FOR THE PEOPLE

FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

HISTORY

ov

BRITISH BIRDS,

INDIGENOUS AND MIGRATORY.

HISTORY

OF

BRITISH BIRDS,

INDIGENOUS AND MIGRATORY :

INCLUDING

THEIR ORGANIZATION, HABITS, AND RELATIONS ;

REMARKS ON CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE;

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF BIRDS, AND

OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE TO PRACTICAL

ORNITHOLOGY. ^^ ^ ^ ^^ ^)

ILLUSTRATED BY

NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

BY WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY, A.M., F.R.S.E.

MEMBER OF THE WERNERIAN NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OP EDINBURGH, OF THE NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA, OF THE LYCEUM OF NEW YORK, OP THE

LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH CAROLINA, OF THE

ROYAL PHYSICAL AND CUVIERIAN SOCIETIES, &C.; AND

CONSERVATOR OF THE MUSEUM OP THE ROYAL

COLLEGE OP SURGEONS OF EDINBURGH.

VOL. II.

CANTATORES, SONGSTERS.

LONDON :
PRINTED FOR SCOTT, WEBSTER, AND GEARY,

36, CHARTERHOUSE SQUARE.

1839.

C2D

W. BUn.NESS, PRINTER, EDtSBVRQH.

PREFACE.

This volume contains descriptions of fifty species of Birds,
constituting the ordinal group which I have named Cantatores
or Songsters, and disposed into the seven families of Myrmo-
therinse, Turdinse, Alaudinae, Motacillinse, Saxicolinse, Syl-
viange, and Parinse.

In again presenting to the public some of the results of my
long-continued examination of the habits and structure of
the Birds of Great Britain, I may be permitted to offer a
few retrospective remarks. The Introduction to the First
Volume contained, among other matter, a description of the
skeleton, the organs of flight, and the digestive apparatus of
birds, rendered necessary by the neglect of anatomy evinced by
our most esteemed ornithological writers, who in their treatises
have either expressly maintained, or practically shewn it to be
their opinion, that the inspection of the external parts is a
sufficient guide to zoological knowledge. In avoiding this error,
as I cannot but esteem it, I have not fallen into the opposite
one of considering an acquaintance with the internal structure
of animals alone necessary to their historian, but have entered
into details as to external form, and the texture and colours of
the cutaneous system, much more extended, and, if my efforts
have been successful, not less accurate, than those which I
have met with in any of the works alluded to, and have pre-
sented numerous facts relative to the habits and economy of the

ii PREFACE.

different species. The varieties exhibited in the mode of flying,
the differences of manners, the dispersion and migration of birds,
were introduced to notice in chapters intervening between the
methodical descriptions of the orders under which I thought it
expedient to arrange the species. In recalling these circum-
stances to mind my object is simply to connect the past with
the present, and direct the attention of the reader to the con-
tinuity of plan, and similarity of execution, exhibited by the
two volumes ; not certainly to boast of my performances, which
I am convinced require not a little of that kind of indulgence
which the candid and considerate critic is always ready to ap-
ply to the productions of an artist who honestly and earnestly,
although not always successfully, strives to represent nature as
she aj)pears to him.

In the present work, as in others, and in all my papers pub-
lished in various journals, I have endeavoured to adapt the
style to the subject, rendering it compact and precise when en-
gaged with technical descriptions, copious and florid when
treating of the actions and haunts of birds, abrupt or continuous,
direct or discursive, harsh or harmonious, according to the
varying circumstances of the case. My aim has been to amuse
as well as to instruct, to engage the affections as well as to en-
lighten the understanding, to induce the traveller on the road
to science to make occasional excursions tending to raise his
spirits, and to shew to the public that Ornithology is not neces-
sarily so repulsive as some of its votaries represent it.

Seated on the brow of this craggy cliff, with the glorious
ocean and the boundless firmament spread out before and around
him, who, that has a mind sensible to the beauties of creation,
could look down upon the shelf that holds the fierce nestlings
screaming over the bloody prey which their mother has just
laid before them, and commence a description of the Golden
Eagle in the " plain didactic style" recommended by those
whose frozen heart never thaws, whose imagination is torpid,
whose tuneless throat emits grave and measured croaks, but
can utter no song of joy and love and praise. Hearest thou
not that sweet strain which the lone thrush pours from the
birchen thicket on the hill side ? Does no chord in thy bosom

PREFACE. iii

vibrate in symphony I The dark waters of Loch Lagan wind
among the rugged capes, the bro^vn hills are heaped in massy
piles against the unclouded sky, on the sandy point stands the
patient heron watching its prey, and from yon bold headland
launches forth the long-winged osprey. Beautiful as these ob-
jects are, they at this moment interest you less than the melody
of the gentle Mavis. When the blast of winter howls in that
birch-clad valley, and heaves the billows of tbat now placid
lake, the shrill scream of the Erne and the hoarse croak of
the prowling Raven, might send a responsive thrill of savage
delight through your frame ; but on this lovely summer eve,
when the fragrance of the wild woods is wafted to you by the
dying breeze, and the sun descends behind Ben Nevis, shoot-
ing bands of softened light amid the gathering gloom of the
overhanging rocks, no sounds could so harmonize with the
scene as the murmur of the rippling brook, and the sweetly
modulated tones of the mountain thrush.

In one of those lovely vales of happy England, where
amidst orchards and corn-fields bounded by blossomed haw-
thorn and rows of tall elms, gleam cottages decked with roses
and honeysuckles, while the spire of the village church shoots
high above the beechen grove, who could listen without de-
light to the loud and mellow song of the dusky Merle, or the
melting melody of the peerless Nightingale. ^\"andering by
the still waters of some willow-skirted stream, on whose placid
bosom reposes the water-lily, we might gaze on the tiny war-
bler that from a top spray pours at intervals its curiously mo-
dulated song. See, in that patch of pasture land, skirted by
thickets of alder, is a brood of young water-hens accompanied
by their anxious mother ; and from the green corn has spruno-
on fluttering wings the heaven-seeking lark, from whose shrill
and continuously varied warble you catch the spirit of pure
cheerfulness by which it seems to be inspired.

Is there a man so dead to nature that, regardless of the leafy
woods, the green fields, the gliding brooks, the rugged rocks, and
the wave-washed shores, among which only can one study birds
to advantage, he gathers around him the spoils of eA-ery land,
arranges them into circles and groups which he imagines to be

ir ' PREFACE.

concentric, parallel, or diagonal, measures their bills and counts
their feathers, and having thus performed his task, chuckles
over it with the consciousness of his being a philosopher ? Let
him alone; you cannot kindle his heart with a spark of ethereal
fire ; but come along, and let us study nature wherever we find
her glories displayed. We cannot trace a bird without taking
note of the plants and knolls and crags among which it lives ;
and if it digresses ever in its search for food, so must we digress
in describing its actions.

To the adepts in systematic ornithological lore I have little
to say. I presume not to instruct you, cannot hope to amuse
you, and am destitute of the ambition of in any way pleasing
you. No man can more admire your ingenuity than I, or be
more sensible to your merits, more grateful for your good in-
tentions, or more ready to receive your instructions ; but the
book of nature is open to me as it is to you, and I will try to
read it without your guidance. To the lovers of living nature,
my friends and fellow students, I would say : let us go toge-
ther, talking by the way, imparting and receiving knowledge.
You who have but commenced your journey, and whom I may
without presumption consider as pupils^ I am persuaded may
with some advantage listen to my advice ; and from you who
have observed more carefully, and compared more strictly, the
objects of our mutual regard, I may learn much that will inte-
rest me. To all those who, from whatever motive, may be
pleased to peruse this work, I can only say that in it they will
fi.nd nothing but what I believe to be correct ; but there are
other books on the same subject, and I earnestly recommend to
them to compare with it Mr Selby's Illustrations, Mr Jenyns's
Manual of British Vertebrate Animals, Mr YarrelFs History
of British Birds, Mr Wood's British Songsters, Mr Mudie's
Feathered Tribes, and as many more as they may find it ex-
pedient to purchase. They all differ from each other, and
from this work, but all contain useful information, " setting
down," as Don Quixote saith, " the father, mother, country,
kindred, age, place and actions to a tittle, and day by day, of the
knight and knights of whom they treat," and therefore may be
consulted with advantage.

PREFACE. r

Many stars indeed have risen on the horizon of our ornitholo-
gical hemisphere, some to increase in brightness, others to twinkle
for a season and fade. At the present day there blaze in the south
enough to form a constellation whose mingling rays send over
the land light sufficient to enable the mousing owl to distinguish
its prey, and the benighted traveller to escape the perils of
crumbling crag, and quaking peat marsh. Mine too has ap-
peared amid the mists of Cairngorm, the haunt of the ptar-
migan and raven. There it glimmers in the north, now ob-
scured by the cold grey clouds that cling to the summits of the
mouldering cairns of red granite, bleached by the storms and
sunshine of six thousand years ; now sending a faint light
through a ragged break in the mists, now flaring with a
momentary effulgence, and anon fading into a feeble light.
Yes, there it is, struggling through the sullen vapours, twink-
ling, glimmering, glowing ; but its rays have been seen from the
plains, and some have hailed it from afar. Star of the north !
will thy course be toward the zenith ? Art thou a vapour
kindled to shed a feeble light on the land, to shoot oif into an
eccentric path, and be at length quenched in the foul waters of
human scorn ? Surely thou wilt not ever struggle amidst tem-
pests and darkness, but a blast from the Braeriach will sweep
those sullen clouds away, and leave thy path clear in the
heavens. Shine on, little star, and as thou risest higher, let thy
rays be brighter, and let " the traveller bless thy gentle light !"

But let us descend from the clouds, and cast our regards upon
the fields. " The winter is past, the rain is over and gone, the
flowers appear on the earth ; the time of the singing of birds is
come, and the voice of the turtle is heard in our land." Many
summers have passed since I first listened to those " native
wood-notes wild ;" many happy days have I spent in tracing
the habits of those songsters of hill and vale ; and, although
with much anxiety I have set myself to the task of describing
them, yet that anxiety has been so mingled with hope that the
labour has been grateful. May the reader, comparing my
descriptions with the objects themselves, and going forth to
observe them anew, approve of what he finds consistent with
nature, correct what he discovers to be wrong, and give ex-

vi PREFACE.

tension and precision to what he considers confined and in-
definite. As in the first volume, I have in this described
the objects as I have seen and examined them, always distin-
guishing from my own observations those for which I am in-
debted to others, and generally preferring notices transmitted
to me by friends on whose accuracy I place reliance, to pub-
lished accounts, when both referred to the same subjects, but
also extracting useful observations from all accessible sources.

Judging from the reports of most of those estimable persons
who have done me the honour of reviewing my first volume,
and from the statements of private friends, I must conclude
that the Lessons in Practical Ornithology are generally found
as useful and agreeable as any other part of the work. And
as in reading the history of our Songsters, to which this volume
is devoted, one may naturally desire to know something of the
organs of voice in these birds as well as in birds generally, I
have endeavoured to describe them in an intelligible manner,
referring always to the objects themselves for the information
intended to lead others to pursue the same course.

To the individuals who have kindly lent me their aid on this
occasion, I offer my best thanks : — To Robert Jameson, Esq.,
Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Edin-
burgh; John J. AuDUBOx, Esq., Louisiana; Archibald Hepburn,
Esq., Whittingham, East Lothian ; Mr Macduff Carfrae,
Edinburgh ; INIr Fenton, of the same city ; and, above all,
Th. Durham Weir, Esq. of Boghead, Linlithgowshire, whose
contributions in recent specimens, nests, eggs, and observations
have been most ample and most valuable.

W. MACGILLIVRAY.

Edinburgh, 1, Wharton Place,
1st June 1839.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Essential Characters of the Order Cantatores, and Observations
respecting the Digestive Organs of Land Birds, - 1

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. FIFTH LESSON, - 9

Suburban excursion. Notes on birds and other bipeds. Vital func-
tions of the former. Organs of respiration and voice- Lungs.
Air-cells distributed through the body. Changes operated on the
blood by respiration. Trachea and bronchi.

Respiratory and vocal organs of the Rook and Blackbird described in
detail. Larynx and its muscles. Syrinx, its structure and muscles.

Trachea of the Brown Linnet, Brown Ptarmigan, Wood ^Pigeon, and
Parrot.

Tube of the trachea, its rings, and the mechanism by which they are
made to slip behind each other.

ORDER V. CANTATORES. SONGSTERS.
Characters of the Cantatores, - - - 39

FAMILY I. MYRMOTHERINiE. ANTCATCHERS, AND ALLIED

SPECIES, - - - - 45

Synopsis of the British Genera and Sj)ecies of MyrmotherinEe, 47

Genus I. Cinclus. Dipper, - - 48

1. Cinclus europasus. The European Dipper, - 50

FAMILY 11. TURDIN^. THRUSHES AND ALLIED SPECIES, 66

Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Turdinse, 69

Genus I. Oriolus. Oriole, - - - 71

1. Oriolus Galbula. Golden Oriole, - 73

viii CONTENTS.

Genus II. Turdus. Thrush, - - - 77

1. Turdus Merula. The Black Thrush, or Blackbird, 81

2. Turdus torquatus. The Ringed Thrush, or Ring

Ouzel, ----- 100

3. Turdus pilaris. The Chestnut-backed Thrush, or

Fieldfare, - - . . 105

4. Turdus viscivorus. The Missel Thrush, or Shrite, 114

5. Turdus musicus. The Song Thrash, or Mavis, 127

6. Turdus iliacus. Thft Red-sided Thrush, or Redwing, 141

7. Turdus varius. The Variegated Thrush, - 146

FAMILY III. ALAUDIN^. LARKS AND ALLIED SPECIES, 150

SjTiopsis of the British Species of Alaudin», - 153

Genus I. Alauda. Lark. - - 155

1. Alauda alpestris. The Shore Lark, - 159

2. Alauda arvensis. The Sky Lark, - 163

3. Alauda arborea. The Wood Lark, - 174

Genus II. Anthus. Pipit, _ - - 178

1 . Anthus pratensis. The Meadow Pipit, - 181

2. Anthus arboreus. The Tree Pipit, - 188

3. Anthus aquaticus. The Shore Pipit, - 194

4. Anthus Richardi. Richard's Pipit, - 199

FAMILY IV. MOTACILLIxN^.. WAGTAILS AND ALLIED SPE-

CIES, - - - . 202

Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Motacillinse, 204

Genus L Budytes. Quaketail, - - 206

1 . Budytes flava. The Blue-headed Quaketail, 208

2. Budytes Rayi. The Greenheaded Quaketail, 212

GeISUS II. MOTACILLA. Wagtail. 218

1. Motacillaalba. The Grey-and- White Wagtail, 221

2. Motacilla Yarrelli. The Pied Wagtail, - 22o

3. Motacilla Boarula. The Grey-and- Yellow Wagtail, 235

CONTENTS. ix

FAMILY V. SAXICOLIN^. STONECHATS AND ALLIED SPE-

CIES, ..... 244

SjTiopsis of the British Genera and Species of Saxicolinae, 246

Genus I. Accentor. Chanter, - - 249

1. Accentor modularis. The Hedge Chanter, 251

2. Accentor alpinus. The Alpine Chanter, - 258

Genus II. Erithacus. Redbreast, - 261

1. Erithacus Rubecula. The Robin Redbreast, 263

Genus III. Fruticicola. Bushchat, - 271

1. FruticicolaRubetra. The Wliin Bushchat, - 273

2. Fruticicola Rubicola. The Black-headed Bushchat, 279

Genus IV. Saxicola. Stonechat, - - 285

1. Saxicola QEnanthe. The TNTiite-rumped Stonechat, 289

Genus V. Ruticilla. Redstart, - - 298

1. RuticiUa cyanecula. The Blue-throated Redstart, 300

2. Ruticilla Phoenicurus. The Red-fronted Redstart, 305

3. Ruticilla Tithys. The Black-breasted Redstart, 311

FAMILY VI. SYLVIAN^. WARBLERS AND ALLIED SPECIES, 313

Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Sylvianas, 314

Genus I. Philomela. Nightingale, - 319

1. Philomela Luscinia. Brake Nightingale, - 321

Genus II. Sylvia. Warbler, - - 337

1 . Sylvia atricapilla. The Black-capped Warbler, or

Blackcap, _ _ _ _ 339

2. Sylvia hortensis. The Garden Warbler, or Petty-

chaps, - - - - 345

3. Sylvia cinerea. The White-throated Warbler, or

White-throat, _ .- . _ 350

4. Sylvia garrula. The White-breasted Warbler, 357

Genus III. Phyllopneuste. Woodwren, - 361

1. Phyllopneuste Sylvicola. The Yellow Woodwren, 364

X GGNTENTS,

2. Phyllopneuste Trocliilus. The Willow Woodwren, 371

3. Phyllopneuste Hippolais. The Short- winged "Wood-

wren, or Chiff-chafif, - - 379

Genus IV. Melizophilus. Furzelixg, - - 382

1 . Melizophilus Provincialis. The Provence Furzeling, 383

Genus V. Calamoherpe. Reedling, - 388

1. Calamoherpe phragmitis. The Sedge Reedling, 390

2. Calamoherpe arundinacea. The Marsh Reedling, 395

Genus VI. Sibilatrix. Chirper, - - 397

1. Sibilatrix Locustella. The Grasshopper Chirper, 399

Genus VII. Regulus. Kinglet, - - 405

1. Regulus auricapillus. The Gold-cro\vned Kinglet, 408

2. Regulus ignicapillus. The Fire-crowned Kinglet, 416

FAMILY YII. PARIN^E. TITS AND ALLIED SPECIES, - 4] 8
Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Parinse, 420

Genus I. Parus. Tit, - - - 422

1. Parus Fringillago. The Ox-eye Tit, - 425

2. Parus cceruleus. The Blue Tit, - - 431

3. Parus ater. The Coal Tit, - - 440

4. Parus palustris. The Marsh Tit, - - 445

5. Parus cristatus. The Crested Tit, - 450

Genus II. Mecistura. Mufflin, - - 453

1. Mecistura longicaudat a. The Long-tailed Mufflin, 454

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. SIXTH LESSON, . 462

Audubon, Ornithologus, and Physiophilus make a digression to the
Pentland Hills, halt at Currie, and return to Edinburgh, dis-
coursing on birds and other matters.

Thereafter INIr Weir gives an account of the Migratory Birds of West-
Lothian, Ornithologus of those of Mid-Lothian, and Mr Hepburn
of those of East-Lothian.

