distin-
guished, that which forms the subject of the present notice.

The birds of which this order is composed are in fact remark-
able for a general similarity of form, and more especially for a
mutual resemblance in the shape of their bill, which is more
or less stout and conical, although it presents considerable dif-
ferences in its outlines and apex, being, though commonly short,
and rapidly tapering to a point, sometimes very short and bulg-
ino' on the one hand, and on the other sometimes rather lonof
and acuminate. In external form, they do not in general
bear a close resemblance to any of the genera composing the
two i^receding orders, the Rasores and the Gemitores ; but in
the structure of their digestive organs they manifest a consider-
able affinity to both, more particularly in having the oesophagus
dilated into a kind of crop, and in the form and composition of
their stomach, which is a powerful gizzard. At the same time,
it cannot be denied that some of the smaller species of the
Grouse or Partridge family are not unlike some Buntings
both in form and in colour. Their alliance to several of the
following orders however, especially to the family Thremma-
philinag of the order Yagatores, and the Turdin^ and Alau-
danse of that of the Cantatores, is very apparent. With the
former they are connected by the intervention of the family of
Icterinoe, composed of the genera Icterus, Cassicus, Quisca-
lus, and a few others, which by means of Sturnella are allied
to the genus Sturnus on the one hand, and to Alauda on the
other. The latter genus is also connected with the Cantatores
by means of Anthus. But the relations of these orders are
too complex to be fully explained here, and I must be content
with merely indicating the families of the Deglubitores, which
I conceive to be the Tanagranse, Passerinae, Emberizanae, and
Icterinse. The Tanagrance are distinguished by having the

DEGLUBITORES. HUSKERS. 313

bill short, strong, with more or less convex outlines, the lower
mandible larger, and having its sides more or less flattened at
the base, the sharp overlapping edges of the upper with a dis-
tinct notch close to the tip, the gape-line nearly straight, the
nasal fossa short and broad, the nostrils roundish. This group,
composed of the genera Tanagra, Pyranga, Phibalura, and
others, is peculiar to America, and remarkable for the gaudy
and often brilliant colours, always however without metallic
lustre, with which the species are adorned. The Passerinw
belong to both continents, and are characterized by a short,
thick, conical bill, of which the mandibles are nearly equal in
size, although not always in length, the upper with the edges
a little overlapping, while those of the lowe? are involute, the
tip destitute of a notch, and the gape-line nearly straight. To
this group belong the genera Fringilla, Passer, Linaria, Pyrrhu-
la, and others. The Emherizanw are in many respects similar
to the Passerinas, but present the peculiar characters of having
the upper mandible much narrowed, so that its edges do not
overlap, the gape-line ascending and afterwards direct, there
being as it were an angular portion cut out of the mandible,
while a hard knob projects from the palate, and the lower jaw
is much bent in the middle. To this group belong the genera
Emberiza and Plectrophanes. The Larks, which by some
writers are associated with the Buntings and Finches, seem to
me not even to belong to the order, but to be allied to the
Pipits, Thrushes, and other slender-billed birds. Lastly, The
Icterince^ peculiar to America, have the bill elongated, coni-
cal, tapering to a point, its edges involute, the gape-line de-
flected at the base as in the Emberizanae. They form a group
intermediate between the Passerinae and Emberizanse on the
one hand, and the Corvinae and Thremmaphilinae on the other.

Of these families the first and last have no representatives in
Britain, they being, as stated, exclusively American. All our
species therefore belong to the Passerinae and Emberizanae, the
characters common to which are the following :

The bill is short, strong, conical, its sides convex, the edges
sharp and inflected, the tip acute, the upper mandible with
scarcely any notch or sinus near the extremity. The tongue

314 DEGLUBITORES. HUSKERS.

is sagittate, emarginate and denticulate at the base, fleshy,
sheathed with a horny covering at the end, its apex more or
less slit. The oesophagus, PI. VIII, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, a, h, c,
d, is rather wide at its commencement, dilates on the middle
of the neck into a crop of moderate size, b, which always lies
on the right side, becomes very narrow as it enters the thorax,
c, and before opening into the stomach, forms an oblong pro-
ventriculus, d, having a complete belt of oblong or cylindrical
glandules. The stomach, e, /, ^, k, is a remarkably powerful
gizzard, of a roundish form, compressed, with two large lateral
muscles, e, /, and an inferior prominent muscle, ^ ; its cuticular
lining dense, tough, and longitudinally rugous. The intestine,
h, i, j, k, /, m, 71, is short, or of moderate length, and of nearly
equal diameter beyond the duodenal portion, /^, «', j. There
are two very small oblong or cylindrical adnate cceca, /, near
its extremity. The rectum, /, W2, n, is nearly of the same dia-
meter, and very short.

The body is ovate and short ; the neck short. The legs are
rather strong, of ordinary length or short ; the tarsus compres-
sed, covered anteriorly with seven scutella ; the toes four, com-
pressed, three anterior, slightly spreading, the first stouter,
broader beneath, and not so long as the second and fourth,
which are about equal, and much shorter than the third, which
is united at its base with the fourth. The claws are rather
long, arched, slender, compressed, tapering to a fine point, that
of the hind toe longest. The wings are of moderate length,
short, rather pointed, the primaries tapering, but not separated
towards the end w^hen the wing is expanded, the three outer
longest. The tail is of moderate size, and is composed of
twelve feathers, of which the lateral are bent a little outwards
toward the end.

The arrangement of the plumage is as follows : — There are
four kinds of feathers : quills, feathers, dowTi-feathers, and
hair-feathers.

The quills, inserted along the posterior edge of the wing, are
seventeen in number, ten primary and seven secondary. Three
pollical quills. Twelve tail-quills inserted close together, the
two middle above the line of the rest.

DEGLUBITORES. HUSKERS. 315

The feathers, properly so called, are inserted on the head all
round ; on an elevated line along the back of the neck, expand-
ing on the back, and continued to the rump-gland ; on a simi-
lar line down the fore part of the neck, at the middle of which
it forks, each division becoming broader as it passes along the
side of the breast, and narrowing near the abdomen, on vrhich
it terminates before the anus ; on a narrow line coming off from
that on the fore-neck, and running along the edge of the wing,
then crossing the humerus, and extending a short w^ay along
the side of the back, where it is broader ; on both sides of the
wing, there being above a band composed of the smaller upper
wing-coverts, and a line of upper large coverts, below a nar-
rower band of smaller lower coverts, and line of large lower
coverts ; on a line from the knee-joint above, laterally to near
the rump ; on a small transverse space above, and on another
beneath the tail. The ears and anus are also margined with
a distinct circle.

The down-feathers cover the intervals between these feathered
spaces ; and all the surfaces from which the feathers come oif
are interspersed with very slender hairs, which are penicillate
at the tip.

Birds of this order occur in all parts of the globe, but are
more numerous in the temperate than in the tropical regions.
They are generally gregarious after the breeding season, and
feed for the most part on seeds, which they deprive, by means
of the sharp edges of the bill, of their outer covering or peri-
carp, whence the name HusJcei^s given to the order. INIany of
them however feed also on berries and fruits of various kinds ;
and the larger species of the family Icterinae eat also worms
and various other matters, approaching in this respect, as well
as in appearance, to the Corvinte. Their mode of progression
on the ground is generally by a succession of short leaps, and
on trees they cling with ease to the twigs, some of them being
more arboreal than terrestrial. Their flight is rapid, light, and
sustained, generally undulating, or performed by successive
bounds. They are fond of basking in the sun, whether on
trees or on the ground ; and in dry weather may be seen flut-
tering among dust or sand, which they throw up about them-

316 DEGLUBITORES. HUSKERS.

selves. The purpose of this habit has been supposed to be to
rid themselves of parasitic insects ; but it is more probably
connected with the gratification imparted by the warmth com-
municated by the heated sand. They wash occasionally in
pools and streams, standing or crouching in the water, and
throwing it up by repeated flutterings. They drink by im-
mersing their bill and taking up a little at a time, elevating
their head in swallowing it. They construct an elaborate nest,
greatly diversified in form and texture, according to the species.
The eggs, which vary from four or five to eight or nine, exhibit
great diversity of marking, being however generally spotted or
dotted. The young are born blind, at first thinly covered with
down. The males are almost always more gayly attired than
the females ; the young are generally similar to the latter ; and
the young males sometimes moult several times before the
plumage is completed.

The digestive organs of these birds are obviously adapted for
seeds or other hard bodies. The strong, conical, pointed bill,
with its fine point and sharp edges, performs the part of a for-
ceps and husking instrument ; the dilatation of the oesophagus
receives the food collected ; the gizzard, as muscular as that of
the Rasores, with an equally tough and rugous internal coat,
readily triturates the frequently hard seeds with the aid of
gravel or sand ; and the iiigesta being highly nutritious do not
require to undergo a protracted elaboration in the intestine, so
that the cceca are merely mucous crjq^ts, as in the Pigeons,
whose food is pretty similar.

The British species are all more or less gregarious in winter.
In summer they are dispersed over the country, some residing
in woods, others in thickets, some in the open fields, while one
species, the Common Sparrow, prefers, like the Jackdaw of the
next order, lodging about the habitations of man. It is in
this order that some of our finest songsters, the Brown Linnet,
Greenfinch, and Goldfinch, are found ; but many of them have
not the faculty of emitting " sweet sounds.'"* Being entirely
granivorous for the greater part of the }'ear, some species, as the
Sparrow and Bunting, commit considerable depredations on the
crops, and in winter pick the seeds from the corn-stacks. They

DEGLUBITORES. HUSKERS. 317

are generally distributed with us, most of them however occur-
ring chiefly in the cultivated parts. Very few are strictly ar-
boreal, like the Crossbills, and equally few are those that, like
the Snowflake, reside on the ground ; but the greater number
seek their food chiefly on the latter, and resort to trees or shrubs
for shelter, protection, or repose. They are therefore fitted for
perching securely, as well as for moving with considerable
speed on the ground ; but their gressorial powders are much in-
ferior to those of the Rasores, Gemitores, and Vagatores, and
none of them, excepting the Lark-Buntings, are capable of run-
ning with speed. Being compact and muscular, with a consider-
able development of the wings and tail, they move through the
air with ease and velocity. Their sight is keen, but apparently
does not extend to great distances, so that in general they are
easily approached within shooting distance. Their small size
protects them in a great measure from man ; but their enemies
are numerous, and the small Rapacious Birds, and Carnivorous
Quadrupeds live chiefly at their expense. Their mental facul-
ties are not apparently of a high order, although their brain,
in proportion to the size of their body, is greater than that of
almost any other tribe of birds. In captivity they are gentle,
and to a considerable extent docile.

All the species moult only once in the year ; but in many a
considerable change is effected in the colouring by the abrasion
of the extremities of the filaments of their plumage. Many
produce two broods in the season ; and as these are generally
pretty numerous, there must be a great annual destruction
among the species, otherwise their number would be much
greater.

Among the Conirostres of authors are by some included the
Crows, Tits, Larks, and many other genera ; but the digestive
organs of the birds just named are difl:erent in several respects ;
their habits, external forms, and proportions exhibit much di-
versity, and their bills in particular, although in a modified
sense conical, are not more so certainly than those of a multi-
tude of genera which no one could dream of referring to this
order, such as the Woodpeckers, Gannets, and Divers. It is
in consequence of looking too exclusively to so vague a char-

S18 DEGLUBITORES. HUSKERS.

acter as that derived from the shape of this organ, that these
unnatural associations have been made. The group as above
defined is natural and distinct. But although many sj^ecies of
the Icterinae are obviously most intimately allied to some of
the Passerinae and Emberizanae, and especially to the genus
Ploceus of the former, yet, not having had an opportunity of
examining the digestive organs of that family, I cannot with
confidence affirm that it does not belong to the order Vagatores.
This sort of analysis alone can determine the question.

In Britain then, there are representatives of two families of
the Deglubitores ; namely. Passer inw and Emherizanw.

319

PASSERIN.E.

SPAEJROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

Thi. family of Passerinse is composed of small birds whose
average size is that of the common House Sj^arrow, a species
which may be considered as the most extensiv^ely distributed and
the most familiarly known of its tribe. The genera of which it
is composed have so strong a mutual resemblance that it is very
questionable wdiether the greater number of them ought not to
be referred to the same subordinate group. These genera are
Fringilla, Passer, Linaria, Carduelis, Coccothraustes, P}Trhula,
and Crucirostra, of all which there are representatives in Bri-
tain. These birds agree in presenting the following characters.
Their body is ovate, compact, and stout ; their neck short ;
their head large ; their wings and tail of moderate length.

The bill, PL VIII, Fig. 8, is short, stout, conical, its sides
convex ; the upper mandible of about the same breadth as the
lower, its dorsal outline nearly straight, but generally more or
less arched, its tip sharp and slightly deflected, the edo-es a
little inflected, sharp, and with a slight sinus near the tip ; the
gape-line nearly straight ; the lower mandible with the angle
short, broad, and rounded, the dorsal outline straight, or slightly
convex, the edges sharp, and inflected, the tip acute. Both
mandibles are internally concave, the upper with a medial pro-
minent line, and generally two lateral ones. The tongue is
sagittate, subulato-lanceolate, involute, the tip horny, bifid or
terminated by a pencil of short bristles. The posterior aper-
ture of the nares is linear, and defended by acute papillse.
The pharynx of moderate width. The oesophagus, PL VIII,
Fig. 1, a,h, c, d, generally dilatable on the middle of the neck
into a crop, b, lying on the left side, is afterwards narrow ; the
proventriculus, d^ bulbiform, and studded with oblong or cylin-

320 SPARROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

drical glandules. The stomach, e, /, g, h, is a powerful gizzard,
roundish, compressed, with two strong lateral muscles, e, /,
having radiated tendons, a lower thin muscle, g ; and a dense,
tough, and longitudinally rugous inner coat. The intestine, A,
^, j, k, /, w, n, is of moderate length, of nearly equal diameter
throughout, and having near its extremity two very small, ad-
nate, cylindrical coeca, I. The figure referred to above represents
the digestive organs of the House Sparrow ; but Figs. 3 and 4,
representing those of the Green Linnet and Crossbill, shew the
same parts, and are marked with the same letters.

The eyes are of moderate size ; the eyelids feathered, their
edges bare and crenate. External ear large, oval. Nostrils
nearly circular, basal, in the fore part of the nasal depression,
which is very short and broad.

The legs are short ; the tarsus compressed, covered anteriorly
with about seven scutella, posteriorly with a long plate forming
a sharp edge, and inferior rugse. Toes slender, compressed,
scutellate above, granulate beneath, three before, one behind ;
second and fourth shortest and equal, first a little longer if the
claws be included, but otherwise shorter, third much longer,
and united to the fourth as far as the second joint of the latter.
Claws longish,- slender, acute, arcuate, compressed, laterally
grooved.

The plumage is soft and blended, the feathers rounded, with
a very slender plumule of a few long barbs ; those at the base
of the bill with short bristle points. The wings are broad,
semicordate, of moderate length ; the primary quills ten, the
secondary about seven ; the three outer longest, but varying in
relative length. Tail of moderate length, of twelve feathers,
the lateral slightly bent outwards.

The skeleton of these birds is of rather delicate structure,
the flat bones being extremely thin. The cranium is propor-
tionally very large, of great breadth behind, and rounded ; the
jaws short, the lower with a large oblong aperture in the ramus,
and slightly bent beyond the middle ; the septum between the
orbits very incomplete. The cervical vertebrae are generally
nine, and proportionally slender ; the dorsal eight, and rarely
anchylosed ; the united lumbar and sacral ten ; the coccygeal

SPARROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 321

seven, and triangular. There are eight very slender roundish
ribs, the first incomplete. The scapula is very long, linear,
gently deflected towards the end. The furcula slender, nar-
row, with the curve acute. The sternum. Fig. 55, is of mo-
derate size, with a very prominent
crest, the posterior margin even,
but with a very deep sinus on each
side, leaving a linear process on
the lateral edge. Being marked
yviih. the same letters as those of the
Black Grouse, Fig, 43, and Rock
Dove, Fig. 49, it may be compared
Fxo. 55. with them. The body, «, ^, c, d, e,

/ is more united than in the Pigeons, the posterior lateral
process, ^, being continuous with it, the extremity, y, d, e^
truncate ; but the anterior lateral process, /, is still free. The
ridge or crest, a, e, has a considerable prominence. The an-
terior process between the coracoid bones, b, is forked. These
bones, A, h, are of moderate size. The furcula, ^, is slender
and curved, and has a flattened process at the junction of its
crura, standing off at a right angle backwards. The clavicles,
j\ y, are linear, long, and slightly deflected towards the end.
Humerus short, cylindrical, slightly curved ; cubital bones
nearly a third longer ; the hand of the same length as the
cubitus, consisting of two carpal bones, one large metacarpal, a
thin pointed pollical, and three digital, of which there are two
to the first phalanx. The pelvis is very open beneath ; the
femur short, the tibia a third longer, with a slender fibula,
only a fourth of its length ; the tarsal bone three-sided, being
edged behind, and a little longer than the femur. The hind
toe is composed of a distinct metatarsal bone and two -phal-
anges ; the second of three ; the third of four ; the fourth of
five ; the extreme phalanges long, very slender, slightly arched,
compressed, and laterally grooved.

The digestive organs are obviously adapted for seeds and
grain, which are easily picked up by means of the strong point-
ed bill, and husked by its sharp involute edges. The oesopha-
gus generally has a median dilatation or crop, which is to

Y

322 PASSERINiE.

a considerable extent dilatable so as to hold a quantity of food.
The stomach, being a very powerful gizzard, triturates the
grain with the aid of numerous particles of sand, generally sili-
ceous, but often of various mineral substances. The food being
highly nutritious, the moderately long and rather wide intes-
tine, which is villous in its whole length, suffices for the ela-
boration of the chyle, so that the coeca are merely rudimentary
and mucous. The foeces and urine are deposited in the ellip-
tical dilatation of the rectum, and voided in a soft state.

These birds are active and lively ; in winter generally gre-
garious ; and at all seasons live together without exhibiting
any animosity, excepting for a short time in spring, when the
males often fight, although their combats are seldom obstinate.
They are easily tamed, even when caught in the adult state ;
and those of them which have an agreeable song, or are beau-
tifully coloured, are highly prized as domestic pets.

Their flight is strong, more or less undulated, and generally
rapid. They perch with security, glide among the branches
with ease, and on the ground always move by short leaps, both
feet being simultaneously raised. Their vision is acute, but
they are not in general alarmed by distant objects, so that they
are easily approached within shot. As their food is obtained
chiefly on the ground, they frequent the open fields, retreat-
ing to trees and bushes when disturbed, and settling there at
night.

Most of them breed more than once in the season, forming
an elaborate, rather bulky, deep, compact nest. The eggs vary
from four to eight, and are generally spotted, clouded, or lined.
The young are born blind, and are at first slightly covered with
dusky or greyish down. Their first plumage is, in the males,
ahvays different from that of the adult. The males are a little
larger than the females.

The plumage is changed once in the year ; but as the feathers
are variously coloured, and the tips of their filaments are gra-
dually worn off or decay, the summer plumage is often par-
tially different in colour from that of winter.

These birds are generally distributed over the country, and
are for the most part numerous. Many of them are peculiar

SPARROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 323

to the cultivated parts ; and almost all In winter draw near
to the habitations of man, as in severe weather they obtain
the principal part of their food in the farm and stack yards, or
in the stubble fields.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. FRINGILLA. FINCH.

Bill short, straight, strong, conical, its upper outline slightly
convex towards the tip, w^hich is acute ; mandibles nearly
equal ; edges of the lower much inflected ; wings rather long,
the second and third quills longest, the first a little shorter
than the fourth ; tail of moderate length, emarginate.

1. Fringilla Ccelebs. Chaff Finch. Male with the head
and hind-neck greyish-blue, the forehead black, the back red-
ish -brown, the rump yellowish-green, the lower parts brown-
ish-red. Female with the head and back light greyish-brown,
the rump tinged w^th yellowish-green, the breast pale brown-
ish-grey.

2. Fringilla Montifringilla. Mountain or Bramhling Finch.
Male with the head and back dee23 black, the feathers margined
with yellowish-grey ; the rump wdiite, tinged with yellow ;
the sides spotted with black. Female with the head and back
pale grepsh-red, the central part of each feather brownish-
black ; the rump greyish- white, the breast pale reddish-brown.

GENUS II. PASSER. SPARROW.

Bill short, straight, strong, conical ; the tip rather blunt ;
lower mandible rather smaller than the upper ; the outlines of
both slightly convex, their edges inflected ; wings rather short,
third quill longest, but scarcely exceeding the first and third,
which are equal ; tail of moderate length, emarginate.

1. Passer domesticus. House Sparrow. Male with the
upper part of the head light bro-vsmish-grey ; sides of the neck
greyish- white, throat black ; back and wings chestnut and

y2

324 PASSERINiE.

black ; a white band across the latter. Female with the head
greyish-brown above, the lower parts light bro^vnish-grey.

2. Passer montanus. Tree Sjkutow. Male with the upper
part of the head chestnut ; the sides of the neck white ; the
throat and a line over the eye black ; the back and wings
chestnut and black ; two wdiite bands across the latter. Female
siriiilar, but with lighter tints.

GENUS III. COCCOTHRAUSTES. GROSBEAK.

Bill of moderate lenglh, straight, extremely thick, conical ;
mandibles nearly equal ; upper with its dorsal outline slightly
convex, lower a little broader, with its outline straight, its sides
very thick, its edges much inflected ; wings of moderate length,
the first three quills almost equal ; tail short, slightly emar-
ginate.

1. Coccothraustes atrogidaris. Bladi-tliroated Grosbeak. Male
with the head yellowish-brown, the throat black, the fore part
of the back dark chestnut ; four of the primary quills emar-
ginate and curved outwards at the tip. Female with the
colours similar, but paler.

GENUS IV. LINARIA. LINNET.

Bill short, straight, thick, conical, a little compressed towards
the end ; mandibles nearly equal, upper with its dorsal outline
very slightly convex, lower with its outline straight, its edges
inflected ; wings rather long, the outer three quills nearly
equal, the second longest ; tail of moderate length, deeply
emarginate.

1. Linaria Cliloris. Green Linnet. ISIale yellowish-green
above, the head tinged with grey ; the edge of the wing, the
outer webs of the alula, and part of the outer webs of the pri-
maries, with the basal portion of the tail-feathers yellow. Fe-
male with the upper parts greenish-brown, the lower greyish,
the yellow markings similar but less extended.

2. Linaria cannahina. Broim Linnet. Upper mandible
dusky, throat yellowish-grey streaked with brown.

SPARROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 325

Male in winter with the upper parts reddish-brown, streaked
Avith black, the feathers of the forehead and breast dark red with
light brown tips. Female streaked above with dusky and yel-
lowish grey ; the throat, breast, and sides streaked with brow^n
and yellowish-grey.

Male in summer with the forehead and breast crimson
or rose red. Female nearly as in winter.

3. Linaria fiavirostris. Ticlte^ or Mountain Linnet. Bill
yellow, the throat light yellowish-red and unspotted ; the
plumage streaked with yellowish-brown and brownish-black ;
no red at any season on the head or breast ; male in summer
with crimson on the rump.

4. Linaria minor. Smaller Redpoll. Length nearly five
inches. Upper mandible dusky, lower yellow ; plumage
streaked w^ith yellowish-brown and brownish-black ; loral
space, edge of forehead, and throat black.

Male in winter with the top of the head and rump obscure
red. Female w^ith red on the head only.

Male in summer w^ith the top of the head crimson ; the
sides of the neck, the breast, flanks, and rump, carmine. Fe-
male without the carmine colouring.

5. Linaria borealis. Mealy Redpoll. Length about five
inches and a third ; the colours as in L. minor ^ but the rump
and lower parts nearly white.

GENUS V. CARDUELIS. THISTLE-FINCH.

Bill shortish, straight, conical, compressed toward the end,
the tip acuminate; both mandibles with their outline straight,
and their ridge narrow; wings rather long, the outer three
quills nearly equal, the second longest ; tail shortish, emargi-
nate.

1. Cardiielis elegans. Goldfinch. Forehead and throat crim-
son, back brown.

2. Carduelis spinus. Siskin. Male greenish-yellow, the
top of the head and the throat black. Female yellowish-green
streaked with black above, whitish streaked with black be-
neath.

326 PASSERINiE.

GENUS VI. PYRRHULA. BULLFINCH.

Bill short, very strong, all its outlines convex; wings of
moderate length, the second, third, and fourth quills longest ;
tail rather long, emarginate.

1. Pyrrhula pileata. Common Bullfinch. Upper part of
the head glossy black. Male with the back ash-grey, the
rump white, the lower parts bright red. Female w^th the
back brownish-gi-ey, the lower parts dull yellowish-brown.

2. Pyrrhula Enucleator. Pine Bullfinch. Male with the
head, neck, fore part of breast, and rump bright red, the wings
dusky, with two white bars. Female with the top of the head
yellowish-brown, the rump brovmish-yellow.

GENUS VII. LOXIA. CROSSBILL.

Bill of moderate length, very strong, its outlines convex, the
points of the mandibles curved and laterally deflected in oppo-
site directions.

1. Loxla Europcea. Common European Crossbill. Length
about seven inches, bill from four and a half to six and a half
lines in height at the base. Male red, the wings and tail
dark brown. Female greyish-bro^\^i tinged with yellow above.
Young male dull yellow above.

2. Loxia Pytiopsittacus. Parrot Crossbill . Length about
eight inches, bill short, its outlines very convex, its height
at the base from six to eight lines. Male red, the wings and
tail dark brown. Female greyish-brown tinged with yellow
above. Young male dull yellow above.

327

FRINGILLA. FINCH.

Bill shortish, straight, direct, conical, acute, subpeiitagonal
and nearly as broad as deep at the base ; upper mandible with
the dorsal outline declinate and straight to near the end, when
it becomes a little convex, the ridge broad and convex, the
sides rounded, the edges sharp and inflected, but overlapping,
with an obsolete notch or slight sinus close to the tip ; lower
mandible with the angle short, broad and rounded, the dorsal
line very slightly convex, the ridge broad, the sides rounded,
the edges sharp and inflected.

Mouth rather narrow ; both mandibles deeply concave, the
upper with a medial prominent line, two lateral lines, and four
grooves. Posterior aperture of the nares linear, and, with that
of the glottis, margined with acute papillse. Tongue sagittate,
subulato-lanceolate, involute so as to be nearly tubular, the tip
terminated by a pencil of short bristles. (Esophagus when
distended forming a large crop on the right side of the neck,
afterwards narrow ; proventriculus, PL VIII, Fig. 10, cl^ bul-
biform, and furnished all round with numerous cylindrical
glandules. Gizzard, e, /, ^, roundish, compressed, with two
very strong lateral muscles, ^, /, and radiated tendons ; its cu-
ticular lining dense, tough, and longitudinally rugous. Intes-
tine of moderate length, rather wide, of nearly equal diameter
throughout, with two very small, cylindrical, adnate coeca near
its extremity ; rectum very short, with an elliptical enlargement.

Nostrils nearly circular, basal, in the fore part of the nasal
depression, which is very short and broad. Eyes of moderate
size ; eyelids feathered, their edges bare and papillar. External
aperture of ear large, oval.

328

FRINGILLA. FINCH.

Fio. 56.

Head oblong, of moderate size, the forehead rather flat ; neck
short ; body ovate, of nearly equal breadth and depth. Legs
short ; tarsus compressed, covered anteriorly with seven scutella,

posteriorly w^ith a long plate form-
ing a sharp edge, and inferior rugse.
Toes slender, compressed ; covered
above with few large scutella, gra-
nulate and narrow beneath ; the
second and fourth equal, the first a
little shorter, the third much longer,
and united to the fourth as far as the second joint of the latter.
Claws longish, slender, acute, arcuate, compressed, laterally
grooved.

Plumage soft, blended, the feathers rounded, with a very
slender plumule of a few long barbs ; those at the base of the
bill with short bristle points. Wing broad, semicordate. Pri-
mary quills ten, secondary seven, the four outer quills nearly
equal, but the second and third longest. Tail longish, or of
moderate length, emarginate, of twelve feathers, the lateral
slightly bent outwards.

Fig. 57.

The genus Fringilla is very intimately allied to the genera
Passer, Coccothraustes, Linaria, and others of this family. The
species are all of small size, neat in form, with lively colours, and
of active habits. In Britain there are only two, which are nearly
of the same size, bear a great resemblance to each other, and live
in the same manner ; but the one, F. Cwlebs is a constant resi-
dent, while the other, F, Montifringilla visits us only in winter.

329

FRINGILLA CCELEBS. THE CHAFFINCH.

PINK. SPINK. TWINK. BEECH-FINCH. HORSE-FINCH. SHELLY. SHELL-
APPLE. SHILFA. CHAFFY. BREAC-AN-T'SIL.

Fig. 58.

Pringilla Coelebs. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 318.

Fringilla Coelebs. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 437.

Chaffinch. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Gros-bec Pinson. Fringilla Coelebs. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 357.

Chaffinch. Fringilla Coelebs. Selb. Illustr. I. 303.

Fringilla Coelebs. Chaffinch. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 133.

Male with the upper paH of the head and the hind-neck grey-
ish-hlue ; a black hand on the forehead^ the hack reddish-hroicn ;
the rump yellowish-green ; the fore-neck and breast purplish-red.
Female with the upper part of the head and the back light grey-
ish-brown^ the rump yellowish-green^ the breast pale yellowish-
grey. Young similar to the female^ but with the tints paler.

Male. — The Chaffinch, which is one of the most famihar,
as well as beautiful birds of the Passerine family, presents no
remarkable peculiarity of form, it being merely, like many
others, a neat and lively little bird. The bill and digestive
organs being precisely as described in the generic character
already given, it is unnecessary to say more here respecting
them than that the oesophagus is two inches long, the intestine
eleven and a half, the coeca nearly two twelfths, the rectum

330 FRINGILLA CCELEBS.

one inch and a quarter. The phimage is blended, slightly
glossed, the feathers rather narrow and rounded. The wings
are rather long, the primary quills tapering and rounded, the
secondary broader and retuse ; the third quill is the longest,
the fourth scarcely shorter, the second almost as long, the first
considerably shorter than the fifth ; the second, third, fourth,
and fifth slightly cut out on the outer w^eb towards the end.

The bill is pale reddish-bro\Am, darker at the point, the lower
mandible flesh-coloured. The irides hazel ; the tarsi, toes,
and claws w^ood-browTi ; the mouth and skin at the angles
flesh-coloured. The frontal feathers are black, ti2:)ped w^ith
yellowish-brown ; those of the upper part of the head and hind-
neck light greyish-blue, tipped with reddish-brown ; the an-
terior dorsal reddish-brown, the posterior light yellowish-green.
The sides of the head, the fore-neck, and the anterior part of
the breast are light purplish-red ; the rest of the lower parts of
the same colour, but paler. The quills, large coverts, and
alula, are black ; quills white at the base and along the inner
margin, their outer edge towards the end yellow ; the secon-
dary coverts tipped with white, which is tinged with pale yel-
low ; first row of smaller coverts black at the base only, the
other parts white, as are the tips of many of the rest ; lower
wing-coverts greyish- white. Tail-feathers brownish-black, the
two middle brownish-grey, blackish along the shafts ; the outer
marked with an oblique band of white, including the middle
of the outer web and the terminal third of the inner, its shaft
black ; the next slightly margined with white internally, and
having a long triangular patch of the same towards the extre-
mity of the inner web. The concealed part of the feathers is
blackish-grey, with a whitish line along the shafts.

Length to end of tail 6i inches ; extent of wings 11^; bill
along the ridge y^^, along the edge of lower mandible {'^ ; wing
from flexure 3| ; tail 2f ; tarsus | ; first toe Si twelfths, its
claw j^*2 '-> second toe 4^ twelfths, its claw 2i twelfths ; third
toe {'^, its claw 3i twelfths ; fourth toe 4i twelfths, its claw
2| twelfths.

Female. — The female, which is considerably smaller, is

CHAFFINCH. 331

much less gaudily coloured. The bill, feet, and irides, are as
in the male. The upper part of the head is greyish-brown,
its central part paler ; the cheeks yellowish grey ; the back and
sides of the neck pale yellowish-grey ; the fore part of the back
light greyish-brown ; the rump pale yellowish-green. The
wings and tail are as in the male, but their dark parts, instead
of being black, are deep brown. The throat and breast are
pale yellowish-grey slightly tinged with red ; the abdomen and
lower tail-coverts nearly white.

Length to end of tail 6^ ; extent of wrings 10 ; bill along
the ridge 4^ twelfths, along the edge of lower mandible /^ ;
wing from flexure 3^ ; tail 2| ; tarsus j% ; middle toe and
claw j%.

Variations. — In general the variations are not remarkable ;
the throat and breast are of a lighter or deeper red, the quills
more or less black, the white bands on the wings more or less
tinged with yellow. Albino individuals sometimes occur, al-
though I have never seen a British one. Considerable differ-
ences as to size are found, the length varying from five and a
half to six and a half, or somewhat more.

Changes of Plumage. — Few birds exhibit the effects of the
wearing of the feathers in a more remarkable manner than the
male Chaffinch. By the beginning of April, in many indivi-
duals even so early as January, the black of the forehead has
become nearly pure, the greyish-blue of the head almost un-
mixed, the red of the back brighter, and the breast has assumed
a much lighter and livelier tint. At this season also the bill
is of a fine leaden blue. The changes which the female under-
goes are less remarkable.

Habits. — This species, which is of very common occurrence
in all the wooded and cultivated parts of the country, is per-
manently resident, even in the bleakest parts of the north of
Scotland, although in corresponding latitudes on the continent
it appears that many individuals migrate southward. Towards
the end of autumn, the Chaffinches are commonly to be seen

332 FRINGILLA CCELEBS.

in the vicinity of houses, searching for food by the hedges, in
the orchards, gardens, farm-yards, and fields. As the winter
approaches, they collect into loose flocks, and associate with
Green Grosbeaks, Yellow Buntings, Sparrows, and other
species of this order, frequenting the stubble fields and farm-
yards, and frequently settling on the roads to search among
horse-dung for undigested seeds. Their food at this season
consists of seeds of various kinds, but especially oats and
wheat, to aid the disgestion of which they swallow small
rounded smooth grains of gravel, generally of a blackish colour.
Some of these seeds are often found in the oesophagus, which,
as in all the other birds of this family, seems to answer the
puq30se of a recipient, although it has no very distinct enlarge-
ment or crop.

Their flight, which is rapid, and on occasion protracted, is
undulated, being performed by quickly repeated flaps, with
short intervals of cessation. They alight abruptly, move on
the ground by very short leaps, and when alarmed perch on
trees or bushes. When not at rest the males usually raise the
feathers of the forehead somewhat in the manner of the Field
Lark. They are among the most familiar of our birds, being
nearly as little distrustful of man as the Sparrow. Towards
the end of March the flocks break up, and in April preparations
are made for breeding.

The pairing takes place without much display of animosity
among the males, who at this season are frequently heard re-
peating their ordinary note, from two to six, generally four,
times, in rapid succession, tweet^ ticeet^ tweet — tweet. At other
periods it is generally a single tweet, rather deep and mellow.
Its song is short, modulated, mellow, and for a time pleasant
to the listener, although ajDt to become disagreeable from its
being so frequently repeated without the least variation. Pre-
vious to the arrival of the migratory warblers, the Chaffinch,
the Yellow Bunting, and the Robin, are the species with whose
song we are everywhere assailed ; but as the season advances,
their notes become in a great measure lost by being blended
with those of more pleasing performers. The people in the
south of Scotland most unpoetically imagine the song of the

CHAFFINCH. 333

Chaffinch to resemble the words " wee, wee, wee, wee drunken
sowie,*" to which no doubt it bears some semblance. In the
lanes and gardens it is almost incessantly heard from the begin-
ning of May to the middle of June, or considerably earlier if
the weather be fine ; but its quality is by no means in harmony
with the beauty of the bird, which is such as to attract the
most unobservant as it hops familiarly along the road, or perches
on the boughs.

The nest is of moderate size, very neatly constructed, having
its exterior composed of moss, lichens, grass, thread and rags,
its interior of wool, feathers, hair, and other suitable materials.
Not that all these articles enter into the composition of every
nest, for there is great diversity in this respect. When neatly
crusted with grey lichens, it is very difficult to distinguish it
in the cleft of a tree, which is the situation usually selected for
it. But it is found in a great variety of places, often on tall
trees, sometimes in the fork of a shrub, not unfrequently among
ivj on a wall, and still more commonly among the twigs of
a hawthorn hedge. Gardens, orchards, hedges, groves, copses,
and woods, are all inhabited by the Chaffinches at this season ;
but they are very rarely met with in the depth of large woods,
especially of those composed of fir. When a person approaches
the nest, the birds manifest much anxiety, flying about or hop-
ping among the twigs, and repeating their ordinary tweet in a
hurried manner. The female sits very close, and from her co-
lour and that of the nest is seldom perceived, but when aware
that she has been discovered, she slips off with alacrity, and
joins the male in evincing her anxiety as to the result of the
intrusion. The eggs, four or five in number, are of a regular
oval form, averaging about three fourths of an inch in length,
by six and a half twelfths in their greatest breadth, purplish
white, or pale reddish-grey, sparsely spotted with reddish-brown,
and having a few irregular lines of the same.

Young. — The young when fledged resemble the female, but
have the tints paler, and are destitute of the bright green on
the rump. The first brood is usually abroad by the middle or
beginning of May ; the second by the end of July. The young

334 FRINGILLA CCELEBS.

are fed on insects of various kinds, which also form a principal
part of the food of the old birds during the summer.

Progress toward ^Maturity. — At the first moult, the young
assume the colours considered peculiar to the adult, although,
until the second moult, they may generally be distinguished
from older birds by their paler tints. Some males are much
more richly coloured than others, especially on the throat and
neck, w^hile the wings and tail are deep black in their dark
parts.

Remarks. — As a song-bird the Chaffinch does not rank high,
and therefore is very seldom kept in cages, although its beauty
and lively disposition render it a very pleasing parlour com-
panion. It is easily reared from the nest, and when caught in
the adult state, soon becomes reconciled to captivity.

335

FRINGILLA MONTIFRINGILLA. THE MOUNTAIN
FINCH, OR BRAMBLING.

MOUNTAIN FINCH. BRAMBLE FINCH. BRAMBLING.

Fringilla Montifringilla. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 318.

Fringilla Montifringilla. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 425.

Brambling. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Grosbec d' Ardennes. Fringilla Montifringilla. Temm. Man. d'Orn. 360.

Mountain Finch. Fringilla Montifringilla. Selb. Illustr. I. 306.

Fringilla ^Montifringilla. Mountain Finch. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. L34.

Male with the head and back deep blacky the feathers margined
with yellowish-grey ; the rump tchite^ tinged with yellow ; the
fore-neck and breast light reddish-brown ; the sides spotted with
black. Female icith the head and back pale greyish-red., the cen-
tral part of each feather brownish-black ; the rump greyish-white ;
the breast pale reddish-brown.

Male. — The Brambling is nearly of the same size as the
Chaffinch, which it greatly resembles in form. Its bill, al-
though of the same shape, is proportionally larger, and presents
a remarkable difference, having a toothlike projection on the
edge of the lower mandible near the base. The plmnage is
soft and blended, the feathers rounded. The wings are of
moderate length, the primary quills tapering and rounded, the
secondary broader and retuse ; the third quill longest, the
second scarcely shorter, the first a little shorter, and of the
same length as the fourth ; the second, third, and fourth slightly
cut out on the outer web towards the end. The tail, which is
of moderate length, is distinctly emarginate, the two middle
feathers being nearly half an inch shorter than the lateral,
which are curved a little outwards at the end.

The greater part of the upper mandible and the end of the
lower are dusky, the base of the former pale grey, and the basal
portion of the latter, with the skin at the angle of the mouth,

336 FRINGILLA MONTIFRINGILLA.

yellow. The irides are browTi. The feet light greyish-brown.
The upper part and sides of the head, the hind-neck and back,
are black, the feathers margined with yellowish-grey ; the
smaller wing coverts and scapulars light reddish-brown ; of
which colour there is a band across the wing, formed by the
tips of the secondary coverts. The quills and large coverts are
black, the former margined externally with pale yellow, except-
ing the inner, which are more broadly edged with reddish-
brovni, and having a white spot at the base, which forms a
narrow bar on the extended wing ; the first row of small coverts
tipped with white. The tail also is black, the outer feather
white at the base externally, with an oblique line of greyish-
white on the inner web, the rest margined with greyish- white,
excepting the two middle ones, which are tinged with grey,
and edged with greyish-brown. The hind part of the back is
white ; the upper tail-coverts black, broadly margined with
light greyish-brown. The fore-neck and anterior part of the
breast are light brownish-red, the sides paler, and marked with
oblong brownish-black spots ; the abdomen and lower tail-
coverts, yellowish- white.

Length to end of tail 6i inches ; extent of wings 10^ ; wing
from flexure 8}; tail 2j% ; bill along the ridge i, along the
edge of lower mandible | ; tarsus | ; first toe i, its claw 4i
twelfths ; second toe 4^ twelfths, its claw j% ; third toe j\,
its claw j\ ; fourth toe 4i twelfths, its claw ^^,

Female. — The female is considerably smaller, and less beau-
tiful. The bill, irides, and feet are as in the male. The upper
part of the head and the back are pale greyish-red, the feathers
brownish-black in the centre ; the cheeks are of the same
colour, without spots ; the hind part and sides of the neck pale
grey, with two longitudinal black bands behind ; the throat
and breast light reddish-brown, the sides paler and unspotted,
the abdomen and under tail-coverts brownish-white. The
wings and tail are marked as in the male, but the dark parts
are blackish-brown, and the two middle tail-feathers grey.
The hind part of the back is patched with greyish- white.

Length to end of tail 6 inches; extent of wings 10; wing

MOUNTAIN FINCH. 337

from flexure 6^ ; tail 2k ; bill along the ridge nearly i ; tarsus
y\ ; middle toe and claw 9^ twelfths.

Variations. — Individuals are sometimes found white, or
having patches of that colour ; but I have not observed any-
remarkable variations of this kind. Young males have the
black of the head, back, and wings tinged with brown.

Changes of Plumage. — The changes which the plumage
undergoes, owing to the wearing of the feathers, are described
by Temminck as analogous to those observed in the Chaffinch ;
but as the species does not remain with us in summer, I need
not describe its dress at that season further than by stating that'
the dark parts of the upper surface are then pure black.

Habits. — We have seen that in its general form and style of
colouring, the Brambling is very closely allied to the Chaffinch.
Its flight, mode of walking, and other manners, are also similar,
so that on trees or on the ground, the two species can scarcely
be distinguished by a person seeing them together at a little
distance. It now and then appears in diiferent parts of the
country during winter, and searches for food in the open fields,
generally in company with Chaffinches and Yellow Buntings.
When alarmed, it betakes itself to trees, like other small birds
of this family. Its flight is rapid and undulated, and its note
is a tweet very similar to that of the Chaffinch. Towards the
end of spring it disappears ; and I am not aware that any indivi-
duals have ever been found breeding in this country. The
only opportunity which I have had of observing it occurred in
February 1835, when I fell in with a flock on some beech
trees about a mile from Corstorphine, near Edinburgh. They
were mingled with Chaffinches, from which I did not dis-
tinguish them, until some of them having alighted in a field,
I fired at them, and on going up found to my surprise, two
Bramblings and a Chaffinch. I have, however, seen many
specimens, recent and stuifed, which had been killed in Scot-
land, and of which I have several in my possession.

338

PASSER. SPARROW.

Bill shortish, straight, direct, conical, rather acute, subjDen-
tagonal and nearly as broad as deep at the base : upper man-
dible with the dorsal outline declinate and slightly arched, the
ridge narrow but obtuse, the sides much rounded, the edges
sharp and inflected, but overlapping, with an obsolete notch or
slight sinus close to the tip ; lower mandible somewhat smaller,
with the angle short, broad, and rounded, the dorsal line very
slightly convex, the ridge broad, the sides much rounded, the
edges sharp and inflected.

^louth rather narrow ; both mandibles deeply concave, the
upper with a medial prominent line, two smaller lateral lines,
and four grooves. Aperture of the posterior nares linear, and
wdth that of the glottis margined with acute papillae. Tongue
sagittate, fleshy, sub ulato -lanceolate, involute, so as to be grooved
above, the tip very slightly bifid. CEsophagus, PL VIII, Fig.
1, a, 6, c", d^ when distended forming a large crop, ^, on the
middle of the neck, afterwards narrow^ and of nearly uniform
diameter, c ; proventriculus, ^, bulbiform, and furnished all
round with numerous cylindrical glandules. Gizzard, ^, /, o', /?,
roundish, compressed, with two very strong lateral muscles, e,
/, having radiated tendons, and a lower prominent muscle, g ;
its cuticular lining dense, tough, and longitudinally rugous.
Intestine, ^, i^ j^ A-, /, w, w, of moderate length, rather wide,
•of nearly equal diameter throughout, with two very small,
cylindrical, adnate coeca, /, near its extremity ; rectum, /, m, ii,
short, with an elliptical enlargement.

Nostrils broadly elliptical, oblique, basal, in the fore part of

PASSER. SPARROW. 339

the short, broad, nasal depression, and concealed by the reflect-
ed feathers. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered, their
edges bare and crenate. External aperture of ears large, oval.

Head rather large, oblong, the forehead rather flat ; neck
short ; body ovate, of nearly equal breadth and depth. Legs
short ; tarsus compressed, covered anteriorly with seven scu-
tella, posteriorly with a long plate forming a sharp edge, and in-
ferior rugae. Toes slender, compressed, covered above with few
large scutella, granulate and narrow beneath ; the second and
fourth equal, the first a little shorter, the third much longer,
and united to the fourth as far as the second joint of the latter.
Claws rather long, arched, deep, much compressed, laterally
grooved, acute.

Plumage blended, softish, rather compact above, slightly
glossed, the feathers ovate, rather acuminate, with a very
slender plumule of a few long barbs ; those at the base of the
bill with short bristle-points. Wing broad, semicordate, rather
short, primary quills ten, secondary seven, the three outer quills
nearly equal, but the third longest. Tail rather short, or of
moderate length, slightly emarginate, of twelve feathers, the
lateral slightly bent outwards.

The genus Passer is so intimately allied to the genera Frin-
gilla and Linaria, as to present only rather nice distinctions.
The species are all of small size, compact, less gayly attired
than the Finches, and having a somewhat less rapid flight.
Two species only occur in Britain, the Common or House
Sparrow, P. domesticus, and the Tree Sparrow, P. montanus^
the former generally distributed, the latter confined chiefly to
some of the midland and northern counties of England,

340

PASSER DOMESTICUS. THE HOUSE SPARROW.

HOUSE SPARROW. SPARROW. GEALBHAG.

Fringilla domestica. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. .S2.3.

Fringilla domestica. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 432.

House Sparrow. Mont, Orn. Diet.

Gros-bec Moineau. Fringilla domestica. Temm. Man. d'Orn. J. ?,t)0.

House- Sparrow. Passer domesticus. Selb. Illustr. I. 298.

Fringilla domestica. House Sparrow. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. T. 1.34.

3Iale with the upper part of the head light hrownish-grey ; a
broad hand of chestnut from the eye down the neck^ of which the
sides are greyish-ii'hite ; the throat hlach ; the hack chestnut mixed
with hlack ; a white hand across the icing ; the lower parts light
hrownish-grey. Female with the head greyish-brown above ; the
sides of the 7ieck yellowish-grey, the lower paints light hroicnish-
grey. Young similar to the female.

Male. — It may be considered superfluous to describe a bird
so familiar to every person as the Sparrow ; but it is necessary
to preserve a uniformity of method, and therefore it is incum-
bent upon me to treat this " vulgar fellow" with as much con-
sideration as the most elegant and unexpected visitor. Every
body knows that it is a small, stout, active, and occasionally
noisy bird, not remarkable for beauty, and content, as becomes

HOUSE SPARROW. 341

its humble station, with indifferent food, and poor accommoda-
tion. Its form and external parts correspond with the generic
character in every point. The oesophagus, PI. VIII, Fig. 1,
«, 6, (7, d^ is three inches long, the crop, ^, one inch, the giz-
zard, 6, /, ^, A, three-fourths, the intestine, ^, ^, /, 7?z, n, eight,
its diameter from nearly two twelfths to one twelfth, the coeca,
/, two twelfths, and placed at the distance of ten twelfths from
the anus, the rectum ten twelfths. The plumage is blended,
rather compact above, the feathers ovate, rather acuminate,
with a very slender plumule consisting of a few long filaments.
The feathers about the base of the bill are terminated by short
bristles, and there are five distinct, pretty large, almost simple
bristles at the base of the upper mandible. The wings are
rather short, broad, and a little rounded ; the first and third
quills about equal, the third slightly longer, the other primaries
slowly graduated ; the third, fourth, and fifth very slightly cut
out on the outer edge towards the tip ; the secondary quills trun-
cato-emarginate. The tail is shortish, nearly even, being very
slightly emarginate.

The bill is black tinged with grey ; the iris dark-browm ; the
feet pale brown, the claws darker. The upper part of the head
is light brownish-grey ; the loral or preocular space, a line
above, another beneath the eye, the feathers at the base of the
lower mandible, those of the chin and fore-neck, black, most of
them tipped with grey. The black space before the eye is
margined above by greyish- white, and the supraocular black
line is terminated behind by a small w^hite spot. A broad
band of bright chestnut from the eye down the neck, obscurely
meeting its fellow behind. The auricular coverts are whitish-
grey, and from them extends a broad band on either side down
the neck, gradually fading into yellowish-grey. Feathers of
the low^er part of the hind-neck, and of the fore part of the
back, with the scapulars, brownish-red, their inner web brown-
ish-black. Those of the hind part of the back, and the upper
tail-coverts light brownish-grey, of which colour, but paler, are
all the under parts, the lower tail-coverts being dusky-grey in
the centre. The quills are blackish-brown, externally mar-
gined with brownish-yellow, the inner more broadly margined

342 PASSER DOMESTICUS.

with brownish-red ; the large coverts are darker, but with
broader brownish-red margins, and slightly tipped with whitish ;
the first row of smaller coverts brownish-black, their terminal
half white ; the rest brownish-red, their concealed part black.
The tail is wood-brown, the outer webs blackish, the margins
yellowish-grey.

Length to end of tail 6^ inches, extent of wings 9/^ '-> wing
from flexure oj% ; tail 2-^^ ; bill along the ridge ^, along the
edge of lower mandible j% ; tarsus /tj ; first toe 4i twelfths, its
claw j% ; second toe 1%, its claw 2^ twelfths ; third two j%, its
claw^ 34 twelfths ; fourth toe j^^-, its claw 2^ twelfths.

Female. — The female is somewhat smaller, and less deeply
coloured. The bill is light greyish-brown, as are the feet ; the
iris dark brown. The head and hind-neck are greyish-brown.
Above the eye is a pale yellownsh-grey band. The ear-coverts
are brownish-grey, as are all the lower parts, the abdomen fad-
ing to brownish-w^hite, the under tail-coverts darker in the
centre. The back and scapulars are dull yellowish-brown, the
feathers black on the inner web. The wings and tail are
brownish-black, the edges of the feathers light yellowish-brown,
and the transverse band formed by the tips of the first row of
small coverts pale yellowish-grey.

Length to end of tail 6 ; extent of wings 9i\ ; w4ng from
flexure 2j J ; tail 2^^ ; bill along the ridge 5f twelfths ; tarsus
j^^ ; middle toe and claw j% .

Variations. — The Sparrow exhibits several remarkable va-
riations, individuals of various tints sometimes occurring. I
have seen it pure w^hite, cream-coloured, dusky or nearly black,
and frequently with white feathers, especially quills. Speci-
mens of this latter kind are not very uncommon.

Changes in Colour. — Toward summer, when the tips of the
feathers are worn ofl", the head becomes pure bluish-grey, the
fore-neck deep black, and the dark markings on the back are
more conspicuous. The female undergoes a corresponding
chano^e, w^hich, however, is not so evident, as her head is brown,

HOUSE SPARROAV. 343

and the black on the neck wanting. Farther on in the season,
the colours fade considerably, and the feathers become worn
and ragged.

Habits. — The House Sparrow is the boldest and most fami-
liar of our Passerine birds, and indeed of all our native species,
not excepting the Robin and Chaffinch. This fact has been
questioned, and it has been alleged that, although apparently
familiar, it is in reality more shy than many other small birds.
But it must be obvious to every one that unless when pursued,
and apprehensive of danger, it admits of a nearer approach
than would seem safe to any other bird of its size, and that it
will not hesitate to pick up its food from the door or window,
even in the midst of the domestic fowls, which frequently pur-
sue it. No doubt, when abroad in the fields, or in a corn-yard,
and perceiving a suspicious-looking person prowling about with
a gun, the sparrows do not conceive themselves safe in his im-
mediate vicinity, and in this they evince their prudence and
observation ; but in ordinary cases, if one should want a dozen
of sparrows, he could have no difficulty in obtaining them.
Towards the end of autumn, and in winter, when they often
fly about the hedges in large packs, they become more shy ;
and should a gunner fire once or twice at a flock, he might find
it difficult to get within shot again, although even then it would
be much easier to thin them than to obtain specimens from a
Hock of Chaffinches, Green Linnets, or Yellow Buntings. The
Sparrows in fact are extremely vigilant when on a marauding
expedition, and fly ofl* from a field of wheat when a person
stands at the distance of two hundred or more yards ; yet,
when in small groups, or scattered, they are less sensitive, and
on the streets and roads, as well as in the hedges, will allow
people to pass quite close to them.

The social propensity is more apparent in the Sparrow than
in any other British species of its family ; for even during the
breeding season, it is seen searching for food in small groups,
and in autumn and winter it is decidedly gregarious, although
irregularly so, for the individuals of a flock do not seem to con-
sort with each other exclusively, and betake themselves to th^

344 PASSER DOMESTICUS.

same roosting places. The flocks, on the contrary, are acci-
dentally formed by individuals casually meeting with each
other, and are liable to be broken up by slight causes.

Its usual places of resort are those in the immediate vicinity
of human habitations ; and at night it reposes under the eaves
of houses, about chimneys, in holes and crevices of buildings,
and among ivy covering walls. During a great part of the year,
it subsists chiefly on the fragments of ejected food which it finds
about the doors, on the streets, or on dunghils. But it also
feeds upon grain, which it obtains abundantly during several
weeks in autumn on the standing corn, and less profusely sup-
plied in winter, when it searches the stubble fields. Being
extremely numerous in the large towns, it must commit great
havock among the corn in their vicinity ; and, in fact, its de-
predations on the wheat are often very perceptible in the ear-
less stalks which are often very numerous in places not far
from towns. The seeds of various plants, such as the field
mustard, Sinapis arvensis, the Charlock, Raphanus Raphanis-
trum, the Chickweeds and Mouse-ears, Stellaria and Cerastium,
as M^ell as of the field and garden Pea, Pisum sativum, are also
gathered ; and in summer it subsists partly on insects of vari-
ous kinds, Avhich also aflbrd the chief nourishment of its young.
Like the Chaffinch, it is often seen searching the heaps of horse-
dung on the roads for undigested grains, and like the Common
Pigeon, it gleans the nutritious particles to be found on the
streets. Farm-yards and corn-stacks are chief places of resort,
for there it readily obtains a supply of wholesome food. Occa-
sionally it pursues an insect on wing, but it is far from being
an expert flycatcher, for I have frequently seen a sparrow make
several darts even at so large an insect as a butterfly before it
secured it.

The flight of the Sparrow is of the same general character
as that of the Finches ; that is, it is undulated and rapid, but
less so than the flight of the Greenfinch or Chafliinch ; and when
the bird traverses short spaces, is nearly direct, w4th a conti-
nued fluttering motion. On the ground it advances by hops
or leaps, varying from half an inch or so to eight or nine
inches, according to circumstances. It would be impossible to

HOUSE SPARROW. 345

ascertain the distance to which it can move at a single leap,
as the incitements which induce men and the horse and other
animals to try their powers in this respect, cannot be applied
to it ; but it may frequently be seen to leap its own length
without apparent exertion. It is curious to observe how its
mode of progression and attitudes are modified by the condition
of the ground ; for, when the latter is dry, it moves about with
the tibio-tarsal joints much bent, and the tail depressed, where-
as, when it is wet, it keeps the leg extended, the body stretched
up, and the tail elevated. This circumstance brings to my re-
collection the pleasure I experienced on seeing a celebrated
painting, representing some cows in a meadow, by Cuyp, in
which a magpie had been figured walking about with its tail
elevated to keep it from contact with the moist grass, — a fact
which probably would have escaped the notice of at least nine-
tenths of those who undertake to represent nature on canvas.

When in a state of activity, the Sparrow displays a neatness
and compactness of form, arising from the closeness of its
plumage, very difterent from the loose and bulky appearance
which it presents when at rest, or when perched in rainy
weather ; but in this respect it does not differ from other small
birds. Rustic sparrows are always more beautiful than those
residing in large towns, the latter generally having their plum-
age soiled by smoke and dirt. Indeed, the difference is strik-
ing, and the country sparrow is really a beautiful bird, having
none of that slovenly appearance which has gained for it in
towns the ajDpellation of a vulgar and dirty-looking creature.
But this is equally the case with our own species ; for the
farm-servant or field-labourer is a cleanly, robust, and healthy
animal, compared with the artizan of the city, begrimmed with
unwashed filth, pallid in countenance, feeble, bloated in frame,
and of unenduring constitution.

In summer, it rolls itself in the dust, and basks in the sun,
like the domestic fowl. It also loves to lie on one side, in a
crouching attitude, on the sunny side of roofs, or on wall tops.
At all seasons, when the roads are dry, the Sparrows may be
seen fluttering in the dust, and casting it up around them with
their wings, often continuing this action for a long time.

346 PASSER DOMESTICUS.

When not engaged in feeding, they perch on trees and bushes,
especially hawthorn hedges, as well as on dead twigs, wood,
or straw, near houses, and on the tops of corn-stacks, walls,
and buildings.

^Males, females, and young associate and live peaceaby to-
gether, from the termination of the breeding season, about the
middle of autumn, to its conmiencement in spring. At the
latter period, desperate conflicts take place among the males,
in which the females also sometimes assist. When three or
four males are engaged in combat, they keep up a loud and in-
cessant noise, uttering their usual note, which bears some
resemblance to the word phillip or yellop. After they have
paired, the males meet each other without animosity, and from
the middle of April may be seen sunning themselves on the
hedges or houses in little flocks, while the females are engaged
in the labour of incubation. In autumn they may be seen fly-
ing about in large flocks. They alight in the fields, pick about
for some time, and when alarmed betake themselves to a hedge,
where they make a great clamour. In a short time they re-
turn to the field, disperse, and search for food.

The sudden appearance of a hawk or other enemy instantly
produces a cessation of their noise, and causes them to remain
motionless or retreat into the hedge. They are preyed upon
by the Sparrow-Hawk, the Merlin, the Weasel, and perhaps
other small quadrupeds, as well as by boys, cockney sportsmen,
and field naturalists, although they are not much in request
among the bird-stufl:ers. It does not appear that they molest any
species of their ow^n class. Boys are fond of catching sparrows
in traps, which are constructed in the following manner. Two
bricks are laid parallel to each other, with another across one
of their extremities. A fourth brick, or a piece of slate, tile,
or board, is supported between the two parallel bricks by a bit
of stick, the low^er end of which rests on the edge of the trans-
verse brick. The trap is baited with bread, oatmeal, or any
other eatable substance, in attempting to attain which the bird
removes the prop, when the lid falls and encloses it. Sparrows
may be taken in great numbers, when they perch among ivy
on a wall, by means of a net.

HOUSE SPARROAV. ' 347

Like that of all the small graiiivorous birds, their flesh affords
delicate eating ; but their small size exempts them in a great
measure from the voracity of the t^^ical pantophagist. When
a Sparrow is wounded so as to be unable to fly, it exhibits
more courage than almost any other bird of its size, and seizes
the hand by which it is laid hold of with much energy, seldom
uttering any cry, although when teased it w^ill open its mouth
and emit a hoarse scream.

I need hardly say that Sparrows have no song, their concerts,
which are composed of single notes, being, although loud,
and doubtless pleasing to themselves, by no means agreeable.
Mr. Neville Wood speaks of their " awkward and vulgar
manners;" but I have failed in discovering any thing hke
awkwardness, restraint, or want of adroitness, in their actions,
which, on the contrary, are prompt, apt, and efficient, although
they are not so light and graceful as the Goldfinch or Chaffinch,
nor so elegantly and delicately constructed as the Wagtails
and Pipits.

A convocation of Sparrows at the commencement of the
breeding season affords an interesting sight. Two males attack
each other, making much clamour, but doing little execution ;
another comes up and joins the fray, when he is presently at-
tacked by a fourth. Other males stand still, or descend to the
combat, while the females seem quite uninterested in the
proceedings, although occasionally one pecks at a male that
happens to come in its way. The noise of the combatants
increases, until some deem it expedient to retreat, when per-
haps the party breaks up. No damage ever happens, and the
affair looks more like a sham-fight than a real tug for victory.
Frequently a male may be seen perched on a twig, or standing
on a wall or house-top, in a kind of crouching attitude, w4th
his feathers ruffled, his neck retracted, his head a little raised,
his tail and wings drooping, the pectoral feathers raised over
the latter ; and he utters a frequent repetition of calls, or love-
notes, until a female makes her appearance and approaches
him. The caresses of the male do not cease even after the
young are excluded from the eggs. The female may often be
seen sitting on the ground, or perched, in an attitude indica-

348 PASSER DOMESTICUS.

tive of a willingness to receive his advances. He hops about
with great alacrity, depresses and stiffens his wings, raises
and spreads his tail, and makes an incessant noise by repeating
his usual note. She pecks at him, on which he hops oif, and
is pursued, but soon returns ; and in this manner they amuse
themselves often for a considerable time.

The 2)lace which the Sparrow selects for its nest is some hole
or cavity, or crack, in a wall, or chimney, or under the eaves,
or among the thatch ; in short, any convenient locality at a
considerable height, the capital of a pillar, or the ivy along a
wall. Sometimes it is found in a hedge or tree, but such a
position is not a favourite one. The male and the female are
observed busily engaged from morning to night, in carrying up
materials for the bulky fabric, such as straw, stalks of small
plants, rags of linen or woollen cloth, thread, and feathers.
The nest is very bulky, soft, and warm, being usually lined
with feathers, or other soft materials. One which had fallen
from a cluster of rooks' nests in the grounds of Sir Kobert
Dick of Prestonfield, I found to be six inches in diameter,
formed externally of stem.s of Agrostis alba, a very few small
twigs, one or two oat-straws, numerous rooks' feathers, a little
moss, and much wool ; then a great mass of wool, with some
hogs"* bristles and horse-hair ; the interior composed of hair,
some moss, and a great quantity of large soft feathers^ chiefly
of the rook, but also of the Domestic Fowl, the Guinea Fowl,
and the Peacock. The eggs vary from four to six, and are of
an elongated form, from ten to eleven twelfths of an inch in
length, and from six to seven and a half twelfths in their
greatest breadth. They have generally a greyish- white ground,
and are more or less covered with longitudinally oblong spots
of pale grey and greyish-black ; but are sometimes closely
freckled all over with grey and brown ; so that they difter ex-
tremely in colour, as well as in size.

Young. — The young when fledged resemble the female, but
are much lighter, the upper parts being dull yellowish-brown,
the lower greyish- white, tinged with yellow ; the bill greyish-
yellow, or horn-colour, as are the feet. They often come

HOUSE SPARROW. 349

abroad before they are well able to provide by effective flight
for their security, and individuals are frequently accidentally
pushed from the nests, or lose their footing, when they fall
to the ground, to become the prey of cats and children. They
are fed for some time after coming abroad, by their parents,
who however soon leave them to shift for themselves, and
make preparations for rearing another brood. Several broods
are produced each season ; but whether the same pair continue
their attachment, or mate with other individuals, I am unable
to say. The nests are frequently destroyed by boys, in which
case the birds manifest much anxiety, and sometimes display
considerable courage.

Progress toward Maturity. — At the first moult, which is
completed by the beginning of winter, the males assume the
colours of the adult birds, although it is not until the next
season that they are perfected. The females also acquire
deeper tints. In its second plumage the male is as follows.
The upper mandible is light grepsh-brown, the lower flesh-
coloured, with the tip brown ; the feet pale brown. The upper
part of the head is brownish- grey ; the preocular space blackish-
grey ; a line over the eye, extending down the neck, yellowish-
grey, mixed with chestnut brown ; some of the lateral feathers
of the neck with a little chestnut near the tip ; auricular coverts
greenish-grey. The fore part of the neck, the breast, and the
abdomen, light yellowish-grey, fading posteriorly into white ;
a broad band do^\^l the fore-neck, from the mandible, obscurely
black, that colour being concealed by the whitish tips of the
feathers. Anterior dorsal and scapular feathers light yellowish-
brown, their inner web brownish-black at the tip ; posterior
dorsal and upper tail-coverts light greenish-grey ; lower tail-
coverts light yellowish-grey. Tail wood-brown, margined with
grey. Smaller wing-coverts light brown, with a little chest-
nut near the tips ; quills dusky, externally margined with
yellowish-brown ; primary coverts the same ; secondary coverts
with a broader external margin of yellowish-brown ; the first
row of small coverts tipped with paler yellowish-brown. As
the bird becomes older its colours assume a richer tint, until

350 PASSER DOMESTICUS.

the wings and back become bright chestnut, and the bar on
the former is ])ure white,

Remarks. — The common House Sparrow, according to M.
Temminck, is generally distributed over Europe, excepting in
the south, where its place is occupied by the Brown-headed
Sparrow, Passer cisalpimis^ and the Spanish Sparrow, Passer
Hispaniolensis. In Britain it occurs in all the cultivated dis-
tricts, being chiefly resident in towns and villages. It is sin-
gular that in the Outer Hebrides it was, until of late, to be
seen only at Kilbar, in the island of Barray, where it had made
its abode in a ruined church, although now, according to the
minister of Stornoway, a few individuals have appeared in
that town, w^here they will doubtless speedily multiply. A
village without sparrows has as desolate an aspect as a house
without children ; but, fortunately for the world, the one is
nearly as rare as the other. Multitudes of these birds in a
place are indicative of its prosperity, for where there are few
crumbs there will be few beggars.

This bird I have assumed as in a manner tj^ical of the family
to which it belongs. Its bill is intermediate in form between
that of the Bullfinches and the Thistlefinches, and its other
organs have similar relations, while it is a species at least as
generally known as any that can be named.

351

PASSER MONTANUS. THE TREE SPARROW.

TREE SPARROW. MOUNTAIN SPARROW.

Fringilla montaua. Liun. Syst. Nat. I. 234.

Fringilla montana. Lath. Tnd. Orn. I. 433.

Tree Sparrow. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Gros-bec Friquet. Fringilla montana. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 354.

Tree Sparrow. Passer montanus. Selb. Illustr. I. 300.

Fringilla montana. Tree Sparrow. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 135.

Male icith the upper part of the head chestnut-red ; a hand
over the eye, the auricular feathers, the space before the eye, and
the throat black ; the sides of the 7ieck, and a collar on the nape^
white ; the back chestnut mixed with black ; two white bands
across the wings ; the lower parts ichitish. Female with the
colours similar but paler.

Male. — The Tree Sparrow bears a great resemblance to the
common species, but, besides being smaller, is easily dis-
tinguished by the characters given above. I have had no
opportunity of examining it in a recent state, so that the de-
scription must necessarily be taken from skins. Its form and
external parts agree with the generic character, but the tail is
less forked than in the common species. The bill is black,
the legs pale greyish-yellow. The upper part of the head and
the nape are chestnut, the tips of the barbs brownish-grey ; the
space before and under the eye, with a large patch on the cheek,
black, as is the throat ; the sides of the neck and an incomplete
band on the nape, white. The lower hind-neck, fore part of the
back, and the scapulars, chestnut, with black spots, the inner
webs of the feathers being of the latter colour ; the hind part of
the back yellowish-brown. The wing-coverts are chestnut, the
greater coverts, and the first row of smaller coverts white at
the end, so that there are two bands of that colour across the
wing, instead of one, as in the common species. The quills

352 PASSER MONTAXUS.

are brownish-black, edged externally with pale yellowish-
brown, the inner more broadly with chestnut. The tail-feathers
are hair-brown, edged with yellowish-grey. The lower parts
are greyish- white, the sides tinged with brown.

Length 5j% inches ; wing from flexure 8 ; tail 2j\ ; bill
along the ridge 4^ twelfths ; tarsus j% ; hind toe j\, its claw
y\ ; middle toe and claw ^f .