Motacilla alba and Motacilla Yarrelli compared. Budytes flava and
Budytes Rayi compared. Young of Budytes flava. Song of Sky-
Lark. Notes on Blackcap, Garden Warbler, Sedge Reedling, and
Grasshopper Chirper,

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES.

PLATES.

X. Respiratory and Vocal Organs of tlie Blackbird, Tardus Merula.
XL Respiratory and Vocal Organs of the Rook, Corvus frugilegus.
XIL Respiratory and Vocal Organs of Pigeons, Grouse, and Parrots.
XIIL Digestive Organs of Cantatores.

Fig. 96.

97.

98.

.09.
100.
lOL
102.
103.
104.
105.
lOG.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
1J3.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.

WOOD CUTS.

Digestive Organs of a Hawk,

Digestive Organs of an Owl,

Digestive Organs of a Kingsfisher,

Digestive Organs of a Cuckoo, .

Digestive Organs of a Goatsucker,

Digestive Organs of a Jay,

Digestive Organs of a Shrike,

Digestive Organs of a Thrush,

Digestive Organs of a Nuthatch,

Digestive Organs of a Finch,

Digestive Organs of a Chatterer,

Aircells of the Rook, Corvus frugilegus.

Portion of windpipe, relaxed,

Portion of windpipe, contracted.

Portion of windpipe, in intermediate state

Portion of windpipe, contracted,

Portion of windpipe, extended.

Two rings of trachea, separated,

Two rings of trachea, in proximity.

Sternum of Blackbird, Tardus Merula, in front,

Sternum of Blackbird, Turdus Merula, laterally.

Head and foot of Myrmothera Bengalensis,

Head of European Dipper, Cinclus europjeus.

Wing and foot of European Dipper,

Nest of European Dipper,

Nest of European Dipper,

Sternum of Dipper, laterally,

Sternum of Dipper, in front.

Head and foot of Golden Oriole, Oriolus Galbula,

Head of Young Female Blackbird, Turdus Merula,

Head of Male Blackbird,

Foot of Blackbird,

Head of Ring Ouzel, Turdus torquatus.

Head of Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris,

Wing of Blackbird,

Head of Missel Thrush,

Head of Song Thrush, Turdus musicus,

Head of Redwing Thrush, Turdus iliacus,

Head of Sky-Lark, Alauda arvensis,

page 3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6

17

34

34

34

35

3.5

35

35

41

41

45

60

51

61

62

65

65

73

80

81

99

100

105

113

114

127

141

155

xu

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES.

Fig. 135. Foot of Sky-Lark,

136. Wing of Sky-Lark,

137. Head of Shore-Lark, Alauda alpestris,

138. Hind claw of Shore-Lark,

139. Head of Sky-Lark, Alauda arveusis,

140. Head of Wood-Lark, Alauda arvensis,

141. Wing of Meadow Pipit, Anthus pratensis,

142. Head of Meadow Pipit,

143. IJind toe of Meadow Pipit,

144. Head of Tree Pipit, Anthus arboreus,

145. Foot of Tree Pipit,

146. Head of Shore Pipit, Anthus aquaticus,

147. Foot of Shore Pipit,

148. Wing of Pied Wagtail, Motacilla Yarrelli,

149. Foot of Budytes Rayi,

150. Head of Blue-headed Quaketail, Budytes flava,

151. Head of Green-headed Quaketail, Budytes Rayi,

152. Head of Motacilla alba,

153. Heads of Pied Wagtail, Motacilla Yarrelli,

154. Foot of Pied WagtaU,

155. Head of Grey-and-Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla Boarula,

156. Foot of Grey-and-Yellow Wagtail, :
15". Head of Grey-and-Yellow Wagtail,

158. Head of Hedge Chanter, Accentor modularis,

159. Head of Alpine Chanter, Accentor alpinus,

160. Head of Robin Redbreast, Erithacus Rubecula,

161. Head of Whin Bushchat, Fruticicola Rubetra,

162. Wing of Whin Bushchat,

163. Wing of Black- headed Bushchat, Fruticicola Rubicola,

164. Head of Black-headed Bushchat,

165. Wing of White-rumped Stonechat, Saxicola OEnanthe,

166. Head of White-rumped Stonechat,

167. Head of Blue-throated Redstart, Ruticilla Cyanecula,

168. Head of White-fronted Redstart, Ruticilla Phcenicurus

169. Head of Brake Nightingale, Philomela Luscinia,

170. Head of Black-capped Warbler, Sylvia atricapilla,

171. Head of Garden Warbler, Sylvia hortensis,

172. Head of White-throated Warbler, Sylvia cinerea,

173. Wing of Yellow Woodwren, PhyUopneuste sylvicola,

174. Wing of Willow Woodwren, PhyUopneuste Trochilus,

175. Wing of Chiff-chaff, PhyUopneuste Hippolais,

176. Head of YeUow Woodwren, PhyUopneuste Sylvicola,

177. Head of Provence FurzeUng, MelizophUus Provincialis,

178. Head of Sedge ReedUng, Calamoherpe phragmitis,

179. Head of Grasshopper Chirper, Sibilatrix Locustella,

180. Head of Gold.crowned Kinglet, Regulus auricapillus,

181. Head of Ox-eye Tit, Parus Fringillago,

182. Head of Blue Tit, Parus coeruleus,

183. Head of Coal Tit, Parus ater,

184. Head of Marsh Tit, Parus palustris, . ;

185. Head of Long-tailed Mufflin, Mecisturc^ longicaudata,

page

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS OF THE ORDER.

ORDER V. CANTATORES. SONGSTERS.

Bill of moderate length, straight, slender, compressed, taper-
ing, pointed ; upper mandible with a moderate basal sinus on
each side, filled by the nasal membrane, which is covered by
short soft feathers, its edges overlapping, with a notch or sinus
(sometimes obsolete) close to the narrow declinate tip. (Eso-
phagus rather narrow, without crop or dilatation ; proventri-
culus oblong, with cylindrical glandules. Stomach roundish,
more or less compressed, with strong lateral muscles, a promi-
nent inferior muscle, and dense rugous epithelium. Intestine
short and rather wide ; coeca reduced to very small cylindrical
adnate tubes. Feet of moderate length or rather short, slender ;
toes compressed, three before, moderately spreading ; one be-
hind in the same plane stronger and about equal in length to
the two lateral, which are much exceeded by the third, the
latter united at the base to the fourth ; claws rather long, arched,
much compressed, acute. Wings of moderate length, rather
pointed, with the first quill extremely short or obsolete. PL
XIII.

The digestive organs of the Cantatores differ from those of
the Deglubitores chiefly in the oesophagus, which has no crop
or dilatation, and in the stomach, which is generally less mus-
cular than in them, but more so than in the Vagatores. These
three groups however are very intimately allied, and pass into

2 REMARKS ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

each other by imperceptible gradations, their external parts as
well as their internal organs being formed on the same plan.
The short strong conical bill, sharp-edged, pointed, and form-
ed for shelling or husking seeds, at once distinguishes the
Deglubitores ; but the bill of the Vagatores, although always
stronger than that of the Cantatores, is not very dissimilar.

The general structure of the digestive organs of Birds has
been, it is hoped, rendered sufficiently intelligible to the reader,
to enable him to perceive that upon the modifications present-
ed by them may be founded an arrangement of the species,
genera, and families, more natural than any that can result
from the comparison of the external parts only. It is not by
any means assumed by the author that such an arrangement
has been elicited by him ; for a more intimate and extended
acquaintance with the organization of the birds of all countries
than he possesses is necessary to render an attempt to construct
a natural system successful. In the mean time he has not only
continued his observations on the birds of this country, but
has examined the digestive and respiratory organs of more than
two hundred species from North America, which were brought
him in spirits by JSIr Audubon. The results of this exami-
nation are recorded in the fourth and fifth volumes of the
Ornithological Biography of that enthusiastic ornithologist,
and, with the aid of the numerous sketches by which they are
illustrated, will enable any one desirous of obtaining a general
idea of the subject, to judge how far the forms, proportions,
and modifications of the organs in question may be useful in
indicating the affinities of the species.

In the first volume of the present work, four very distinctly
defined varieties of the intestinal canal, including under that
title the entire alimentary tube, were exhibited as peculiar to
the four groups or orders of birds there described ; two other
forms were also presented in the plates, and a seventh is pro-
duced in the first part of this volume. As the subject appears
to be of great importance, and as I am desirous of throwing
as much light upon it as my opportunities and faculties enable
me to do, I shall here present a series of those forms which
seem to be most illustrative.

MODIFICATIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 3

In many birds, the stomach approaches in structure to that
of the carnivorous Mammalia, inasmuch as its muscular coat is
ver}'' thin, and not disposed into distinct portions or muscles.

Fig. 96.

Fig. 97.

KiNGSFISHER.

Thus, in the Falconine Birds, Fig. 96, Owls, Fig. 97, and
Kingsfishers, Fig. 98, that organ is very large, roundish,
scarcely compressed, with its muscular coat composed of fasci-
culi of muscular fibres arranged in a single series, and having
their two extremities blended with, or attached to, two thin
roundish tendinous spaces. Beneath or within this layer is
another, equally thin, of condensed cellular tissue ; and the in-
ner coat is thin, soft, and smooth, or slightly villous. In all
these birds, the oesophagus is very wide ; but it differs in form,
having in the Hawks, Fig. 96, an enlargement or crop, lying
on the right side of the neck ; while in the OWls, Fig. 97, it is
of nearly uniform width throughout ; and in the Kingsfishers,

4 MODIFICATIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

Fig. 98, somewhat funnel-shaped. The intestine of the Hawks
and Owls is generally rather short and of moderate width ; but
in the Kingsfishers, very long and excessively attenuated. In

Fig. 99. Fig. 100. Fig. 101.

Goatsucker.

the Hawks, the coeca are reduced to the minimum size ; in the
Owls they are very large, oblong, and narrowed at the base ;
while in the Kingsfishers they are entirely wanting.

In the Cuckoos, Fig. .99, the oesophagus is somewhat fun-
nel-shaped, as in the Kingsfishers, and still more so in the
Goatsuckers, Fig. 100. In these birds the stomach however is
considerably more muscular, especially in the latter, and its
inner coat is a distinct cuticular lining, often soft in the Cuc-
koos, but in the Goatsuckers dense or horny and longitudinally
rugous. In both families the intestine is short and wide ; in
both the coeca are large, as in the Owls ; and the cloaca glo-
bular. In the Jays, Fig. 101, and in the Crows and Starlings,

MODIFICATIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 5

the oesophagus, although funnel-shaped is narrow ; the sto-
mach muscular, its external fibres being arranged into several
series, and forming three muscles, two lateral, and an inferior,

which however are not very distinct ; the middle coat is dense,
as in the Cuckoos and Goatsuckers, and the inner is a decided
horny epithelium, longitudinally plaited. The intestine is
rather long and of moderate width ; the cceca very small, and
the cloaca oblong or globular.

In the Shrikes, Fig. 102, the oesophagus has no decided di-
latation ; the stomach is roundish or elliptical ; its muscular
coat rather thin ; its epithelium dense, and rugous ; the intes-
tine rather short and of moderate width ; the coeca very small ;
the cloaca oblong or globular. In the Thrushes, Fig. 103,
the parts are similar, but the stomach is more muscular, its
fibres distinguished into lateral and inferior muscles. In the
Nuthatches, Fig. 104, the stomach is similar to that of the

6 MODIFICATIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

Shrikes, and the parts in general do not differ materially from
those of the Thrushes and Warblers.

In the Finches, Buntings, Icteri, and Tanagers, Fig. 105,

these organs differ from those of the Thrushes, Warblers, Wag-
tails, Sylvicolse, and Wrens, chiefly in having the oesophagus
dilated about the middle into a kind of crop lying always on
the left side ; the stomach, on account of the increased thick-
ness of the muscular coat, is often broader than long, its mus-
cles are distinct, its epithelium dense, rugous, and sometimes
furnished with two opposite grinding surfaces ; the intestine is
of moderate length, and width; the cceca very small. In the
Chatterers, Fig. 106, which are eaters chiefly of pulpy fruits,
of which the seeds pass through the intestines untouched, the
oesophagus is much widened about the middle ; but the sto-
mach very small, and moderately muscular ; while the intes-
tine is short and of enormous width.

MODIFICATIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 7

These examples, with those adduced in the first vohime,
will suffice to shew that great variations exist in the digestive
organs of birds, as well as in their external parts. Having
now examined those of more than four hundred species, I feel
qualified to say that in many cases the variations of structure
are rendered intelligible by connecting them with the known
habits of the birds, and that these organs are well adapted for
indicating affinities. Indeed, in most cases, one who has made
himself acquainted with their form and structure, as exhibited
in our most common birds, will be able with certainty, on
being shewn the interior of a bird, to announce the order to
which it physiologically belongs.

Objections preferred against the use of anatomy, on the
ground of its being unnecessary for distinguishing species or
genera, or of its requiring more study than would be agreeable
to most people, are destroyed by the consideration of its utility
in characterizing families and other more comprehensive groups.
It is moreover absolutely childish to talk of external characters
as being sufficient indications of the nature of objects. A church,
or a theatre, or a warehouse, or a museum, may be distinguish-
ed from other buildings by its exterior ; but the construction
of its interior alone is what gives it its essential character. So
is it with a quadruped or a bird, of which the external parts
are but the envelopes of the organs, or appendages to them, as
essential however to the completion of the organization as the
most central parts. My dissections not being made for the
purpose of upholding a preconceived theory, or establishing an
arrangement founded on another basis, I may find it necessary,
in consequence of the gradual acquisition of knowledge, to alter
or modify the disposition or even the constitu^tion of the
groups which I have in the Introduction to the first volume
proposed for the Birds of Britain. Should this be the case, it
is hoped the reader will not consider me inconsistent, but al-
low me to apply tl^e same criticism to my own schemes that I
would employ in estimating those of another. Hitherto how-
ever, the five groups that have been described, namely the
Rasores, Gemitores, Deglubitores, and Cantatores, seem to be
perfectly natural, with this exception, that the two latter are
less distinct from each other than any of the rest.

8 RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

But although the digestive organs are thus obviously of the
greatest importance to the ornithologist, the others must not
be neglected ; and, although 1 am unwilling to impose more
labour upon my readers than is necessary, I think it time to
introduce to their notice the apparatus by which respiration is
performed, and the organs which are subservient to the pro-
duction of those varied sounds by which birds express their
desires, antipathies, and pleasures. No place can be better
suited for this purpose than the commencement of a volume
containing the Song Birds, nor any means more efficient than
those employed in the following Lesson, the results of which
may form a basis for more extended observations.

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

FIFTH LESSON.

SUBURBAN EXCURSION. NOTES ON BIRDS AND OTHER BIPEDS. VITAL FUNC-
TIONS OF THE FORMER. ORGANS OF RESPIRATION AND VOICE. LUNGS.
AIR-CELLS DISTRIBUTED THROUGH THE BODY. CHANGES OPERATED ON
THE BLOOD BY RESPIRATION. TRACHEA AND BRONCHL LUNGS. RES-
PIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS OF THE ROOK AND BLACKBIRD DESCRIBED
IN DETAIL: LARYNX AND ITS MUSCLES; SYRINX, ITS STRUCTURE AND
MUSCLES. TRACHEA OF THE BROWN LINNET, BROWN PTARMIGAN, WOOD
PIGEON, AND PARROTS. TUBE OF THE TRACHEA, ITS RINGS, AND THE
MECHANISM BY WHICH THEY ARE MADE TO SLIP BEHIND EACH OTHER.

, To the practical ornithologist all seasons are welcome. Even
" the dreary month of November "" brings gladness, for it in-
creases his capacity for labour, and renders protracted vigils
less injm'ious to health. Besides, the birds which in summer
were dispersed over the country, and hidden among woods and
thickets, now approach the dwellings of men, and are easily
traced among the leafless twigs. Over the fields too, and upon
the estuaries and rivers, are scattered many species which have
been driven southward by the severity of the weather, and which
can be obtained only at this season. Now is the time for dis-
section, without which our practical ornithology would fail to
make us acquainted with the harmonies of nature.

The beams of the morning sun, unable to penetrate the thick
mist that is spread over the ocean, merely tinge the eastern sky
with dim red ; the ground is hardened by the frost, and the
grass crusted with delicate crystals of feathery snow. Most of
the Blackbirds and Thrushes are in the gardens, whither we
cannot follow them ; but many will be found under the hedges,
especially in the neighbourhood of farm-houses and villages.
There has been little hard weather as yet, and they are fat and
full of sap, for they have feasted luxuriously on the snails which
they have jerked from their winter-quarters in the walls and
hedge-banks.

VOL. II. B

10 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

There stands Robin on the cope of the stone -wall, his dark
humid eye glistening as he surreys the ground beneath, intent
on the tiny heaps raised by the earthworms. Fear not, little
fellow ! no murderous tube shall be pointed to thy small frame,
for thou art the friend of man. Even the prowling sehool-boy,
armed though he be with an old pistol, will never dream of
harming thee. The modest unobtrusive Hedge-Sparrow too,
may flit along the fence unscathed. As for the noisy Spar-
rows, the pensive Buntings, and all of their tribe, we have
already satisfied ourselves with observing and describing them.
Here are some tall willows, whose slender twigs shoot high into
the air. About a dozen smiall birds are dispersed among them,
creeping and clinging in all sorts of postures, busily engaged
in searchins for food, and now and then emitting their feeble
cheeping cry, changed at intervals for a kind of chiding chirr.
They are Tits, but whether the blue or the black we cannot
at this distance determine by sight, although the notes are cer-
tainly those of the former. Now, what are they searching out
on those smooth branches and slim twigs I They are perhaps
picking the buds, or seeking for minute insects. When you
are in doubt respecting any thing in natural history, never in-
dulge in conjecture, for it is worth nothing, but satisfy yourself
by observation ; and, as in this case, the only certain method
of succeeding is to shoot one or two, do so, and let us open
their stomachs. The contents of this very small gizzard, not
much lai'ger, you perceive, than the heart, are some slender,
white worms, or larvfe, having a reddish head, and a quantity
of what seems to be vegetable fibres, but which is in reality
skins of these same larv?e.