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but with the
tints paler, the head yellowish-brown above, and the chestnut
parts changed to yellowish-brown.

Length to end of tail 5i inches ; bill along the ridge 4i
twelfths ; wing from flexure 2|^.

Habits. — The Tree Sparrow^, which is stated by M. Tern-
minck to be common in almost every part of the continent, from
Spain and Italy to the arctic circle, is rare in Britain, where it
is chiefly to be found in the northern counties of England.
I am not aware that it has ever been met w^ith in Scotland.
The only accounts of its manners given by persons w^ho have
actually observed them, are those of Montagu and ]\Ir. Selby,
who, however, merely inform us that it never frequents villages
or towns, but is met with about old trees, in the holes of which
it forms its nest, which is made of the same materials as those
commonly used by the house sparrow, chiefly hay and feathers,
and contains four or five eggs, similar in colour to those of that
bird, but smaller ; further, that it is active and lively, feeds on
seeds and grain, together with insects, and buds, has a note
similar to that of its cousin, but shriller, and is rarely met with
even in those parts where it has long been known as indigenous.
This is a poor account of so handsome a bird, but I can find
no one to help me to a better ; for on consulting descriptive
books, I find only the same sing-song story repeated after Mon-
tagu, w^ho first ascertained that the female does not differ
materially from the male in plumage.

353

COCCOTHRAUSTES. GROSBEAK,

Bill of moderate length, straight, direct, conical, extremely
thick, acnte, subpentagonal, and deeper than broad at the base,
the mandibles nearly equal : upper mandible with the dorsal
outline very slightly convex, the ridge broad and rounded, the
sides rounded, the edges slightly inflected and sharp, but over-
lapping, with a slight notch close to the tip ; lower mandible
broader at the base, and somewhat larger, although seemingly
smaller on account of the overlapping of the edges of the upper,
its crura extremely thick, its dorsal outline straight, the angle
extremely short, broad, and slightly rounded, the back very
broad, the edges sharp and inflected ; the gape-line a little
arched.

Mouth rather wide ; both mandibles deeply concave, the
upper with a medial prominent line, and a slight prominence
on the fore part of the palate. Aperture of the posterior nares
linear, and with that of the glottis margined with acute papillae.
Tongue sagittate, fleshy, narrow, grooved above, the tip bifid.
(Esophagus thin, of nearly equal diameter ; proventriculus
bulbiform, and furnished all round with numerous roundish
glandules. Gizzard roundish, compressed, with two very strong
lateral muscles, and radiated tendons ; its cuticular lining dense,
tough, and marked with broad longitudinal rugge. Intestine
of moderate length, rather wide, of nearly equal diameter
throughout, with two very small, cylindrical, adnate coeca near
its extremity ; rectum very short.

Nostrils small, elliptical, oblique, basal, in the fore part of
the extremely short and broad nasal groove, so as to seem

A a

354 COCCOTHRAUSTES. GROSBEAK.

placed behind the bill, and concealed by the reflected feathers.
Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered, their edges bare and
crenate. External aperture of ears large, oval.

Head large and broad, the forehead flattened ; neck shqrt and
thick ; body ovate, of nearly equal breadth and depth. Legs
short, tarsus compressed, covered anteriorly with seven scutella,
posteriorly with a long plate, forming a sharp edge, and inferior
rugse. Toes slender, compressed, covered above with a few^ large
scutella, narrow and granulate beneath ; the second and fourth
nearly equal, the first a little shorter, the third much longer,
and united to the fourth as far as the second joint of the latter.
Claws rather long, arched, deep, much compressed, laterally
grooved, acute.

Plumage blended, soft, rather glossy, the feathers ovate and
rounded, with a very slender plumule of a few long barbs,
those at the base of the bill with very short bristle-tips. Wing
broad, semicordate, of moderate length, primary quills ten,
secondary seven ; the three outer quills nearly equal, the first
being very little shorter than the second, which is longest.
Tail short, a little emarginate, of tw^elve feathers, the lateral
slightly bent outwards.

The genus Coccothraustes is composed of a few species be-
longing to both continents, remarkable for the extraordinary
thickness of their conical bill, and the great strength of their
lower mandible, of which the crura are extremely thick. This
thickness of the bill renders necessary a large size of head, and
a thick neck, which give to these birds a clumsy appearance,
their body and limbs seeming disproportionately small. One
of the most remarkable instances of false reasoning, and of the
perversion of observation by preconceived theoretical notions, is
presented by Mr. Swainson's remarks on this genus in the
Fauna B or eali- Americana^ Vol. II, p. 270. " The bill, al-
though particularly large, betrays a decided weakness of struc-
ture, by the under mandible being much narrower and smaller
than the upper ; while in the sub-genus Guiraca both mandi-
bles are of equal thickness. This inequality is one of the most
striking characters of the Tenuirostres^ and of nearly all groups
and types which represent that tribe. Of this the Musopliagidce^

COCCOTHRAUSTES. GROSBEAK. 355

the Cehlepyrlnm^ the Oriolinw^ &c., arc striking instances.
The yellow and black plumage of the present species imme-
diately reminds us of an Oriole, an Icterus, and a Goldfinch;
which are unquestionably Tenuirostral tj^es : it is, therefore,
highly probable that this form possesses the same relation.
There is a concealed, but a very singular analogy between our
European Coccothraustes and the B omhy cilia gar rula ; and this
latter also forms part of a group — the Amjyelidce^ which like-
wise represents the Tenuirostres.''^ The Grosbeak has an
excessively strong bill, but because its lower mandible is
somewhat smaller than the upper, it is analogous to the
Tenuirostres, or slender-billed birds ! But, even allowing the
reasoning to be correct, the fact on which it is founded,
namely, the relative smallness of the lower mandible, is not
so. Mr. Swainson certainly has never examined the lower
mandible of the Hawfinch, or even of the Greenfinch, for it
is larger and broader than the upper, is enormously thick in
its walls, and is apt to excite the surprise of a person look-
ing at it for the twentieth time, so very unusually strong is it,
— so strong that it enables these birds to crack the hardest ker-
nels as easily as a Goldfinch shells a grain of hemp seed. The
bill altogether is prodigiously strong ; and therefore, to talk
of holding it as analogous to that of a Tenuirostral bird, is not
commendable. Not to insist longer upon this manifest ab-
surdity, let us consider the Genus Coccothraustes as pre-
senting in the form of its bill a most powerful instrument for
extracting from the hardest and thickest endocarps the seeds
which afford it nourishment. Only one species occurs in Bri-
tain, the Hawfinch, or Haw Grosbeak, Coccothraustes atro-
gularis. Several writers have associated with it the Greenfinch,
Fringilla Clitoris of authors, but the bill of that bird is not
nearly large enough to entitle it to rank with the Hawfinch,
the difference being much greater between the bills of these
birds, than between those of the Siskin and Twite.

Aa 2

356

COCCOTHRAUSTES ATROGULARIS. THE BLACK-
THROATED GROSBEAK, OR HAWFI^XH.

HAWFINCH. COMMON GROSBEAK. GROSBEAK.

^

Loxia Coccothraustes. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 299.

Loxia Coccothraustes. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 571.

Hawfinch. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Le Gros-bec. Fringilla Coccothraustes. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 344.

Hawfinch. Coccothraustes vulgaris. Selb. Illustr. I. 324.

Fringilla Coccothraustes. Common Grosbeak. Jen. Brit. Yert. An. 136.

Male with the head yellovAsh-hrown^ the throat and space before
the eyes UacJc, the fore part of the bach dark chestnut ; four of
the primary quills emarginate and curved outwards at the ex-
tremity. Female with the colours similar but paler^ the quills
similar.

Male. — This beautiful though by no means elegantly formed
bird is with us for the most part merely an occasional ^yinter
visitant, and therefore little merits the epithets Common and
Vulgaris bestowed upon it even by those who consider as of
the same genus the Greenfinch, which has a good enough claim
to those titles. It is in several respects a bird of singular ap-
pearance, but more especially on account of the great size of

BLACK-THROATED GROSBEAK.

357

the bill and head, which is such that some systematist might do
a worse act than dignify it with the title of '• Logger-headed,"'
applied to another bird. The neck is short and very thick ;
but the body and limbs are proportionally smaller. In short,
the Ha^^inch looks like a small bird on which has been stuck
the head and bill of another double the size.

The oesophagus is three inches in length ; the intestine nine-
teen and a half; and the coeca, which are two twelfths long,
are placed at the distance of one inch from the anus. The
plumage is very soft, blended, but firm, and but slightly glossed,
excepting the extremities of the quills, which are shining. The
wings are very broad, and of moderate length ; the first pri-

FiG. 61.

mary quill slightly shorter than the second, which is longest,
but scarcely exceeds the third ; the fourth is a little shorter,
and the rest slowly diminish, the secondaries being long. The
fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth primaries have their tip emar-
ginate, and its external margin somewhat falcate ; while the
ninth and tenth, together with five of the secondaries, are trun-
cate, the inner edge of their tip rounded, the outer sharp, and the
three inner quills are rounded. This singular form of the quills
is sufficient of itself to distinguish the Hawfinch from every
other bird. The tail is short, straight, a little emarginate, the
feathers obliquely rounded.

The bill is flesh-coloured, or white tinged with rose, a small
portion of the tip only being dusky. The irides greyish- white ;
the feet and claws flesh-coloured, with a tinge of brown. The
feathers margining the base of the bill, those on the loral
space, and throat, black ; the rest of the head yellowish-brown,

358 COCCOTIIRAUSTES ATROGULARIS.

the forehead and cheeks paler. A broad band of ash-grey runs
across the hind-neck. The fore part of the back, and the sca-
pulars are dark chestnut ; the hind part light brownish-grey,
gradually changing to yellowish-brown, which is the colour of the
upper tail-coverts. Small upper wing-coverts blackish-brown ;
those of the first row tipped with white. Primary coverts
greyish-wdiite, secondary yellowish-brown. Alula, primary
coverts, and quills black, their outer webs and tips glossed with
purple and blue ; the outer primaries with a white spot on the
inner w^eb near the middle, the rest and the secondaries with
the greater part of their inner w^eb greyish- white. Tail-feathers
black ; the outer four on each side with a large terminal white
spot on the inner web, the four middle grey towards the end,
tipped with white, and tinged with red on part of the outer
web. The lower parts are pale yellowish-brown, the lower
tail-coverts w^hite.

Length to end of tail 7^ ; extent of wings 11^; wing from
flexure 4j^j ; tail 2i ; bill along the ridge ^f, along the edge
of lower mandible H; tarsus lOi twelfths; hind toe 4i
twelfths, its claw 4^ twelfths ; second toe j%, its claw 2^
twelfths; third toe j^^ its claw i*^.

Female. — The female is somewhat smaller than the male,
but similarly coloured, although the tints are paler ; the fore
part of the back being light chestnut or brownish-red.

Length to end of tail 6\^.

Variations. — I have not observed any remarkable variations
in the colours of the individuals which I have examined, about
a dozen in number, three of them recent ; but M. Temminck
states that the species varies occasionally to pure white, yel-
lowish, or greyish ; the wings or tail often white ; or white
feathers interspersed among the rest.

Habits. — The Grosbeak is an irregular visitant in the north-
ern parts of the island, appearing here and there in various
parts of the country towards the beginning of winter. It is
more frequently met with in England than in Scotland, al-

BLACK-THROATED GROSBEAK. 359

though it is not so rare in the latter country as has been sup-
posed, several specimens killed in the southern counties having
come under my inspection. I have never had the good fortune,
however, to fall in with it alive ; which I regret, as it renders
it necessary for me to refer to those who have studied its habits
for a brief account of them. According to M. Temminck, it
feeds, on the continent, where it occurs chiefly in the mountain-
ous districts, on the seeds of various trees, such as the plane-
tree, pines, and cherry ; and places its elaborately constructed
nest on the highest branches, laying from three to five eggs, of
an ash-grey colour, tinged with green, and marked with brown
spots, and bluish black lines. Montagu, who is perhaps more
to be depended upon than any other British ornithologist,
makes the following statement, as the result of his observa-
tion.

" These birds usually visit England in the autumn, and
continue with us till the month of April. They appear in
small flocks, seldom more than four or five, but are in no parts
common. We once saw as many as a dozen together, feeding
on the hawthorn berries in Badmington Park in Gloucester-
shire. The facility with which they break the hard stones of
that fruit to get at the kernel is astonishing. It is done ap-
parently with as much ease as other small birds break hemp-
seed.

" No instance has been recorded of its breeding with us ; but
Dr. Latham assures us he had one sent to him in the summer
months. What the song of this bird may be in the season of love,
authors are silent about ; but we have heard it sing pleasantly,
in low plaintive notes, even in winter, when the weather has
been unusually warm. The nest is very beautifully constructed
of lichens, liverwort, and vegetable fibres, lined with feathers
and other soft materials, placed in the upper branches of a tree.
The eggs are from three to five in number, of a bluish-green,
spotted with olive-brown, with a few irregular black markings.''

Mr. Jesse, in his " Gleanings,"" informs us, however, that
it not only stays with us all the year, but breeds in this country,
the nests being frequently found amongst the Hornbeam pol-
lards in Epping Forest, 'where the bird may be seen at all

360 COCCOTHRAUSTES ATROGULARIS.

periods of the year. He further states that it has bred for
some years past in the grounds of Lord Clifden, at Rochamp-
ton, where a nest with four young ones w^as taken in the sum-
mer of 1834. It was built at the extremity of a horse-chestnut,
near the lodge, and was composed chiefly of twigs of the privet
and birch, and lined with hair and fine grass.

The history of this bird has recently received much elucida-
tion from Mr. Doubleday, who has published, in the fifth num-
ber of the Magazine of Zoology and Botany, some very inter-
esting notes respecting its habits as observed in the vicinity of
Epping Forest. He states that they are there permanent resi-
dents, and very abundant, although so extremely shy that it
is almost impossible to approach them within gunshot. " Their
principal food appears to be the seed of the Hornbeam, w^hich
is the prevailing species of tree in the forest ; but they also
feed on the kernels of the haws, plum-stones, laurel-berries,
&c., and in summer make great havock amongst green peas in
gardens. About the middle of April they pair, and in a wxek
or two commence nidification. The situation of the nest is
various, but it is most commonly placed in an old scrubby
wdiitethorn bush, often in a very exposed situation. They
also frequently build on the horizontal arms of large oaks, the
heads of pollard hornbeams, in hollies, and occasionally in fir
trees in plantations, the elevation of the nest varying from five
to twenty-five or thirty feet. The most correct description of
the nest which I have seen is in Latham's Spiopsis. It is
there said to be composed of the dead tw4gs of oak, honey-
suckle, &c., intermixed with pieces of grey lichen. The
quantity of this last material varies much in different nests,
but it is never absent. In some, it is only very sparingly
placed among the twigs ; in others, the greater part of the
nest is composed of it. The lining consists of fine roots and
a little hair. The whole fabric is very loosely put together,
and it requires considerable care to remove it from its situation
uninjured. The eggs vary in number from four to six, and
are of a pale olive green, spotted with black, and irregularly
streaked with dusky. Some specimens are far less marked than
others, and I have seen some of a uniform pale green. The

BLACK-THROATED GROSBEAK. 361

young are hatched about the third week of ^lay, and as soon
as they are able to provide for themselves, they unite with the
old birds, in flocks varying in numbers from fifteen or twenty
to one or even two hundred individuals. In this manner they re-
main through the winter, feeding on the hornbeam seeds which
have fallen to the ground, and only separate at the approach of
the breeding season. I believe the male has no song worth notice.
In warm days in ^larch I have heard them, when a number have
been sitting together on a tree, uttering a few notes in a soft
tone, bearing some resemblance to those of the Bullfinch. The
plumage of the young bears considerable resemblance to that
of the young Greenfinch. The throat is bright yellow ; head,
neck, and upper parts olive-brown ; the under parts paler,
each feather tipped with brown. In winter the bill is a
pinkish horn-colour, but becomes deep blue in the breeding
season."'

The change of colour in the bill is thus similar to that ex-
hibited by the Chaffinch, which I observed several years ago,
and which I have not found mentioned by any author. It is
quite possible that, although the Hawfinches are now perma-
nently resident in several parts of England, they may at a
former period have been merely winter visitants. In Scotland
this would appear to have been the case with the Missel Thrush,
which appeared occasionally in flocks during the winter in dis-
tricts where it was not seen in summer. Twenty years ago,
it was scarcely ever observed in the neighbourhood of Edin
burgh at the latter season, insomuch that I was scarcely dis
posed to believe the evidence of my eyes when I first saw a
pair of them at Rosslyn ; but now they are quite numerous,
and may be found in summer in the immediate vicinity of the
town, where they breed.

Young. — According to ^I. Temminck, " the young differ
in a remarkable degree from the old birds : the throat being
yellow ; the face, cheeks, and top of the head pale yellowish ;
the lower parts white or whitish ; the sides marked with small
brown spots, with which all the feathers are terminated.

362 COCCOTHRAUSTES ATROGULARIS.

Remarks. — The bill of the Greenfinch, although very similar
in form to that of the Hawfinch, is proportionally so much
smaller that one scruples to admit it into the same family. On
the other hand it is so much stronger than that of the Linnets,
that the bird seems equally out of place among them ; and
although it might be placed among the Sparrows, with as much
propriety as among the Grosbeaks or Linnets, yet its bill comes
nearer to that of the latter. In short, this unfortunate bird,
unwelcome in any of these genera, clearly shews that all the
three are so closely connected that no fault could reasonably
be found with the systematist who, like M. Temminck, should
unite into a single genus Fringilla, Passer, Coccothraustes,
Linaria, and Carduelis. The only reason for w^hich I separate
them is, that they can be distinguished from each other, and,
being numerous, can be better studied in small groups. Vul-
garis, applied as a name to any bird, ought to be rejected as not
only vulgar, but inappropriate. The Grosbeak is not common
with us, and if the Greenfinch be admitted into the genus, as it
is by those who employ that epithet, it is much more deserv-
ing of it.

363

LINARIA. LINNET.

Bill short, straight, direct, conical, thick, acute, siibpen-
tagonal, and nearly as broad as deep at the base, compressed
towards the end, the mandibles of equal breadth : upper
mandible with the dorsal outline nearly straight, being very
slightly convex, the ridge broad and rounded, but narrowed
towards the end, the sides rounded, the edges inflected and
sharp, but slightly overlapping, without a notch, or with a
very slight one near the tip ; lower mandible with the angle
semicircular, the dorsal outline straight, the ridge broad and
rounded, the sides convex, inflected near the end, the edges
sharp and inflected, but towards the end meeting those of the
uj^per ; the gape-line nearly straight.

Mouth narrow ; both mandibles, PL VIII, Fig. 3, a, deeply
concave, the upper with a medial prominent line, and two
lateral broad ridges, between which and the margins is a groove
for the reception of the strong edges of the lower mandible.
Posterior aperture of the nares linear, and with that of the
glottis margined with acute papillae. Tongue sagittate, narrow,
grooved above, the tip slightly bifid. CEsophagus, a^ &, c, cZ, of
nearly equal diameter, but dilatable about the middle into a
kind of crop, ^, which lies on the right side of the neck, after-
wards narrow ; proventriculus, d^ elliptical, and furnished all
round with numerous cylindrical glandules. Gizzard, ^, f^ g,
A, roundish, compressed, with two very strong lateral muscles,
^, /*, ^, and radiated tendons ; its cuticular lining dense, tough,
and longitudinally rugous. Intestine, /^, ^,y, A', /, m^ n, of mo-
derate length, rather wide, of nearly equal diameter through-
out, with two very small, cylindrical, adnate coeca, I, near its

364 LINARIA. LINNET.

extremity ; rectum, /, m, n^ very short, with an elliptical en-
largement.

Nostrils circular, of moderate size, basal, in the fore part of
the nasal depression, which is very short and broad, and con-
cealed by the reflected feathers. Eyes of moderate size ; eye-
lids feathered, their edges bare and crenate. External aper-
ture of ear large, oval.

Head oblong, rather large, the forehead rather flat ; neck
short ; body ovate, of nearly equal breadth and depth. Legs
short ; tarsus compressed ; covered anteriorly with seven
scutella, posteriorly with a long plate forming a sharp edge,
and inferior rugae. Toes slender, compressed ; covered above
with a few large scutella, granulate and narrow beneath ; the
second and fourth equal, the first a little shorter, the third
much longer, and united to the fourth as far as the second
joint of the latter. Claws longish, slender, very acute, Arcuate,
compressed, laterally grooved.

Plumage soft, blended, the feathers rather narrow, rounded,
with a very slender plumule, consisting of a few long barbs ;
those at the base of the bill with short bristle-points. Wing
rather long, broad, semicordate. Primary quills ten, secondary
seven, the first, second, and third quills almost equal and
longest, the fourth nearly as long, the other primaries slowly
graduated, all narrow and rounded ; the secondaries broader
and truncato-rotundate or slightly emarginate. Tail shortish,
or of moderate length, emarginate, of twelve feathers, of which
the outer are slightly bent outwards.

The genus Linaria is very intimately allied to the genera
Passer, Fringilla, and Carduelis, the three passing into each
other so gradually that a line of distinction can be but arbi-
trarily drawn between the groups. The species are all of
small size, generally neat in appearance, lively, and prettily
although not often gaudily coloured. Four species are con-
stant residents, and more or less common in most parts of the
country ; namely, the Greenfinch or Green Linnet, L. Chloris ;
the Larger Redpoll or Brown Linnet, L. cannabina; the ^loun-
tain Linnet or Twite, L. Monti um ; and the Smaller Redpoll,
L. minor. A fifth, the Mealy Linnet, L. horealis, has also been
found.

365

LINARIA CHLORIS. THE GREEN LINNET, OR
GREENFINCH.

GREEN LINNET. GREENFINCH. GREEN GROSBEAK. GREEN LINTIE.

Fig. 62.

Loxia Chloris. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 304.

Loxia Chloris. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 382.

Greenfinch. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Gros-bec verdier. Fringilla Chloi-is. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 346.

Green Grosbeak. Coccothraustes Chloris. Selb. Illustr. I. 326.

Fringilla Chloris. Green Grosbeak. Jen. Brit. Yert. An. 136.

Male with the upper parts and breast yellowish green^ the head
tinged with grey^ the edge of the icing^ the outer webs of the alula,
and part of the outer zcebs of the primary quills^ icith the basal
part of the tail feathers yellow. Female with the upper parts
greenish-broicn^ the breast greyish-broicn^ the wings and tail
marked icith yellow as in the male, but to a less extent. Young
similar to the female.

INI ALE. — The Green Linnet, which, considered in a systematic
point of view, is as much related to the Sparrows and Gros-
beaks as to the Linnets, is ranked with the latter merely be-
cause its bill is not bulged enough to assimilate to that of the
first, nor nearly so large as that of the second. It is a bird of
about the size of the House Sparrow, somewhat smarter and

366 LINARIA CHLORIS.

moro beautiful perhaps, but, on the other hand, having a rather
heavier appearance, on account of the great size of its head and
bill. As its position is rather doubtful, I shall give a full de-
scription of it.

The bill, PL VIII, Fig. 8, is shortish, straight, direct, coni-
cal., acute, subpentagonal at the base, nearly as broad as deep,
compressed towards the end ; the upper mandible with its dor-
sal outline slightly curved, the ridge broad and convex, the
sides convex, the edges inflected, sharp, with scarcely percep-
tible indications of a notch, close to the acute tip ; lower man-
dible with the angle semicircular, the dorsal outline straight,
the back broad and convex, the sides rounded, the edges in-
flected and sharp ; the gape-line slightly arched, and a little de-
flected at the base.

The mouth is rather narrow, the mandibles being very thick.
The tongue narrow, sagittate and papillate behind, pointed but
slightly bifid. The digestive organs, PL VIII, Fig. 8, are as
described in the generic character ; the oesophagus, a, ^, c, d^
is two inches long ; the stomach, ^, /, ^, nine twelfths ; the in-
testine, A, 2, y, k^ l^ m^ ?z, eleven and a half inches ; the coeca, /,
one twelfth ; the rectum, /, 7n^ n^ three fourths ; the crop, ^, is
capable of being dilated to a considerable size, although when
empty it is apt to be overlooked.

The plumage is blended, softish, slightly glossed, the feathers
rather narrow and rounded •, the frontal feathers slightly en-
croaching on the bill on either side ; those about its base ter-
minated by a very short bristle. The wings are broad, semi-
cordate ; the first, second, and third quills almost equal, and
longest, the fourth nearly as long ; the second, third, and fourth
cut out on the outer web toward the end ; the other primaries
slowly graduated and rounded, the secondaries broader, and
truncato-rotundate. The tail is shortish, emarginatc, the late-
ral feathers slightly bent outwards.

The bill is pale reddish-brown, darker at the point, the back
of the lower mandible tinged with carmine. The irides are
hazel ; the tarsi, toes, and claws, wood-brown ; the mouth and
skin at the angle of the bill flesh coloured. The general colour
of the plumage is yellowish-greeUj on the head tinged with light

GREEN LINNET. 367

brownish-grey, on the back with reddish-b^o^Yn. The edge of
the wing, the outer webs of the alula, and part of the outer
webs of the primaries from the base to near the end, gamboge-
yellow. The primary coverts are brownish-black, edged ex-
ternally with yellowish-green, and tipped with ash-grey ; the
secondary coverts ash-grey, as is the greater part of the last
secondary quills. The quills are brownish-black, with light
grey tips, and yellowish-white inner edges, excepting towards
the end. The tail feathers are gamboge-yellow from the base
to within a third of the tip, the remaining portion brownish-
black, edged with grey ; the four middle feathers nearly all
brownish-black, being tinged with green at the base only. The
general colour of the lower parts is lighter, the lower breast
pure yellow, the abdomen white, the lower tail-coverts light
yellow mixed with white.

Length to end of tail 6^ inches; extent of wings lOi ; wing
from flexure S^^ ; tail 1^^ ; bill along the ridge \, along the
edge of lower mandible | ; tarsus j ; first toe ^^ , its claw /^ ;
second toe -{-^^ its claw 2^ twelfths ; third toe 8i twelfths, its
claw /j ; fourth toe {^^ its claw 2^ twelfths.

Female. — The female is rather smaller than the male, has a
much less robust bill, and is less brightly coloured. The dis-
tribution of the colours is the same, but they are duller ; there
is more brown on the upper parts, the lower are greyish-brown,
and the yellow markings on the quills are less pure.

Length to end of tail 6 inches ; extent of wings 10 ; wing
from flexure S/g ; tail "1^^ ; bill along the ridge \ ; tarsus ^^ ;
middle toe and claw \\.

Variations. — Considerable variations are observed in the
tints of the males, some being almost pure greenish-yellow
above, others tinged with brown ; the cheeks with more or less
ash-grey; but these diiferences depend mostly upon age. Among
wild birds I have not observed any white, or dark-coloured in-
dividuals.

Changes. — The changes which the plumage undergoes in

3G8 LIXARIA CIILORIS.

consequence of the wearing of its tips, are much less remarkahle
in this than in any other British species of the family.

Habits. — Towards the end of autumn, the Green Linnets
collect into flocks, which are often very large, and frequent
the lower districts, appearing chiefly in the neighbourhood
of towns or farm-steadings. Their flight is more rapid than
that of the Lark, and is similar to that of the Chaffinch
and Yellow Bunting, being performed in an undulated line,
the bird flapping its wings two or three times with rapidity,
then closing them, descending in a curve, and again ascending,
after which it repeats the flaps. They search for food in the
open fields, and during severe weather in the corn-yards, and
even upon the roads, associating with Chaffinches, Sparrows,
Yellow Buntings, and other species of this order. In general,
however, they keep by themselves in straggling flocks, which
sometimes are seen to alight abruptly, but often to wheel about
for some time previous to alighting, after which they scatter
about, and collect the seeds of oats, wheat, chickw^eed, and
other plants. I have seen them picking those of Centaurium
nigrum in the manner of the Goldfinch, as well as of Rosa
canina. On being alarmed, they arise abruptly, fly off", and
betake themselves to the twigs of the highest trees in the neigh-
bourhood, on which they settle abruptly, and remain in a
crouching attitude until the alarm is over, when they drop into
the field or yard. At other times, as when shot at, or other-
wise disturbed, they perform long flights, which they do with
great celerity in a loose body. When flying, and frequently
when perched, they utter, at intervals, three or four rather mel-
low short notes, nearly in the same key, but do not sing until
the commencement of the breeding season. These flocks are
met with in all the cultivated parts of the country, excepting
the western and northern islands of Scotland ; and in most dis-
tricts the Green Linnet is very abundant. By the middle of
April they have all disappeared from their winter haunts ; but
long before, often about the middle of March, they have begun
to disperse over the country.

The Green Linnet is a robust and hardy bird, feeding dur-

GREEN LINNET. 369

ing the greater part of the year on the seeds of Gramineae,
and especially of the cultivated species, as well as on those of
the Compositae, Caryophyllese, and other plants ; to enable its
gizzard to triturate which, it swallows particles of various mi-
neral substances, among which I have frequently observed frag-
ments of coal. In spring and summer it also picks the buds
of various trees, and adds to its then less nutritive fare insects
and larvae of various kinds, with which chiefly it feeds its young.
Although timid, like all other small birds of the family, it is
not so shy as to render it diflicult for a person to approach it
within shooting distance. When wounded by a shot, it pecks
at the hand, and holds fast, although it has not strength enough
to inflict injury ; and when pursued on being winged, it seldom
screams in the apprehension of being caught.

These are the principal circumstances relative to the habits
of the Greenfinch as observed in a cursory manner ; but we
have now to complete its history by watching it during the
breeding season. The males frequently engage in bloodless
combats, like those of the House Sparrow, at the period when
the instinct of pairing is in action, while the females conduct
themselves much in the same manner as those of the species
just named. Many authors have repeated the observation
made by Montagu, or possibly by some other person, that the
Greenfinch is very late in breeding ; but I am inclined to doubt
its accuracy, having seen the young abroad as early as those
of the ChaflRnch. The few notes which it utters during the
spring and summer can scarcely be called a song, although
some of them are full and mellow ; but they mingle with good
eflect with those of the Yellow Bunting and Sparrow ; al-
though the concert thus produced is not one of the most har-
monious. The nest is constructed in April, or sometimes
earlier, and is of good workmanship, being composed externally
of fibrous roots, slender twigs, and straws, internally of finer
materials of the same nature intermixed with moss, and lined
with hair of diflerent kinds. The eggs, from four to six in
number, are of a regular oval form, about eleven twelfths of an
inch in length, eight or a little more in breadth, of a bluish or
purplish -white, spotted with purplish-grey and blackish-brown,

Bb

370 LINARIA CHLORIS.

and generally more or less streaked with black. Two broods
are frequently reared in the season. The places usually chosen
for the nest are low and thick bushes, frequently evergreens, a
close hawthorn hedge, the ivj on a tree or wall, and sometimes
the fork of a tree.

Young. — The young when fledged have the bill pale brown
above, flesh-coloured beneath, the tip brown. The general
colour of the upper parts is olivaceous, the central portion of
each feather faintly tinged with brown ; the quills and tail
dusky brown ; the edge of the wing, and the outer margin of
the primary quills greenish-yellow^ ; the fore-neck and breast
greyish-brown, as are the sides ; the rest of the lower parts
greyish-white ; the feet flesh-colour, tinged with brown.

As in every instance in which the young birds are said by
ornithologists to resemble the females, the young Greenfinch
differs from the adult female so as to be easily distinguished
with a little attention. The more remarkable differences are
the following. The bill is somewhat smaller, and considerably
paler. In the female the general colour of the upper parts is
uniform, and more tinged with reddish-brown, whereas in the
young it is indistinctly streaked, each feather having a darker
centre. The secondary quill-coverts are ash-grey in the female,
and brown in the young, while a larger space on the edge of
the wing is yellow in the former, and the yellow edges of the
primaries form a uniform space when the wing is closed, and
in the latter they are merely yellow lines. The lower parts of
the young are paler, with less yellow.

Progress toward Maturity. — The older the males are, the
lighter and purer are their tints ; but as the character of the co-
louring varies little, it is unnecessary to trace minute gradations.

Remarks. — The Greenfinch, although destitute of a continued
song, is frequently kept in cages, where it thrives well, being
of a quiet and patient temper, and possessed at the same time
of considerable liveliness. It has moreover the faculty of ac-
quiring the notes of other birds, and is not delicate as to its
food, eating freely of the seeds of Gramineae and Cruciferse, as
well as green herbage of the groundsel and chickweed.

371

LINARIA CANNABINA. THE BROWN LINNET.

GREY LINNET. BROWN LINNET. ROSE LINNET. WHIN LINNET.
GREATER REDPOLL. LINTIE.

Fig. 63.

Fringilla cannabina. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 322.

Fringilla cannabina. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 458. Adult.

Fringilla Linota. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 457. Young.

Greater Redpoll, or Brown Linnet. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Grosbec Linote. Fringilla cannabina. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 364.

Common or Brown Linnet. Linaria cannabina. Selb. lUustr. L 315.

Fringilla cannabina. Common Linnet. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 139.

Male in winter, with the hill dusky above, the throat yellowish-
grey, streaked with brown, bach and wing-coxerts reddish-brown,
streaJced with darker ; forehead and breast with the feathers
dark red in their covered parts. Female with the upper parts
streaked with dusky brown and greyish-yellow, the lower light
yellowish-grey, the throat, breast, and sides streaked with yellowish-
brown.

Male in summer, with the bill greyish-black above, the throat
whitish, streaked with brown, the back and icing-coverts reddish-
brown, icithout streaks ; forehead and breast crimson or rose red,
the grey tips of the feathers being worn off.

Young similar to the female ; streaked above with umber-
brown, and greyish-yellow, the loicer parts light-yelloxcish, more
largely streaked with brown.

Bb 2

372 LINARIA CANNABINA.

Male. — When the moult is completed, which happens
generally in November, this Linnet presents a very different
appearance, as to the colours of its plumage, from that which
it exhibited in summer. Agreeably to the order of nature, I
shall first describe the bird as examined when in full plumage,
and then trace the variations of colour induced by the decay of
the feathers. The Brown Linnet is the largest of our four British
species, which bear a great resemblance to each other, although
very different in size, the smallest being the Smaller Redpoll,
and the intermediate species the Twite and ^lealy Linnet.
The present bird is not only the largest of the four, but also the
most robust, although the epithet does not apply well to it
when compared with other birds of the family, it being a neat,
active, and lively bird, exempted by the moderate size of its bill
and head, from the hea^y aspect presented by the Green Linnet
and the Sparrow. The body is ovate, the wings of moderate
length, as is the tail, and the feet are short and slender ; the
tarsi very short and much compressed, the toes of moderate
length, much compressed, as are the arched, acute, laterally
grooved claws.

The bill is strong, conical, acute, compressed towards the
tip, in all respects similar to that of the Green Linnet, but
proportionally smaller ; its upper outline slightly convex, the
ridge narrowed towards the end, the lower outline straight.
The tongue is narrow, sagittate and pa23illate at the base,
pointed, but slightly bifid. The oesophagus is two inches and
eight twelfths long, the stomach roundish, compressed, seven
twelfths in its greatest length ; the intestine twelve inches
long, the coeca one twelfth, and placed at the distance of an
inch from the anus.

The plumage is blended, rather compact above, tufty behind,
slightly glossed ; the feathers in general broadly oblong. The
wing is broad ; the first and second quills equal, the third
scarcely shorter (but sometimes the first longest) ; the second,
third, and fourth slightly cut out on the outer web. The pri-
maries are rounded, the secondaries broad and emarginate.
When the wing is closed, the primaries rapidly decrease, the
secondaries increase to the fifth, the other two shorter. The

BROWN LINNET. 373

tail is of moderate length, deeply emarginate. spreading at the
end, the feathers obliquely rounded.

The bill is dusky or greyish-brown above, pale greyish-blue
beneath. The irides deep brown, the feet wood-brown, the
claws blackish. The upper part of the head is streaked with
greyish-bro^Tn and yelloTA^ish-grey, the central part of each
feather being of the former colour ; the feathers of the fore-
head dull blood-red, tipped with brown. The back, scapu-
lars, and wing-coverts reddish-brown, the central parts of the
feathers darker, their edges yellowish-grey ; the hind part of
the back lighter and tinged with grey ; the tail-coverts dusky
in the centre, greyish-white on the edges. Quills, primary
coverts, and alula brownish-black ; the primaries margined
externally with white, the white edges of the five inner much
broader, so as to form a conspicuous mark on the wing ; the
secondaries margined externally with yellowish-brown, inter-
nally with greyish-white. The tail-feathers are brownish-
black ; the middles ones margined with bro^vnish-yellow, the
five lateral on each side margined externally with white, and
internally more broadly with the same. The fore part of the
neck is yello%vish-grey, streaked with greyish-brown or light
reddish-brown ; the feathers on the breast are dull red, broadly
margined with yellowish-grey, the former colour concealed by
the latter ; the sides and abdomen are yellowish-grey, the for-
mer streaked with b^o^\^l ; the lower tail-coverts whitish, their
central part dusky.

Length to end of tail of inches ; extent of wings 9} ; bill f,
edge of lower mandible nearly i ; tarsus 7i twelfths ; middle
toe and claw /^ ; hind toe Z^, its claw -^% .

Of another individual, the length 5| ; extent of wings 9j ;
bill 4i twelfths, and ^% ; tarsus 7i twelfths ; middle toe and
claw 3-\.

Of another, the length o^^ ; extent of wings 9 j ; bill 4i
twelfths, and ^^^ ; tarsus /^ ; middle toe and claw 9i twelfths.

Female. — The female is somewhat smaller. The bill and
feet are similarly coloured. The upper parts are streaked with
dusky bro^vn and greyish-yellow, the rump lighter, the upper

374 LINARIA CANNABINA.

tail-coverts darker, with the outer edge yellowish, the inner
whitish. The wing-coverts are dull brown, edged with lighter.
The quills are brow^nish- black, the primaries externally mar-
gined with w4iite, but much more narrowly than in the male.
The tail-feathers are brownish-black, externally edged wdth
light yellow^ish-brown, the outer with greyish- white, the inner
webs greyish- white for half their breadth. The lower parts
are light yellowish-grey, tinged with red on the neck and breast,
and fading into w^hitish on the abdomen ; the throat, breast,
and sides streaked with dusky brown ; the lower tail-coverts
yellowish-grey, with a blackish central mark.

Length to end of tail 5i inches ; extent of wings 9i ; bill
along the ridge ^^ ; wing from flexure Sy^ ; tail 2 ; tarsus
7i twelfths; middle toe j'^^, its claw 8i twelfths.

Variations. — In adults in the w^inter plumage, the variations
are not very remarkable, some being of lighter tints than others,
and the hind part of the back in particular being not unfre-
quently greyish, or even greyish-white.

Changes of Plumage. — The changes which the colours un-
dergo in consequence of the action of air and light, are very
remarkable in the males of this species, insomuch that one
might at first have some difficulty in believing that a summer
specimen was of the same species with one obtained in the
beginning of winter. It will therefore be necessary to describe
the bird as it appears in the breeding season, or from the be-
ginning of May to the end of summer.

Male in Summer.- — A specimen shot at Guillon in East
Lothian, on the 14th May, was as follows : — Bill dusky brown
above, paler and bluish beneath. Iris deep brown. Feet yel-
lowish-brown ; claws dusky. Head yellowish-brown, streaked
with darker ; sides of the head and neck yellowish-grey ; an
indistinct line of greyish-yellow over the eye, and another un-
der it. Back deep reddish-brown, streaked with darker ; sca-
pulars, smaller coverts, and large secondary coverts of a tint
approaching to chestnut, and unspotted. Quills, primary co-

BROWN LINNET. 375

verts, and alula, brownish-black ; jirimaries margined exter-
nally with white, excepting towards the end, the w^hite margins
of the proximal ones broader, and forming a conspicuous mark
on the wdng ; secondaries margined externally w^ith yellowish-
brown, internally with greyish- white. The brown of the back
is shaded behind into light brownish-yellow ; the upper tail-
coverts and middle tail-feathers brownish-black, margined w^ith
browaiish-yellow ; the other tail-feathers of the same dark tint,
the five lateral margined with wdiite externally to near the tip,
and internally more broadly wdth the same. The frontal fea-
thers are deep red about the middle. The fore part of the neck
is yellowish-grey, streaked wdth brownish-grey ; the feathers
of the breast are blood-red, tipped wdth yellow^ish-white, the
sides yellowdsh-brown, streaked w^th darker ; the rest of the
low^er parts light brownish-grey, paler on the middle of the
abdomen.

In this case the change from the winter colouring w^as not
very remarkable, excepting in the appearance of the red, yet
dark, on the forehead and breast. But tow^ards the end of
summer the change is much greater. A specimen shot on the
Pentland Hills, on the 23d June, had the bill bluish-brown
above, paler beneath, the tip darker ; the feet yellowish -brown,
the claws dusky. The head and neck light greyish-brown ;
the forehead bright red ; the back and w4ng-coverts uniform
reddish-brown ; the breast light red ; the sides yellowish-brown,
with only faint indications of dark streaks.

In some individuals at this season, the red on the forehead
and breast become so light as to be nearly rose-red. Specimens
shot w ith the dark red tint, assume this very light red after
being exposed to the sun. The entire changes may be satis-
factorily accounted for by the w^earing of the tips of the feathers,
and the action of light in dissipating the dark tints. Before
these circumstances w^ere made known by M. Temminck, this
species was, naturally enough, divided into tw^o. It is remark-
able that cage birds do not acquire the red tints on the breast
and forehead.

Habits. — The Common Linnet, variously denominated the

376 LINARIA CANNABINA.

Brown, Grey, and Rose Linnet, is generally distributed in
Britain, being found at all seasons in most parts of England
and Scotland. Towards the end of autumn individuals collect
into flocks, which unite as the winter advances, and betake
themselves to the lower districts, where, in the neighbourhood
of towns and farm-steadings, they search the fields, and in
severe weather frequent the corn-yards, to procure seeds of oats,
and various plants, on w^hich they subsist entirely from the
middle of autumn until the beginning of summer. These
flocks sometimes mingle w^ith those of the Mountain Linnet,
and occasionally the Green Linnet, as well as for a time with
other birds ; but for the most part they keep distinct, perform-
ing their various evolutions by themselves. They appear over
a field, attracting notice by their soft and mellow notes, and
either fly over it in curving sweeps for some time, or alight
abruptly, when the bystander can easily distinguish them by
the white which appears on their wings and tail, as they spread
them out while settling on the ground. They generally move
in a rather close flock, advance in one direction, by short leaps,
crouching as they go on, and searching for food with great
assiduity, the stragglers every now and then flying up to the
main body. They are easily approached when thus engaged,
unless they have been previously chased ; but when a person
drawls near them, they either all stand still for a short while,
and fly off nearly simultaneously, or the nearer individuals ad-
vance to the front of the party successively, so that frequently
they thus traverse a considerable space before they consider it
necessary to extend their flight. In the latter case, they betake
themselves to a distant part, or perch on trees or bushes in the
neighbourhood.

The flight of this species is rapid and undulated, being per-
formed by alternate flaps and cessations, in a curved line, in
the manner of the Green Linnet, but with still more activity.
The flocks glide and wheel, the individuals crossing the direc-
tion of each other, in a very beautiful manner. On the ground,
it is equally active. Its voice is soft and mellovr, and its song
varied, and remarkably sweet ; on which account it is fre-
quently kept in cages. It is easily reared from the nest, and

BROWN LINNET. 377

feeds when grown on canary, rape, and hemp seed, with chick-
weed and groundsel. In this state it pairs with the Canary
and Goldfinch.

When the fine weather commences in spring, the flocks
hreak up, and the individuals betake themselves to their sum-
mer haunts, in the hilly and mountainous parts of the country,
especially where there are thickets of broom, whin, or sloe,
or even, in defect of these, where the heather attains an un-
usual size on the slopes of the craggy braes and glens. There
the male, perched on a twig or stone, pours forth his sweet
notes, while his mate is brooding over her precious charge.
But the song of the Linnet, pleasant as it may be when heard
in a room, has little effect on the hill side, compared with that
of the ^lavis or Merle, although to the shepherd swain reclin-
ing on the soft moss on a sloping bank overgrow^n with " the
lang yellow broom,"" or the weary traveller resting a while by
the way-side, it may seem gentle as the melody of the 23rimeval
groves of lost paradise, filling the soul with pleasing thoughts.

The nest of the Linnet is generally placed in a bush of furze
or heath, or among brushwood, and is neatly constructed, being
formed externally of blades and stalks of grass, intermingled
with moss and wool, and lined with the hair of various ani-
mals. The eggs are from four to six, of a regular oval form,
about nine-twelfths of an inch long, from six to nearly seven
twelfths in their greatest diameter, bluish-white, distantly
spotted with purplish-grey and reddish-brown, the spots more
numerous tow^ards the larger end. The young are usually
abroad by the end of May ; and there are commonly two
broods in the season.

Young. — The young wdien fledged have the upper mandible
pale greyish-brown, the lower flesh-coloured tinged with blue ;
the feet flesh-coloured, the claws brown. The upper parts are
yellowish-grey streaked with dusky, of which the spots are
larger than in the adult female ; the lower greyish- yellow,
streaked with brown, excepting the middle of the abdomen.

Progress toward Maturity. — It is unnecessary, and indeed

378 LINARIA CANNABINA.

almost impracticable, to detail the minute gradations and
changes that are exhibited by this bird, as it advances in age.
I shall therefore rest content with the descriptions already-
given, apprehensive that they may prove quite sufficient to
exhaust the patience of the reader.

Remarks. — The Brown Linnet very closely resembles the
next species, which, however, besides being smaller, has never
any red on the head or breast, and has the throat always un-
streaked.

379

LINARIA FLAVIROSTRIS. THE MOUNTAIN
LINNET, OR TWITE.

MOUNTAIN LINNET. TWITE. HEATHER LINTIE. BICIAN.

Fringilla flavirostris. Linn. Fauna Suec. 87.

Fringilla montium. Lath. lud. Orn. I. 459.

Twite. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Gros-bec a gorge rousse ou de Montagne. Fringilla montium. Temm.

Man. d'Orn. I. 368. IL 262.
Mountain Linnet, or Twite. Linaria montana. Selb. Illustr. I. 318.
Fringilla montium. Mountain Linnet. Jen. Brit. Yert. An. 140.

Male in winter^ icith the hill greyish-yellow, the upper parts
light yellowish-brown, streaked with hrownish-hlacJc, the feathers
of the rump red in the middle, the lower parts light brownish-yel-
low, of which are two bands across the u'ing ; the throat unspot-
ted ; the feet black. Fernale in winter, itith the hill tipped idth
dusky, the colours of the plumage similar, but lighter, the rump
destitute of red.

Male in summer, with the hill whitish, the rump rose-red, in
other respects as in winter, hut paler. Female as in winter.

Male. — The Yellow-billed Linnet, or Twite, also named
by authors the Mountain Linnet, is inferior in size to the Com-
mon or Brown Linnet, and superior to the Redpoll. In form
and proportions it resembles the preceding species, from which
it is easily distinguished by attending to the specific characters
given above. The bill is short, stout, and tapers to a fine
point, its upper outline almost straight, and its base, although
pentagonal, has the two lateral angles so rounded, that, as ^I.
Temminck has described it, one might call it triangular in its
transverse section, although certainly not " formant un triangle
parfait,'' whether viewed directly or transversely. The tarsi are

380 LINARIA FLAVIROSTRIS.

much compressed, as are the toes, and the claws are very slen-
der, arched, and taper to a very fine point.

The plumage is blended and very soft, with little gloss, the
feathers generally oblong and rounded. The wing is propor-
tionally longer than in the last sj^ecies ; the first and second
quills of the same length, the third a little shorter, the other
primaries rounded, but the inner slightly emarginate ; the
secondaries truncato-emarginate, excepting the inner two. The
tail is rather long, and deeply emarginate, the middle feathers
being five twelfths of an inch shorter than the lateral.

The bill is greyish-yellow, or wax-yellow ; the irides brown ;
the feet and claws greyish-black. The upper parts are streaked
with light yellowish-brown and brownish-black, the central
part of each feather being of the latter colour ; that of the rump
feathers, however, deep red. The quills are brownish-black,
margined with greyish-yellow, excepting four of the inner pri-
maries, which are edged with white ; and there are two trans-
verse light broMTiish bands on the wing, formed by the tips of
the primary and first row" of small coverts. The tail-feathers
are brownish-black, margined externally with yellowish-bro^Ti,
the outer w^ith white at the base, internally with greyish-w^hite.
The sides of the head, throat, and fore part of the breast are
light reddish-brown ; the throat without spots, but the other
parts and the sides streaked with dusky ; the abdomen paler,
and the lower tail-coverts whitish, some of them with a dark
central mark.

Length to end of tail 5i inches; extent of wings S{^ ; wing
from flexure 2^^ ; tail 2j% ; bill along the ridge 4^ twelfths,
along the edge of lower mandible 5i twelfths ; tarsus j% ;
middle toe and claw j%.

Female. — The female in winter resembles the male, but
has the colours somewhat paler, is destitute of red on the
feathers of the rump, and has the bill slightly tipped with
dusky.

Length to end of tail 5j% inches ; extent of wings 8j% ;
wing from flexure 2{ § ; tail 2^% ; bill along the ridge j% ;
tarsus j\ ; middle toe and claw j%.

MOUNTAIN LINNET, OR TW^ITE. 381

Variations. — I have not observed any remarkable acciden-
tal or irregular variations in this species.

Changes of Plumage. — The changes exhibited by the Twite
are not so remarkable as those of the Brown Linnet, although
perfectly analogous.

JNIale in Summer. — The bill is yellowish-white ; the feet
black. The upper parts are darker, the light brown streaks
having become narrower ; the rump is crimson or purplish-red.
The lower parts are nearly as in winter, the throat remaining
unspotted at all seasons.

Habits. — The Twite almost precisely resembles in its habits
the Brown Linnet, with whicli in winter it sometimes associates.
Towards the commencement of that season, the individuals
unite into flocks, sometimes of great extent, and search for
food chiefly in the stubble fields, w^here, besides the seeds of
chickweed, field-mustard, polygona, and other plants, they pick
up those of the cultivated grasses. Although both this and
the Brown Linnet might seem too small to feed upon these
latter seeds, yet in winter I have generally found the greater
part of the contents of their stomach to consist of them. It
appears to be as extensively distributed as the last species, but
not nearly so abundant in the southern districts. In the He-
brides it is plentiful, and in winter frequents the corn-yards in
large flocks, clinging to the stacks of oats, and picking out the
seeds. I have several times seen some of them killed by throw-
ing a stick in the midst of them, and more frequently by trap-
ping them with a riddle ; and this merely for the purpose of
being eaten by the young savages, who have no taste for
caging.

Its flight is rapid and undulated, and it wheels over the
fields previous to alighting, uttering a soft twitter at intervals.
When disturbed, it betakes itself to tall trees, or to a distant
field ; but is not shy, and may therefore be easily approached
when feeding. In spring it forsakes its winter haunts, and
disperses over the hilly tracts, where it forms its nest on the

382 LINARIA FLAVIROSTRIS.

ground, among short heath, or on the grassy slopes of craggy
spots. It is neatly constructed, being composed externally
of fine dry grass, fragments of heath, and a little moss, in-
ternally of fibrous roots, wool, and hair. The eggs are bluish-
white, marked towards the larger end with light-brown and
purplish-red, sometimes with a few blackish dots.

Young. — The young when fledged have the bill pale grey-
ish-brown, the feet light brown, the claws dusky; the plumage
coloured as in the adult female, but with dark brown, in place
of blackish-brown markings, the white on the wings less ex-
tended, and the brownish bands duller.

Remarks. — Although the Twite bears a strong resemblance
to the Brown Linnet, especially in the winter plumage, it
may always be very easily distinguished from that species by
its yellowish-red throat, destitute of dark streaks, and the
yellow colour of the bill.

383

LINARIA MINOR. THE SMALLER REDPOLL
LINNET.

LESSER REDPOLL.

Fringilla Linaria. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 322.

Fringilla Linaria. Lath. Ind. Om. I. 458.

Lesser Redpoll. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Gros-bec Sizerin. Fringilla Linaria. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 373.

Lesser Redpoll Linnet. Linaria Minor. Selb. Illustr. L 320.

Fringilla Linaria. Lesser Redpoll. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 138.

Length nearly five inches.

Male in wi7iter, with the hill dusky above, the throat blackish,
the back and sides yelloivish-brotcn, streaked with dusky-brown,
the loral space and edge of the forehead brownish-black, the
feathers on the upper part of the head and rump dull red.
Female similar, but without red on the rump, and hating the
dark streaks larger.

Male in summer, with the edge of the forehead, the loral space,
amd the throat, black ; the upper part of the head crimson, the
sides of the neck, the breast, and the rump carmine. Female
with the fore part of the head crimson, the throat black, the other
parts nearly as in icinter.

Male. — The Smaller Redpoll is the most diminutive of our
native Passerine birds, and withal so delicate, lively, and affec-
tionate a creature, that it is a special favourite with most people

384 LINARIA MINOR.

who know it. In form it resembles the Twite, but has the
wings and tail proportionally longer. The bill is more com-
pressed and 23ointed than in the other species, its upper outline
almost perfectly straight, as is the lower, the points of both
mandibles acute, the lower somewhat broader at the base than
the upper. The feet are proportionally strong, and the claws
are very long, arched, and acute, indicating an adaptation for
clinging to trees, or other plants. The plumage is soft and
blended. The wings are rather long ; the three first primaries
almost equal, the second how^ever being the longest ; the outer
secondaries are very slightly emarginate. The tail is long,
and deeply emarginate, the middle feathers nearly half an inch
shorter than the lateral.

The upper mandible is greyish-brow^n, the lower yellow,
but with the point blackish. The irides are brown ; the feet
blackish-brown. The loral space, a band edging the forehead,
and the throat are blackish, the tips being yellowish-grey,
while the bodies of the feathers are black. The upper part of
the head is dull red, as is the rump ; the general colours of the
rest of the upper parts yellowish-brown, streaked with black-
ish-brown. Wing-coverts, quills, and tail dusky-brown, mar-
gined w^ith pale yellowish-brown, of which are two bands
across the wing formed by the tips of the secondary coverts
and first row of small coverts. The sides of the throat, the
fore-neck, breast and sides, are pale brown, with longitudinal
dark markings ; the abdomen and lower tail-coverts whitish.

Length to end of tail 4j§ inches; extent of wings 8| ;
wing from flexure 2/j ; tail 2f^2 ; bill along the ridge Si
twelfths, along the edge of lower mandible j% ; tarsus 6J
twelfths ; middle toe 4i twelfths, its claw /^ .

Female. — The female, which is somewhat smaller, resembles
the male in the general colours of the plumage, but has less
red on the head, without any indication of that colour on any
other part. The bill and feet are similarly coloured.

Length to end of tail 4/^ inches.

Variations. — Slight variations of tint occur, according to

SMALLER REDPOLL LINNET. 305

the age of the individuals ; but in the wild state I have not
met with albinoes, or parti-coloured specimens. The appear-
ance of the bird in summer differs so much as to require a
separate description.

Male in Summer. — The bill is greyish-brown above, pale
j^ellow beneath, with the tip dusky, the feet also as in winter.
The forehead, loral space, and throat, are black ; the crown
of the head crimson ; the hind part of the head, the neck, the
fore part of the back, and the scapulars, are blackish-brown,
the feathers with j^ale yellowish-brown edges ; the hind part
of the back, carmine ; the wings and tail dusky, with yellow-
ish-brown edges, and two transverse bands of the same. The
sides of the neck, its fore part, the breast, and flanks, carmine;
the middle of the breast, the abdomen, and the lower tail-
coverts white, tinged w4th rose-colour.

Female ix Summer. — The female has the black of the fore-
head and throat brownish, with less red on the head, and
generally none on the lower parts or rump, which are nearly
as described in the winter plumage, but paler.

Habits. — The Redpoll resembles the Siskin in its habits, as
w^ell as in shape, it being one of the species that forms the tran-
sition from Linaria to Carduelis. Its flight is peculiarly bound-
ing and buoyant, and its voice remarkably clear and loud.
When starting it emits a hurried chatter of short notes, and
as it proceeds on its flight utters a single note at intervals less
prolonged than those of our other Linnets. Its cry is so dif-
ferent from that of the Brown Linnet and Twite, being clearer
and sharper, that one who has attended to it can readily dis-
tinguish the species on wing. Although not abundant in any
part of the country, it forms large flocks in winter, and betakes
itself to the birch and alder woods, in procuring the seeds of
which the birds hang in all kinds of attitudes, like many other
small species that find their subsistence on trees, such as Tit-
mice and Gold-crests. I have also seen them in Auoust

o

scattered over a tract overgrown with thistles, the seeds of

c c

386 LINARIA MINOR.

which they picked out precisely in the same manner as the
Goldfinch. On such occasions, unless they have previously
been shot at or pursued, they take little heed of approaching
danger, so that one may easily approach them, or even go so
near as to snare them with a noose on a long stick or fishing-
rod.

In many parts of Scotland, and in the north of England, the
Redpoll remains all the year, breeding in the hilly districts
among the brushwood that skirts the flanks of the mountains,
or covers the margins of streams in rocky dells. Not having
met with its nest, however, I take the liberty of borrowing Mr.
Selby's account of it. " It is built in a bush or low tree (such
as willow, alder, or hazel), of moss and the stalks of dry grass,
intermixed with down from the catkin of the willow, which
also forms the lining, and renders it a particularly soft and
warm receptacle for the eggs and young. From this substance
being a constant material of the nest, it follows that the young
are produced late in the season, and are seldom able to fly
before the end of June or the beginning of July. The eggs
are four or five in number ; their colour pale bluish-green,
6j)otted with orange brown, principally towards the larger end,"

Young. — The young birds in November, when their first
moult is completed, are as follows : — The upper mandible is
greyish-brown, the lower dull yellow with the point dusky.
The tarsi are light bro^^Ti, the toes darker, the claws dusky.
The loral space, a narrow frontal band, and the reversed
feathers covering the nostrils, are dull blackish-browTi. The
feathers on the top of the head are dark brown, but Avith yel-
lowish-red shining edges. The upper parts are streaked with
dusky brown and dull light yellowish-red, of which latter are
two broad bands on the wing-coverts. The wings and tail are
dusky, edged with yellowish-brown. There are indications of
black on the throat, concealed however by the light-coloured
tips of the feathers. The cheeks, sides of the neck, fore-neck,
and sides of the body are streaked with dusky and light yel-
lowish-brown, the middle of the breast, the abdomen, and
lower tail-coverts brownish-white.

SMALLER REDPOLL LINNET. 387

Remarks. — The Redpoll is frequently kept in cages, not so
much for its song, which is very inferior to that of the Brown
Linnet, as for its lively and gentle disposition. It readily pairs
with the Canary and Goldfinch. This species, according to
authors, inhabits the northern and temperate parts of Europe
and North America, feeding during winter on the buds of the
alder, and at other seasons on the seeds of that tree, the birch,
and pines, as well as those of flax and cruciferse. It is how-
ever to be remarked that the Lesser Redpoll of the Fauna
Boreali-Americana, and of Mr. Ord's edition of Wilson's
American Ornithology, agrees better with the next species
than with the present.

c c :^

388

LINARIA BOREALIS. THE MEALY KEDPOLL.

Linaria borealis. Selb. Newcastle Transact. I. 263.
Gros-bec boreal. Fringilla borealis. Temm. Man. d'Orn. III. 264.
Lesser Redpoll Linnet. Linaria Minor. Var. Selb. lUustr. I. 320.
Fringilla Linaria. Lesser Redpoll. \'ar. B. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 139.

Length Jive inches and a third. The colours as in the Common
Bedpoll^ hut the edges of the feathers j)aler., the rump greyish-
white^ and the loicer parts nearlg white.

Some birds of a larger size than the Common Redpoll, but
resembling it in form, as well as, with certain differences, in
colour, having been observed in Britain of late years, they
have been variously considered by authors as belonging to a
larger race of the last species, or to a distinct species, to which
the name of Mealy Linnet, Linaria canescens, has been given
by Mr. Gould. The only specimen of this kind that I have
seen was obtained by JNIr. Weir of Boghead, in the neighbour-
hood of Bathgate, and is now before me. It was killed in
winter, and appears to belong to the Fringilla borealis of Tem-
minck, whose description I shall in the first place translate.

" Fringilla borealis. Gros-bec boreal. Larger than the
Siskin ; winter plumage whitish all over ; rump pure white.

" Throat and lore black ; upper part of the head and the fore-
head blood-red ; forepart of the neck, breast, and rump rose-
red ; belly, abdomen, and flanks pure white ; occiput and
nape covered with blackish streaks on a reddish- white ground ;
back and scapulars with broad blackish streaks, all edged with
white ; broad margins of pure white on all the feathers and
quills of the wings and tail. Bill yellow, upper mandible
brown above. Length five (French) inches. The old male in
spring.

MEALY REDPOLL. 389

" The males in autumn have the rump white, with a faint rosy-
tint and browm streaks ; slight reddish tints on the cheeks ;
brown streaks of the back margined with reddish ; the red on
the top of the head somewhat dull, and covered with very slight
reddish tints.

" The female has the fore part of the head whitish ; red on
the top of the head ; the breast, the lower parts, and the rump
white, marked with brown streaks, which are pretty numerous
on the flanks.

" Both sexes in icinter have the top of the head of a dull red,
the forehead white or reddish, marked with a black band ;
the lore and throat dull black ; the lower parts pure white,
more or less variegated with brown streaks ; the edges of the
feathers of the back of "a dull white or pale reddish."

If M. Temminck uses the terms tchite and ti-hitish w^ith too
little qualification, his species is probably the JNIealy Linnet
of Mr. Gould, as well as the bird represented by Mr. Selby in
his Illustrations^ PI. 53,** Fig. 2, which he considers as a large
variety of the Redpoll.

Mr. Weir's specimen is of the size of the Twite, Linaria
flavirostris, and may be described as follows :

The bill is much larger than that of the Kedpoll, but of the
same form. The plumage is soft and blended ; the wings
rather long, the three first primaries almost equal, but the
second longest ; the tail long and deeply emarginate. The
bill is dull yellow, the upper mandible towards the end grey-
ish-bro^vn, the feet dusky, the claws brownish-black. The
reversed bristly feathers at the base of the bill are yellowish-
grey ; the loral space and throat brow^nish-black. The feathers
on the head are dusky, tipped with yellowish-grey, a few of
them deep red towards the end. The general colour of the
upper parts is light yellowish-brown, streaked with dusky
brown, the rump greyish-white, streaked with dusky. The
quills, larger coverts, and tail, are dark brow^n, margined Avitli
whitish-brown, of which are two bands across the w^ing, formed
by the tips of the secondary, and first row of small coverts.
The cheeks are greyish-white, as are the fore part of the neck,

390 LINARIA BOREALIS.

the middle of the breast, the abdomen, and lower tail-coverts ;
the sides tinged with browm, and streaked with dusky.

Length to end of tail 5j% inches ; bill along the ridge j%,
along the edge of lower mandible 6i twelfths ; wing from
flexure 2^§ ; tail 2j%, tarsus 7^ twelfths ; hind toe 3 J twelfths,
its claw 44 twelfths ; third toe 4^ twelfths, its claw j%.

On comparing it with a winter specimen of the Redpoll,
besides being considerably larger, it also presents much lighter
tints, which, however, it would require some poetical license to
consider as white, at least pure white.

391

CARDUELIS. THISTLEFINCH.

Bill shortish, straight, direct, strong, conical, tapering to a
slender point, subpentagonal at the base, deeper than broad in
its whole length, more especially towards the end ; upper man-
dible w^ith the dorsal outline nearly straight, the ridge narrow,
the sides sloping and slightly convex, the edges sharp and
direct, destitute of notch, the tip very acute and considerably
extended beyond that of the lower ; lower mandible with the
angle semicircular, the dorsal line straight or slightly concave,
the ridge convex at the base, narrowed towards the end, the
edges sharp and inflected. Gape-line nearly straight, at the
base slightly deflected.

Mouth narrow, both mandibles deeply concave within, the
upper with a medial and two lateral prominent lines, and four
grooves. Aperture of the posterior nares linear, and with that
of the glottis margined with acute papillae. Tongue sagittate,
subulate, involute, the tip terminated by a pencil of short bris-
tles. CEsophagus dilated on the middle of the neck into a kind
of crop, afterwards narrow ; proventriculus bulbiform, and fur-
nished all round with numerous cylindrical glandules. Gizzard
roundish, compressed, with two very strong lateral muscles
with radiated tendons, and a narrow^ prominent basal muscle ;
its cuticular lining dense, tough, and longitudinally rugous.
Intestine of moderate length, rather wide, of nearly equal dia-
meter throughout, with two very small cylindrical, adnate
coeca near its extremity ; rectum very short.

Nostrils circular, basal, in the fore part of the short and
broad nasal depression, and concealed by the reflected feathers.

392 CARDUELIS. THISTLEFINCH.

Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered, their edges bare and
papillar. External ears large, oval.

Head rather small, oblong ; neck short ; body ovate, rather
slender. Legs short ; tarsus very short, compressed, covered
anteriorly with seven scutella, posteriorly with a long plate
forming a sharp edge, and inferior rugcT ; toes slender, com-
pressed, covered above with few large scutella, narrow and
granulate beneath ; the second and fourth equal, the first a
little shorter, the third much longer. Claws long, slender,
compressed, arched, laterally grooved.

Plumage soft, blended, the feathers rounded, with a slender
plumule composed of a few* loose filaments ; those at the base
of the bill \\4th short bristle-points. Wing rather broad.
Primary quills ten, secondary seven, the three outer quills
nearly equal, the second longest, the third shorter than the
first ; the second, third, and fourth slightly cut out on the ex-
ternal margin towards the end ; the primaries rounded, the
secondaries emarginate. Tail shortish, emarginate, the lateral
feathers slightly bent outwards.

The genus Carduelis is very intimately allied to the preced-
ing, the principal dilFerence being in its having the bill more
slender and elongated. The species are all small, and gene-
rally of lively colours, the wings marked with yellow. They
are extensively distributed, and some occur on both continents.
Although they occasionally descend to the ground, they usually
seek their food on trees or tall herbaceous plants, of which,
especially the Amentacese and Compositae, they pick the seeds.
In Britain two species occur ; the Red-fronted Thistlefinch or
Goldfinch, C. elegans^ and the Siskin, C. sjnnus ; both per-
manent residents, but the latter appearing irregularly in flocks
during autumn and winter, although breeding in Scotland.

393

CARDUELIS ELEGANS. THE RED-FRONTED
THISTLEFINCH, OR GOLDFINCH.

GOLDFINCH. GOLDSPINK. GOUDSPINK. GOLDIE. LASAIR-CHOILLE.

Fig. 65. Male. Fjo. 66. Female

Fringilla Carduelis. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 118.

Fringilla Carduelis. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 449.

Goldfinch. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Gros-bec Chardonneret. Fringilla Carduelis. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 376.

Goldfinch. Carduelis elegans. Selb. Illustr. I. 312.

Fringilla Carduelis. Goldfinch. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. T. 137.

Forehead and throat crimson ; loral space., top of the head., and
occipital band hlach.

Male. — The Goldfinch is one of the most elegant as well as
gavly attired of our native birds, and being held in great esti-
mation on accomit of its docility and the sweetness of its song,
is a special favourite with those who find pleasure in imprison-
ing birds. Its form is compact and rather slender, and as its
bill is more attenuated than that of most other birds of the
Passerine family, and its head proportionally small, it has not
the heavy aspect of the Green Linnet or Sparrow. As all the
characters given in detail in the generic character apply to it,
we may dispense with a particular description of the parts.

The oesophagus, which dilates into a small crop, is two inches
in length ; the gizzard eight twelfths ; the intestine ten inches ;
the coeca nearly two twelfths. The plumage is blended, very

394 CARDUELIS ELEGANS.

soft, and slightly glossed, excepting the red feathers on the fore
part of the head, -which have a silky lustre. The wings are
rather broad ; the second quill longest, but scarcely exceeding
the first, which is a little longer than the third. The primary
quills are rounded, the secondary emarginate, excepting the
inner two. The tail is short, and rather deeply emarginate,
the difference in length between the middle and outer feathers
being a quarter of an inch.