In that tall unpruned hedge, with its bank sloping irregu-
larly towards the ditch, one may often meet with Blackbirds and
Thrushes, especially the former. Hark to the loud " chink,
chink,'" and hurried chiding notes, which announce the pre-
sence of one. There it glides among the bushes, and flies
down the other side. Here is the snail, Helix aspersa, which
it has partially broken, and there a heap of others, from which
it has extracted the animal, after breaking the case on that
stone. Someway ofl" is a Thrush in the very act. In these

SUBURBAN EXCURSION. 11

meadows are no Fieldfares or Redwings at present, the frost
not having been intense enough, or sufficiently continued, to
drive them here in search of food. Many haws still hang on
the branches, and yonder are two rowan trees whose twigs
droop with yet unfaded and untouched clusters of scarlet ber-
ries. As to the heps of the dog-rose, so plentiful on the bank,
birds eat them only when they can get little or nothing besides.
But here are some Blackbirds, and if we search for an hour or
two along the hedges, we may obtain enough for our purpose.
Many Rooks, too, are in the cornyard and on the highway ;
but of them a single specimen will suffice.

It is only by proceeding in this manner, carefully observing
the habits and haunts of birds, that one can become usefully
acquainted with them. It is obviously impossible, however, for
an individual to examine all the species of a country so closely
as to become personally couA^ersant with every particular of
either their manners or structure. Even of this beautiful male
Blackbird which we have just procured, I cannot now de-
scribe all that is interesting in the organization ; but, as I
have promised to present an account of its vocal and respira-
tory organs, which may be considered as a continuation of the
remarks on the structure of birds offered in the first volume,
we shall inspect them on our return, and compare them with
those of a variety of other species.

But, Master mine, some folks say there is no use in all this
wandering and talking. A would-be critic in a magazine
now extinct, conscientiously warns his subscribers of the folly
of buying your book, alleging that the writing appears to him
an affected attempt to imitate Isaak Walton and Audubon.
These excursions of ours he dislikes " in toto," body and soul,
or, as he expresses it, " substance and spirit.*"

Good Pupil, be assured of this : — If ever you do an honour-
able deed, some one will find it reasonable to censure it. If
you write a book, he who has penned a worse on the same
subject, will make it his duty to decry it. Let him alone.
Our walks are agreeable to ourselves, and useful to others, our
conversation is not unworthy of disciples of Linnaeus, nor is
our mode of observing nature less efficient than that adopted

W rRACTlCAL ORXlTHOLOc;V.

by our tioiL:hbourti. As to cood old Isaak, Nvoro we to imitate
any one. we eouUl not choose a more pious or pleasant pattern ;
and it' my taniiliar anil beloved tViend. the American Orni-
tholoc'ij't, tiud any thin^:'. in tact, style, or manner, m my book,
that belongs to him, he is alive, and can speak for himsclt*.
Loul:' betbre 1 saw any ot' the admired jn'oductious ot' his pen
or pencil. 1 wrote much as 1 write now ; atul when he accuses
me ot' pkiLiiarism, 1 will eudeavoiu' to convince him ot' his error.
That tiu\e. however, will tuner come. 1 tmderstaiul all this
pert'ectly, and so do others.

Don't mind it : I'll thra>-h the critic ntyselt', shotild he be
either a i[ttiuarian or a ntoss-trooper, whether o{ the I'uglish
or Scotch side ot' the border.

You see that lariie old water-rat on the bank I The fellow
has no business to obtrude himself on tis. lie obliges us to
make a dio'ression, to look at him. talk abottt him. perhaps
shoot him. or miss hint ; and sonu^ straiuht-tbrward peojde are
swont etuunies to " iucideittal rentarks and digressions liberally
dispiU'scd :"" they describe birds as if they were sttick on a
perch readv stulVed. \"et. stran^'e to say. they are u'arrulously
di^-ressive iit the matter ot' circles of aitinity. with which, like
the hoops of a tardiarrel. they ^ird their cra/y systems, the
leakin^s of which, with some L:'oose-t'eathers. itii^ht be economi-
cally etuployed in the tttaittit'acttire ot new species.

^\"ere 1 to believe the critics, 1 should to-day fancy myself
'• a irenius equal to the maiesty of nature." to-morrow a iiiere
painstaking, prosin^: mortal, like one who. autbitiotts of author-
ship, itot only draws birds, but eni::raves them, or at least scratches
them on coj^per himself, and by a pretty free use of his wife's
scissors ekes out the scarity stock of his own observations, aitd
produces a book worthy of — beinc praised by his friends. Btit
I believe nothing without proof ; and. although the facts which
1 have related no roan dares to cotttradict. 1 desire not even you
to adopt my opinions, btit to examine and compare for yourself.
1 have fouL;-ht my way hitherto siitgle-handed : have many
times aided friends who wotild not ntove a tinger in public to
.a,ssist me. because they were not quite sure of obtaining the
approbation of the world, and have orteu spared those who

SLllFJItliAN EXCURSION. 13

were at my mercy. Favour from mere Ornitholof/i-it.s I neither
want nor expect. My aim is to instruct and amuse the public,
to impart to those unacquainted vvitli it some knowledge of my
favourite .subject, to exercise my faculties, and to describe nature
in her varying aspects. Perhaps there is no need of all this
egotism ; but I lia\e done. There is one God o\er all. Jn him
I trust, for without his permission, not a hair .shall fall from my
head, and under his guiflance I .shall run my appointed race,
and rest from my labours, ilow b;j,jjji\- shall I bij to find all
irjy niost bitter foes ifj tbat paradi-.f; \\1j)''1) J hop'; to inlierit !

Pray don't talk so loud. 'I'li'; pfjojjje stare at us, just as
they stared at your frionfl .Mr Weir the other day, when, hav-
ing landed at the Canal Basin, he carried along the .streets that
great piece of fir-tree which contains the nest of the Mar.sh
Titmouse. " The miserly old fellow V said one, " he looks
like a gentleman, and yet is carrying home a log for firewood."

I remember. Mr Weir is an enthusiast, a lover of nature,
and, although a Conservative and a trapper of hirds, a Christian
and a scholar. I forgot him when I boa.sted of having fought
my way with my own claymore. You shall see presently how
efficient his aid has been. Other friends too, still dearer, 1 over-
looked, especially him who now, in some Canadian wilderness
is making room for himself and his family, beset perhaps with
murderous rebels and renegades, my be.st and most beloved
friend William Craigie ; and him too, of .sultry Louisiana, the
wanderer of the wild woods, the warm-hearted and generous
Audubon ; and many more, some of whom I .shall have occa-
sion to mention, but above all, one who will presently welcome
us, for here, at No. 1 , Wharton Place, we end our digression
for the present.

Well ! here we are, two Closet Naturalists, seated by a deal
table, and having before us, instead of a liberal supply of books
and preserved .skins, two Blackbirds, a Rook, and several Lin-
nets, which we have ourselves procured ; a Wood Pigeon and a
Red Grouse, wdiich we have obtained in the market ; and a
basketful of bodies just arrived from Mr Carfrae's. Let us re-
member that the component parts of a bird, as of other animal.s,
are numerous, and varied in form and texture, but capable of

14 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

being disposed ideally so as to constitute several sets or systems.
One series of organs has relation to the existence and enjoy-
ments of the individual, another has reference to the continua-
tion of the species. A perfect or full-grown animal, a Rook,
for example, requires to introduce into its interior certain sub-
stances which are to be converted into materials capable of
making up for the loss daily and hourly sustained by the neces-
sary expenditure of its fluids. These substances, whether ani-
mal or vegetable, are converted into a fluid, which is the source
of nutrition to all the organs, and possesses the chemical ])vo-
perties of the various parts with which it is finally to be incor-
porated. The change thus effected upon the substances intro-
duced into the body is termed Assimilation, it being in fact a
conversion into like matter. The bird is furnished with wings
to carry it abroad in search of food, with feet to enable it to
walk, or leap, or stand, or swim, while procuring it, with a
bill with which to lay hold of it, a gullet to convey it into its
interior, a stomach to pound and digest it, and an intestinal
canal, in which it is exposed to the absorbents, and by which
the refuse is throw^n out. The nutritious part of the food
having been conveyed by the thoracic duct into one of the
large veins, is carried into the heart, where it is more inti-
mately mixed with the blood, and whence it is propelled along
with it to be purified in the lungs, into which air is received
from without, and brought into contact with the blood con-
tained in vessels ramifying on their cells. The digestion of the
crude food and the absorption of its nutritious parts, constitute
the process of Assimilation ; the distribution of the nutritious
fluid to all parts w^here it is required is termed Circulation ;
and the continual purification of the circulating fluid by the
action of the atmosphere brought into contact with it, is effected
by Respiration ; while the application of this fluid to its various
uses in the different parts is termed Secretion.

What we have at present to attend to is the Function of Fe-
spiration, of which the organs are the lungs, two spongy bodies
situated within the thorax. The air is admitted to them
through a long flexible elastic pipe, which opens into the
mouth, and communicates with the nostrils, so that a passage

RESPIRATION IN BIRDS. 15

is afforded when the mouth is shut, as well as when it is open.
The lungs resemble in some respects a pair of bellows, inas-
much as they alternately receive and give exit to the atmo-
spheric air. But they do not possess this power of themselves ;
theyare merely expansile and compressible bags, which, on being
widened, are filled with the air, which rushes in by the pressure
of the atmosphere, and on being condensed, are emptied by the
pressure of a muscular apparatus adapted for that purpose. In
the Mammalia, a muscular expansion, named the diaphragm,
which separates the cavity of the thorax, containing the lungs
and heart, from the cavity of the abdomen, containing the
stomach, intestine, liver, and other organs, is a principal agent
in respiration, by its alternate contraction and relaxation en-
larging or diminishing the thoracic cavity, the walls of which
are always in contact with those of the lungs. But besides the
diaphragm, the abdominal and costal muscles also operate in
producing these eftects. In Birds, however, there is no dia-
phragm, properly so called, although it exists in many species
in an imperfect state ; and therefore the alternate expansion
and contraction of the thorax and abdomen, which form but
one cavity, are effected by the muscles attached to the ribs,
sternum, and pelvis. The lungs are comparatively small, and
not so expansile as in quadrupeds, but they have on their surface
apertures communicating with large cells in the interior of the
thorax and abdomen, and with others in the neck, and even
with the cavities of many of the bones. Thus by inspiration,
not only are the lungs filled w4th air, but also the cells dis-
posed in various parts of the body ; and it is for this reason that
in birds respiration is said to be double.

The lungs are seen, on opening a bird, to be of a very bright
red colour, approaching to light vermilion, and of a spongy tex-
ture. They are two in number, of a flattened oblong form,
destitute of lobes, extending from the second to the last dorsal
vertebra, crossed obliquely by the oesophagus beneath, and in
contact with the kidneys behind. They are not suspended
freely, as in the Mammalia, being bound down by a fascia in
front, and sunk as it w^ere into deep cavities above, between
the dorsal portions of the ribs, and in a large hollow on each

16 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

side of the spine. This fascia, which is analogous to the dia-
phragm of the MammaHa, generally has on each side three
muscular slips attached to three of the hinder ribs. The ac-
tion of these muscles, being to render the fascia tense, must
dilate the lungs and thus be subservient to inspiration, although
the extent of the vacuity formed by them is slight compared
with that produced by a regular diaphragm. The lungs them-
selves are not, properly speaking, invested by the pleura, but
are covered by a very delicate membrane, which becoming cel-
lular above, attaches their whole upper surface to the parietes
of the thorax. The bronchi, or divisions of the windpipe enter
upon their anterior surface, and at length divide into several
branches, which communicate by openings on their upper or
posterior surface with the air-cells of the lungs, and terminate
by wide apertures in the large cells or receptacles of air distri-
buted in the thorax and abdomen. The pulmonary artery,
which carries the venous or dark blood to the lungs, to be pu-
rified, divides immediately after its commencement, into two
branches, one going to the right, the other to the left lung, and
its ultimate twisfs anastomose on the air-cells with those of the
pulmonary veins, which in like manner unite into two great
branches, and these finally into a single trunk.

The cells, with which the bronchi communicate after passing
through the lungs, vary in form and number in different birds.
One of them, named the interclavicular, extends from the fore
part of the lungs to the space between the crura of the furcula,
and is generally of very large size. The anterior thoracic con-
tains the bifurcation of the trachea, the bronchi, and the great
vessels entering or issuing from the heart. It is traversed by
numerous membranous dissepiments, and communicates with
the air-cells that extend up the sides of the neck. The lateral
thoracic cells occupy the sides of the thorax, and commu-
nicate with a series of cells surrounding the heart, and inter-
posed between it and the sternum, as well as with others
in the axilla, which are continuous with cellules occupy-
ing the sides of the body, part of the wing, and the cavity
of the humeral bone. Two large cells, which have been
named the hepatic, extend from the lower surface of the

LUNGS, BRONCHI, AND AIR-CELLS.

17

lunffs over the lobes of the liver. The two abdominal cells,
which are the largest in the body, commence at the lower
part of the lungs, above the hepatic cells, and extend to the
extremity of the abdomen ; they are generally separated by
a longitudinal mediastinum, and are frequently divided into
numerous cavities. The pelvic cells occupy the posterior part
of the pelvis, and with them and the abdominal communicate
the inguinal, whence there is a passage into the femoral bone,
and which are continuous with others extending along the leg.
Besides these there is a general envelope of cells interposed
between the skin and the muscles, which is especially apparent
in many aquatic birds, and which is capable of being inflated
from the lungs. Such is the ordinary distribution of the cells ;
but it must not be expected to find them always disposed in
the regular order in which they have been represented. The
accompanying diagram indicates their form and position in the
Rook, viewed from beneath. The interclavicular cell is marked
a ; the cellules of the neck, b b. The
lateral thoracic cells, c c, form a series of
various sizes ; the inferior thoracic, d, may
be described as a single large cell inter-
sected by filaments extending from the
pericardium to the sternum. The two
hepatic cells, e e, cover the two lobes of
the liver, and are undivided. The lateral
abdominal cells, which are the largest in
the body, are each divided into two great
cavities. On the left side, a great cell, /,
covers the lower part of the lung and a
portion of the left side of the stomach,
wdiile another, cf, extends from it and the
left hepatic cell, e, to near the anus. On
the right side the cell h is contiguous
with the right hepatic cell, and covers a large portion of the
intestine, while that marked i includes part of the duodenum.
The pelvic cells, j j, are small, and very numerous.

It is not necessary that we should enter into a more mi-
nute examination of this peculiar disposition of the cellular

VOL. II. c

Fig. 107.

18 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

tissue, which permeates tlie body of all birds, although more
developed, and somewhat differently arranged in certain fami-
lies. The air admitted by inspiration passes into the lungs,
where it produces the usual effect upon the blood there, enters
the cells communicating with them, and makes its way nearly
to all parts of the body. Although there are of course a regular
influx of air into the lungs, and an efflux from them, and the
oxygenation of the blood there is manifested by its florid tint ;
yet it does not appear that a similar alternate motion takes place
in the vast series of cells communicating with the lungs, and
it is probable that in passing through the latter the air loses the
greater part of its alterative power, for the minute vessels ramify-
ing upon the cells distributed through the body do not assume a
brighter hue than those remote from them. One obvious effect
however is that the air thus introduced into the cells tends to
render the body specifically lighter, and this effect is promoted
by the expansion which it undergoes from the heat of the animal.
The most obvious change produced upon the blood by re-
spiration is its assumption of a bright red colour, in place of
the purplish-red which it presented before entering the lungs.
Chemical investigation has further disclosed to us that it im-
bibes oxygen, and gives out carbonic acid gas, together with
water in the state of vapour. Atmospheric air is composed
of about twenty parts of oxygen gas, seventy-nine of nitro-
gen gas, one of carbonic acid gas, and a trace of hydrogen.
Arterial blood has been found to contain more oxygen than
venous blood, while the latter contains a larger proportion of
carbon, and the proportions of nitrogen and hydrogen are
nearly the same in both. Now, as during respiration oxygen
is extracted from the air, and carbon from the blood, and
since carbonic acid consists of oxygen and carbon, the por-
tion of carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs is the result
of the combination of the oxygen which disappears during re-
spiration, with the carbon contained in the venous blood, and
which has accumulated in it in consequence of the abstraction
of its oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, by the processes of secre-
tion and nutrition. But, letting alone the theories that have
been proposed on this subject, it is enough for our present pur-

RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 19

pose to state that respiration is necessary for the purification of
the venous blood, and the conversion of the chyle into blood,
and that the action of the air upon the blood is also the cause
of the internal heat, of which birds have a higher degree than
other animals.

The external air is admitted to the lungs and to the cells dis-
persed over the body, and subsequently expelled from them, by
the alternate expansion and contraction of the thoracic and
abdominal cavities, effected by the action of the costal, abdo-
minal, and sternal muscles. Its passage takes place through a
tube, which commences behind the base of the tongue, opposite
to the internal aperture of the nares, extends along the fore-part
or side of the neck, enters the thorax between the clavicles, and
divides into two branches, of which one goes to each lung, and
there subdivides, as has been mentioned. This tube is named
the Windpipe, Trachea, or Aspera-arteria ; its two branches are
the Bronchi ; its commencement, or upper extremity, is the
Upper Larynx, or the Larynx ; and its lower extremity, or the
part at which it bifurcates, is the Loicer Larynx, or the Syrinx.
Besides acting as a pipe to the lungs, it is also the organ of
the voice, the air in passing through it causing its membranes
so to vibrate, and being so acted upon by the muscles attached
to it, as to give rise to the various cries and notes emitted by
birds, although the palate, the tongue, and the mandibles also
operate in modifying the sounds thus produced.

At this stage of our lesson, we must have recourse to the
objects themselves. Having plucked one of our Blackbirds,
leaving only the feathers of the wings and tail, removed the
skin from the fore part of the neck, laid open the thorax on the
left side by dividing the pectoral muscles and ribs, and cut
away the anterior parietes of the abdomen, we observe the fol-
lowing parts. See Plate X, Fig. 1. The wings, feet, and tail,
require no particular notice at present. Behind the bill, a, are
seen a slender muscle, the stylo- hyoideus, b b, extending from
the lower jaw to the basal portion of the hyoid bone ; the
two branches of that bone, c c, enveloped by their muscles ;
and its slender medial or uro-hyal process, d. The oesophagus,
e, funnel-shaped at first, then tubular, and without dilatation or

20 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

crop, passes over to the right side of the neck, along which it
proceeds until it enters the thorax, when it passes to the left
side, dilates into the proventriculus, f, and joins the stomach, g,
which lies on the left side, and is of a roundish form, being
distended with food. The duodenum, h, i, j, commences the
intestinal tube, which ends at the anus, k. The left pectoral
muscle, /, has been cut through ; the sternum has been thrust
aside, the blood-vessels have been removed, and there are seen,
the heart, m, the right lobe of the liver, n, the left lobe of the
same organ, o, together with part of the lungs, p p. The
trachea, or windpipe, q, r, s, extends from the mouth, along the
fore part of the neck, inclining to the right side, and again turn-
ing toward the left ; at t, over the oesophagus, it divides into
the two bronchi, u u, which enter the lungs, pp. A very
slender muscle, v v, is seen passing down on each side of the
trachea, and at w is a sort of pad composed of several small
muscles. This part, it', is the syrinx, or inferior larynx, while
at the other end, d, is the larynx, or superior larynx, which,
however, is not well seen in this view. But as the parts here
are rather small for an unpractised observer, it will be better,
in order to understand the structure of the windpipe in detail,
to have recourse to a larger bird, the Rook, in which they can
be more easily ascertained.

In Plate XI, Fig. I shows the tongue, hyoid bones, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs, of the Rook, Corvus frugilegus, together
with the digestive organs, and part of the kidneys. But, to
begin at the beginning, let us turn to Fig. 2, which represents
the hyoid bone, or the bone of the tongue, which we there see
to be composed of several pieces, articulated to each other ; and
first of a body, a b c, and two appendages y def, d ef. The
body is formed of three bones : a, the glosso-hyal, which in the
rook is covered with a horny sheath, represented by a in Fig. 1 ;
6, the basi-hyal, or basis of the hyoid bone ; c, the uro-hyal,
which here is almost entirely cartilaginous. Each of the appen-
dages is formed of the apo-hyal bone, d ; the cerato-hyal, e ; and
the terminal cartilage,/".

Referring now to Fig. 1, we have first the tongue, or rather
its horny sheath, a, which covers the glosso-hyal bone ; b, the

RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 21

uro-hyal bone, which passes downwards in front of the larynx,
sliding in a sheath ; c c, the appendages of the hyoid bone,
covered with the mylo-hyoideus, which, arising from the base
of the lower jaw, pulls the hyoid bone, and consequently the
tongue, forwards ; d (7, the genio-Jiyoideus, which arises from
the lower jaw farther back, and is attached to the end of the
apo-hyal bone, so as to draw the tongue forwards and upwards ;
the stylo-hyoideus, e e, arising from the back part of the lower
jaw, and inserted into the basi-hyal bone, its action being to
pull the tongue backwards. Several muscles, however, have
been removed, to prevent confusion. Two very slender mus-
cles, //, are seen arising from the base of the hyoid bone and
the sides of the larynx, continuing downwards in front of the
trachea, being attached to the subcutaneous cellular tissue, and
finaHy inserted into the edge of the furcula at its angle ; they
are the deido-tracheales, of which the action is to contract the
skin of the fore part of the neck, pull the tongue downwards,
and assist in shortening the trachea.

The ozsophagus^ g, A, funnel-shaped at its commencement, is
seen passing behind the trachea, and coming out between the
bronchi, at i, where it is cut off, that the lungs may be seen.
The proventriculus^ j ; the stomachy k ; the intestine^ I m n.

The irackea, ^ P ^i is an elastic tube, commencing behind
the tongue, a, where it opens into the throat, and extending to
opposite the first rib, where, at the syrinx or inferior larynx,
it divides into the two bronchi, r r. It is a little flattened,
and is not of equal diameter throughout. Its bony rings, sixty
in number, are entire, very thin, elastic, narrowed in the
middle in front, and connected by elastic membrane. It is
lined with a smooth mucous membrane, and is covered exter-
nally with layers of cellular tissue. It is extremely flexible,
contractile, and extensile, in order to accommodate itself to the
contractions, extensions, and highly diversified motions of the
neck. The bronchi, r r, differ from the trachea, in having the
rings, about thirteen in number, incomplete, and less flattened,
the space left between the extremities of these half rings being
occupied by elastic membrane. Let us now examine these
parts in detail.

22 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

Fig. 8 represents the opening of the windpipe into the throat.
It is seen to be behind the tongue, «, between the two branches
of the hyoid bone, b b, and to present a sUt, c, which is named
the rima glottidis, or simply the aperture of the windpipe.
This sht-hke opening may be dilated by the action of muscles
to be afterwards described, or firmly closed by other muscles ;
but in this bird, the Rook, although not in all birds, a triangu-
lar vacuity, fZ, is left, which, however, is covered during the
act of deglutition by being carried forwards beneath the loose
and rugous membrane, e, between it and the tongue. Quad-
rupeds have a cartilaginous flap, the epic/lottis, which covers
the aperture, but in birds there is no such contrivance. The
oval pad, //, in which is the aperture described, has its sur-
face composed of mucous membrane, continuous with that of
the gullet, and presents several series of small conical papillte,
the use of which may possibly be to defend the glottis during
deglutition or regurgitation. Before understanding the manner
in which the aperture of the windpipe is opened and closed,
we must examine the structure of the solid part of the larynx.

Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, represent the bones of the larynx : 4 shewing
them viewed from before, 5 from behind, 6 from the right side.
The form and proportions of these bones vary much in diiferent
birds, as we shall afterwards have occasion to see. The largest,
marked a in all the figures, is placed in front, and is in this
bird of a somewhat ovate form. Being analogous to the thyroid
cartilage of the human larynx, it is named the thyroid bone.
To the upper and posterior part of the thyroid bone are at-
tached, one on each side, two slender curved bones, b i, which
are certainly analogous to the cornua of the thyroid cartilage in
man, and therefore may be named the appendages of the thyroid
hone. Within the nearly complete ring formed by the thyroid
bone and its appendages are three other bones, c, d, d\ of which
the medial and posterior, c, is all that remains in birds of the
cricoid cartilage of the mammalia, which, as its name implies,
forms in them a ring of which the anterior part passes below
the thyroid cartilage. To this bone, the cricoid, are articu-
lated two slender bones, d d, named arytenoid. At their an-
terior extremity these bones are attached to the inner surface

TRACHEA OF THE ROOK. 23

of the thyroid bone, a, by two slender elastic ligaments, e e.
The space between the outer edge of the arytenoid bones, d d,
and the edge of the thyroid bone, a, and its appendages, h J,
is filled up by the raucous membrane internally, and by muscles
to be presently described. Along the upper edge of each ary-
tenoid bone, d d, is placed a thin cartilage, f f. The two
first rings of the trachea, g g, are incomplete.

It may here be stated that, although in man and the quadru-
peds, in which this part is proportionally larger and more com-
plex, the voice with all its varieties as to intensity, is produced by
the muscles and membranous cords of the larynx; yet in birds it
is produced at the lower extremity of the windpipe, the syrinx^
Fig. 1, q, but is modulated by the larjmx so as to be formed into
notes. If we take the trachea of a Rook or Blackbird, and
blow through its two bronchi, we cause a sound having some
resemblance to the cry of the bird ; but this experiment does
not disclose to us the part in which the sound is produced.
Let us therefore cut the trachea across in the middle. By
blowing into the upper part we cause no sound, but by blow-
ing into the bronchi, we produce the same sound as before ;
and if we remove the tracheal and bronchial rings, until no-
thing is left but the syrinx and two or three of the rings, still
the sound, though feebler, is heard. The trachea has been cut
across in the living bird, and its anterior half closed, and yet
the bird has emitted a cry somewhat similar to its natural one,
although it could not fashion it into notes. In the human
larynx, the tocal cords, which vibrate under the impulse of the
air, and thus produce sound, are placed in the larynx ; but in
birds there are no traces of them there, and this is the reason,
or a reason, why in them sound is not produced in the larynx.
It is in the vicinity of the lower larynx, or sifrinx, as I have
called it, that the vibrating membrane is placed, as I shall
presently shew.

One of the best trachea? for the purpose of experimenting
upon, is that of the Wild Swan, when in a recent state. In
February and March 1838, when I had four specimens, I had
one removed from its attachments. On introducing the bronchi
into my mouth, and blowing hard into them, I produced a dull

24 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

sound, which I found to be rendered louder and sharper when
the bronchi were contracted, so as to allow their membranes
to vibrate. A person present suggesting that the sound was
produced in the upper larynx, because it also was in a state of
vibration, I had the trachea cut across. On blowing into the
bronchi, I caused the same sound as before, but considerably
shriller, and could vary its tone from grave to sharp by stretch-
ing or contracting the bronchi. The sound was evidently pro-
duced by the tremulous motion of the bronchial membranes,
and especially of that part situated between the last ring of the
trachea and the first bronchial half ring.

The muscles by which the bones of the larynx are moved,
so as to open and close the aperture of the glottis, and draw it
backwards or forwards, so as to modulate the voice, are, in the
Rook, the following : —

1. The larynx is connected with the hyoid bone and tongue
by elastic tissue, but it has also a muscular connexion. As is
seen in Fig. 8, a pair of thin and slender muscles, the tliyro-
hyoidei, arise in front from the thyroid bone, and are inserted
into the basal part of the hyoid bone. Their action is to pull
the larynx forwards during deglutition, so as to draw the fore
part of the aperture of the glottis, Fig. 3, d, into the sheath, e,
which answers the purpose of the epiglottis in man. If the
larynx be fixed, it also draws back the tongue.

2. The other muscles of the larynx are seen on its posterior
and superior part. The first may be named the thyro-arytenoi-
deus or apertor glottidis, Fig. 9. It arises from the appendages
of the thyroid bone, from part of the edge of the body of that
bone, and passes obliquely forwards and inwards to be inserted
into the inner edge of the arytenoid bone, and into the cartilage
by which it is margined. Its action is to separate the lips of
the aperture of the glottis. This muscle lies immediately
under the integument, or mucous membrane and papillre seen
atyy, in Fig. 3. The arytenoid bones are prevented from being
too widely separated by their anterior ligaments, e e, Fig. 5.

8. The aperture of the glottis is closed by a pair of very small
muscles. Fig. 10, which arise from the anterior and upper
part of the cricoid bone, and are inserted along the inner edges

TRACHEA OF THE ROOK. 25

of the basal half of the arytenoid bones. Their lower or pos-
terior fibres are transverse, and they may be considered as ana-
logous to the arytenoldei-ohllqid and traiwcer sales in man.

4. Beneath the thyro-arytenoidei, Fig. 9, which open the
glottis, are a pair of muscles, the thyro-cricoidei^ Fig. 11,
which arising from the inner edge of the upper and back part
of the thyroid bone and its appendage, are inserted into the
outer side of the basal half of the arytenoid bones, and into the
back part of the cricoid. Their action is to assist in closing
the glottis, but more especially to elevate and draw forward
the cricoid and arytenoid bones.

5. Besides these may be mentioned a pair of very small
oblique muscles, seen in Fig. 11, and more distinctly in Fig.
12, which pass from the edge of the appendages of the thyroid
bone to be inserted into the cricoid and arytenoid, and there-
fore may be named thyro-cricoidei postici. Their action is to
pull the cricoid and arytenoid bones backward and downward.

Having thus examined the larynx, or upper extremity of the
trachea, we continue our inspection, observing that the body of
that tube, Fig. 1, o jt> 5', is of nearly uniform breadth, until at its
lower extremity, q, where it is much contracted, and that its
rings are generally narrower in the median line than at the sides.

From each side of the larynx arises a thin muscle, s s,
which soon becomes narrower, and extends along the trachea
in its whole length, until it is blended with the muscles situ-
ated on the syrinx, q. This muscle is generally named the
sterno-trachealis^ because it usually leaves the trachea at its
lower part, and passes backward to be inserted into the ante-
rior portion of the costal process of the sternum. In some
birds, as the Ducks, there are two such muscles on each side :
in other words, the cleido-trachealis, already described, in-
stead of separating from the trachea at its commencement,
adheres to it until near the furcula. Here, however, it may
with more propriety be considered as terminating at the lower
extremity of the trachea ; and, as its action is to contract or
shorten the tube, it may be named contractor trachew.

At the bifurcation, q, the tube of the trachea contracts, and
becomes circular, in place of being flattened. One of its last

26 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

rings, Fig. 13, a a, is larger than the rest, and has its inferior
margin thickened and curved, so as to come to a point before and
behind, as at b. If we remove the bronchi, Fig. 1, r r, from
this ring, Fig. 13, a ah, and look to it from beneath, we find
that it is divided by a narrow bony slip into two semicircular
portions, forming the entrances of the bronchi, Fig. 14. Fig.
15 shews the appearance of the bifurcation from beneath, the
bronchi being stretched out laterally ; the dimidiating slip of
the last entire ring of the trachea, a ; the two last or dimidiate
rings of the trachea, h h ; the lower surface of the bronchi, c c,
formed of elastic membrane ; and lastly, two roundish, subcar-
tilaginous bodies, with the use of which I am not acquainted.
We have now to examine the syrinx, or inferior larynx, with
reference to its muscular apparatus.

Viewed anteriorly, as in Fig. 1, the syrinx^ q, represents
two small pads of muscles, together with two very slender mus-
cular slips ; but these muscles are much more distinctly seen
in the lateral view, Fig. 16. There are four pairs.

1. The internal anterior muscle of the syrinx, a, arises from
several of the lower rings of the trachea, and is inserted into the
anterior extremity of the first half ring of the trachea. Its action
must be to widen the syrinx in its antero-posterior diameter.

2. The external anterior muscle, h, arises in the same
manner, on the outer side of the last, and is inserted into the
anterior extremity of the second or last half ring of the trachea.

3. The posterior muscle, c, arises behind the last two, and
is inserted into the hind part of the last tracheal half ring.

4. Between the last two is seen a shorter, broader, and
thinner muscle, d, which arises from a few of the lower rings
of the trachea, and is inserted into the whole upper edge of the
last tracheal half ring.

These muscles acting conjointly must elevate the last tra-
cheal rings, and elongate the bronchi ; acting separately, they
must elevate either extremity of the former.

The last muscle, g, the sterno-trachealis, is a slip, which arises
from a ring of the trachea, between the two anterior muscles,
passes backwards and downwards, and is inserted into the an-
terior part of the costal process of the sternum. Its action is

LUNGS OF THE ROOK. 27

to draw the inferior larynx downwards, or to prevent it from
being pulled too far upwards by the action of the contractor
tracheas, s s ; or to aid the action of that muscle in shortening
the trachea. Here it is a distinct muscle, but in many birds
it forms a direct continuation of the contractor tracheae, s s.

We have thus traced eleven pairs of muscles belonging to the
trachea : five pairs being appropriated to the larynx, two pairs
to the tube of the trachea, and four pairs to the syrinx, or in-
ferior larynx. You will find the number stated in books to be
much less ; but we take our lessons from nature, and regard
no other authority. It is by these muscles that the different
parts of the air-tube are stretched and relaxed, opened and
closed, so as to produce modulated sounds ; and all this com-
plex apparatus is necessary to enable a Rook to emit its various
cries, which, however, are much more numerous than is gene-
rally supposed, and fully as diversified as those of the Black-
bird, although it has not the faculty of emitting them in con-
tinuance, so as to form what is called a song.

The part which seems to be analogous to the vocal cords in
man, is a dense, whitish elastic ligament extended between the
extremities of the last half ring of the trachea on each side, at
b b. Fig. 15, but which will be better seen in another figure.

The lungs. Fig. 1, t t, are two oblong, depressed, spongy,
but rather dense bodies, situated in the upper part of the thorax,
extending from the first to the sixth rib, 1, 6, presenting be-
neath or towards the sternum a flattish surface, and being
above transversely and deeply grooved by the ribs. Inferiorly,
they are covered, supported and confined by a membrano-ten-
dinous expansion analogous to the diaphragm in quadrupeds,
and into which are inserted some slender muscular slips, « v v>,
coming from the hind ribs. Being thus bound down, they re-
ceive little dilatation during inspiration, and their upper or
dorsal surface, instead of being free, as in the mammalia, is at-
tached to the pleura costalis by a very delicate cellular tissue.
Two of the bronchial apertures communicating with the tho-
racic cells are seen at u u. Behind the lungs are placed the
kidneys, on the inferior surface of the anterior lobes of which
are seen the testes.

28 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

Let us now compare with these organs in the Rook, the cor-
responding parts in the Blackbird, referring again to Plate X.

The trachea itself, Fig. 2, a b, is in no essential respect
diiferent from that of the Rook, it being a little flattened, and
slightly tapering, its rings complete and about eighty-two in
number. The larynx also is similar, and presents the same
muscles similarly arranged.

Fig. 3 represents the tongue, a, covered with a horny en-
velope, which is fringed towards the end ; the two crura of the
hyoid bone with their muscles, b b ; the elastic ligament, c;
connecting the larynx with the base of the hyoid bone ; be-
hind which are the thyro-hyoid muscles ; the aperture of the
glottis, c?, the upper rings of the trachea, e ; the cleido-thyroid
muscles, yy*; and the contractors of the trachea, g g.

Fig. 4 shews the bones of the larynx, namely, the thyroid,
with its appendages, the cricoid, and the two arytenoid, to-
gether with the thyro-cricoidei postici, and the arytenoidei.

Fig. 5 exhibits the thyro-arytenoideus, which opens the rima
glottidis ; and Fig. 6, the thyro-cricoidei, which aid in closing
it, and bring the parts forwards.

At the bifurcation of the trachea, we find precisely the same
arrangement as in the rook. The lower ring is larger, and
divided at its lower pointed margin into two passages for the
bronchi, as is seen in Figs. 7 and 8. The muscles of this part,
viewed anteriorly, are seen in Fig. 2, in which b b mark the
cleido-thyroid muscles ; c e^ the contractors of the trachea ;
d d, very slender muscular filaments attached to the sternum ;
b, the syrinx, with its muscles ; e e, the sterno-tracheales ; and
ff, the bronchi. Viewed laterally. Fig. 9, the muscles are
seen to be similar in number and arrangement to those of the
Rook ; namely, the anterior internal muscle, a, arising from
several of the lower rings of the trachea, and inserted into the
anterior extremity of the first half ring ; the external anterior
muscle, arising in the same manner, on the outer side, and
inserted into the anterior extremity of the last half ring of the
trachea ; the posterior muscle, arising behind the last two, and
inserted into the posterior extremity of the last half ring ; the
intermediate broad muscle, inserted into the upper edge of the

VOCAL ORGANS OF LINNET AND WOOD PIGEON. 29

same ring ; and lastly, the sterno-trachealis, ^, here extremely
delicate, which passes from the lower part of the trachea to
the edge of the sternum. Viewed from behind, the muscles
appear as in Fig. 10. The bronchial rings are eighteen.