The bill is whitish, tinged with red, the point of both man-
dibles blackish-brown. The irides brown. The feet dusky-
brown. The feathers marmninoj the bill all round, the loral or
preocular space, the top of the head, the occiput, and a semi-
circular band on the upper part of the neck from behind, black.
Anterior to this is a broader band of white passing over the
throat, and behind it a narrower of brownish- white. The
throat and forehead are crimson, that colour extending over
the eyes. The hind-neck and back are umber brown, that
colour passing into ochre-yellow on the rump ; the sides of
the breast and flanks paler ; the rest of the low^er parts white.
The smaller wing-coverts and alula are black, as are the pri-
mary coverts ; the secondary coverts rich yellow ; the proximal
or basal half of the outer webs of the quills pure yellowy that of
the first excepted ; the other parts of the quills black, their
tips pure white. The tail-feathers are black, tipped with
white ; the two outer have a large white spot on the inner web.

Length to end of tail 5 inches ; extent of wings 9 ; wing
from flexure Sj% ; tail 1{1 ; bill along the ridge 5i twelfths,
along the edge of low^er mandible 6i twelfths ; tarsus j\ ; hind
toe 3i twelfths, its claw 5i twelfths ; second toe j%, its claw
/j ; third toe ^\, its claw j\.

Female. — The female is considerably smaller. The colouring
is similar, but presents the following difterences. The crim-
son of the forehead and throat is less extensive ; the cheeks
and the white spots on the wings and tail are tinged with
brown ; the hind part of the breast and abdomen are of a less
pure white ; the black of the head is mixed with grey and
brown behind, and that of the wings and tail is less deep.

Length to end of tail 4|S ; extent of wings 8^§.

GOLDFINCH.. 395

Variations op Plumage. — I have not met with any remark-
able accidental differences of colour in wild birds, although in
captivity individuals may sometimes be seen of a dusky brown,
or more or less white or cream-coloured. As in other birds,
the feathers become ragged in summer, but the changes thereby
induced are not great, the white tips of the quills and tail-
feathers being, however, more or less abraded.

Habits. — It is not my purpose to treat of caged birds, so
that we shall escape a great deal of unnecessary sentimentalism,
and save the time that might otherwise be lost in learning how
dear a pet was Matilda's Goldfinch, how sweetly it sung, how
neatly it preened its plumage, how delightedly it nibbled the
nice bit of white sugar presented to it, and how excruciating
were its agonies, as well as those of its gentle mistress, when
its little dear bones were crunched by the serried teeth of cruel
grimalkin, that sworn foe of all bir diets. Let us stroll abroad
on this fine autumnal day, wdien the sun shines brightly on the
yellow fields, and the thistle down floats along on the gentle
breeze, gliding like snow-flakes over the river. There, on that
old pasture, is the source of the plumy eruption, a forest of tall
weeds, wdiich the husbandman ought to have pulled up and
burnt before they had time to perfect their seeds. See what
tufts of down are scattered about by those little birds that seem
bent on demolishing all the heads, anthodia, or capitula, as the
botanists term them. How curiously they hang on the prickly
stems and leaves, with what adroitness do they thrust their
bills into the heart of the involucres, and how little do they
regard us as they ply their pleasant pursuit, unconscious of
danger, and piping their mellow call-notes ! Now, some of
them have perceived us ; they fly off, chuckling, to a distant
clump of thistles ; and as we approach, others shift their sta-
tions ; but as yet the main body has no thoughts of retreating.
Let us stand still to observe them. They flutter over the
plants, cling to the stalks, bend in various attitudes, disperse
the down, already dry and easily separable, pick out the peri-
carps one by one, and swallow them. There comes a stray
cow pursued by the herd boy. The birds suddenly intermit

396 CARDUELIS ELEGANS.

tlieir labours, p<ause for a moment, and fly off in succession.
You observe how ligbtly and buoyantly they cleave the air,
each bird fluttering its little wings, descending in a curved line,
mounting again, and speeding along. They wheel around the
field, now^ descending almost to the ground, now springing up
again. Some of them suddenly alight, when, the example thus
set, all betake themselves to the tiny thicket of dried and
withered weeds, and in settling display to the delighted eye the
beautiful tints of their plumage, as with fluttering wings and
expanded tail they hover for a moment to select a landing place
amid the prickly points that seem to stand forth as if to pre-
vent asfgression. The Goldfinch doubtless would smile at the
threat of the " Nemo me impune lacesset,"' wdiich every Scot
calls to mind when he thinks of a thistle ; for to it the spears
of the Cnicus lanceolatus are not more formidable than the
bayonets of the<3nicus palustris, or the daggers of the Cnicus
arvensis. From all these species, as well as others, it obtains
a portion of its food, and when thistles are not plentiful, it
attacks the heads of the Knapw^eed, Centaurea nigra, and other
plants of the Syngenesian tribe.

But its food is not exclusively composed of the seeds of the
Compositse ; for it also eats those of Graminese, Caryophylleae,
and other herbaceous plants ; as well as those of the Birch,
Alder, and some trees of a similar nature. I find it recorded
in the first note-book I ever wrote, that in November 1816, in
which year, as the same document informs me, " I began the
study of zoology, and in consequence purchased a fowling-
piece,"" I shot " three at Hilton, near Aberdeen, where they
had collected in immense flocks to eat the hawthorn seeds."
Flocks of several hundreds, in fact, I have more than once met
with ; but it is nevertheless true, as Mr. Selby observes, that
" Goldfinches do not (usually) associate in large flocks ; their
societies rarely exceeding twenty in number.'"* That from
which I obtained the three specimens which furnished the de-
scriptions given at the commencement of this article, was com-
posed of about a dozen, which, on the 19th September 1833,
were busily picking the seeds of Centaurea nigra, at Caroline
Park, near Newhaven, when the ruthless prowler thinned their

GOLDFINCH. 397

number, to furnish a plate for his intended portraits of British
birds. In winter, I have seen even so few as two together,
pecking at the- few thistle-tops that shot up here and there
through the snow.

The Goldfinch is generally distributed, occurring in most of
our wooded and cultivated districts ; but while plentiful in some
parts, it is rare in others that seem to be equally favourable.
Thus, although not uncommon about Aberdeen and Elgin,
it is very rare in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, in which
I never met with more than a single flock. Its song, which
usually commences about the end of March, and continues un-
til July, is very sweet, and varied. Its flight resembles that
of the Linnets, with which it sometimes associates in winter,
searching the fields for oat and other seeds.

It usually nestles on trees, in orchards, gardens, or planta-
tions. The nest resembles that of the Chaffinch in form, but
is more elaborately interwoven with wool and hair, the exterior
being composed of grass, moss, and lichens, as well as occa-
sionally thread, twigs, and other substances, the interior of the
down of various plants, cotton, and such other delicate fila-
ments as it meets with. The eggs, about five in number, are
about nine twelfths of an inch in lengih, six and a half in
breadth, bluish-white, or pale greyish-blue, sometimes tinged
with brown, and marked with a few spots of greyish-purple
and brown, and in some cases a dark streak or two.

Among various notices respecting birds sent by my friend
Mr. Weir, is the following account of this species. " In this
neighbourhood, and most parts of Linlithgowshire, Goldfinches.,
which, during the summer season, were at one time very abun-
dant, are now rarely seen. In severe winters they often perish,
particularly when they are accompanied with heavy falls of
snow. This was the case in the winter of 1823. Several pairs
of them used to build every year on the tall plane-trees on the
south side of Balbardie garden. I have known their nest in
yew and apple trees in gardens in the middle of the town of
Bathgate, but their young ones were generally destroyed by
cats or boys. A pair of them built one year on a balsam
poplar which grew on the side of one of the streets of the last-

398 CARDUELIS ELEGANS.

mentioned town, within a few inches of which dozens of people
used to pass and repass during the most part of the day. So
exceedingly tame were they that they alighted in the gutters,
in company with the s^iarrows, in pursuit of their food. I knew
the man who took the young ones out of their nest, and put
them in a cage, which he ^^laced at his window, wdiere they
w^ere fed by their parents until they were able to provide food
for themselves. I knew" a remarkable instance of a female
Goldfinch pairing with a male Green Linnet in the wild state.
They first built their nest in a thorn hedge in a garden, in the
immediate neighbourhood of Bathgate, in which they reared
four young ones. They were taken out and brought u^) by a
young man in the town. They built a second time in an old
beech hedsfe on the estate of Mrs. Maijoribanks of Balbardie,
where they succeeded in hatching another brood, of which
they were again deprived. They were given to a weaver, who
succeeded in bringing them up. They lived for several years,
but they were not much admired for their fine singing, their
note being accounted rather harsh by our connoisseurs.

" I knew another instance of the same kind, which took place
some years ago, in the garden on the north side of the Castle
of Edinburgh, at present in the possession of Messrs. Eagle and
Henderson. The male Green Linnet and the female Goldfinch
were caught by a bird-catcher, who kept the latter for some time
as a call-bird. I saw" both of them last year, and one of their
brood, which a cabinet-maker in Edinburgh has now in his
possession. It is a very strong and fine male, which, he says,
sings remarkably well.

'' These seemingly unsociable birds, as soon as the breeding
season is over, flock together in numbers. About the end of
autumn, and during the winter months, they come to this parish,
and that of Whitburn. At their first arrival they feed on the
seeds of the meadow thistle, then on the common thistle, after-
wards on the self heal. Prunella vulgaris, and sometimes on the
RagWort, Senecio Jacobaea. A great many of them, particu-
larly the males, are caught with bird-lime, by bird-catchers
and other people. About the beginning of spring, or as soon
as the courting season commences, they separate, each pair
making choice of a particular situation for their abode."

GOLDFINCH. 399

Young. — The young when fledged present the same appear-
ance as the old birds, but the colours are fainter ; the bill and
feet flesh-coloured, the black of the head mixed with grey, and
the lower parts brownish-grey. At the first moult, the colours
are generally as bright as those of old birds.

Remarks. — Mr. Syme, in his excellent treatise on British
Song Birds, gives the following account of this species in a
civilized state. " The Goldfinch is easily tamed and easily
taught, and its capability of learning the notes of other birds
is well known ; but the tricks it may be taught to perform are
truly astonishing. A few years ago, the Sieur Roman exhi-
bited his birds, which were goldfinches, linnets, and canaries.
One appeared dead, and was held up by the tail or claw with-
out exhibiting any signs of life ; a second stood on its head
with its claws in the air ; a third imitated a Dutch milk-maid
going to market, with pails on its shoulders ; a fourth mimicked
a Venetian girl looking out at a window ; a fifth appeared as a
soldier, and mounted guard as a sentinel ; and the sixth acted
as a cannoneer, with a cap on its head, a firelock on its shoul-
der, and a match in its claw, and discharged a small cannon.
The same bird also acted as if it had been wounded. It was
wheeled in a barrow, to convey it, as it were to the hospital ;
after which it flew away before the company. The seventh
turned a kind of windmill ; and the last bird stood in the midst
of some fire- works which were discharged all round it, and this
without exhibiting the least symptom of fear.

" They may also be taught to draw up little buckets or cups
with food and water. To teach them this, there must be put
round them a narrow soft leather belt, in which there must be
four holes, two for the wings, and two for the feet. The belt
is joined a little below the breast, where there is a ring, to
which the chain is attached, that supports the little bucket or
cup.*'

400

CARDUELIS SPINUS. THE BLACK-HEADED
THISTLEFINCH, OR SISKIN.

SISKIN. ABERDEVINE.

Fig. 67.

Fringilla Spinus. Linn, Syst. Nat. I. 322.

FringiUa Spinus. Lath. Ind, Oni. L 452.

Siskin. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Gros-bec Tarin. FringiUa Spinus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. H/L

Siskin. Carduelis Spinus. Selb. Illustr. I. 309.

Fringilla Spinuc. Siokiu. Jen, Brit. Vert. An. 137.

Male with the top of the head and the throat black ; Jhe hack
greyish-green ; the lower parts yelloic ; the sides ichite^ marked
with black streaks. Ferncde icith the upper jmrts greenish-grey.,
streaked with black ; the loicer ichitish, tariegated icith narrow
black spots.

Male. — The Siskin, although a beautiful bird, is less richly
coloured than the Goldfinch, to which it is also inferior in size,
being, next to the Redpoll Linnet, the smallest British bird of
the Passerine family. It is neat and compact in form, like the
smaller Linnets, but its bill most resembles that of the Gold-
finch, it being ho\Yever still more compressed towards the point,
which is extremely attenuated ; the upper mandible with its
dorsal outline very slightly convex, its ridge sharp, its tip ex-
tending a little beyond that of the lower, which has its outline

SISKIN. 401

slightly concave, and its ridge very narrow. The plumage is
soft, blended, and slightly glossed. The wings are of moderate
length ; the first primary of the same length as the second,
which is a little longer than the third ; the primaries rounded,
the secondaries slightly emarginate. The tail is of moderate
length, and rather deeply emarginate.

The bill is light grey above, whitish below, the tip dusky.
The iris is brown. The feet light brown. The upper part of
the head, and the throat are black ; the hind part of the head
and neck yellowish-green mixed with black streaks. A yellow
band extends from above the eye backwards. The fore part of
the back and the scapulars are yellowish-green, tinged with
grey, each feather having a central dusky line, the rump green-
ish-yellow, the upper tail-coverts yellowish-brown. The smaller
wing-coverts are blackish at the base, dull green at the end ;
the alula, primary coverts and quills black ; the basal part and
outer edges of the latter pure yellow;. the secondary coverts
black, their extremities greenish-yellow, forming a broad band
of that colour across the wing. Tail-feathers yellow, black at
the end, the two middle brownish-black. The fore-neck and
breast are yellow, the abdomen whitish, the sides and lower
tail-coverts greyish-white, each feather w4th a black central
streak.

Length to end of tail 4y\ inches ; extent of wings 9 ; wing
from flexure 2-^^ ; tail l^l ; bill along the ridge -^^^ along the
edge of lower mandible 5^ twelfths ; tarsus ^^ ; middle toe and
claw 8i twelfths.

Female. — The female has the bill pale brown above, lighter
beneath ; the feet light brown ; all the upper parts light greyish-
green, each feather with a brownish-black central band ; the
wings and tail as in the male, but the black parts tinged with
brown, and the yellow with green ; the lower parts yellowish-
white, each feather having a narrow longitudinal band of black.

Length to end of tail 4/3 ; wing from flexure 2/^ ; tail l^^g ;
bill along the ridge 4i twelfths ; tarsus ^^,

Vakiations. — In wild birds I have not met with any remark-

Dd

402 CARDUELIS SPINUS.

able variations, excepting such as are usually produced by-age ;
but in captivity, the Siskin varies to white or dusky.

Habits. — The earliest period of the year at which I have fallen
in with Siskins, was on the 4th of August; when being, in 1830,
on a geological and botanical excursion, in Braemar, and in com-
pany with some full-plumed and several unfledged philosoj)hers,
I observed in a field near ^lar Lodge, a very large flock of these
birds, feeding on the thistles that covered a sloping field on the
side of an eminence. On pointing them out, I was informed by
one of the naturalists present, that such a flock was in no way
remarkable, and that Siskins were quite plentiful about Edin-
burgh. To this I replied, that I had never met with any there,
unless on the North Bridge, where specimens in cages were
frequently shewn for sale. Hovrever, as there is not more can-
dour in the world than is barely necessary, I was allowed to
enjoy the sight as 1 listed, it being considered nothing marvel-
lous. The Siskins pursued their occupation, in which they
manifested the same diligence and activity as Goldfinches,
clinging to the plants and extracting the seeds in the same
manner, and appearing to pay no attention to our party. It was
diflicult to believe that these were miofratinoj individuals that
had arrived at so early a season from the northern regions ;
and therefore it seemed to me probable that the species breeds
in Scotland.

On the 5th September 1832, I saw a considerable number in
a fir wood, in Etterickdale, in Selkirkshire. They were in
the tops of the trees, accompanied by Grey Flycatchers, Golden-
crested Wrens, and Black Titmice ; and I succeeded in shoot-
ing three individuals. But in no other part of Scotland have
I ever seen this species, which I must consequently infer to be
rare in that country ; notwithstanding that a friend of mine
informed me that he had seen it in great abundance, picking
the seeds from the cones of the alders, at Gifford in East
Lothian, in the spring of 1836. Specimens I have also occa-
sionally seen in winter with the bird-stuffers in Edinburgh.

Mr. Selby states that " in the winters of 1820 and 1821
Northumberland was visited by considerable flocks of these

SISKIN. 403

birds, which, during their stay, frequented the margins of
rivers, and other small streams, where the alder generally
grows spontaneously and in abundance, upon the seeds of
which tree, and that of the birch, they appeared principally to
subsist/' From that time to 1833, he could not find that any
had migrated into that part of the country. Near Killin, in
Perthshire, some of these birds were observed by himself and
Sir William Jardine "to be in pairs in the month of June,
inhabiting a wood of very old and lofty pines."

Montagu says that in December 1805 a small flock was seen
feedinof on the seeds of the alder trees, in South Devon ; and
various observers have noted their occurrence in other parts of
England, and particularly in the neighbourhood of London,
where they are occasionally obtained by the bird-catchers. Mr.
Neville Wood states that " it has been ascertained to breed
in several parts of Scotland."' " Mr. Gardiner," he continues,
" has likewise found it to breed in the neighbourhood of Edin-
burgh. But I have heard of no authentic instance of its breed-
ing in England."

I have only to add, that little additional information is to be
found respecting it in the works of our best ornithologists, ex-
cepting as to its manners in a state of confinement, where it is
said to sing little, but to manifest a cheerful and lively dispo-
sition.

Since the above was written, my respected friend, Mr. Weir
of Boghead, an acute and indefatigable observer of birds, has
enabled me to record an authentic instance of the Siskin's breed-
ing in Scotland.

" About the latter end of May 1834, as I was returning
from Bathgate, I was astonished at seeing, on the parish road
between it and my house, a pair of Siskins feeding very greedi-
ly on the ripe tops of the dandelion. The head of the male
was very dark, and the yellow on its wings uncommonly rich.
I followed them for several hundred yards, being exceedingly
anxious to discover their nest. In this, however, I did not
succeed, as they flew oiF to a considerable distance, when I lost
sight of them. Several individuals with whom I was inti-
mately acquainted told me that they had seen them near to

Dd2

404 CARDUELIS SPINUS.

the place where I had formerly started them. I again and
again renewed my search, but without success. A few days
after this, when two persons where catching Rose Linnets with
bird-lime in a small park belonging to me, they were struck
w^ith the unusual chirping of young birds in a spruce which
was planted in the middle of a very strong hawthorn hedge.
When they were looking into the tree in order to discover
w^hat kind of birds they were, they immediately flew out of
their nest, and, being ripe, effected their escape. They ap-
peared to have a resemblance to the female Siskin. The nest
was a small one ; it was built upon two of the branches, one
side of it resting upon the trunk of the tree. It was about five
feet and a half from the ground, and within twelve yards of
the north Glasgow road. It was one of the best concealed
nests I ever saw. Indeed, had it not been so, it would not
have so long eluded the notice of some of our most celebrated
nest-hunting youths, who were almost in the daily habit of
passing the place in pursuit of their favourite amusement. The
old Siskins, with their four young ones, were seen for two or
three weeks afterwards in the immediate neighbourhood. Mr.
Macduif Carfrae, bird-stuffer in Edinburgh, who came out to
pay me a visit, when taking a walk one morning about the
middle of July, with Mr. Robert M'Nab, saddler in Bathgate,
saw the same birds hopping among the branches of some alder
trees, about the distance of a quarter of a mile from the place
where they had been hatched."

405

PYRRHULA. BULLFINCH,

Bill short, very strong, subpentagonal and abont as high as
broad at the base. Upper mandible with its dorsal outline
convex, the sides much rounded, the edges sharp, at first as-
cending, then nearly straight, and forming a wide sinus or
curve towards the tip, which is decurved and contracts to a
narrow but rather blunt point extending considerably beyond
the other. Lower mandible with the angle very broad and
semicircular, the dorsal line ascending and a little convex, the
back very broad, the sides much rounded, the edges involute,
with a thin angular prominence near the middle, the tip
slightly compressed and rounded.

The mouth is of moderate width ; the upper mandible within
deeply and widely concave, with five prominent lines and six
grooves, of which the lateral are deeper and receive the edges
of the lower mandible, which is very deeply concave. Tongue
very short, fleshy, oblong, concave above.' (Esophagus dilated
into a membranous crop ; proventriculus oblong. Stomach a
strong gizzard. Intestine of moderate length, rather wide ;
coeca minute.

Nostrils basal, in the very short broad nasal sinus, rather
small, round, covered by reflected bristly feathers. Eyes rather
small. External aperture of the ear large and circular.

Body moderately stout ; neck short ; head rather large.
Legs short and rather slender ; tarsus very short, compressed,
covered anteriorly with seven scutella, posteriorly with two
narrow plates meeting at an acute angle ; toes slender and short,
the first proportionally stout, the third much longer than the

406 PYRRHULA. BULLFINCH.

two lateral, which are about equal ; claws rather long, arched,
much compressed, acute, laterally grooved.

Plumage soft, full, blended, the feathers oblong. At the
base of the upper mandible are short bristly feathers directed
forwards. AVings of moderate length, with eighteen quills ;
the primaries rounded, the secondaries slightly emarginate ;
the second, third, and fourth quills longest, and with the fifth
having their outer webs slightly cut out. Tail rather long,
emarginate, of twelve moderately broad feathers.

The species included in this genus vary considerably in the
comparative length of the bill, which however is so peculiarly
characterized by its bulging form that the small shades of dif-
ference presented by it do not seem sufficient to warrant a
separation. I therefore agree Avith M. Temminck in referring
our Common Bullfinch and the Pine Grosbeak of the older
writers to the same genus. Cuvier separates the Bouvreuils,
Pyrrhula, from the Durbecs, Cor}i:hus ; but the distinctive
character which he gives is insignificant, the former being
characterized by having " the bill rounded, and bulging or
convex in all directions," the latter by having it " bulging on
all sides, its point curved over the lower mandible." The
point is curved in the Common Bullfinch, but is not so extend-
ed as in the Pine Bullfinch. The former is the only species
resident in Britain, and the latter has so rarely been met with
there that I have never seen a British specimen.

407

PYRRHULA

PILEATA. THE
BULLFINCH.

COMMON

BULLFINCH. ALP. POPE. NOPE. TONY-HOOP. RED-HOOP. COAL-HOOD,
OR COALLV-HOOD. DEARGAN-CHOILLE.

^m

Fig. 68.

Loxia Pyrrhula. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 338.

Loxia Pyrrhula. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 387.

BuMnch, Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bouvreuil coramun. Pyrrhula vulgaris. Temm. Man. d'Orn, L 338.

Common Bullfinch. Pyrrhula vulgaris. Selb. Illustr. I. 336.

Pyrrhula vulgaris. Common Bullfinch. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 140.

Male with the upper part of the head^ a hand round the base
of the lower mandible^ the wings^ upper tail-coverts, and tail,
bluish-black, the back ash-grey, the rump white, the lower parts
bright red. Female with the same parts black, the hack brownish-
grey, the lower parts dull yellowish-brown.

Male. — In this species the bill is remarkably short and
bulging, all its outlines being convex, and the decurved tip
of the upper mandible not much exceeding that of the lo^Ye^.
The head is large, the neck short, the body ovate, and mode-
rately stout. The upper mandible is broadly and deeply concave
within, its two lateral grooves for the reception of the edges of
the lower mandible very distinct. The tongue is very short,
fleshy, oblong, concave above. The oesophagus, which is two

408 PYRRHULA PILEATA.

and a half inches long, is about the middle dilated into a mem-
branous bag or crop ; the proventriculus oblong, with cylin-
drical glandules. The gizzard is of the ordinary form, its
greatest diameter seven twelfths of an inch, its cuticular coat
thick, tough and rugous. The intestine is ten inches long, with
a diameter varying from two and a half twelfths to one twelfth,
the coeca a twelfth and a half long. The tarsi are short and
much compressed, v^dth seven large anterior scutella ; the first
toe with five, the second with nine, the third w^ith twelve, the
fourth w^ith eleven scutella ; the claws arched, much com-
pressed, acute, laterally grooved.

The plumage is soft and blended ; the feathers oblong and
rounded, with a long plumule of few filaments. Around the
base of the bill the feathers are bristle-pointed, and conceal the
nostrils. The wings are of ordinary length ; the third quill
longest, the second scarcely shorter, the fourth longer than the
first ; the secondaries are rather long, broad, and very slightly
emarginate. Tail nearly straight, slightly emarginate, of twelve
broad, rounded feathers, having a small tip.

The bill is bro\ATiish-black, the eyes dark brown ; the feet
dusky flesh-colour, the claws brownish-black. The whole
upper part of the head, and a band at the base of the lower
mandible, glossy black, with blue reflections. The hind-neck,
back, and scapulars are ash-grey ; the rump and lower tail-
coverts pure white ; the upper tail-coverts and tail glossy bluish
black. The quills, primary coverts, and alula are brownish-
black, the outer webs of the secondaries glossed with blue ;
the secondary coverts glossy bluish-black, their tips pale
bluish-grey or greyish- white, forming a conspicuous bar on the
w^ing ; the small coverts ash-grey. The cheeks, fore-neck,
breast and sides are light red, of a tint between lake and ver-
milion ; the abdomen greyish- white.

Length to end of tail 6 inches ; extent of wings 9}§ ; bill
along the ridge of upp*er mandible /g, along the edge of lower
y\ ; wing from flexure Sj% ; tail 2h ; tarsus j% ; first toe 2|
twelfths, its claw j% ; second toe j%, its claw j% ; third toe
/g, its claw j% ; fourth toe i\, its claw j%.

COMMON BULLFINCH. 409

Female. — The female is considerably smaller. The charac-
ter of the colouring is similar to that of the male ; but the tints
are much duller. The black is scarcely inferior in depth or
lustre ; the grey of the back is tinged with bro^vn ; the white
on the rump is of less extent, that of the lower tail-coverts less
pure ; the cheeks, fore-neck, breast and sides are of a dull
greyish-brown. The bill is black ; the iris brown ; the feet
bl•o^^^lish, the claws black.

Length to end of tail 5^^ ; extent of wings 9i§.

Variations. — In old birds the principal variations are in the
red colour of the lower parts, in a few white feathers being
rarely seen in the wings, and sometimes in the inner secon-
daries being tinged with red. In captivity the whole plumage
sometimes becomes black or dusky. Individuals also vary
considerably in size, the largest being 6^ inches long.

Habits. — The Bullfinch is generally distributed in Britain,
occurring in most of our wooded and cultivated districts, but
avoiding bare maritime tracts, as well as the northern islands,
which are destitute of wood. It is not, however, very common
anywhere, and seldom associates with other birds, but keeps in
small flocks of a single family. Its flight is quick and undu-
lated, its ordinary note a soft plaintive whistle, its song short
and mellow ; and during the greater part of the year it lives
in the thickets, hedges, and woods, betaking itself occasionally to
the fields in their neighbourhood, in search of seeds, and in
spring and the early part of summer to gardens and orchards,
where it commits great havock among the flower-buds of the
fruit-trees and gooseberry-bushes. The only substances which
I have found in its crop and stomach were small seeds of various
kinds, and particles of quartz ; and of the individuals thus
examined some were shot in February and April ; but, as the
species is not common in any place where I have resided in
spring, I have not been able to ascertain whether, in destroying
buds and flowers, the bird is searching for insects, or feeding
on these substances. Judging from the structure of its diges-

410 PYRRHULA PILEATA.

tive organs, I should doubt that such crude vegetable matters
as buds could afford it sufficient nourishment.

The flight of the Bullfinch is undulated, and capable of being
protracted on occasion ; but it seldom flies to a great distance
when pursued, and in winter may sometimes be seen flitting
along the hedges and roads, scarcely evincing more shyness
than the Chaffinch. At the same time, it is an active and
lively bird, and on account of the beauty of its plumage is a
general favourite. Although its natural song is not remarkable
for variety or duration, its voice is mellow, and it may be
taught to whistle a variety of tunes.

About the beginning of May, it begins to construct its nest,
which is rather loosely formed of small dry twigs, with a lining
of fibrous roots, and is placed at no great height in a bush, fre-
quently of hawthorn, or on the horizontal branch of a spruce.
The eggs, four or five in number, are of a rather broad oval
form, nine and a half twelfths long, seven and a half twelfths in
their greatest diameter, of a bluish or purplish-white colour,
sj^otted and streaked with purplish-grey and reddish-brown.

Young. — The young, when fledged, have the upper parts
greyish-brown, without any black on the head, the lower parts
yellowish-brown. At the first moult the plumage assumes its
bright colours, but it is not until the second year that the red
of the male acquires its full tint.

Remarks. — The Common Bullfinch is said by authors to be
of general occurrence in the northern and temperate parts of
Europe, , residing chiefly in wooded and hilly districts ; but to
occur in the south only as a bird of passage. With us it is a
permanent resident, and it does not appear that its numbers
undergo any diminution or augmentation in winter. I have
not observed any remarkable diflerences between individuals,
indicating the existence of two species usually confounded, al-
though I have heard it said that such have been met with.

411

PYRRHULA ENUCLEATOR. THE PINE
BULLFINCH.

PINE GROSBEAK. GREATER BULLFINCH.

Loxia Enucleator. Linn. Syst. Nat. I.

Loxia Enucleator. Lath. Ind. Orn. I.

Pine Grosbeak. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bouvreuil Dur-bec. Pyrrhula Enucleator. Temm. Man. d'Orn. T. 333.

Pine Bullfinch. Pyrrhula Enucleator. Selb. Illustr. I. 334.

Pyrrhula Enucleator. Pine Bullfinch. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 14L

Male with the head^ neck^ and fore part of the breast and rump
bright red^ the bach greyish-broion^ the feathers edged with red ;
the icings dushg^ with two white bars ; the lotcer parts light grey.
Female with the head yellowish-broivn^ the rump brownish-yellow^
the rest of the plumage grey^ the wings as in the male.

Male. — The Pine Bullfinch is the largest of our Passerine
species, and in colour bears a strong resemblance to the Com-
mon Crossbill, which it also resembles in its habits, haunts,
and mode of life. In form it presents nothing that essentially
differs from the Common Bullfinch, the body being moderately
stout, the neck short, the head ovate and rather large. The
bill is shortish, very strong, its outlines and sides convex, the
tip of the upper mandible considerably longer than that of the
lower. The mouth is of moderate width, the upper mandible
within deeply and widely concave, with five prominent lines
and corresponding grooves, the lower more deeply concave.
The tarsi are very short, compressed, with six anterior scutella,
and a posterior thin edge ; the toes slender and short, the first
proportionally stout, the third much longer than the two late-
ral, which are about equal; the claws rather long, arched,
much compressed, laterally grooved, and acute. The plumage
is soft, full, and rather blended, the feathers oblong. At the base

412 PYRRHULA ENUCLEATOR.

of the upper mandible are strong bristly feathers directed for-
wards. The wings are of moderate length, with seventeen quills ;
the primaries rounded, the secondaries slightly emarginate ;
the second and third quills longest, and with the fourth and
fifth having their outer webs slightly cut out. The tail is
rather long and emarginate.

The bill is dusky, the base of the lower mandible paler ; the
feet blackish-brown, the claws black. The head, neck, fore
part of the breast, and rump, are bright carmine tinged with
vermilion ; the feathers of the back and the scapulars brownish-
grey, edged with red ; the bristly feathers at the base of the
bill blackish-brown. The wings are blackish-brown; the
primaries and their coverts narrowly edged with reddish-
white, the secondaries more broadly with white ; the secondary
coverts and first row of small coverts tipped with white, of
which there are thus two bands across the w4ng, the smaller
coverts edged with red. The tail is greyish-brown, the feathers
slightly edged with whitish. The greater part of the breast, the
abdomen, and the lower tail-coverts, are light grey, the latter
with a central dusky streak, and tipped with greyish-white.

Length to end of tail 8i inches ; wing from flexure 4| ; tail
Sj% ; bill along the ridge 7i twelfths, along the edge of lower
mandible j\ ; tarsus ■^% ; first toe 4i twelfths, its claw /^ ;
second toe j^^^, its claw 2i twelfths ; third toe j%, its claw -^^ ;
fourth toe /g? its claw 2i twelfths.

Female. — The female has the bill and feet of the same co-
lour as those of the male. The upper part of the head and the
hind-neck are yellowish-bro\STi, each feather with a dusky
central streak ; the rump is dull brownish-yellow ; the rest of
the upper parts light brownish-grey. The wings and tail are
as in the male, the white edgings and tips tinged with grey,
the cheeks and throat are brownish-grey ; the fore part and
sides of the neck, the breast, sides, abdomen and lower tail-
coverts ash-grey slightly tinged with brown.

Length to end of tail 8i inches ; wing from flexure 4i ; tail
Sj% ; bill along the ridge 7i twelfths ; tarsus j% ; middle toe
and claw iJ.

PINE BULLFINCH. 413

Remarks. — The above descriptions are taken from two per-
fect skins from America, obligingly lent for the purpose by-
Mr. ^lacdiifF Carfrae. I have never seen a British specimen,
recent or stuft'ed, of this bird ; nor am I aware of the exist-
ence of any in public or private collections. Pennant men-
tions having met with it early in August in the pine forest of
Invercauld in Aberdeenshire, and supposed that they breed
there ; but no subsequent British author speaks of them from
personal observation. Yet it is possible enough that the bird
may be a permanent resident, although, in the present state of
our knowledge, we must consent to assign it the rank of a very
rare occasional visitant. It occurs, according to authors, in the
northern parts of both continents, and feeds on the seeds of
pines, and various other plants, as well as berries.

The young males, at first similar to the females, assume an
orange tint at their first moult ; in short, exhibit the same gra-
dations as the Crossbills *, but as I have not examined them in
these states, I deem it expedient to conclude my necessarily
brief account of this species with observing that it clearly forms
the transition from the Common Bullfinch to the Crossbills,
the affinities of which, w^ithout so obvious a link, it might be
very difficult to determine ; and lastly, that M. Temminck has
erred in stating that in the Bullfinches the fourth quill is the
longest, and that the tail is slightly rounded or even, the second
and third quills being the longest in our two species, and the
tail distinctly emarginate in both, but more especially in the
present.

414

LOXIA. CROSSBILL,

Bill of moderate lengtli, very strong, subpentagonal and
rather deeper than broad at the base, tapering, compressed to-
ward the end, the tips laterally deflected, and curved in op-
posite directions. Upper mandible larger, its dorsal outline
convex, the ridge rather narrow, the sides sloping, the edges
sharp, towards the end much inflected, the tip decurved^ com-
pressed, worn beneath to a thin edge, slightly deflected to one
side, and rather acute. Lower mandible with the angle very
short and extremely broad, its dorsal outline convex, the back
rounded, the sides rather flattened, the edges sharp, much in-
flected, with an angular process near the middle, the tip com-
pressed, acute, deflected to one side.

Although the bill is very broad at the base, the mouth is
rather narrow ; the upper mandible within slightly concave,
with a deep central and two shallow lateral grooves : the lower
very deeply concave ; the palate declinate ; the posterior aperture
of the nares oblong and papillate. Tongue, PL YIII, Fig. 4, «,
slender, at the base emarginate and papillate, compressed in
the middle, horny and concave towards the end. CEsophagus,
«, ^, ^, cZ, rather wide, very thin, with a large dilatation or crop,
h^ on the right side near the middle ; proventriculus, 6?, with
numerous oblong four-sided glandules. Gizzard, ^, /*, ^, strong,
rather small, subrhomboidal, its muscles, ^, /*, ^, distinct ; its
cuticular lining longitudinally rugous. Intestine, /«, ^,y, h^ l^ w,
;2, shortish, rather wide, with two minute oblong adnate coeca, I.

Nostrils basal, in the shallow sinus, rather small, circular,
covered over by short reflected bristly feathers. Eyes rather

LOXIA. CROSSBILL. 415

small ; eyelids feathered. External ajDerture of the ear large,
circular ; the meatus oblique and narrow.

Head large, roundish ; neck short ; body ovate. Legs short
and strong; tarsus compressed, covered anteriorly with six
scutella, posteriorly with two narrow plates meeting at an
acute angle ; toes of moderate strength ; the first stout, the
third much longer than the second and fourth, which are nearly
equal ; claws large, arched, compressed, grooved on the sides,
with the tij) very acute, the hind one largest.

Plumage soft, rather blended, the feathers ovate, with their
filaments sej)arated. At the base of the upper mandible are
short bristly feathers directed forwards so as to conceal the
nostrils. Wings long, with eighteen quills ; the primaries
rounded, the secondaries slightly emarginate or retuse, the first,
second, and third quills longest. Tail short, emarginate, of
twelve moderately broad feathers, which taper obliquely out-
wards to a rounded point, the lateral considerably curved out-
wards.

The Crossbills appear to be most nearly allied to the genus
Pyrrhula on the one hand, and to Emberiza on the other,
although the compression and curvature of the extremi-
ties of the mandibles give the bill a singular appearance.
The genus is composed of four species, which inhabit the fo-
rests of the northern parts of Euroj^e and America, feeding
upon the seeds of pines and firs, which they extract from the
cones by means of their powerful and curiously constructed bill,
the points of which appear to have received their lateral curva-
ture from the force applied in that direction to separate the
scales. The hard spoon-shaped tongue seems to be the instru-
ment by which the seeds are then taken up. They are gregarious,
and wander about in search of their favourite food, appearing at
irregular intervals in places not usually frequented by them.

When the genus Loxia of Linnaeus, which included a mul-
titude of thick-billed species, was broken up, the dissevered
groups received various generic names, and the original desig-
nation was left with the Crossbills, on pretence of its having
been applied to them by Brisson, who however had no precise
notions as to generic and specific names, and who moreover

416 LOXIA. CROSSBILL.

was not the inventor of the name, it having been first used by
Gesner. That name, which signifies curted^ although not nearly
so appropriate as Crucirostra, I adopt. Wilson, who very pro-
perly instituted the genus, employed Curvirostra, a name which
is equally applicable to all the Falconine, Strigine, and Psitta-
cine families, as well as to various other genera. As to the
specific name curvirostra, it could only be admitted so long as
there was but a single species having a curved bill in a family
composed of birds with the bill straight. All the species of this
genus are curvirostral, and therefore they must receive each a
name from some other circumstance. One of them, the White-
winged^ is appropriately named leucoptera ; another, having a
remarkably strong and short bill, somewhat like that of a parrot,
has been designated by the name of P ijtiopsittacus ; the species
common in Europe, and that common in North America, so
precisely resemble each other in the forms and colouring of their
plumage, that no name can be derived from any thing having
reference to it, and as Wilson has named the latter Amej^icana,
I may take the liberty of naming the former Europwa. How-
ever, I neither assume any authority in this matter, nor expect
that every one will adopt my notions on the subject, my object
being merely to enable the reader to distinguish the species of
which I treat.

Loxla Pytiopsittacus is said to have been once or twice met
with in Britain. L. europwa cannot be considered a very rare
bird with us, being much more frequently seen than the Haw-
finch, although its appearance is irregular, and it has been
found to breed with us only in one or two instances. L.
americana and L. leucoptera, are peculiar to the western world ;
but a single specimen of the latter, if accounts be correct, has
been shot in Ireland.

417

LOXIA EUROP^A. THE COMMON EUROPEAN
CROSSBILL.

CROSSBILL. SHELD-APPLE.

Fro.

Loxia curvirostra. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 299.

Loxia curvirostra. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 370,

Crossbill. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bec-crois^ commun. Loxia curvirostra. Temm. Man.d'Orn. I. 3'28. III.

Length about seven inches^ wing from flexure four^ bill from
four and a half to six and a half twelfths in height at the base,
longer than the tarsus^ much curved^ the point of the lower man-
dible seldom reaching so high as the level of the ridge of the upper.
Male dull red above, brighter beneath, the rump yellowish-red,
the wings and tail dark olive brown. Female greyish-brown
tinged with yellow above, the rump yellow, light yellowish-grey
beneath, the wings and tail as in the male. Young light brown-
ish-grey, streaked with blackish-brown. Young males brownish-
red, or yellowish-red, or wax yellotv, or mottled with yellow and
red.

The Common European Crossbill, which is about the size of
the Corn Bunting, Emberiza Miliaria, is, like it and the Haw-

E e

418 LOXIA EUROP^A.

finch, Coccotbraustes atrogularis, a remarkably stout bird, having
a very strong bill, a large bead, short thick neck, compact ovate
body, short feet of considerable strength, rather long wings, and
moderately large tail. As the specific characters and descrip-
tions of this species contained in most of our best works are
very inaccurate, I consider it necessary to give a full account
of it, drawn up from a great number of recent individuals, and
subsequently revised and compared w^ith stufted skins. Some
time ago, having been presented with several fine specimens by
my excellent friend, the Reverend ^Ir. Adam, of Peebles, I
imagined them to be much larger than any individuals that I
had ever seen, and conjectured that they might possibly belong
to the Parrot Crossbill. The description given by M. Tem-
minck of that species agreed with them in part. Thus the bill
was very strong, much curved, and the point of the lower man-
dible did not extend beyond the dorsal outline of the upper ;
but the bill was only five instead of seven lines in breadth, and
it was longer in place of being shorter than the middle toe, that
is, excluding the claw. Neither did they agree with his charac-
ter of the Curvirostra, for the bill w^as neither long nor feebly
curved, although it was about five lines in breadth, and of about
the length of the middle toe, the claw included ; moreover, the
point of the lower mandible was shorter than it ought to be.
Having been accustomed to consider this author as generally
very correct, I was much disappointed with the insufticiency of
his characters in this instance ; and when I referred to other
authors, I found them equally defective. Mr. Jenyns, for
example, had merely manufactured his descriptions from Tem-
minck, without so much as giving measurements. I therefore
resolved to collect as many specimens as possible ; and for-
tunately procured, through Mr. Adam and others, about a dozen,
to which I have added a great number of skins. The result of
my examination is the following description.

Male in November. — The bill is nearly as long as the head,
shorter than the middle toe, the claw included, and a little
longer than the tarsus, somewhat higher than broad at the base,
compressed towards the end ; both its outlines arcuate, the tips

EUROPEAN CROSSBILL. 419

curved, much compressed, rather acute, a little deflected late-
rally in opposite directions, the lower when the bill is closed
ascending to the level of the ridge of the upper, which is con-
siderably longer. The upper mandible is towards the point
worn to a sharp edge beneath, beyond this part slightly con-
cave, with a deep central and two shallow lateral grooves ; the
lower very deeply concave, its edges near the middle elevated

Fig. 70.

into a sharp angular process. The oesophagus, PI. VIII, Fig.
4, a, 6, c, d^ which is three inches long, very thin, of moderate
width, but about the middle dilated on the right side to form a
crop, J, which, when fully distended, curves round the back of
the neck so as almost to reach the other side. It is to be ob-
served, however, that this part is so elastic that a person find-
ing it empty might, without proper examination, suppose it to
be but very slightly enlarged. The proventriculus, d, is nearly
three fourths of an inch long, and is studded with oblong glan-
dules, which are direct, tetragonal, and half a twelfth in length.
The stomach, ^, /*, ^, is a strong gizzard, smaller than in birds
of nearly the same size belonging to other genera of this family,
being only seven twelfths of an inch in its greatest diameter.
It is of a subrhomboidal form, with strong transverse lateral
muscles, e, /, inserted into two tendinous spaces, and has a
longitudinally rugous epithelium. The intestine, ^, /, j^ k^ /,
W2, ?2, which is ten inches long, has in its duodenal portion, /^,
«', j, a diameter of nearly two twelfths, but towards the cceca of
only one twelfth. The rectum, /, on^ ??, is an inch and a half
in length ; and the coeca, /, are cylindrical, and a twelfth and
a half long.

Ee 2

420 LOXIA EUROP^A.

The nostrils are rather small, round, in the fore part of the
extremely short nasal membrane, open, but concealed by short
reflected feathers. The eyes are rather small ; the eyelids
feathered. The aperture of the ear is circular, large, being
nearly a quarter of an inch in diameter ; the meatus oblique.

The legs are short and strong ; the tarsi very short, stout,
compressed, feathered a short way below the joint, covered an-
teriorly with six large scutella, behind sharp-edged. The toes
are of moderate strength, compressed ; the first stronger, rather
longer than the two lateral, not taking in the claws, but with
its claw about as long as the third ; the first has six scutella,
the second eight, the third eleven, the fourth nine. The claws
are large, arched, compressed, laterally grooved, and taper to a
fine point ; — in short, are adapted for clinging, like those of
the Siskin and Redpoll.

The plumage is moderately full, soft, rather blended ; the
feathers ovate, with their filaments separated. The wings are
long, with eighteen quills ; the primaries narrow and rounded,
the secondaries rather short and slightly emarginate ; the second
quill longest, the first scarcely a twelfth shorter, and the third
about as much shorter than the first. The tail is rather short
and emarginate, the feathers tapering obliquely outwards at
the end.

The greater part of the uj^per mandible, and the ridge and
tip of the lower, are dark greyish-brown ; the edges of the for-
mer and the rest of the latter flesh-coloured. The irides are
hazel. The feet are purplish-brown, the claws brownish-black.
The feathers of the head, neck, breast, and sides are pale dull
vermilion, with an intermixture of grey on the hind-neck, and
yellow on the breast ; the abdomen greyish-white, the hind
part of the sides brownish-grey, the lower tail-coverts greyish-
brown, broadly margined with dull white ; the middle of the
back is dusky red, the hind part bright reddish-yellow ; the
upper tail-coverts deep brown. The wings and tail are deep
bro^\m, the smaller feathers of the former tinged with dull red,
the quills and tail-feathers very slightly margined with reddish-
yellow ; the lower wing-coverts brownish-grey.

Length to end of tail 7i inches; extent of wings II/2 ;

EUROPEAN CROSSBILL. 421

wing from flexure S{^ ; tail 2^, extending one inch beyond the
wings ; bill in height /j, along the ridge of upper mandible
9i twelfths, along the edge of lower j% ; tarsus j% ; first toe
/g, its claw j% ; second toe 4 J twelfths, its claw /^ ; third toe
j\, its claw j% ; fourth toe 4 J twelfths, its claw j%.

Female in November. — The adult female does not differ per-
ceptibly in form or in the texture of its plumage from the male,
but its colouring is different. The bill, irides and feet are as
in the male. The upper part of the head, the hind-neck, and
fore and middle parts of the back, are light yellowish-grey,
mottled w^itli dusky brow^n, the central part of each feather
being of the latter colour. The rump is greyish-yellow. The
upper small wing-coverts are dusky brow^n tinged with grey,
and slightly margined w^ith the latter ; the larger coverts, alula,
and quills are blackish-brown, the primaries with a slight
edging of yellowish-grey. The tail-feathers are similarly co-
loured, their upper coverts greyish-brown. The cheeks are
brownish-grey, the lower parts dull grey, tinged with yellow,
the feathers on the fore-neck and breast with a central faint
brown spot ; the lower tail-coverts dusky, with broad greyish-
white edges.

Length to end of tail 7i inches; extent of wings 11/^ ;
wing from flexure 3|| ; tail 2^ ; bill in height at the base /^,
in length along the ridge of upper mandible 9j twelfths, along
the edge of lower j% ; tarsus j% ; middle toe 7i twelfths, its
claw j%.

The individuals described above, and others observed at the
same season, were in perfect plumage, indicating the comple-
tion of the moult ; so that the assertion of this bird's changing
its plumage in w^inter is of a piece with the other fables told of
it. Specimens examined in February and March 1836, shewed
no appearance of new plumage. A specimen peculiarly inte-
resting, as it shews the summer plumage, with sufficient re-
mains of that of winter to demonstrate that the moult takes
place in the usual manner, is now before me.

Male in Summer. — The changes which have taken place in

422 LOXIA EUROPiEA.

the plumage, in consequence of friction and the action of the
weather, are the abrasion of the tips and edges of the feathers,
and the fading of the tilits. The red has assumed a paler tint
on the head, while on the back it has become darker, the dis-
appearance of the tips of the barbules causing more of the
brown of that part to be seen. On the rump it is also lighter,
and on the fore-neck, breast, and sides is intermingled with
greyish-yellow, the part of the feathers next the tip being of
that colour. The dark brown of the wings has become consi-
derably lighter, and their red edgings have faded to greyish-
yellow. The following are the measurements of an individual
in this state.

Length to end of tail 7i inches ; extent of wings ll^^^ ;
wing from flexure 4^^^ ; tail 2\^ ; bill in height at the base 6i
twelfths, in length along the ridge of upper mandible lOj
twelfths, along the edge of lower 9i twelfths; tarsus 8i twelfths;
hind toe 4i twelfths, its claw j% ; second toe 4^ twelfths, its
claw 3^ twelfths ; third toe -j^, its claw /^ ; fourth toe 4f
twelfths, its claw j%.

Female in Summer. — At this season the fading of the plum-
age is more conspicuous in the female, which exhibits a bleached
appearance. The general tint of the upper parts is dull greyish-
brown, the central parts of the feathers only slightly darker ; the
rump yellowish-grey ; the wings and tail paler than in winter ;
the lower parts dull yellowish-grey, the tail-coverts as in winter.

Length to end of tail 7 1^2 ' extent of wings 1 1 1^2 ; wing from
flexure 4 ; tail Sj% ; bill in height at the base 6f twelfths ; in
length along the ridge of upper mandible 10 J twelfths ; along
the edge of lower mandible I g ; tarsus ^% ; hind toe 4^ twelfths,
its claw 5i twelfths; middle toe j\, its claw 4i twelfths.

These individuals are what may be called extra-sized, being
the largest that I have seen.

Variations. — The variations which I have observed in adult
birds are not remarkable, excepting in regard to size, and espe-
cially that of the bill, which varies considerably in length,
curvature, and the degree of elongation of the lower mandible.

EUROPEAN CROSSBILL. 423

The largest bill which I have seen was six and three-fourths
twelfths in height at the base, the smallest four and a half
twelfths. In some individuals the curvature of the dorsal out-
lines of the mandibles is slight, in others very great. Thus,
in a specimen in my possession, on drawing a line from the
ridge of the upper mandible at the base to the tip, and taking
its perpendicular distance to the highest point of the arch, I
find it one eighth of an inch, while in another it is two twelfths,
and in a third very nearly three twelfths. The distance from
the angle of the mouth to the tip of the upper mandible in a
right line varies from eight to ten twelfths ; the points of the
mandibles are more or less compressed and worn ; from the
latter cause, the lower sometimes reaches the level of the ridge
of the upper, but very frequently falls short of it, and some -
times extends a little beyond it. The latter happens in young
individuals only, the former in old birds. But a character de-
rived from such a circumstance is obviously of no use. The
lower mandible in some individuals is deflected to the right,
in others to the left. Mr. Jenyns gives the entire length as
" six inches four lines," but I have never seen an individual
so small ; and it is probable, as he gives no other measurements,
that he has not examined specimens, at least recent unstufFed
birds, to which conclusion I am the more led as his descrip-
tion of the Common and Parrot Crossbills is evidently trans-
lated and condensed from that of M. Temminck.

The following table exhibits the dimensions of a series of
specimens carefully measured.

M. F. M. F. M.

Length 7i

Wings 11/2

Depth of bill... /^
Upper mandible ^^^
Lower mandible -f^
Wing from joint 3 } ^

Tail.^. .' 2i

Tarsus j\

First toe {'^

7i

7i

7^

6f

61

6i

111'.

11 A

HA

m

111

111

A

i%

11

A

i^i

5
11

9i
11

m

n

9J
11

A

6
Jl

9
1^

?.

1 0
11

8
11

?.

8
11

81i

4A

4

4

SU

3i

2i

213

h%

2i

24

24

g

T2

l\

8
liZ

s

12

ft

{\

^
I?

5
12

A

424 LOXIA EUROP^A.

M. F. M. F. M.

Its claw A A ft l'^ A

Second toe j^^ j\i ^*j /,

Itsclaw j% ft A /i?

Third toe j'^ ^-^ ^'2 ^^^ ^'g j%

Its CiaW yg j2 yj j^ j^ j^

Fourth toe ft -^% ft ft

Its claw j% ^% ^\ ^%

I have been induced to be thus particular because a person
obtaining a very large individual might, on consulting the de-
scriptions given by authors, be induced to consider it as belong-
ing to L. Pytiopsittacus.

Habits. — Very little with respect to the habits of this Cross-
bill had until very recently been given by British writers beyond
what is stated by Aldrovandus and Willughby, who inform us
that it nestles in January and February on fir trees, on the
seeds of which it chiefly feeds ; is plentiful all the year round
in Germany, Bavaria, Sweden, and Norway ; is said to split
an apple with one or two blows of its bill, in order to get at the
seeds, and is thus very injurious to gardens and orchards ; has
a tolerably pleasant song, and contrary to the nature of other
birds, sings in winter only ; and lastly, when kept in a cage,
creeps upwards and downwards in the manner of a Parrot.

Montagu confirms the fact of its sometimes visiting orchards
in autumn, and sj^litting the apples. " In the year 1791," he
states, " we were informed by a bird-catcher at Bath, that he
had taken a hundred pairs in the month of June and July.
The greater part were males, which were generally sold for
five shillings each. Many are taken with a call-bird and bird-
lime ; others are caught by a horse hair noose fixed to a long
fishing-rod. So intent are these birds on picking out the seeds
of the cone, that they will suffer themselves to be taken by the
noose being put over the head."

The Crossbills make their appearance with us at irregular
periods, in different parts of the country, generally confining
themselves to the fir plantations, in which they find their fa-

EUROPEAN CROSSBILL. 425

vourite food. Several yecars may elapse without their being
heard of in a large district, when suddenly they arrive often in
great flocks ; and this at no particular season, for I have re-
ceived recent specimens in November, February, March, the
beginning of June, and October, and have seen them flying
about in August.

In the autumn of 1821, when walking from Aberdeen to Elgin,
by the way of Glenlivat and along the Spey, I had the pleasure
of observing, near the influx of a tributary of that river, a flock
of several hundreds of Crossbills busily engaged in shelling the
seeds of the berries which hung in clusters on a clump of rowan-
trees. So intent were they on satisfying their hunger that they
seemed not to take the least heed of me ; and, as I had not a
gun, I was content with gazing on them, without offering them
any molestation. They clung to the twigs in all sorts of posi-
tions, and w^ent through the operation of feeding in a quiet
and business-like manner, each attending to his own affairs,
without interfering with his neighbours. It was indeed a
pleasant sight to see how the little creatures fluttered among
the twigs, all in continued action, like so many bees on a clus-
ter of flowers in sunshine after rain. Their brilliant colours,
so much more gaudy than those of our common birds, seemed
to convert the rude scenery around into that of some far dis-
tant land, where the Redbird sports among the magnolia
flowers. In that year, flocks of these birds were observed in
various parts of Scotland ; but although I have obtained nu-
merous specimens in a recent state, I have not since had an
opportunity of seeing living individuals.

Their ordinary food consists of the seeds of the Scotch fir,
larch, and other pines ; and in the crops of aU those which I
have examined, I have found shelled seeds apparently of the
first of these trees. In the gizzards were also sand, and small
particles of quartz, to obtain which they must of course de-
scend to the ground. Wilson and Audubon state that the
American Crossbill often alights, during deep snow, before the
door of the hunter, and around his house, to pick off" the clay
with which the logs are plastered, doubtless in search of sand
or pupae, and not to use it as food, as these authors seem to

426 LOXIA EUROP^A.

tliink. While feeding they keep up a continued shrill chatter,
and in flying from one place to another emit a sharp note.
Their flight is undulated, like that of the Buntings.

M. Temminck states that they nestle at all seasons of the
year, in the forks of branches, laying four or five eggs of a
greenish-grey, of ^Yhich the large end is marked with a circle
of spots, lines, and dots of a red-brown.

A very interesting account of the manners of this species, by
J. D. Hoy, Esq. of Stoke Nayland, Suffolk, is published in
the number for January 1834 of Loudon's Magazine of Natu-
ral History. — " From October 1821 to the middle of May
1822, Crossbills were very numerous in this county, and, I
believe, extended their flights into many parts of England.
Large flocks frequented some plantations of fir trees in this
vicinity from the beginning of November to the following
April. I had almost daily opportunities of watching their
movements ; and so remarkably tame were they, that, when
feeding on fir trees not more than fifteen or twenty feet high, I
have often stood in the midst of the flock, unnoticed and unsus-
pected. I have seen them, hundreds of times, when on the
larch, cut the cone from the branch with their beak, and hold-
ing it firmly in both claws, as a hawk would a bird, extract the
seeds with the most surprising dexterity and quickness. I do
not mean to assert this to be their general habit ; but it was
very frequently done when feeding on the larch. I have never
seen them attempt the like method with cones of the Scotch or
other species of pine, wdiich w^ould be too bulky for them to
manage. Their method with these, and, of course, most fre-
quently w4th the larch, was to hold firmly on the cone, with
their claws ; and, while they were busily engaged in this man-
ner, I have captured great numbers ; many with a horse-hair
noose, fixed to the end of a fishing-rod, which I managed to
slip over the head when they w^ere feeding, and by drawing it
quickly towards the body, I easily secured them ; others I took
with a limed twig, fixed in such a manner in the end of the
rod, that on touching the bird it became immediately disen-
gaged from it, adhered to the feathers, rendered the wings use-
less, and caused the poor bird to fall perfectly helpless on the

EUROPEAN CROSSBILL. 427

ground. In this manner, in windy weather, I have taken
several from the same tree, without causing any suspicion of
danger. On warm sunny days, after feeding a considerable
time, they would suddenly take wing, and, after flying round
for a short time in full chorus, alight on some lofty tree in the
neighbourhood of the plantations, warbling to each other in
low pleasing strains ; they would also fly from the trees occa-
sionally for the purpose of drinking, their food being of so dry
a nature.

" In captivity they were quickly reconciled, and soon be-
came very familiar. As, at first, I was not aware what food
w^ould suit them, I fixed branches of the larch against the sides
of the room in which I had confined them, and threw^ a quan-
tity of the cones on the floor. I found that they not only
closely searched the cones on the branches, but, in a few days,
not one was left in the room that had not been pried into. I
gave them canary and hemp seed ; but, thinking the cones
w^ere both amusement and employment, I continued to furnish
them with a plentiful supply. I had about four dozen of them ;
and frequently, whilst I have been in the room, they would
fly down, seize a cone with their beak, carry it to a perch,
quickly transfer it to their claws, and in a very short time
empty it of its seeds, as I have very many times witnessed, to
my surprise and amusement. As the spring advanced, the
male birds in the plantations were frequently singing on the
tops of the firs, in low but very agreeable notes ; yet they con-
tinued in flocks, and were seen in some parts of the county
until the beginning of June. I had hopes of their breeding
in confinement, and I accordingly ke-pt them in different rooms,
fixing the tops of young fir trees on the floor, and against the
walls, and supplying them with as great a variety of food as
possible ; but all to no purpose, as neither those I had confined
in this manner, nor those in cages, ever shewed any inclination
to breed. They are amusing birds in confinement, as they
have some of the habits of the parrot tribe ; climbing about
the cage with both beak and claws. '"*

Young. — The young when fledged are of a dull greenish-

428 LOXIA EUROP^A.

grey colour, both the upper and lower parts strongly marked
with oblong blackish-brown spots, so as to bear a considerable
resemblance to the plumage of the Corn Bunting. The rump
yellowish. The w^ngs and tail are blackish-brown.

I have reason to suspect that so long as they remain in the
nest, the tips of their mandibles are not laterally deflected.

Progress toward ^Iaturity. — The females vary less than
the males as they advance in age. The colours become lighter
and more tinged with yellow ; the rump of a purer tint ; and
the dark central markings on the feathers gradually fade. The
males after the first moult, are, according to M. Temminck,
" of a dull red, yellowish-red, greenish-yellow, or dull yellow,
shaded with reddish.'" I have seen individuals of all these
tints, but am unable directly to trace the changes which the
males undergo, although, judging from analogy, they are pro-
bably regular, and not of the miscellaneous character above
described.

It appears to me that the males after the first moult have all
their feathers tipped with greenish-yellow, that colour being
more decided on the rump ; the quills and tail-feathers nar-
rowly edged with the same. At the next moult the feathers
are tipped with red, the wings and tail edged with the same,
the rump yellowish-red. Individuals killed during the change,
of course exhibit a varying mixture of yellow and red feathers.
At the third moult the red is much brighter. Indeed I feel
confident, in consequence of having minutely examined a great
number of specimens, that the above is the order of change.

The transition from large and strong-billed individuals of
this species to the Loxia Pytiopsittacus, is so direct that I
am in great doubt as to the latter being distinct. Not hav-
ing specimens to compare in all stages, I am obliged to take
up the species on the authority of others.

429

LOXIA PYTIOPSITTACUS. THE PARROT
CROSSBILL.

Loxia curvirostra major. Lath. Ind. Orn, I. 371.

Bec-croise Perroquet ou des Sapins. Loxia Pytiopsittacus. Temm. Man.
d'Orn. I. 324. IIL

Length about eight inches^ wing from flexure four and a thirds
bill seven twelfths in height at the base^ of about the same length
as the tarsus, extremely gibbous, its outlines xery convex, the
points short, that of the lotcer slightly ascending. Colours and
proportions the same as of Loxia europwa.

The only specimen of this alleged species that I have seen is
one, supposed to be Scottish, in the museum of the University
of Edinburgh. It is in the yellowish plumage considered as
designative of the young male, and although it has been many
years on its perch, is still in excellent condition, having been
originally full -feathered, although damaged in one of the wings
and not very neatly stufted. At first sight it seems very
distinct from the common species, on account of the great
size and thickness of its bill, especially when a small-billed
specimen is placed beside it ; but on comparing it with
large individuals, such as the four described in the preced-
ing pages, its right to be considered distinct is not so ap-
parent. The curvature of the mandibles, however, is much
greater, and all the parts are somewhat larger. The wings
and tail are precisely similar in form, and the feathers of
the body are of the same texture. The tarsi and toes are
somewhat larger, but have the same number of scales. The
bill is dusky-brown, the edges of the upper, and part of the
lower mandible light horn-colour. The general colour of the
upper parts is dull greenish-yellow, lighter on the rump, the

430 LOXIA PYTIOPSITTACUS.

wings and tail deep brown ; in short, precisely similar in
this respect to a fine specimen of the Common Crossbill be-
side it.

Length to end of tail 8 inches ; wing from flexure 4/2 ; tail
2ig ; bill in height at the base 7i twelfths, in length 1, edge
of lower mandible \^ ; tarsus j% ; hind toe 5i twelfths, its
claw y\ '-> niiddle toe j%^ its claw j%.

Mr. Selby has figured and described, in his well-known
Illustrations, a Avell-stufFed specimen, ^ procured by Sir Wil-
liam Jardine from Mr. D. Ross, gunmaker in Edinburgh, to
whom it had been sent from Ross-shire, along with several
others."' The bill is described as " very strong, five eighths of
an inch deep, shorter than the middle toe," &c. In the figure
it is seven twelfths deep at the base, and about eleven twelfths
long. This bird I admit to be of the species, on account of its
great size and the shortness of the tips of the mandibles :, but
after all, it seems to me scarcely doubtful that L. europaea and
L. Pytiopsittacus are the same bird. There is no account of
other specimens obtained in Britain existing in any collection
there ; and any thing else relative to the Parrot Crossbill, con-
sidered as British, is merely conjectural.

Having embraced the opportunity of comparing our Cross-
bills with those of America, I may be permitted to say a few
words respecting the latter. Wilson first described as a species,
to which he gave the name of Curti7'ostra americana^ the bird
which Bonaparte afterwards pronounced identical with the
Common Crossbill of Europe. It will be seen, however, from
his description that it is greatly inferior in size, being only 5f
inches long, although the colours are similar to those of the
European species. As this species has not been minutely de-
scribed unless with reference to colour, I subjoin an account of
a stuffed male now before me.

Bill about the length of the head, stout, its outlines arched
in a much less degree than in the European species, the tips
curved, much compressed, rather acute, a little deflected late-

PARROT CROSSBILL.

431

rally in opposite directions, the lower, when the bill is closed,
ascending beyond the level of the ridge of the upper, which is
much longer. Compared with the bill of European birds, it is
slender, its outlines less curved, its sides more convex. The
legs are short and strong ; the tarsi very short, stout, compres-
sed, feathered a short way below the joint, covered anteriorly
w4th six large scutella, behind sharp-edged. The toes are pre-
cisely as in the European species, and their scutella six, eight,
eleven, and nine, as in it. The plumage is in all respects similar.
The wings long, with eighteen quills ; the primaries narrow
and rounded, the secondaries rather short and slightly emar-
ginate ; the second quill longest, the first scarcely a twelfth
shorter, the third slightly longer than the first. The tail also
is exactly similar.

Length to end of tail 6 inches ; bill in depth at the base 4^
twelfths, along the ridge of upper mandible 8^ twelfths, along
the edge of lower ^^ .; wing from flexure 3| ; tail 2/2 ; tarsus 7h
twelfths ; hind toe 4i twelfths, its claw j\ ; second toe 4^
twelfths, its claw ^^^ ; third toe ^V^ i^^ claw -^^ ; fourth toe 4i
twelfths, its claw /g.

Fig. 71. is an outline, half-sized, of the head of X. Pytiopsitta-
cus ; Figs. 72. and 73. of large specimens of L. europart ; Figs.
74. and 75. of smaller-billed individuals of the same species ;
and Fig. 76. of L. americana.

Fig. 74.

Fig. 75.

Fig. 76.

The differences between the American Crossbill and the
common European species are therefore merely in degree,
the former being much smaller, with a proportionally more

432 LOXIA PYTIOPSITTACUS.

slender bill. The same remark applies to the common Euro-
pean and Parrot Crossbills. The plumage of all is alike, their
wings and tail are exactly similar, their colours the same. The
bill is extremely strong in one, slender in another, and inter-
mediate in the third. In the American birds the point of the
lower mandible extends beyond the ridge of the upper ; in the
common European species, it very rarely extends beyond it,
frequently reaches its level, but more commonly falls short of
it ; and in the Parrot Crossbill it is short. The manners,
food, and other circumstances of all the species are similar. It
is therefore not inconsistent with reason to consider them
merely as races or varieties of a single species. On the other
hand, it may be said, may not species sometimes diifer merely
in size ? They may perhaps ; but in most cases in which
species intimately related have been confounded, differences
have been detected in the form and colour of the feathers.

43.3

EMBERIZAN.E.

BUNTINGS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The family of Emberizanae is composed of species so inti-
mately allied to the Passerinae, that one might reasonably
hesitate in separating the two groups as distinct families. Yet
they have clearly as much right to stand apart from the Pas-
serinae as the Tanagranse, which many authors place in their
systems at a very great distance. The only genera belonging
to this family with which I am acquainted are Emberiza and
Plectrophanes ; but it is probable that several others may be
added, w^hen more attention is paid to the peculiar characters
by which it is distinguished.

The chief characteristics of the Emberizanae as compared
with those of the Passerinas, may be seen by inspecting Figs.
6, 7, 8, and 9. of PI. VIII, the former two representing the
head of a Bunting, the latter that of a Linnet. In the Bunting,
the upper mandible seems as if it had been cut out from be-
neath by an angular section, while the lower is proportionally
enlarged so as to fill up the deficiency thus left. The gape-line
in consequence is much bent, ascending for half its length, and
then being straight to the end. In the Linnet, although there
is a slight deflection of the gape-line, the upper mandible is
broad, convex, and nearly straight-edged. In the Bunting it
is very narrow, with inflected edges. Again, in the Linnet and
all the Passerinae the upper mandible and palate are broadly
and deeply concave, whereas in the Buntings they are narrow,
flat, and at their junction have a prominent hard knob. Fig. 7.
shews the roof of the mouth in the Bunting ; Fig. 9. the same
part in the Linnet. In the former, the horny part is short,

Ff

434 EMBERIZANiE.

narrow and flat ; in the latter large and concave ; in the one
case, there is a prominent hard part at the commencement of
the soft palate, in the other none. Whether these characters
be sufficient to constitute a family distinction, or merely that of
a group or subdivision of the same family, may be questioned.
But the TanagranfB, which are generally held to occupy the
rank of a family, differ much less from the Passerinre ; for the
circumstance of their having a notched mandible is of compara-
tively slight importance. The general characters of the Em-
berizanos then are the following :

The bill is short, stout, conical, its sides convex ; the upper
mandible smaller and narrower, its dorsal outline nearly straight,
its sides convex, its edges inflected, the tip acute ; the lower
mandible with the angle short, broad, and rounded, the dorsal
outline nearly straight, the back rounded, the sides convex, the
edges sharp and much inflected. The gape-line ascends ob-
liquely for nearly half its length, and is then direct. Internally
the upper mandible is very narrow, not concave, but having a
hard knob generally of an oblong form, and towards the end
flat, with three prominent lines and four grooves. The lower
mandible is very deeply concave. The tongue is sagittate and
denticulate at the base, compressed, deep, with two bristly
points. The posterior aperture of the nares is linear. The
pharynx is of moderate width. The oesophagus, PI. VIII, Fig.
2, a, 5, c, <^, is dilated on the middle of the neck into a crop, b^
lying on the left side ; the proventriculus, <7, is oblong and
studded with oblong or cylindrical glandules. The stomach, ^,
y, y,.is a strong gizzard, roundish, compressed, with two power-
ful lateral muscles, ^, /, a distinct lower muscle, ^, and central
tendinous spaces. The intestine, A, 2, j^ k, I, m, w, is of mode-
rate length, its duodenal portion, ^, z, j, wider. The cceca, /,
are very small, adnate, and cylindrical. In all essential re-
spects these organs are similar to those of the Passerinse, which
is also the case with the skeleton and the dermal or tegumen-
tary system, the wings being of ordinary length, with the first,
second, and third quills longest, the tail generally more or less
emarginate.