Such, then, is the apparatus by which the voice of the
Cantatores is attuned. The air contained in the lungs and
air-cells, passing through the bronchi, causes the vocal mem-
branes at their anterior extremity to vibrate, and thus produces
sound, which is rendered grave or acute by the relaxation or
tension of the parts ; and the stream of air thus thrown into
vibrations is divided, narrowed, or allowed to pass free, by the
muscles of the larynx. The modifications of these organs pre-
sented by the different species of this order, are slight, and in all
those which I have examined, I have found the same parts, and
the same number of muscles. The peculiar songs of different
species must depend upon circumstances beyond our cognition,
for surely no one could imagine that the Raven, the Hooded
Crow, and the Rook, require as complex an apparatus to pro-
duce their unmusical cries, as that which the Blackbird, the
Song Thrush, the Nightingale, and the Linnet employ in mo-
dulating their voice, so as to give rise to those melodies which
are so delightful to us ; and yet the knife, the needle, and the
lens do not enable us to detect any superiority in the Warbler
over the Crow.

Having examined the vocal organs of a species of the Canta-
tores, and those of a species of the Vagatores, we may now
advert to the respiratory and vocal apparatus of the Deglubitores.
Taking a Common Linnet as a representative of the latter, we
observe that the parts in question present no very remarkable
differences. As is seen in Plate XI, Fig. 17, the trachea is
similar to that of the Blackbird, being a little flattened, and
tapering, with the muscles of the larynx and syrinx essentially
the same. Instead of being merely lateral, however, the con-
tractor trachese is spread over its whole surface. The rings of
the trachea are about sixty, and the half rings of the bronchi
about twelve.

The vocal organs of the Deglubitores, Vagatores, and Canta-
tores, are thus essentially similar, and occupy the highest place

30 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

in the order of complexity. Let us now see in what respects
they agree with, or differ from, those of the other orders which
I have described, namely, the Gemitores and Rasores.

In Plate XII, Fig. 1 represents the trachea of the Wood
Pigeon, Columha Palumhus. In opening the skin of the throat,
we observe that the windpipe, in place of passing over to the
right side and returning, as in the Crows, Starlings, Thrushes,
and otlier Vagatores and Cantatores, keeps on the left side, and
indeed so far back that when the neck is bent, part of it becomes
higher than the vertebrae. And here I may venture upon a
general statement, which, however, I shall not dignify by giv-
ing it the name of a law : — In all birds of which the oesophagus
is funnel-shaped or tubular, the trachea passes along with it to
the right side ; in those in which there is a small dimidiate
crop, or slight dilatation, as the Deglubitores, it passes also to
the right ; and in all those which have a large crop, as the Gemi-
tores, Rasores, and Diurnal Raptores, it keeps to the left side.
On exposing the trachea of our Pigeon, we find that it is of
nearly uniform diameter, but much flattened, the anterior part of
its rings much broader and firmer than the posterior part, so
that the latter readily yields to the finger, and when dry falls
inwards with a concavity. The number of rings in this species
is an hundred and ten, and that of the bronchial half rings ten.

Plate XII, Fig. 1, represents the tongue, a ; the j^rocesses
of the hyoid bone, h h ; the trachea viewed from before, c d e\
the two thyro-hyoidei muscles, /: the lateral contractors g g^
here terminated by the sterno-tracheales, g g ; the single pair
of muscles of the syrinx, li h ; the last ring of the trachea, e ;
and the two bronchi, i i. It is to be remarked that here the
muscular slip g, M'hich connects the trachea with the costal
process of the sternum on each side, is a direct continuation
of the contractor muscle, which was not the case in the Rook,
Blackbird, and Linnet ; that the muscles of the syrinx are
reduced to a single pair — and there are many birds in which
there are none at all, as we shall presently see ; that the last
ring of the trachea, e^ is very curiously modified, for in place
of being a solid bone, it is formed of an upper curved hoop,
a lower circular ring, and two connecting semi-cartilaginous

TRACHEA OF PIGEONS AND PTARMIGANS. 31

processes, one in front, the other behind, the intervening space
being filled by an elastic membrane, which when relaxed be-
comes concave externally, but which may be rendered tense
by the action of the muscles, h /«, inserted into it.

Fig. 2 is a lateral view of the syrinx, shewing the lower part
of the sterno-trachealis muscle, a ; the tensor of the membrane
of the syrinx, h ; that membrane itself, c ; with its upper and
lower rings. This lower ring of the trachea, Fig. 1, g, has no
division, like the corresjDonding part in the Rook and Black-
bird, PI. X, Fig. 7, and PL XI, Fig. 14 ; but the membranes
of the bronchi merely meet there, and are united by a dense
layer, the ring. Fig. 3, remaining entire. On blowing into the
bronchi, we find that a tremulous murmuring sound is pro-
duced, which we may fancy to resemble that of the bird, al-
though we are unable to modulate it.

In Fig. 4 are seen, the upper surface of the tongue, a ; the
hyoid bones, h h ; the aperture of the glottis, with its pad, c ;
the first rings of the trachea, d ; and part of the contractor
muscles, e e.

Fig. 5 shows the bones of the larynx : namely, the thyroid,
a ; the appendages of the thyroidj h b ; the cricoid, c ; and the
arytenoid, d. It is here to be observed that the appendages of
the thyroid, which by many anatomists have been considered
as portions of the cricoid bone, are actually continuous with the
body of the tliyroid^ although reduced to a cartilaginous state.

Figs. 6 and 7 shew the difference in the thickness of the
same rings, Fig. 6 being a posterior. Fig. 7 an anterior view.

The muscles of the larynx are reduced to two, namely, the
thyro-arytenoideus, and the thyro-cricoideus, on each side.

The differences here presented are important and very ob-
vious, and would induce us to suppose that the more simple the
voice, the less complex, as to its muscular apparatus at least,
the lower larynx. But, before we come to general laws, we
must extend our observation, and therefore, considering that
some ornithologists would force upon us the Pigeons as part of
the Rasores, let us examine the windpipe of a Gallinaceous bird,
and see whether or not it differs as much from that of a Cooer,
as many of the other organs of these two most distinct orders do.

32 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

Plate XII, Fig, 8, represents the trachea of a Brown Ptar-
migan, Lagopus scoticus. It tapers considerably toward the
lower extremity, and is composed of about seventy rings. Like
that of the Pigeons, it keeps on the left side of the neck, as is
in fact the case in all birds which have the crop large, but in
this, as in the other representations, it is straightened. The
thyroid, cricoid, and arytenoid cartilages present nothing re-
markable in their form or arrangement. The rings of the tra-
chea, however, are extremely thin, broader in front than at
the sides, and having a transverse vacuity there. The lowest
complete ring is very similar to that of the Wood Pigeon,
being formed of an upper curved ring, a lower ring also
curved, and an anterior and a posterior erect bony slip con-
necting the rings, the interval between which is filled by mem-
brane. As in the Pigeon, there is no transverse dissepiment in
this ring, beyond which are two half rings belonging to the
trachea. The bronchi, g <7, are very wide, and composed of
about fifteen half rings. The muscles of the upper larynx are only
three, the thyro-hyoideus, the thyro-arytenoideus which opens
the glottis, and the crico-arytenoideus which closes it. The la-
teral muscles of the trachea are two, the cleido-trachealis, d d ;
and the sterno-trachealis, e e ; but the syrinx or lower larynx
is totally destitute of muscles, and in this respect differs from
that of any bird which w^e have yet examined. In other
gallinaceous birds, the trachea is less flattened or perfectly
tubular, with strong bony rings ; but in all, the lower larynx
is destitute of muscles. The lungs, h h, are seen covered by
the strong fibro-membranous expansion, to which are attached
on each side three muscular slips, i,j, k, arising from the ribs.

Thus, it appears that in reference to the complexity of its
muscular apparatus, the trachea of the Cantatores, Vagatores,
and Deglubitores, occupies the highest place, there being five
pairs of muscles appropriate to the larynx, two pairs to the
tube of the trachea, and four pairs to the lower larynx. The
Gemitores or Pigeons have three pairs for the larynx, one
pair for the tube of the trachea, and a single pair for the lower
larynx. The Rasores have three pairs for the larynx, and two
pairs for the tube of the trachea, but none for the lower larynx.

TRACHEA OF THE PARROTS. 33

111 these latter birds, therefore, the organs of voice are of the
most simple construction. Other tribes of birds correspond
with these several gradations, as we shall subsequently have
occasion to observe ; and intermediate stations are occupied by
others. For example, the trachea of the Parrots differs from
all those which we have examined in having two pairs of
muscles to the lower larynx.

Plate XII, Fig. 9, represents the windpipe of a Parrot.
The glosso-hyal bone is marked a ; the basi-hyal, h ; the uro-
hyal, c; the apo-hyals, d d\ the cerato-hyals, e e. The bones
of the larynx are the thyroid, /"; the lateral appendages of the
thyroid, g ; the cricoid, h ; and the arytenoid, i. The tra-
chea, j k, is much enlarged at the commencement, and then
gradually tapers. It is composed of sixty-five strong rings, of
which the upper four are incomplete. The rest are contracted
in the middle, before, and behind, so as to overlap each other
in a manner to be afterwards described. The inferior larynx,
k, is extremely compressed in a lateral direction. None of
the rings are much enlarged ; the last complete ring is curved,
but has no dissepiment ; and the last ring, which is dimidiate,
is strong, and much curved.

Fig. 10 represents this part, viewed laterally. The last
entire ring is marked b ; the dimidiate terminal ring, c ; the
first bronchial ring, d ; the bronchus, d e, of which the num-
ber of half rings is twelve.

The muscles of the larynx are only three, namely, the thyro-
hyoideus, the thyro-arytenoideus, Fig. 11, and the thyro-cri-
coideus. Fig. 12. Those of the lower larynx are two. Viewed
from before they are represented by Fig. 9, in which / / are
the sterno-trachealis, which I do not consider as a muscle of
the inferior larynx, it being generally a continuation of the con-
tractor muscle ; m m, the tracheali-bronchiales, which arise
from several of the lower rings of the trachea, and are inserted
into the first and second bronchial rings ; n n, a pair of short
strong muscles arising from some of the last tracheal rings to
be inserted into the last ring of the trachea, which being dimi-
diate, is moveable, like those of the bronchi. Fig. 13 shews
this muscle in the lateral aspect of the trachea ; and in Fig. 1 4
is seen the trachpali-bronchialis, which lies over it.

VOL. II. D

34

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

For the present this must serve as an explanation of the
mechanism and functions of the respiratory and vocal organs
of birds. An opportunity may occur of resuming the subject.
But before concluding this lesson, I cannot with propriety
defer explaining a peculiarity in the windpipe of birds which
seems to have been overlooked. It has been remarked that
the rings in certain species have one side narrower than the
other, and this alternately, in the manner represented by the
accompanying figure ; but although this may be the case in a
few species, it is not so in those in which it has been pointed
out, for the disposition in question is merely apparent and not
real. The true state of such windpipes is this. Owing to the
frequent and extensive alternate contractions and elongations
of the neck, the trachea requires to have a structure allowing
it to undergo corresponding alterations, and this without any
great change in its diameter. Solid rings, connected by elas-
tic membranes, might, by the contraction of the latter, ap-
proximate so as greatly to diminish the length of the tube ;
but so great does this diminution occasionally require to be,
that to effect it in this manner, the rings would be too slender
or too distant to maintain the calibre of the tube in a perfectly
pervious state, and therefore a contrivance was necessary by
which strength and a great degree of contraction, with a uni-
form diameter in all cases, might be
combined ; and this has been effect-
ed in the following manner. Fig.
108 represents a portion of the wind-
pipe in a state of relaxation ; while
Fig. 109 represents a portion in a state
of contraction ; and Fig. 110 a por-
tion in an intermediate state. In
the first state, Fig. 108, the rings,
which are equal, or nearly so, stand
free, being separated by an interven-
ing space occupied by elastic inem-
brane. In the second case, i:* ig. lOy,
the rings appear as if incomplete, or the trachea seems to be
formed of alternate lateral half rings, presenting, at their meet-

MECHANISM OF THE TUBE OF THE TRACHEA. 35

ing in front and behind, a zigzag line. In the other case, Fig.
110, the rings appear as if complete, but alternately broader on
either side ; in other words, each ring seems to have one lateral
half broad and the other narrow. And it is thus that the rings
of the trachea in birds, or at least in many birds, have been
usually represented. But let us examine the matter more closely,
and rather take a lesson from nature than from books ; and for
this purpose let us take the trachea of a large bird, a Wild
Swan for example.

A portion of the trachea of that bird, one inch in length,
when contracted to the utmost, Fig. Ill, appears to be com-
posed of alternating half rings ; or if
less contracted, of entire rings alter-
nately broad and narrow. But the
same portion drawn out to its full ex-
tent, and then measuring two inches
in length, Fig. 112, has a very diffe-
rent appearance, being evidently com-
posed of equal rings, each, however,
having a contraction, or two opposite
notches, in the middle, in front, as
well as behind. Now, if the rings be
gradually brought together, we find
that one overlaps the other in a pecu-
liar manner, so as to produce the appearance represented by
Fig. 111. Fig. 113 represents two rings, the membrane be-
tween which has been removed. The ring marked 1, is seen
to be narrowed in the middle, and the portion of it to the
right is plain or flat, while that to the left has a slight ridge
running along its centre. The ring marked 2 is similar, but
has the plain portion to the left, and that with the ridge placed

to the riofht. In Figf.

114, these two rings
are brought close toge-
ther, when it is seen
Fio. 113. Fig. 114. that No. 1 has over-

lapped No. 2 on the right side as far as the ridge, while No. 2
has overlapped No. 1 on the left side to the same extent. No. 1

Fig. lU.

36 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

has thus passed within No. 2 on the left side, and over it on the
right ; and in this manner has been produced the appearance
exhibited by Fig. 111. Of course without the contraction or
double notch in each ring this effect could not be produced, for
it is there that the rings cross each other. Thus then, the
trachea in its extreme state of contraction, when it is reduced
from one-half to one-third of its greatest length, undergoes but
a very slight diminution in its diameter. The elastic membrane
passes from the edge of one ring over the next, to be inserted
into the edge of the third. Tlie intermediate ring then slips in
behind those on each side of it ; while its other lateral half slips
before those on each side of it. This mechanism I have observed
in almost all the tracheae which I have examined, although the
rings vary much in breadth and thickness in different species.
Surely while we are pleased with having so satisfactorily
traced it, we may be permitted to admire its extreme beauty,
and to exclaim with the Psalmist, " How wonderful are thy
works, O Lord ! in wisdom hast thou made them all !"

Many curious modifications of structure are observed in the
trachea, the peculiarities of which tend, along with those of the
alimentary canal and other organs, to indicate the affinities of
the different groups of birds. Thus the syrinx is destitute of
muscles in the Rasores, and in the Swans, Geese, and Ducks,
which among the aquatic birds are analogous to the Pheasants
and Partridges among the land birds. But the general infe-
rences that may be deduced from these circumstances must be
deferred until we have obtained a view of the whole series. I
shall therefore conclude with a few remarks.

In some birds the rings of the trachea are very narrow, and
their intervals proportionally wide ; and sometimes the rings
are cartilaginous, or but partially ossified. All these circum-
stances are observed in the tracheae of the Golden Eagle, the
White-tailed Sea Eagle, and the Gulls. Often, on the other
hand, as in Cranes, Herons, Swans, Ducks, and Mergansers,
the rings are very broad, with very small intervals. Sometimes
the bronchi are very short, as in most of the Waders ; and
sometimes they are very long, and of great diameter, as in Cor-
morants and Bitterns. Although generally membranous along

MECHANISM OF THE TUBE OF THE TRACHEA. 37

one side, they are complete in the Grebes, in which moreover
the rings are ossified. As to the extensibihty and contractihty
of the trachea, I may state that the windpipe of a Golden Eagle,
when contracted to the utmost by the overlapping of its rings,
measured five inches and a half, but when extended to the ut-
most, measured nine inches and a half; that of a Curlew was
four inches long when contracted, and six inches and three
quarters when extended ; and that of a Cormorant, in the for-
mer case, nine inches and three quarters, and in the latter
fifteen inches and a quarter. But as in these cases the bones
of the upper larynx and syrinx, which do not slip over each
other, are included, a better idea of the extensibility of the
trachea is obtained from a fragment of it taken from the middle.
Thus, a portion of the trachea of a Rook, one inch long when
contracted as much as it can be, measures two inches and three
quarters when extended to the utmost ; and a portion of that
of a Wood Pigeon, one inch long when contracted, may be
extended to two inches and a quarter. But the greatest range
known to me is exhibited by the dilated portion of the trachea
of the Golden-eyed Duck, which may be contracted to a quarter
of an inch, and extended to two inches and a quarter. This,
however, is effected by a mechanism different from that usually
exhibited ; for although the rings cross each other in front, in
the ordinary manner, they are narrowed behind, and gradually
fall within each other upwards.

Finally, I have again to remark that I do not consider the
pair of muscles, PL X, Fig. % ee\ PI. XI, Fig. 16, «?; PL
XII, Fig. 1, g g -^ which connect the trachea with the sternum,
as belonging to the lower larynx, with which they generally
have no connexion. They usually form the lower extremity of
the contractor-trachese or sterno-trachealis, but are sometimes
distinct, at least in part, some of their fibres being inserted upon
one or two rings of the trachea.

And now, good Pupil, persevering and industrious, I cannot
suppose that you hold all this to be a digression. Many per-
sons consider everything anatomical, mathematical, or in any
way rational, as " dry :" they relish romances, rhymes, carica-
tures, and frivolities of all sorts. Some weak-headed naturalists

38 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

go so far as to tell us that lungs and liver, and bones and muscles,
and such trash, have nothing to do with the study of living nature.
They even unblushingly call themselves philosophers, and " the
higher order of zoologists." Let us not think more highly of
ourselves than we ought, but simply strive to acquire and im-
part a knowledge of the works of God, In the Linnsean So-
ciety's Transactions, you will find a most instructive account
of the windpipes of birds by Mr Yarrell, which, however, I
did not look to until I had examined the subject in nature.
His description and nomenclature of the parts are different from
mine, and therefore you must consider well before you adopt
either. Our fifth practical lesson is now ended : when we meet
again, we shall talk of hill and dale, thicket and wild wood ;
traverse in thought the barren heath and the cultivated field ;
and listen to the songs of the Mavis and Merle, as we bask on
the sunny slope of some rocky mountain that overhangs the
far-extended and populous valley of the Tay, or to the croaking
notes of the Ptarmigan, misnamed " mutus,'''' as we penetrate
the white mist that envelopes the craggy summit of Ben Ledi.