These birds are in certain respects intermediate between the

BUNTINGS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 435

Passerines and Alaudanae. The genus Plectrophanes has the
bill intermediate between those of the Linariag and Emberizae,
and in the form of the wings resembles the Larks, to which it
further manifests an affinity by having the hind claw elongated
and little curved. But the Larks, although some of them have
the bill strong, and thus resemble the Emberizanae and Pas-
serinas, yet generally have that organ much more slender and
less conical, while in other respects they are most intimately
connected w^ith the Pipits, which, again, are allied to the Wag-
tails. Further, the Larks have the digestive organs similar to
the Thrushes, Pipits, and other slender billed birds, inasmuch
as they are destitute of a crop, as may be seen in Fig. 5. of PL
VIII, w^hich represents the intestinal canal of the Field Lark,
Alauda arvensis. For these reasons, and others which will
afterwards be given, I think they ought not to be associated
w^ith the Deglubitores. Indeed, although some of them feed
much on seeds, they are not buskers, but swallow their food
unpeeled.

Our Buntings are so few that it is scarcely necessary to
mention the circumstances in which they agree as to habits,
further than that in most respects they resemble the Passerinae,
but are more strictly terrestrial. They have a strong, undu-
lated, and rather rapid flight ; move on the ground by short
leaps ; frequent the open fields, retreating to trees and bushes
when disturbed, and at night reposing, some on the ground,
others on plants, or in bushes. The nest is rather bulky, deep,
and compact, placed on the ground, or in bushes. The eggs
vary from four to six, and are spotted, clouded, or lined. The
young are born blind, and the males generally assume a dif-
ferent colour from the females. These birds are generally
distributed over the country, frequenting in winter the open
fields in large flocks.

f2

43d EMBERIZAN^.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.
GENUS I. EMBERIZA. BUNTING.

Bill short, conical, the upper mandible very narrow, and
having a compressed angular knob beneath; the gape-line
much deflected at the base ; wings of moderate length, the
second quill longest ; claws extremely compressed, rather long,
arched.

1. Ember iza MUiaria. Corn Bunting. Upper parts light
yellowish-brown, streaked with black ; fore-neck and sides pale
yellowish-grey, marked with triangular black spots.

2. Emberiza Cltrinella. Yellow Bunting. Back and wings
bright red, streaked with black ; male with the head and
throat yellow, the feathers of the upper part tipped with black ;
female with the yellow of the head obscured by dusky and
brown.

8. Emberiza Cirlus. Cirl Bunting. Back and wings bright
red, streaked with black ; male with the head and throat black,
a yellow band over the eye, and another beneath it ; female
with the head greenish-brown, streaked with black.

4. Emberiza Schoeniculus. Reed Bunting. Back chestnut,
streaked with black ; male with the head and throat black, and
a white line on each side from the lower mandible down the
neck ; female with the head of the same colour as the back.

5. Emberiza Hortulana. Ortolan Bunting. Head and neck
greenish-grey, spotted with dusky; throat, space around the
eye, and a band from the bill downwards, yellow.

GENUS II. PLECTROPHANES. LARK-BUNTING.

Bill short, conical, the upper mandible narrow, and having a
compressed slightly prominent knob beneath; the gape-line
deflected at the base ; wings rather long, the first quill longest ;
claws slender, slightly arched, deeply grooved on the sides, that
of the hind toe elongated.

BUNTINGS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 437

Fleet rophanes nivalis. Snow Lark-Bunting ^ ovSnowflalce. Male
with the top of the head, cheeks, and a band on the breast, light
reddish-brown, the lower parts, small wing-coverts, and a patch
on the quills and their coverts, white. Female with the head
dark chestnut, the lower parts white, a broad band of reddish
on the breast, the small wing-coverts dusky. In summer the
plumage chiefly black and w^hite.

Plectrophanes Lapponica, Lapland Lark-Bunting. Male
with the top of the head and fore-neck black, the feathers
edged with greyish- white ; a white line over the eye ; wings
chestnut, with two white bands. Female with the head red-
dish grey, spotted with black. In summer the black parts of
a pure tint.

438

EMBERIZA. BUNTING.

Bill short, strong, subpentagonal, and about as broad as
deep at the base, conical, compressed towards the end. Upper
mandible smaller and narrower, its dorsal outline slightly
convex, the ridge rounded, the sides convex, the edges sharp
and inflected, the tip scarcely deflected. Lower mandible with
the angle very short, broad, and rounded, the dorsal outline
slightly convex, the back rounded, the sides convex, the edges
sharp and very much inflected. Gape-line ascending obliquely
for nearly half its length, then direct.

The mouth is ratlier narrow^ ; the upper mandible internally
has a sudden bend about the middle, anterior to which is a
prominent knob, towards the end flat, with three prominent
lines and four grooves ; the lower mandible very deeply con-
cave. The tongue is sagittate and denticulate at the base,
fleshy, compressed, and terminates in two short bristly points.
The oesophagus is of moderate width, dilated about the middle ;
the proventriculus oblong. Gizzard roundish, compressed,
with very strong lateral muscles, a prominent inferior muscle,
and dense, tough, and rugous epithelium. Intestine of mode-
rate length, wider in its duodenal portion, and having two very
small coeca near its extremity.

Nostrils oblong, in the lower and fore-part of the short nasal
depression, and having a horny arched operculum. Eyes of
moderate size ; eyelids feathered. Aperture of ear broadly el-
liptical, rather large.

Body moderately stout ; neck short ; head rather large.
Legs rather strong, of ordinary length, or shortish ; tarsus

EMBERIZA. BUNTING. 439

compressed, covered anteriorly with seven scutella, laterally
and posteriorly with two plates meeting at a very acute angle ;
toes covered above with long scutella, papillar beneath, the

second and fourth nearly equal,
^:^:<^y the third much longer, the first

considerably shorter than the
third, which is united with the
fourth as far as the second joint ;
claws arched, compressed, acute,
^'^- '^^^ indistinctly grooved on the sides.

Plumage more or less blended, the feathers ovate or lanceo-
late, with a long slender plumule of from five to eight filaments.
Wings of ordinary length, semicordate, rounded, the quills
eighteen ; the second and third longest. Tail of moderate
length, or rather long, straight, more or less emarginate.

M. Lesson remarks of the Buntings that they " live in the
woods, on seeds furnished with a pericarp, generally a horny
one ; they nestle in trees. The females have duller colours
than the males. M. Cuvier," he adds, " depicts them in a
word by saying that they are granivorous birds which possess
little prudence, and fall into all the snares that are set for
them."" The only correct character here given is that of the
colours of the females being duller, but it is common to all the
Deglubitores and many groups besides. The rest is trash.
Do the Corn Bunting and the Reed Bunting nestle in woods,
or even bushes I And as to their imprudence, they are not a
whit more easily caught than the Finches, Sparrows, Linnets,
or Larks.

The distinction between this genus and Plectrophanes is
very slight, insomuch that the latter might with propriety be
considered merely a section of it. Species belonging to it
occur in all parts of the world. In Britain there are four : the
Corn Bunting, the Yellow Bunting, the Cirl Bunting, and the
Reed Bunting; to which, as a very rare straggler, may be
added the Ortolan.

440

EMBERIZA MILIARIA. THE CORN BUNTING.

BUNTING. COMMON BUNTING. SPARROW. SPARIG. GEALAG BHUACHAIR.

Fig. 78.

Emberiza Miliaria. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 308.

Emberiza Miliaria. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 402.

Bunting. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bruant Proyer. Emberiza :Miliaria. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 306.

Common Bunting. Emberiza Miliaria. Selb. Illustr. I. 286.

Emberiza Miliaria. Common Bunting. Jen. Brit. Yert. An. 130.

Upper parts light yellowish-hrown, each feather hhcJcish-hrotni
along the shaft ; lower parts pale yellowish-grey, each feather of
the fore-neck tipped with a triajignlar spot of broicnish-blacJc.

Male. — The Corn Bunting is a remarkably full and ro-
bust bird, which in colour bears a most intimate resemblance
to the Field Lark. Its bill is in all respects as described in
the generic character, as are the feet and organs of sense. The
plumage is ordinary, rather compact, the feathers ovate ; the
wings rather short ; the primary quills broad, and rounded, the
second longest, the third next, the first and fourth about equal ;
the secondaries broad, slightly emarginate, excepting the inner,
which are tapering ; the tail slightly emarginate.

CORN BUNTING. 441

The oesophagus is three inches long, its ordinary diameter
two twelfths, but on the neck dilated to four twelfths. The
gizzard is elliptical, compressed; its greatest diameter three
fourths of an inch, its cuticular lining thick and rugous. The
intestine, which is nine inches long, has a diameter of three
twelfths in its duodenal portion. The coeca are two and a half
twelfths long, cylindrical, and adnate.

The ujoper mandible is dark brown, excepting on the edges
towards the base, w^hich, with the whole lower mandible, are
ochre-yellow. The iris is dusky brown. The feet are ochre-
yellow tinged with red ; the toes dusky yellow ; the claws deep
brown. The general colour of the plumage above is light yel-
lowish-brown, on the head tinged with reddish, on the rump
with grey, each feather blackish-brown along the shaft towards
the extremity. The quills, alula, and larger w^ing-coverts are
dusky brown, margined with pale yellowish-brown ; the first
row of smaller coverts dark-brown, tipped with light yellowish-
brown. The cheeks are of the same colours as the upper part
of the head. The edges of the eyelids and a faint line over the
eye pale yellowish-grey, of which colour are the throat and a
patch under the ear-coverts. The general colour of the lower
parts is pale yellowish-grey, the fore part of the neck having
each feather tipped with a triangular spot of brownish-black ;
the spots being larger and darker along a line on each side of
the neck. On the fore part of the breast and on the sides the
spots are elongated and fainter. The abdomen and lower tail-
coverts are unmarked, but the latter are dusky on the shafts.
The tail-feathers are dusky brown, margined and tipped with
pale yellowish-grey, the outermost quill with an obscure ob-
lique band of pale brovm.

Length to end of tail 7i inches ; extent of wings 13 ; bill
along the ridge of upper mandible 5i twelfths, along the edge
of lower mandible j% ; wing from flexure 4 ; tail 2| ; tarsus
\l ; first toe 5^ twelfths ; its claw 5^ twelfths ; second toe /j,
its claw 2i twelfths ; third toe i§, its claw 3^ twelfths ; fourth
toe /g, its claw 2i twelfths.

Female. — The female resembles the male so closely that I

442 EMBERIZA MILIARIA.

am unable to point out any distinctive marks. The oesophagus is
three inches long ; the gizzard three fourths in diameter ; the
intestine ten inches long ; the coeca two and two and a half
twelfths, and an inch and a quarter from the vent.

Length to end of tail 7i inches ; extent of wings 12f ; bill
along the ridge f , along the edge of lower mandible y\ ; wing
from flexure 4 ; tail 3 ; tarsus {^ ; first toe ^^j, its claw j% ;
second toe j%^ its claw 2i twelfths ; third toe ^§. its claw 24
twelfths ; fourth toe J, its claw j%.

Variations. — The plumage is said to be sometimes white,
and I have seen it variegated with that colour. It is in win-
ter, when the feathers are perfect, that the tints are deepest ;
and in summer a considerable change has taken place, from the
fading of the colours and the abrasion of the tips, in conse-
quence of which many of the spots on the lower parts are ob-
literated. The colours thus, as in other birds of the class, tend
to become purer and lighter towards the period of change.

Habits. — The Common Bunting, which is a permanent re-
sident, is generally distributed, although it is not very common
in many districts. It frequents open pastures, grass and corn
fields, and in its distribution seems peculiar to cultivated land
or its vicinity, scarcely ever appearing on moors or on moun-
tain pastures. It is more abundant in the outer Hebrides than
in any other part of the country that I have visited, and there
is generally known by the name of Sparrow. Towards the
end of autumn the Buntings collect into small flocks, and search
the stubble for seeds of various kinds, especially oats and wheat.
Frequently at this season they sit close, like the Larks, and
allow a person to come near before they fly oft' ; but for the
most part they are shy and not easily approached. In winter,
especially in cold or boisterous weather, they appear near
houses, and mingle in the stack-yards with Sparrows, Yellow
Buntings, Larks, and other small birds ; but they are not so
gregarious as these species, and are very seldom met with in
large flocks. Their flight is strong, capable of being long pro-
tracted, undulated, being performed by alternate beatings and

CORN BUNTING. 443

cessations, but heavier and more steady or direct than that of
the Yellow Bunting, ^yhen surprised in a field, or roused
from a corn-yard, they fly off with a direct rapid motion ; but
often when an individual, which has been resting on a twig or
wall-top, starts away, it allows its feet to hang for a short time
before it commences its bounding flight. I believe there is no
other bird of the order with us that has this habit.

The common note of the Corn Bunting is a strong c/mck or
chit, and its song consists of a hurried repetition of short un-
harmonious notes terminated by a protracted one. Although
somewhat similar to the song of the Yellow Bunting, it is by
no means so lugubrious ; but if not sufficiently melodious to
call forth exclamations of delight from him whose delicate ear
is hurt even by the jingle of the Lark, yet to those who love
to study nature in all her variety, it forms a pleasing counter-
part or contrast to the sweet notes of the mellow-throated
warblers, which, were there no harsh sounds, croaks, and
screams, would soon cease to aiFord us pleasure. We cannot
live on dainties. To the ornithologist the scream of the Heron
and Eagle, the croak of the Raven, the protracted howl of the
Northern Diver, the wail of the Kittiwake, the chatter of the
Magpie, and the chirp of the Sparrow, are as interesting as the
clear, mellow, and modulated song of the Thrush, filling the
lone valley at eventide with its soft echoes, and inspirinor a
love of solitude and quiet musing. The song of the Buntino-,
such as it is, may be heard occasionally at all seasons, espe-
cially in calm weather; but during the breeding time it is
more frequent, and then the male, perched on a wall, a stone,
a twig, or a tall- herbaceous plant, especially a dock or a bur,
continues to utter at short intervals his singular cry, which al-
though not loud extends to a great distance.

The food of this species consists of seeds of grasses, polyo-ona,
rumieces. Cereal plants, and coleopterous insects. In winter it
becomes remarkably fat, and is superior as an article of food
to most of our small birds. It is usually shy, at all times
much more so than the Chaffinch, Yellow Bunting, or Lark ;
so that it is not very easily approached unless during the breed-

444 EMBERIZA MILIARIA.

About the middle of spring the flocks break up, and towards
the end of April the Buntings begin to form their nests, which
are composed of dry stalks and blades of grass, Avith a lining of
fibrous roots and hair, and are placed at the base of some strong
plant, beside a grassy tuft, under a bush, or in an open pasture
or cultivated field. The eggs are four or five, regularly oval,
ten and a half twelfths long, with a transverse diameter of
from seven and a half to eight tw^elfths, greyish or purplish-
white, patched and spotted with pale greyish- purple, and
marked w4th spots, dots, and curved streaks of blackish-brown.

Young. — The young when fledged are nearly of the same
colours as their parents, the upper parts lighter, the lower pale
grey, with oblong dark spots.

Progress toward Maturity. — At the first moult the colours
deepen, but the young may still be distinguished from the old
by their having the dark markings more elongated.

Remarks. — Having before me two fine specimens shot by
myself to-day (15th March), which exhibit a very remarkable
difference as to size, I am induced to offer a few remarks on
this subject. One of them in fact appears a giant compared
with the other. Their dimensions are as follows. Length to
end of tail 8j\, 7i ; extent of wings 18i, 11 1% ; bill along the
ridge y|, y| ; wing from flexure 4j;^2, Sj\; tail 3^, 2{ J ; tar-
sus 1, iJ ; hind toe j%, y| ; its claw j%, j% ; third toe ^§, | ;
its claw j%, j|. Similar differences exist in most of our native
birds ; but it would manifestly be absurd to found specific dis-
tinctions upon them. These two Buntings are precisely similar
in colouring, only the bill of the large individual has the lower
mandible more vellow.

445

EMBERIZA CITRINELLA. YELLOW BUNTING.

YELLOW HAMMER. YELLOW YELDRING OR YOLDRING. YELLOW YOWLEY.
YELLOW YITE, YOLKRING, OR YELDROCK. SKITE. DEVIL'S BIRD.
BUIDHEIN. BUIDHEAG-BHUACHAIR.

Emberiza Citrinella. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 309.

Emberiza Citrinella. Lath. Ind. Orn. T. 400.

Bruant Jaune. Emberiza Citrinella. Temm, Man. d'Oni. I. 304.

Yellow Bunting. Emberiza Citrinella. Selb. Illustr. L 288.

Emberiza Citrinella. Yellow Bunting. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 131.

Back and icings bright red, the central parts of each feather
hroicnish-hlack. Male icith the head and throat bright yellow,
the feathers of its upper part tipped icith black, the breast brown-
ish-red. Female 'with the yellow of the head obscured by dusky
and brown, the breast pale greyish-broicn,

Male. — The Yellow Bunting, although neither inelegant in
form, nor deficient in richness of colouring, is so common that
it attracts little attention. It is smaller and proportionally
more slender than the species already described, which it ac-
cordingly excels in liveliness and activity. The body is ovate,
the neck short, the head oblong and of moderate size, the feet
rather short, the wings of ordinary length. The bill is very

446 EMBEllIZA CITRINELLA.

short and rather slender. The tongue is sagittate and denti-
culate at the base, narrowed towards the end, and terminates
in two short bristly points. The oesophagus is two and a half
inches long ; the gizzard eight twelfths in diameter ; the in-
testine eight inches ; the coeca two twelfths.

The plumage is soft and blended, the feathers lanceolate,
with a long slender plumule of about eight filaments. Those
about the base of the bill are terminated by short bristles.
The frontal feathers encroach on the nasal groove and cover
the nostrils, which are oblong, with a horny plate above. The
wings are broad and rounded ; the quills eighteen, the first,
second, third, and fourth almost equal, but the third longest ;
the primaries narrow and obtuse ; the secondaries broader,
truncato-retuse. The tail is rather long, a little emarginate.

The upper mandible is brown, the lower light greyish-blue.
The iris is light brown. The feet are ochre-yellow tinged
with red, the claws dusky. The head, cheeks, fore-neck,
breast, belly, and lower tail-coverts are gamboge yellow, the
head and neck of a richer tint ; the tips of the feathers of
the head brownish-black or deep brow^n, forming a line of
that colour on either side from the forehead, over the eye, to
the occiput, which is darkish ; those of the lower and lateral
cervical greenish. The breast and sides are yellowish-red, each
feather darker in the centre ; the tail-coverts with a central
streak of reddish-brown, the feathers of the anterior part of the
back, and the scapulars, are yellowish-red on the sides, with a
brownish-black central streak ; those of the hind part of the
back and the upper tail-coverts are bright chestnut^ margined
with yellowish. The alula, primary coverts, and quills are
dusky ; the primaries narrowly margined externally with yel-
low, the secondaries and upper wing-coverts broadly margined
with yellowish- red^ the latter having a brownish-black centre.
The tail-feathers are brownish-black, the four middle rather
broadly edged with yellowish-red, the rest narrowly with yel-
lowish-grey, the two outer on either side with an elongated
somewhat conical spot of white on the inner web, that of the
outermost larger ; the outer margin of the lateral feather yellow-
ish-white. The concealed part of the plumage is dark-bluish
grey.

YELLOW BUNTING. 447

Length to end of tail 74 inches; extent of wings 11 ; bill
along the ridge 4i twelfths ; along the edge of lower mandible
^% ; wing from flexure 3| ; tail 3 ; tarsus j% ; first toe 4^
twelfths, its claw j\ ; second toe j%, its claw 2h twelfths ;
third toe ^\, its claw yV ; fourth toe f'V, its claw 2^ twelfths.

Female. — The colouring of the female is similar to that of
the male ; but the yellow parts are more obscured, the head
being nearly dark, excepting its fore-part, and the lower neck
assuming a dull greenish tint. The fore part of the breast and
the sides are merely streaked with yellowish-red ; the chest-
nut of the rump is a little paler, and the quills and tail-feathers
are of a lighter tint. The white spots on the latter are smaller.

Length to end of tail 6^| ; extent of wings lOf ; bill along
the ridge 4i twelfths, along the edge of lower mandible j% ;
tarsus j ; middle toe and claw { § ; hind toe and claw j% .

Variations. — The males differ considerably In the tints of
the plumage, the yellow of the head and neck being more or
less pure, the red of the breast and rump more or less deep.
In very old birds, the yellow is more extended but paler. I
have seen a specimen, shot in the county of Linlithgow by
Mr. Weir of Boghead, of a greyish-white colour, the margins
of the feathers pale brownish-red, the bill and feet pale.

The principal changes which take place in the plumage during
winter and spring consist in the wearing of the points and
margins, by which the yellow is rendered more extended, the
fading of this colour, and that of the brown and red. It is an
erroneous idea which many or most people seem to entertain,
that birds assume richer tints in the breeding season, the fact
being the reverse, unless when new feathers are produced in
spring, which is not the case with any bird of this order.

Habits. — The Yellow Bunting is very widely distributed,
but does not occur in those parts of the country which are
destitute of wood. In most districts it is a very common and
familiar bird, and a permanent resident. After the breeding
season these birds collect into loose flocks, and as the winter

448 EMBERIZA CITRINELLA.

approaches, often mingle with Chaffinches, Green Linnets,
Sparrows, and other species, in open weather resorting to the
fields, and perching at intervals in the hedges and bushes, as
well as on trees. When the ground is covered with snow,
they congregate about houses, and frequent corn-yards, along
with other birds, retiring to the trees and hedges in the vicinity
when alarmed. Their flight is undulated, light, strong, and
graceful, and they alight abruptly, jerking out their ^tail-fea-
thers. It is indeed surprising to see w^ith w^hat velocity they
descend at once from a considerable height to settle on the
twigs of a tree which has attracted their notice as they were
flying over it, and with what dexterity all the individuals of a
flock perch in their selected places.

During winter they utter a kind of rather harsh low chirp ;
but in spring and summer the male chants a doleful sort of ditty,
somewhat more musical than that of the Corn Bunting, but
similar in character, being composed of a few short shrill notes
concluding with a protracted one. Their food consists of seeds
of the cereal plants, especially oats, grasses, chickweeds, poly-
gona and others. In hard weather they may often be seen on
the roads picking horse dung, and in summer they also eat
insects and larvse.

Towards the beginning of April the winter associations
break up, and they choose their partners without the mani-
festation of angry feelings, they being less addicted to quarrel-
ling than most small birds. AYhen vegetation has advanced,
they repair to bushy places, and the willowy sides of brooks
and streams, and commence the construction of their nests,
which are bulky, composed externally of coarse grasses and
small twigs, and neatly lined with fine grass, fibrous roots, and
hair. The nest is usually placed on the ground, under a bush,
or among the twigs close to the ground, or sometimes in a
clump of thick grass or herbage. The eggs, four or five in
number, are of a regular oval form, purplish white, marked
with linear and angular streaks, and a few irregular dots of
black, their length about ten-twelfths, their greatest transverse
diameter eight twelfths of an inch.

These Buntings evince much anxiety about their charge,

YELLOW BUNTING. 449

and when deprived of their eggs or young, continue some days
about the place, chanting at intervals their dolorous ditty, which,
although unaltered in its notes, must doubtless bo meant as an
expression of their grief. In some parts of Scotland it is in-
terpreted as signifying " Deil, deil, deil take ye,'' that is, the
cruel nesters ; and for this reason, probably, the Yellow Bun-
ting is named the DeviFs Bird.

When perched on a tree, especially in windy w^eather, they
crouch close to the twigs, draw in their neck, and keep the tail
declined. After pairing, the male is frequently seen on a bush
or tree, moving his tail by sudden jerks, by whicii it is raised,
and at the same time sHghtly expanded. His notes are then
usually two chirps followed by a harsher note : chit^ chit^ chirr ^
with considerable intervals. When feeding in the stubble
fields, they advance by very short leaps, with their breasts
nearly touching the ground ; w^hen apprehensive of danger,
crouch motionless ; and when alarmed give intimation to each
other by means of their ordinary short note. They are gene-
rally more shy than Chaffinches, but less so than the Corn
Buntings.

YouxG. — The young when fledged are dull yellowHsh-brown,
streaked with black above, yellowish-grey beneath, the breast
and sides streaked w^ith brown.

Progress toward Maturity. — In young birds after the first
moult, no yellow is observable on the head, it being entirely
concealed by the brown tips of the feathers, each being streaked
with dark brown. The streaks of the back are much broader
than in the adult, and the red of the rump less pure, most of
the feathers there being centrally streaked. The yellow mar-
gins of the quills are less bright, the white spots of the lateral
tail-feathers much smaller than in the female. The throat
yellow, the cheeks and sides of the neck yellowish-grey, the
lower part of the neck, the breast, and the sides dull yellowish-
brown, streaked with dusky ; the middle of the abdomen dul-
lish yellow ; the lower tail-coverts dusky in the centre.

450

EMBE.RIZA CIRLUS. THE CIRL BUNTING.

Fig. 80.

Emberiza Cirlus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 311.

Emberiza Cirlus. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 401.

Cirl Bunting. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bruant Zizi ou de Haie. Emberiza Cirlus. Temm. Man. d'Oru. L 313.

Cirl Bunting. Emberiza Cirlus. Selb. lllustr. L 292.

Emberiza Cirlus. Cirl Bunting. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 131.

Male ivith the hack and icings bright red., the central part of
each feather h7'ownish-hlack^ the head and throat black ; a band
over the eye., another beneath it^ and a crescent-shaped patch on
the fore-neck., bright yellow; loicer part of neck all round didl-
green ; fore part of breast and sides yelloivish-red^ the rest yellow .
Female with the head greenish-broivn streaked with black., the
tipper parts as iu the male., the lower yelloicish., the breast and
sides streaked tcith brown.

Male. — The Cirl Bunting is precisely similar in form to the
species last described, which it also very closel}^ resembles in
colour, although the male is always readily distinguishable by
the black of its throat. The plumage is soft and blended, the
feathers lanceolate ; those about the base of the bill terminated
by short bristles. The wings are broad and of moderate length ;

CIRL BUNTING. 451

the quills eighteen, the first, second, and third nearly equal,
but the second longest ; the primaries obtuse, the secondaries
retuse. The tail is rather long, and somewhat emarginate.

The upper mandible is brown, the lower greyish-blue ; the
feet ochre-yellow tinged with brown, the claws dusky. The
feathers of the head and throat are black, edged with dusky-
green, of which there appear several longitudinal bands on the
upper part of the head. A bright yellow band passes over the
eye, another beneath it, and on the middle of the fore-neck is
a crescent-shaped patch of the same colour. The lower part of
the neck all round is of a dull greyish-green. The back and
scapulars are bright chestnut, each feather brownish-black in
the centre. The quills are dusky-brown, the primaries narrowdy
edged with greenish-yellow, the secondaries broadly with
brownish-red. The tail-feathers are dusky, edged with light
reddish-brown, the two lateral on each side with an oblique
white longitudinal band on the inner web ; the greater part of
the outer web of the outermost feather also white. The fore
part of the breast is bright red mingled with pale brownish-
yellow, the sides of the latter colour faintly streaked w^ith
dusky ; the rest of the breast, the abdomen, and the lower tail-
coverts yellow^, the latter with a central dusky streak.

Length to end of tail 6/^ inches ; bill along the ridge -^^^
along the edge of lower mandible j% ; w^ing from flexure 3j ;
tarsus y'=^ ; first toe 8i twelfths, its claw ,^^ ; third toe /g, its
claw /ij.

Female. — The female is somewhat smaller, and according to
Montagu presents the following characters. " The upper part
of the head is olivaceous brown, streaked with dusky ; over
the eye a dull yellow streak, passing down the side of the head ;
cheeks brown, on w^hich is a yellowish spot ; on each side of
the lower mandible is a broken streak of dusky, passing down-
wards ; chin and throat dull yellow, the latter streaked with
dusky ; the back part and sides of the neck and breast oliva-
ceous brown, with dusky streaks ; belly and sides pale yellow,
with large dusky streaks on the latter ; the upper part of the
body and wings like the other sex, but the colours less bright."'

Gg2

452 EMBERIZA CIRLUS.

Habits. — The deservedly celebrated ornithologist above
named was the first who discovered the Cirl Bunting in Bri-
tain, having in the winter of 1800 procured several specimens
killed in different places in the neighbourhood of Kingsbridge.
He subsequently observed it between Glastonbury and Bridge-
water, and states that it had been traced w^estward to Fal-
mouth, in Cornwall. Individuals have since been met with in
various parts of England ; but Devonshire and the neighbour-
ing counties appear to be its more peculiar residence, and there
it breeds and remains throughout the year. He states that '' it
generally builds in furze, or some low bush ; the nest being
composed of dry stalks, roots, and a little moss, and lined with
long hair and fibrous roots. The eggs are four or five in num-
ber, cinereous white, with irregular long and short curved
dusky lines, terminating frequently with a spot at one end ;
size rather inferior to those of the Yellow-hammer, to which it
bears great resemblance. These birds pair in April, and begin
laying early in May. Having taken the young, it was found
that insects were their most partial food, especially the common
Grasshopper. When they could peck, the smaller seeds were
acceptable, and canary the favourite ; of grain, wdieat and bar-
ley were rejected, but oats were greedily devoured after they
had dexterously and quickly deprived them of the outer coat.
The monotonous song of the male was incessant, and so shrill
and piercing as to be offensive. The female has only a simple
plaintive note."

The Cirl Bunting inhabits the southern parts of the Euro-
pean continent, and does not migrate into the colder regions.

453

EMBERIZA SCHGENICULUS. THE REED
BUNTING.

BLACK-HEADED BUNTING. REED SPARROW. WATER SPARROW. RING-BIRD.
RING BUNTING. CHINK. BLACK-BONNET.

Emberiza Schoeniclus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 311.

Emberiza Schoeniclus. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 402.

Emberiza passerina. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 40.3.

Reed Bunting. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bruant de roseau. Emberiza Schoeniculus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 307.

Reed-Bunting. Emberiza Schoeniculus. Selb. Illustr. I. 290.

Emberiza Schoeniculus. Reed-Bunting. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 130.

Male with the head and throat black ; a line from the lower
mandible down the neck^ a broad band oxer the back of the neck^
and the lower 'parts ^ ichite ; the back bright chestnut^ each feather
bronmish-black in the middle. Female icith the upper parts as
in the male^ but paler ; a band of yellowish-grey across the neck ;
the head of the same colour as the back ; the lower parts greyish-
white.

Male. — The Reed Bunting is a much smaller and more
slender bird than the Yellow Bunting, which however it re-
sembles in form. Its plumage is soft, rather blended, slightly
glossed ; the feathers lanceolate, those about the base of the
bill terminated by short bristles. The wing is broad and of
ordinary length ; the second, third, and fourth quills almost
equal, the first slightly shorter, and equal to the fifth ; all these
excepting the first slightly cut out on the outer web towards
the end ; the primaries obtuse, the secondaries truncato-retuse,
the proximal tapering. The tail is rather long, straight, and
emarginate.

The bill is brownish-black above, paler beneath ; the iris
brown ; the feet flesh-coloured, the toes dusky, the claws black-

454 EMBERIZA SCHCENICULUS.

ish-brown. The head and throat are deep black, the feathers
of the former with reddish, of the latter with greyish tips. A
line of white passes down the neck from the lower mandible.
A broad band of greyish-white crosses the back of the neck,
margins the black of the fore-neck, and blends with the white
of the lower parts, which on the breast is tinged with blue, and
elsewhere with ochre-yellow ; the sides streaked with dusky.
The general colour of the upper parts is bright chestnut, each
feather with brownish-black in the centre ; the rump bluish-
grey, streaked with black. The quills are blackish-brown,
margined with light red, as are the larger and smaller coverts.
The two middle tail-feathers like those of the back, the rest
brownish-black, slightly margined with reddish, excepting the
two outer on each side, which are obliquely marked with white,
their shafts black, and their tips pale brown. The entire leng-th
of the intestinal canal is eleven inches, of which the oesophagus
is two and a quarter, the intestine eight and three fourths. The
coeca are two twelfths of an inch in length, and about half an
inch distant from the vent.

Length to end of tail 6i inches; extent of wings 9f ; bill
along the ridge ^^ ' along the edge of lower mandible 5^
twelfths ; tarsus jH? ; middle toe and claw | ; wing from flexure
Sj% ; tail 2j%.

Female. — The upper part of the head is pale reddish, each
feather brownish-black in the centre ; a pale yellowish-grey
streak over the eye ; auricular coverts dark brown margined
with paler ; a band of pale yellowish-grey over the back and
sides of the neck ; the fore- neck of the same colour ; the lower
parts in general brownish-white ; the fore-neck with two irre-
gular bands of blackish-brown, the breast and sides streaked
w^ith light reddish-brown ; the back, wings, and tail as in the
male, but paler ; the rump pale greyish, tinged with red.

Length to end of tail 5i inches ; extent of wings 9 ; bill
along the ridge j^, along the edge of lower mandible 5i twelfths;
wing from flexure 3 ; tail 2j% ; tarsus ^% ; middle toe and

REED BUNTING. 455

Variations. — I have not observed any remarkable variations
in old birds.

Changes. — The effect of the abrasion of the tips of the fea-
thers is very apparent in this species. In summer the plumage
of the head and throat is pure black ; the white band on the
neck unmixed ; but in other respects the colouring is nearly
the same.

Habits. — The Reed Bunting is a very active bird, which
frequents marshy places, where it is seen perching on willows,
reeds, sedges, and other aquatic plants. Although shy, it is
easily shot, as it seems to consider itself safe at the distance of
thirty yards or so. Its flight is rapid and undulatory, like that
of the Yellow Bunting, and it alights abruptly, like it, expand-
ing its tail to break the descent, when the white of that part
becomes conspicuous. Its food consists of seeds, chiefly of
grasses, and of insects of various kinds. Although stationary
in England, this species is migratory in most parts of Scotland,
departing in October and reappearing about the beginning of
April. Individuals however are occasionally met with in the
southern parts during winter, and I have shot it near Edinburgh
in December, and aojain in the middle of ^larch. Its sono^,
which can scarcely be called pleasant, consists of several short
notes succeeded by a long one, being in character similar to
that of the Yellow Bunting, although less harsh, and is heard
at frequent intervals, the bird in the meantime perched on a
twig and remaining in a listless sort of attitude. In winter
these Buntings form small loose flocks, which break up to-
wards the end of ^larch, when the different pairs betake them-
selves to their summer haunts.

It places its nest among aquatic plants, in a tuft of grass or
reeds, often fastening it to the stems of the latter, but as fre-
quently depositing it on the ground. At Ravelrig Bog, eight
miles from Edinburgh, celebrated for Corallorhiza innata, I
found a nest placed among sphagna, and overshadowed by the
stems and leaves of Comarum palustre ; and by Duddingston
Loch, another fastened at the height of more than half a foot,

456 EMBERIZA SCHCENICULUS.

among stems of Arundo Phragmites. The nest is composed of
dry stalks and blades of grasses, bits of rushes, and other simi-
lar materials, and is neatly lined with finer grasses and hair.
The eggs, four or five in number, are of a short ovate form,
nine and a half twelfths of an inch long, seven and a lialf
twelfths broad, of a dull yellowish-grey colour, marked chiefly
on the larger end with tortuous or angular lines, and irregular
spots of black.

Young. — The young when fledged are similar to the adult
female, but with duller tints, and the cheeks of a brownish-
grey colour. The males may be distinguished by having the
head and throat faintly marked with black.

457

EMBERIZA HORTULANA. THE ORTOLAN
BUNTING.

Emberiza Hortulana. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 309-

Emberiza Hortulana, Lath. Ind. Orn. L .399.

Bruant Ortolan. Emberiza Hortulana. Temm. Man. d'Om. I. SIL

Ortolan-Bunting. Emberiza Hortulana. Selb. lllustr. I. 294.

Emberiza Hortulana. Ortolan Bunting. Jen. Brit. Vert, An. 132.

Head and neck greenish-grey^ s2:>otted ivith dusky ; throaty
space around the eye^ and a hand from the hill doicmcards^ yel-
low ; the upper parts reddish^ u'ith hlack spots,

A FEW individuals of this species liaA^ng been obtained in
England, it has been admitted into the Catalogue of British
Birds by Messrs. Selby, Jenyns, and other ornithologists. Not
having seen any of these, I can only give here the distinctive
characters of the species, from M. Temminck's Manual.

^Iale. — ^' Throat, space around the eyes, and a narrow band
proceeding from the angle of the bill, yellow ; these two yellow
sj^aces separated by a blackish-grey mark ; head and neck
olivaceous-grey with small brown spots ; feathers of the upper
parts of a reddish-grey on their borders, and black in the
middle ; breast, belly, and abdomen, bay red, all the feathers
of these parts tipped with grey ; tail blackish ; the two outer
feathers having their inner webs white to a great extent ; bill
and feet flesh-colour ; iris brown. Lengrth 6 inches 3 lines."

•&'

Female. — " The female is smaller ; the band over the eyes
and the throat pale yellow ; the breast marked with large brown
spots ; the other lower parts of a whitish-red ; a great number
of brown spots on the head and neck ; all the upper parts more
faintly coloured."'

458

PLECTROPHANES. LARK-BUNTING.

Bill short, strong, subpentagonal, and about as broad as
deep at the base, conical, somewhat compressed towards the
end. Upper mandible smaller and narrower, its dorsal outline
slightly convex, the ridge rounded, the sides convex, the edges
sharp and slightly inflected, the tip direct. Lower mandible
with the angle very short, broad, and rounded, the dorsal out-
line slightly convex, the back rounded, the sides convex, the
edges sharp and very much inflected. Gape-line ascending
obliquely at first, then direct.

The mouth is rather narrow^ ; the upper mandible internally
has a sudden bend about the middle, anterior to which is a
narrow knob, flattened towards the end, with three prominent
lines and four grooves ; the low^er mandible very deeply con-
cave. The tongue is sagittate and denticulate at the base,
fleshy, compressed, and terminates in two short bristly points.
The oesophagus is of moderate width, dilated about the middle ;
the proventriculus oblong. Gizzard roundish, compressed, with
very strong lateral muscles, a prominent inferior muscle, and
dense, tough, and rugous epithelium. Intestine of moderate
length, wdder in its duodenal portion, and having two very
small coeca near its extremity.

Nostrils oblong, in the low^er and fore part of the short nasal
depression, and having a horny arched operculum. Eyes of
moderate size ; eyelids feathered. Aperture of ear broadly el-
liptical, rather large.

Body moderately stout ; neck short ; head of moderate size.
Legs rather short ; tarsus compressed, covered anteriorly with

PLECTROPHANES. LARK-BUNTING. 4r)9

seven scutella, laterally and posteriorly with two plates meet-
ing at a very acute angle, and inferior rugae ; toes covered
above with long scutella, papillar beneath, the second and
fourth nearly equal, the third much longer, the first consider-
ably longer than the third, w^hich is united with the fourth as
far as the second joint ; claws long, slightly arched, compressed,
rather stout at the base, but abruptly attenuated, with deep
lateral grooves, and pointed ; the hind claw longer than the
first joint of the pollex.

Plumage more or less blended, the feathers ovate, with a
long slender plumule of about eight disunited barbs. Wings
long, semicordate, acute, and tapering, the quills eighteen, the
first longest. Tail rather long, emarginate.

The distinctions between this genus and Emberiza, although
slight, are yet easily perceived. The upper mandible in Plec-
trophanes is broader, the wings longer and more pointed, the
hind claw proportionally more elongated, and the knob on the
palate less angular and elevated. In the form of the bill it ap-
proaches to the Linnets, and in that of the feet to the Larks,
at least with reference to the elongation of the claw of the hind
toe.

Only one species of this genus, which, however, is composed
of very few species, is of regular occurrence in Britain, visit-
ing the north of Scotland towards the end of autumn, and
spreading over the whole of England. Individuals, however,
in atl probability remain to breed on the mountains of the
northern districts. A very small number of specimens of
another species has been seen in England in winter.

460

PLECTROPHANES NIVALIS. THE SNOW LARK-
BUNTING, OR SNOWFLAKE.

SNOW BUNTING. SNOW FOWL. OAT FOWL. lAN-ANT'SNEACHD.

Fig. 81.

Emberiza nivalis. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 308.
Emberiza nivalis. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 397. Adult in summer.
Emberiza montana. Lath. Ind. Oi-n. T. 398. Young in winter.
Snow Bunting. Mont. Orn. Diet. Suppt. Adult in summer.
Tawny Bunting, Mont. Orn. Diet. Suppt. Adult in winter.
Mountain Bunting. Mont. Orn. Diet. Young Female in winter.
Bruant de niege. Emberiza nivalis. Temra. Man. d'Orn. I. 319.
Snow Bunting. Plectrophanes nivalis. Selb. lUustr. I. 279.
Emberiza nivalis. Snow Bunting. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 129.

Male in winter, icith the upper part of the head, cheeks, and
a hand on the lower neck light reddish-brown, the lower parts
ti'hite, the upper black, the feathers edged with yelloicish-broicn ;
a patch of white on the icing, including the smaller coverts, and
some of the secondary coverts and secondary quills ; the three
outer tailfeathers nearly ichite. Female in icinter similar to the
male, but darker, and with more reddish-brown on the head and
breast, and less white on the icings.

Male in summer, with the head, neck, lower parts and a patch
on the wings pure white, the rest black. Female icith the same
parts white, but the head, cheeks, and a band on the neck tinged

SNOWFLAKE. 461

with reddish ; the black feathers of the upper parts edged with
reddish-ichite. Young male and female in idnter, with the head
dark reddish-brown, the upper parts yellowish-brown spotted with
brownish-black, the lower parts dull white, the fore-neck, breast,
and sides tinged icith reddish-brown, the male with the small wing-
coverts reddish- white, while in the female they are dusky.

Male. — The Snowflake is a neat and lively little bird, readily
distinguished by its peculiar colouring, in which white is very
conspicuous, conjoined with its gregarious habits, and its ap-
pearance along the coast during the cold season. It is about
the size of the Yellow Bunting, and nearly of the same form,
the body compact, the head of ordinary size, the wings rather
long. The tarsi are short, compressed, with seven scutella ;
the first toe, which, including the claw, is scarcely shorter than
the third, has seven, the second eight, the third ten, the fourth
nine scutella. The claws are slightly arched, compressed, very
acute, with deep lateral grooves at the base only.

The upper mandible within has the edges projecting more
than in any of the Buntings, but is still very narrow, and hav-
ing a central elongated hard prominence anterior to the de-
flection of the palate. The lower mandible is deeply concave
and narrowed by the inflexion of its edges. The oesophagus,
which is dilated on the middle of the neck, is two and a half
inches long ; the stomach nine twelfths in its greatest diame-
ter ; the intestine eight inches in length ; the coeca a twelfth
and a half; the rectum one inch.

The plumage is soft and blended, the feathers ovato-lanceo-
late, with loose margins ; those at the base of the bill are ter-
minated by short bristles. The wings are rather long and
straight, the first quill longest, the second scarcely shorter, the
other primaries graduated, all more or less rounded ; the se-
condaries, excepting the inner three, emarginate. The tail of
moderate length, and deeply emarginate.

The bill is deep yellow, its tip brownish ; the irides brown ;
the feet black. The upper part of the head, space below the
eye, and a gorget on the lower part of the neck, are bright
chestnut mixed with white, the latter colour predominating

462 PLECTROPHANES NIVALIS.

over the eye. The hind-neck is greyish-brown. The feathers
of the back are deep black, broadly margined with yellowish-
grey ; those of the rump similar, but margined with reddish.
The smaller wing-coverts are white, as are the edges and tips
of the secondary coverts, and a broad band, enlarging inwards
and including the basal portion of all the quills, excepting the
three inner secondaries, the other secondaries being almost en-
tirely white ; the rest of the wing brownish-black, the feathers
slightly edged with white. The middle tail-feathers are black-
ish-brown, edged with brownish- white, the three lateral on
each side almost entirely white, having only a dark streak along
the shaft some way down from the tip. The lower parts are
pure white, excepting the throat and sides, which are tinged
w^ith chestnut. The concealed part of the plumage is greyish-
black.

Lengih to end of tail Gj'-j inches ; extent of wings 13 ; bill
along the ridge i%, along the edge of lower mandible ^% ; wing
from flexure 4/77 ; tail 2^§; tarsus 9^ twelfths; first toe y\,
its claw oi twelfths ; second toe 4^ twelfths, its claw Si
twelfths ; third toe y%, its claw 4^ twelfths ; fourth toe 4i
twelfths, its claw^ 3i twelfths.

Female. — The female has the colours duller, with less white.
The head is dark chestnut-brown, the hind-neck yellowish -
grey ; the black of the dorsal feathers is not nearly so pure,
and their margins are light yellowish-brown ; the small wing-
coverts are dusky, the first row tipped with dull white. The
white band on the wing is tinged with dusky, and of much less
extent, being conspicuous only on seven of the quills. The
tail is brownish-black, the white of its lateral feathers very dull,
and of less extent. The sides of the neck are dark yellowish-
grey, the throat paler, the fore-neck dull chestnut, the breast,
abdomen, and lower tail-coverts greyish- white, the sides tinged
with chestnut.

Length to end of tail 6j inches ; extent of wings 12^,
wing from flexure 4/j ; tail S^^^ '■> bill along the ridge 4^
twelfths, along the edge of lower mandible 5^ twelfths ; tarsus
9i twelfths ; hind toe and claw j% ; third toe and claw ^g.

SNOWFLAKE. 463

Variations. — The individuals of this species, especially the
males, vary exceedingly in colour, the white being more or less
extended, the black more or less deep, and the reddish-brown
of the head, rump, throat and sides, varying in extent and
in depth of tint. The bill is sometimes 23ure }dlow, but in
general there is a touch of brownish-black or light brown on
the tips of both mandibles. The females difter less than the
males. Some of the latter are very conspicuous in the flocks,
on account of the great quantity of pure white on their wings
and tail, and are usually selected by " gunners/"' In March
1835, I shot near Prestonpans, in East Lothian, an individual
which was all over of a cream colour, the head and rump tinged
w^ith red, the iris light red, the bill, feet, and claws pale yellow.
The skin of this individual, now before me, is very similar to
that of Mr. Weir's Yellow Bunting formerly mentioned.

Changes. — When the loose margins of the feathers are worn
oiF in summer, the male assumes a very different aj^pearance.

jSIale in Summer. — Bill yellow ; feet black. The head, neck,
and lower parts, pure white ; those parts of the wings and tail
which were of that colour in winter remain so ; the back, alula,
primary coverts, and three inner secondaries, pure black, as is
the tail excepting the three outer feathers. In this state I ob-
served in the beginning of August 1830, two individuals, one
on the summit of Ben-na-muic-dui, another on Lochnagar, two
of the highest mountains of the Grampians. Not having pro-
cured either of these individuals, however, I subjoin the de-
scription of a male from Winter Island, shot on the 10th
May 1822, and examined at Dr. Richardson's in Edinburgh,
on the 16th December 1823.

The feathers of the back acuminate, as are those of the tail,
especially the central. The head, neck, breast, abdomen, sides,
rump, proximal half of the primaries, all the secondaries ex-
cepting the last three, and the greater part of the lower surface of
the wing and tail, are pure white. The anterior and middle part
of the back, the three proximal secondaries, the alula, and the ter-
minal half of the quills, deep black. The hind part of the back

464 PLECTROPHANES NIVALIS.

mottled with white and black. The three lateral tail-feathers,
and the proximal half of the outer web of the fourth, white ; a
black streak on their outer web, at the end, close to the shaft ;
the other tail-feathers black.

Habits. — The earliest period at which, according to my note-
books, I have observed the Snowflake in the outer Hebrides,
was on Sunday, the 28th of September (1817), on which day
it is recorded that " on the ridge between Maodal and Ronaval
I saw a Snow-bunting, and in returning along the shore by the
low hills of Drimafuind saw another."' In another place, dated
Luachar, in Harris, I find the following statement. " Eagles
are very numerous here. The Snow-bunting is frequently met
on the hills in small flocks. I am told they are never seen in
summer." Nor have I ever met with them there beyond the
end of April. Yet the little flocks which I have often observed,
w^ere apparently family groups ; nor do these birds appear in
large congregations, such as we often see along the shores of Scot-
land and England. On the 4th of August 1830, being on the
summit of Ben-na-muic-dui, the highest mountain in Scotland,
I observed a beautiful male flitting about in the neighbourhood
of a great patch of snow. It was also seen by Dr. Greville at
the same time. Some days after, having descended from the
top of Lochnagar, to its corry, along with Dr. Martin Barry, in
quest of plants, I met with a flock of eight individuals, flying
about among the blocks of granite. They were evidently a
family, the male and female being easily distinguished from the
young. It is therefore very probable that the Snowflake breeds
on the higher Grampians ; and possibly in considerable num-
bers, although it is not likely that the vast flocks seen in the
lower grounds in winter are exclusively of Scottish origin.

Mr. Audubon states that " the Snow Birds enter the eastern
portions of the United States sometimes early in November,
and remain in such parts as suit them best until the month of
March."' He further asserts that only a single nest of this spe-
cies had hitherto been found within the limits of the Union.
" It was seen by Wright Booth, Esq. of Boston, on a declivity
of the White Mountains of New Hampshire, in the month of

SNOWFLAKE. 465

July 1831. It contained young ones.'' Although it remains
only about four months in the country, it extends as far south
as Louisville in Kentucky.

Dr. Richardson says that " it is only during the months of
December and January that it retires to the southward of the
Saskatchewan. It usually reaches that river again about the
middle of February; two months afterwards it attains the
sixty- fifth parallel of latitude, and in the beginning of May
it is found on the coast of the Polar Sea.'' Again, " on the
22d July 1826, in removing some drift timber lying on the
beach of Cape Parry, we discovered a nest on the ground, con-
taining four young Snow-birds."

Now, from these statements, we learn that the young are not
abroad until the end of July ; and that the species does not
leave its breeding places until the beginning of November, or
even later. If its habits are similar in Europe, we have reason
to conclude that the individuals seen in Scotland in August and
September, were indigenous.

It is not until the end of October that the Snowflake makes
its appearance along the coasts, or on the higher grounds, of
the south of Scotland ; and about the same period in the
south of England, although there it is of much less frequent
occurrence. It is not uncommon on the sands to the north
of Aberdeen, and on the shores of the Frith of Forth, es-
pecially in time of snow or frost ; but when the weather is
mild, it generally betakes itself to the inland parts. A large
flock has for several years past continued all the winter between
Leith and Portobelio, where before the end of March it is
usually much thinned, the males especially being destroyed by
boys and other idlers. When the flocks first arrive, I have not
observed in them any deficiency of males ; but the longer they
continue in a place, the more do they seem to be composed
chiefly of females and young birds, as persons shooting at them
naturally select the most beautiful.

Assembled in large straggling flocks, or scattered in small
detachments, these birds may be seen flying rather low alon<y
the shore, somewhat in the manner of Larks, moving in an un-
dulated line by means of repeated flappings and short intervals

Hh

466 PLECTROPHANES NIVALIS.

of cessation, and uttering a soft and rather low cry, consisting
of a few mellow notes, not unlike those of the Brown Linnet,
but intermixed at times with a sort of stifled scream or chirr.
When they have found a fitting place, they wheel suddenly
round, and alight rather abruptly, on which occasion the
white of the wings and tail becomes very conspicuous. They
run with great celerity along the sand, not by hops, like the
Sparrows and Finches, but in a manner resembling that of the
Larks and Pipits ; and when thus occupied, it is not in general
difficult to approach them, so that specimens are easily pro-
cured. Indeed it frequently happens that they allow a person
to walk up within five yards, or even less.

When a large flock has remained for several weeks on a
particular part of the coast, where the birds have been much
disturbed, it commonly breaks up into small parties, and even
then they are not remarkably shy. On the 12th of March 1835,
I found them thus scattered along the tide-line, and in the
fields between Prestonpans and Cockenzie, as well as on the
extensive flats at the mouth of the Esk, at Musselburgh.
They were more shy than usual, but I obtained seven specimens.
What they pick up on the shore I have not been able to ascer-
tain ; for, although I have opened many individuals shot there,
I have never found any shells or other marine animals in their
stomach. I should therefore be inclined to think that they
resort thither merely for sand and gravel, were it not that
various respectable authors allege that small mollusca form part
of their food. At intervals, they make excursions into the
neighbouring fields, alight in corn- yards, at barn-doors, or even
on the roads, where they obtain seeds of oats, wheat, polygona,
and other plants, which I have found in them. The only other
objects found by me in the gizzard or crop, besides gravel or
sand, were small pupae.

Although the American ornithologists speak of their alight-
ing on trees, I have never seen them perch on even a bush,
or on any other high place than a crag, the toj) of a wall, or a
corn-stack, in which respect they resemble our Field Lark. It
is not often, however, that they alight on the stacks, for they
prefer searching the ground around them. In the villages

SNOWFLAKE. 467

along the coast of East Lothian, they are sometimes, in spring,
nearly as common as Sparrows, and almost as familiar. About
Leith, where they are generally found in winter on the beach,
even close to the pier, they have a very different appearance
from that which they present in parts of the country remote
from towns, for their plumage is as much soiled as that of the
London sparrows.

About the middle of April, or sometimes a week later, these
birds disappear, and betake themselves to their summer resi-
dence. The nest and eggs of this species are unknown to me>
and indeed have not hitherto been detected in Britain.

Young. — The young, apparently unable to perform a long
flight, and flitting from crag to crag, I have once met with, as
above mentioned ; but as I had not a gun at the time, I can
only say that they seemed to resemble the young females in
their second plumage, but with more grey and less white.

Progress toward Maturity. — When the flocks appear to-
wards the end of autumn, the males and females are coloured
as follows : —

Male. — The bill is dull brownish-yellow, darker at the
point ; the feet brownish-black. The upper part of the head
dark chestnut, the cheeks and hind part of the neck light
chestnut, mixed with grey, the upper parts mottled with
brownish-black and reddish-brown, the centre of each feather
being of the former colour. The small wing-coverts are brown-
ish-white, with a central dusky streak ; the outer secondary
coverts also brownish-white ; alula and primary quills brown-
ish-black, edged w^ith greyish-white ; base of the latter white,
that colour extending on the inner, and occupying almost the
whole of several of the secondaries, although all of them have
either dusky or light brown towards the end, the three inner
without white, and like the back. Tail brownish-black, edged
with brownish-grey ; the three outer feathers almost entirely
white, there being only a streak from the tip, including part
of the outer web. The lower parts are greyish-white, the
throat, sides of the neck, a band across the fore part of thd

H h 2

468 PLECTROPHANES NIVALIS.

breast, and the sides, reddish-browii ; the sides of the baud
under the edge of the wing brownish-black.

Female. — The female has the head and cheeks of a lighter
chestnut, the hind-neck more grey, the upper parts with
brownish-grey in place of reddish margins. The small wing-
coverts are blackish-brown, the first row broadly tipped with
greyish- white. The secondary coverts only tipped with white.
There is much less white on the quills, the secondaries having
all a large proportion of brownish-black. Only two of the tail-
feathers on each side have white, the next being generally only
paler on the inner web. The lower parts are light grey or
greyish -white, with a band of reddish-brown on the fore part of
the breast, the lateral feathers of this band streaked with dusky.

In this state the bird is the Mountain Bunting of Montagu.
His Tawny Bunting is the present species adult in winter
plumage.

Remarks. — ^lontagu having remarked that " so rarely does
the Snow Bunting migrate to the southern parts of England,
that in the many years we have attended to the subject, no one
instance has occurred,""* and that the Tawny Bunting is by no
means so rare there as either the Snow Bunting or the Moun-
tain Bunting, various persons have forthwith asserted that the
males of the species here described are rarely met with in the
south, although the females and young are not unfrequent
there. They forget that by " Snow Bunting"" JNIontagu means
the bird in its summer plumage. In all parts of Scotland, the
flocks that I have met with had their due proportion of adult
males and females, unless the season be advanced, in which
case the males are diminished, simply by being shot on account
of their superior beauty. Montagu states among other reasons
for separating the young and old of this species, that the second
quill is the longest in the Tawny Bunting, while in the Moun-
tain Bunting the two first are nearly the longest. Now, it
does happen that these feathers vary in length, but not as
stated, the first sometimes being longest in both. Thus of
eight " skins,"" which I have preserved in memorial, six have
the first quill decidedly longest, one has the second longest, and
the eighth has the first but very slightly longer than the second.

460

PLECTROPHANES LAPPONICA. THE LAPLAND
LARK-BUNTING.

LAPLAND FINCH.

Friugilla lapponica. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 317.

Fringilla lapponica. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 440.

Bruant montain. Emberiza calcarata. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 322.

Lapland Lark-Bunting. Plectrophanes Lapponica. Selb. Illustr. I. 283.

Emberiza Lapponica. Lapland Bunting. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. I. 128.

Male in winter with the top of the head black spotted toith red,
the fore part of the neck greyish-white spotted with black, the
icings with two transverse white bands. Female with the top
of the head reddish-grey, spotted with black ; the throat white ;
the breast grey, spotted with black.

Male in summer with the top of the head, the cheeks, fore-neck,
and part of the breast pure black, the lower parts white,

Male. — The Lapland Lark- Bunting is nearly of the same
size as the Snowflake, which it resembles in form and propor-
tions, the wings, however, although rather long and pointed,
being shorter, and the bill more like that of a Finch, being
short, conical, with the upper mandible nearly as large as the
lower, its marginal outline but slightly angulate, but the palate
furnished with a prominent knob, which is attenuated ante-
riorly. The feet are short and of moderate strength ; the claws
long, slightly arched, laterally grooved, compressed towards
the end, that of the hind toe much elongated. The plumage
is soft and blended in winter, in summer rather compact above.
The first quill is longest ; the primaries have their points
rounded ; the secondaries, except the inner three, emarginate.
The tail is rather long, and distinctly emarginate.

The bill is brownish -yellow, tipped with dusky ; the feet
brown, the claws black. The upper part of the head is black,

470 PLECTROPHANES LAPPONICA.

the feathers edged with brownish-red ; those along the base of
the bill black ; the cheeks reddish, spotted with black ; the
throat, fore part of the neck, and a portion of the breast black, the
feathers edged with greyish- white. A reddish- white band passes
from the eye down the side of the neck ; the hind part of the
neck is reddish-brown mixed with greyish ; the back and
scapulars brownish-red with black spots. The quills and
coverts are blackish-brown, edged with reddish; the tips of
the secondary coverts, and first row of small coverts, w^hite,
there being thus two bands of that colour across the wing.
The tail is brownish-black, the feathers edged with reddish,
the two outer with a wedge-shaped white spot at the end.

Length to end of tail 61% ; wing from flexure S\^ ; tail
2j% ; bill along the ridge j% ; hind toe j%, its claw 5i twelfths ;
third toe 7i twelfths, its claw 3i twelfths.

Female. — " The female has the top of the head, the neck,
the back, and the scapulars of a reddish-grey, with black spots ;
a band of reddish-white follows the same direction as in the
male, and unites with a white line, which proceeds from the
angle of the bill ; throat white, bordered on the sides by a
brown band ; the breast marked with numerous grey and black
spots ; the rest of the lower parts white, with longitudinal
spots on the sides." — Temminck.

Male in Summer. — " All the black of the plumage velvet
black ; the whole head, the face, the region of the ears, the
fore part of the neck, and the breast, are of that colour ; the
red crescent on the hind-neck of a pure and very bright tint ;
and all the colours of the plumage abruptly defined, and pure ;
the bill is of a fine yellow, w4th the point brown."' — Tem-
minck.

Female in Summer. — The upper parts are dusky, dark-
est on the back, the edges of the feathers reddish ; the feath-
ers of the hind-neck edged with red ; the ear-coverts deep
brown ; space about the eyes, especially above, yellowish-red,
a streak of that colour proceeding backwards and joining the

LAPLAND LARK-BUNTING. 471

red of the hind-neck ; the throat greyish-white ; the lower an-
terior and lateral parts of the neck, and the upper part of the
breast, brownish-grey, tinged with red, and longitudinally
streaked with blackish ; the sides similarly marked ; the mid-
dle and lower part of the breast, the abdomen, and lower tail-
coverts whitish, tinged with grey and a little red ; tail blackish-
brown, the outer edge, and part of the inner web at the end of
the lateral feathers, brownish-white, of which there is a small
oblique mark at the end of the second feather.

Young in Second Plumage. — " Head, hind-neck, and all
the upper parts of the body cream-coloured, with longitudinal
streaks and spots of blackish ; the broad space of chestnut
brown already exists on the wings ; all the quills and tail-
feathers are bordered with deep red ; throat white, marked
with small longitudinal spots ; a small blackish spot at the
orifice of the ears ; lower parts reddish- white, deeper on the
breast and sides, which have spots of blackish-brown ; a red-
dish conical spot on the outer tail-feather, and a longitudinal
spot on the next." — Temminck,

Remarks. — The Lapland Lark-Bunting is an inhabitant of
the colder regions of both continents, whence it migrates south-
ward on the approach of winter, proceeding in Europe as far
as Germany, France, and Switzerland, and in America appear-
ing in the higher parts of the states of Maine and Michigan.
The Prince of Musignano remarks that it does not ordinarily
occur in maritime countries, but prefers the elevated tracts of
the interior, which may account for its having so seldom been
met with in Britain. Only four individuals, I believe, are
recorded as having been shot there, all young birds or females
in winter plumage. Mr. Selby has described and figured one
which was found in Leadenhall Market among larks that had
been sent from Cambridgeshire, and of which the preserved
skin is in the Museum of the Zoological Society. Another,
in the possession of Mr. Yarrell, was caught near Brighton. In
September 1828, a third was obtained near London ; and in
October 1833, a fourth near Preston. Not having seen any of

472 PLECTROPHANES LAPPONICA.

those specimens, I have been obliged to have recourse to
American skins ; and as these were of the male in winter and
female in summer only, I have copied M. Temminck's charac-
ters for the rest. According to the noble and illustrious author
above named, and the celebrated Dr. Richardson, the Lapland
Lark-Buntings live in large flocks, and frequently intermingle
with Larks, with Alauda arvensis in Europe, and Alauda
alpestris in America, as well as several other birds of similar
habits. Their food consists chiefly of seeds of arctic or alpine
plants, especially of willows and Arbutus alpina. They breed
in marshy places, or moist meadows ; form their nest of dry
stalks of grass, lining it with hair or feathers ; and lay six or
seven eggs, of a yellowish colour, spotted with brown.

This species is one of those that more evidently indicates
the many afiinities by which a particular bird is connected
with others of different genera. Its bill, considered w^ith re-
spect to external form, allies it to the Finches and Linnets ;
the knob on its palate evinces an alliance with the Buntings ;
its feet connects it with the Larks ; and these organs and its
w^ngs assign it an intimate relation to the Snowflake. As its
upper mandible is considerably larger and broader than that of
the bird just named, and the gape-line little deflected at the
base, some authors have referred it to the genus Fringilla.
Another, judging it to be neither Finch nor Bunting, forms of
it a genus apart, under the name of Passerina. The palatal
knob, however, is decisive as to its family, and the claws and
w^ngs present the peculiar characters of Plectrophanes, to
which it was first referred by Mr. Selby, although M. Tem-
minck had long before indicated its connection with the Snow-
flake, by placing these birds in a separate section of Einberiza.

The form and habits of the Lark-Buntings shew that they
constitute the link which connects the Buntings, Finches, and
Larks. The latter birds are perhaps as much granivorous as
the former ; but owing to the circumstances already mentioned,
and their still greater affinity to the Pipits and Thrushes, I
have judged it expedient to remove them from the order of
Huskers, and bring them into connection with the genus An-
thus, which resembles them much more than they resemble
the Finches.

473

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

THIRD LESSON.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE MIDLAND PARTS OF THE MIDDLE DIVISION OF
SCOTLAND. BIRDS OBSERVED THERE. BEAULY FRITH. DESCRIPTION
OF CROMARTY FRITH. SEA BIRDS FOUND ON IT. FRITHS OF TAY AND
FORTH. WANDERERS.

Few things can be more delightful to a person capable in
some measure of apprehending the varied phenomena of nature
than a rapid survey of a large extent of country, such as may
be made in a vehicle proceeding at the rate of ten miles an hour
over a succession of plains, valleys, and mountainous tracts, and
along rivers, estuaries, and arms of the sea. But I must cor-
rect myself : the true naturalist travels outside, and is not con-
tent with observing nature through a square foot or so of dim
glass. In summer no doubt such a ride would be more pleasant
than in the midst of winter, when the leafless trees shoot up
against the clear cold sky, when the hills are clad with their
snowy mantle, and the biting wind feels as if it penetrated
through flesh and sinews ; yet to the ornithologist the warm
season would aftbrd less gratification, for then the birds are dis-
persed over the fields and hills, scattered among the thickets
and woods, and concealed by the dense foliage.

In the middle of March, I had the pleasure of performing
such a journey from Edinburgh to the town of Cromarty,
situated on the eastern coast of the northern division of Scot-
land. At Queensferry, where we crossed the Frith of Forth,
over whose placid waters gleamed from afar the white ridge of
the southern Grampians, were seen flocks of the Common and
Black-headed Gulls, Larus canus and L. ridibundus, with a
few individuals of the Great Black-backed species, L. marinus,
and some Ducks too distant to be distinguished. Between this
place and Kinross were observed numbers of the more common

474 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

email birds, some Partridges, two Pheasants feeding in a
ploughed field, and a male Hen-harrier, Circus cyaneus, the
flight of which afforded a most interesting sight. First, it came
skimming over a field, almost close upon the ground, then
glided along a hawthorn hedge, now on one side, then on the
other, turned abruj^tly to follow another hedge, never flying
higher than three or four yards, and lastly passed over a large
ploughed field and disappeared. Its mode of flying was almost
precisely similar to that of the Sparrow Hawk, which, in like
manner, I have sometimes seen almost in the dusk taking a
last survey for the day of its hunting grounds, in quest of some
poor bird that, having imprudently perched in an exposed place,
might be within reach of its talons.

It was eight when we entered Perth, and the journey by Dun-
keld and Blair, into the central group of the Grampians, hav-
ing been performed under night, little could be seen, although
it was clear moonlight, excepting woods and plantations in the
lower tracts, and in the higher hills covered with heath, of
which the dark colour contrasted with the patches of snow that
remained unmelted, with bare valleys in which not a hut was to
be seen for many successive miles. Day dawned when we ar-
rived at the commencement of the wooded part of the strath or
valley of the Spey, which, covered with heath, and straggling
trees of stunted birch and alder, presented a most desolate as-
pect, no doubt enhanced by a heavy fall of snow and a piercing
north-east wind. Farther on, the valley expanded, the long
ranges of low hills were covered with natural forests of pine,
the flanks of the higher mountains to the south presented
patches of dark woodland amidst a waste of snow, and the clear
streams glided over their pebbly beds amidst scraggy bushes of
birch. To the Celtic Scot there is something in the sight of
a forest of native pines, that have sprung up spontaneously in
the wilderness, stunted and rugged as they may be, that affords
as much delight as the scent of a distant oasis yields to the
faint and wearied camel in the sandy desert. In those wild
woods of Badenoch once roamed the wolf and the bull, and on
the slopes of those heathery hills browsed the stately stag,
while amidst the thickets glided the gentle and graceful roe.