39

V. CANTATORES. SONGSTERS.

The birds to wliich, considered collectively, I have given
the name of Songsters are obviously more deserving of that
title than any others, their vocal powers being of the highest
order, for although some species of Pegluhitores and Tkrem-
maphilince may in this respect rival many of the Cantatores^
yet not only do the latter in general possess more musical
talent than all the other groups together, but several species
among them, for example, the Sky Lark, the Wood Lark, the
Mocking-bird, the Wood Thrush, the Common Thrush, the
Blackbird, the Nightingale, the Blackcap, and the Garden
Warbler, excel all competitors in the variety, melody, and
compass of their song. It may not therefore be said that they
are inaptly named. But a more serious task, that of charac-
terizing them, has to be performed, before the propriety of the
proposed arrangement can be made manifest.

To begin with their most obvious characters, it may, in the
first place, be stated that they are all of small size, some of
them being extremely diminutive, while the largest does not
exceed a Merlin or a Turtle Dove. They form part of the
so-called order Insessores of some ornithologists, from which
I have already separated the Deglubitores or Huskers, having
thick conical bills, fitted for shelling seeds or kernels, a small
dimidiate crop or oesophageal dilatation, and a highly muscular
gizzard, and the Vagatores or Wanderers, which have the bill
more elongated and compressed, the oesophagus without dila-

40 CANTATORES. SONGSTERS.

tation, and the stomach slightly or moderately muscular, they
being in general omnivorous. Species of both these orders
exhibit close affinities to species of the present order, which
presents the following general characters.

The bill is never longer than the head, nearly straight,
slender or moderately stout, compressed, tapering, pointed,
sharp-edged ; the upper mandible with a notch or sinus, which,
however, is in some species obsolete. The tongue is short, or
of moderate length, narrow, flat, emarginate, and papillate at
the base, thin-edged, with the point slit or lacerated. The
oesophagus is narrow, without crop or dilatation ; the proven-
triculus oblong, with a complete belt of roundish or oblong
simple glandules. The stomach is roundish, or broadly ellip-
tical, and compressed ; its muscular coat thick, and forming
two distinct lateral muscles, with an inferior thinner muscle ;
its cuticular lining dense, tough, and slightly rugous. The
intestine is short, and rather wide, the coeca very small, cylin-
drical, and adnate ; the rectum short, wide, with an elliptical
dilatation or cloaca. See Plate XIII.

The body is ovate ; the neck short ; the legs of ordinary
length or short ; the tarsus much compressed, covered ante-
riorly with about seven scutella ; the toes four, compressed,
three anterior, slightly spreading, the first stouter and about
the same length as the second and fourth, which are nearly
equal, the third much longer, and united at its base with the
fourth. The claws are rather long, arched, slender, compress-
ed, tapering to a fine point, that of the hind toe longest. The
wings are of moderate length, semi-ovate ; the first quill ex-
tremely small, sometimes wanting, the third and fourth gene-
rally longest. The tail is composed of twelve feathers, but
varies in size and form.

The cranium is large, ovate, broad and rounded behind ;
the orbits are very large, their septum incomplete ; the jaws
of moderate length, and rather slender ; the upper with the
nasal vacuity large and elliptical, the lower almost straight,
with an oblong vacuity near the condyle. The cervical verte-
brae are generally twelve ; the dorsal eight ; the united lumbar
and sacral ten, or the lumbar three and the sacral seven ; the

CANTATORES. SONGSTERS.

41

coccygeal or caudal seven. The ribs are eight, very slender,
depressed, the first incomplete, and, as well as the last, without
the posterior process, which is narrow and rather long. The sca-
pula, ^ J, is linear and slightly decurved ; thefarcula, i, narrow,
hyoid, or resembling the letter U, with the curve rounded, and
having a roundish or oblong thin plate projecting backwards.
The coracoid bones, h h^ are rather slender, and diverge little.
The sternum, a h ff^ is of moderate length, broad, narrower
anteriorly, its posterior margin, ff, broad, more or less curved,
with two deep notches, g g^ its lower outline, a e, slightly
curved, its anterior, a b, concave ; the median process, b, long
and broadly furcate ; the lateral anterior or costal processes,

Fig. 115. Fig. 116.

c c, large. The humerus is short ; the cubital bones a fourth
longer ; the rest of the same length as the cubitus, consisting
of two carpal bones, one large metacarpal, having an oblong
incomplete space, a slender pollical, and three digital, two
united bones forming the first phalanx. The pelvis is of mo-
derate size ; the iliac bones oblong and anteriorly rounded ; the
pubic linear, slightly recurved, with an oblong open space be-
tween them and the rest. The femur is short, the tibia nearly
a third longer, with a slender incomplete fibula, extending
only one-third down. The tarsal bone is trigonal, and shorter

42 CANTATORES. SONGSTERS.

than the tibia ; the hind toe is composed of a distinct meta-
tarsal bone and two phalanges ; the second of three, the third
of four, the fourth of five phalanges ; the extreme phalanges
of moderate length, conical, slightly arched, laterally grooved.

The muscular system is moderately developed, the muscles of
the wings and legs rather large. The trachea is simple, of nearly
uniform diameter ; the inferior larynx small and composed of
narrow rings ; the bronchi of moderate length and width. It
lies, along with the oesophagus, on the right side of the neck, has
five distinct pairs of laryngeal muscles, two pairs of contractors,
a pair of sterno-tracheales, and five pairs of inferior laryngeal
muscles. The liver is very large, of two unequal lobes ; the
gall-bladder globular. The nostrils are small and oblong ; the
eyes of moderate size ; the external aperture of the ear large and
transversely elliptical. The skin is very delicate ; some species
when in good condition have a great accumulation of subcuta-
neous fat chiefly along the insertion of the feathers.

The arrangement of the plumage is as follows : — There are
four kinds : quills, feathers, down-feathers, and hair-feathers.

The quills are generally eighteen, ten being primary, the first
or outer always very small. Three pollical quills. Twelve
tail-quills, the two middle above the line of the rest.

The feathers, j)roperly so called, are inserted on the head all
round, on an elevated line from the occiput to the middle of
the back, where it enlarges into a triangular space, then sud-
denly contracts, and continues narrow to the uropygial gland ;
from a similar broad line running down from the fore part of
the neck, dividing below into two broader bands, each of which
runs along the middle portion of the side of the thorax, and
over the abdomen to near the vent ; from a short band crossing
the humerus, a line margining the anterior membrane of the
wing, and a line running along the base of the quills ; from
similar lines under the wings ; from a short band across the
femur passing halfway to the vent ; from the outer part of the
tibia sparsely, and from its whole circumference below ; and
from a small transverse space above and another below the tail.
The ears and anus are also margined with a distinct circle; and
there is a row of bristle-tipped feathers on each side near the
base of the upper mandible.

CANTATORES. SONGSTERS. 43

The down-feathers grow on all the spaces intervening be-
tween those covered by the ordinary feathers. They are gene-
rally sparse, but denser on the abdomen. The hair-feathers grow
sparsely on all the spaces covered by the regular feathers, but
not on those covered by the down-feathers, and in many species
several project beyond the surface of the plumage on the nape.
The arrangement and texture of the plumage are thus simi-
lar to those of the Deglubitores and Vagatores ; which, more-
over, do not differ very essentially in the form and proportions
of their skeleton. The Cantatores however are readily distin-
guished by their slender, straightish, compressed bill, and by
the peculiarities of their digestive organs, which are adapted
for insect food, although also capable of extracting nourishment
from other substances. Their feet being fitted for perching and
walking or leaping, are not essentially different from those of
the orders just mentioned.

Species of this order occur in all parts of the globe, from the
frigid regions bordering on the polar ice to the torrid climes of
the equator, although they are more numerous in the warmer
zones. Their food consists chiefly of insects, larvae, worms, and
terrestrial or fresh-water mollusca, which they procure by
searching among the herbage and foliage, under thickets, by
walls, in the fields and pastures, and by brooks and pools. On
the ground they generally advance by a succession of short
leaps, and although some proceed by an alternate motion of the
feet, none walk in the sedate manner of the Crows and other
Vagatores. Almost all cling with ease to twigs, and move
among the branches and herbage with great agility. Their
flight is generally rapid, light, and undulated ; but it varies
considerably in the different families and genera, being direct
and produced by a continued flutter in the Dippers, buoyant
and deeply undulated in the Wagtails, with intermediate
gradations. In summer they are generally unsocial, in winter
gregarious. Very many are migratory, the necessity of moving
southward in autumn being obvious in those which are strictly
insectivorous. They bask in the sun, flutter among sand or dust,
wash occasionally, and drink by sipping. Their nests are elabo-
rate, generally hemispherical or cup-shaped, sometimes arched,
usually lined with hair or feathers, but so diversified as not to

44 CANTATORES. SONGSTERS.

admit of a brief characteristic description. Some nestle on the
ground, some in holes in the earth, in trees, in buildings, or
among stones, others on the branches of trees. The eggs vary
from four to ten, and the young, which are born blind, are at
first scantily covered with down. The males are larger than
the females, and often much superior in beauty, but in very
many instances the plumage of the sexes is so similar that they
cannot be distinguished without dissection.

Authors differ exceedingly as to the families which may he,
considered as belonging to this order, which, viewed with re-
ference to our own country, is more numerous in species than
any other. Without entering here upon any observations re-
lative to the families as cosmopolitan, I shall merely state that
with us are found representatives of the Myrynotherinw, Tur-
dincB, Alaudinw, Motacillinw, Sylvianw, Saxicolin(x, and Pa-
ritiw. The Myrmotherinae, of which however we have only
one species, and it not one of the most characteristic, are in a
manner intermediate between the Corvinae, Thremmaphilinae,
and Turdinge. The latter are, in like manner, allied to the
Thremmaphilinse, Myrmotherinoe, Sylvianse, and Alaudince.
These again are intimately connected with the Emberizanae,
Turdinse, and Sylvianae ; which pass on the one hand into the
Turdinse, and on the other into the Alaudinse, while in another
direction they manifest an affinity to the Parinae and Repta-
tores. Lastly, the Parinae are manifestly connected with the
Sylvianae on the one hand, and with the Peptatores on the
other. Some of these various affinities will be pointed out in
speaking generally of the different families.

The chief food of the species which occur in Britain is, in
winter and spring, worms, pupae, snails, and seeds ; in summer
and autumn, insects, larvae, and fruits. One species lives en-
tirely on aquatic insects and mollusca, in search of which it
goes into the water, diving to the bottom. Some are almost
equally insectivorous and granivorous, as the Larks ; others es-
sentially insectivorous, as the Wheatear and Whinchat. The
particular propensity of the species in this respect indicates in
some measure its affinity to other families ; but it is not peculiar
to the Cantatores to vary their food, for on none of the families
of land birds has nature imposed a strictly defined regimen.

45

MYRMOTHERIN^.

ANTCATCHER8 AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The Myrmotherinse, which are in some respects intermediate
between the Corvinse and Turdinoe, are readily distinguished
from the former by their wanting the reversed stiff feathers at
the base of the upper mandible, and from the latter by their
comparatively short, concave wings, and especially by the re-
markable abbreviation of their tail, which gives them a peculiar
appearance. To this family belong the genera Myrmothera of
Vieillot, Grallaria., Pitta, Chamwza, Clnclus, and a few others.
Of none of them however are there any representatives in Bri-
tain excepting a single species of that last mentioned.

Fig. m.

In their general form they are full and compact ; their body
being ovate and rather deeper than broad ; their neck somewhat
short, their head oblong, compressed, and generally rather large.

46 MYRMOTHERINiE.

The bill is uot essentially different from tliat of the Thrushes
and Orioles, being moderately stout, shorter than the head,
straight, with the dorsal outline couyexo-declinate, the tip nar-
row, the edges direct, and the upper mandible slightly notched.
The eyes and ears are of moderate size. The feet are rather
long and stout ; the tarsus compressed ; the toes of moderate
size, the first stouter and nearly as long as the second, which
is a little shorter than the fourth, the third much longer, and
united to the fourth at the base ; the claws moderate, arched,
compressed, laterally grooved, and in old birds rather blunt
from being worn.

The wings are short, broad, concave, and rounded ; the quills
nineteen ; the first primary very short and narrow, the second
and third longest ; the secondaries long. The tail is always
short, sometimes extremely abbreviated ; convex above, even
or rounded, and composed of twelve rather broad rounded
feathers. The plumage is various, generally full and soft, its
colours often brilliant, at other times dull, so that no general
character can be derived from it.

The skeleton of these birds probably differs in no very appre-
ciable degree from that of the Turdinre or Thremmaphilince ;
but as I have not examined that of any other species than our
Dipper, which is precisely intermediate between the Turdinfe
and the other Myrmotherinne, and therefore not " tA'pical,"
I am not qualified to speak on this point. The skeleton of the
Dipper may be described in the same terms as those of the
Turdinoe generally. The cranium is of moderate size, ovate ;
the septum of the orbits incomplete : the jaws slender, the
upper with the nasal vacuity elliptical, the lower with an oblong
vacuity near the condyle. There are twelve cervical, eight
dorsal, ten united lumbar and sacral, and seven caudal vertebrae.
The ribs are seven, very slender and depressed. The scapula
is linear and slightly decurved ; the furcula narrow, its curve
rounded, and having a roundish thin plate projecting back-
wards ; the coracoid bones rather slender. The sternum is of
moderate length, broad, anteriorly narrower ; its posterior mar-
gin broad and nearly straight ; its anterior median process long
and furcate. The humerus is short ; the cubital bones a fourth
longer ; those of the hand of the same length as the cubitus.

ANTCATCHERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 47

The pelvis is of moderate size ; the iliac boues oblong, the
pubic linear and slightly recurved. The femur is short ; the
tibia nearly two-thirds longer, the fibula extending a third
down ; the tarsal bone trigonal and rather siout ; the digital
bones, and those of the hand, as described in the character of
the order.

The digestive organs of the Dipper will be mentioned in the
description of that species.

The Myrmotherinse are for the most part natives of the
warmer regions of the globe ; but the genus to which belongs
the only species that occurs in Britain, is composed of species
which inhabit cold and temperate countries, and particularly the
valleys of mountainous districts. Were it not for its greater
affinity to these foreign genera, it might be referred to the family
of Turdinae. Indeed, the Myrmotherinae generally may be con-
sidered as Thrushes with shortened tail and wings.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS L CINCLUS. DIPPER.

Bill rather short, slender, compressed, slightly bent upwards ;
the tip of the upper mandible a little deflected, the notch slight ;
feet strong ; tarsus rather short, compressed, anteriorly with a
single long plate, and four inferior scutella ; toes rather stout,
claws moderate, strong, arched, compressed, blunted ; wings
and tail short and concave.

1 . Cinclus Europceus. European Dipper. Head and hind-
neck dark brown ; upper parts dark grey, the feathers bordered
with black ; fore-neck and part of breast white, the rest of the
breast brownish-red.

48

CINCLUS. DIPPER.

Bill rather short, slender, slightly ascending, deeper than
broad at the base, much compressed towards the end; upper man-
dible with its dorsal outline slightly arched, the ridge rounded,
the sides convex, the edges sharp and inflected, wath an obscure
notch close to the narrow, slightly deflected tip ; low^er mandi-
ble slightly bent upwards, the angle medial and very narrow,
the crura having the sides sloping outwards, the dorsal line
slightly convex, the culmen narrow and rounded, the edges
sharp and inflected, the tip narrow, and rather acute ; the gape-
line straight, commencing under the anterior angle of the eye.

The mouth very narrow ; the uj^per mandible internally
narrow, concave, with a central depressed line ; palate nearly
flat ; aperture of the posterior nares linear, margined with large
acute papillae ; lower mandible concave, with a central and two
lateral prominent lines. Tongue slightly extensile, sagittate,
narrow, grooved, serrulato-setose towards the end, and termi-
nated by two bristle-points. (Esophagus of nearly uniform
diameter; proventriculus with oblong simple glandules; stomach
muscular, roundish, compressed; its inner coat dense, tough, and
ruo-ous, intestine of moderate length, its duodenal portion wider;
the coeca very small and cylindrical. Plate XIII, Fig. 1.

Nostrils linear, direct, with a bare margin above, in the
lower and forepart of the nasal membrane, which is covered
with very short feathers. Eyes rather small ; eyelids densely
feathered. External ear of moderate size, and roundish.

The general form is short, full, and compact ; the head ob-
long, rather small, compressed, the forehead low ; the neck
rather short ; the body rather deeper than broad. The legs
are strong, of ordinary length ; tarsus compressed, covered an-
teriorly with a long undivided plate, and four inferior scutella,
posteriorly with two long plates united at a very acute angle,

CINCLUS. DIPPER. 49

and several transverse rugae below. Toes rather large and
strong, covered above with a few plates, papillar beneath ; the
first, second, and fourth nearly equal, the third much longer ;
the second slightly connected at the base by a web with the
third, which is connected with the fourth by a longer but nar-
rower web, as far as the second joint of each. Claws rather
long, arched, bluntish, much compressed, slightly margined,
laterally grooved, that of the hind toe considerably larger.

Plumage ordinary, rather compact, the feathers oblong and
rounded ; those about the base of the bill very short and some-
what velvety, without bristly points. No bristles at the base
of the bill. Wings rather short, broad, convex, and rounded ;
primary quills ten, the first very short and narrow, the third
longest, and, with the next three, slightly cut out on the outer
web towards the end ; secondary quills nine, long, broad,
rounded. Tail short, even, of twelve rather broad feathers,
which are slightly decurved. Legs feathered to the tibio-tarsal
joint. The whole body closely covered M'ith down, as in the
diving sea-birds.

This genus is composed of at least three species : Cinclus
Pallasii, found by Professor Pallas in the Crimea ; C. Ameri-
caniis, which inhabits Mexico and the Rocky Mountains; and C.
Eurojjceus, which occurs in most parts of Europe. These species
present a remarkable uniformity as to form, and differ little in
size. They frequent the margins of streams and lakes, and
feed on aquatic insects and mollusca, to obtain which they
enter the water, pass beneath its surface, and, although not
web-footed, make their way in it even when the current is
strong. It is probable that the manners of the other species
are very similar to those of the European ; but as little is yet
known respecting them, I cannot here offer general remarks
equally applicable to all.

VOL. II.

50

CINCLUS EUROP.EUS. THE EUROPEAN DIPPER.