PINE FORESTS OF THE SPEY. 475

In huts of turf like these, with a hole in the roof that answered
the double purpose of allowing the light to enter and the smoke
to escape, resided the rude clansmen, active, hardy, and daring,
who followed their warlike lords to the raid of the lowland
plains, but who at home, gentle and affectionate, as all true
Highlanders have ever been, lived in the enjoyment of happi-
ness, such as is not always possessed by those whose comforts
are more apparent. Amid the smoke and soot of many a High-
land hut there is yet more real happiness than is to be found in
the stately mansions of milder climes. Look at those boys,
" just let loose from school," who have gathered to gaze upon
us. " The rose of England'' blooms not on their cheeks, which,
young as they are, have already been blanched by the cold
blasts, and freckled by the summer heats ; but their sinews
are firm, their limbs are clean, and their " step is light on the
heath." Their clothing is scanty as well as homely, some of
them even have merely a bit of blanket wrapt around their
loins in place of trowsers ; but is there one among them that
shrinks from the " bitter biting blast," for fear of which
our inside passengers scarcely allow themselves air enough for
respiration I What a difference between these young moun-
taineers, unencumbered with superfluous fat, and the massive
younglings of the Lancashire yeomen ! But again we proceed
amid the snow, and passing a small lake, partially frozen, ob-
serve on it a large flock of Ducks, which are certainly Golden-
eyed Garrots, although the driver calls them Teal, a name
which he would probably give to every species of duck except-
ing the ^lallard. By the houses and in the corn-yards are
seen the Sparrow, Chaffinch, Yellow Bunting, Robin, Hedge
Chanter, Wren, Magpie, Rook, Thrush, and Lark ; but there
are no Fieldfares or Redwings, and the Blackbird is rarely met
with. All along are scattered at wide intervals pairs of Hooded
Crows, Corvus Cornix, in place of which w^ould be found in
the interior of the south of Scotland, the Carrion Crow, Corvus
Corone. On the dreary descent of the Monagh-leadh moun-
tains no other birds were seen, excepting a single specimen of
that last mentioned, a Buzzard, and a Heron. But now, the
prospect changes ; the Moray Frith is stretched out before us,

476 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

and the horizon is bounded by the snow-clad mountains of
Ross-shire, among which is conspicuously preeminent the mas-
sive Benwyvis. The influence of the sea air is perceptible as
Ave approach Inverness : the ground is clear of snow, the small
birds become numerous, flocks of Fieldfares are met with,
and vegetation is awakening to life.

Leaving Inverness, we pass along the Beauly Frith, of which
the shores are low and cultivated. On it are seen various spe-
cies of birds : — A large flock of Geese, probably the Brent,
Anser Bernicla ; the Golden-eye, the Mallard, the Long-tailed
Duck, the Common and Black-headed Gull in large flocks, the
Black-backed Gull, and the Redshank. Rooks became very
abundant, and Lapwings plentiful, especially on the plain at the
top of the frith, which is bounded by hills covered with plan-
tations and cultivated fields, succeeded by higher eminences,
until the view^ is terminated by the lofty snow-clad mountains
that bound the horizon.

From Beauly to Dingwall, over the low, partially cultivated
Black Isle, on which the juniper generally usurps the place of
the furze and broom of the south, there were seen only the com-
mon land birds, including the Hooded Crow ; nor did any
other occur until, in the evening, while examining the shores
of Alness Bay, on the Cromarty Frith, I observed great num-
bers of Ducks, Lapwings, and Ringed Plovers.

Next day, having taken a boat from Invergordon, I proceed-
ed to the Sutors of Cromarty, two steep rocks or headlands
between which is the narrow and deep channel by which the
w^aters of the frith communicate with the ocean. But first let
us take a general view of this beautiful estuary, and ascend
an eminence behind the ancient tow^n of Dingwall, in a lovely
summer morning, such as that, in July 1821, on w^hich I first
saw it. On the left hand is the entrance to the valley of Strath-
peifer, beyond which are rounded hills, rising gradually toward
the north, and surmounted by Benwyvis. Their flanks are co-
vered with wood, the thin haze floats along their sides, and
toward the east they slope into a cultivated plain that ex-
tends toward the sea. Here on the right enters the Conon, a
river of considerable size ; you see it winding among banks

CROMARTY FRITH. 477

and shoals, through an expanse of mud, until it is lost in the
basin of placid water that extends for twenty miles eastward,
having an average breadth of a mile and three quarters, and
bounded on the southern side by a low bank from which the
country rises gently to form what is called the Black Isle,
brown with heath, and unwooded, but having patches of cul-
tivation scattered over its surface. The hills of the north screen
the country at their base from the cold winds, which sweep un-
controlled over the moors of the southern side, producing a re-
markable change of climate between the two sides of the inlet,
which you perceive is first contracted at that little town about
twelve miles distant, named Invergordon, and again beyond
Cromarty, at the channel of the Sutors, which affords a free
entrance to ships of the largest burden. Is this expanse of
water, capable of anchoring the entire British navy in security,
and glittering from afar in the beams of the morning sun, any
thing else than an arm of the sea ? Surely not. But let us
descend, and now that the tide is fast receding, pursue our way
along the northern shore. Behind that yair which runs out
into the mud is stationed a solitary Heron, while beside it you
observe two or three Redshanks busily occupied in searching
the mud. Some sea-birds are seen floating on the water, and
a few gulls are hovering over its surface ; but as it is sum-
mer, the birds are now at their breeding places. Here arei
four miles of mud and sand, a stream pursuing its way in
the midst, separating into two currents, between which inter-
venes the Finden Bank, and all down to Invergordon, broad
margins and flats laid bare by the receding waters. Is it now
the open sea, or the estuary of the Conon ? Surely an estuary.
And were you to see the mighty torrent, swollen with the
autumnal floods from those long ranges of lofty mountains that
stretch toward the north, even to the confines of Loch Carron,
Loch Ewe, and Loch Broom, carrying on its turbid waters the
wrecks of the land, ploughing for itself a channel in the tide
waters of the frith, and discharging itself into the ocean at the
Sutors, you would have little doubt that if at one time the
basin presents the appearance of an inlet of the sea, at another
it becomes an outlet of a river.

478 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

But summer and autumn too are gone, and here we are, in
the cold month of March, coasting the North Sutor of Cromarty,
in a small boat manned by no less a personage than the King,
— at least his companions give him that title — and a crew of
active, intelligent, and most obliging young men ; you observe
on those crags a flock of Cormorants, and as they fly off, you
perceive on the side of one of them the white spot distinctive
of the larger species, Phalacrocorax Carbo. There, a Rock
Dove shot into one of those low caves that occur here and
there along the base of the red gneiss cliffs, whose perpendicu-
lar or slightly inclined strata exhibit in several places the most
fanciful contortions. But the tide is ebbing, and the current
w^ill presently be strong ; so let us return, and as we proceed
endeavour to obtain a shot at those flocks of beautifiil Sea-Ducks.
Observe that fine male, with the white head and neck, his
small taper tail raised out of the water. They are off, but mul-
titudes are scattered over the channel, and especially along the
edges of this expanded part, which is named Cromarty Bay.
A seal shews his glittering round head in our w^ake, w^hile the
Black-backed Gull floats high over us. Hark ! what can be
the cause of that outcry among the small gulls ? Two pirates,
Lestris parasiticus, are in pursuit. If you follow one of them
with your eye, you will see it plunge through the air after a
gull, which attempts in vain to escape, being closely followed
in all its windings, until at length, finding no means of eluding
its pursuer, it disgorges a small fish, which as it falls is dex-
terously caught by the bold jager. Now, we are near the great
sand flats of the Bay of Nigg, which at low water fill up more
than half the breadth of the basin. Vast meadows of Sea
Grass, Zostera marina, cover these shoals, and afford an abun-
dant supply of food to the Brent Geese, which you see here and
there in large flocks, some on shore, and others floating amidst
multitudes of Common and Black-headed Gulls. It is a sight
worth coming all the way from Edinburgh to see, and in truth
such as I have never seen before, although familiar enough with
these same geese, which are abundant in some parts of the outer
Hebrides. On the water, they are easily distinguished from
ducks and other birds, not by their size and colour merely, but

CROMARTY FRITH. 479

by the manner in which they erect their necks. The number
in view at this moment cannot be less than five or six thou-
sand. In the pools, and among the scattered fuel, are small
fishes, shells and echini, which are daily gleaned by the gulls.
Auks and Guillemots are flying out to sea, where they w411 re-
main until the tide begins to flow again, and here and there is
seen a Red-throated Diver, stemming the waves like a gallant
bark, or pursuing his seaward flight on rapid pinions. But it
is alreadv seven o'clock, and before w^e get to Invergordon bar-
hour, even with this favourable breeze, it will be quite dark.

Next day, I sailed to the head of the Frith, landing alter-
nately on both sides to observe the rocks, which are of red
sandstone and conglomerate, of the oldest series, or that called
by some Primitive Sandstone, being composed of fragments
and detritus of primitive rocks. Long-tailed Ducks, and
Mallards occur plentifully towards low water along the
edges of the mud banks, on which are also seen Curlews,
Redshanks, and Lapwings, while on the gravelly and pebbly
beaches are numerous small flocks of Ringed Plovers, Chara-
drius Hiaticula. Hooded Crows, Corvus Cornix, are very
plentiful ; Rooks still more so ; but I met with no Carrion
Crows, Ravens, or Jackdaws. In the w^oods and fields I ob-
served the small birds common in almost all parts of Scotland ;
the Field Lark carolled its ever-pleasing song ; the Meadow
Pipit w^as seen here and there ; the beautiful White Wagtail
occurred in considerable numbers ; and the Sparrow, although
by no means common, was seen in the villages. The salmon
fishers on the Conon informed me that seals often make their
way as far as the bridge, and are sometimes caught in the nets ;
but that the porpoises, although they enter the frith, never
ascend the fresh water.

Let us now hurry southward as fast as four steeds can carry
us ; and as we have under o^one considerable fatiofue these three
days, and have little to see by the way that we have not seen
before, let us get within, and between dozing, dreaming, and
concocting fanciful systems of ornithology, forget if possible
how the time passes until, pine forest and birch wood, moun-
tain ranges clad with snow, barren moors covered with heath

480 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

and arbutus, grim rocks and pebbly streams, being all past,
we find ourselves driving over the Carse of Gowrie, having
the Sidlaw Hills on one side, and the estuary of the Tay on
the other. It freezes so hard that the exhalations from our
blood are formed into beautiful crystalline shoots of ice on
the windows. In one corner, cased and muffled to the mouth,
with woful face and closed eyes sits a thin-ribbed and slight-
limbed traveller, while beside him, occupying more than an
equitable breadth of the coach, is a portly dame, whose florid
cheeks bid defiance to the cold. Anon, the clattering of hoofs,
and the clang of the horn, announce our arrival in Dundee,
where, after due refreshment, we proceed to the harbour, and
got on board the " Modern Athens," which is to carry us to
Newhaven.

The tide is nearly out. In the estuary we observe the same
mud and sand flats, as in the Cromarty and Beauly Friths ;
and on the rocks and stones the same sea-weeds and shells ;
the piers are covered with them up to high-water mark. Gulls
of various kinds are hovering around. Guillemots and Divers
flying seaward ; Curlews and Redshanks pacing the mud.
The paddles are in motion, and as we pass Broughty Castle
and Parton-Craig, we observe that the promontories and low
rocks are of trap. The channel widens, and on its sandy shores
gleam flocks of Sanderlings and other small birds, with Gulls
and Curlews. Terrific breakers rush over the long-extended
sand-banks, on one of which lies a dismasted hulk, and long
billows roll in from the ocean, on which are seen at intervals
Ducks, Divers, and Guillemots. At length we cross the bar,
stretch over the bay of St. Andrews, having the Bell Rock
light-house on the eastern horizon, coast the point of Fife, pass
the Isle of May, and enter the Frith of Forth. On the southern
side are the Lammermoor Hills, covered with snow, the Bass
Rock, Guillon Point, and Aberlady Bay ; on the north the
rocky and sandy shores of Fife, with its numerous small towns ;
while right ahead is Inchkeith, beyond which old Arthur's
Seat keeps his solitary watch over the fair city of the north,
where bright eyes will become brighter when the wanderer
enters his happy home. Between Inchkeith and Newhaven

M'ANDERING NATURALISTS. 481

were seen great numbers of Velvet Ducks, which, while fly-
ing, have a very singular appearance, owing to the great size
of their head and bill. The other species observed were those
already enumerated ; and as our journey is now ended, and
our third fit of practical ornithology brought to a close, let us
seriously consider how we may best narrate the history of that
very important tribe of birds, to which the name of Vagatores
or Wanderers may be applied.

Joyous in action, pining in idleness, ever on the alert, even
in sleep pursuing, as the hound dreams of the chase, irregularly
migratory, and settling for a time only to narrate their adven-
tures, there is a tribe of naturalists very similar in character to
these sagacious and enterprising birds. A friend of mine, for
example, who writes to me from Charleston, that he is about
setting out to explore the shores of the ^lexican Gulf and the
south-western limits of the United States, and return to Edin-
burgh by the end of autumn, is t}^ical of this family. Hunt-
ing by sight, not by scent, now sweeping along the Alleghanies,
anon searching the mud-flats of the Mississipi, feasting to-day
on an old gobbler on the banks of the Red River, to-morrow
picking up a water-hen from among the reeds of the St. John's,
he represents, as Le Vaillant formerly represented, the dark-
winged Raven, Corvus Corax. The Carrion Crow, Cor\^is
Corone, has its analogue in some other wanderer, who is fond
of kicking alligators' ribs, and strangling rattle-snakes. The
Hooded Crow, Corvus Cornix, clamorous before rain, feeding
on small fry, keeping a good look-out when pilfering, but, being
pied, easily recognised, represents another ; while a fourth re-
sembles the industrious Rook, Corvus frugilegus, that gleans
in the fields, on the hills, and by the shores, finding in common
and neglected objects much that is not less nutritious than
savoury. The Jackdaw, pert, and fond of perching on pin-
nacles, has many representatives ; and the chattering, thievish,
and handsome Magpie, is not without admirers and imitators.
Indeed, it affords a striking proof of the perfect naturality of
the arrangement proposed by me at p. 17, that in the human
species individuals and families may be found that form a
complete counterpart in all essential respects to the species and

1 i

482 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

orders of the feathered tribes. Plunderers, Robbers, Snatchers,
Scrapers, Watchers, Gropers, Cooers, and Songsters, are cha-
racters well known to everybody. Nothing in fact can be
more beautiful than the accordance thus presented between
men and birds ; but as it is unnecessary to insist upon what all
enlightened naturalists must at once admit, I leave my theory
in their hands, confident that they will readily perceive many
curious analogies, which it would not be complimentary to
their sagacity in me to explain.

483

IV. VAGATORES. WANDERERS.

OR CROWS AND ALLIED GENERA.

Continuing our survey of the land birds, after separating
from the mass the orders Rasores, Gemitores, and Deglubitores,
we might next detach a group consisting of the Crows, Jays,
Starlings, and other allied genera, possessing a certain not
difficultly perceived affinity of form, with a corresponding
agreement of character and manners. To this group, con-
sidered as an order, I would give the name of Vagatores, or
Wanderers, by which term may be designated a habit different
from the migratorial or periodical removal from one country
to another, namely, that of visiting a large extent of surface in
procuring their daily subsistence. It is true that the Raptores
are equally Vagatores, as are Gulls, Gannets, and other birds ;
but it is utterly impossible to give an unexceptionable name to
a group, and that which I have selected appears to me more
applicable than that of Omnivorous, applied by M. Temminck
to nearly the same section, since in reality only the genus
Corvus is of the character implied by the term, and even of it
some species are more properly vermivorous.

The order Vagatores is composed of five groups : the Bu-
cerinac or Hornbills, Corvince, Thremmaphilinae, Paradisese,
and Lampratorninse. The Quiscalinre, composed of the genera
Icterus, Cassicus, Quiscalus, and some others, which various
authors have associated with the Corvinse, I should refer to
the Coni rostral order. It is only of the second and third of

li 2

484 VAGATORES. WANDERERS.

these families, the Corvinse and Thremmaphilinae, that we have
representatives in Britain, and even of these not more than
eleven species, of which two only belong to the latter. The
general characters of these two groups will be found in their
proper places in the present volume. Of the order generally,
the following brief characters will suffice.

The bill is stout, nearly straight, compressed towards the
end, tapering, pointed, sharp-edged, the upper mandible with
a slight notch or sinus. The tongue, PI. IX, Figs. 1, 4, 6, a,
is oblong, emarginate at the base, horny towards the end,
thin-edged, slit or lacerated. The oesophagus, ^, ^, d^ is rather
wude, uniform ; the proventriculus, d, bulbiform, with a com-
plete belt of oblong or cylindrical glandules. The stomach.
Figs. 4, 6,y; g^ is a gizzard of moderate power, with a thin,
slightly rugous inner coat or cuticular lining. The intestine,
h, i^j, k, I, m, is of moderate length and diameter, slightly con-
tracting dowTiwards. Two very small, cylindrical adnate coeca.
Fig. 3, c, d. Rectum, «, b, wider, with an oblong dilatation
towards the end. Body compact, ovate ; neck generally rather
short or of moderate length. Legs of moderate length, rather
stout ; tarsus moderately long, with from seven to ten anterior
scutella. Toes four, three anterior moderately spreading, first
of the same length as the second and fourth, stout; third
much longer ; third and fourth united at the base. Claw^s
arched, stout, compressed, acute, laterally grooved. Wings of
moderate length, oblong, much rounded, the primaries nar-
rowed towards the end, and separated when the wing is ex-
panded ; the first very short, the fourth and fifth longest.

Birds of this order are found in all parts of the globe. They
are frequently gregarious ; those which feed chiefly on larvae,
w^orms, or seeds, are always so, and the larger species, which
prefer animal food, associate occasionally without quarrelling.
Almost every eatable substance that can be mentioned enters
into their bill of fare, although each species has its own limited
range of food. The Crows are the most general eaters, the
Starlings the most limited. They walk with ease, leap under
excitement, or even run with considerable speed. Their flight
is strong, often rapid, generally performed by regularly-timed

VAGATORES. n^\NDERERS. 485

beats, and capable of being much protracted. They nestle and
rest in high places, never on the ground, although sometimes
under it, in the holes of rabbits and other small animals. Their
nest is generally rude, frequently nearly flat, but of various
forms according to the species. Both sexes incubate. The eggs,
which vary from three to ten, are never covered when the bird
leaves them. The young bird is born blind, at first thinly
covered with down, and in many genera has its first plumage
similar to that of the adult.

The genera of which this order is composed are Buceros,
Corvus, Pica, Garrulus, Fregilus, Nucifraga, Buphaga, Gra-
cula, Ptilonorhynchus, Sturnus, Pastor, Paradisea, Lamprotor-
nis, and several others. They pass into those forming the next
order, of which the genera Turdus, Oriolus, Cinclus, Sylvia,
and Saxicola are examples.

In several respects the Vagatores are to be accounted among
the most perfectly organized birds. Their digestive organs
enable them to derive nutriment from a great variety of escu-
lent substances, the stomach being intermediate betw^een the
membranous or thinly muscular kind peculiar to the carnivo-
rous families, and the gizzards or extremely muscular kind
characteristic of those strictly ph}i;ophagous. Their gressorial
powers are in accordance with this character ; for their mode-
rately long and stout tarsi, with their proportionally developed
toes, of which three are equal in length, enable them to search
the fields and pastures, and with the aid of their arched, com-
pressed, and acute claws, to perch with perfect security on trees,
as well as to make their way among the branches. Their
wings are of that form which ensures a powerful and regular
flight, steady without being heavy^ and buoyant without waver-
ing, for they are broad, of moderate length, and either rounded
or not pointed. The tail, which is chiefly useful for enabling
birds to execute rapid turns, is short in the species wdiich seek
their food entirely on the ground, and long in those which re-
side chiefly in trees and bushes. Their sight is keen, and
their observation not confined to objects at short distances.
From their habits, they are exposed to numerous enemies ;
and both for this reason, and because they require to visit a

486 VAGATORES. WANDERERS.

variety of scenes in the course of their daily occupations, they
are endowed with mental faculties of considerable extent, so
that although hold and daring on occasion, they are at the
same time extremely vigilant and cautious ; and although
restricted by instinct to a certain course of action, are yet
enabled to profit by experience. It is when domesticated that
their faculties are best perceived ; and then they exhibit more
sagacity, and more powder of adapting themselves to circum-
stances than perhaps any other race of birds, while their docility,
always indicative of high mental power, is exceeded only by
that of a very few quadrupeds.

The British species of this order belong to the families Cor-
vinae and Thremmaphilinoe.

487

CORVINE.

CROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The extensive and generally distributed family of the Cor-
vinse, composed of the genera Corvus, Pica, Garrulus, Nuci-
fraga, Fregilus, and a few others, has only nine representatives
among the species that occur in Britain, and of these one is
merely an occasional straggler. These birds agree in the fol-
lowing circumstances. They are all of considerable size, the
smallest, the Jay, being about as large as a common Pigeon,
while the Raven, which is the largest, equals the Domestic
Cock. Their body is ovate, compact, and moderately stout ;
their neck short ; their head large or of moderate size, oval and
rather flattened above ; their wings generally rather long, and
much rounded.

The bill is in most cases about the length of the head, robust,
nearly straight, compressed towards the end ; the upper mandi-
ble with its outline more or less arched, its tip slightly de-
flected, the edges sharp with a slight notch or sinus close to the
end. The palate is flat or concave, and the upper mandible inter-
nally is marked with several longitudinal ridges. The internal
aperture of the nares is narrow and edged with small papillae.
The aperture of the glottis is defended behind by numerous
papillae, directed backv/ards. The tongue, PI. IX, Fig. 1, a,
is oblong, emarginate at the base, flat above, horny on both
sides and thin-edged towards the tip, which is slit, and more
or less lacerated on the margin. The fauces are of moderate
width, as is the oesophagus, b, c, d, which is of nearly uniform
diameter. The proventriculus, Fig. 4, d, bulbiform and en-
circled by a broad band of oblong or cylindrical glandules.
The stomach, Fig. 2, h, c, d, e^ is a gizzard of moderate power,

488 CORVINiE.

oblong, a little compressed ; its muscular coat, 6, c, d^ thick,
with two round rather large central tendons, e ; the cuticular
lining of moderate thickness, and more or less, generally
slightly, rugous. The intestine is of moderate length, wider
in its duodenal portion, gradually contracting as far as the
coeca, Fig. 3, ^, (;? ; which are cylindrical, adnate, longer than
in the diurnal rapacious birds, but in no case exceeding an
inch in length, and therefore forming a complete contrast with
those of the Kasores. The rectum, «, ^, which is very short,
scarcely a twelfth of the whole length of the intestine, is wider,
and towards the end has a globular dilatation.

The eyes are of modemte size ; the eyelids feathered, with a
narrow crenate margin, and without ciliary bristles ; the lower
much larger. The nostrils are of moderate size, round or broadly
elliptical, in the fore part of the very broad, short, rounded,
nasal depression, and covered by reversed bristly feathers.
The aperture of the ear is rather large or of moderate size, and
nearly circidar.

The feet are of moderate leno-th, grenerallv stout ; the tarsus
compressed with from eight to ten anterior scutella, and two
longitudinal plates forming a thin edge behind. The toes are
four, articulated on the same level, the first directed backwards,
and stronger, but about the same length as the second and
fourth, which are considerably exceeded by the third ; all cover-
ed above with large scutella, padded and gi*anulated beneath ;
the fourth or outer united to the third as far as the second joint.
The claws are rather large, arched, compressed, more or less
acute, the sides erect, and generally with an obscure groove.

The plumage is various. The feathers at the base of the
upper mandible are always linear, with disunited filaments,
reversed, adpressed, and covering the nostrils. The wings are
long, or of moderate length, much rounded ; the first quill about
half the length of the fourth or fifth, which are longest ; the
primary quills ten ; the secondary from nine to twelve, broad,
and abruptly rounded. The tail varies from moderately long
to very long ; and presents no general character beyond being
composed of twelve broad feathers.

The skeleton of these birds is of moderate strength ; the

CROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 489

cranium proportionally large, the neck of moderate length, the
thorax short and deep. The skull is hroad and convex above
and behind, with the septum between the orbits incomplete ;
the maxillary bones moderately elongated and compact ; the
nasal vacuity large and elliptical ; and the crura of the lower
jaw with an oblong vacuity near the condyle. The cervical
vertebras are generally nine ; the dorsal nine, of which the two
anterior have no ribs ; the united lumbar and sacral ten ;
the coccygeal seven. There are seven very slender depressed
ribs, the first incomplete, and, as well as the last, without the
posterior processes. The scapula is ensiform. The furcula slen-
der, hyoid, rather narrow, with the curve rounded. The ster-
num short, as in hawks, with an equally prominent ridge, the
posterior part with a deep sinus on each side. Humerus of
moderate length ; cubital bones a fourth longer ; the rest of
the same length as the cubitus, consisting of two carpal bones,
one large metacarpal having an oblong incomplete space towards
its inner edge, a thin pollical, and three digital, of which latter
there are two to the first phalanx. The femur is short, the
tibia twice as long, with a slender incomplete fibula, extending
only one-third down. The tarsal bone is three-sided, and a
little longer than the femur. The toes are four ; the hind toe
composed of a distinct metatarsal bone and two phalanges ;
the second of three, the third of four, the fourth of five pha-
langes ; the extreme phalanges rather long, conical, slightly
arched, laterally grooved.

Their muscular system is moderately developed. The pec-
toral muscles are large, as are those of the legs. The skin is
tough, with little subcutaneous fat.

The digestive organs are of a kind adapted for seeds, grain,
and fruits, as well as flesh. The bill, a strong, pointed forceps,
is capable of separating the muscles from the bones of animals,
of tearing up their skin, of penetrating the ground to extract
worms, or of laying hold of and breaking vegetable substances
of various kinds. Although the oesophagus has no median dila-
tation or crop, it is yet rather wide, and capable of holding a
considerable quantity of food. The stomach being a true giz-
zard, although not so powerful as in the Gallina?, Perdicinae,

490 CORVINiE.

or Columbinae, it triturates grain and farinaceous or oleaginous
kernels, with the aid of fragments of quartz or other hard sub-
stances. The fluid secreted by the pro ventricular glands acts
alike on animal and vegetable substances. The intestine being
of moderate length and diameter, its inner surface delicately
and copiously villous, the chyle derived from the heterogeneous
aliment is sufficiently absorbed without requiring large coeca,
as in the Gallinae, those organs being in the Crows merely rudi-
mentary. The foeces and urine are deposited in the enlarge-
ment of the very short rectum, and voided in a semifluid
state.

The moral characteristics common to all are cautiousness,
vigilance, and considerable sagacity manifested in various
ways. They are easily tamed when obtained young, can be
taught to pronounce some words, and m.ake amusing but
troublesome pets, as they have a propensity to carry off" and con-
ceal anything glittering. Some, as the Rook and Jackdaw,
are gregarious ; others, as the Raven and Carrion Crow, un-
social.

Their flight varies, and their manners are in some respects
very diiferent. Thus, while the Raven boldly searches the
mountains, the moors, the open fields, and the shores, for car-
rion, young birds, dead fish, and other articles of food, not dis-
daining larvae, worms, and grain, the Jay glides stealthily
among the trees and along the hedges, sometimes stealing into
the gardens, and feeding on fruits of various kinds, pease, beans,
corn, larvfe and w^orms. The larger species resemble the Vul-
tures and some Gulls in their habits, while the smaller are
allied to the birds of which the next family, the Starlings, are
composed.

Their vision is certainly very acute, as is their hearing ; but
the marvellous power of smelling carrion which some species
are supposed to possess is very improbable, although there
is no reason for supposing that their sense of smell is not as
acute as that of most other birds.

The particular form of foot which they possess, that is, a foot
composed of four nearly equal toes, the third considerably
longer, the first stronger and directed backwards, all with rather

CROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 491

long, arched, compressed and acute claws, enables them to walk
on the ground with considerable ease, and even in some cases
to run, although in general, when disposed to quicken their
pace, they are obliged to leap. They also perch very securely
on trees or stones.

They all breed very early in the season, forming a bulky and
generally rather flat nest, composed of sticks and lined with
soft materials. The eggs, which vary from three to seven, are
marked with dark spots or freckles on a light bluish, greenish,
or whitish ground. The young are born blind, and are at first
slightly covered with loose dusky down. Their first plumage
is coloured as in the adults, but with less gloss. The males
and females are alike in external appearance ; the latter some-
what smaller.

The plumage is changed once in the year, always very gra-
dually, in summer and autumn. The feathers when old fade
considerably and become more or less ragged on the edges, al-
though much less so than in many other families. All the
species are liable to albinism. * '

These birds are for the most part generally distributed over
the country. Being more or less destructive^ to game, they are
all proscribed, excepting the Rook, which being now better
known, is not so much molested as formerly.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS L CORVUS. CROW.

Bill about the length of the head, straight, strong, deep, com-
pressed towards the end ; both its outlines a little convex ;
tarsi of moderate length, with about eight anterior scutella ;
wings long, straight, the fourth quill longest ; tail of moderate
length, rounded.

1. Corvus Corax. Raven, Black, splendent with purplish-
blue and green ; feathers of the fore-neck elongated^ and lanceo-
late.

492 CORVlNiE.

2. Corvus Corone. Carrion Crou\ Black, glossy, with blue
and green reflections ; feathers of the fore-neck short, ovato-
lanceolate.

3. Cortus Comix. Hooded Croic. Grey, the head, neck,
wings and tail black.

4. Cortus frugilegus. Rook. Black, splendent with pur-
plish-blue and green ; feathers of the neck blended, of the fore
part of the head abraded.

5. Cortus Monedula, Jackdaw. Greyish-black, the hind-
neck light grey.

GENUS II. PICA. MAGPIE.

Bill about the length of the head, straightish, strong, deep,
compressed towards the end, both outlines convex ; tarsi of
moderate length, w^ith about eight anterior scutella ; wings
rather short, slightly concave, the fourth quill longest, tail very
long, graduated.

1. Pica melanoleuca. Common Magpie. Head, neck, back
and fore-breast black ; the rest, and the scapulars, w^hite ; tail
splendent with green and purple.

GENUS III. GARRULUS. JAY.

Bill shorter than the head, straight, strong, compressed to-
wards the end, both outlines convex ; tarsi of moderate length,
rather slender, with about eight anterior scutella ; wings of
moderate length, the fourth and fifth quills longest ; tail rather
long, rounded.

1. Garrulus Glandarius. Blue-winged Jay. Brownish-red;
primary coverts bright blue banded with black.

GENUS IV. NUCIFRAGA. NUTCRACKER.

Bill rather long, straight, moderately strong, tapering, slightly
compressed, but with the tip depressed ; tarsi of moderate size,
with ten anterior scutella ; wings of moderate length, much
rounded, the fourth quill longest ; tail of moderate length,
nearly even.

CROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 493

1 . Nucifraga Caryocatactes. Nutcracker. Plumage brown,
with numerous oblong whitish spots.

GENUS V. FREGILUS. CHOUGH.

Bill longish, slightly decurved, rather slender, tapering,
of nearly equal height and breadth ; tarsi rather short, with
eight anterior scutella, of which the upper are blended ; wings
long, the fourth quill longest ; tail of moderate length, nearly
even.

1. Fregilus Graculus. Common Chough. Black, highly
glossed with blue and green ; wings about the same length as
the tail ; bill and feet vermilion.

494

CORVUS. CROW.

Bill rather long, straight, strong, tapering, of nearly equal
height and breadth at the base, compressed towards the end. Up •
per mandible having the dorsal outline slightly arched, towards
the end declinate, the ridge rather narrow but obtuse, the sides
sloping at the base, convex towards the end, the edges direct,
sharp, w^ith a slight notch or sinus close to the tip, which is
somewhat declinate, rather sharp, and projects a little ; lower
mandible with the angle medial, of moderate width, rather
acute, the dorsal outline slightly convex, towards the end as-
cending, the edges sharp and slightly inflected, the tip rather
acute ; the gape-line straightish, towards the tip declinato-de-
curvate.

Mouth of moderate width ; upper mandible concave within,
generally with seven longitudinal prominent lines ; lower man-
dible deeply concave, w^ith a prominent central line ; palate flat ;
aperture of the posterior nares edged with small papillae directed
backwards ; aperture of the glottis similarly margined, and with
numerous papillae behind. Tongue oblong, at the base emar-
ginate and papillate, flat above, horny on both surfaces, thin-
edged, the point slit and slightly fimbriated. CEsophagus wide,
nearly uniform in diameter, slightly contracted on entering the
thorax. Proventriculus bulbiform, its glandules oblong, ob-
lique. Stomach a gizzard of moderate size, oblong, compressed,
its tendons rather large ; the muscular coat thick, the cuticular
lining thick, with a few deep longitudinal grooves. Intestine
of moderate length, wider at the upper part, after the second
turn continuing of nearly uniform diameter to the coeca, which

CORVUS. CROW.

495

are very small and cylindrical ; rectum enlarged, very short,
with a globular dilatation at the end.

Nostrils in the fore part of the short nasal groove, which is
filled up by a membrane, roundish, open, but concealed by the
narrow reversed feathers, which cover a large portion of the
bill. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered, having a nar-
row crenate bare margin, but without ciliary bristles, the lower
much larger. Aperture of the ear roundish, of moderate size.
Head large, oblong, rather convex above ; neck rather short,
strong ; body ovate, compact. Legs of moderate length, strong ;

tarsi rather short, com-
pressed behind, covered an-
teriorly with eight scutella,
posteriorly with two longi-
tudinal plates, meeting be-
hind with a rather sharp
edge; toes of moderate size,
the outer adherent as far
as the second joint ; hind
toe comparatively large, la-
teral toes nearly equal,
third considerably longer;
all covered above with a few large scutella, beneath rather flat-
tened, granulate, and transversely sulcate ; claws strong, arched,
compressed, rather sharp, the first with an obscure groove on
the sides, the third with the inner edge rather dilated.

Plumage generally dense, but soft, and highly glossed ; the
feathers of the body ovate, rounded, with longish plumules
composed of a few downy filaments. Feathers on the head
short ; those at the base of the upper mandible linear, stiff,
with short discrete barbs, directed forwards and adpressed ;
there is also a series of decurved bristles at the base of the
rictus. Wings long, much rounded, the outer primaries sepa-
rated when the wing is extended ; primary quills ten, the first
very short and narrow, the fourth generally longest, the third
and fifth little shorter, the first five having both webs narrowed
towards the end ; secondary quills twelve, very broad, the outer
truncato-emarginate, the inner rounded, all with a minute point.

Fig. 82.

496 CORVUS. CROV^^

Tail of moderate length or long, rounded in various degrees, of
twelve broad, rounded feathers.

The species of this genus bear so strong a resemblance to
each other that the most unpractised observer can scarcely fail
to distinguish a crow. They manifest a corresponding simi-
larity of instinct, being shy, easily alarmed, vigilant and cun-
ning. Omnivorous in the fullest sense, they devour flesh, fish,
mollusca, grubs, insects, grain, seeds, and other animal and
vegetable substances ; and although each species has a predi-
lection for particular kinds of food, their choice is in no instance
confined even to a few different substances. When searching
for food, they betake themselves to open places, walk in a se-
date manner, keep a good look-out, and on the least appearance
of danger fly oft' to a distance. Their flight is also sedate, mo-
derately rapid, and performed by regular beats. Their cry
varies from a hoarse croak to a caw or chatter, and none of
them are musical. They nestle in high places, trees, towers,
buildings of various kinds, or rocks, and produce from three to
nine eggs, which are deposited very early in the season. They
repose at night in similar places, and when alarmed by day
generally betake themselves to heights. Some species are gre-
garious, others unsocial, the latter being the more carnivorous ;
but even they are observed to associate together, when a large
quantity of food attracts them to a particular place. The sexes
do not differ much in external appearance, the male however
being in general more robust and having the plumage more
glossy. Moulting takes place in the summer months, and is
very gradual. Those which are more carnivorous have the
faculty of discovering carrion at a great distance, in the same
manner as the Vultures, which they in some degree resemble
in their habits. They are all easily tamed, and may be taught
to imitate the human voice so far as to produce a few articu-
late sounds. In a state of domestication they are much ad-
dicted to pilfering, their depredations not being confined to ar-
ticles of food, but extending to objects in no respect useful to
themselves.

The affinities of this genus are various. It is allied to Pitta,
Paradisaea, Glandarius, Caryocatactes, Fregilus, and many

CORVUS, CROW. 497

others, according as the general aspect, the hill, the feet, or the
plumage, are made objects of comparison. The Jays connect
the Crows with the Titmice, which, however, are so small
that the affinity is not readily perceived. The Nutcracker
allies them to the Starlings, which in one direction approach
the Larks ; and the Fregili to iTjDupa, Promerops, and other
allied genera. Some authors, among the rest Cuvier^ consider
the Crows as intimately connected with the Conirostral genera,
such as Fringilla, Loxia, and Emberiza ; but they are cer-
tainly much more closely allied to the Thrushes and other
genera, having the bill of a more slender compressed form than
the granivorous birds. It is very obvious, however, that in
the arrangement of the species of land birds, excluding the
Rapacious, the Gallinaceous, the Psittaceous, and a few other
groups, no two persons could possibly agree, if acting sepa-
rately, and trusting to their own judgment ; and therefore my
purpose is rather to present an intelligible account of our dif-
ferent species, than to enter much into critical disquisitions
respecting the value and affinities of genera.

Five species of the genus Corvus occur in Britain : — the
Raven, the Carrion Crow, the Hooded Crow, the Rook, and
the Jackdaw. They are all permanently resident. The Mag-
pie differs so much from the rest in the elongation of the tail,
the comparative shortness of the wings, and some other cir-
cumstances, that several writers have referred it to a separate
genus ; but the bill, the feet, and the organs in general, are so
similar, that there would be little reason for setting it apart,
were there not other species having more dissimilar features.
Each species differs greatly in many of its habits, so that I am
unable, from my own observation, to arrive at more general
conclusions than those given above. In fact, every species in
existence has peculiarities both in habits and structure, which
render extended generic characters, applicable to all the beings
in an assumed group, impossible.

498

CORVUS CORAX. THE RAVEN.

RAVEN. CROW. CORBY. FIDHEACH. BIADHTACH.

Fjg. 0.3.

Corvus Corax. Linn. Sygt. Nat. I. lo.5.

Corvus Corax. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 1,50.

Raven. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Corbeau noir. Corvus Corax. Teram. Man. d' Orn. L107; IIL oG.

Raven. Corvus Corax. Selb. Illustr. L 34(1.

Corvus Corax. Raven. Jen. Brit. A^ert. An. 14.5.

Of the adult male and female^ the plumage blacky splendent,
with purplish blue reflections on the upper, and green on the lower
parts ; the tail much rounded, slightly bent up towards the end ;
the feathers of the throat lanceolate, distinct, compact, with elon-
gated points. Of the young the colours similar, but ivith less
lustre.

Male. — The Raven, which is the largest species of the Crow
family, is one of the most remarkahle of our native birds, both

RAVEN. 499

on account of its habits, and its historical, superstitious, and eco-
nomical relations. With a grave and dignified air it combines
great sagacity, and in courage is not much inferior even to some
of the rapacious birds.

Its body is of an ovate compact form, rather bulky, the neck
strong, and of moderate length ; the head large, oblong, con-
vex above. The bill is rather long, deep, and nearly straight ;
the upper mandible having the dorsal outline slightly arched,
towards the end declinate, the ridge obtuse, the sides convex,
at the base concave, the edges direct, sharp, nearly straight,
with a slight notch close to the declinate tip ; the lovrer man-
dible has the angle rather narrow^ but rounded, the dorsal lino
convex, the sides convex, and inclined obliquely upwards, the
edges sharp and slightly inflected, the tip rather acute.

Internally the upper mandible is concave and longitudinally
grooved ; the lower deeply concave, with a prominent central
line. The palate is flat ; the posterior aperture of the nares
narrow ; the tongue oblong, horny, flat above, thin-edged,
emarginate and papillate at the base, slit at tlie point. The
oesophagus is wide, of nearly uniform diameter ; the proventri-
culus bulbiform, studded with oblong glandules ; the stomach
oblong-elliptical, compressed, moderately muscular, its cuticular
lining thin and longitudinally rugous ; the intestine much
wider along the extent of its first double fold, then continuing
of nearly uniform diameter as far as the adnate cylindrical coeea,
which are half an inch long ; the rectum much wider, gradu-
ally enlarged towards the ovate dilatation. In an individual
examined in May 1836, the tongue was an inch and four
twelfths long ; the oesophagus 7 ; the proventricular glandules
/j ; the intestine 46, its greatest diameter about j%, the smal-
lest /j ; the coeca i ; the rectum 1 j.

The eyes are of moderate size, as are the external apertures
of the ears. The nostrils are also of moderate size, round, in
the fore part of the short nasal space, and concealed by the re-
versed stiff feathers which cover nearly half the length of the
mandible.

The legs are of moderate length and ordinary strength ; the
tarsi are covered anteriorly with eight scutella, posteriorly

Kk 2

600 CORVUS CORAX.

with two plates. The toes are of moderate strength ; the third
longest, the rest nearly equal in length, but the hind one much
stronger. On the first are nine, on the second ten, on the third
twelve, on the fourth eleven scutella. The claws are rather
large, arched, compressed, rather obtuse ; those of the first and
second toes slightly grooved on the sides.

The plumage is moderately full, compact, and highly glossed,
the feathers with longish plumules composed of a few downy
filaments. Over each side of the upper mandible, and extend-
ing beyond the nostrils, are numerous adpressed, stiff bristly
feathers, with disunited filaments ; and at the base of the rictus
is a series of strong deflected bristle-like feathers, having a few
filaments at their base. There are similar but shorter feathers
at the base of the crura of the lower mandible. On the ante-
rior part of the forehead is a transverse line of very short com-
pact feathers ; those of the fore part of the head are compact
and highly glossed ; on the hind part and sides of the neck
the barbs are disunited ; the anterior cervical are elongated
and lanceolate ; the rest of the feathers are ovate, rounded, and
highly glossed, except the abdominal, which are loose, and
softer. The wings are long and much rounded ; the quills
twenty-two ; the primaries straight, tapering, the first short,
the fourth longest, the third scarcely shorter, the fifth almost
as long as the fourth, and longer than the second ; the first
five cut out on both webs, the outer from near the base ; the
secondary quills very broad, the outer abrupt, the inner rounded,
all with a small tip. The tail is of moderate length, ample,
and considerably rounded.

The bill, tarsi, toes, and claws are glossy black. The iris
is dark brown. The general colour of the plumage is deep
black, with splendent reflections of rich purplish-blue ; the
quills, alula, and lower parts with green tints ; the abdomen
tinged with brown, and without gloss.

Length to end of tail 26 inches ; extent of wings 52 ; bill
along the back 3, along the edge of lower mandible 3, depth
at the base l^^^ ; tarsus 2| ; middle toe and claw 2|. Of
another individual, the length was 27 inches, the extent of
wings 50, the bill 3, the tarsus 2^, the middle toe and claw 2f ,

RAVEN. 501

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but somewhat
smaller, and having the gular feathers less elongated.
Length 25 inches; extent of wings 49.

Variations. — I have not observed any remarkable variations
in the individuals which I have handled ; but I once saw a
raven in Harris, that was patched w^itli w^hite. Another
entirely white was credibly reported to me to have been seen in
the island of Pabbay. Messrs. Vieillot and Temminck have dis-
tinguished as a species a raven having the head, throat, abdo-
men, lower tail-coverts, and the greater part of the wings,
white, the other parts as described above. This alleged species,
wdiich M. Temminck, how^ever, admits only " provisoirement,"
is also said to have been found entirely white. "It is with
some doubt," he remarks, " that I introduce this species into
the catalogue of the birds of Europe. The individuals which
I have seen have a more pow^erful bill, and are altogether of a
larger size than our Raven." — "The circumstance which leads
me to consider it provisorily as a species is, that Iceland abounds
in Ravens, and that M. Faber asserts that the variegated in-
dividuals seen in the Feroe Isles do not occur there. Were it
merely a variety of Corvus Corax peculiar to the northern
regions, Iceland, Norway, the Orkneys, and the north of Asia,
which are stocked with black Ravens, would supply examples
of it. All the individuals alluded to, and those seen by me, have
come from Feroe." I am not aware that any variegated Ravens
have ever been seen in Britain, except the one mentioned
above, which I frequently saw on the sand banks at North-
town, in the island of Harris ; but it, and the white individual
seen in Pabbay by the late Mr. Macniel, and many other per-
sons, tend to counteract the tendency of M. Temminck's
reasoning.

When new% the feathers of the upper parts are glossed with
steel-blue, which by exposure changes to purplish-blue. To-
wards the period of moulting, the plumage in general becomes
tinged with reddish-purple.

Habits. — The Raven is a remarkably grave and sedate bird.

502 CORVUS CORAX.

and, unlike many men who assume an aspect of dignity, is
equally noted for sagacity and prudence. It is crafty, vigilant,
and sliy, so as to be with great difficulty approached, unless
in the breeding season, when its affectionate concern for its
young in a great measure overcomes its habitual dislike to the
proximity of man, — a dislike which is the result of prudence
more than of mere timidity, for under particular circumstances
it will not hesitate to make advances which a timorous bird
would no doubt deem extremely hazardous. Either from
natural instinct, or from observation and reflection, it appears
to know in some measure the power of its arch enemy ; and
finding that its own faculties are insufficient to enable it to
counteract his destructive propensities, carefully avoids coming
within his reach. On the other hand it eats from off the same
carcase as a dog, and takes its station close to an otter devom*-
ing its prey, doubtless because its vigilance and activity suffice
to enable it to elude their efforts to inflict injury upon it ; and
while it yields to the Eagle, it drives aw^ay the Hooded Crow
and the Gull. It knows the distance too at w^hich it is safe
from a man armed Avith a gun, and allows the shepherd and
his dogs to come much nearer than the sportsman.

Many birds evince little dread of man. The Golden-crested
Regulus, when feeding, seems to take no notice of him, and
permits him to approach within a few yards or even feet ; the
Black Guillemot perches on the rocks wnthin perhaps ten paces
of him ; and the Penguin stands stupidly looking on until he
comes up and knocks it on the head. In all these cases it is
not courage, but w^ant of consideration, that is manifested.
The Skua and the Iceland Falcon wull boldly attack a man,
when excited by the apprehension of danger to their eggs or
young ; even the tiny Blue Titmouse w^ill attempt to bite his
fingers when they approach its nest. There certainly is courage
in the act, but in this case the courage is misapplied, being
inadequate to the object. The Golden Plover, the King Dot-
trel, and the Titling, act more wisely when they feign lame-
ness to draw him from their treasures, which they often secure
in this manner ; for although they may not thus impose upon
a shepherd, a farmer, a sportsman, or a " field naturalist,'' they

RAVEN. 503

often beguile boys, who can seldom resist the temptation.
The Raven never ventures to attack a man plundering its nest,
and rarely pretends to be crippled in order to draw him away
from it, but stands at a distance, looking extremely dejected, or
flies over and around him, uttering now and then a stifled croak
indicative of grief and anxiety. I have, however, on such an
occasion seen a Raven fly off to a considerable distance, and
alighting in a conspicuous place, tumble about as if mortally
wounded.

When searching for food on the ground, it generally walks
with a steady and measured pace, like the Carrion Crow, the
Hooded Crow, and the Rook ; but under excitement it occa-
sionally leaps, using its wings at the same time, as wdien driven
from carrion by a dog, or when escaping from its fellows with
a fragment of flesh or intestine. Its flight is commonly steady
and rather slow, and is performed by regularly-timed beats of
its extended wings, the neck and feet being retracted ; but it
can urge its speed to a great degree of rapidity, so as to over-
take an Eagle or even a Hawk, when passing near its nest. In
fine weather it often soars to a vast height, in the manner of
the birds just mentioned, and floats as it were at ease high over
the mountain tops. Some naturalists observing birds thus en-
gaged, have imagined them to be searching for food, and have
consequently amused their readers with marvellous accounts of
the distances at which the Eagle can spy its prey ; but had
they patiently watched, they might have found that the quiet
soarings of the Raven and the rapacious species have no refe-
rence to prey. On the other hand it m.ay sometimes be observed
gliding along, and every now and then shifting its course, in
the heaviest gales, when scarcely another bird can be seen
abroad. Although there is not much reason for calling it " the
tempest -loving raven,"" it would be a severe storm indeed that
would keep it at home when a carcase was in view.

Having enjoyed ample opportunities of cultivating an ac-
quaintance with this species in the outer Hebrides, I shall de-
scribe its manners as observed by me in those dreary, but to
the naturalist highly interesting islands. There the Raven,
in search of food, may be seen, either singly or in pairs, in all

504 COllVUS CORAX.

sorts of situations, along the rocky shores, on the sand fords, the
sides of the hills, the inland moors, and the mountain tops.
It flies at a moderate height, proceeding rather slowly, deviat-
ing to either side, sailing at intervals, and seldom uttering any
sound. When it has discovered a dead sheep, it alights on a
stone, a peat bank, or other eminence, folds up its wings, looks
around, and croaks. It then advances nearer, eyes its prey
with attention, leaps upon it, and in a half-crouching attitude
examines it. Finding matters as it wished, it croaks aloud,
picks out an eye, devours part of the tongue if that organ be
protruded, and lastly attacks the subcaudal region. By this
time another raven has usually come up. They perforate the
abdomen, drag out and swallow portions of the intestines, and
continue to feast until satiated or disturbed. Sometimes, espe-
cially should it be winter, they are joined by a Great Black-
backed Gull, or even a Herring Gull, which, although at first
shy, are allowed to come in for a share of the plunder ; but
should an eagle arrive, both they and the gulls retire to a short
distance, the former waiting patiently, the latter w^alking back-
wards and forwards uttering plaintive cries, until the intruder
departs. When the carcase is that of a larger animal than a
sheep, they do not however fly oif, although an eagle or even a
dog should arrive. " Feris convivialis'' observes Linnaeus, and
the fact is proverbial in the Hebrides, where this bird is named
Biadhtach, and wdiere biadhtachd, which etymologically is
analogous to ravening, signifies associating for the purpose of
eating and making merry. These observations I have made
while lying in w^ait in little huts constructed for the purpose of
shooting eades and ravens from them. The latter I have al-
lowed to remain unmolested for hours, that they might attract
the former to the carrion ; and in this manner I have been
enabled to watch their actions when they were perfectly unre-
strained.

Although the raven is omnivorous, its chief food is carrion,
by which is here meant the carcases of sheep, horses, cattle,
deer, and other quadrupeds, dolphins and cetaceous animals in
general, as well as fishes that have been cast ashore. In au-
tumn it sometimes commits great havock among the barley,

RAVEN. 505

and in spring it occasionally destroys young lambs. It has also
been accused of killing diseased sheep by picking out their
e3"es ; but of this I have obtained no satisfactory evidence. It
annoys the housewives by sometimes flying off with young
poultry, and especially by breaking and sucking eggs which
the ducks or hens may have deposited, as they frequently do,
among the herbage.

In these islands, should a horse or a cow^ die, as in my
younger days was very frequently the case in the beginning of
summer, after a severe winter or spring, or should a grampus or
other large cetaceous animal be cast on the shore, the ravens
speedily assemble, and remain in the neighbourhood until they
have devoured it. A large herd of Grampuses, Delphinus
Orca, having been driven by the inhabitants of Pabbay on the
sand beach of that island, which is one of those in the Sound
of Harris, an amazing number of ravens soon collected from all
quarters, and continued for several weeks to feast upon the
carcases. By the time when this supply of food was exhausted,
autumn was advancing, and the inhabitants became alarmed
lest, should the ravens prolong their stay, they should attack
their barley, which was their main stay, as they depended
chiefly upon it for the means of paying their rents, a regular
system of illicit distillation having, for reasons not difficult to
be guessed, been permitted for many years. Various expedi-
ents were tried in vain, until at length a scheme was devised
by one Finlay Morison wdiich produced the desired effect.
The ravens retired at night to a low cliff" on the east side of
the island, where they slept crowded together on the shelves.
Finlay and a few chosen companions, intimately acquainted
with the principal fissures and projections of the rock, made
their way after midnight to the roosts of the ravens, caught
a considerable number of them, and carried them off" alive.
They then plucked oft' all their feathers excepting those of the
wings and tail, and in the morning when their companions
were leaving their places of repose, let loose among them these
live scare-crows. The ravens terrified by the appearance of
those strange-looking creatures, which it seems they failed to
recognise as their own kinsfolk, betook themselves to flight in

506 CORVUS CORAX.

a body, and did not return to the island. It was in this nume-
rous congregation of ravens that the white individual of which
1 have already made mention occurred, and which the people,
considering it as the royal bird, regarded wdth a kind of su-
perstitious reverence. On another occasion, when a wdiale
had been cast ashore on the farm of Big Scarista, I have seen
these birds impatiently waiting on the rocks around, until the
people who w^ere flencing it went home, carrying creels full
of the flesh with them for domestic consumption, when the
ravens descended to the carcase, and gorged themselves with
all haste.

Whatever may be said by closet-naturalists as to the unri-
valled adaptation of tlie point of the upper mandible of the
Rapacious Birds for tearing flesh, I can assert from observation
that the bill of the Raven is quite as efficient in this point of
view. That bird can not only with great ease tear ofl" morsels
of flesh, but can pick the smallest fragments from the bones,
and rend the intestines in pieces. When engaged upon a large
carcase, they conduct themselves very much in the manner of
the North American Vultures, as described by Wilson and Mr.
Audubon. I well remember standing when a boy for a long
time to observe the proceedings of about a dozen ravens devour-
ing a dead cow that had been dragged to the sand banks on the
farm of Northtown. Some were tearing up the flesh of the
external parts, others dragging out the intestines, and two or
three had made their w^ay into the cavity of the abdomen. It
was amusing, and perhaps might be disgusting to a delicately
organised snuiF-taking and clean-fingered gentleman-inspector
of birds' skins, to see them drag out the intestine to the dis-
tance of several feet. While one endeavoured to separate a
morsel, another pulled it from him, when a third seized it in
his turn. They allowed me then to come wdthin twenty yards
or so ; but when some years after I carried a gun on my ram-
bles, I could in no instance get w^ithin shot of ravens thus oc-
cupied unless by creeping up under cover of a bank, and indeed
very seldom even then, as those flying about or stationed on an
eminence gave warning to the rest.

It has seemed to me strange that in a country w^here, under

RA^'Ex^^ 507

ordinary circumstances, few ravens are seen, so many as from
twenty to two hundred or more should collect in a few days.
In perambulating these islands, one scarcely meets with more
than a pair in the space of a mile or so ; and in Harris, where
their breeding places were pretty generally knovrn to me, I could
not count a dozen pairs along a coast-line of as many miles.
In Pabbay, as mentioned above, several hundreds had come to-
gether, so that the people naturally marvelled whence they had
arrived. If along a coast-line of ten miles there are ten pairs
of ravens, with five young birds to each, or seventy in all, on
one of a hundred and forty there might be nearly a thousand.
Pabbay is two miles distant from Berneray, and six from Har-
ris. Even should the wind blow in the latter direction, it is
not likely that a raven should smell carrion six miles distant,
and in Berneray, which the effluvia might reach, there are not
usually more than three or four resident pairs. The birds of
the west coast of Lewis, South Uist, and Barray, could not be
guided a distance of fifty miles or more by the smell. How
then did they arrive in Pabbay ? It seems to ine that the phe-
nomenon may be explained thus.

The two pairs of ravens residing in Pabbay itself, would,
with their broods, first perceive the carcases. Those of Ber-
neray might stroll over, as they often do, or they might see the
prey, as might those on the Harris coast. Ravens have char-
acter in their flight, as men have in their w^alk. A poet saunter-
ing by a river, a conchologist or fish-woman looking for shells
along the shore, a sportsman searching the fields, a footman
going on a message, a lady running home from a shower, or a
gentleman retreating from a mad bull, move each in a different
manner, suiting the action to the occasion. Ravens do the
same, as well as other birds ; and so, those at the next station,
perhaps a mile distant, judging by the flight of their neighbours
that they had a prize in view, might naturally follow. In this
manner, the intelligence might be communicated over a large
extent of country, and in a single day a great number might
assemble. We know from observation that ravens can per-
ceive an object at a great distance, but that they can smell food
a quarter of a miJe off we have no proof whatever ; and as we

508 CORVUS CORAX.

can account for the phenomenon by their sight, it is unneces-
sary to have recourse to their other faculties.

The Raven sometimes nestles at no great distance from the
Eagle, in which case these birds do not molest each other ; but
in general the former is a determined enemy to the latter, and
may often be seen harassing it. ^' What a brave soldier the
raven is ! he fights the eagle who is four times his size,'' I re-
member hearing an old highlander say to me more than twenty
years ago. But let us consider the matter.

There goes the White-tailed Eagle I Launched from the
rock of Liuir she advances along the cliffs on her way to the
inland hills, where she expects to find a supply of food for her
young. Now she is opposite the promontory of Ui, w^hence,
croaking in fierce anger, rush two ravens. The eagle seems
not to heed them ; but they rapidly gain upon her, and, sepa-
rating as they come up in her wake, one ascends, the other
glides beneath, menacing her, and attempting to peck at her.
While she regards the one below, that above plunges towards
her, but perceiving that she is ready to meet him, he reascends
a few feet, the other in the meantime threatening vengeance
below. I never observed however that they actually came in
contact w^ith the object of their pursuit, which seemed to re-
gard them as more disagreeable than dangerous, and appeared
to hurry on merely to avoid being pestered by them.

The shepherds and farmers, so far from molesting the ravens,
are pleased when a pair of them breed on their ground, because
they help to keep off the eagles ; and I was once seriously re-
primanded by one for shooting a raven on his grounds in the
breeding season. In general, they keenly j)ursue all intruders
that seem in any way formidable, while on the other hand they
allow the Cormorant, the Rock Pigeon, and the Black Guille-
mot, to nestle in their immediate vicinity. I have seen pigeons'*
nests within thirty yards of a raven's, and although the raven
might with impunity carry off the eggs or young of these birds,
I have no reason to believe that it ever does.

The voice of the Raven is a hoarse croak, resembling the
syllable Crock or Cruck ; but it also emits a note not unlike the
sound of a sudden gulp, or the syllable Cluck^ which it seems

RAVEN. 509

to utter when in a sportive mood ; for although ordinarily grave,
the Raven sometimes indulges in a frolic, performing somersets
and various evolutions in the air, much in the manner of the
Rook.

I have frequently seen Ravens perch on the roofs of huts in
the Hebrides, more especially on the pole that projects at each
end, and supports the heather ropes by which the thatch is se-
cured. They also frequently visit the dunghils at their doors
in the summer mornings, before the people are out of bed.
They are not there, as in some parts of the country, viewed as
boding death to the inmates ; but it is considered unlucky for
a marriage party to meet a raven, unless it should be killed, in
which case the omen is good. I have no faith in the faculty
which ravens, crows, and magpies, are alleged by some to pos-
sess, of discovering by the sense of smell or otherwise the exis-
tence in a house of disease or death. It is certain that ravens
can have no experience in this matter ; and if their natural in-
stinct or sagacity should enable them to discover approaching
death in a human being, how does it happen that they never
settle on the back or in the neighbourhood of a sickly animal,
until it has presented visible indications of decay I

The character of the Raven accords well with the desolate
aspect of the rugged glens of the Hebridian moors. He and
the eagle are the fit inhabitants of those grim rocks ; the red
grouse, the plover, and its page, of those brown and scarred
heaths ; the ptarmigan of those craggy and tempest-beaten sum-
mits. The red-throated diver and the merganser, beautiful as
they are, fail to give beauty to those pools of dark-brown water,
edged with peat banks, and unadorned with sylvan verdure.
Even the water-lily, w^ith its splendid white flowers, floating
on the deep bog, reflects no glory on the surrounding scenery,
but selfishly draws all your regards to itself. There, on the
rifted crag, let the dark raven croak to his mate, while we
search for the species in distant parts of the land.

According to Mr. Edmonston, Mr. Forbes, Low and others,
the species is very abundant in the Orkney and Shetland
Islands. In Sutherland, as I am informed by my friend Mr.
Alexander MacGillivray, it is also not uncommon. In most of

510 CORVUS CORAX.

the Highland districts, especially along the western shores, I
have met with it here and there. In the lower parts of the
middle division of Scotland it is of much rarer occurrence ; nor
is it plentiful even in the higher and more central portions of
the southern division, although I have seen it in many places
there, as among the hills of the counties of Dumfries and
Peebles, the Pentland Hills, and the Lammer JMoor. Not
many years ago a pair of ravens used to build in the rocks of
Arthur's Seat, close to Edinburgh. In England, it is much less
frequently met with than in Scotland, although it seems to bo
generally distributed there.

If we take the whole range of the island as its residence, we
must add to its bill of fare many articles not mentioned above,
so as to include young hares and rabbits, other small quadru-
peds, as rats, moles, and mice, young poultry, and the young
of other birds, as pheasants, grouse, ducks, and geese ; eggs of
all kinds, echini, mollusca, fruit, barley, wheat, and oats ; in-
sects, Crustacea, grubs, worms, and probably m.any other arti-
cles, besides fish and carrion of all sorts. The raven is there-
fore certainly the most t^-pical pantophagist that exists among
our native birds.

My esteemed fi-iend, Mr. William Hogg, Stobo Hope,
Peebles-shire, has favoured me with the following observations
on the Paven, vvdiich are of great value, as coming from a re-
spectable and intelligent individual, whose lot, as he says, has
always been to dwell in a wild and mountainous district, where
he has had opportunities of attending to many of the pheno-
mena of nature.

" In the place where I reside at present the Ravens are sel-
dom seen, except in their passage from one mountainous dis-
trict to another. I know them by their size, by their hoarse
and hollow croak, and by the height at which they fly. Their
sight and smell are very acute, for when they are searching the
wastes for provision, they hover over them at a great height,
and yet a sheep will not be dead many minutes before they will
find it. Nay, if a morbid smell transpire from any in the flock,
they will watch it for days till it die. I think the Ravens
which traverse the wilds of Dumfries, Peebles, Roxburgh, and

RAVEN. 511

Selkirk shires, are mostly bred about the head of Moffat water,
especially on the three farms of Chapelgill, Chanfren, and Pol-
moody. There, on the face of tremendous linns and rocks,
there often juts out a dwarfish birch or mountain-ash. The
same cleft of the same tree has borne a Raven's nest for cen-
turies. No human creature can get at them. It is with diffi-
culty the shepherd can break their eggs at a distance ; but
some young are always reared every year. They manifest a
great hatred to the Eagle. Often have I seen, in a serene
summer evening, when the noble bird set out, in her spiral
course, for the higher tracks of the atmosphere — often have I
seen her attacked by the Raven ; but the Eagle does not mind
her much, and all that she does when the crow comes near
her, is to throw herself on her side, still keeping her wings ex-
tended, give two or three sharp wheeks^ and then proceed on her
journey. She soon reaches the height to which the Raven
goes, who then leaves her, returns, and with great diligence
reconnoitres the glens and mosses in search of plunder. Toward
the Goshawk and Fox the Raven also shews great antipathy,
diving through the air, and croaking in a furious manner. The
Fox, if not hurried, will stand still, look up as if he would say,
' I value you not,"* and then pass on ; but the Goshawk * is
not so passive, for though he suffers him a while, he becomes
enraged at his clamour and repeated attacks, and turns to meet
him, when the Raven utters a hurried gorhel^ and leaves him
abruptly. I once heard a man, whose veracity I had no reason
to doubt, relate how when the Raven was diving at the Gos-
hawk, as above related, the latter came in contact with him
in the air. The Raven fell dead to the ground, and when the
man went up and lifted him, his throat was found to be torn
open, as if with a knife. I apprehend that all this malevolence
proceeds from the circumstance that these creatures feed on the
same garbage with the Raven (for the Goshawk also, as well
as the Eagle, will eat of a sheep when newly dead), who is
often forced away, or kept at a distance, till these more power-
ful plunderers are satisfied. The Raven also plunders the nests

* The bird to which Mr. Hogg here gives the name of Goshawk, is the Pere-
grine Falcon.

512 CORVUS CORAX.

of moorfowls (Red Grouse), and carries away the contents,
whether eggs or young chicks ; and as he is strong, as well as
sly and sagacious, he no doubt kills many of the moorfowls
themselves after they are full grown. But the Raven is a
magnanimous bird compared with the Hoddie or Carrion Crow,
which descends to the most despicable shifts, and employs the
most cruel methods to support itself that can well be imagined."

In the northern parts of Scotland, the Hebrides, the Orkney
and Shetland Islands, according to my own observation and
that of other individuals, the raven constructs its nest on high
cliffs, both in the interior, and, more especially, along the sea-
shore. But in the southern parts of the island, where rocks
are not so common as tall trees, it is said frequently to nestle
in the latter. According to the locality, it begins to repair its
nest, or to collect materials for forming a new one, as early as
from the beginning to the end of February. In the Hebrides,
it is composed of twigs of heath, dry sea-weeds, grass, wool,
and feathers. It is of irregular construction, and very bulky,
not unlike that of the eagle, but with a deeper cavity. The
eggs are from four to seven, of a rather elongated oval form,
pale green, with small spots and blotches of greenish-brown
and grey, having an oblong form. They vary in length from
two inches and one twelfth to one inch and eleven twelfths,
and in their largest transverse diameter from one inch and five
twelfths to one and four twelfths, or somewhat less.

White, the historian of Selborne, gives the following account
of a raven's nest in his neighbourhood. ''In the centre of a
grove, stood an oak, w^hich, though shapely and tall on the
whole, bulged out into a large excrescence about the middle of
the stem. On this a pair of ravens had fixed their nest for
such a series of years, that the oak was distinguished by the
name of the Raven's Tree. Many were the attempts of the
neighbouring youths to get at the eyrie ; the difficulty whetted
their inclinations, and each was ambitious of surmounting the
ardent task. But when they arrived at the swelling, it jutted
out so in their way, and was so far beyond their grasp, that the
most daring lads were awed, and acknowledged the undertak-
ing to be too hazardous. So the ravens built on, nest upon

RAVEN. 513

nest, in perfect security, till the fatal day arrived in which the
wood was^o be levelled ; it was in the month of February,
when they usually sit. The saw was applied to the trunk ;
the wedges were inserted into the opening ; the woods echoed
to the heavy blows of the mallet ; and the tree nodded to its
fall ; but still the dam sat on. At last, when it gave way,
the bird was flung from the nest ; and though her parental
aifection deserved a better fate, was whipped down by the twigs,
which brought her dead to the ground."

The Reverend Edward Stanley mentions a similar " vener-
able establishment." " Ours," he says, " is a noble beech
about ninety feet in height, in the centre of a beautiful w^ood,
— from time immemorial called the Raven Tree. At one
extremity of this wood, a noisy troop of Jackdaws have long
been accustomed to rear their progeny unmolested, provided
they venture not too near the sacred tree of the Ravens, — in
which case, one or other of the old birds dashes upon the in-
truder, and the wood is in an uproar, till the incautious bird
is driven off. Few have dared to scale the height of this famed
tree ; but the names of one or two individuals are on record,
who have accomplished the perilous undertaking, and carried
off the contents of the nest."

The young are at first of a blackish colour, scantily covered
with soft loose greyish-black down. They are generally abroad,
even in the Hebrides, by the middle of May. It has been re-
marked that when, during incubation, or even when the young
have left the nest, one of the old birds is killed, the survivor
soon finds a mate. Ravens, if unmolested, breed in the same
spot year after year ; but it seems strange that although they
have a numerous brood, their number in any particular dis-
trict does not appear to increase ; nor, in so far as I have
observed, do two pairs ever breed near each other.

Young. — The first plumage is of the same colour as that of
the adult, but of looser texture, and less glossed. The feathers
on the throat are less elongated ; but there is otherwise little
remarkable difference between the old and the young. After
leaving the nest they continue for many weeks together, and

Ll

514 CORVUS COR AX.

are fed and assisted by their parents, the flock living in great
harmony, until they separate about the middle of autumn.
In fact the raven is a very affectionate bird, and it is most
pleasing to see 'an old patriarch and his mate leading their
young about, warning them of impending danger, and teach-
ing them how to search for their food.

Remarks. — Taken from the nest when nearly able to fly, the
Raven is easily reared, very soon learns to feed by itself, and
becomes an amusing, although occasionally mischievous pet.
It defends itself against dogs and cats with great courage and
success, and may be taught to pronounce words with consider-
able accuracy. Numerous stories are told of its thieving f)ro-
pensities ; but let one sufUce : " We have been assured,^' says
Montagu, " by a gentleman of veracity, that his butler having
missed a great many silver spoons and other articles, without
being able to detect the thief for some time, at last observed a
tame raven with one in his mouth, and watched him to his
hiding-place, where he found more than a dozen.""