WATER OUZEL. W.\TER CROW. WATER PIET. DIPPER. DUCKER. KING-
FISHER. AN OOBHCHAN UISGE. GOBHA UISGE. GOBHA DUBH NAN ALLT.

Sturnus Cinclus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 290.

Turdus Cinclus. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 343.

Water Ouzel. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Cincle plongeur. Cinclus aquaticus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 177.

European Dipper. Cinclus aquaticus. Selb. Tllustr. I. 172.

Cinclus aquaticus. Water Ouzel. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 98.

Male icitk the head and hind-neck dark brown, the upper parts
dark grey, the feathers broadly margined xcith black, the throat
and fore-neck white, the breast broicnish-red. Female similar,
with the tints less deep. Young with the upper parts all grey,
the feathers margined with black, the fore-neck and breast white^
undulated with dusky.

Male. — Among our native birds the Dipper is remarkable
for the compactness of its form, in which respect, as well as in
some of its motions and attitudes, it bears a considerable re-
semblance to the Wren. Its principal features being precisely
accordant with the generic description already given, those
only which are peculiar or more characteristic are selected on
the present occasion. The bill in old individuals is generally

EUROPEAN DIPPER.

51

blunted at the point, and sometimes wedged ; -whereas in young
birds it is similar to that of a Thrush. For the same rea-
son, the claws are commonly worn at the point. The tarsus
has a single long plate and three inferior scutella in front,
the first toe eight, the second nine, the third twelve, the fourth
nine scutella. The oesophagus is of uniform diameter, very
narrow, two inches and three quarters in length, and having a
diameter of two-twelfths. The belt of proventricular glands is
half an inch long. The stomach is small, roundish, compress-
ed, half an inch long, seven and a half twelfths in breadth,
and four and a half twelfths in thickness ; its muscular coat
thick, with the tendons large, being two and a half twelfths in
diameter ; the cuticular lining soft and rugous. The intestine
is tw^elve inches long, its duodenal portion two twelfths and a
half in diameter ; it then gradually diminishes to a twelfth
and a half ; the coeca are generally two twelfths long, but vary,
and are often unequal ; the rectum enlarges from the com-
mencement, and the cloaca has a diameter of four twelfths and
a half.— See PL XIII, Fig. 1.

The plumage is of ordinary length, rather compact, soft,
slightly glossed, very short on the fore part of the head.
The wings when closed extend one-third down the tail, and
when expanded are of a semi-ovate form, broad, rounded and

52 CINCLUS EUROP^US.

concave, with nineteen quills. The first quill is very short
and narrow, the third longest, but the second and fourth are
scarcely shorter ; the other primaries are graduated ; the third,
fourth, and fifth, slightly cut out on the outer web. The quills
are all much decurved ; the secondaries also slightly curved
inwards, and rounded. The tail is short, even, of twelve rather
broad, abrupt, slightly rounded feathers, which are slightly
curved downwards, although the tail itself is generally held in
a horizontal direction, or inclined upwards.

The bill is bluish-black, tinged with brown at the edges ;
the inside of the mandibles blackish ; the palate white ; the
tongue blackish anteriorly, yellowish behind, as is the intercru-
ral space. Iris pale brown, with a ring of black in the middle.
The tarsi and toes are bluish -grey, tinged with brown ; the
claws dusky. The head and hind-neck are deep brown ; both
eyelids with a white speck. The general colour of the upper
parts is dark-grey, each feather broadly margined with black.
The first row of coverts and all the quills are slightly tipped
with pale grey :, the quills and tail dark-brown, tinged with
grey. The throat and fore-neck are pure white ; the breast
chestnut-brown, that colour gradually blending with the deep
grey of the abdomen. The sides and lower tail-coverts are of a
deeper grey, the latter slightly tipped with pale brown. The
down and the downy parts of the feathers are dull dark-
greyish blue, the concealed part of the shafts whitish.

Length to end of tail 7f inches ; bill along the ridge ^%,
along the edge of lower mandible 1 ; extent of wings 12 j ; wing
from flexure 3| ; tail 2^ ; tarsus 1^^^; first toe f |, its claw ^| ;
second toe f|, its claw || ; third toe j^, its claw j% ; fourth
toe Jo, its claw f |.

Female. — The female differs very little from the male in
external appearance, the brown of the head being merely a
little lighter, the brownish-red of the breast less intense, and
the white of the fore-neck of somewhat less extent.

Length to end of tail 7i inches; extent of wings 12; bill
along the ridge ^^|, along the edge of lower mandible 1 ; wing
from flexure 3| ; tail 2^ ; tarsus 1/^ ; first toe /g, its claw

EUROPEAN DIPPER. 53

I'j ; Btjcuuu luc j-g, its claw ^% ; third toe \%^, its claw ^^ ;
fourth toe /j, its claw j%.

Variations, — Adult individuals vary chiefly with respect to
the tints of the breast, that part having more or less of the red
or chestnut colour, and sometimes a white band down the centre.
The changes that take place in the plumage as it becomes old
and worn, are not very remarkable. The tail-feathers and
primary quills are those which suffer most from rubbing.

Habits. — The Dipper is, in many respects, one of the most
interesting of our native birds. Residing chiefly in the wild
glens of the mountainous districts, it noAv and then presents
itself to the wandering naturalist as it flits along the streams,
or is seen perched on a stone in the midst of the water, the
white patch on its breast rendering it conspicuous at a great
distance. Even the mere collector of plants, who, of all men,
seems to be the least capable of comprehending the harmonies
of nature, pauses to gaze upon it, as it shoots past him in its
rapid and even flight ; the solitary shepherd, wending his way
to the mountain corry, meets it with delight ; and the patient
and contemplative angler, as he guides his tackle over the deep
pool, smiles upon the tiny fisher, whose frequent becks have
attracted his notice. The singular circumstance of its obtain-
ing its food under the surface of the water, although in form
and structure it is allied to the Thrushes and other land birds,
has especially drawn the attention of ornithologists to it ; and
the explanation of its mode of progression in that element has
exercised their ingenuity, although very few have based their
conjectures on actual observation. Lastly, the land-proprietor
or his factor, too much occupied with other pursuits to inquire
for themselves, and trusting to the reports of prejudiced per-
sons, direct their gamekeepers and shei^herds to destroy the
lively and harmless creature whenever an opportunity occurs,
because it has been supposed to devour the eggs and fry of the
salmon and trout.

This bird having, in a particular manner, attracted my at-
tention in the course of my rambles, I have been enabled

54 CINCLUS EUROPiEUS.

to trace its history in a satisfactory degree, so that the account
here presented of it I consider as among the most accurate of
those which I have written.

It frequents the sides of our largest rivers as well as streams
of inferior magnitude, especially such as are clear and rapid,
with pebbly or rocky margins. I have met with it in every
part of Scotland, as well as in the hilly parts of Cumberland
and Westmoreland ; and it is said by Montagu to occur in
Wales and Devonshire. In Scotland it is not peculiar to the
mountainous regions, being found in the lowest parts of the
Lothians, as well as on the Alpine rills of the Grampians, and
other elevated tracts ; but it is generally more abundant in
hilly ground, and, although never common in any district, is
nowhere more plentiful than on the Tweed, the Tay, the Dee,
the Spey, and their tributaries. It is also a well-known bird in
all the larger Hebrides. It is not only a permanent resident, but
seldom shifts its station to any great extent, excepting during
continued frosts, when it descends along the streams, and is
seen flitting about by the rapids and falls. INIill dams are also
favourite resorts, especially in winter and spring. On lakes
having a muddy or peaty bottom I have never observed it ;
but it may sometimes be seen on those which are shallow and
pebbly at the margins, as on St. Mary's Loch in Yarrow,
where I have shot it.

The flight of the Dipper is steady, direct, and rapid, like
that of the Kingfisher, being effected by regularly timed and
quick beats of the wings, without intermissions or sailings.
It perches on stones or projecting crags by the sides of streams,
or in the water, where it may be seen frequently inclining the
breast downwards, and jerking up the tail, much in the man-
ner of the Wheatear and Stonechat, and still more of the Wren ;
its legs bent, its neck retracted, and its wings slightly drooping.
It plunges into the water, not dreading the force of the cur-
rent, dives and makes its way beneath the surface, generally
moving against the stream, and often with surprising speed.
It does not, however, immerse itself head foremost from on
high like the Kingfisher, the Tern, or the Gannet, but either
walks out into the water, or alights upon its surface, and then

EUROPKAN DIPPER. 55

plunges like an Auk or a Guillemot, slightly opening its wings,
and disappearing with an agility and a dexterity that indicate
its proficiency in diving. I have seen it moving under water
in situations where I could observe it with certainty, and I
readily perceived that its actions were precisely similar to those
of the Divers, Mergansers, and Cormorants, which I have often
watched from an eminence as they pursued the shoals of sand-
eels along the sandy shores of the Hebrides. It, in fact, flew,
not merely using the wing from the carpal joint, but stretching
it considerably, and employing its whole extent, just as if ad-
vancing in the air. The general direction of the body in these
circumstances is obliquely downwards ; and great force is evi-
dently used to counteract the effects of gravity, the bird find-
ing it difficult to keep itself at the bottom, and when it relaxes
its efforts, coming to the surface like a cork. Montagu has
well described thg appearance which it presents under such
circumstances : — " In one or two instances, where we have
been able to perceive it under water, it appeared to tumble
about in a very extraordinary manner, with its head down-
wards, as if picking something ; and at the same time great
exertion was used, both by the wings and legs." This tumbling,
however, is observed only when it is engaged in a strong cur-
rent, and its aj^pearance is greatly magnified by the unequal
refraction caused by the varying inequalities of the surface of
the water. When searching for food, it does not proceed to
great distances under water ; but, alighting on some spot, sinks,
and soon reappears in the immediate neighbourhood, when it
either dives again, or rises on wing to drop somew'here else on
the stream, or settle on a stone. Often from a shelving crag,
or large stone, it may be seen making short incursions into the
water, running out with quiet activity, and presently bobbing
up to the surface, and regaining its perch by swimming or
wading. The assertion of its walking in the water, on the bot-
tom, which some persons have ventured, is not made good by
observation, nor countenanced by reason and the nature of
things. The Dipper is by no means a walking bird : even on
land I have never seen it move more than a few steps, which
it accomplished by a kind of lenping motion. Its short legs

56 CINCLUS EUROPiEUS.

and curved claws are very 111 adapted for running, but admir-
ably calculated for securing a steady footing on slippery stones,
whether above or beneath the surface of the water. Like the
Kingfisher it often remains a long time perched on a stone, but
in most other respects its habits are very dissimilar.

The first opportunity which I had of observing this bird ad-
vancing under water, occurred in Braemar, in 1819, when
from the bank of the stream which passes by Castleton I
noticed one " tumbling about" in the rapid current. In Sep-
tember 1832, I watched a Dipper for some time, on a part of
the Tweed, where the current was very strong. It flew off from
the shore, and alighted in the middle of the stream, where it
immediately dived. Re-appearing a little w^ay farther up the
river, it floated for a few seconds, dived, emerged, and flew to
the opposite bank, on reaching which it again disappeared un-
der water for a short time, and thus continued its exertions.
When perched on a stone near the shore, especially if the water
be not much agitated around, it usually makes short incursions
into it, apparently for the purpose of procuring food, and re-
turns to its station. On these occasions it is not difficult to
approach it, provided due precaution be used ; but in general
it is shy and easily alarmed. I have several times shot an in-
dividual which observed me as I was quietly walking up to it ;
but it is not often that one remains until you come within shot.
A method which I have often successfully practised was to
mark the position of the bird at a distance, taking note of an
object on the bank opposite to it, then make a circuit, and sud-
denly come upon the spot. When one has been pursued either
up or down a stream for a quarter of a mile or so, it usually
turns to regain its ordinary station, when it may be shot as it
shoots past.

In August 1834, while ascending White Coom, the highest
mountain in Dumfries-shire, accompanied by my son, I ob-
served a Dipper retreating beneath a large stone, over which
the water fell, in the midst of a streamlet that flowed along
the bottom of a narrow scar or rut. Imagining that its nest or
young might be concealed there, we went up to the place, and,
on perceiving the bird behind the little w^aterfall, endeavoured

EUROPEAN DIPPER. 57

to catch it, on which it sallied forth, plunged into a pool, and
attempted to escape down the stream, but without success, for
we met it at every turn, and it was obliged to betake itself
again to its retreat. We now turned off the water from the
stone, when it again plunged into the pool, and after some
turnings, at length effected its escape. On emerging at some
distance it flew off, and I considered it strange that it had not
used its wings at first, as it certainly could more easily have
escaped through the air than through the water. The chase
afforded another rare opportunity of viewing its subaqueous
flight, which, in all probability, was caused by excessive alarm.
It flew about in the pool, just as a bird would fly in a con-
fined space in the air, but of course with less velocity, and on
diving at first seemed covered with small air-bubbles which ad-
hered to its surface.

On being wounded the Dipper commonly plunges into the
water, flies beneath its surface to the shore, and conceals itself
amoncf the stones or under the bank. In fact, on all such oc-
casions, if enough of life remains, it is sure to hide itself, so
that one requires to look sharply after it. In this respect it
greatly resembles the Common Gallinule or Water-hen. In
the winter of 1829, I shot one on the Almond, which flew to
the other side, walked deliberately out into the water, disap-
peared, and slowly emerged under a bank at some distance,
where I found it after wading through the stream, which was
partially frozen. Another had just strength sufficient to fly
into a deep hole under a bridge on the Yarrow, partially filled
with water, on which it was found floating dead. In August
1884, I shot a Dipper on Man nor Water, in Tweeddale, when
it flew off, dived, and hid itself under a bank, on which I
forded the stream and endeavoured to secure it, but it slipped
out under water, swam down the current twenty yards or so,
and got under a large stone, where it was traced. The intro-
duction of the gun-rod only caused the persecuted bird to re-
treat as far as it could, and while I was employed in removing
some pebbles and gravel from behind the stone, it slipped out
under water, and proceeded down the stream a considerable
way before it rose to breathe. I noticed the place where it

58 CINCLUS EUROP^US.

dived in under the bank, and it being at length obliged to
come up to respire, I met the bird with my hand, and so se-
cured it.

When wounded and caught, it struggles hard, grasping
firmly with the feet, but does not attempt to bite. I mention
this circumstance as common to certain species of birds, such
as the Fieldfare, Blackbird, and Starling, which, without pos-
sessing the power of annoying their enemy, yet do not tamely
suffer themselves to be destroyed, but struggle to the last, un-
dismayed and ready to use the slightest chance of escape. Other
species, equal in strength, such as the Snipe, the Golden Plover,
and the Lapwing, do not struggle so vigorously, but meet
their fate in a quiet and apparently stupid manner. Some
birds, again, such as the Tits and Warblers, although evident-
ly extremely frightened on being seized, watch every oppor-
tunity of biting. I need scarcely add that some, as the Kestril
and Sparrowhawk, grasp and bite with as much good will as
eflPect.

The most melancholy ornithological exhibition that I re-
member to have witnessed, was that of a wounded Dipper,
which was shot through the lungs, above Cramond Bridge,
near Edinburgh. It stood still, without attempting to fly off,
apparently insensible to all external objects, its legs bent, its
wings drooping, its head declined. The blood was oozing from
its side and gurgling in its windpipe, which the poor bird made
ineffectual efforts to clear. At intervals, a convulsive heaving
of the chest took place, followed by an effort to vomit ; and in
this state the sufferer stood for five minutes until I got over
the stream to it, when it expired in my hand. In the agony
of death, the pupil became contracted to a mere point, and pre-
sently after dilated, when the lower eyelid gradually rose and
covered the eye. This is commonly the case in birds, which
do not expire with the eyes open, like man and most quad-
rupeds.

The food of the Dipper is said by authors to consist of small
fishes, roe, and water-insects. Thus, according to Willughby,
" Pisces prsedatur, nee insecta aversatur." Montagu states
that he saw an " old bird flying in with a fish in its bill," and

EUROPEAN DIPPER. 59

that " these birds will sometimes pick up insects at the edge
of the water." M. Temminck alleges that its food consists of
" insectes d'eau, demoiselles et leurs larves ; souvent du frai
de truite." Mr Selby judiciouslj combines these statements,
informing us that " water insects, and the fry and spawn of
fish form its food." Mr Jenjns, more wary, confines it to
" aquatic insects." It would answer no good purpose to bring
forward the notions of other compilers. There is nothing in-
credible in all these statements, although it is to be remarked
that no one states that he has actually observed fishes, or their
eggs, in the stomach of this bird. I have opened a great num-
ber of individuals, at all seasons of the year, but have never
found any other substances in the stomach than Lymneae, An-
cyli, Coleoptera, and grains of gravel. As to the ova and fry
of the salmon, there is no evidence whatever that the Dipper
ever swallows them ; and, therefore, the persecution to which
this bird has been subjected in consequence of the mere sus-
picion, ought to cease until the fact be proved. That the mol-
lusca above mentioned form a principal part of its food, was
never suspected, and therefore I was much pleased with mak-
ing the discovery, which satisfactorily accounted to me for all
the subaqueous excursions of the species.

The Dipper is generally seen in pairs, sometimes singly, and,
for a short period, at the breeding season, in families, but never
in flocks. In some favourite places, such as a waterfall, or
series of rapids, one may in winter find so many as four or five
individuals, but always scattered. Its song is short, but lively,
and continued at intervals. It bears no resemblance to the
full song of the Thrushes, but closely resembles the subdued
winter warble of the Redwing and Starling, or the first notes
of a young Song Thrush. This gentle warble is not confined
to any period of the year, but may be heard during sunny
weather at all seasons. Its common note, which it frequently
utters while perched on a stone, or while flying along the stream,
resembles the syllable chit.