JNIany anecdotes illustrative of the habits of the Raven in a
domesticated state, and indicative of faculties superior to those
of almost every other bird, might be gathered from various
works ; but I shall content myself with one related by the
Reverend Edward Stanley, in his " Familiar History of Birds,^^
" It occurred many years ago, at the Red Lion Inn, Hunger-
ford; a gentleman who lodged there thus tells the story: —
' Coming into the inn-yard," says he, ' my chaise ran over and
bruised the leg of a favourite Newfoundland dog, and, while
we were examining the injury, Ralph, the Raven, looked on
also, and was evidently making his remarks on what was do-
ing ; for, the minute my dog was tied up under the manger,
with my horse, Ralph not only visited him, but brought him
bones, and attended him with particular marks of kindness.
I observed it to the ostler, who told me that the bird had been
brought up with a dog, and that the affection between them
was mutual, and all the neighbourhood had been witnesses of
the many acts of kindness performed by the one to the other.
Ralph's friend, the dog, in course of time, had the misfortune

RAVEN. 515

to break his leg, and during the period of his confinement, the
Raven waited on him constantly, carried him his provisions,
and scarcely ever left him alone. One night, by accident, the
stable door had been shut, and Ralph had been deprived of his
friend's company all night ; but the os-tler found, in the morn-
ing, the door so pecked away, that had it not been opened, in
another hour Ralph would have made his own entrance. The
landlord not only confirmed the ostler's account, but mentioned
many other acts of kindness shewn by this bird to all dogs in
general, but more particularly to maimed or wounded ones." "

I know no British bird possessed of more estimable qualities
than the Raven. His constitution is such as to enable him to
brave the fury of the most violent tempests, and to subsist
amidst the most intense cold ; he is strong enough to repel any
bird of his own size, and his spirit is such as to induce him to
attack even the eagle ; his affection towards his mate and
young is great, although not superior to that manifested by
many other birds ; in sagacity he is not excelled by any other
species ; and his power of vision is at least equal to that of
most others, not excepting the birds of prey, for he is generally
the first to discover a carcase. To man, however, he seems to
be more injurious than useful, as he is accused of killing sickly
sheep, sometimes destroys lambs, and frequently carries oiF the
young and eggs of domestic poultry. For this reason he is
generally proscribed, and in many districts a price is put upon
his head ; but his instinct and reason suffice to keep the race
from materially diminishing. As his flesh is not palatable,
it is not probable that he could be useful in the domestic state.
He seems to have fewer feathered enemies than most other
birds ; for although he may often be seen pursuing gulls,
hawks, and eagles, I have never observed any species attacking
him, with the exception of the domestic cock, which I have
seen give battle to him, and even drive him off. It has been
alleged, however, that rooks assail him in defence of their
young, and there is nothing incredible in this, for the weakest
bird will often in such a case attack the most powerful and
rapacious.

l12

51 r>

CORVUS CORONE. THE CARRION CROW.

CROW, GOR CROW. BLACK CROW. BLACK-NEB. CORBV CROW.
IIODDV. BRAN.

Fig. 84.

Corvus Corone. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 155,

Corvus Corone. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 151.

Carrion Crow. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Corneille noir. Corvus Corone. Temni. Man. d'Orn. L 108.

Carrion Crow. Corvus Corone. Selb. Illustr. I. 349.

Corvus Corone. Carrion Crow. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 145.

Of the adult male and female^ the plumage hlach^ highly glossed,
toith purple reflections ahote^ and green beneath^ the tail slightly
rounded^ straight ; the feathers of the throat shorty ptato-lanceo-
late^ compact. Of the young the colours similar^ hut with less
lustre.

Male. — The Carrion Crow is so intimately allied to the
Raven, that, without considering its inferior size, and some
differences in the forms of the feathers, one might be apt to
confound the two species. Its proportions are almost the same
as those of the raven, the body being ovate, rather full and
compact ; the neck short and strong ; the head large, oblong,

CARRION CROW. 517

and somewhat convex above. The bill is proportionally small-
er than that of the raven, but of the same form, being rather
long, deep, and nearly straight ; the upper mandible having
its dorsal outline arcuato-declinate, the ridge obtuse but narrow,
the sides convex, the edges sharp, direct, slightly arched to-
wards the end, with a slight notch close to the declinate tip ;
the lower mandible w^ith the angle of moderate width, rather
acute, the dorsal line slightly convex, the sides erect and
convex, the edges sharp and slightly inflected, the tip rather
acute.

Internally the upper mandible is concave and longitudinally
marked with seven prominent lines and intermediate shallow
grooves ; the lower deeply concave, with a prominent central
line. The palate is flat ; the posterior aperture of the nares
narrow and edged with small papillae. The tongue, PL IX,
Fig. 1, a, is oblong, horny, flat above, thin-edged, slit at the
point, emarginate and papillate at the base. The aperture of
the glottis is margined and terminated by numerous papillae.
The oesophagus, b, c, (?, is wide, of nearly uniform diameter,
a little dilated previous to its entrance into the thorax, then
slightly contracted. The proventriculus. Fig. 2, «, a, is of
the ordinary form, studded all round with oblong glandules.
The stomach. Fig. 2, h, c^ d, e^ is a moderately strong gizzard,
of an irregular oblong or elliptical form, a little compressed, an
inch and three quarters long ; its muscular coat thick, and
indistinctly separated into two lateral muscles, 6, c, and an in-
ferior, d : its tendons large ; the middle coat thin and tough ;
the cuticular lining of moderate thickness, tough, with few
deep longitudinal rugae. The intestine, Fig. 1, m, w, o, jt?, q,
is three feet three inches long, wider in its upper part, gra-
dually contracting as far as the coeca. Fig. 3, c, d^ w^hich are
adnate, cylindrical, five eighths of an inch long ; the rectum,
6, c, J, short, dilated towards the end.

The eyes are of moderate size, as are the external apertures
of the ears ; the nostrils roundish, in the fore part of the short
nasal space, and concealed by the feathers.

The legs are of moderate size ; the tarsi covered anteriorly
with eight scutella, posteriorly with two plates meeting so as

518 CORVUS CORONE.

to form an acute anele. The toes are of moderate strength ;
the third longest, the rest nearly equal in length, the first much
stronger : the first has nine, the second eight, the third ten, the
fourth nine scutella. The claws are arched, compressed, rather
acute, flat beneath, that of the middle toe with an inner sharp
edge, those of the first and second obscurely grooved on the
sides.

The plumage is moderately full, compact, and highly glossed.
On each side of the base of the upper mandible, extending
beyond the nostrils, are stift' bristly feathers, with short dis-
united filaments, directed forwards and adpressed ; and there
are similar but shorter feathers at the base of the lower man-
dible. At the base of the rictus is a series of strong deflected
bristles, having a few filaments. The feathers of the head are
rounded ; of the hind-neck oblong and rather blended ; of the
rest of the upper parts rounded and imbricated ; of the throat
OA'ato-lanceolate and rather compact ; of the rest of the lower
parts rounded and rather compact, unless on the abdomen,
where they are loose and tufty ; on the legs short, rather
blended, abrupt. The wings are long, straight, and much
rounded ; the primary quills ten, straight, tapering, the first
half the length of the fourth, and equal to the ninth, the fourth
longest, the third almost equal, the fifth scarcely shorter than
the third, the second one inch shorter than the fourth, and
equal to the sixth ; the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth
slightly cut out on the outer, the first, second, third, and
fourth on the inner web. The secondary quills, twelve in
number, are large, slightly incurved, ^ abruptly rounded and
acuminate.

The bill, feet, and claws are glossy black ; the iris deep
brown. The general colour of the plumage is black, glossed
with purplish-blue ; the secondary coverts and outer secondaries
with purple ; the alula, primary coverts, and primaries with
green ; the lower parts with blue and green, excepting the
abdominal feathers, which are dull and tinged with brown.

Length to end of tail 22 inches ; extent of wings 41 i ;
v.ing from flexure 14, longest quill 12 ; tail 8 ; wings one inch
shorter than tail ; bill along the back 2i, along the edge of

CARRION CROW. 519

lower mandible '1-^^ ; tarsus 2i ; hind toe 1, its claw f ; mid-
dle toe and claw '1\.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but somewhat
smaller. The following particulars refer to an individual sent
to me from Peebles-shire, in February 1836, by the Reverend
Mr. Adam.

ffisophagus 6i inches long, wide, slightly enlarged about the
middle, at which place its diameter is /g- Proventriculus /^
long, its diameter less than that of the oesophagus. Stomach
a moderately strong gizzard, of which the fibres are much less
firm than those of the Rasores and Conirostres. It is of an
irregular oblong form, a little compressed. The tendons are
large, the posterior one much larger ; the middle coat is thin
and tough ; the inner, or cuticular, of moderate thickness, with
longitudinal rugae. Intestine 46 inches long ; its greatest dia-
meter at the upper part /j, at the middle 4i twelfths, at the
coeca 1*5 . The coeca are -f^ long, their diameter \\ twelfth ;
they are cylindrical and adnate.

Length to end of tail 18^ ; extent of wings 38 ; bill along
the back 2, along the edge of lower mandible 2 ^^ ; tarsus 2i ;
first toe \%^ its claw \% ; second toe 1/^, its claw {'^ ; third
toe li, its claw ^^\ fourth toe 1, its claw^ ^^ ; wing from
flexure 12^; tail 7/2 • Ear in its largest diameter, including
the elevated margin, /g, within the edge 4i twelfths.

Of another individual the dimensions were as follows : —
Length to end of tail 20 ; extent of wings 40 ; wing from
flexure 12^ ; tail 7i ; bill along the back '1^^^ along the edge
of lower mandible ^^^ ; tarsus '1^^ ; first toe f, its claw \% ;
second toe ], its claw 7^ twelfths ; third toe 1^, its claw /^ ;
fourth toe \\. its claw {\.

Habits. — The Carrion Crow is very uncommon in the
northern and middle parts of Scotland ; but in the southern
division of that countr}-, and in England, is much more nume-
rous than the Raven or the Hooded Crow. It roosts in trees
and on rocks, betakes itself in search of food to the open moors,
hilly pastures, fields, and shores, and preys on small quadru-

520 CORVUS CORONE.

peds, young hares and rabbits, young birds, eggs, Crustacea,
mollusca, worms, grubs, and grain. Its principal food how-
ever is carrion of all kinds ; and it not unfrequently destroys
young lambs and sickly sheep. Montagu states that he has
seen it pursue a pigeon, and strike one dead from the top of
a barn. As a proof of its being occasionally granivorous
like the raven, I may mention that I found the stomach of one
that had been trapped in Linlithgowshire in November 1834,
filled wdth oat seeds.

The Crow is in general a solitary bird, or rather keeps in
pairs, although, when there is an abundant supply of food,
several individuals may occasionally be seen together. Its
flight is similar to that of the raven, being generally sedate and
direct, performed by regularly-timed flaps, the wings stretched
out to their full extent, so that the outer primaries are sepa-
rated for nearly half their length. Its mode of walking is also
similar, and its cry is a croak, clearer and less sonorous than
that of the Raven. At a distance it is not easily distinguishable
from the Rook ; but one who attends to small differences of
form and habits may readily distinguish the two species.
The Rook is less compact, and the feathers of its abdominal
region project more, while its mode of walking is quicker, and
it keeps its bill more inclined towards the ground. At hand,
the species are very easily distinguished, the Rook having a
bill of a different form, and the feathers at its base being
abraded. Although it is said by several ornithologists to
breed with the Carrion Crow, and has even been considered
by some to be of the same species, I have never seen it con-
sorting with that bird, even casually.

It nestles in rocks and tall trees, beginning as early as Fe-
bruary to construct or repair its nest, which is bulky, composed
of twigs, and lined w^th moss, straws, wool, hair, and other
soft materials. The eggs are from four to six, of a rather
elongated ovate form, pale bluish-green, spotted and blotched
with dark umber or clove-brown and purplish-grey. Some-
times the eggs are nearly destitute of spots, and occasionally
they are closely freckled all over with light brown. Their
length varies from lj\ to lj\, their greatest transverse diame-

CARRION CROW. 521

ter from 1^^| to 11^^. The young are at first scantily covered
with blackish down.

I am happy in being enabled to add to the above account of
a Crow, with the habits of which I am less acquainted than
with those of any other British species, the following very in-
teresting observations of my excellent friend Mr. Hogg.

" Stobo Hope, 7th January 1837. — I think I had been saying
in my last that the Raven, though he often feeds on garbage,
is a magnanimous bird compared with the Carrion Crow.
This bird descends to the most dishonourable expedients, to
support itself, of any creature that I am acquainted with.
Take a short history of its conduct during the lambing season,
and it will give you some idea of its deportment through life.
Only two Carrion Crows constantly reside within the bounds
of the farm on which I now herd ; and it is seldom that I pass
through the glen, at M^hatever season of the year, without see-
ing them winnowing about, or wrangling with some stranger
hawk ; but during the lambing season our hills swarm with
them. The ewe, when about to lamb, has an aversion to the
sight of any human being, and to prevent being disturbed ge-
nerally retires to some distant and lonely spot. This exactly
suits the villanous designs of the Crows, who no sooner per-
ceive that the pains of parturition have seized the poor per-
plexed creature, than two or three pairs assemble within sight,
each individual taking its station on some small eminence in
the neighbourhood. When the pains are very sharp, the ewe
in her struggles will sometimes throw herself on her back, or
on one of her sides, from which posture she cannot recover
herself, or at least not so readily as is requisite for her safety.
This is the time for these relentless creatures to make their
attack. They gather round, and, as if actuated by a kind of
revenge, first tear out the eyes. Maddened with pain, she opens
her mouth for fresh air, and bleats out in agony ; when, as if
watching the opportunity, they tear away a piece of the tongue,
always giving a ravenous and greedy gobble when they swallow.
This is not all. By the time the lamb is partially protruded^
the strength of the ewe is exhausted, and her natural pains
blunted, so that no further progress is made. She cannot

522 CORVUS CORONE.

readily get upon her feet, and during her eftbrts to rise, these
foul and rapacious feeders pick out the ej^es, and gnaw away
the tongue of the lamb ; and if the ewe be much exhausted,
they destroy her on the spot. Even this is not all. The
lamb may be produced strong and vigorous. The hungry
harpies, though in close attendance, may have found no op-
portunity of indulging their appetite. But, after it has won
to its feet, and its mother has tenderly cleaned it, they
hastily seize it by the umbilical cord, which generally breaks
about a finger's length or two from the belly. At the first pull,
the small intestines are uncoiled and protruded, on which the
lamb directly falls and dies. The Crow is thus furnished with
a good repast, and perhaps superadds a spauld from the body,
or digs throuo'h the ribs for the heart, which she carries to her
young, who swallow it, or whatever is brought, with consi-
derable noise and voracity.

" I will here relate a circumstance which strongly certifies
the voracious nature of this fowl, and I may add that the facts
above narrated have many times come under my observation.
Travelling athwart my hill, I came suddenly upon a hawk, or
rather a large glede,* killing a moorfowl. How he had got
it in his clutches I do not know ; probably he had lighted on
it by surprise, for he could not seize it in fair flight. The
grouse was screeching piteously, and fluttering to get away ; the
glede striving to retain his hold, and keep himself uppermost.
I ran to save the life of the poor thing ; but my dogs hearing
it to be the noise of a creature in distress, were sooner at the
spot than I ; the glede was obliged to relinquish his prey ; and
the moorfowl, when freed from the talons of its enemy, flew
straight down the glen, — a direction which it would not have
taken had its flight been voluntary, or not under the influence
of fear. It had to pass a small clump of firs, among the
branches of which a Carrion Crow chanced to rest at the time.
In a moment, the Crow saw it was a fowl nearly exhausted,
and darted out after it ; and it was surprising to see with
what rapidity she flapped her wings, and how she stretched

* Probal:ily a Buzzard, Buteo vulgaris.

CARRION CROW. 523

out her neck and beak to reach the moorfowl. But her efforts
were in vain. A small ravine abruptly entered the main
stream, and the grouse, no doubt balancing itself in the air to
enter this hollow, hastily skimmed up its bottom. The Crow,
by the rapidity of her flight, was carried quite down the glen.
I saw her turn to reconnoitre ; but by this time the moorfowl
had regained its native heaths. As it passed me, it was now
and then uttering a cry of Uk^ uk ; but when struggling
with the glede, its screech was like that emitted by a domestic
hen when suddenly laid hold of.

" The Carrion Crow never soars to any great height in the air,
and I think, very little traverses a mountainous district, the
elevated tracts being occupied by the Raven, who, on the other
hand, seldom descends into the low country, unless food be
scarce, or the hills covered with deep snow. Then they are ob-
liged to scour the low parts, where animal life is more abun-
dant, and where incessant casualties are constantly leaving some
carcases on the field. Both the Raven and the Carrion Crow
build with us on trees ; the former on a withered trunk in
the most inaccessible part of a rock or linn. The eggs may
be broken, or the young killed, w^ith stones at a distance, but
it is seldom that they can be won at and carried away. But
the Carrion Crow chooses a crooked birch or mountain-ash, in
the bottom of the glen, and not unfrequently an old disbranched
fir, in the neighbourhood of the farm-stead. There she knows
she is ready for any offal that goes to the dunghil, or for a
piece of rejected tripe which the kitchen-maid may leave at the
stream. Nay, I have often seen them feeding on the excre-
ment voided by sheep in the stell during the night, but this
only when a heavy storm of snow was on the ground, and when
the creatures had a presentiment of still more pinching weather.
And here I may notice that this bird's internal perception of
changes in the weather seems to be very keen and correct. If
they feed with greediness, if they fly speedily and along the
lower edges of the glen, but especially if they be sitting in a
sheltered place when the tempest is beginning, it is a certain
indication that it will increase to a hurricane.

'' The Raven and the Carrion Crovr employ half-rotten twigs

524 CORVUS CORONE.

for an external fence to their nest; but as I have seen the
Raven's only at a distance, I cannot certainly say of what ma-
terials its internal structure consists. The Crow's, however,
are small twigs carefully run into each other's openings ; then
a layer of fresh mould fills up the larger interstices ; and, lastly,
a thick lining of wool and hair, which last materials I have
seen them busy picking from the backs of sheep and cattle.
The Carrion Crow carries the refuse of what her young do not
choose to eat to a considerable distance from the nest. The
other year, that pair which haunts our glen had a low green
mound literally strewed with empty egg shells. Among them
I noticed eggs of all the birds that resort to our mountains to
hatch in the summer months, together with many of the domes-
tic hen. The heads, legs, and bones of lambs were dropped
closer to the tree."

The following account of this bird, transmitted to me by
another keen and accurate observer, Mr. Weir, will be read
with equal interest.

" Boghead, 6th February 1837. — A few years ago, it cost
me a good deal of trouble to destroy a pair of exceedingly shy
Carrion Crows, w^hich for a long time frequented a narrow
stripe of old plantation about a quarter of a mile from my house.
As their nest was built at the extremity of one of the top bran-
ches of a very old and lofty Scotch fir tree, w^hich projected a
considerable way from the trunk, I could not get one of even
the most audacious of our tree-climbing youths to venture to
destroy it. Indeed, the attempt would have been attended with
danger, as the branch upon which it rested was slender and
brittle. From her lofty abode, the female, like a trust-worthy
sentinel at his watch-tower, observed every thing w^hich passed
around. So cunning w^as she, and so acute in her hearing, that
even when she was sitting on her eggs, I could not with the
greatest circumspection get within reach of her.

" As I found that all my attempts were unavailing, I waited
with patience until her brood were nearly ripe. With the
branches of the Scotch fir I built a house within thirty yards
of her nest, leaving a small hole on one side of it, in order to
observe their motions. I crept into it upon my knees by a

CARRION CROW. 525

very small aperture, and after remaining for three or four hours,
I found that the Crows were fluttering in the air a few feet
above my head, making the most fearful croaking, and thereby
intimating that they were aware of their enemy being in am-
bush. I accordingly took the hint, and went home. Next
day I took down my house, and built another under a thick
hawthorn-hedge ; and so closely was it covered with whins and
grass, that I am convinced the smallest bird that flitted in the
air could not see into it. There I waited with anxiety the re-
turn of the birds, but after having remained several hours, I
found that they were as shy as ever. They had seen me go in,
and therefore they were determined to remain at a distance,
until they saw me come out again. I fell upon another plan
however, which at length proved successful.

" In the course of a day or two I went back again, and took
with me my servant boy. After creeping into my snug retreat,
I made him shut up the entrance as carefully as he could.
His departure from the place attracted their attention, and
they followed him to a considerable distance, croaking very
loudly. They then returned and perched on the top of a beech
tree, about five hundred yards from the place where I was
sitting ; and there they remained upwards of an hour, look-
ing around them with most jealous anxiety. At length the
female alighted on the top of a tree about twenty yards from
her nest, and after standing, almost motionless, for fifteen mi-
nutes, fed her young. Immediately on her departure the male
arrived and commenced the same duty. They continued thus,
in rapid succession, for a considerable time. Being now tired
of sitting so long in one posture, I shot at the male, and down
he tumbled.

" About three days after this I w^ent back to despatch the
female. To my astonishment, however, instead of one crow,
as I expected, two alighted at the same moment on the nest,
and commenced with alacrity their mutual operations. I re-
mained a little while, and perceived that the widow, in order
to assist her in her offices of love, had picked up some discon-
solate widower, or disappointed bachelor. She had made
choice of one of the largest and finest crows, I think, I ever

526 CORVUS CORONE.

saw, as her partner for life ; but alas ! it was of very short
duration, for in the course of a few moments I numbered her
with the dead. Beino- anxious to ascertain whether or not the
stepfather would continue to provide for his adopted offspring,
I went back in about three days, when, to my surprise, I found
that the spiipathizing old fellow had not deserted his charge,
but continued to feed them with the same unabated care as
formerly. After the death of his beloved, he was a great deal
more shy, for he remained scarcely a moment when he came
to give the young food. On that account I found it very diffi-
cult to get a shot at him, but at length I succeeded.

" The strong attachment which the feathered kind have to
their offspring is truly astonishing. Although the Carrion
Crow is one of the most cunning of birds, yet I have deceived
him with the young of the Rook. I once shot a female with
all her brood, just as she was putting a part of a bird into the
mouth of one of them. Being anxious to get the male, I took
a young one out of the nest, and sent it with a boy to the
rookery at Balbardie, to pick out four exactly of the same size.
In this he succeeded. Having put them into the nest, I went
back again in the course of two days, and shot him in the very
act of feeding the young rooks v> itli grubs.

" Carrion Crows are among the most voracious of birds.
There was scarcely a pheasant's, a partridge"'s, or even the
smallest bird's nest, that escaped their penetrating search.
Nay, so very intent was the male on plunder that he used to
come very early every morning into a young plantation within
forty yards of my house, and examine most minutely every
nest in Avhich the hens were accustomed to lay. Even this
did not satisfy his rapacious ap})€tite ; for should a duckling or
a chicken happen to wander a little distance from its mother,
he was sure to carry it off. In addition to these, he killed a
considerable number of young hares. I have even seen him
chase them and pounce upon them like a hawk, when they
were more than half grown.

" Some naturalists assert that when Crows carry oiF eggs,
they break the shell, and thrust their bills into them. Whether
this be their general practice or not I cannot affirm ; but I can

CARRION CROM\ 527

vouch for one fact to the contrary which came under my ob-
servation. I recollect when I was one day sitting at the side
of an old wall, reading a hook, a Carrion Crow flew over my
head, with an egg in its bill. I halloed, and down dropped
the egg into the middle of the field. On going to take it up,
I found, to my astonishment, that it was whole. It was the
egg of the common Wild Duck.

" The Carrion Crow is very easily tamed, and is strongly at-
tached to the person who brings him up. I kept one for two
years and a half. It flew round about the neighbourhood, and
roosted every night on the trees of my shrubbery. At what-
ever distance he was, as soon as he heard my voice he immedi-
ately came to me. He was very fond of being caressed, but
should any one except myself stroke him on the head or back,
he w^as sure to make the blood spring from their fingers. He
seemed to take a very great delight in pecking the heels of
barefooted youths. The more terrified they were, the more
did his joy seem to increase. Even the heels of my pointers,
when he was in his merry mood, did not escape his art of in-
geniously tormenting. His memory was astonishing. One
Monday morning, after being satiated w^ith food, he picked up
a mole which was lying in the orchard, and hopped with it
into the garden. I kept out of his sight, as he seldom concealed
any thing when he thought you observed him. He covered it
so nicely with earth that after the most diligent search I could
not discover where he hhd put it. As his wings had been cut
to prevent him from flying over the wall into the garden, he
made many a fruitless attempt during the week to get in at the
door. On Saturday evening, however, it having been left open,
I saw him hop to the very spot where the mole had been so
long hid, and, to my surprise, he came out with it in the
twinkling of an eye."

YouxG. — In their first plumage the Carrion Crows are of
the same colour as when lull grown, but their tints are less
vivid. After leaving the nest they continue for several weeks
under the care of their parents.

528 CORVUS CORONE.

Remarks. — This species is easily distinguished from the
Raven, by its inferior size, and the shortness of the anterior
cervical feathers. From the Rook it is still more easily dis-
tinguished, the bristly feathers over the bill remaining entire
in it, while in that bird they are abraded ; the texture and
tints of the plumage are also different, as w^ill be seen on com-
paring the descriptions. The Carrion Crow is much more
nearly allied to the American Crow, Corvus Americanus, with
which it had been considered identical, until the differences
were pointed out by Mr. Audubon ; see Ornith. Biogr. Vol. II,
p. 323. I have carefully compared skins of the two species,
and am convinced that they are different.

It is easily tamed, and in a state of domestication shews the
same thieving propensities as the raven and jackdaw, carrying
off to some hiding-place whatever articles strike its fancy. In
activity and liveliness he is intermediate between the birds
just mentioned ; like them he may be taught to imitate the
human voice ; and his actions afford amusement to those who
are fond of feathered pets, as he becomes very familiar with his
friends, repels his canine foes, and contrives to console him-
self for the loss of liberty in the best way he can, although if
his wings are left uncut he generally endeavours to regain his
freedom.

According to Temminck, the Carrion Crow is dispersed over
the whole extent of Western Europe, but is rare in the eastern
parts. It has not been found in America.

521)

CORVUS CORNIX. THE HOODED CROW.

r.RF,Y-B\CKED CROW. GREY CROW. DUN CROW. BUNTING CROW.
ROYSTON CROW. CROW. HEEDY CRAW. FEANAG. STARAG.

Fig. 85.

Corvus Cornix. Linn* Syst. Nat. I. 156.

Corvus Cornix. Lath. InJ. Orn. I. 153.

Hooded Crow. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Corneille Mantel^e. Corvus Cornix. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 109.

Hooded Crow, Corvus Cornix. Selb. lUustr. I. 351.

Corvus Cornix. Hooded Crow. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 146.

Of the adult male and female^ the head., fore-neck., wings and
tail blacky glossed with blue and green., the rest ash-grey ; the
tail slightly rounded., straight ; the feathers of the throat short.,
lanceolate., compact. Of the young., the plumage all black., except-
ing a broad band of dusky grey round the fore part of the body.

Male. — -This species is so closely allied to the Carrion Crow,
that, were the colours the same in both, it would be almost
impossible to distinguish them. Some persons indeed have
considered the two as probably forming only a single species ;
but in this opinion I do not agree with them, for reasons to be
presently stated. The general form and size are about the

M m

530 CORVUS CORNIX.

same as those of the species just mentioned. The bill is almost
precisely similar, or, if different at all, it is perhaps not quite so
robust. It is rather long, deep, and nearly straight ; the
upper mandible with its dorsal outline arcuato-declinate, the
ridge obtuse but narro\Y, the sides convex, the edges sharp,
direct, slightly arched towards the end, with a very slight notch
close to the declinate rather obtuse tip ; the lower mandible
has the angle medial, of moderate \\ddth, rather acute, the dor-
sal line slightly convex, the sides erect and slightly convex,
towards the tip sloping outwards, the edges sharp and slightly
inflected, the tip rather acute.

Internally the upper mandible is concave and longitudinally
marked with seven prominent lines and intermediate broad
shallow grooves ; the lower deeply concave, with a prominent
central line. The palate is flat, the posterior aperture of the
nares narrow and edged with small papillae. The tongue ob-
long, emarginate and papillate at the base, flat above, thin-
edged, horny, its point slit.

The eyes are of moderate size, the eyelids feathered, with
narrow crenate margins. The nostrils roundish, concealed by
the feathers. The aperture of the ears round, of moderate
size.

The tarsi are covered anteriorly with nine scutella, posterior-
ly with two plates meeting at an acute angle. The toes are of
moderate size ; the first, which is about the same length as the
second and fourth, but much stronger, has nine scutella, the
second eight, the third ten, the fourth twelve ; each of the an-
terior toes having moreover three basal scales. The claws are
arched, compressed, rather acute, flat beneath, that of the middle
toe with an inner sharp edge, those of the first and second ob-
scurely grooved on the sides.

The plumage is moderately full, soft, the dark-coloured parts
compact and highly glossed, the grey softer and less glossy.
On each side of the base of the upper mandible, extending be-
yond the nostrils, are stiff" bristly adpressed reversed feathers
with short discrete filaments ; and there are similar but shorter
feathers at the base of the lower mandible. Bristles at the
commencement of the gape strong and deflected. The feathers

HOODED CROW. 531

of the head are rounded, of the hind-neck lanceolate and
rather blended ; of the rest of the upper parts ovate, rounded,
rather indistinct ; of the chin short, roundish, with separated
barbs, and a long bristle point ; of the throat ovato-lanceolate
and compact ; of the rest of the lower parts rounded and rather
compact, except on the abdomen, where they are loose ; on the
legs short, abrupt, and rather blended. The wings are long,
straight, much rounded ; the primary quills ten, straight,
tapering, the first half the length of the fourth and equal to the
ninth, the fourth longest, the third two twelfths of an inch,
shorter, the fifth about equal to the third, the second one inch
shorter than the fourth and equal to the sixth ; the second,
third, fourth, fifth, and sixth slightly cut out on the outer web ;
the first, second, third, and fourth on the inner. The secon-
dary quills twelve, large, slightly incurved, abruptly rounded
and acuminate.

The bill, feet, and claws are glossy black ; the iris deep
brown. The general colour of the plumage is ash-grey tinged
with purplish, the shafts darker ; the head, the fore j^aii: of
the neck, the wings, and the tail black, glossed with purplish-
blue and green ; the secondary coverts and outer secondaries
with purple ; the alula, primary coverts, primaries, and tail
with green.

Length to end of tail 20^ ; extent of wings 89 ; wing from
flexure 13 ; tail 7j ; wings 1^ shorter than tail ; bill along the
back 2/5, along the edge of lower mandible 2i ; tarsus 2^ ;
first toe i§, its claw |§ ; second toe 1, its claw /^ ; third toe
ly\, its claw j% ; fourth toe \l, its claw j%.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, somewhat
smaller, the black less extended on the fore-neck, the grey of
the back less pure.

Length 19 inches ; extent of wings 38.

Habits. — The Hooded Crow is very abundant in the He-
brides, the Shetland and Orkney Islands, and most parts of
the northern and middle divisions of Scotland ; but is rare in
the southern division, and gradually diminishes as we proceed

M m 2

532 CORVUS CORNIX.

southward. It is not confined to the coast, but is met with in
the very centre of the Grampians, and other inland districts ;
but in winter few individuals are found in the interior. Al-
though somewhat more social than the Carrion C-row or the
Raven, it is not gregarious, for although four or five indivi-
duals may often be seen together, more than that number
seldom convene unless when attracted by an abundant supply
of food. It derives its subsistence from carrion, dead fish,
crabs, echini, mollusca, larvae, grain, and other matters, it
being fully as promiscuous a feeder as the Carrion Crow or
the Raven, although it certainly prefers fish and mollusca to
large carcases, and very rarely feeds upon a stranded whale,
or even a domestic animal. Young lambs are favourite deli-
cacies, and in severe seasons, when summer in vain struggles
with winter, sometimes afford an abundant temporary supply.
I am not, however, inclined to believe that the Hooded Crow
often destroys these animals, nor that it ventures to attack
sickly sheep. It never disputes a prize with the raven, much
less the eagle, nor will it advance so near to a dog as the for-
mer of these birds, which it resembles in vigilance and cun-
ning, but without shewing equal boldness.

Perhaps the most remarkable habit of the Hooded Crow is
one which most persons wdio have observed it consider as indi-
cative of the approach of rain, but which I have not found to
have any connection w^ith that phenomenon. In quiet, and
more especially in dull close weather, one of them, perched
on a stone or crag, continues to croak for a long time, being
responded to at intervals by another that has taken a station
at some distance. Its voice is not so loud or clear as that
of the Carrion Crow, but resolves itself into a rather harsh
sound resembling the syllable Cr««, pronounced by a genuine
Aberdonian. On ordinary occasions, its flight is peculiarly
sedate, being performed by regularly-timed slow beats ; but
when necessary, it can be greatly accelerated, although it never
equals in rapidity that of the Raven. It also walks in the same
staid manner as the Carrion Crow and the Rook, and in gene-
ral w^ears a grave aspect, demeaning itself so as if it were not
disposed to indulge in unbecoming levity. It rarely molests
other birds, nor is it often attacked by any.

HOODED CROW. 533

In districts frequented by it, you commonly find it along the
shore, sometimes among the rocks, searching for crabs and
shellfish, which it has sagacity enough, when it cannot other-
wise open them, to raise in the air and drop to the ground ;
sometimes on the sandy beach, especially if fish or echini have
been cast up. The latter are so frequently devoured by them
in the Hebrides that they have obtained the name of Hooded
Crow's Cups — cragan-feannaig. Gulls, even the strongest, rarely
dispute with them on such occasions, but impatiently walk
about until they choose to fly off.

Although familiar enough with this species, I have never
observed it mount high into the air like the raven, for the pur-
pose of sailing. Nor does it scour the hill tops and sides in the
same free and bold manner, but rather has a skulking habit,
and prefers remaining on the lower grounds, especially in the
vicinity of water, whether fresh or salt. It searches the moors,
however, for eggs and young birds, and commits considerable
depredations upon those of the Golden Plover and Red Grouse.
The eggs of Gulls and Terns it does not venture to seize upon,
knowing that these birds would join in attacking any intruder.

It is said by some to assemble at times in very large flocks,
apparently for the purpose of settling some important matter
referring to their mutual benefit ; but I have not observed any
such conventions, and am disposed to consider them as merely
imaginary. Nor is it necessary that they should have assem-
blies for the purpose of choosing partners, for, according to my
observation, they remain paired all the year, and the young
individuals can easily meet without having a general convoca-
tion. Several authors talk of their building in trees ; but I
have never seen a Hooded Crow's nest elsewhere than on a
rock, and generally by the sea. It is large, composed of twigs,
sea-weeds, heath, feathers, and straws, being similar to that of
the Carrion Crow and Raven. The eggs, from four to six or
seven in number, but generally five, are of a regular ovate
form, from an inch and a half to an inch and eight twelfths
long, and about one and a twelfth across ; of a pale bluish-
green tint, marked all over, but more thickly at the large end,
with oblong and roundish spots of greenish-brown and pale

534 CORVUS CORxMX.

purplisli-grey. They vary considerably in colour, as is the case
with the other species, and in a cabinet cannot be distinguished
from those of the Carrion Crow. The young are at first covered
with blackish-grey down.

Young. — When fledged the young are black all over, except-
ing a broad band of dull grey, including the anterior half of the
body and the hind-neck. After leaving the nest they continue
several weeks together, and are led about and assisted by their
parents. In their progress toward maturity, the grey colour
becomes lighter and more extended, the black more glossy, and
with brighter reflections.

Remarks. — On comparing specimens of the Hooded Crow
and Carrion Crow, I cannot discover any differences in the
form of the parts, or in the texture and outlines of the feathers
by which they can be distinguished. Nor is there any decided
difference in their size. Yet I am persuaded that the two
species are perfectly distinct, for we have large tracts of country,
the whole range of the Outer Hebrides for example, inhabited
by the Hooded Crow, without an individual of the other species
to be seen ; and in districts inhabited by both they always
keep separate, the Carrion Crow being moreover a much wilder
bird than the other. It is alleged by some writers that these
two species sometimes breed together, producing hybrids hav-
ing characters intermediate between the two. How such
hybrids could be recognised I am unable to conjecture ; for
the mere extent and tint of the grey-coloured space varies
greatly in the Hooded Crow.

According to authors, this species occurs in all parts of
Europe, remaining stationary in the eastern and mountainous
districts, but, as M. Temminck alleges, appearing only in Sep-
tember and October in the western countries. In the whole of
Scotland it is stationary all the year, although many indivi-
duals may probably migrate southward ; but in most parts of
England it appears in October, chiefly along the coast, and
on the extensive maritime downs, and departs in March.

535

CORVUS FRUGILEGUS. THE ROOK.

CROW. CRAW. CREUMHACII. ROCUS.

Corvus frugilegus. Linn. Sp. PL 156.

Corvus frugilegus. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 152.

Rook. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Freux. Con^us frugilegus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 110.

Rook. Corvus frugilegus. Seib. Illustr. I. 353.

Corvus frugilegus. Rook. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 146.

Of the adult male and female^ the feathers of the anterior part
of the head abraded ; the plumage hlach^ splendent^ with purple^
blue and green reflectioyis ; that of the neck blended^ silky ^ steel-
blue, purple and green ; the bill attenuated towards the tip. The
young with the head entirely feathered, the plumage black, less
glossy.

Male. — The familiar, well-known, and generally distributed
Rook, one might naturally enough say, requires little descrip-
tion ; and to many it might be sufficient to state that it is blaok,
gregarious, and builds in tall trees ; but, to be consistent, we
ought to devote as much attention to the Rook as to the Raven ;
and, indeed, it is in many respects equally if not more deserv-
ing of regard. It is more slender and generally somewhat
smaller than the Carrion Crow, which it greatly resembles when

536 COllVUS FRUGILEGUS.

viewed at a distance. The general form however is moderately
full. The bill is of considerable length, robust, slightly arched,
compressed, and tapering to a point ; the upper mandible with
the dorsal line arcuato-declinate, the ridge convex, the sides
sloping and convex, the edges some^vhat inclinate, acute, over-
lapping, the tip narrow and considerably prolonged ; the lower
mandible with the angle medial, rather narrow and acute, the
outline of the crura straight, the dorsal line straight and in-
clined upwards, the sides flattened and inclined outwards, the
edges sharp and inclinate, the tip narrow. The gape-line is
slightly arched.

Internally the upper mandible is concave and longitudinally
marked with seven prominent lines ; the lower deeply concave,
w^th a central prominent line. The palate is flat ; the pos-
terior aperture of the nares narrow, and edged w4th small
papillae, as is the aperture of the glottis. The tongue is oblong,
emarginate and papillate at the base, flat above, horny, thin-
edged, its point slit. At its base and under it a cavity can be
produced by the dilatation of the skin in the angle of the jaw,
forming a kind of pouch in which food is carried to the young.
The oesophagus is wide, of nearly equal diameter, eight inches
long; the proventriculus bulbiform, studded all round with
cylindrical glandules. The stomach is a moderately strong
gizzard of an oblong form, a little compressed, with rather
large central tendons, and thin, longitudinally rugous, cuticular
lining. The intestine is three feet six inches long, wider in its
upper part ; the coeca adnate, cylindrical, about three twelfths
long, and placed at the distance of two and a half inches from
the anus.

The eyes are of moderate size ; the eyelids feathered, with a
papillate margin ; the nostrils broadly elliptical or roundish ;
the external aperture of the ear round, of moderate size.

The feet are of ordinary length, rather robust ; the tarsus
rounded before, with eight scutella, compressed, posteriorly
edged, the lateral plates meeting behind. The second and
fourth toes are nearly equal, the third considerably longer, all
scutellate above, marginate, granulate and padded beneath ;
the first with eight, the second with nine, the third with thir-

ROOK. 537

teen, the fourth with eleven scutella. The claws are strong,
large, arched, compressed, their sides grooved, their curve less
than that of the claws of the preceding species.

The plumage is of ordinary length, highly glossed, silky, on
the head and neck blended, on the back and wings rather com-
pact, on the lower parts rather loose. The feathers are abraded
from the base of the bill as far as the eyes, and from the skin
of the throat to the extent of two inches from the angle of the
lower mandible. The wings are long, much rounded; the
primary quills straight, tapering ; the first, second, third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth, having the inner web cut out, the
second, third, fourth, and fifth the outer. The fourth quill is
lonofest, the third two twelfths shorter, the fifth about as much
shorter than the third, the second an inch shorter than the
third and half an inch longer than the sixth, the first about
half the length of the fourth, and a little longer than the ninth.
The secondary quills, twelve in number, are broad, slightly
incurved, the outer abrupt and acuminate, the inner rounded.
The wings reach to near the end of the tail, which is nearly
straight, rounded, of twelve broad, broadly rounded feathers.

The bill, feet, and claws are black ; the iris brown. The
abraded space about the bill is dusky, with numerous whitish
scurfy papilla?, each containing the base of a feather ; some-
times this part, especially at the base of the upper mandible,
is diseased, and I have seen the nostrils almost closed. The
general colour of the plumage is deep black ; the head and
neck very highly glossed with vivid blue and purple reflections ;
the upper parts with purplish-blue ; the lower with purple
and a little green, the primary quills, their coverts, and the
alula with green.

There is considerable variation as to size, the largest which
I have examined measuring 21 inches in length, the small-
est 18.

Length to end of tail 19 1 inches ; extent of wings SS.} ; wing
from flexure 12f ; tail 71 ; bill along the back 2^^, along the
edge of lower mandible 2^^ ; tarsus 2^ ; first toe 1, its claw
\% ; second toe l^^^., its claw {'^ ; third toe 1/^, its claw 8|
twelfths ; fourth toe 1, its claw ^\ twelfths.

538 CORVUS FRUGILEGUS.

Female. — The female is precisely similar to the male, being
merely a little smaller.

Length to end of tail 18^ inches; extent of wings 36 ; wing
from flexure 1 2 ; tail 7i ; bill along the back 2, along the edge
of lower mandible 2j^^ ; tarsus 2 ; first toe ^§, its claw {^ ;
second toe lOi twelfths, its claw j'^^ ; third toe l^^j, its claw
j% ; fourth toe ^^, its claw 6i twelfths.

Variations. — Individuals of either sex vary considerably in
size. There is also a remarkable diversity in the form of the
bill, which has a ruder aspect and rougher surface than in the
other species, and not unusually has the point of the upper
mandible a little deflected to one side. The base of the low^er
mandible is generally dilated, in some cases in a very remark-
able degree, which is doubtless owing to the habit which the
bird has of cramming its sublingual pouch with food for its
young. Albino individuals sometimes occur, either pure white,
or more frequently yellowish- white or cream-coloured, with the
bill and feet also w^hite, and the eyes reddish. Patches of
Avhite are also sometimes seen on individuals.

The plumage towards the period of the moult becomes ragged
and as it were tarnished with brown. The feathers of an indi-
vidual in a state of change shew a great difference, the old
ones being dull brown, the new beautifully glossed with green
and blue. The same circumstance is observable in the other
species.

Habits. — The habits of the Rook form an interesting subject
of observation, and have been minutely described by various
wa-iters, some of whom, not content w^ith the phenomena pre-
sented by nature, have embellished their histories w^ith many
marvels supplied by their own active imagination. If we
w^alk abroad in the summer mornings, in a place not remote
from the haunts of this bird, Ave find it to be among the
earliest astir of those that betake themselves to the open
fields. While the dew is yet on the grass, even sometimes
in the early dawn, before the sun has emerged from beneath
the horizon, it urges its silent flight to some grassy field or hill,

HOOK. 589

where it feasts upon the earth-worms that usually come to the
surface under night. Often too you may find it in the streets
of the populous city, carefully searching for whatever is ap-
plicable to its wants among the garbage that waits the sca-
venger's cart.

It is pleasant and profitable to vary one's habits at times ;
for a naturalist in particular it were absurd to be fettered by
resolutions as to the precise moment of sleeping or eating.
Had I not once made an excursion at an unusual time of
day, I should not have known that Rooks are early risers.
The occasion was this : one night in June I had been reading
of volcanoes and earthquakes, and had protracted my studies
to an early hour. Just as I had fallen asleep, I was aw^akened
by a loud noise, similar at its commencement to the report of
a gun, but lengthened out into a series of undulatory sounds
resembling thunder. I rose, and looking out of the w^indow,
could perceive no indications of electric explosions in the clear
sky. A light mist lay over the town, and the air was so calm
that not a leaf of the poplars stirred. Again another explosion,
and I marvelled, listened and looked, but in vain. He who
listens eagerly in the silence of a calm night hears many myste-
rious sounds swelling and dying away at intervals. To divine
the cause of these I put on my clothes, w^ent out by the garden
door, forded the Water of Leith, and betook me to the Calton
Hill.

The Hedge-sparrow and the White-throat were singing in the
bushes before two ; and, as I proceeded, some Thrushes and
Blackbirds commenced their morning hymn, at first drowsily,
and with few and unmusical notes. A w^atchman near Bride-
well informed me that a shot or tw^o had been fired, probably
by boys. From the hill I could perceive no symptoms of
thunder on the horizon, but the barking of a dog in the direc-
tion of Prince's Street came rattling back from the Abbey at
such a rate, that I easily understood how the report of a pistol
in so quiet a morning might be magnified into the semblance of
an electric explosion. The voice of the watchman was more
than stentorian. The sea, which was smooth as glass, and
could not have formed a ripple on the beach of the height of a

540 CORVUS FRUGILEGUS.

foot, yet sent forth sounds louder than the crash of waves during
a tempest.

The eastern horizon was obscured by thin vapours, wdiich
gradually changed from dull red to orange, as I seated me on
a stone, impatiently to wait the appearance of the sun. Sud-
denly there issued from a gi-ove to the eastward, and from the
valley in which stands the ancient palace of Holyrood, two full
volleys of song from a multitude of blackbirds. The music con-
tinued until half-past two, when it entirely ceased. In the
meantime a drowsy Rook came flying over the hill on silent
wings, steering^ its course with a ragged tail which the moult
had deprived of several of its feathers, and w^ithout uttering
a single croak. Presently came another, a third, and a fourth,
all equally dull and silent. The chirping of sparrows was heard
on the streets, and the little hedge-bird sent forth its lively
ditty from a clump of bushes and weeds, in passing which I
had been surprised by the nauseating odour which the hemlock,
Conium maculatum, sent forth to the distance of several yards.
By and by the Rooks returned, each having its throat distended
with food. Reflecting that by this time the young were all
fledged and had left their nests, and wondering wdiy the old
birds should thus toil at so early an hour, I imagined that these
birds continue to provide for their offspring long after the latter
have begun to seek food for themselves. The mist grew thicker,
and as I had no chance of seeing the sun rise, I left the hill
and walked home at three, among crowds of sparrows, as lively
as if under the influence of mid-day excitement, quarrelling and
bickerino- about the crumbs that were scattered about.

All day long you may find the Rook in the fields or j^astures,
diligently searching for worms and grubs, breaking up and turn-
ing over the dry cow-dung with its bill, thrusting it deep into the
loose soil, or digging among tufts of grass and clover to extract
the larvse that find harbour amidst their roots. At this season,
you often observe these birds scattered over the moorland haunts
of the curlew^ and plover, and not unfrequently on the sandy
or muddy beaches exposed by the tide. Towards evening, col-
lecting into large straggling flocks, and uttering their loud and
not unpleasant cries, they return to their roosts on the tall trees

ROOK. 541

of some antique mansion, where for ages, perhaps, their race
has fixed its abode. During long droughts they experience
great difficulty in procuring subsistence, at least in districts
where there is not a diversity of soil and a variety of scenery,
although in most parts of Scotland they have a choice of ground
which renders them less liable to be seriously incommoded by
extremes of weather. " In a hot day," says the author of the
Journal of a Naturalist, " we see the poor birds perambulating
the fields, and wandering by the sides of the highways, seeking
for and feeding upon grasshoppers, or any casual nourishment
that may be found. At those times, was it not for its break-
fast of dew- worms, w^hich it catches in the grey of the morning,
as it is appointed the earliest of risers, it would commonly be
famished. In the hot summer of 1825, many of the young
brood of the season perished for want ; the mornings were
without dew, and consequently few or no worms were to be
obtained ; and we found them dead under the trees, having
expired on their roostings. It was particularly distressing, for
no relief could be given, to hear the constant clamour and im-
portunity of the young for food. The old birds seemed to suf-
fer without complaint ; but the wants of their offspring were
expressed by the unceasing cry of hunger, and pursuit of their
parents for supply, and our fields were scenes of daily restless-
ness and lament. Yet, amid all this distress, it was pleasing
to observe the perseverance of the old ])irds in the endeavour to
relieve their famishing families, as many of them remained out
searching for food quite in the dusk, and returned to their
roosts long after the usual period for retiring. In this extre-
mity it becomes a plunderer, to which by inclination it is not
much addicted, and resorts to our newly-set potatoe fields, dig-
ging out the cuttings. Ranks are seen sadly defective, the
result of its labours, I fear." The failures in the potatoe
crops have of late years excited much attention, one conse-
quence of which has been that the Rooks have been completely
exonerated of the charge of digging up the sets, which have
always been found in the ground, shrivelled, putrid, or de-
voured by worms. Most of the circumstances connected with
this failure have been pointed out ; but the farmers are deter-

542 CORVUS FRUGILEGUS.

mined to believe nothing, and thus we still have essays and
observations on the subject, one recommending this and another
that mode of treatment, and many deploring the lamentable
failure of the constitution of the potatoe. Let them dung and
prepare their fields in the ordinary way, plant the sets entire
and at a proper depth, in the beginning of May ; and let the
soil and the weather be what they may, we shall hear no com-
plaints as to the failure of the sets. I have tried the experi-
ment of planting beside each other whole tubers and dry shri-
velled cuts, and while some of the latter never sent out stems,
all the former sprouted luxuriantly. No instance of the fail-
ure of entire sets has been recorded, and yet the farmers will
not try them, because each has a theory of his own, and the
rooks or the worms, or something else, are accused of an injury
which is to be attributed solely to the knife of the potatoe-
cutter.

" Early to bed, early to rise,'"* is a good maxim, if received
with latitude ; but he who would imitate the Rooks in their
bedding and rising would be a fool for his pains ; for in sum-
mer he would retire to rest at ten and be up by two, and in
winter would sleep from four in the evening to eight next
day. Rooks and other birds labour incessantly all day long
in winter, and rest two thirds of their time, and in summer,
w^hen the day is twenty hours long, they devote part of it
to repose ; while in the intermediate seasons, they proportion
their labour and rest to the occasion, always, however, going
early to bed, and bestirring themselves at dawn. It would
appear that in all climates, taking the average of the w^hole
year, birds spend at least one half of their time in repose.

In autumn, the labours of incubation and rearing their young
over, and their old plumage exchanged for a new suit, the
Rooks appear to live a happy life, shifting about from field to
pasture, searching the potatoe and turnip grounds, spreading
over the recently inundated meadows, examining the stubble-
fields, and if extensive mud-flats or sandy beaches are not too
distant, making daily or at least occasional visits to them. The
food of the Rook consists essentially of larvae and worms, to
obtain which it digs up the roots of plants in which they are

ROOK. 543

lodged, or perforates the earth. If you watch a flock of these
birds spread over a meadow, you will observe that if the wind
be high they always proceed against it, but if it be calm, move
about in all directions, very seldom interfering with each other.
Selecting an individual for observation, you see that he walks
along in a quiet manner, not ungracefully, with his body ele-
vated considerably in front, his wings tucked up over his tail,
his neck rather stretched, and his bill directed towards the
ground, indicating that the objects of his search lie there. In
a short time he picks up a worm and swallows it, or deposits
it in his gular bag ; then moves a few steps forward, suddenly
stops, eyes the ground attentively for a few moments, rushes
onward, and digs with his bill so furiously that the worm which
he thus endeavours to seize must be nimble indeed if it can
escape him. Now he attacks a large tuft of the hair-grass, Aira
csespitosa, and after much labour succeeds in digging it up by
the roots, among which you perceive he has found several small
grubs. In this manner he goes on for an hour or more, his
companions all the time similarly occupied, and generally in
silence. But now one of them on the outskirts rises on wing,
and with loud cries gives intimation of danger to the rest, who
instantly spring up, and amid much clamour and some confu-
sion ascend, and fly olf to some distant field. Open pastures
and large fields are always preferred when a choice may be had,
but sometimes they venture close to hedges, copses, or woods,
or even visit gardens and orchards. In this case however they
are particularly vigilant, and very frequently one or more indi-
viduals are seen perched on a wall or tree, apparently for the
purpose of watching over the rest. It is generally early in the
morning that they pay their visits to the gardens, dunghils,
and streets.

In their distant flights they commonly proceed at a consider-
able height, moving with moderate speed, in a straggling dis-
orderly band, often, especially at the outset, with much noise.
Their flight is of that kind which I call sedate, being performed
by regularly- timed rather slow beats of the expanded wings,
direct, without undulations, and capable of being greatly pro-
tracted. Sometimes on one of their excursions, when passing

544 CORVUS FRUGILEGUS.

over a field or meadow at a great height, something in it ap-
pears suddenly to attract their attention, and they descend
headlong, performing singular evolutions as they turn from side
to side and wind among each other. In general, however, they
settle with more caution, sometimes flying repeatedly over the
ground, often dropping down one by one, and occasionally
perching for a while in the neighbouring trees before venturing
to alight.

The cry of the E-Ook resembles the syllable Khraa^ more or
less harsh or soft according to occasion. There is great diver-
sity in the voice of individuals, some having much louder and
clearer notes than others. Although separately their cries are
monotonous and disagreeable, yet from a large flock, and at
some distance, they are by no means unpleasant ; and those who
have become habituated to the noise of a rookery, do not gene-
rally find it annoying.

Although the staple food of the Rook is larvae and worms,
it also eats shell-fish, Crustacea, coleopterous insects, lizards,
seeds, especially of cereal plants, acorns, beech-nuts, portions of
roots of grasses, and in winter even turnips. I have seen rooks
picking at a fish on the beach, but I believe they never devour
carrion, although they may be seen about a dead horse or cow
searching for larvse. While feeding, they freely associate with
Jackdaws, and even Gulls ; and I have seen Starlings, Red-
wings, Fieldfares and Missel Thrushes mingling with them
without much apprehension of danger.

Rooks are not easily shot in the fields unless one come acci-
dentally upon some that have straggled to the edge, for they
are commonly shy and vigilant. At the same time they seem to
calculate upon the protection which they usually receive in the
neighbourhood of their breeding places, and are less shy on the
lawn and in the park than on the distant pastures and in the
ploughed fields. In the neighbourhood of towns they are al-
ways more wary than in the country, so that holding out a gun
or a stick, or even the arm, or standing stock still, is sure to
make them fly ofi^", unless they be several hundred yards distant.

In winter they are sometimes reduced to as great straits as
during a parched summer ; for when snow lies for weeks on

ROOK. 545

the ground, their only sure resource is the sea-shore. On such
occasions they sometimes ahght on the corn-stacks and in the
farm-yards, becoming bold from necessity. In a very severe
winter, when the snow lay six weeks, and the Rock Pigeons
and Woodcocks were found dead in the pastures, I have seen
Rooks in great flocks visiting the Outer Hebrides, where none
ever breed. During the hea\^ snow in the end of 1836, I
observed that in the inland parts of Mid-Lothian, and in the
county of Peebles, they resorted chiefly to the stack-yards,
where they committed serious depredation by pulling out the
straws to get at the grain.

Before proceeding with my own observations, I may here in-
troduce some notes for which I am indebted to Mr. Weir : —
" Whether Rooks are more beneficial or prejudicial to mankind,
is a matter of dispute. If they are destructive to the corn dur-
ing harvest, they are undoubtedly of great use to the farmer
during the months of spring, by destroying a vast quantity of
grubs, which, in some seasons, are exceedingly hurtful to the
tender shoots. By these little voracious insects I have seen
many an acre of excellent oats, which to their owner held out
the fairest prospect of an abundant crop, rendered wholly unfit
for use. It is a fact, not generally known, that the Rooks de-
stroy a great many of the young and eggs of difterent birds.
Both this year and the last I have caught several of them in
my rat traps, in the very act of carrying off the eggs which I
had there placed as a bait for the carrion crows and magpies.

" The distance to which they fly almost every day to procure
their food, is astonishingly great. The Rooks from Kirklis-
ton have, during most part of this winter, flown every morning
to the neighbourhood of Sliotts, a distance of at least twenty
miles, and returned late in the afternoon to their place of abode.
They are excellent, I may say unerring, prognosticators of a
change of the weather. If they fly back to their roost in the
forenoon, or early in the afternoon, a storm of snow or rain
takes place in the evening, or on the following day.

" In the rookery at Balbardie, several varieties of Rooks have
occasionally been seen. Last season there was a young one of
a pure white colour, but whether it was shot by some sports-

N n

546 CORVUS FRUGILEGUS.

man, or died a natural death, I know not. It, however, dis-
appeared in the course of a few weeks. I got one which had
several white feathers in its wrings ; it was also white on the
breast and the top of its head.

" They are sometimes taught to mimic different kinds of
animals. There was an old woman in Bathgate who kept one
for some years, which I have again and again heard imitating
so remarkably well the barking of several dogs in the village,
that had it been placed out of view, it w^ould have been impos-
sible to have discovered the deception.

" This morning (16th February 1887), I saw in a small
rookery behind my house a pair of Rooks refitting an old nest
which had resisted the winter's blast, and another pair carrying
sticks to commence a new one. This is the earliest instance
of nidification which I recollect of having seen. It was, no
doubt, owing to the uncommon mildness of the day. In gene-
ral, however, this does not take place before the first days of
March. They are excessively shy birds. A few years ago,
as they broke off a great many branches from my young apple
and pear trees for building their nests, I was determined to
banish them from the residence which they had so long pos-
sessed. This I found very difficult to accomplish, for after
having shot once or twice at them, they recognised my dress as
soon as I came within their sight, and immediately flew away.
As there were several labourers draining my garden, which was
a few yards from the rookery, I commonly put on one of their
coats, and wrought along with them. It was only in this way
that I succeeded in killing a few of them, and eventually in
banishing them for the season."'

About the middle of February, the Rooks having returned
to their breeding places, which they commonly, or for the most
part, desert in winter, begin to inspect their old tenements, and
early in the following month commence the repairs rendered
necessary by the dilapidation produced by the fury of the winds.
From dawn to sunset all is bustle in the grove, where the
younger pairs may be seen rearing their first edifice, either in
a tree not previously occupied, or at a safe distance from those
of the older members of the community, who incessantly, but

ROOK. 547

without confusion, ply their less laborious task. Some are seen
flying abroad, others returning and bearing from the neigh-
bourhood t\\ags of various trees, some of which they have broken
from the branches, while others have been picked up from
the ground. If you visit the rookery by day at this period,
you find probably half the birds at home busily occupied, and
so long as you remain at a distance not much alarmed, al-
though now and then one calls out with a strong voice to his
fellows to beware. If you advance nearer, those on the neigh-
bouring trees fly off, making a loud and discordant noise, but
alight at some distance. This commotion alarms the whole
body, and should you go up to the centre of the place, they all
fly away, and either keep sailing and circling about, uttering
fierce vociferations, or betake themselves to the surrounding
trees, whence they spring whenever they judge your proximity
too close. If you shoot one of them, which you may easily do,
the noise is greatly increased, and the greater part make off to
a secure distance. When you have retired, you see them has-
tening back in groups to continue their labours, and presently
all the disturbance which you have caused is forgotten. Thus
even amid the anxiety and bustle of this busy season, the Rooks
retain their usual vigilance, and are as little disposed as ever
to favour the advances of man, although the desire of forwarding
their work induces them to allow a much nearer approach
than at other times.

At length, by the end of a week or ten days, the bulky edi-
fices are completed ; and when the eggs are deposited, the stir
abates, although still a considerable bustle is kept up by the
males, who carefully feed their mates while sitting. The nest
has generally a diameter of two feet, or somewhat more, and is
composed of sticks and twigs, some dry, others fresh, of ash,
plane-tree, elm, fir, pear, apple, and other trees, frequently
hawthorn cuttings ; and is lined with fibrous roots and long
straws rather neatly arranged, together with wool and other
soft substances, varying according to circumstances. The eggs
are four or five in number, of a rather elongated subelliptical
form, having the larger end narrower than that of the eggs of
the preceding species, the length varying from an inch and

N n 2

548 CORVUS FRUGILEGUS.

eleven twelfths to an inch and nine twelfths, the greatest
breadth about an inch and a quarter. They are of a light
greenish-blue, blotched, clouded, spotted, dotted, or freckled
with greyish-brown and light purplish-grey, sometimes so
closely as nearly to conceal the ground colour. The young are
hatched about the middle of April or sooner, when the season
is very favourable, although in general Rooks are not much in-
fluenced by cold or heat with reference to the period at which
they deposit their eggs.

These birds generally select for their breeding places the
clusters of tall trees usually found in the neighbourhood of old
family mansions ; and being in this manner indicative of the
antiquity of the house to which they have attached themselves,
they become objects of interest to its members, and find pro-
tection from them. When the trees in such a situation are not
numerous, the nests are sometimes crowded upon them in
masses, three or four being occasionally contiguous. This
season, 1837, there are on three large plane trees on the lawn
at Prestonlield, the seat of Sir Robert Dick, twenty-six, twenty-
five, and twenty-three nests, and on the neighbouring trees a
variable number down to a single nest. But when a large
wood is selected, they seldom build so closely, although even
there it is not uncommon to find eight or ten on a tree.
Rookeries are more numerous in highly cultivated districts,
which are at the same time liberally supplied with wood. Al-
though usually placed in tall trees, yet they are sometimes seen
on such as are by no means remarkable for height, but in the
latter case never elsewhere than in parks or pleasure grounds,
for it is the experience or sense of security that determines their
choice of a breeding place. There are several small rookeries
in the heart of Edinburgh, and various authors speak of similar
establishments in other cities. Instances of their building on
cliffs, towers, and steeples, are also recorded, but they are very
unusual. I have seen Jackdaws and Sparrows making use of
the deserted nests of rooks, after the young of the latter were
flown ; but such occurrences are rare.

Not having visited a rookery at night, I was desirous of
knowing how the birds would conduct themselves when dis-

ROOK. 549

turbed by an intruder after they had retired to rest, and accord-
ingly went this evening, the 14th April, to that at Prestonfield
in my neighbourhood. When about four hundred yards from
it, I stopped to listen, and was surprised to hear several Rooks
uttering a variety of soft clear modulated notes very unlike their
usual cry. In the intervals I could distinguish the faint shrill
voice of the newly hatched young, which their mothers, I felt
persuaded, were fondling and coaxing in this manner. Indeed
the sounds were plainly expressive of affection and a desire to
please. Presently all became still, and I advanced until I could
perceive the male birds perched on the twigs in great numbers.
They had no doubt observed me, and a few seemed ready to fly
off, but it was not until a loud croak from a distance, several
times repeated, gave warning to the whole community, that
they did so. As I proceeded, all the males removed, and ulti-
mately, I believe, the females also ; but with much less cla-
mour than they would have used had it been day, most of them
remaining mute, several uttering a kind of low grunt, expressive
of dissatisfaction, others a sort of panting noise indicative of
fear, and only a few croaking aloud in anger. I believe the
whole colony was on wing, and wheeling over the trees, the
young remaining perfectly mute. As I moved along, I heard
those whose nests were behind settling in succession on the
twio^s, and before I had retired to the distance of four hundred
yards, they all seemed to have returned. Their flight on this
occasion was singularly wavering, undulatory, and undecided,
and the strong flappings of their wings were distinctly heard, it
being a calm evening. After they had all regained their tran-
quillity, a few croaks only being heard now and then, I broke
a stick to see what effect the noise might have, when a few
that were on some trees nearer than the rookery flew off in
silence. A repetition of the noise produced the same effect,
but the sound did not disturb the main body. I then clapped
my hands, when presently all was mute, and so long as this
sound was repeated, no cry was emitted. They seemed to
watch in silence my further proceedings ; and, on my ceasing,
the rookery resumed its natural state : a young bird now and
then uttered its faint crv, on which an old one emitted its cu-

5^0 CORVCS FRUGILEGUS.

rious modulated notes, and a gruff old fellow or two croaked
aloud at intervals. The great variety of notes emitted by the
Rooks under these different circumstances greatly surprised
me ; for although I had been aware that their cry is not always
merely a Craa, I did not imagine that their voice was capable
of presenting so many modifications.

The young are generally fledged about the 20th of May, and
when they make their appearance on the edge of the nests, and
perch on the branches, aiford what some people are pleased to
call good sport ; in other words, are shot in great numbers.
But, in many cases, they are taken from the nest by boys in
various stages of growth. This devastation is permitted by
their patrons, who, although proud of having a rookery near
their mansion, are unw^illing to be incommoded by an unneces-
sary increase of its inmates. Young Rooks are variously re-
ported to be delicate, tolerable, or disgusting eating ; but as
I have not tasted their flesh I am unable to decide in this
matter.

The food with wdiich they are supplied consists chiefly of
grubs, worms, and seeds, and is conveyed in the mouths of their
parents, who continue gathering until the mass accumulated
causes the skin of the throat and between the crura of the lower
mandible to protrude. This circumstance however is not pe-
culiar to the Rook, for I have seen the Robin, the Thrush, and
other small birds, going to their young with their mouths quite
filled with insects. It is pleasant to observe w^ith what activity
the Rooks cater for their brood, and how much self-denial they
evince in endeavouring to procure an abundant supply for them.
Their whole life is one of ceaseless activity, and therefoi*e must
be one of pleasure. All day long they labour in the fields and
pastures, digging among tufts of decayed grass, thrusting their
bills into the soft earth, or picking up the worms, mollusca,
and seeds that are found on the surface. The acuteness of
their sight must be very great, as we may be convinced from
such circumstances as the following. In March of the present
year, when the ground was covered with snow to a considerable
depth, I observed on the road about fifty rooks crowded together,
and busily engaged in picking up something. On going to the

ROOK. 551

place, I could perceive nothing but some mud and small stones
partially covered with half-melted snow ; but on poking abaut
with the point of my umbrella, at length discovered a number
of grains of wheat which had been spilt in the course of a wheel
track. From early dawn until after sunrise they are generally
abroad, but in summer they usually repose for a time in the
middle of the day. Towards evening, collecting into large
straggling flocks, and uttering their loud and not unpleasant
cries, they betake themselves to their roosts, first wheeling
round in irregular gj^ations, with clamorous joy, then settling
in succession, and after a while sinking into repose. As they
neither attack other birds, nor are liable to be molested by
rapacious S23ecies, their life is comparatively quiet. From the
middle of June to the end of September, their plumage under-
goes its annual renovation ; and so gradual in general is the
change, that the simultaneous loss of a few feathers in the wings
or tail has little effect upon their flight, although individuals
are sometimes seen that experience considerable difficulty in
maintaining their ordinary speed. Their quills are often col-
lected by the herds, and although small, are superior to goose
quills for writing, provided the fingers of the person using them
be sufficiently flexible and delicate to adapt themselves to so
slender an instrument.

YouxG. — The young are at first nearly bare, and of a black-
ish colour. When fledged, they are similar to the old birds,
but with much less gloss on their plumage, and having this
remarkable difference, that the fore part of the head is feathered,
and the nostrils and base of the bill concealed by straight and
stiff narrow feathers, as in other crows. It is only after they
have been abroad for some weeks that these parts begin to be
abraded.

In some rookeries, especially those of small extent, in open
places, both young and old fly off in June, while in others
they remain all the year. In the former case, they generally
return for some days in autumn, and agajn absent themselves
until spring. I have not, however, been able to discover the
causes of these apparent anomalies.

552

CORVUS MONEDULA. THE JACKDAW.

DAW. KAE. CATHAG.

Corvus Monedula. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 156.

Corvus Monedula. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 154.

Jackdaw. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Choucas. Corvus Monedula. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L IIL

Jackdaw. Corvus Monedula. Selb. Illustr. I. 356.

Corvus Monedula. Jackdaw. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 147.

Of the adult male and female^ the plumage greyish-hlack^ the
hind-neck light grey^ the head anteriorly glossed with blue^ the
primary quills^ alula ^ and tail with green^ the secondary quills
with purple ; the hill rather shorter than the head^ subcorneal.

Male. — In form the Jackdaw is more compact, and in ac-
tion more lively, than any other British bird of the genus. It
is about the size of the domestic pigeon, with the body ovate,
the neck rather short, the head large, the feet, wings, and tail
of moderate length. The bill is rather shorter than the head,
strong, more conical than in the other species; the upper
mandible with the dorsal outline declinate and slightly arched,

JACKDAW. 553

the sides convex, the edges rather sharp, and having a slight
sinns close to the narrow but rounded tip ; the lower mandible
with the angle rather short, of moderate w^dth, the sides erect,
slightly convex, the edges sharp and involute, the dorsal out-
line very slightly convex, the tip compressed and rather acute.
The gape-line is almost straight.

Internally the upper mandible is concave, with a prominent
central and on each side two lateral lines ; the lower deeply con-
cave, with a central ridge. The palate is flat ; the posterior aper-
ture of the nares narrow and edged with papillae. The tongue
is oblong, emarginate, and papillate at the base, sharp-edged,
horny, slit at the point, ten twelfths of an inch long. The oeso-
phagus is four inches and a half long ; the stomach elliptical,
moderately muscular, w^ith a tough rugous cuticular lining;
the intestine twentv- seven inches lonof ; duodenum five, w^ith a
diameter of four tvrelfths, the rest diminishing to three and a
half tw^elfths ; the coeca four twelfths long, half a tw^elfth in
diameter ; the rectum an inch and a half long.

The eyes and apertures of the ears are of moderate size ; the
nostrils oval, in the fore part of the broad nasal membrane,
and concealed by the reversed bristly feathers.

The feet are of ordinary length, strong ; the tarsi covered
anteriorly with eight scutella, behind w4th two plates, the
lower part transversely rugous ; the first toe with, nine, the
second with eight, the third with eleven, the fourth with nine
scutella. The claws are strong, compressed, arched, tapering ;
that of the hind toe has the sides flat, of the middle toe con-
siderably curved outwards.

The plumage of the head and neck is soft, elongated, and
blended, excepting on the forehead, where it is of ordinary
length and glossy. The rest of the plumage is rather full and
soft, the feathers indistinctly defined, their margins loose. The
wings are rather long, rounded, very broad at the commence-
ment, but suddenly tapering towards the end. The first pri-
mary quill is short, the third longest, the fourth about one
twelfth of an inch shorter, the second half an inch shorter than
the third, and about equal to the fifth, the first equal to the
ninth ; the outer primaries narrowed as in the other species.

554 CORVUS MONEDULA.

The secondary quills ten, broad, obliquely rounded with a
minute acumen. The tail is straight, rounded, of twelve
broad rounded feathers.

The bill and feet are black. The irides gi-eyish- white.
The uj^per and forepart of the head is black, with purplish-
blue reflections ; the parts about the eye and the throat are
blackish, tinged with grey ; the ear- coverts, hind part and
sides of the neck bluish-grey. The rest of the plumage is
greyish-black, on the lower parts approaching to leaden grey ;
the wings and tail black, the primary quills, alula, and the tail
glossed with green, the secondary quills with purple.

Length to end of tail 14^ inches ; extent of wings 30 ; wing
from flexure 10; tail 5| ; bill along the back 1^, along the
edge of lower mandible H ; tarsus lj% ; first toe y^^, its claw Si
twelfths ; second toe 10^ twelfths, its claw 5^ twelfths; third
toe 1/ij, its claw 7i twelfths; fourth toe i%, its claw 5i
twelfths.

Female. — The female difl'ers so little from the male that
one can scarcely determine the sex without internal inspection ;
the light grey on the neck is not so pure or extended, but the
plumage in every other respect is similar.

Length to end of tail 14 inches ; extent of wings 28 ; w^ing
from flexure 9f ; tail 5^% ; bill along the back 1^^^, along the
edge of lower maixdible l/g ; tarsus 1/^ ; first toe jS, its claw
9i twelfths ; second toe ^§, its claw j% ; third toe 1 inch two
and a half twelfths, its claw 6f twelfths ; fourth toe 1, its
claw j%.

Variations. — Individuals vary a little in size, the largest
being fifteen inches long, or a little more, the smallest fourteen,
or a little less ; but I have not seen any so short as 12f, the
measurement given by Mr. JenjTis and Montagu. White in-
dividuals have been seen ; sometimes the plumage is variegated
or patched with white ; but these variations are so rare that
one may look after white Jackdaws for twenty years without
finding one. The recent plumage is more highly glossed, but
the moult eftects no other change.

JACKDAW. 555

Habits. — The Jackdaw is a remarkably active, pert, and
loquacious little fellow, ever cheerful, always on the alert, and
ready either for business or frolic. If not so respectable as the
grave and sagacious raven, he is at least the most pleasant of
the family, and withal extremely fond of society, for not content
with having a flock of his own folk about him, he often thrusts
himself into the midst of a gang of rooks, and in winter some-
times takes up his abode entirely with them.

The flight of this species is similar to that of the rook, some-
what more rapid, generally extremely wavering, the bird fre-
quently shifting its direction, now dashing downwards, then
curving uj) again, shooting obliquely to either side, and per-
forming as many evolutions as if it could not follow a direct
line, which, however, it sometimes does when in great haste.
It is also extremely clamorous, and its note being loud and
clear, resembling the syllable Kae or Cait\ variously modu-
lated, the noise emitted by a large flock, although in no degree
musical, is far from being unpleasant.

Jackdaws inhabit deserted buildings, steeples, towers, and
high rocks, especially those along the coast. Sallying from
thence at early dawn, they betake themselves to the pastures,
meadows, or ploughed fields, to search for larvse, worms, in-
sects, and in general the same sort of food as the rooks, with
which they often associate on their excursions. They walk
gracefully, and much more smartly than the rooks, often run-
ning under excitement, and frequently quarrelling together,
although without any serious results. They do not despise
carrion, and on the shore will occasionally feed on shell-fish,
Crustacea and fishes, being nearly as omnivorous as the Hooded
Crows, although giving a decided preference to larvae. They
are scarcely less vigilant than the rooks, at least while in the
fields, so that it is not always easy to get within shot of them ;
but in the breeding season one may readily procure specimens
by concealing himself in the midst of their haunts.

This is one of the few birds that habitually or occasionally
reside in the heart of cities, where it selects a steeple, a church
tower, or any other high building in which it can find a suffi-
cient number of secure retreats. In Edinburgh, for example,

556 CORVUS MONEDULA.

it frequents Heriof s and Watson's Hospitals, tlie University,
the Infirmary, the Chapel of Holyroodhouse, and the Castle,
although in the latter it is chiefly in the rock that it takes up
its abode. In the country, ruinous castles are its favourite
places of resort, and it is found, for example, at Dunottar,
Rosslyn, and Tantallon Castles, and the buildings on the Bass.
It also not unfrequently finds refuge in high rocks, as at the
Cove near Aberdeen, and in other places along the coast ; and
in defect of more agreeable lodgings, will sometimes settle in a
wood.

In these places also it nestles, as well as not unfrequently in
the interior of chimneys in which fire is not kept. The nest
is fixed in any convenient recess, on a cornice or other project-
ing part of a building, in the hole of a spout, or, in short, in
any place that seems suitable. It has a base-work of sticks,
on which is laid a quantity of stravr, wool, feathers, and other
soft materials. The eggs are from four to seven, generally five,
of a regular oval form, broader in proportion to their length
than those of the other species, much lighter also, being of a
very pale greenish-blue, or rather bluish- white, covered, more
profusely at the larger end, with small, round, separated spots
of dark brown and pale purplish. They vary in length from
an inch and four twelfths to an inch and six twelfths, in dia-
meter from eleven and a half twelfths to a twelfth more. The
eggs are generally deposited in May, and the young are abroad
by the end of June.

Like the Wheatear, it has sometimes been found to nestle
in a rabbit's hole. Thus, White relates that a gentleman re-
siding near Chichester informed him that " many daws build
every year in the rabbit burrows under ground. The way he
and his brothers used to take their nests, while they were boys,
was by listening at the mouths of the holes, and if they heard
the young ones cry, they twisted the nest out with a forked
stick." " Another very unlikely spot," he adds, " is made use
of by daws as a place to breed in, and that is Stonehenge.
These birds deposit their nests in the interstices between the
upright and the impost stones of that amazing work of anti-
quity ; which circumstance alone speaks the prodigious height

JACKDAW. 557

of the upright stones, that they should be tall enough to secure
those nests from the annoyance of shepherd boys, who are
always idling round that place/'

Like the Sparrow, the Chaffinch, and some other birds that
breed in the vicinity of man, it sometimes lines its nest with a
strange assortment of articles. Thus, it is related that a soldier
having climbed to the nest of one in the ruins of Holyrood
Chapel, for the purpose of recovering a piece of lace, found in
addition part of a worsted stocking, a silk handkerchief, a frill,
a child's cap, and several other things, which it had picked up
from the streets.

Jackdaws often obtain a large proportion of their food in the
streets, which they frequent more especially in the mornings,
along with Pigeons, and sometimes Rooks. On these occa-
sions they pick up the refuse of whatever serves as food to man.
Like the Starling and the ^lagpie, they sometimes alight on
sheep and cattle, apparently for the purpose of searching for
the ticks and other animals among their hair. They are not so
shy as Rooks when in privileged places, enter a garden with
little fear, and are easily enticed to a particular spot by placing
food for them. Thus in towns persons, for amusement, draw
them to their windows, along with Pigeons and Sparrows ; but
they are always more suspicious than these birds, and on ob-
taining a morsel, rather than eat it at once, usually fly off \A'ith
it to some more secure place.

The Jackdaw, in fine, is possessed of considerable penetra-
tion, being shy where there may be danger, familiar where
there is little to fear. He has evidently observed the effects of
fire-arms, or at least has noticed that an alarming noise proceeds
from them, so that the holding up of a stick is generally suffi-
cient to frighten him, and he allows an unarmed person to
approach nearer than another. Being truly omnivorous, he
searches all sorts of places for food, from the streets of the popu-
lous city to the hill pastures and the shores of the sea, suiting
the times of visiting these places to circumstances, taking the
early morning for his urban rambles, and the time of ebb for his
marine excursions. Many stories are told of him, and of the
perils encountered by boys in plundering his nest, as well as of

558 CORVUS MONEDULA.

his habits in a state of domestication > to which he is easily re-
duced, but in which, although pleasing on account of his liveli-
ness, as well as his capability of being taught to pronounce
words, he is troublesome and occasionally mischievous, through
his propensity to carry oiF and conceal articles of value although
useless to him ; — a propensity common to most if not all the
crows, and of which the original object has not been discovered.
If the brains of birds are capable of being mapped, certainly
the parish of acquisitiveness ought to be remarkably large in
these species, as well as those of cautiousness and prudence, for
the dread of man in birds unable to cope with him is evi-
dently not cowardice, but a reasonable and estimable feeling.

Young. — The young, which at first are covered with a
dusky down, are when fledged of the same colours as the adult,
the grey of the neck a little less pure, and the feathers in gene-
ral not so glossy.

Remarks. — The Jackdaw is generally distributed in England
and Scotland, although there are large tracts, the Outer He-
brides for example, in which it does not occur. It is repre-
sented as inhabiting most parts of the Continent, but has not
been found in America.

Several species of the genus are very nearly allied to it, par-
ticularly Corvus bengalensis. Taking European birds only into
consideration, it forms the transition to the Magpie.

559

PICA. MAGPIE.

Bill about the length of the head, straight, strong, tapering,
of nearly equal height and breadth at the base, compressed
towards the end. Upper mandible having the dorsal outline
slightly arched, towards the end declinate, the ridge narrow,
the sides sloping at the base, convex towards the end, the edges
direct, sharp, with a slight notch or sinus close to the tip,
which is declinate, rather sharp, and projects a little ; lower
mandible w^ith the angle medial, of moderate width, rather
acute, the dorsal outline slightly arched and ascending, the
edges sharp and slightly inflected, the tip rather acute. The
gape-line straight, towards the end declinato-decurvate.

^louth of moderate width ; upper mandible concave with-
in, and grooved ; lower mandible deeply concave, with a
prominent central line ; palate flat ; aperture of the posterior
nares edged with small papillae directed backwards ; aperture
of the glottis similarly margined, and with numerous papillae
behind. Tongue oblong, narrow, emarginate and papillate at
the base, flat above, horny on both surfaces, thin-edged, the
point slit. The intestinal canal of the common species is in
all essential respects precisely similar to that of the Qrows.

Nostrils in the fore part of the short nasal groove, which is
filled up by a membrane, roundish, open, but concealed by the
narrow reversed feathers, which cover a large portion of the
bill. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered, having a nar-
row crenate bare margin. Aperture of the ear roundish, of
moderate size.

Head large, oblong, rather convex above ; neck rather short.

5(J0 riCA. MAGPIE.

strong ; body ovate, comj^act. Legs of moderate length,
strong ; tarsi of ordinary length, compressed behind, covered
anteriorly with eight scutella, posteriorly with two longitudi-
nal plates meeting behind with a sharp edge ; toes of moderate
size, the outer adherent as far as the second joint ; hind toe
comparatively large, lateral toes nearly equal, third consider-
ably longer ; all covered above with a few large scutella, be-
neath padded, granulate, and transversely sulcate ; claws
strong, arched, compressed, sharp, generally with an obscure
groove on each side, the third with the inner edge considerably
dilated.

Plumage generally full, soft, more or less blended, and
glossed ; the feathers of the body ovate, rounded, with longish
plumules composed of a few downy filaments. Feathers on
the head short ; those at the base of the upper mandible linear,
stiff, with short discrete barbs, directed forwards and adpressed ;
there is also a series of decurved bristles at the base of the
rictus. Wings of moderate length, much rounded, the outer
primaries separated when extended ; primary quills ten, the
first very short, extremely narrow, and falciform, the fourth
and fifth longest, the sixth longer than the third ; the first five
having both webs narrowed towards the end ; secondary quills
twelve, long, broad, rounded with a minute tip. Tail very
long, graduated, of twelve broad, rounded feathers.

The birds whose principal characters are included in the
above generic description, form a group which some have con-
sidered as a genus, others as a section of Corv^us, and others
ao'ain as associated with the Jays under a common generic
name, Garrulus. It is no doubt very true, as M. Temminck
remarks, that the INIagpies and the Jays are so allied that it is
difficult to separate them by a decided line ; but this is equally
the case with many generally acknowledged genera ; and if
Pica is to be united with Garrulus, it has at least an equal
claim to be united with Corvus, from which it differs, not in
the bill, feet, and digestive organs, but in the greater length of
the graduated tail, and the comparative shortness and concavity
of the wings. Magpies then may be considered as Crows, with
the wings shortened and the tail lengthened. These circum-

PICA. MAGPIE. 561

stances induce a great difference in the habits of the birds sub-
jected to them. The Magpies reside in trees and copses,
search for food in the vicinity of places to which they can re-
treat in case of danger, rarely betake themselves to open pas-
tures and moors, fly in a steady manner but with little speed,
move on the ground by walking and leaping, and make their
way among the branches with great agility. Instead of the
croak or caw of the Crows, they have generally a chattering
kind of cry. They are as omnivorous as the birds of the pre-
ceding genus, equally vigilant and cunning, and not less mis-
chievous, although, being smaller, they are not so injurious to
man.

Only one sj^ecies occurs in this country, Pica melanoleuca,
which is common to Europe and North America, the specimens
from the latter country which I have seen differing in no essen-
tial characters from ours.

0 o

562

PICA MELANOLEUCA. THE COMMON MAGPIE.

PYET. PIANET. MADGE. MAG. PIOGHAID.

Fio. 88.

Corvus Pica. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 157.

Corvus Pica. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 162.

Magpie. Mont, Om. Diet.

Pie. Corvus Pica. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 113.

Pie. Garrulus Picus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. III. 63.

Magpie. Pica melanoleuca. Selb. lUustr. I. 358.

Corvus Pica. Magpie. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 147.

Plumage of the head^ neck^ hacJc^ anterior part of breast^ and
abdomen^ black ; of the rest of the breast^ and the outer scapulars^
white ; tail tery long^ splendent with green and purple^ as are
the wings, the greater part of the inner web of the outer quills of
which is white.

Male. — The Magpie is among the most beautiful of our
native birds, both with respect to the elegance of its form and
the splendour of its plumage, although when seen at a distance
one might imagine it to be merely black and white. The
Crow to which it approaches nearest in form is the Jackdaw,
which it greatly resembles in the form of the bill, the head,
the neck, and the feet ; but its wings are propoi-tionally

MAGPIE. 563

shorter, and its tail extended so as to exceed the body greatly
in length.

The bill is about the same length as the head, robust ; the
outline of both mandibles slightly arched, their ridge narrow,
the sides convex, the edges sharp and inflected, the tips rather
sharp, the upper with a slight notch on each side. The gape-
line is nearly straight until near the end, when it is slightly
arched.

Internally the upper mandible is concave, with a central,
and on each side three prominent lines ; the lower deeply con-
cave, with a central ridge. The palate is flat ; the posterior
aperture of the nares narrow and edged with papillae. The
tongue is oblong, emarginate and papillate at the base, horny,
edged, slit at the point. The oesophagus is four and a half
inches long, its general diameter five twelfths. The stomach
is elliptical, compressed, an inch and a half long, one and a
twelfth broad ; its muscular coat strong ; the cuticular lining
rather thick, with prominent circular rugse. The intestine is
twenty-eight inches long, three twelfths in diameter at the
upper part. The rectum is two inches long, five twelfths in
diameter. The cceca are adnate, cylindrical, four twelfths
long.

The eyes and the apertures of the ears are of moderate size,
the latter roundish, three twelfths in diameter. The nostrils
roundish, rather large, covered by the reversed feathers.

The feet are of ordinary length, strong ; the tarsi covered
anteriorly with eight large scutella, posteriorly with two plates.
The first, second, and fourth toes are about equal in length, the
third considerably longer ; the first has eight, the second nine,
the third eleven, the fourth ten scutella. The claws are
strong, compressed, arched, acute, with a broad groove on
the sides.

The plumage is full, very soft, generally blended. Feathers
of the head rather short, rounded ; of the throat rounded, with
separated barbs and a bristly tip ; of the fore part of the back
full, of the middle very soft and downy ; of the lower parts
full and blended. Wings of moderate length, rather convex,
much rounded ; coverts and quills all splendent on their ex~

0 o 2

564 PICA ME LANG LEI CA.

posed parts. The first quill is little more than a third of the
length of the longest, attenuated and falciform ; the second is
two inches longer ; the third one inch longer than the second ;
the fourth, which is longest, is half an inch longer than the
third ; or frequently the fifth is longest : the first six are
more or less attenuated on both webs. The secondary quills,
ten in number, are long, broad, and rounded, with a minute
tip. The tail is very long, being considerably longer than the
body, straight, of twelve broad feathers, which are rounded
with an acumen, and graduated from the middle.

The bill and feet are black. The irides brown. The plu-
mage of the head, neck, fore part of the breast and back, the
rump, the abdomen, and the tibiae, black, w4th purplish-blue
reflections. The middle and hind jDart of the breast, and the
outer scapulars, pure white. The downy feathers of the back
are white or greyish- white at the tips. The primary quills are
blackish-brown, glossed with green, with a stripe of white on
the inner web near the shaft; the secondary quills and the
coverts are splendent with greenish-blue ; the lower wing-
coverts and axillars blackish-brown. The tail is splendent
with bright green, a band of purple near the end of each
feather, and its extremity blue and deep green. The feathers
of the throat have the shaft downy, and of a greyish colour.

Length to end of tail 18 inches ; extent of wings 24 ; wing
from flexure 7i ; tail 10 ; bill along the back 1 inch 4^
twelfths, along the edge of lower mandible lj% ; tarsus Ix^ ;
first toe j%, its claw 7i twelfths ; second toe j%^ its claw j% ;
third toe 1 inch 2 J twelfths, its claw j% ; fourth toe ^§, its
claw 4i twelfths.

Female. — The female is similar, and little inferior in size.
Length to end of tail 17 inches, extent of wings 24.

Variations. — ^Vhite individuals are very rarely met with.
Little change takes place in the j^lumage as the period of moult-
ing approaches, the only perceptible difference being a slight
fading of the tints.

I have seen with Mr, Carfrae. Edinburgh, a discoloured in-

MAGPIE. 565

dividual, shot near Bowhill in Selkirkshire, one of the seats ot*
the Duke of Buccleuch. The bill, feet, and claws were red-
dish-brown ; the head, neck, fore part of the breast, the upper
tail-coverts, the abdomen, and the legs, dull reddish-brown,
the back yellowish-brown, with a w^hite band across ; the sca-
pulars, and middle and posterior part of the thorax, white ;
the quills nearly white, the wing-coverts brown ; the tail
with the outer webs white, the inner webs and lower surface
brown. Length l7i inches ; wing from flexure 1^^ ; bill
lj\ tarsus If.

Habits. — The Magpie is generally distributed in Britain,
being more or less common in all the cultivated and wooded
districts of England and Scotland, both in the interior and
along the coast, although nowhere numerous, on account of
the hostility of gamekeepers, gardeners, and sportsmen of all
degrees. In the Outer Hebrides, the Shetland and Orkney
Islands, it is never seen, and in large tracts of the central
regions of Scotland is rarely if ever met with, because its habits
are such as to induce it to remain at no great distance from
human habitations.

There, on the old ash that overshadows the farm-yard, you
may see a pair, one perched on the topmost twig, the other
hopping among the branches, uttering an incessant clatter of
short hard notes, scarcely resembling any thing else in nature,
but withal not unpleasant, at least to the lover of birds. How
gracefully she of the top twig swings in the breeze ! Off she
starts, and directing her flight towards the fir wood opposite,
proceeds with a steady, moderately rapid, but rather heavy
flight, performed by quick beats of her apparently short wings,
intermitted for a moment at intervals. Birds with long gradu-
ated tails generally fly heavily, or at least have the appearance
of doing so: the Pheasant, for example, and the Magpie.
Even the Cuckoo, in its ordinary flight, seems to lack speed,
although on occasion it shoots along with the rapidity of a
Sparrow Hawk. Chattering by the way, she seems to call her
mate after her ; but he, intent on something which he has spied
below, hops downwards from twig to branch, and descends to

566 PICA MELAXOLEUCA.

the ground. Eaising his body as high as possible, and carry-
ing his tail inclined upwards, to avoid contact with the moist
grass, he walks a few paces, and spying an earthworm half
protruded from its hole, drags it out by a sudden jerk, breaks
it in pieces, and swallows it. Now% under the hedge he has
found a snail, which he will presently detach from its shell.
But something among the bushes has startled him, and lightly
he springs upwards, chattering the while, to regain his favour-
ite tree. It is a cat, which, not less frightened than himself,
runs off toward the house. The Magpie again descends, steps
slowly over the green, looking from side to side, stops and
listens, advances rapidly by a succession of leaps, and en-
counters a whole brood of chickens, with their mother at their
heels. Were they unprotected, how deliciously would the
Magpie feast, but alas, it is vain to think of it, for with fury
in her eye, bristled plumage, and loud clamour, headlong
rushes the hen, overturning two of her younglings, when the
enemy suddenly wheels round, avoiding the encounter, and
flies oiF after his mate.

There again, you perceive them in the meadow, as they walk
about with elevated tails, looking for something eatable, al-
though apparently with little success. By the hedge afar off
are two boys with a gun, endeavouring to creep up to a flock
of Plovers on the other side. But the Magpies have observed
them, and presently rising fly directly over the field, chattering
vehemently, on which the whole flock takes to wing, and the
disappointed sportsmen sheer off in another direction.

The food of the Magpie consists of testaceous mollusca, slugs,
larvse, worms, young birds, eggs, small quadrupeds, carrion,
sometimes grain and fruits of different kinds, in search of which
it frequents the fields, hedges, thickets, and orchards, occasionally
visits the farm-yard, prowls among the stacks, perches on the
house top, whence it sallies at times, and examines the dung-
hil and places around. Although it searches for larv?e and
worms in the ploughed fields, it never ventures, like the rook,
and several species of gull, to follow the plough as it turns
over each successive furrow. It has been accused of picking
the eyes of lambs and sickly sheep, I think with injustice ; but

MAGPIE. 567

it sometimes carries off a chicken or duckling, and sucks an
egg that may have been dropped abroad.

It is extremely shy and vigilant in the vicinity of towns,
where it is much molested, but less so in country places, al-
though even there it is readily alarmed. When one pursues
it openly, it flits along the walls and hedges, shifts from tree
to tree, and at length flies off to a distance. Yet it requires all
its vigilance to preserve its life ; for, as it destroys the eggs and
young of game birds, it is keenly pursued by keepers and sj)orts-
men ; so that one might marvel to find it maintaining its ground
as a species, and yet it is not apparently diminishing in most
parts of the country.

On the ground it generally walks in the same manner as the
crows, but occasionally leaps in a sidelong direction. Its flight
is as described above. The sounds which it emits are a sort of
chuckling cry or chatter, which it utters when alarmed, as well
as when it wishes to apprise other birds of danger. On the
appearance of a fox, a cat, or other unfriendly animal, it never
ceases hovering about it, and alarming the neighbourhood by
its cries, until the enemy has slunk away out of sight.

It generally keeps in pairs all the year round, accompanies
its young for some weeks after they first come abroad, and
after the breeding season retires at night to the copses or woods,
where sometimes a considerable number meet together. It
does not appear that it has many enemies among its own kind,
although doubtless many ill-wishers, seeing it is ever prone to
destroy the eggs and young of the smaller birds.

It is always pleasant to meet with the Magpie, whatever be
its number, even or odd, — some persons believing that there is
virtue in numbers, whether applied to magpies or to systems
of classification. Its loud clatter among the branches of the
tall trees that overhang the road raises your drooping spirits,
for it apprises you of the neighbourhood of a house, perhaps an
inn, where you may recruit your energies. Doubly enlivening
are the glimpses which you obtain of it as it flits from one
branch to another, when descending from the central ridges of
the Grampians, w^here you have been w^andering all day in
quest of their rarer vegetable productions, or mayhap laden

568 PICA MELANOLEUCA.

with thirty pounds weight of granite, you enter the birch and
alder woods that skirt the torrent which you have followed
from the hills, for there the Magpie indicates the existence of
man. Indeed you rarely find it far from human habitations,
for although not dependent upon man like the Sparrow, and
always shy and vigilant in the highest degree, it seems to find
it necessary to hang upon him. In places where it is privi-
leged it becomes bolder, perches on the house top, alights on
the dunghil, even approaches the door, and hops about among
the poultry ; for, like the Jackdaw, it accommodates itself to
circumstances, and among good easy people, whose boys are
not furnished with guns or pistols, it leads a happy life ; where-
as on the skirts of a town, or in a district full of gamekeepers,
poachers, and sportsmen, it is ever anxious and vigilant, and
good need it has to be so.

The Magpie begins to construct its nest early in March, se-
lecting as its site the top of some tall tree, a poplar, an ash, an
elm, sometimes a willow, or a beech ; or, in defect of such in
a favourite locality, placing it in a thick bush of hawthorn,
holly, or other low tree, or even in a hedge. It is a large, and
therefore generally very conspicuous fabric, of a spheroidal
or elliptical form, composed first of a layer of twigs, on which
is laid a quantity of mud ; then of a dome of twigs, frequently
hawthorn or sloe, but as often of any other kind, loosely but
securely interlaced ; while the bottom of the interior is lined
with fibrous roots ; and there is left in the side an aperture not
much larger than is barely sufficient to admit the bird. It is
very probable that the Magpie, when in the nest, must keep
its tail erect or inclined forwards over the back, there being in
reality no other way in which it could be conveniently dis-
posed of. Why this bird should find it necessary, or rather
should be impelled, to cover its nest with such a defence, it is
not easy to guess. It cannot be for the purpose of protecting
itself or its eggs from rain, for the texture is so loose as to afford
no protection of that kind ; and if as a defence against the
attacks of other birds, it is strange that the rook and the wood
pigeon, which build in similar places, should need none. The
eggs are from three to six, and differ considerably in form and

MAGPIE. 569

colouring. In general, they are regularly ovate, or a little
pointed, about an inch and five twelfths long, eleven and a
half twelfths or an inch across ; but sometimes more elongated
by one twelfth of an inch, or abbreviated by nearly the same
quantity. Frequently they are pale green, freckled all over
with umber brown and light purple, and sometimes pale blue
with smaller spots and dots of the same dark colours, so as very
nearly to resemble the eggs of the Jay, which however are
smaller.

Although the Magpie frequently breeds more than once in
the same nest, yet in first choosing a spot for breeding in, it
sometimes constructs two or more, partially or wholly in the
same year, deserting them for some reason best known to itself.
Mr. W. H. White, in Loudon's Magazine of Natural History,
vol. IX, p. 350, gives an account of a nest which had been
repaired and used six successive seasons, but having attained
an extraordinary size, was blown down by a violent storm.
The Rev. Mr. Stanley mentions another instance, accompanied
by several interesting particulars, observed by "a gentleman
when making an excursion in a remote and barren part of the
north of Scotland."' " Observing the Magpies hopping round a
gooseberry bush, and flying in and out of it in an extraordinary
manner, he noticed the circumstance to the owners of the house
in which he was, who informed him that as there were no
trees in the neighbourhood, they had for several years built
their nest and brought up their young in that bush. And that
foxes, cats, hawks, &c. might not interrupt them, they had
barricadoed not only the nest, but the bush itself, all round,
with briers and thorns, in a formidable manner. The materials
in the inside of the nest were soft, warm, and comfortable to
the touch, but all round, on the outside, so rough, strong, and
firmly entwined with the bush, that, without a hedge-knife, or
something of the kind, even a man could not, without much
pain and trouble, get at their young ; the barrier from the outer
to the inner edge being above a foot in breadth. Frogs, mice,
worms, or anything living were plentifully brought to their
young. One day, one of the parent birds attacked a rat, but
not being able to kill it, one of the young ones came out of the

570 PICA MELANOLEUCA.

nest and assisted in its destruction, which was not finally ac-
complished till the other old one, arriving with a dead mouse,
also lent its aid. The female was observed to be the most ac-
tive and thievish, and withal very ungrateful ; for although the
children about the house had often frightened cats and hawks
from the spot, yet she one day seized a chicken, and carried it
to the top of the house to eat it, where the hen immediately
followed, and having rescued the chicken, brought it safely
down in her beak ; and it was remarked that the poor little
bird, though it made a great noise while the Magpie was carry-
ing it up, was quite quiet, and seemed to feel no pain, while its
mother was carrying it down. These Magpies were supposed
to have been the very same pair which had built there for seve-
ral years, never suffering either the young, when grown up, or
anjihing else, to take possession of their bush. The nest they
carefully fortified afresh every spring, with rough, strong, prickly
sticks, which they sometimes drew in with their united forces,
if unable to effect the object alone.'' — Familiar Hist, of Birds^
I, 251.

Mr. Weir of Boghead has favoured me with the followinor
observations on this species : — " In our neighbourhood the
^lagpies most frequently select a tall old ash or beech tree
adjoining a farm-house for their nest, which is built near the
top of it, and generally upon such a slender branch as secures
it from being destroyed. Sometimes, however, I have seen
them build on the top of a high larch or Scotch fir tree, some-
times on a young larch in the middle of a thick stripe of plan-
tation, about thirteen feet from the ground, and at other times,
in an old hawthorn hedge more than a quarter of a mile from
a house. When a pair of Magpies select a place for their nest,
they make it their ordinary abode, and do not soon abandon it.
For several years, two of them built within forty yards of my
stable. So excessively shy and wary was the male, that I
never could get a shot at him. In the course of a very short
time, however, I deprived him of three successive females,
which sat on the same eggs. I was struck by the rapidity
with which he never failed to procure a helpmate in place of
the one he had lost. Whether by his artful insinuations, the

MAGPIE. 571

cunning old fellow had seduced some young wife from her hus-
band, or whether he had picked up a widow which some mali-
cious sportsman had deprived of her partner, or whether he
had fallen in with some fair damsel who during the pairing
season had been disappointed of a lover, or finally, whether he
had paid his devoirs to some discontented old maid who had
formerly refused to enter into the state of matrimony, but re-
pented of her conduct, I know not ; but I can affirm that
he never remained a widower longer than two or three days.
In confirmation of this curious fact, Mr. John Mellish, game-
keeper to Sir William Baillie, Bart, of Polkemmet, told me
that he saw six successive Magpies, which sat upon the same
eggs, shot from a nest behind the old parish church of JMid-
calder.

" Their attachment to the same place is sometimes truly
astonishing. A few years ago, about the beginning of ^lay, I
shot off the foot of a female ^lagpie, as she was coming out of
her nest. She forsook it, but continued to hop up and down
in the neighbourhood the best way she could in pursuit of her
food. About the middle of the following summer, having killed
a Magpie on the same nest, as she was feeding a brood of w^ell-
fledged young, I was astonished to find that I had shot my
lame acquaintance.

" To all kinds of eggs they are destructive. Even the nest
of the smallest bird does not escape their minute observation.
To their rapacious appetite a great many partridges and phea-
sants, and several other birds, fall an easy prey. Day after
day, 1 have observed them in pursuit of the same covey ; and
they never appeared to be satisfied until the poor birds were
extirpated. So impudent were they, that early in the morn-
ing, and within a few yards of my house, I have seen them
watching most eagerly the ducklings and chickens, and should
any of them wander from their mother, they were sure to
pounce upon them, and carry them off. Mr. Wark, farmer at
Hardhill, told me that his brother, upon his property of Old
Hall, in the parish of Dunlop, shot off the leg of a JNIagpie, as
she was carrying off a chicken from his house. She was not
seen during the winter and spring, but appeared again in sum-

572 nCA MELANOLEUCA.

mer. Lame though she was, she still carried on her murderous
operations. One day he perceived her in pursuit of a duckling.
It immediately ran to the water for protection. So intent,
however, was she upon its destruction, that she ventured too
far in after it, and got herself so wet, that before she was able
to rise in the air, he knocked her down with a stick. A few
years ago, a boy told me, that while he was tending his cattle,
he heard several loud screams in a young plantation in my
neighbourhood. Being anxious to ascertain the cause of the
noise, he immediately ran to the place from whence it proceeded,
and, to his astonishment, he beheld a Magpie standing upon
the back of a hare almost half grown, picking out its eye, the
other having been torn out before his arrival.'**

Young. — The young when fledged are similar to the old
birds, but with the plumage less dense and glossy, and the tail
much shorter. It has been asserted that the tails of young
birds in general, and of hawks in particular, are longer than
those of old individuals of the same species ; but, so far as my
observation goes, I believe the contrary to be the case.

Remarks. — The docility of the Magpie w^hen obtained from
the nest renders it an agreeable pet, although it is as apt to be
troublesome as the Jackdaw and other tame crows, and pre-
cisely in the same way, namely by its superabundant activity,
and its propensity to make oft' with whatever object strikes its
fancy. Compared with the beautiful glossy bird of the thicket,
the domesticated ^lagpie, draggled and mutilated, is a miserable-
looking object. Indeed few birds residing at large in the house
are otherwise.

This species resembles the true Crows in the form of its bill
more than any of the exotic kinds, which have that organ gene-
rally more curved. It is reported by authors as being common
in most parts of Europe, and in the north of Asia. I have seen
specimens from North America, which diftered in no essential
respect from our birds.

573

GARRULUS. JAY.

Bill shorter than the head, straight, strong, about as deep
as broad at the base, compressed towards the end. Upper
mandible with the dorsal outline declinate and slightly arched,
the ridge narrow, the sides sloping and convex, the edges di-
rect and sharp, with a notch or sinus close to the tip, which
is rather acute and declinate. Lower mandible wath the angle
medial, of moderate width, rounded, the dorsal outline ascend-
ing, convex, the edges sharp and slightly inflected, the tip
rather acute. The gape-line nearly straight.

Mouth of moderate width ; upper mandible concave within,
generally with five or seven prominent lines ; lower mandible
deeply concave, with a prominent central line ; palate concave ;
aperture of the posterior nares edged with small papillae di-
rected baclavards ; aperture of the glottis similarly margined,
and having numerous papillae behind. Tongue, PL IX, Fig.
4, «, sagittate, oblong, flat above, horny and thin at the edges,
the tip cleft and lacerated. (Esophagus, h, c, d^ wide, nearly
uniform in diameter, slightly contracted on entering the thorax.
Proventriculus, c?, bulbiform, its glandules oblong, oblique.
Stomach /, ^, oblong, the muscular coat not very thick, the
inner transversely rugous. Intestine, h^ ^, j^ k, I, w, of mode-
rate length, a little wider at the upper part ; coeca. Fig. 5, c, c?,
very small, cylindrical ; rectum, «, b, enlarged, very short, with
an oblong dilatation at the end.

Nostrils round, in the fore part of the short nasal groove,
and covered by the reversed shortish feathers. Eyes of mode-
rate size ; eyelids feathered, having a narrow crenate bare

574 GARRULUS. JAY.

margin, but without ciliary bristles. Aperture of the ear
roundish, of moderate size.

Head rather large, oblong, convex above ; neck short ; body-
ovate, compact or rather slender. Legs of moderate length,
stout or rather slender ; tarsi of moderate length, compressed,
covered anteriorly with about ten scutella, posteriorly with two
longitudinal plates, meeting behind with a sharp edge. Toes
of moderate size, the outer adherent as far as the second joint ;
hind toe large, lateral toes nearly equal, third considerably
longer ; all covered above with a few large scutella, beneath
rather flattened, padded, granulate. Claws rather slender,
arched, much compressed, acute, the first with an obscure
groove on the sides, the third with the inner edge rather dilated.

Plumage generally full, blended, and very soft ; the feathers
of the body ovate, blended, with a long plumule composed of
a few downy filaments. Feathers on the upper and anterior
part of the head generally long and erectile ; those at the base
of the upper mandible linear, stiff, with short discrete barbs,
directed forwards and adpressed, but much shorter than in the
Crows. There is also a series of decurved bristles at the base
of the rictus. Wings of moderate length, or rather short, much
rounded, the outer primaries separated at the end when the
wing is extended ; primary quills ten, the first very short and
narrow, about half the length of the fourth and fifth, which
are almost equal and longest ; the first five having both webs
narrowed toward the end ; secondary quills ten, broad, rounded.
Tail long, generally a little decurved, rounded in various de-
grees, of twelve broad, rounded feathers.

The species of this genus are very numerous, and distributed
over both continents. They diifer from the Crows in having
the body more slender, the wings shorter, the tail longer, the
bill shorter and less robust, with the outline of the lower man-
dible more convex ; the reversed bristly feathers much shorter,
and scarcely extending beyond the nasal groove. They are
more properly frugivorous than omnivorous, feeding principally
on nuts and berries, but they also eat insects, larvae, eggs, and
young birds. They reside in woods, and seldom frequent open
places like crows ; are shy, suspicious, and not easily approach-

GARRULUS. JAY. 575

ed ; nestle in trees and bushes, and have from four to nine of
a brood. Some are gregarious, others unsocial. The sexes
differ little in external appearance.

The affinities of this genus are various. Its most direct rela-
tion is to Corvus and Pica ; but it is also allied to Turdus, of
which several species are merely small Jays, and perhaps still
more so to Parus, of which several species, although small,
greatly resemble some Jays, not only in the form of the bill,
but in colouring, and in some of their habits.

Only two species occur in Europe, of which one is a constant
resident in Britain.

576

GARRULUS GLANDARIUS. THE
BLUE-WINGED JAY.

JAY. JAY PIE. JAY PYET. SCREACHAG-CHOILLE.

Fiu

Corvus Glandarius. Linn, Syst. Nat. I. 256.

Corvus Glandarius. Lath. Lid. Orn. I. 157.

Jay. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Geai. Corvus Glandarius. Temm, Man. d'Orn. L 114.

Geai glandivore. Garrulus Glandarius. Temm. Man. d'Orn. IIL 65.

Jay. Garrulus Glandarius. Selb. Illustr. I. 362.

Garrulus Glandarius. Jay. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 148.

General colour of the plumage light brow?iish-red ; fore part of
the head ichitlsh spotted with blacky of ichich there are two bi^oad
bands from the base of the bill ; primary coverts and alula bright
blue banded with blacklsh-blue.

Male. — The Jay, although inferior in beauty to many spe-
cies of its genus, is yet one of the gaudiest of our native birds.
It is about the size of the Jackdaw or Magpie, bating a portion
of the tail of the latter, and of a moderately full, rather inele-
gant form, ^vith a short neck and large head. The bill is rather
short, strong, compressed ; the upper mandible with the dorsal
line a little convex, the sides sloping and convex, the sharp
edges overlapping, with a notch near the tip, which is decli-

BLUE-WINGED JAY. 577

nate ; the lower mandible with the angle short and rounded, the
sides sloping and towards the end convex, as is the dorsal line.

Internally the upper mandible is concave, with three promi-
nent lines in the middle and two towards the sides ; the lower
concave with a central prominent line. The palate is concave ;
the glottis with small papillae behind. The tongue, PI. IX,
Fig. 4, «, is fleshy, oblong, flat above, horny and thin at the
edges, the tip lacerated and cleft ; the base emarginate with
two long papillae. The oesophagus, ^, c, c?, is five and a half
inches long ; the stomach, f^ g^ oblong, its muscular coat not
very thick, the inner or cuticular transversely rugous ; its
greatest diameter an iuch and a half. Intestine, A, /, y, ^, /, tw,
two feet long, a little wider above ; two cylindrical cceca, Fig. 5,
c^ 6?, half an inch long, about two inches from the extremity.

The eyes and the apertures of the ears are of moderate size ;
the nostrils round, of moderate size, concealed by the short re-
versed feathers.

The feet are of ordinary length ; the tarsus with ten scutella
anteriorly, and two longitudinal plates behind ; the first toe
with ten, the second with ten, the third with fifteen, the fourth
with twelve scutella. The claws are arch'ed, much compressed,
obscurely grooved on the sides, and sharp.

The plumage generally is soft and blended ; the feathers of
the fore part of the head elongated, oblong and erectile. Wings
of moderate length ; the primary quills slightly decurved, the
fifth longest, the sixth one twelfth of an inch shorter, the fourth
about two twelfths shorter, the third nearly half an inch shorter
than the fourth ; the second ten twelfths shorter than the third,
which exceeds the first by an inch and a half The primary
coverts and alula have their webs stifl:' and glossy. The second-
ary quills nine, long, broad, rounded. The tail rather long,
nearly even, of twelve rather broad feathers, which are rounded
with a minute tip.

The bill is blackish-brown ; the irides bluish-white ; the feet
light reddish-brown ; the claws dusky. The general colour of
the plumage is a delicate light brownish-red tinged with grey
or purplish on the back, and paler beneath. The feathers on
the fore part of the head are ^vhitish, each with an oblong

rp

578 GARRULUS GLANDARIUS.

black spot ; from the base of the lower mandible on each side
is a broad band of black about an inch long. The most con-
spicuous trait of the plumage is the patch of ultramarine blue,
transversely banded with blackish-blue, including the primary
coverts and alula. The bases of the outer webs of the quills
are faintly coloured in the same manner. The primary quills
are dark brown, and, excepting the first have the outer edge
dull white ; the first six secondary quills have half of the outer
web white, their remaining parts and the other three quills
brownish-black. The upper and lower tail-coverts, and the
lower feathers of the legs, are white. The tail is dark brown,
with indications of bars at the base.

Length to end of tail 14^ inches ; extent of wings 23 ; wing
from flexure 7i ; tail 7 ; bill along the ridge l^^jj, along the
edge of low^er mandible Ij'^^ ; tarsus lx| ; first toe 7i twelfths,
its claw j% ; second toe j%^ its claw j% ; third toe lj%, its claw
7i twelfths ; fourth toe /g, its claw j\.

Female. — The female differs very little from the male. The
feathers of the head are shorter, the colours a little less intense,
the white of the rump less extensive, and the blue of the wings
a little less pure.

Length to end of tail 13f inches ; extent of wings 22 ; wing
from flexure 7^^ ; tail 6^ ; bill along the ridge 1 ; along the
edge of lower mandible l^^^-

The above descriptions are taken from two fine specimens,
shot in Linlithgowshire, and sent to me by Mr. Falconar of
Carlo wrie.

Habits. — The Jay is pretty generally distributed in England
and the southern and middle divisions of Scotland, occurring
chiefly in parts that are w^ell wooded. It is not less shy and
suspicious than the other species of the Corvine family, al-
though it frequents gardens for the purpose of feeding on the
fruit, as well as beans and pease, of which it seems to be parti-
cularly fond. Its food, however, is not confined to these
objects, for it also searches for worms, larvae, and snails ; plun-
ders the nests of small birds, and pounces on mice and some-

BLUE-WINGED JAY. 571>

times birds. The principal substances which I have found
in its stomach in winter were acorns, mixed w^th fragments
of quartz. It is scarcely gregarious, although for some weeks
the members of a family keep together, in w^hich case it is
almost impossible to procure one of them, as they flit before
you in the woods, taking care to keep beyond reach of a
shot, and uttering at intervals their ordinary harsh scream.
The flight of the Jay in an open place is somewhat similar to
that of the Magpie or Missel Thrush, being direct, and per-
formed by quick beats, with short cessations at intervals. It
glides through the woods and thickets with great ease and
dexterity, flits along the hedges, and rarely approaches the
habitations of man, except in search of food for its young, its
affectionate concern for which will induce it to brave dangers
from which on ordinary occasions it would shrink.

" Its common notes,*" ^lontagu says, " are various but
harsh ;" my own observation goes no farther than to enable
me to assent to the statement, and therefore I quote what he
states in continuance : — " It will some time in the spring utter
a sort of song in a soft and pleasing manner, but so low as not
to be heard at any distance ; and at intervals introduce the
bleating of a lamb, mewing of a cat, the note of a kite or buz-
zard, hooting of an owl, and even the neighing of a horse.
These imitations are so exact, even in a natural wild state,
that we have frequently been deceived.''

" Its nest," according to the same generally very accurate
authority, " is commonly built in high coppice wood or hedges,
and sometimes against the side of a scrubby tree. It is formfed
of sticks, lined with fibrous roots, and the bird lays five or six
eggs of a light brow^n colour, not very unlike those of the Part-
ridge, but smaller, and obscurely marked with a darker shade
of brown." Professor Rennie has given a long straggling de-
scription of it, flimsy and ill put together like itself; whereupon
Mr. Waterton remarks that the nests " are much more com-
pact, and better put together, than those which naturalists have
hitherto described. The nest of the Jay is never seen near the
tops of trees, like those of the Magpie and Crow. He who
feels inclined to study the nidification of this bird must search

r p 2

580 GARRULUS GLANDARIUS.

the lower branches of the oak, or inspect the woodbine mant-
ling round the hazel."' The eggs are somewhat smaller than
those of the Magpie, broadly ovate, generally an inch and a
quarter long, with their largest transverse diameter ten and a
half twelfths ; pale bluish-green, faintly and thickly freckled
with pale purplish and yellowish-brown. They vary con-
siderably in colour, although not so much as those of the
Magpie, and their number is from five to seven.

Although the Jay thus rears a large family, it is nowhere
abundant, being in most districts less numerous than even the
Magpie, which, however, is fonder of shewing itself, whereas
the bird under consideration is of retired habits, and skulks
among the trees and bushes as if ashamed of being seen. Another
circumstance which may tend to diminish its number is, that,
being a more showy bird than any other of the family, its skin
prepared by the bird-stufFer is much in request as a domestic
ornament. Add to this, the enmity which gamekeepers and
gardeners, not without reason, have to it, and you will not be
surprised to find it everywhere scarce.

Young. — The young when fledged are of the same colours
as the adult, although somewhat less bright. They are abroad
by the end of June, and keep together for several weeks.

581

NUCIFRAGA. NUTCRACKER.

Bill rather long, straight, moderately strong, tapering, of
nearly equal height and breadth at the base, slightly com-
pressed, but with the extreme tip depressed. Upper mandible
having the dorsal outline almost straight, being very slightly
convex towards the end, the ridge rather narrow but obtuse, the
sides very convex, the edges sharp, direct, with a very obscure
sinus close to the depressed blunt tip. Lower mandible with the
angle very short, broad and rounded, the dorsal outline ascend-
ing and slightly convex, the edges sharp and inflected, the tip
rather blunt and a little depressed. The gape-line is nearly
straight, being very slightly arched.

Nostrils rather small, round, in the fore part of the very
short, broad, nasal groove, and concealed by the narrow reversed
feathers, which cover about a sixth of the bill. Eyelids feather-
ed, having a narrow crenate bare margin. Aperture of the ear
roundish, of moderate size.

,((i)u Head rather large, oblong, nearly flat
above ; neck short ; body ovate, compact.
Legs of moderate length and strength ;
tarsi moderate, covered anteriorly with
ten scutella, posteriorly with two plates,
meeting behind with a sharp edge, and
several small transverse scales below.
Toes of moderate size ; the first large,
broad at the base, rather longer than the
second and fourth, which are equal, the
third considerably longer ; the fore toes spread very little, the
third and fourth united as far as the second joint ; all covered

582 NUCIFRAGA. NUTCRACKER.

above with few scutella, beneath padded and granulate. Claws
long, slightly arched, much compressed, acute ; the first stronger
and more arched, the third about the same length, but much
more slender, the fourth smallest and about half the length of
the third.

Plumage soft, rather blended, the feathers generally ovate
and rounded. Feathers on the head short ; those at the base
of the upper mandible linear, stifRsh, reflected, adpressed.
Wings of moderate length, much rounded ; the primary quills
rather narrow and decurved towards the end ; the first very
short, the fourth longest, the fifth scarcely shorter ; the second-
ary ten, long, rather broad, rounded w^ith an acumen. Tail of
moderate length, nearly even, of twelve broad, rounded feathers.

The Nutcracker, Nucifraga Caryocatactes, forms the transi-
tion from the Crows to the Starlings, and as M. Temminck
thinks to the Woodpeckers, some of which it certainly resem-
bles in the form of its bill, of which however the point is not
compressed as in that family, but depressed as in the Starlings.
Its feet are similar to those of the Crows, and still more of the
Jays and Starlings, but are not more adapted for climbing than
those of the last-mentioned families, although M. Temminck
states that its habits greatly resemble those of the Woodpeckers.
With the other species I am not acquainted. In the form of
the bill, the genus Coracias apj^roaches to this, as well as to
Corvus ; but the tarsi are not more than half the length of those
of Nucifraga, the hind toe is much shorter than the second and
fourth, and the wing has a different form.

583

NUCIFRAGA CARYOCATACTES. THE
NUTCRACKER.

F/G. !)1.

Corvus Caryocatactes. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 157.

Corvus Caryocatactes. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 164.

Nutcracker. Mont, Orn, Diet.

Le Casse-noix, Nucifraga Caryocatactes. Teram. Man. d'Orn. T. 117.

Nutcracker. Nucifraga Caryocatactes. Selb. Illustr. I. 368.

Nucifraga Caryocatactes. Nutcracker, Jen, Brit. Vert. An.. 149.

Plumage brown^ with numerous ohlong ichite spots.

The Nutcracker being merely a rare straggler with us, so
that opportunities of studying its habits have not occurred,
all that can with propriety be done here is to present a descrip-
tion of a specimen killed in Scotland, and now before me. The
sex was not determined.

The form and size are nearly those of the Common Jay, but
the details being given in the generic character, it is unneces-
sary to repeat them. The bill, feet, and claws are brownish-
black. The general tint of the plumage is dull reddish-brown ;
the upper part of the head, the wing-coverts, quills, and tail,
blackish-brown. The top of the head, and the upper tail-
coverts are plain ; all the other feathers have an oblong white
spot margined with dark-brown at the end, the spots of the

584 NUCIFRAGA CARYOCATACTES.

lower parts larger. The lower tail-coverts and the tips of the
tail-feathers are white, the lateral feathers having most, and the
central least, of that colour.

Length to end of tail 12i inches; wing from flexure Ti ;
tail 5 ; bill along the ridge If.

Montagu states that "it is a rare species in England ; two
instances only on record : one shot in Flintshire, the other in
Kent." Mr. Selby adds another, an individual having been
seen by Captain Robert Mitford, in Nether witton Wood, in
Northumberland, in the autumn of 1819. There is a speci-
men in the Museum of the University of Edinburgh, said to
have been shot in Scotland ; another in that of Mr. Arbuthnot
at Peterhead ; and the individual from which I have taken
the above description belongs to Mr. Th. Henderson, Coates'
Crescent, Edinburgh.

It is said by authors to be common in many parts of the
Continent, inhabiting the forests, and feeding on larvae, insects,
fruits, and occasionally eggs, and even young birds. Brisson
states that it occurs in Austria, occasionally appears in various
districts of Germany, and in 1753 was seen in very great num-
bers in France. M. Valmont-Bomare informs us that it pre-
fers living in the pine-forests of mountainous regions, and feeds
chiefly on fir-seeds and nuts. Nothing, he says, is more curious
than to see it eating one of the latter. Having taken it from
its store in the hole of a tree, it fixes it in a fissure, splits it
open with a blow of its bill, and then extracts the kernel.
Crows, Jays, and some Titmice, it may be observed, act in the
same manner.

585

FREGILUS. CHOUGH.

Bill rather long, slightly decurved, rather slender, tapering,
pentagonal and a little higher than broad at the base. Upper
mandible having the dorsal outline slightly arched, toward
the end declinate, the ridge obtuse, the sides flattened and slop-
ing, the edges overlapping, sharp, almost or entirely without a
notch, the tip declinate, slender, flattened, and projecting a
little. Lower mandible Avith the angle short, of moderate
width, obtuse, the dorsal outline concave, the edges sharp and
slightly inflected, the tip slender, declinate, rather acute, the
sides flattened and nearly erect. Gape-line slightly arched.

Mouth narrow ; upper mandible slightly concave within, as
is the lower, the latter with a slender prominent central line.
Nostrils in the fore pai-t of the very short nasal groove, ellip-
tical, open, but concealed by the short, stiff, reversed feathers,
which cover only a very small portion of the bill. Eyes of
moderate size ; eyelids feathered, having a narrow crenate

bare margin, but without ciliary
bristles, the lower much larger.
Aperture of the ear roundish,
of moderate size.

Head of moderate size, ovate,
rather convex above ; neck of
moderate length, strong ; body
ovate, rather slender. Legs
rather short, strong ; tarsi rather
short, compressed, covered an-
teriorly with eight scutella, of which the upper are generally
blended, posteriorly with two longitudinal plates meeting be-

586 FREGILUS. CHOUGH.

hind with a very sharp edge ; toes of moderate size, the outer
adherent as far as the second joint ; hind toe comparatively
large, lateral toes nearly equal, third considerably longer ; all
covered above with a few large scutella, beneath padded, rather
flattened, granulate, and transversely sulcate ; claws strong,
arched, compressed, rather sharp, their sides flattened and erect,
the inner edge of the third scarcely dilated.

Plumage dense, very soft, glossy, generally blended, and
somewhat silky ; the feathers of the body ovate, rounded, w^ith
discrete barbs, and a long plumule, composed of a few downy
filaments. Feathers on the head short ; those at the base of
the upper mandible slender, short, stiff, reversed ; there are
also decurved bristles at the base of the upper mandible, and
numerous straight ones in the angle of the lower. Wings
long ; the outer primaries separated wdien the wing is extended ;
primary quills ten, the first very short and narrow, the fourth
longest, the third and fifth little shorter ; the first five or six
having both w^ebs narrowed towards the end ; secondary quills
twelve, short, broad, the outer truncate, the inner rounded.
Tail of moderate length, generally even, of twelve broad trun-
cate feathers.

Two species of this genus occur in Europe, Fregilus Pyrrho-
corax and Fregilus Graculus, of which the latter only inhabits
Britain. Although in their general appearance, and in their
particular characters, they agree so closely that one could
hardly think of separating them, they have by Cuvier been
referred to two different genera, merely because Pyrrhocorax
has a shorter bill than Graculus, wdth a slight notch, which
is obsolete in the other. These birds resemble the crowds in
their aspect and habits, w^hile they have also a direct affinity
to the genera Epimachus, Paradisea, Caryocatactes, Stum us,
Oriolus, and several others. They nestle in rocks and towers ;
are shy and vigilant ; when searching for food betake them-
selves to open pastures, walk in the same manner as crows,
and have a similar flight.

Considering it very inexpedient to alter the specific names of
birds, I prefer the generic name Fregilus to Pyrrhocorax, thus
leaving the latter to designate Corvus Pyrrhocorax of Linnaeus.

587

FREGILUS GRACULUS. THE LONG-BILLED
CHOUGH.

CHOUGH. CORNISH CHOUGH. CORNISH DAW. CORNWALL KAE. CHAUK-DAW
KILLIGREW. RED-LEGGED CROW. MARKET-JEW CROW.

Fjg. 93.

Coi'vus Graculus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 158.

Corvus Graculus. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 165.

Red-legged Crow. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Pyrrhocorax Coracias. Pyrrhocorax Graculus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 122.

III. 69.
Cornish Chough. Fregilus Graculus. Selb. Illustr. I. 365.
Fregilus Graculus. Cornish Chough. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 144.

Of the adult male and female^ the plumage hlack^ highly glossed^
with purplish-blue and green tints ; the feathers of the head
and neck blended^ the tail even ; the wings about the same length ;
the bill longer than the head, attenuated, and, with the feet, ver-
milion.

Male. — The Chough when seen at a distance bears a great
resemblance to the Rook, which it excels, however, in elegance
of form ; but at hand is readily distinguished by the red colour
of its bill and feet. As the generic character above given aji-
plies in every particular to this species, it is unnecessary to
repeat the details of its external appearance, especially as we
have no other with which to compare or contrast it. The bill
is a little longer than the head, considerably arched, and taper-

588 FREGILUS GRACULUS.

ing to a nearly acute point. The wings are about the same
length as the tail, which is moderate, even, the feathers
abrupt, with a small tip. The fourth quill is longest, the
fifth scarcely shorter, the third nearly as long, the second
an inch shorter, the first rather more than half the length of
the longest. The plumage of the head and neck is blended
and glossy, as is that of the back and lower parts in a less de-
gree. The feathers of the wings, and some of the upper and
lower tail-coyerts, compact.

The bill is yermilion, the feet of a darker tint approaching
to coral-red, the claws black. The irides are browTi. The
general colour of the plumage is black, with blue and purple
tints ; the wing-coverts, secondary quills, and tail, glossed
with green.

Length to end of tail 17 inches ; extent of wings 34 ; wing
from flexure 11 j ; tail 6i ; bill along the back 2^, along the
edge of lower mandible 2j\ ; tarsus 2/^ ; hind toe j%, its claw
i§ ; second toe 10^ twelfths, its claw^ 8^ twelfths ; third toe
li, its claw j% ; fourth toe ^J, its claw j\.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but somewhat

Habits. — The Chough, according to ^Montagu, occurs in
Devonshire, Cornwall, and Wales ; I have met wnth it in Gal-
loway and the Island of Barray, one of the Outer Hebrides ; and
it is said to be found in the Isle of Man, in various parts of the
western coast of Britain, and at St. Abb's Head on the eastern
coast of the southern division of Scotland. It is, however, a
rare bird with us, and appears to be confined to the vicinity of
the sea, althoujjh on the continent its habitual residence is said
to be in the alpine regions of the interior. It is gregarious like
the Rook and the Jackdaw, which it resembles in its mode
of flying, as well as in its cries, which, however, are clearer
and more shrill. Its food consists of insects, grubs, seeds, and
the flesh of dead animals, for which it searches the open pas-
tures and rocky grounds, walking in the manner of the birds
mentioned above, and evincing much shyness, so that it is very

LONG-BILLED CHOUGH. 589

difficult to get within shot of it, unless in the places where it
breeds. Its flight is generally elevated, irregular, and per-
formed by moderately slow beats, occasionally varied by gambols
and evolutions of various kinds.

According to Montagu, the nest, w^hich is placed in a rock
or cavern, sometimes in an old building, " is composed of
sticks, and lined with a great quantity of wool and hair ; the
eggs are generally five in number, of a dull w^hite, sprinkled
with light brown and ash-coloured spots, most at the larger
end."

YouxG. — The young are said to have their first plumage
black, but without the gloss and purple tints of the adult birds.
The bill and feet are stated by M. Temminck to be at first
black, but Montagu affirms that they are red from the com-
mencement. I have not seen a bird in its first feathers, and
it does not appear that any recent British w^riter has had an
opportunity of deciding the question.

/

500

THREMMAPHILIN.^.

COW-BIRDS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The family of the Thremmaphilinae, which is composed of
the genera Gracula, Thremmaphilus, Buphaga, Sturnus, Stur-
nella, and a few others, has only two representative species
among the birds of Britain: the Spotted Starling, Sturnus
guttatus, and the Rose-coloured Cow-bird, Thremmaphilus ro-
seus. They are inferior in size to the birds of the family of
Corvina?, which they however greatly resemble in many re-
spects. Their body is ovate, compact, and moderately stout ;
their neck short ; their head of ordinary size, ovato-oblong,
flattened above, and narrowed anteriorly.

The bill is generally about the length of the head, or some-
what shorter, moderately stout or rather slender, nearly straight,
compressed towards the end ; the upper mandible with its out-
line slightly convex towards the tip, the ridge very narrow at
the base, the nasal cavity being very large, the edges sharp and
overlapping, with a slight or obsolete notch close to the slightly
decurved tip ; the lower mandible with a long, rather acute
angle, its crura rather broad and sloping outwards, the dor^sal
outline straight or slightly convex, the edges sharp.

Internally both mandibles are concave, with a central pro-
minent line. The characters presented by the intestinal canal
are similar to those of the genus Corvus, in the Spotted Star-
ling, which is the only bird of the genus dissected by me.

The eyes are rather small, or of moderate size ; the eyelids
with a narrow crenate bare margin, close to which is a fringe
of very small feathers, the lower frequently bare. The nostrils
are of moderate size, oval, with a horny arched operculum, and

COW-BIRDS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 591

placed in the fore part of the large nasal depression, which
forms a deep sinus in the base of the mandible, and is filled by
a membrane covered with short incurved feathers. The aper-
ture of the ear is rather large and circular.

The feet are of moderate length or rather short. The tarsus
compressed, with seven anterior scutella, and two longitudinal
plates forming a thin edge behind. The toes are four, articu-
lated on the same level ; the first directed backwards, stronger
than the second and fourth, which are about the same length ;
the third considerably longer ; all covered above w4th large
scutella, rather flat and granulate beneath ; the fourth or outer
united to the third as far as the second joint. The claws are
rather long, arched, much compressed, acute, their sides flat
with an obscure groove.

The plumage is moderately full. The feathers at the base
of both mandibles are always very short, rather stifl", more or less
directed forwards at first, but incurved. The wings are of mo-
derate length, rather pointed, the first quill extremely small,
being scarcely a fifth of the length of the second, which is about
the same length as the third and fourth, but usually very
slightly shorter than the former, which is the longest ; the pri-
mary quilk are ten, narrowed towards the end ; the secondary
generally nine, broad and abruptly rounded or emarginate.
The tail is rather short, or of moderate length, slightly rounded,
of twelve broad feathers.

The skeleton and digestive organs differ little from those of
the last family. The manners of the different species being
unknown to me by personal observation, I cannot give any
general account of them farther than that these birds are gene-
rally gregarious, feed principally on worms, larvae, insects, and
fruits, and breed in high places, or in holes and crevices. They
are easily domesticated, may be taught to pronounce words,
some of them to whistle tunes, and exhibit the same indications
of sagacity as the Crows.

592 THREMMAPHILINiE.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. STURNUS. STARLING.

Bill about the length of the head, straight, pentagonal, de-
pressed toward the end, its ridge flattened in the middle ; tarsi
rather short ; wings of moderate length, the third quill longest ;
tail rather short, emarginate,

1. Sturnus guttatus. Spotted Starling. Black, glossed
with purple and green, and spotted with j)ale brown above and
white beneath.

GENUS 11. THREMMAPHILUS. COW-BIRD.

Bill rather short, nearly straight, compressed toward the end,
the ridge convex ; tarsi rather short ; wings of moderate length ;
the second and third quills longest ; tail of moderate length,
slightly rounded.

1. Thremmaphilus roseus. Rose-coloured Coii'-hlrd. Body
rose-coloured, head crested, and with the fore-neck black gloss-
ed with purplish blue.

593

STURNUS. STARLING.

Bill of about the length of the head, straight, rather slender,
tapering, pentagonal ; the upper mandible with its outline
straight until towards the tip, where it is declinate and convex,
the ridge very narrow at the base, broad and convex in the
rest of its extent, the sides sloping and convex, the edges sharp
and overlapping, with a very slight or obsolete notch close to
the depressed tip ; the lower mandible with a long rather acute
angle, its crura rather broad at the base, and sloping outwards,
the dorsal outline straight, the edges sharp. The gape-line
ascends gently at the base, and is then direct.

Internally both mandibles are slightly concave, with a central
prominent line ; the palate straight, very narrow, sloping up-
wards at the sides. The other characters of the mouth and
those of the intestinal canal are probably the same as those of
Sturnus guttatus, described in the following pages.

The eyes are rather small, the eyelids fringed with very small
feathers, and having a very narrow crenate bare margin ; in
some species, however, both, or at least the lower, bare. Aper-
ture of the ear roundish, of moderate size. Nostrils ovate,
oblique, open, with an arched horny operculum, and placed
in the fore part of the long nasal groove, which is covered
with slender feathers directed backwards.

The feet are moderately stout ; the tarsus rather short, com-
pressed, with seven anterior scutella, and two longitudinal
plates forming a thin edge behind. The toes four ; the first
stouter, directed backwards, and of about the same length as
the second and fourth, the third considerably longer, all covered
above with large scutella, rather flat and granulate beneath ;
the fourth or outer united to the third as far as the second

Qq

594

STURNUS. STARLING.

joint. The claws are rather long, moderately arched, much
compressed, acute, their sides flat, with an obscure groove.

The plumage is moderately full. The feathers along the
nasal groove are short, pointed, curved backwards. The wings

Fig. 94.

are of moderate length, rather pointed, the first quill extremely
small, being about a sixth of the length of the second, which is
a little shorter than the third ; the fourth scarcely shorter, the
rest graduated ; primary quills ten, narrowed towards the end ;
secondary seven, broad, the outer slightly emarginate, the inner
rounded. The tail is short, or of moderate length, slightly
rounded, and generally emarginate.

The Starlings are generally birds of about the size of a com-
mon Thrush, gregarious, living on larvae, worms, insects, and
occasionally seeds. Their flight is rapid and direct, and they
walk with great ease, seeking their food on the ground. They
nestle in holes of trees, crevices of rocks and buildings, or in
convenient situations in high places generally. The species
belong to the old continent. Only two occur in Europe, of
w^hich one is generally distributed in Britain.

595

STURNUS GUTTATUS. THE SPOTTED
STARLING.

STARLING. STARE. TRUID.

flG. i&.

Sturnus vulgaris. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 290.

Stumus vulgaris. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 321.

Stare or Starling. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Etoumeau vulgaire. Sturnus vulgaris. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 132.

III. 74.
Common Starling. Sturnus vulgaris. Selb. Illustr. I. 340.
Sturnus vulgaris. Common Starling. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 143.

Adult male in full plumage^ 'with the feathers of the head and
neck lanceolate and acuminate^ of the other parts broader hut
tapering ; the general colour black with splendent blue and purple
tints ; all the feathers^ excepting on the head and fore-neclc^ with
a triangular white tip ; the bill pale yellow ; the feet light red-
dish-brown ; in spring the feathers more attenuated^ their white,
tips diminished. Female with the feathers as in the male^ but
broader^ all tipped with broader spots, of which those on the upper
parts are light brown, on the lower white ; the bill dusky, the
feet reddish-brown. Young in their first plumage of a imiform
greyish-brown colour ; the bill brownish-black ; the feet dusky.

Male. — The Starling, which is one of the most beautiful of
our native birds, is about the size of the Common Thrush, and

Q q 2

596 STURNUS GUTTATUS.

of a compact form, rather stout, with the body ovate, rather
deeper behind than before ; the head of moderate size, ovato-
oblong, flattened above, narrowed anteriorly ; the feet rather
short and strong ; the wings of moderate length ; and the tail
rather short. In form it bears a greater resemblance to the
Jackdaw than to a Thrush, and when mixed with a flock of
Crows, might seem to a person unacquainted with it to be of
the same family.

The bill is shorter than the head, straight, rather slender,
tapering, pentagonal, towards the end depressed ; the upper
mandible with its dorsal outline nearly straight, convex and
declinate towards the rather sharp tip, the ridge very narrow
at the commencement, flattened over and beyond the nostrils,
then convex, the sides sloping at the base, convex toward the
end, the edges sharp and overlapping, the notch obsolete ;
lower mandible with the angle narrow and pointed, the sides
sloping outward and concave on the crura, the dorsal line
straight, the edges sharp. The gape-line ascends at the base,
and is afterwards direct, the lower jaw being a little bent in
the middle.

Internally both mandibles are slightly concave with a cen-
tral prominent line ; the palate straight, very narrow, sloping
upwards at the sides. The aperture of the nares is linear,
edged with large pointed papillas directed backwards. The
tongue, PI. IX, Fig. 6, a, is sagittate, of moderate length
(eight twelfths of an inch), slender, papillate at the base, con-
cave above, horny and thin-edged towards the point, which is
narrow and slightly lacerated. The aperture of the glottis is
defended behind by numerous slender papillae. The oesoiihagus,
6, 0, d^ is of moderate width, uniform in diameter, three inches
long ; the proventriculus, r/, encircled by numerous oblong
glandules. The stomach ^, /, ^, is broadly elliptical, com-
pressed, its muscular coat thick with round tendinous centres,
the cuticular lining rugous ; in short it is a gizzard of mode-
rate power, as in the Crows. The intestine, g, h^ /, j, k, is
fifteen inches long, nearly uniform in diameter, the duodenal
portion a little wider, being four twelfths of an inch ; the
coeca, Fig. 7, c, d, which are at the distance of an inch and a

SPOTTED STARLING. 597

quarter from the anus, are cylindrical, adnate, half an inch
long.

The eyes are rather small, their aperture two twelfths of an
inch in diameter ; the eyelids fringed with very small feathers
along the outer edge of the crenate hare margin ; the greater
part of the lower hare. The aperture of the ear is roundish,
three twelfths across ; the meatus small, linear, oblique. The
nostrils are ovate, oblique, open, with an arched horny oper-
culum, and placed in the fore part of the long nasal groove,
which is feathered, leaving only a thin ridge of the horny man-
dible interv^ening.

The feet are rather short and stout ; the tarsus compressed,
with seven anterior scutella, and two longitudinal plates form-
ing a thin edge behind. The toes four ; the first stouter, di-
rected backwards parallel to the tarsus internally, and of about
the same length as the second and fourth, the latter much
more slender than the rest, the middle toe considerably longer ;
all with large scutella above, the first seven, the second nine,
the third thirteen, the fourth twelve ; the outer adherent as
far as the second joint. The claws are moderately stout,
arched, acute, much compressed, the sides erect and grooved.

The plumage is compact and splendent. The feathers of the
fore part of the head are short, those on the nasal groove re-
curved, on the head and neck generally lanceolate and tapering
to a long point ; on the back and breast ovato-acuminate ; on
the rump broader and less pointed. The Avings are of moderate
length ; the first primary very small and slender, being only
half an inch long, the second half a twelfth shorter than the
third, which is two and a half twelfths longer than the fourth ;
the rest slowly graduated ; the primaries ten, somewhat nar-
rowed towards the end, but rounded ; the secondaries nine,
broad, the inner abrupt and emarginate, the outer rounded.
The tail is short, straight, emarginate, of twelve broad, oblique-
ly rounded feathers, the outer curved outwards toward the end.

The bill is pale yellow, the iris hazel (but I have also
seen it yellowish) ; the feet light brownish-red, or brownish
flesh-colour ; the claws dusky. The general colour of the
plumage is black, glossed with brilliant tints of blue, green,

598 STURNUS GUTTATUS.

and purple, tlie latter predominating on the neck and head.
All the feathers of the head and fore-neck with a scarcely ap-
parent very minute whitish tip, of the other parts with a trian-
gular spot at the end. The spots on the upper parts are pale
brown, on the low^er white. The quills and tail-feathers are
dusky, their outer webs more or less glossed with green, and
margined with light brownish-red, as are the upper and lower
tail-coverts.

Length to end of tail 9^ ; extent of wings 15 J ; wing from
flexure h^^ ; tail 1\% ; bill along the back 1^, along the edge
of lower mandible 1^^ ; tarsus 1 ; first toe i, its claw h\
twelfths ; second 7i, its claw 4i twelfths ; third 1 0^ twelfths,
its claw /^ ; fourth 7i twelfths, its claw /^.

Female. — The bill is blackish-brown ; the irides hazel ; the
feet reddish-brown ; the claws blackish. The feathers are less
pointed ; those of the head less elongated, all distinctly tipped,
the upper with light reddish-brown, the lower with white
spots, broader than in the males. On the hind part of the
back, the light-coloured part of each feather extends so as to
form a margin, as is the case more conspicuously on the lower
tail -coverts. There is very little difference in size.

In an individual from which this description is taken, the
tongue is ten twelfths of an inch long ; the oesophagus three
inches ; the stomach nearly circular, compressed, eleven twelfths
long, ten twelfths broad, seven twelfths thick ; the intestine
fifteen inches long, has a diameter of four twelfths in its duo-
denal portion ; the coeca six twelfths long, one twelfth in
diameter, vermiform and free, are placed at the distance of an
inch from the extremity of the intestine ; they admit none of
the alimentary mass, but secrete a mucous fluid.

Length to end of tail 9i ; extent of wings 15|.

Variations. — The above descriptions are of the plumage
when perfect, that is, in autumn after the moult. In the males,
in spring, the feathers by loosing their edges have become
narrower and more pointed, and the white markings greatly
diminished. The same effect takes place in a less degree in

1.

Bill 'I

1|*

LengtJ

h9i

2.

" %

n

'/

91

S.

" 'I

i¥

//

9i

4.

■' lA,

If

If

9

5.

" 1,

U

ti

9i

SPOTTED STARLING. 599

the female. Old males generally have the head and fore-neck
quite destitute of white spots. The variations in adult indivi-
duals are not otherwise remarkable. The species is occasion-
ally subject to albinism ; but I have not seen any British spe-
cimens either white or patched with that colour.

The dimensions given above are those of individuals shot in
the south of Scotland. I subjoin those of five specimens shot
by me in the Outer Hebrides in 1820, and described in my
note-book.

Extent of wings 15i Tail 2/o
15i
]5i
15i
151

Habits. — Having with much labour and some danger de-
scended from the summit of a maritime cliff on the west coast
of one of the bare Hebrides, w^e are now standing in a low and
ragged cavern, of which the upper part is formed of great
blocks of gneiss jammed into a rent of the solid rock, while the
heavy weaves of the Atlantic come rushing up its mouth, and
alternately recede, leaving exposed at intervals a beautiful bed
of polished pebbles. The melancholy tones of the Rock Dove's
cooing issue from one of the recesses ; and as we look for the
bird, w^e observe a Starling perched on a projecting angle above,
and screaming forth its low harsh note of alarm or anger. Pre-
sently several individuals of the same species issue from vari-
ous holes and fissures, and fly out of the cavern, followed by a
few pigeons, the sound of whose wings echoes from the walls.
A shot is fired, and in the midst of the deafening noise that
follows, a whole crowd of Starlings hurry over head to regain
the open air, and escape the threatened danger. We have in
fact strolled into one of their breeding places, and it being the
month of June, we may here at leisure observe their domestic
habits ; but the tide is advancing, and therefore it may be best
to regain the summit of the rock, purposing to return some
other time.

600 STURNUS GUTTATUS.

Many such places exist along the rocky shores of these
islands, in which Starlings are very abundant, as, according to
Low and others, they are in the Shetland and Orkney Islands.
To them they retreat after sunset all the year round. Early
in the morning, accompanied perhaps at first by Pigeons and
Cormorants, you may see them issue from their secure retreats,
and hurry along the coast, or over the rocky ground, to the
pastures and fields. The places to which above all they most
frequently resort in summer and autumn are the cowfolds,
where the farm stock is enclosed at night, and there before the
cattle are let out, or at milking time, you may find large flocks
busily employed in searching among the old and dried dung
for larvae and worms, keeping up an incessant low chatter,
frequently perching for a while on the cattle, and when satis-
fied reposing on the low walls of the fold, where you may often
shoot them by half dozens — I do not say whole dozens, for al-
thougti that might happen, I never obtained more than six
or seven at a single discharge. They also follow the cattle in
the pastures and meadows, often perching on the backs of cows,
horses, and sheep ; but although very frequently seen in this
society, they do not always accompany these animals. In
winter they frequent the corn-yards, along with linnets, bunt-
ings, larks, and wild pigeons, to obtain a few grains of oats,
search the stubble grounds for seeds, pick up small testaceous
mollusca from the pastures, and occasionally visit the shores to
feed on marine worms. In spring they find a supply of food
in the newly turned fields or patches of ground ; in summer
and autumn they are furnished with abundance of larvae and
worms, found chiefly under the dung of domestic animals ; and
they attack the corn in the same manner as the sparrow, al-
though this kind of food is apparently less agreeable to them
than their more usual kind.

Starlings always keep in flocks, and generally fly in a com-
pact body, which frequently appears to undergo a kind of rota-
tory motion, as the individuals shift their position. When in
haste however, they fly in a direct manner, without undulations,
and with great speed, employing regularly-timed beats of their
wings. They alight in the open pastures abruptly, Avithout

SPOTTED STARLING. COl

preparatory reconnoitering, immediately disperse, run along
very nimbly, and diligently search for mollusca, worms, and
other objects. On discovering traces of a subterranean larva
or worm, they dig it up with great dexterity in the same man-
ner as the thrushes and crows. During their search they are
seldom altogether silent, some individuals commonly keeping
up a chattering noise, and occasionally uttering a low scream,
when interfered with by others. This scream prolonged and
heightened is the intimation of alarm, and when heard from
one or more of the flock, they immediately cease their search,
look up, and, if they should judge it necessary, fly off with speed
to another generally distant part.

In winter the flocks are often very large, but even in the
breeding season the individuals that come abroad to search for
food for their young, keep in parties. In the Outer Hebrides
they associate with no other birds, excepting occasionally
Pigeons ; but in other parts they are frequently seen inter-
mingled with Jackdaws, Rooks, and Thrushes of different
species. In sunny weather, even in winter, Starlings congre-
gated on a rock, the top of a wall, or other eminence, enact a
very pleasant concert or medley, each singing in a low rather
sweet voice, and the united efl'ect being very similar to that of
the winter song of a flock of Redwings. Individually the Star-
ling's ditty is certainly not equal to that of the Throstle, but
yet it is by no means despicable.

These birds are occasionally a little quarrelsome when two or
more individuals happen to come into contact having a worm
or other object in view ; but their feuds are not deadly, and in
general they live very peaceably together ; nor do they molest
any other species of bird. They are sometimes preyed upon
by the smaller hawks, especially the Sparrow Hawk and Merlin.

The flesh of the Starling is not much inferior to that of a thrush,
although tougher, and as a considerable number may be occa-
sionally obtained at a single shot, this bird is not unworthy of
the attention of the animal designated by the name of sports-
man. The Hebridian shooters always twist oif its head the
moment they get hold of it, alleging that in the blood of that
part there is something of a poisonous nature. Others main-

(J02 STURNUS GUTTATUS.

tain that the bitter taste which they attribute to the Starling's
flesh resides in the blood, and that this affords the true reason
for the decapitation practised. For my own part I never could
perceive any difference between the flesh of a Starling merely
shot, and that of another both shot and beheaded ; and all that
I can state on the subject is that both are very good, and not
at all inferior to the flesh of the wild pigeon.

In the Hebrides the Starlings begin to form their nests in
the end of April or the beginning of May, selecting suitable
spots in the crevices of rocks, in caverns, or under large blocks,
in situations as inaccessible as possible. I have found them
also in large w^inding holes in grassy banks on an unfrequented
islet, which I conjectured to have been originally formed by
rats, and afterwards enlarged by the Starlings. It appears how-
ever that they also dig holes of themselves on the grassy shelves
of the rocks. The nest is bulky, composed of grass and por-
tions of plants of various species, with a rude lining of feathers
and hair. The eggs, which are from four to six, are of a some-
what elongated or regular oval form, glossy, and of a delicate
very pale greenish-blue. They vary in length from an inch
and a quarter to an inch and two twelfths or a little less, and
in their greatest breadth from three fourths to ten twelfths of
an inch.

These birds occur in many other parts of Scotland, but are
generally rare in the middle and southern divisions, where
their colonies breed in maritime rocks, in old buildings, and
sometimes in holes in decayed trees. In winter, they usually
scatter over the country, appearing in flocks of greater or less
extent in parts where they do not habitually reside. Thus far
I have confined my statements to my own observation ; but to
complete my account of the manners of this interesting bird, I
take the liberty of extracting from Mr. Stanley's Familiar
History of Birds a portion of a passage on this subject equal
in my opinion to the best biographical sketches of Wilson or
Audubon.

" Not far from the church we have mentioned, there is a
considerable sheet of water, occupying nearly thirty acres ;
flanked and feathered, on the eastern side, by the old beech-

SPOTTED STARLING. 603

wood, already spoken of as the abiding place of the Jackdaws.
Its western margin is bounded by an artificial dam, which, as
the water is upon a much higher level, commands an extensive
view over a flat rich country, the horizon terminated by the
faint outline of the first range of Welsh mountains. This
dam, on the finer evenings of November, was once the favourite
resort of many persons, who found an additional attraction in
watching the gradual assemblage of the Starlings. About an
hour before sun-set, little flocks, by twenties or fifties, kept
gradually dropping in, their numbers increasing as day-light
waned, till one vast flight was formed amounting to thousands,
and at times we might almost say to millions. Nothing could
be more interesting or beautiful, than to witness their graceful
evolutions.

" At first they might be seen advancing high in the air, like
a dark cloud, which, in an instant, as if by magic, became al-
most invisible, the whole body, by some mysterious watchword,
or signal, changing their course, and presenting their wings
to view edgeways, instead of exposing, as before, their full ex-
panded spread. Again, in another moment, the cloud might
be seen descending in a graceful sweep, so as almost to brush
the earth as they glanced along. Then once more they were
seen spiring in wide circles on high ; till at length, with one
simultaneous rush, down they glide, with a roaring noise of
wing, till the vast mass buried itself unseen, but not unheard,
amidst a bed of reeds, projecting from the bank adjacent to the
wood. For no sooner were they perched, than every throat
seemed to open itself, forming one incessant confusion of tongues.

" If nothing disturbed them, there they would most likely
remain ; but if a stone was thrown, a shout raised, or more espe-
cially, if a gun was fired, up again would rise the mass, with
one unbroken rushing sound, as if the whole body were pos-
sessed but of one wing, to bear them on their upward fiight.
In the fens of Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire, w^here reeds
are of considerable value for various purposes, the mischief they
occasion is often very considerable, by bearing down, and
breaking them, as many as can find a grasping hold, clinging
to the same slender stem, which, of course, bends, and plunges

604 STURNUS GUTT ATUS.

them in the water, from whence they rise to join some other
neighbours, whose reed is still able to bear their weight. This
perpetual jostling and breaking down, is the probable cause of
the incessant clatter, which continues for a considerable time ;
indeed, till all have procured dry beds, and a firm footing.

" It has been remarked that the flights of these birds have
of late years much diminished, a fact to which we can speak
from our own experience, for the assemblages which we have
just described, as forming so interesting a feature in autumnal
evening walks, have long ago ceased ; and it is now a rare thing
to see a passing flock of even fifty, where, in years gone by, they
mustered in myriads."

It is interesting to trace the changes which the habits of
birds undergo, to accommodate them to the different circum-
stances in which they may be placed. The Starlings of the
Outer Hebrides and the north-eastern islands, equally treeless,
remain all the year round, retiring nightly to rest in the places
where they have bred, namely the caves and crevices of the
maritime cliffs ; while those of many other parts of Scotland,
even of the island of Skye, and of England, leave their breed-
ing places, like the rooks, collect into flocks, and roost in dif-
ferent localities during the winter. The reason of this difference
is not apparent, unless it be that in the former case they cannot
find a more secure retreat than that in which they have bred,
and therefore are obliged to restrain their wandering propensi-
ties, which they can freely indulge in districts where they
have a choice of station.

Mr. Weir, to whom I am indebted for so many interesting ob-
servations, has favoured me with the following notes having re-
ference to this species. " About the end of May 1835, being
very anxious to get a pair of Starlings for stuffing, I went to Car-
michael House, Lanarkshire. While there, I was determined
to ascertain if the fact be true, which I have somewhere heard
or seen mentioned, that the male Starling does not feed its
voung ones. Of the absurdity of this statement I had an ex-
cellent opportunity of being convinced. The gamekeeper
having pointed out to me a nest with young, in the hole of a
very old ash tree, about thirty feet from the ground, the female

SPOTTED STARLIXG. (505

of wliicli had been shot for eight days, I observed the male,
notwithstanding the want of his partner, persisting in his
labours of affection with unwearied assiduity. I set fetters
around the hole, and caught the poor fellow. He was a re-
markably beautiful bird. From the nest proceeded a most
offensive odour, occasioned by the droppings of the birds not
having^ been removed, which was not the case with anv of the
other nests that I looked into. There was, at least in this in-
stance, a strong proof that the male does not condescend to
take a share in this servile employment, but leaves it w^holly
to the charge of the female. But lest some sceptic should
affirm that the father, although ordinarily austere, might have
been moved with compassion towards his offspring when de-
prived of their mother, I made another attempt to be more
fully convinced of its truth. I accordingly set my fetters
around the hole of another nest, and in the course of a few
hours caught the male and the female in the act of feedinof
their young ones. This proved beyond doubt the fallacy of
the statement."

The Starling is easily tamed, and may be taught to whistle
tunes, as well as to pronounce words. Almost all authors are
agreed in reducing its natural notes to "a harsh scream and a
chatter or twitter ;"" but I have certainly heard them enunciate
what to me, who am more sentimental than musical, appeared
to be a very pleasant little song. As a specimen of an ac-
complished Starling I may here introduce one visited by Mr.
Syme. " We went, one morning, with a friend, to see a col-
lection of birds belonging to a gentleman in Antigua Street,
Edinburgh ; and among these were some very fine Starlings —
one, in particular, which cost five guineas. Breakfast was
ready before we entered the room. When the bird was pro-
duced, it flew to its master's hand, and distinctly pronounced,
' Good morning. Sir, — breakfast — breakfast.' It afterwards
hopped to the table, examined every cup ; and, while thus
employed, it occasionally repeated, ' Breakfast — breakfast —
bread and butter for Jack — pretty Jack — pretty Jack.' "

Mr. AVeir gives a similar account of another individual.
" Mr. Paton, carver and gilder. Horse AVynd, Edinburgh,

606. STURNUS GUTTATUS.

had one a few years ago, which I have heard pronounce most
distinctly the following sentences. When I entered the shop,
he said to me, ' Come in, Sir, and take a seat — I see by your
face that you are fond of the lasses — George, send for a coach
and six for pretty Charlie— Be clever, George, I want it im-
mediately ;" and many other sentences to the same purport.
He was taught by a shoemaker in Stewarton, Aryshire."

Young. — The young in their first plumage differ in colour
so much from the old birds that several authors have described
them as forming a distinct species. On this subject I have
some remarks to offer, which are the more necessary that the
question is not yet settled with some individuals, who have not
compared specimens of the objects which they confound. In
the first place, however, it is necessary to describe the young
Starling. Its form is of course in all resj^ects similar to that
of the old bird, only the bill and claws are somewhat shorter.
The former is blackish-brown with paler edges, the upper man-
dible having a slight notch close to the tip, which becomes
obsolete in the adult. The irides are brown ; the feet reddish-
brown ; the claws dusky. The plumage is not at all loose,
although not of so compact a texture as in the old bird, and
quite lustreless ; the feathers less narrow and more rounded ;
the wings and tail as described above. The general colour is
a dull rather light greyish-brown, the throat much paler, ap-
proaching to greyish- white. The quills and tail-feathers are of
the same tint, and edged with pale reddish-brown. This is
the Starling in its first plumage. I have before me a specimen
obtained in August, in which the beautiful glossy dark nar-
rower white-tipped feathers appear in patches among the dull
brown ones, producing a curious contrast, and proving beyond
a doubt that the " Brown Starling or Solitary Thrush'' of
authors is actually a young " Spotted Starling.""

M. Temminck had long ago informed us that the young
starlings " previous to the autumnal moult, are of a brownish-
grey without spots, on all parts of the body ; the wings and
tail have the feathers bordered with reddish-grey ; the throat
is white, and there is a little of a whitish tint on the belly.''

SPOTTED STARLING. GO/

This, from so accurate an ornithologist might have induced
people to look to nature for their descriptions, when they would
have found that the Solitary Thrush of Montagu and Bewick
is merely a young Starling.

Mr. Syme, in his Treatise on British Song Birds, clearly
describes, under the article " Solitary Thrush, Moor Thrush,
or Brown Starling," the habits and haunts of the Ring Ouzel,
with which he associates the description of the Solitary Thrush
of Bewick and Montagu. " From its nest being difficult to
find,"' he says, " and from its being so rare a bird, it is seldom
seen in a cage.'" Very seldom indeed, w^hether the Ring Ouzel
or the Solitary Thrush, but which of them may have been
" seen in a cage" does not appear. " The young are easily
brought up, and repay the trouble by their sweet native song.
They may also be taught to whistle, and articulate words, when
confined. The species sings as well by candle-light as by day."
Surely Mr. Sjine must have " in his eye" some bird or other,
when he talks thus ; and when he states that " its notes, in all
their qualities, excel those of the song-thrush," he must mean
the Ring Ouzel, or nothing at all.

Mr. Knapp, in his Journal of a Naturalist, obviously describes
the young of the Common Starling under the name of the Brown
Starling, or Solitary Thrush ; but those persons who cannot
distinguish between a Starling and a Thrush must have very
confused ideas of generic distinctions in ornithology, for the
bill of the one genus is very different from that of the other.

" The Brown Starling, or Solitary Thrush (Turdus solita-
rhis), is not an uncommon bird with us (in Glocestershire).
It breeds in the holes and hollows of old trees, and, hatchino-
early, forms small flocks in our pastures, which are seen about
before the arrival of the winter starling, for which bird, by its
manners and habits, it is generally mistaken." It is to be re-
gretted that the period of its first appearance is not mentioned,
for the young of the Spotted Starling might be seen abroad
in " small flocks," by the end of May. " It will occasionally,
in very dry seasons, enter our gardens for food, which the com-
mon stares never do ;" — but young inexperienced birds, like boys,
often venture on exploits which old ones would not undertake

608 STURNUS GUTTATUS.

— " and this year (1826) I had one caught in a trap, unable
to resist the tempting plunder of a cherry tree, in conjunction
with half the thrushes in the neighbourhood. I have seen a
few small, thrush-like birds associate and feed with the missel
thrush in our summer pastures, which I suspect to be solitary
starlings ; but, wild and wary like them, they admit no ap-
proach to verify the species ; and they appear likewise to fol-
low and mix with this bird, when it visits us in autumn, to
gather the berries of the yew^ and the mountain ash. I am not
certain where it passes its winter season, but apprehend it
mingles in the large flights of the common species. It returns
to our pastures, however, for a short period in the spring, in
small parties of six or ten individuals. "" Now, if this state-
ment be correct, if a plain-coloured, unspotted Starling, appears
in spring in the pastures, it is undoubtedly of a different species
from the common, for the young of that acquires the plumage
of the adult in August and September of its first year. Surely
all doubts could easily be solved, by shooting a few spring
specimens; but I fear the solitary starling will no more
be forthcoming than the small thrush so much talked of in
Loudon's Magazine, of which, although very abundant, not a
fragment could ever be produced — for this reason, I apprehend,
that it was merely the Redwing. " The common stare, w^hen
disturbed, rises and alights again at some distance, most gene-
rally on the ground ; but the brown starling settles frequently on
some low bush, or small tree, before it returns to its food. I
know of no description that accords so well with our bird as
that in Bewick's Supplement, excepting that the legs of those
wdiich I have seen are of a red brown colour, the bill black,
and the lower mandible margined with white ; but age and
sex occasion many changes in tints and shades. This species
possesses none of those beauties of plumage so observable in the
common starling; and all those fine prismatic tintings that
play and wander over the feathers of the latter, are wanting in
the former. Its whole appearance is like that of a thrush,
but it presents even a plainer garb ; its browns are more dusky
and weather-beaten ; and for the beautiful mottled breast of
the throstle, it has a dirty white and a dirtier brown. I

SPOTTED STARLING. 609

scarcely know any bird less conspicuous for beauty than the
solitary thrush : it seems like a bleached, way-worn traveller,
even in its youth." It is only in its youth that the " solitary
starling,'' which by the above account associates with its
neighbours in small flocks, and even joins the large flocks of
the Spotted Starling, has this bleached appearance, for in less
than four months after its birth it is splendent with blue and
green. It is clear that Mr. Knapp, like many other observers,
has not compared the supposed species with those allied to it,
and that in short his Turdus solitarius, is neither a Turdus
nor a solitary bird, nor even a species at all, but simply a
young Starling, which, contrary to nature, and therefore to
truth, he has made to retain its sober and dull youthful plu-
mage all the winter and longer. Mr. Jenyns^ in his British
Vertebrate Animals, alleges that " the perfect plumage is pro-
bably not attained till the third year ;" but this also is incor-
rect, for the bird assumes the dark brilliantly glossed and
spotted plumage at its first moult, as I know from obser-
vation.

Progress toward Maturity. — The changes that take place
in the plumage, as the bird advances in age, are not remark-
able, the feathers becoming narrower, more pointed, and with
their terminal spots smaller, so that in the males the latter
entirely disappear from the head and fore-neck. Specimens ob-
tained in spring or in summer shew in a remarkable manner
the wearing of the edges and tips, and in them the white spots
are more or less obliterated.

K r

610

THREMMAPHILUS. COW-BIRD.

The birds of which this family is composed are intermediate
between the Starlings and the Grakles. Some of them also
approach very near to the Thrushes.

Bill of moderate length, or rather short, moderately stout,
nearly straight, compressed towards the end ; the upper man-
dible with its outline slightly declinate and convex, the ridge
narrowed at the base, the nasal cavity being very large, the
edges sharp and rather inflected, with a slight notch close to
the slightly decurved tip ; the lower mandible with a long
rather acute angle, its crura rather broad and sloping outwards,
the dorsal outline straight, the edges sharp. The gape-line
ascends at the base, and is then direct.

Internally both mandibles are concave, with a central pro-
minent line ; the palate straight, rather narrow, sloping up-
wards at the sides. The characters of the digestive organs are
unknown to me.

The eyes are rather small, the eyelids fringed with very
small feathers, and having a very narrow crenate margin ; in
some species there is a bare space on the side of the head, in-
cluding the lower eyelid. Aperture of the ear roundish, of
moderate size. Nostrils elliptical, oblique, open, with an arched
horny operculum, and placed in the fore part of the long nasal
groove, which is covered with slender feathers, curved back-
wards.

The feet are moderately stout ; the tarsus rather short, stout,
compressed, with seven anterior scutella, and two longitudinal
plates forming a thin edge behind. The toes four ; the first

THREMMArHILUS. COW-BIRD. 611

stouter, directed backwards, and of about the same length as
the second and fourth, the third considerably longer ; all covered
above with large scutella, the first with nine, the second with
ten, the third w4th thirteen, the fourth with eleven ; rather
flat and granulated beneath ; the fourth united to the third as
far as the second joint. The claws are rather long, moderately
arched and stout, much compressed, acute, their sides flat and
obscurely grooved.

The plumage is moderately full . The feathers along the
nasal groove are very narrow, pointed, and curved backwards.
The wings are of moderate length, rather pointed, the first
quill extremely small, being about a sixth of the length of
the second, wdiich is generally a little shorter than the third,
the fourth slightly shorter, the rest graduated ; primary quills
ten, narrowed towards the end ; secondary generally nine, broad,
all rounded, the inner slightly emarginate. The tail is of
moderate length, or rather short, slightly rounded.

The birds of which this genus is composed are of small or
moderate size, varying from that of a Common Thrush to that
of a Jackdaw. They are peculiar to the Old Continent. The
smaller species are closely allied to the Starlings on the one hand,
and to the Thrushes on the other, insomuch that the only spe-
cies which occurs in Britain has been referred by some to the
genus Sturnus, by others to Turdus. Were the species not
numerous, there would in fact be little reason for separating
some of the Thremmaphili from Gracula, and the rest from
Sturnus ; nor would it be easy to point out the distinctive
characters of these groups, although when a series of specimens
is inspected, and the separation made, one is pleased with the
result.

The species of this genus were first separated by M. Tem-
minck from the genera Gracula, Sturnus, and Turdus, and
received from him the common designation of Pastor (which
being translated is simply Shepherd.) In the third part of his
Manual, at p. 76, he states that objections have been made to
the name, " not without some reason,'' but excuses himself for
retaining it, because were the same strict criticism applied to
very many other generic names, the number to be suppressed

R r 2

612 THREMMAPHILUS COW-BIRD.

would not be small. This, it is obvious, is mere trifling. He
then suggests Pecuarius^ and informs us that M. Brehm uses
Boscis : — both ill-constructed names. I have therefore chosen
Thremmaphilus, a name compounded of ^^=fA/Ma, cattle, and p/Xog,
friend.

The Thremmaphili are represented as resembling the Star-
lings in their mode of life, and, according to M. Temminck,
" follow cattle even more assiduously, perch on their backs to
pick the acari and ticks attached to their skin, flock upon
dung ; and also feed on large insects, such as grasshoppers."
According to authors, they resemble the Starlings in their
habits, nestle in the holes of trees, in crevices of rocks, and on
old buildings, and inhabit various parts of Asia and Africa.
Some of them, as Thremmaphilus Pagodarum, are remarkable
for their vocal powers.

G13

THREMMAPHILUS ROSEUS. ROSE-COLOURED
COW-BIRD.

ROSE-COLOURED THRUSH, OR STARLING.

Tardus roseus. Linn. Syst. Nat. T. 294.

Turdus roseus. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 344.

Rose-coloured Ouzel or Thrush. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Martin roselin. Pastor roseus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 136. IIL 70.

Rose-coloured Pastor. Pastor roseus. Selb. lUustr. I. 343.

Pastor roseus. Rose-coloured Pastor. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 144.

3Iale ivith the feathers of the head elongated ; the plumage of
the body pale rose-coloured ; of the head and fore-neck black.,
glossed with purple ; the wings and tail brownish-black., glossed
with green. Female with the colours similar but duller^ the crest
inconspicuous. Young with the upper parts light brown., the
feathers edged with lohite.

Male. — The Rose-coloured Cow-bird is about the size of the
Spotted Starling, which it resembles in its proportions. As
it is not a native of this country, nor even a regular visitant,
individuals can very rarely be obtained for examination ; and
I am therefore obliged to take my descriptions from foreign
skins.

The bill is rather short, pentagonal, moderately stout, the
gape-line bent near the base ; the wings rather long ; the tail
rather short ; the feet stout ; the tarsi with seven anterior scales ;
the first toe With, nine, the second with ten, the third with
thirteen, the fourth with twelve ; the claws slightly arched,
rather slender, much compressed, acute.

The plumage is soft, and generally blended. The feathers
of the fore part of the head are short and pointed ; those of the
hind and upper parts linear, elongated into a decurved crest
about an inch long ; of the neck narrow ; of the body oblong.

614 THREMMAPHILUS ROSEUS.

The first quill is only three-fourths of an inch long ; the second
longest, being about the twelfth of an inch longer than the
third ; the rest graduated. In all the other species of the
genus which I have examined, the third quill is longest. The
secondary quills are seven, the outer abrupt and slightly emar-
ginate, the inner rounded. The tail is rather short and slightly
rounded.

According to M. Temminck, " the upper mandible of the
bill and the point of the lower are yellowish rose-colour, the
rest black ; the feet yellowish ; the iris deep bro-^ii.'"' Mr.
Selby makes the " upper mandible of the bill and the point of
the lower one reddish-orange, the rest black ; irides brown ;
legs flesh-red." Mr. Jenyns' account is to the same eifect,
w^ith the necessary variations. Judging from skins, I am in-
clined to doubt all this. In them the feet are reddish-brown,
as in the Starling ; the lower mandible is flesh-coloured, its
tip, and the gTcater part of the upper, light brown. Montagu
says the bill is " of a flesh colour, blackish at the base." I
apprehend that base has been accidentally substituted for tip.

The upper part of the head, including the crest, and the
fore-neck, are black, glossed with purplish-blue ; the hind part
of the neck greyish -black. The feathers of the body, and the
scapulars, are of a delicate pale rose-colour, or peach-blossom
red. The smaller w^ing-coverts are black, margined with grey ;
the larger coverts glossy black with green reflections, as are the
outer webs of the outer secondary quills, and both webs of the
three inner. The quills are brownish-black tinged with green.
The tail greenish-black and glossy, as are the upper and lower
tail-coverts, and the feathers of the legs.

Length to end of tail about 9 inches ; wing from flexure 5^ ;
tail 3 ; bill along the ridge 9i twelfths, along the edge of lower
mandible lj\ ; tarsus lj% ; hind toe ^V, its claw j^^ ; second
toe y\, its claw ^^ ; third toe 1, its claw 4^ twelfths ; fourth
toe 4i twelfths, its claw Si twelfths.

Female. — The female resembles the male, but has the colours
much duller ; the head and fore-neck greyish-black ; the back

ROSE-COLOURED COW-BIRD. 615

having the rose-colour obscured by brown ; that on the breast
less pure ; the occipital crest scarcely apparent.

Length to end of tail about 9 inches ; wing from flexure 5/^ ;
tail 2f ; bill along the ridge ^§; al(ing the edge of lower
mandible lj\.

Remarks. — This very beautiful bird, of which stragglers
have been seen at various times in many parts of England, is
said by authors to inhabit Africa and the warmer regions of
Asia, and to migrate irregularly into the south of Europe.
According to Wagler, " it lives on insects, especially locusts
and grasshoppers, as well as on seeds of various kinds ; often
mingles with flocks of Starlings, and perching on the backs of
cattle, extracts the larvae of oestri ; nestles in holes of trees and
of old buildings, laying six eggs."

616

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

FOURTH LESSON.

RETURN OF SPRING. ARRIVAL OF SUMMER VISITANTS. BIRD-NESTING,
DIRECTIONS FOR PRESERVING EGGS, NESTS, AND SKINS OF BIRDS. CON-
CLUSION.

The howl of the wintry blast among the leafless twigs has
ceased, and the gentle gales of the south fan the pendulous
catkins of the alders that overhang the stream, and steal over
the pale flowers of the primrose that cluster on the sunny bank.
The Fieldfare and Redwing, reminded by the increasing w^armth
of the woods and vales of their native land, prej)are to commence
their adventurous flight to the wild shores of the northern
ocean ; w^hile, to occupy their place, a multitude of small birds
from the southern regions are on wing. Already the Wheatear
and Willow Wren have arrived, and in a few days the vicinity
of the towns and villages will be enlivened by the Swallows,
which will seek their former haunts, and in due time repair
their mud-built tenements in the corners of the window^s.

It is a lovely April day. All over the pale blue sky are
scattered fleecy tufts of white vapour, buds of beauty are burst-
ing from the earth, and the distant waterfall fills the valley
wdth its soothing murmur. How delightful the scenery of
these wild hills, where from the rift of the lichen-crusted crag
juts out the rowan, whose elegantly pinnated foliage is fast
unfolding ; where, scattered along the broken steep, are seen
the white-stemmed birches, with their drooping twigs and
glistening leaflets ; while the hillocks are crowned with blos-
somed furze ; and the smooth w^aters of the deep lake send back
the wooded banks and the heath-clad heights !

High over head wheels in wanton mazes the joyous Snipe,
piping its singular song, and anon drumming on tremulous
wing, as it shoots aslant. The shrill scream of the Curlew is

BIRD-NESTING. 617

responded to by the wail of the Lapwing, and the melancholy
whistle of the Golden Plover. Already have these birds de-
posited their eggs on the moor, in which they have scraped a
slight hollow for the purpose of receiving them. Should you
come upon one of their nests, you will admire the arrangement
of its four pear-shaped and spotted eggs, the narrow ends of
which meet in the centre. Among the tufts of furze and sloe
hops the lively Ring Ouzel, newly arrived from the warmer
region in which it has passed the winter ; and by the pebbly
margin of the pool flits the delicate Sandpiper, whose body is
continually vibrating as if on a pivot.

It is the busy season of nature. What myriads of flowers
are silently expanding, what rills of vegetable juices are as-
cending the stems to the topmost twigs, what mighty pre-
parations, without confusion or bustle, are making to secure
an abundant produce of fruit and seed for the support of ani-
mal life ! How beautiful the brooding mystery of that happy
Raven, seated on her nest to impart vital warmth to her newly-
fledged young, while her mate croaks in joy on the projecting
crag, ready to sally forth and drive away the prowling hawk
that may chance to come near his ancient seat, the castle of
his sires. For weeks might one wander among those wooded
glens, finding each hour some fresh object to excite admiration,
and warm his^^bosom with the glow of gratitude toward the Su-
preme Power which out of nothing has called all these wonders
into being. But at present we are mere strolling naturalists,
bent on collecting nests and eggs. Hard-hearted mortals ! —
Nay, is it cruel to slaughter the unoffending sheep, hook the
deceived 'cod from the depths of the salt sea, scrape up the
" gentle oyster " from his stony bed, or hunt the innocent rab-
bit from his hole with the blood-thirsty ferret ? No, it will be
said, all this is necessary, and more ; but to gather eggs merely
for their shells is not only cruel but childish. You may with
propriety pick up those of the Lapwing and send them to
market, whence they will be transferred to the kitchen ; but
to collect them as objects of curiosity, as food for the mind, is
little better than sacrilege. Be this as it may, the ornitholo-
gist must gather eggs ; and therefore a few words as to their
preservation may not be amiss.

618 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY,

A collector can scarcely pick up with his own hands speci-
mens of the eggs of half the species that breed in this country,
some being rarely met with, or only in a particular district,
and others being to be found in rocks, on remote islands, or in
places not easily accessible. For example, how many British
ornithologists have robbed an Eagle's or an Osprey's nest ; who
of all those that have described the JNIagpie's eggs have seen
them in situ ; and who has laid his grasping hand on those of
the Raven, the Hooded Crow, the Chough, the Rock Dove,
the Ptarmigan, or the Stormy Petrel I To make a collection
of eggs, one must purchase from dealers, hire herds and boys,
and lay his friends under requisition. But let him also search
for himself, otherwise he will miss much knowledore.

The best way to empty an egg is to drill a hole near each
end with a triangular needle, which is to be gently twirled
between the finger and thumb. The contents are then blown
out with the mouth. A solution of gum injected with a small
syringe gives when dry strength to the shell, and prevents the
membrane from being destroyed by insects. I have seen egg-
shells almost filled with moths, and nothing is more common
than to find them rendered so brittle by the disappearance of
the film that they can scarcely be handled with safety. The
apertures may also be filled with wax, or a small bit of thin
paper may be pasted over them. Eggs must not be varnished
or gummed over, because their natural surface would thus be
altered. Nor should they be much washed, as the spots of
many are easily abraded. They are best kept in the drawers
of a cabinet, in pasteboard boxes, of a blue or other agree-
able colour, having cotton or chopped moss in the bottom.
Those of each species are of course to be kept apart, and the
whole may be arranged according to the ornithological system
adopted by the collector. Some write the name on the shell,
which is thus liable to be greatly disfigured ; others on slips
pasted upon the boxes ; and others on small cards attached to
them, or lying loose. Eggs kept in this manner form a beauti-
ful collection, which ought not to be exposed unnecessarily to
the light, otherwise the colours soon fade. Half a dozen
drawers of moderate size are sufficient to contain specimens of
all the British eggs that can be procured.

PRESERVATION OF EGGS AND SKINS. 619

As to nests, all that can be done with them is to preserve
them in cabinets or chests, loosely stitching with thread those
that are apt to be injured by being handled. It is only those
of the smaller birds that can be kept.

Then, for birds themselves, the spoils of which are necessary
to the ornithologist, there are various methods. All the parts
of a bird may be preserved, but few collectors care for more
than the skin and feathers. To skin a bird, lay it on its back,
with its head from you ; make an incision from the fore part of
the breast to near the tail ; separate the skin on each side, using
sometimes the blade and sometimes the handle of the scalpel ;
thrust forward the legs, which separate at the knee joint ; then
cut across the rump, and skin the back and sides, until you
come to the wdngs, which divide at the shoulder joint. Pull
the skin over the head and neck, cutting the membrane of the
ears, and scooping out the eyes ; then separate the body by
cutting the occiput across ; remove the brain and tongue, as
well as the muscles of the head and limbs ; and after clearing
away whatever fat or flesh may remain adhering to the skin,
anoint its whole inner surface with arsenical soap liberally ap-
plied. Wrap some tow round the bones of the legs and wings ;
thrust cotton into the cavity of the cranium and the orbits ; lay
the skin on the table ; fill it to the natural size or nearly so ;
stitch it up ; smooth down the feathers ; keep the wings in
place by a bandage ; and suspend by the legs, but not by the
nostrils, or lay it on a tray in an open place, until dry. Finally,
sprinkle over the plumage some pure rectified oil of turpentine ;
write on a small neatly cut piece of pasteboard the name, sex,
date, and place of the specimen ; affix it to the right tarsus, so
that it may lie across the body ; and deposit the preparation
in its place.

Skins may be kept in drawers of a cabinet, or in chests hav-
ing moveable trays of various depths. Two cabinets of mode-
rate size are sufficient to contain specimens of all the British
birds, of which, however, an individual can never make a com-
plete collection. For description, or for comparison with
descriptions, skins thus preserved are preferable to stuffed or
mounted specimens, and occupy comparatively little room. To
prevent the ravages of moths, they ought to be frequently in-

620 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

spected. The application of a little rectified oil of turpentine
I have always found a more effectual remedy than camphor,
spices, old tallow, or solution of corrosive sublimate. As to
the arsenical soap itself, it is not to be trusted to entirely, for
being applied only to the inner surface of the skin, although it
may preserve that part, it does not prevent moths from breed-
ing among the down.

The preparation of the skeleton, vascular system, digestive
organs, and other parts of birds, may be deferred until a more
convenient season, when, having before me some quires of good
foolscap unsullied by the pen, I may have the pleasure of resum-
ing my labours. In the meantime, " Good Pupil," go on and
l)rosper ; pursue the path on which you have entered ; and if,
when we meet again, you should have observed for yourself to
some purpose, we may examine those parts of the structure of
birds that have not been described in this volume, and com-
mence an anatomical collection. For the present, our labours
are ended. Happy shall I be to find that they have been the
means of exciting a taste for studies which are alike conducive
to the health of the body, and the improvement of the mind ;
and, above all, of cherishing that admiration of the wisdom
and goodness of God, which the contemplation of his works
cannot fail in some degree to inspire in every human intellect.
It is indeed a solemn thought, that this wondrous world in
which we live is the v/ork of that glorious Being whose eye is
on all our actions, who knows all our thoughts, who is within
and around us, whose we are, and in whose presence may we
all finally rejoice, when the small vanities of sublunar existence
have vanished for ever ; when the proud philosopher, who knew
the names of ten thousand animals, and looked down with con-
tempt upon him who could never succeed in gaining the
applause of his fellows, or who never tried to gain it, shall
shrink into his own utter insignificance, and confess that the
humble Christian, who held on " the even tenor of his way,""'
careless alike of censure or praise, chose indeed the better part.

621

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES ILLUSTRATTVE
OF THE ORDERS, FAMILIES, AND GENERA.

The objects are represented half the natural size •

Plate VI. Digestive Organs of the Brown Ptarmigan, Lagopus

scoticus.

Fig. 1. Alimentary Canal, Trachea,
Heart and Liver.

a, the tongue.

h, b, hyoid bones.

b, e, oesophagus.

c, d, crop.
/, gizzard.

g, h, i, duodenum.
ff, h, i, j, k, intestine.
a, m, trachea.

Fig. 2. Coeca and part of Intestine.

a, b, part of the intestine, including its
extremity, b, near which the ureters
are seen to enter.

c, the point at which the coeca come
off.

c» d, e,f, g, h, the two coeca, narrower
at their commencement, then cylin-
drical, marked with about seven
longitudinal white bands, and ter-
minating in mammillar points, g, h.

Fig. 3. Lower part of (Esophagus, and
Gizzard.

a, oesophagus.

b, proventriculus.

c, d, e,f, g, gizzard.

c, upper or anterior muscle.

d, e, lateral muscles.
/, tendinous space.
g, lower muscle.

h, intestine.

Fig. 4. Gizza^'d and Proventriculus laid
open.

a, part of oesophagus laid open.

b, proventriculus laid open. The glan-

dules are seen in the section, and
their orifices on the inner surface.

c, gizzard laid open.

d, e, lateral muscles.

f, outer or muscular coat.

g, middle coat.
h, inner coat.

i, cylindrical mass of food.

Plate VII. Digestive Organs of the Rock Dove, Columba Livia.

Fig. 1. Alimentary Canal of a Wild Rock

Dove,
a, the bill.

^) C'tf ffi oesophagus, extremely dilated
at its upper part.

d, e, crop, transverse, and somewhat
contracted in the middle.

/, continuation of oesophagus, very nar-
row.

g, proventriculus.

622

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

k, i,j, k, I, gizzard.

h, upper muscle.

i,j, lateral muscles.

k, lower muscle.

/, tendon.

m, w, o, duodenal fold of intestine.

p, q, r, continuation of intestine.

Fig. 2. Section of Proventriculus.

Fig. 3. Stomach and Proventriculus of
another individual, seen from behind.

g, proventriculus.

h, upper muscle of gizzard.

i,j, lateral muscles.

k, lower muscle.

/, tendon.

m, commencement of intestine.

Fig. 4. Terminal portion of Intestine,

and Coeca.
a, b, intestine,
c, d, coeca.

Alimentary Canal of Tame
Pigeon.

Fig. 5.

a, bill.

b, head.

b, c, d, e, crop, of extreme size, and
commencing at the fauces.

f, continuation of oesophagus.

g, proventriculus.
h, i,j, k, I, gizzard.
h, upper muscle.

i, j, lateral muscles.

k, lower muscle.

I, tendon.

rn, n, o, p, q, r, intestine.

Fig. 6. Inyier surface of Crop.

Fig. 7. Terminal portion of Intestine

a, b, intestine,
e, d, coeca.

Plate VIII. Digestive Organs of Huskers, Deglubitores,

Fig. 1. Alimentary Canal of the House
Sparroiv, Passer domesticus.

a, the bill.

b, crop, unilateral.
a, c, d, oesophagus.
d, proventriculus.
«>/» 9y gizzard.
€,f, lateral muscles.
g, lower muscle.

h, ifj, k, I, m, n, intestine.
/, coeca.

Fig. 2. Alimentary Canal of the Corn
Bunting, Emberiza Miliaria.

a, b, c, d, oesophagus.

b, crop, or dilatation of oesophagus.

d, proventriculus.
<?» /. ff> gizzard.
e,f, lateral muscles.
g, lower muscle.

h, i,j, k, I, m, n, intestine.
I, coeca.

Fig. 3. Alimentary Canal of the Green
Linnet, Fringilla Chloris.

a, the bill.

a, b, c, d, oesoijhagu?.

b, crop.

e, f g, gizzard.

e, f, lateral muscles.

g, lower muscle.

h, i,j, k, I, m, n, intestine.

/, coeca.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

(323

Fig. 4. Alimentary Canal of the Com-
mon European Crossbill, Loxia
etiropcpa.

a, bill.

a, b, c, d, oesophagus.

b, crop.

d, proventriculus.
«» /> ff> gizzard.
e,f, lateral muscles.
g, lower muscle.

h, i,j, Jc, I, m, w, intestine.
/, coeca.

Fig. 5. Alimentary Canal of the Field
Lark, Alauda arvensis.

a, the head.

b, c, d, oesophagus, differing from the

above, in having no crop.

e, /, 9, gizzard.

h, hj, k, I, m, n, intestine.
/, coeca.

Fig. 6. Head of the Corn Bunting,
Emberiza Miliaria,

Fig. 7. Palate of Corn Buntitiy.

Fig. 8. Head of the Green Linnet,
Linaria Chloris.

Fig. 9. Palate of Green Linnet.

Fig. 10. Proventriculus and Gizzard
of the Chaffinch.

Fig. 11. Proventriculus and Gizzard
of the Yelloiv Bunting.

Plate IX. Digestive Organs of Wanderers, Vagatores.

Fig. 1. Alimentary Canal of the Car-
rion Crow, Corvus Corone.

a, the tongue.

b, b, hyoid bones.

b, c, d, oesophagus, wide, but without

crop.
e,f, trachea.
g, bifurcation of trachea.
h, heart.
i,j, liver.
Is, lung.
/, stomach.
m, n, 0, p, q, intestine.

Fig. 2. Stomach of the Carrion Croiv.

a, a, proventriculus.

b, c, d, e, stomach.
b, c, lateral muscles.

d, lower muscle.

e, tendon.

Fig. 3. Coeca and Rectum of the Car-
rion Croiv.

a, b, part of intestine.

c, d, coeca.

Fig. 4. Alimentary Canal of the Jay^

Garrulus Glandarius.
fl, the tongue.

b, b, hyoid bones.

b, c, d, oesophagus.

d, proventriculus.

e,y, g, stomach, round, compressed, its
muscular coat not separated into
distinct muscles,

g, large tendinous space.

h, i, j, duodenal fold of intestine.

k, I, m, continuation of intestine.

Fig. 5. Coeca and Rectum of the Jay,

a, b, part of intestine.

c, d, coeca.

624

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Fig. 6. Alimentary Canal of the Spot-
ted Starling, Sturnus guttatus.

a, the tongue.

b, b, hyoid bones.
b, c, d, oesophagus.
d, proventriculus.

e,f, stomach, like that of the Jay.

g, h, i, duodenal fold of intestine.
j, k, continuation of intestine.

Fig. 7. Coeca and Rectum of the
Starling.
a, b, intestine,
c, d, coeca.

-.,^

PXAXJE TI

INDEX TO THE SPECIES DESCRIBED.

The Approved Names only are employed, the Synonymes and Provincial Names

being excluded.

Black Grouse, = Page

Black-headed Thistlefinch,
Black-throated Grosbeak,
Blue-backed Dove,
Blue-^dnged Jay,
B rambling,
Brown Ptarmigan,
Brown Linnet,
Bullfinch, Common,
Bunting, Corn,

Cirl,

Ortolan,

Reed,

Yellow,

Carduelis elegans, -

spinus.

Carrion Crow,
Chaffinch,

Chough, Long-billed,
Cirl Bunting,

Coccothraustes atrogularis,
Colin, Virginian,
Columba Livia,
■ — - CEnas,

Palumbus,

Turtur,

Common Bullfinch,

European Crossbill,

Magpie,

— Pheasant,
QuaU,

Cow-bird, Rose-coloured,
Corn Bunting,
Corvus Corax,

145
400
356
287
576
385
169
371
407
440
450
457
453
445

393
400
516
329
587
450
356
528
268
287
259
291
407
417
562
114
233
613
440
489

Corvus Cornix, Page

Corone,

frugilegus,

Monedula, -

Cotuniix dactj'lisonans.
Crossbill, Common European,

Parrot,

Crow, Carrion,

Hooded,

Cushat,

Dove, Blue-backed,

Ringed,

Rock,

Turtle,

White-backed,

Emberiza Cirlus,

Citrinella,

Hortulana,

Miliaria,

Schoeniculus,

European Crossbill,

Finch,

Chaff,
Mountain,

Fregilus Graculus, -
Fringilla Coelebs,
montifringilla,

Garrulus Glandarius,
Greenfinch,
Green Linnet,
Grey Partridge,
Ptarmisan,

529
516
535
552
233
417
429
516
529
259

287
259
268
291

268

450
445
457
440
453
417

329
335
587
329
335

5T6

365
365
218

187

626

INDEX TO SPECIES.

Goldfinch,

Grosbeak, Black-throated,
Grouse, Black,

Red,

Wood,

Hawfinch,
Hooded Crow,
House Sparrow,

Jackdaw,

Jay, Blue-whiged,

Lagopiis cinereus,
— — — scoticus,
Lapland Lark-Bunting,
Lark-Bunting, Lapland, •

• Snow,

Linaria borealis,

cannabina,

Chloris,

flavirostris,

■ — minor.

Linnet, Brown,

■ Green,

Mealy,

Mountain,

Smaller Redpoll,

Loxia europsea,

Pytiopsittacus,

Magpie, Common,
Mealy Redpoll,
Mountain Finch,
^— — — Linnet, -

Nucifraga Caryocatactes,
Nutcracker,

Ortolan Bunting,
Ortyx virginiana.

Partridge, Grey,

Red,

Parrot Crossbill,
Passer domesticus,
montanus,

Paffe 393
356
145
169
138

356
529
340

552

576

187
169
469
469
460
888
371
365
379
383

371
563
388
379
383
417
429

562
388
335
379

583
583

457
228

218
215
429
340
351

Perdix cinerea,

rubra,

Phasianus colchicus.
Pheasant, Common,
Pica melanoleuca,
Plectrophanes lapponica,

■ nivalis.

Ptarmigan, Brown,

Grey,

Pyrrhula pileata, -

Quail, Common,

Raven,

Redpoll, Smaller,

Mealy,

Red Grouse,

Partridge,

Red-fronted Thistlefinch,

Reed Bunting,

Ringed Dove,

Rock Dove,

Rook,

Rose-coloured Cow-bird,

Siskin,

Smaller Redpoll Linnet,

Snow Lark-Bunting,

Snowflake,

Sparrow, House,

Tree,

Starling, Spotted,

Tetrao Tetrix,

Urogallus,

Thremmaphilus roseus,
Thistlefinch, Black-headed,

Red-fronted,

Tree Sparrow,
Turtle Dove, -
Twite, -

Virginian CoUn,

WTiite-backed Dove,
Wood Grouse,

Yellow Bunting,

Paffe 218
215
114
114
562
469
460
169
187
407

233

498
383
388
169
215
393
453
259
268
535
613

400
383
460
460
340
351
595

145
138
613
400
393
351
291
379

228

268
138

445

GENERAL INDEX.

Aberdevine, 400.

Accidental visitants, 242.

Aerial Birds, 16, 17.

Affinities, fanciful, 243.

Alp, 407.

Amphibious Birds, 17.

Anatomical knowledge, its importance,

84, 85.
Aquila Chrysaetus, skeleton of, PI. I.
Arrangement proposed, 1 6.
Aves ambulatorise, 17.

grallatoriae, 18.

natatoriae, 18.

volatoriae, 17.

Barbules of feathers, 72.

Barbs, 72.

Bat hunting, 298.

Beauly Frith, 476.

Beech-finch, 329.

Bician, 379.

Birds of Badenoch, 475.

Cromarty Frith, 479.

in the Hebrides, 308.

in winter near Edinburgh, 301.

Birds, ^^dnter, 297, 301, 308, 475.

British, mimber of, 92.

Biadhtach, 498.

Black Bonnet, 453.
Black Cock, 145.

Grouse, 131, 145.

Neb, 516.

Black-headed Bunting, 453.

Thistlefinch, 400.

Black-throated Grosbeak, 324, 356.

Blue-backed Dove, 254, 287.

Bohemian Pheasant, 114, 121.

Blue-winged Jay, 576.

Botany, useful to the ornithologist, 91.

Brambling, 335.

Brambiing Finch, 323, 335.

Brain of Sparrow, 4 8.

Bran, 516.

Breac-ant-sil, 329.
Brown Hen, 145.
Brown Linnet, 324, 371.

Ptarmigan, 132, 169.

Buidhein, 445.
Buidheag-bhuachair, 445.
Bullfinch, 326, 405.
Bunting, 436, 438.

Buntings and allied species, 433.

Bunthig-Crow, 529.

Bunting, Black-headed, 436, 453.

Cirl, 436, 450.

Corn, 436, 440.

Ortolan, 436, 457.

Yellow, 436, 445.

Calman-choille, 259.

fiadhaich, 268.

Cantatores, 18.
Capercailzie, 138.
Capul-coille, 138.
Carduelis, 325, 391.
Carduelis elegans, 325, 393.

spinus, 325, 400.

Carrion Crow, 492, 516.
Cathag, 552.
Cearc-fhraoich, 169.
liath, 145.

thomain, 218.

Central parts of Scotland, 473.
Chaffinch, 323, 329.
Chaffy, 329.
Chauk-daw, 587.
Chink, 453.
Chough, 493, 585.
Chough, Long-billed, 587.
Cirl Bunting, 436, 450.
Classification, remarks on, 3.
Coal-hood, 407.
Coally-hood, 407.
Cribratores, 18.
Cornish Chough, 587.
, Daw, 587.

628

GENERAL INDEX.

Cornwall Kae, 587.

Coccothraustes, 324, 353.

Coccothraustes atrogularis, 324, 356.

Cock of the Woods, 138.

Coileach dubh, 145.

Coileach-fraoich, 169.

Coileach-choille, 138.

Colin, 133, 226.

Colin, Virginian, 133, 228.

Columba, 255.

Columba CEnas, 254, 287.

Li via, 254, 268.

Palumbus, 254, 259.

Turtur, 254, 291.

Columba Livia, wing of, PL II. III.
Columbin?e, 249.
Common Birds in Scotland, 244.
Common Bunting, 440.

Bullfinch, 326, 407.

Grosbeak, 356.

Magpie, 492.

Nutcracker, 493.

Partridge, 218.

Pheasant, 114.

Quail, 133,233.

Conirostral Birds, 311.
Corby Crow, 516,
Corvinse, 487.
Corvus, 491, 494.
CorvusCorax, 491, 498.

Comix, 492, 529.

Corone, 492, 516.

. — frugilegus, 492, 535.

Monedula, 492.

Corn Bunting, 436, 440.

Coverts, 249.

Creumhach, 535.

Crow, 491, 498, 529, 494, 516, 535.

Crow, Bunting, 529.

Carrion, 516.

Corby, 516.

Dun,'529.

Gor, 516.

Grey, 529.

Grey-backed, 529.

Hooded, 529.

— — Red-legged, 587.
Crows and allied genera, 483.

and allied species, 487.

Cromartv Frith, 476.
Crossbill, 326, 414.
Crossbill, American, 431.

, common European, 417.

^ Parrot, 429.

Coturnix, 133,231.

Coturnix dactylisonans, 133, 233.

Cursitores, 18.

Cushat, 254, 259.

Cushie Doo, 259.

Daw, 552.

Daw, Cornish, 587.
Deargan-choille, 407.
Deglubitores, 18, 101,311.
Dermal system, 67.
Devil's Bird, 445.
Digestion, process of, 59.
Digestive Organs, 52.

Brown Ptarmigan, PI. VI.

Carrion Crow, PI. IX.

Corn Bunting, PI. VIII.

Crossbill, PI. VII.

Deglubitores, PI. VIII.

Domestic Dove, PI. VII.

Green Linnet, PI. VIII.

Jav, PI. IX.

Lark, PI. VIII.

Peregrine Falcon, 52, PI. IV,

Rock Dove, PL VII.

Snowy Owl, 61, PL V.

SparroAv, PL VIII.

Starling, PL IX.

Dove, 255.

Dove, Blue-backed, 287.

Rock, 268.

Turtle, 291.^

White-backed, 268.

, Wood, 287.

Down, 76.

Downy Feathers, 76.

Dun Crow, 529.

Eagle, Golden, skeleton of, 24, PL L

Ear, 50.

Edinburgh, Birds around, 301,

Eggs, mode of preserving, 618.

Emberiza, 436, 438.

Emberiza Cirlus. 436, 450.

Citrinella, 436, 445.

Hortulana, 436, 457.

Miliaria, 436, 440.

Schoeniculus, 436, 453.

Emberizanae, 433.
Epidermis, 67.
Expectatores, 18.
Excursores, 17.
Exploratores, 1 8.
External parts of birds, 86.
European Crossbill, 326, 417.
Eye, 50.

Face, 22.

Falco peregrinus, digestive organs of, 95.

PL IV.
Fanciful affinities, 243.
Feanag, 529.
Feathers, general description of, 67.

nomenclature of, 81.

Filaments, 78,
Filamentules, 78.
Feet, 90.
Fregilus, 493.

GENERAL INDEX.

629

Fregilus Graculus, 493, 587.
Fidheach, 498.
Finch, 323, 327.
Finch Chaff, 323, 329.

Brambling, 323, 335.

Gold, 325, 393.

Green, 324, 3G5.

Mountain, 323, 335.

Flake-feathers, 79.
Flight of Birds, 238.
Fregilus, 585.
Fringilla, 323, 327.
Fringilla coelebs, 393, 329.

montifringilla, 323, 335.

French Partridge, 215,

Gall-bladder, 65.

Gallinaceous Birds, 103.

Garrulus, 492.

Garrulus Glandarius, 492, 576.

Gealag-bhuachair, 440.

Gealbhag, 340.

Gemitores, 18, 100, 249.

Geology useful to the Ornithologist, 9 1 .

Goldfinch, 325, 393.

Goldie, 393.

Goldspink, 393.

Goudspink, 393.

Gorcock, 169.

Gorcrow, 516.

Grey Crow, 529.

Grey-backed Crow, 529.

Grey Hen, 145.

Linnet, 371.

Ptarmigan, 132, 187.

Partridge, 133, 218.

Greater Redpoll, 371.

Bullfinch, 411.

Green Linnet, 324, 365.

Lintie, 365.

Greenfinch, 365,
Green Grosbeak, 365.
Grosbeak, 324, 353, 356.
Grosbeak, Black-throated, 324, 356.
Grouse, 131, 134.

Grouse, Black, 131.
. Red, 169.

Wood, 131.

Guernsey Partridge, 215.

Hair-like feathers, 79.

HaAvfinch, 356.

Head of birds, 20.

Heart, 65.

Heather-lintie, 379.

Hebrides, birds in winter in, 308,

Heedy-craw, 529.

Horse-finch, 329.

Hoddy, 516.

Hooded-crow, 492, 529.

House-sparrow, 323, 340.

Huskers, 3J1.
Ian ant'sneachd, 460.
Jav pie, 516.
_1 Pyet, 576.
Immersores, 17.
Jackdaw, 492, 552.
Jay, 492, 576,

Kae, 552.
KiUigrew, 587.

Lagopus, 132, 165.
Lagopus cinereus, 132, 187.

scoticus, 132, 169.

Lapland Finch, 469.

Lark-bunting, 437, 469.

Lark-bunting, 436, 458.
Lasair-choille, 393.
Legs, 31.

Lesser Redpoll, 383.
Linaria, 324, 363.
Linaria borealis, 325, 388.

cannabina, 324, 371.

Chloris, 324, 365.

. flavirostris, 325, 379.

minor, 325, 383.

Linnet, 324, 363.
Linnet, BroAATi, 324, 371.

Green, 324, 365.

Mealy, 388.

— Mountain, 325, 379.

Linuceus's System, 10.

Lintie, 371.

Liver, 64.

Loxia, 326, 414.

Loxia europaea, 326, 417.

Pytiopsittacus, 326, 429.

Magpie, 492, 559.
Mealy Redpoll, 325, 388,
Mersatores, 18.
Migratory birds, 241.
Moor-fowl, 169.
Moor-cock, 169.
Moor-hen, 169.
Moulting, 83.
Mountain Finch, 323, 335.

Linnet, 325, 379.

Sparrow, 351.

Muir-fowl, 169.
Muscles of birds, 33.

Nervous System, 48.

Nests, 618'.

Nomenclatm-e, remarks on, 3.

Northern Colin, 228.

Nope, 407.

Nostrils, 51.

Nucifraga, 492, 581.

Nucifraga Caryocatactes, 493, 583.

Nutcracker, 492, 581.

630

GENERAL INDEX.

Nutcracker, Common, 583.

Oat-fowl, 460.

Orders, essential characters of, 99.

Ornithologist, character of an, 239.

Ortolan Bunting, 436, 457.

Ortyx, 133, 226.

Ortyx virginiana, 1 33, 228.

Palpatores, 18.
Pancreas, 64.
Parrot CrossbiU, 326, 429.
Partridge, 132,211.
Partridge, Grev, 133,218.

Red-legged, 132, 215.

Partridges and allied genera, 127.

Passer, 323, 338.

Passerinse, 319.

Passer domesticus, 323, 340.

montanus, 324, 351.

Pelvis, 31.
Perdicinae, 127.
Perdix, 132, 211.
Perdix cinerea, 133, 218.

rubra, 132, 215.

Peregrine Falcon, digestive organs of, 52.

PI. IV.
Permanent species, 242.
Phasianus, 109.
Phasianus colchicus, 114.
Pheasant, 109.
Pheasant, Bohemian, 121.

Common, 114.

.. Ring-necked, 119.

Pica, 492, 559.
Pica melanoleuca, 492.
Pigeons or Doves, 249,
Pigeon, Wood, 259.

Rock, 268.

Wild, 268.

Pine Forests of Badenoch, 475.
Pine Bullfinch, 326,411.

Grosbeak, 411.

Pink, 329.

Plectrophanes, 436, 458.
Plectrophanes lapponica, 437, 469.

nivalis, 437, 460.

Plumage, 67.

Plumule, 75.

Pope, 407.

Practical ornithology, 237, 295, 473,616.

Primarv qviills, 80.

Ptarmigan, 132, 165, 187.

Ptarmigan, Brown, ] 32.

Grey, 132.

Pyrrhula, 326, 405.

Pyrrhula Enucleator, 326,411.

-. pileata, 326, 407.

Quail, 133, 231.

Quail, Common, 133, 233.

Quest, 259.

Quills, PI. II. 76, 80, 89.

Raptores, 17.
Rasores, 17, 100, 103.
Raven, 491, 498.
Red Game, 169.

Grouse, 169.

— . Ptarmigan, 169. ''
Red-hoop, 407.
Red-legged Crow, 587.
Red-legged Partridge, 132, 215.
Redpoll, Mealy, 325, 388.

Smaller, 325, 383.

Reed Bunting, 436, 453.

Sparrow, 453.

Remarks on Classification and Nomen-
clature, 3.
Reptatores, 18.
Respiratory apparatus, 66.
Rete mucosum, 67.
Ribs, 26.
Ring Bird, 453.

Bunting, 433.

Dove, 259.

Ringed Dove, 254, 259.
Ring-necked Pheasant, 114, 119.

Turtle, 291.

Rocus, 535. j

Rock Dove, 254, 268.

Grouse, 187.

Pigeon, 268.

Rook, 492, 535.
Rose Linnet, 371.
Royston Crow, 529.

Salivary Glands, 64.
Scansores, 18.
Scapulars, 81.
Scrapers, 100, 103.
Screachag-choille, 576.
Secondary quills, 80.
Shaft of feather, 70.
Shilfa, 329.
Shelly, 329.
Shell-apple, 329.
Sheld-apple, 417.
Skeleton of Birds, 20.

Golden Eagle, 24, PL I.

Skin, 52, 67.

Skite, 445.

Siskin, 325, 400.

Skins of birds, mode of preserving, 618.

Skull of Birds, 21.

Smaller Redpoll, 325, 383.

Snow Bunting, 460.

Fowl, 460.

Snowflake, 437, 460.

Snow Lark-Bunting, 437, 460.

Snowy Owl, digestive organs of, 61, Pl.V.

Sparig, 440.

GENERAL INDEX.

031

Sparrow, 323, 338, 340.
Sparrow, House, 323, 340.

Tree, 324, 351.

Sparrows and allied species, 319.

Spine, 24.

Spink, .329.

Spoliatores, 18.

Starag, 52.0.

Stare, o05.

Starling, 593.

spotted, 592, 595.

Sternal apparatus, 27.
Sternum, 27.

of Golden Eagle, 27-

Black Grouse, 129.

Rock Dove, 252,

Sparrow, 321.

Stock Dove, 287.
Structure of Birds, 20.
Sturnus, 592, 593.
Stumus guttatas, 595.
Summer \lsitants, G17.
Svmia nvctea, digestive organs of. 96,
■pi. V.'
Svstem of Linnaeus, 10.

Yieillot, 12.

Systems of ornithology imperfect, 80.

Tail, muscles of the, 44.
Tarmachan, 187.
Tegiimentary System, 67.
Terrestrial Birds, 17.
Tertian- quHls, 80.
Tetrao, 131, 134.
Tetrao Tetrix, 131, 145.

Urogallus, 131, 138,

Thistlefinch, .*i25, .391. ^

Thistlefinch, Black-headed, 400.

Red-fronted, 393.

Toes, 32.

Tonv Hoop, 407.

Trachea, fiO.

Tree Sparrow, 324. 351.

Thorax, 26.

Tweed, Vallev of the, 299.

Twite, 325, 379.

Tube of feather, 69.

Turtle, 291.

Turtle Dove, 291, 254.

Urifiatores, 18.

Vagatores, 18, 101, 483.
Vertebrce, 24.
Vieillot's System, 12.
Virginian Colin, 133, 228.

Partridge, 228.

Volitatores, 17.

Wanderers, 483.

Wandering Naturalists, 481.

Water Sparrow, 453.

Webs of feathers, 72.

Wild Pigeon, 268.

Windpipe, 66.

Wing, bones of the, 29, 33, PL IIL

museles of the, 35, Bl. III.

Wild Dove, 268.
Winter excursion, 295.
White-backed Dove, 254, 268.
White Game, 187.

Grouse, 187.

Whin Linnet, 371.
Wood Dove, 287.
Wood Grouse, 131, 138.
Pigeon, 259.

Yellow Bunting, 436, 445.

Hammer, 445.

Yeldring, 445.

Yite, 445.

Yowley, 445.

Yeldring, 445.
Yeldrock, 446.
Yoldring, 445.
Yolkring, 446,

Zootomy, the basis of classification, 8:

END OF VOLUME FIRST.

W. BLP..««f;!iS, fklSTEK, EDINBLKOM.

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