About the middle of spring it begins to form its nest, so that
its first brood is abroad at the same time with that of the Black-
bird. The nest, which is placed among the moss on the bank

60 CINCLUS EUROP^US.

of a stream, or among the roots of a tree in a concealed place
overhanging the water, sometimes in a crevice of the rock, or
under a bridge, or even in the space behind a waterfall, varies
considerably in form and size, according to its position ; but is
always very bulky, arched over, and resembles that of the Wren
more than of any other bird. A perfect specimen found by my
friend Mr Weir, in the county of Linlithgow, presents exter-
nally the appearance of a somewhat flattened elliptical mass,
measuring ten inches from the front to the back part, eight
and a half in breadth, and six in height. The aperture is in
front, of a transversely oblong form, three inches and a quarter
wide, and one inch and a half high. The exterior is composed
of various species of mosses, chiefly hypna, firmly felted, so as
to form a mass not easily torn asunder, especially in its lower
part. This portion may be considered as forming a case for
the nest properly so called, and in this respect resembles the
mud case of the swallows. The nest itself is hemispherical,
five and a half inches in diameter, composed of stems and leaves
of grasses, and very copiously lined with beech leaves. I have
examined several other nests, which were similarly constructed,
and all lined with beech leaves, one having a few of the ivy,
and another one or two of the plane, intermixed. Montagu
describes the nest as " very large, formed of moss and water-
plants externally, and lined with dry oak -leaves ;"" and others
have stated that the lining is of leaves of various trees, which
may depend upon the locality. The eggs, five or six in num-
ber, are of a regular oval form, rather pointed, pure white, vary-
ing from eleven-twelfths to an inch and one-twelfth in length,
and averaging nine-twelfths in their greatest breadth. They
are somewhat smaller than those of the Song Thrush.

In addition to my own observations, I have much pleasure
in presenting the following interesting account of the nidifica-
tion of this species, by Thomas Durham Weir, Esq.

" Boghead, 22d December 1837. — In this neighbourhood,
about the middle of April, the Dippers begin to build their
nests. They are constructed with much ingenuity, and are
large for the size of the birds. The exterior part of them is
composed of moss very compactly felted together, having a

EUROPEAN DIPPER.

61

hole in their side, resembling that of the Common Wren. Tn
the interior part, the under layer is lined with the stalks of
strong grass, and the upper one, in all the nests that I have
seen, with the leaves of the beech or the oak. To the place where
these birds have once taken up their residence, they are strong-
ly attached. In the hole of an old wall at the back lade of

Livingston mill-dam, for a considerable time, I have observed
one of their nests. Mr Meikle, the miller, told me that a
pair of them have built in it for thirty-one successive years,
and that they generally had three broods in the season, and
four birds in each of them. Although the nest was within a
foot of the waterfall, which even sometimes passed over it,
they nevertheless flew in and out with the greatest apparent
ease. I am acquainted with a boy, who told me that he has
taken one repeatedly out of her nest, and after having replaced
her, she continued to sit upon her eggs. Being anxious to
procure a good specimen of the female, I caught one whilst
sitting upon her brood. As several of the feathers of her
wings and tail were much worn, I pulled them out, and set

62

CINCLUS EUROP.EUS.

her at liberty. In the course of a few hours however she re-
turned, and, unmoved by this unusual treatment, fed her
little ones as anxiously and carefully as ever, and although de-
prived of her partner, brought them up to maturity. On the
banks of the river Avon, about a mile and a half below the
bridge of Linlithgow, I last summer discovered a nest in
rather a curious situation. It was built in an angle between

two fragments of rocks under
a small cascade, and although
the water fell upon part of the
dome, the compactness with
which it was put together ren-
dered it impenetrable.

" When the young Dippers
are nearly ripe, the old ones
are very shy and difficult to be
caught. In a nest which was
built in a mossy bank project-
inw over Boarbaughlaw Water,
in May 1835, I attempted to
get a pair of them, but did not
succeed. The young were so
voracious, that as soon as their
parents appeared, they popped
^'®' ^^^' their heads two or three inches

out of the nest. To prevent them from doing so, I tied a string
round their legs, and fastened them to the back part of it, and
then placed a hair gin in front. Of this mode of procedure they
were however so suspicious, that even after it had been re-
moved, rather than they would venture to give them food,
they allowed them to perish with hunger. I have twice tried
this experiment since, but with no better success."

Several authors have mentioned that the young, although
yet unfledged, will, if disturbed, leave the nest and scramble
into the water, diving, and emerging at a distance. This I have
not had an opportunity of observing, and therefore quote the
following statement of Montagu on the subject : " The young
were nearly full feathered, but incapable of flight, and the

EUROPEAN DIPPER. 63

moment the nest was disturbed, they fluttered out and dropt
into the water, and to our astonishment instantly vanished,
but in a little time made their appearance at some distance
down the stream ; and it was with difficulty two out of five
were taken, as they dived on being approached.""

Young. — The general colour of the upper parts of the young
bird, when fully fledged, is dull grey, lighter than that of the
adult ; the head and hind-neck are of the same colour as the
back, all the feathers being margined with brownish-black.
The wings are brownish-black, the quills, alula, and larger
coverts margined with grey, the latter slightly tipped with
greyish-white. The throat, fore-neck, and breast, are of a
delicate pale bufl" or cream colour, intermixed with blackish,
the margins of all the feathers being of the latter colour. The
upper and hind part of the sides, the abdomen, and lower tail-
coverts, are dull grey, mixed with cream colour, and the proximal
tail-coverts are chiefly of the latter. The tail is like the wings,
but tipped with brownish-white. The bill and eyes are as in
the adult, but the feet are paler anteriorly, as are the toes, and
the claws are hair-brown, margined with whitish.

Progress toward Maturity. — At the first autumnal moult,
which takes place in September, the young assume nearly the
appearance of the adults : the fore-neck becomes white, the
breast dusky with more or less red, and the head brown ; but
it is not until the second change that the colouring is com-
pleted.

Remarks. — The genus Clnclus may be considered as placed
on the limits of the families of TurdlncB and Myrmotherince^
being in fact more allied to Turdus than to Pitta, although
through Chamceza perhaps more obviously related to the latter.
The digestive organs of the Dipper are entirely analogous to
those of the Thrushes and allied genera, but bear no resem-
blance to those of the Piscivorous birds, the oesophagus being
narrow, and the stomach a true gizzard. The bird, being des-
tined to feed upon aquatic insects and mollusca, which adhere
to the stones under the water, is fitted for making its way to

64 CINCLUS EUROP^US.

the bottom at small depths, and maintaining itself there for a
short time, a minute or more, in conformity with which design
its plumage is rather short and dense, its tail abbreviated, its
M^ngs short, broad, and strong, its bill unencumbered by bris-
tles, and of the proper form for seizing small objects, as well
as for detaching them from stones. Having its feet constructed
like those of the Thrushes, but proportionally stronger, the
Dipper thus forms a connecting link between the slender-billed
land birds and the diving Palmipedes, as the Kingfisher seems
to unite them with the plunging birds of the same order.

When the bird is young, its bill precisely resembles that of
the genus Turdus, being merely a little more slender ; but
when it is advanced in age, the bill is not only proportionally
but actually much shorter, and the tips by being rubbed be-
come in some degree similar to those of the bill of the Wood-
peckers, although less neatly wedged. In this respect, the Dip-
per resembles the Oystercatcher, and the change in the form
of the bill is caused by the same action in both species. Again,
in old birds, the thin edges of the mandibles become marked
with parallel cuts, similar to those of the mandibles of the
Gannet, although generally perpendicular, as in the Jabiru.
The claws also, which in young birds are acute, become quite
blunt and shortened in old individuals, which shews that they
are subjected to rough usage in scrambling among the stones
at the bottom of streams. As the bird neither plunges from
an eminence, like the Kingfisher, nor is furnished with webs
to its toes, it is not fitted for pursuing fishes under water, and
indeed could not possibly catch them, although it might seize
fry not yet disentangled from the gravel. As the body is nearly
as broad as deep, the bird can float with ease ; but this it
might do were the body narrow, as in the Water-hen . It has
been alleged that the Dipper, not having webbed feet, cannot
swim ; but this is not correct, for although it is unable to make
way against a current by swimming, I have seen it move
slowly along the surface in smooth water.

The food of this bird is indicated by the following notes
made at the different times of examination. One shot on the
Almond on the 2f)th August 183-5 had its stomach filled with

EUROPEAN DIPPER.

65

fragments of small insects, among which a Hydrophilus was
distinguished ; there was also seen a specimen of Ancylus
fluviatilis. In one shot on Mannor Water on the 15th Au-
gust 1834, were remains of coleoptera, and a great quantity
of small stones. In the intestine of this individual was a very
long tapeworm. The stomach of one shot on a rivulet near
St Mary''s Loch, in Yarrow, on the 3d September 1832, con-
tained remains of shells of Lymnea peregra. In that of two
individuals examined in May 1836, were coleopterous insects
and gravel. And in one shot about the 20th November 1837
were remains of insects and caddisworms, with particles of
quartz. Although I have opened many more, I have never
found in them remains of fish or roe. Nor does the dung of
the bird when left in a place frequented by it ever present an
appearance similar to that of the Kingfisher.

The sternum of this bird is represented by the subjoined
figures, 122 exhibiting it as viewed laterally, 123 as seen from
beneath. The spine is marked a e, the anterior forked process
6, the costal processes c c, the posterior margin d d eff, its
notches q a, the coracoid bones h A, the furcula /, the scapulse^y.

VOL. II,

66

TURDINiE.

THRUSHES AND ALLIED SPECIES.

In the family of TurdinjB I would include not only Turdus,
with its various subdivisions, but most of the numerous genera
forming the sections designated by Mr Swainson and his fol-
lowers by the names of Brachypodinw^ Merulinw^ Cratero-
podince and Oriolinw, which agree in their more important
characters, but which it is unnecessary to describe in a work
like the present, confined to the birds of a small tract of country.
Only two genera of this family have representatives in Britain,
namely Oriolus and Turdus, which, with the others alluded to
above, present the following general characters.

They are birds of small size, our Blackbird and Missel
Thrush being among the largest, while the smallest does not
exceed the Robin. In form they are rather slender, having the
body ovate, and deeper than broad, the neck rather short, the
head oblong, compressed, and of moderate size ; the bill short
or of moderate length, rather strong, compressed towards the
end ; the upper mandible with its dorsal outline a little convex
and declinate, the tip small, rather acute, the notch small ;
the lower mandible with the angle rather short, of moderate
width, anteriorly rounded, the dorsal outline straight, the sides
convex, the edges a little inflected, the tip acute. Both man-
dibles are internally concave, with a median prominent line.
The tongue is sagittate and papillate at the base, slender,
tapering, its edges thin and bristly, the tip slit. The bristles on
the tongue are sometimes greatly developed, as in Sericulus
chrysocepkalus of New Holland. The oesophagus, PI. XIV,
Figs. 2, 3, is rather narrow, without crop ; the proventriculus
oblong, with short cylindrical glandules ; the stomach a gizzard
of moderate strength, its lateral and lower muscles distinct ; the
intestine of moderate length, the coeca very small and cylindrical.

THRUSHES AND ALLIED SPECIES. 67

The eyes are of moderate size ; the eye-lids feathered, with
a narrow bare, crenate margin. The external ear large and
roundish. The nostrils generally oblong, operculate in the
lower and fore part of the nasal depression, which is feathered.

The legs are of moderate strength, but vary greatly in length ;
the tarsus compressed, covered anteriorly with seven scutella ;
of which the upper three are often indistinct. The toes are
rather strong, compressed ; the first, second, and fourth nearly
equal, the third much longer, and united to the fourth at the
base ; the claws rather long, arched, compressed, laterally
grooved, acute.

The plumage is ordinary, rather blended, the feathers gene-
rally rounded. There is always a row of short bristle-feathers
along the basal margin of the upper mandible, although they
are so small in the Orioles that Mr Swainson erroneously gives
as one of the characters of that group, " the base and the gape
devoid of bristles." The wings are of moderate length, broad,
and more or less rounded, generally with nineteen quills, the
first very small, the third and fourth longest ; the secondaries
long, broad and rounded. The tail is generally of moderate
length, but sometimes long, and of twelve moderately strong
straight feathers.

The skeleton differs very little in structure from that of the
Corvinae and Thremmaphilinae. The cranium is large, ovate,
broad and rounded behind ; the orbits very large, their septum
incomplete ; the jaws of moderate length and rather slender ;
the upper with the nasal vacuity large and elliptical, the lower
almost straight, with an oblong vacuity near the condyle. The
cervical vertebrae are generally twelve; the dorsal eight, of which
the anterior has only a rudimentary rib ; the united lumbar
and sacral ten ; the coccygeal seven. The ribs are seven, very
slender, depressed, the first incomplete, and, as well as the last,
without the posterior process, which is narrow and rather long.
The scapula is linear and slightly decurved ; the furcula narrow,
hyoid, very slender, with the curve rounded, and having a round-
ish or oblong thin plate projecting backwards. The coracoid
bones are rather slender, and diverge little. The sternum, Figs.
115 and 116, is of moderate length, broad, narrower anteriorly ;

68 TURDINiE.

its posterior margin broad, straight or slightly curved, with a
sinus of moderate depth on each side ; the ridge high, with its
lower outline slightly curved, its anterior concave ; the median
process long and broadly furcate ; the lateral anterior processes
large. The humerus is short ; the cubital bones a fourth
longer, the rest of the same length as the cubitus, consisting of
two carpal bones, one large metacarpal, having an oblong in-
complete space, a slender pollical, and three digital, two united
bones forming the first phalanx. The pelvis is of moderate
size ; the iliac bones oblong and anteriorly rounded ; the pubic
linear, slightly recurved, with an oblong open space between
them and the rest. The femur is short, the tibia nearly two
thirds longer, with a slender incomplete fibula, extending only
one third down. The tarsal bone is trigonal, and shorter than
the tibia. The toes are four ; the hind toe composed of a
distinct metatarsal bone and two phalanges ; the second of three,
the third of four, the fourth of five phalanges ; the extreme
phalanges of moderate length, conical, slightly arched, late-
rally grooved. It must not be concealed that the differences
between the skeletons of the Corvinae, Thremmaphilinae, and
Turdinse, are very slight, and that these three families, with
the Myrmotherinae, and others of the Cantatores are very
intimately allied in structure.

The digestive organs are equally adapted for insects, worms,
and soft fruits, which constitute the principal food of the diffe-
rent species.

The Turdinse frequent the fields and pastures, where they
advance by leaping ; but generally betake themselves to
thickets and woods to roost. Their flight is moderately rapid,
and little undulated. !Most of the species are more or less
gregarious, unless during the breeding season. Their nests are
generally placed on trees or shrubs, and artfully constructed.
The eggs are five or six, usually spotted or freckled. The
young are born blind, and remain in the nest until able to fly.
INIany of the species are remarkable for their superiority of
song, while others are said merely to emit harsh cries.
Species belonging to this family are found in all parts of the
world.

THRUSHES AND ALLIED SPECIES. 69

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. ORIOLUS. ORIOLE.

Bill rather long, stout, nearly straight, as broad as high at
the base ; upper mandible with the ridge narrow, the sides
eloping at the base ; tarsus short, compressed, with seven dis-
tinct anterior scutella ; toes of moderate size, the anterior
spreading little, being united at the base ; claws of ordinary
length, arched, acute , wings rather long, the first quill short,
the third and fourth longest ; tail of moderate length, straight,
rounded.

1. Oriolus Galbula. Golden Oriole. Male bright yellow,
the wings and tail black, tipped with yellow, the loral space
black. Female greenish-yellow above, yellowish- white be-
neath, with longitudinal dusky lines.

GENUS II. TURDUS. THRUSH.

Bill of moderate length, rather slender, straight, compressed ;
upper mandible with the ridge rather narrow, the sides convex ;
tarsus of moderate length, rather slender, compressed, with
seven anterior scutella, of which the three upper are indistinct ;
toes of moderate size, the third and fourth united at the base ;
claws of ordinary length, arched, acute ; wings of moderate
length, broad, rounded, the first quill extremely small, the
third and fourth longest ; tail of moderate length, slightly
emarginate.

1. Turdus Merula. Blackbird. Male with the plumage
black, the bill yellow, the feet dusky. Female deep brown
above, lighter beneath, the bill and feet dusky.

2. Turdus torquatus. Ring Ouzel. Male with the plum-
age blackish-brown, the fore-part of the breast white. Female
similar, the white of the breast tinged with brown.

3. Turdus pilaris. Fieldfare. Head grey, fore part of

70 TURDINiE.

back chestnut, fore-neck and sides reddish-yellow, spotted vsdth
brownish-black.

4. Turdus viscivorus. Missel Thrush. Upper parts light
greyish-brown, forehead grey, rump tinged with ochre-yellow,
secondary coverts and tail-feathers tipped with greyish-white ;
lower parts yellowish-white, spotted with black.

5. Turdus musicus. Mavis. Upper parts yellowish-brown,
head tinged with red, secondary coverts tipped with red-
dish-yellow, fore part of neck and breast yellowish, with
triangular brownish-black spots, lower wing-coverts reddish-
yellow.

6. Turdus iliacus. Redwing. Upper parts deep hair-brown
tinged with olive, a large whitish band over the eye, secondary
coverts tipped with greyish-white ; fore part of neck and breast
white, with longitudinal streaks of blackish brown and pale
brown, part of sides and lower wing coverts light red.

7. Turdus varius. Variegated Thrush. Upper parts yel-
lowish-brovni, lighter behind, lunulated with brownish-black ;
sides and lower fore part of the neck, breast, and sides, yellowish-
white, lunulated with brownish-black.

71

ORIOLUS. ORIOLE.

Bill rather long, stout, nearly straight, rather broad at the
base, compressed towards the end ; the upper mandible having
the dorsal line slightly arched, the ridge narrow, the sides flat
and sloping at the base, slightly convex and more inclined
towards the end, the edges sharp, with a slight notch close to
the small, slightly decurved tip ; the lower mandible with the
angle of moderate length and rather narrow, the sides nearly
erect, the edges sharp, the dorsal line nearly straight.

Mouth of moderate width. Tongue slender, emarginate and
papillate at the base, thin and horny towards the tip, which is
bifid.

Eyes of moderate size. Eyelids feathered. Nostrils oblong,
in the anterior part of the large nasal membrane, which is
feathered.

Head oblong, of moderate size, the forehead slightly rounded.
Neck rather short. Body ovate, compact. Legs rather strong,
short : tarsus short, compressed, covered anteriorly with seven
large scutella, posteriorly with two plates united at a very
acute angle, and several transverse rugae below. Toes of mo-
derate size, covered above with a few large scutella, papillate
beneath ; the first stout, of about the same length as the second,
the fourth a little longer, united at the base to the third, which
is considerably longer. Claws of moderate length, arched,
compressed, laterally grooved, acute ; that of the hind toe
much stronger.

Plumage generally blended, the feathers oblong and rounded.
Short bristles at the base of the bill. Wings rather long, of
nineteen quills ; the first primary very short, being scarcely half
the length of the third, which is longest ; the second shorter
than the fourth. The secondary quills of moderate length,
broad and rounded. Tail rather long, straight, slightly rounded,
of twelve rather broad, rounded feathers.

72 ORIOLUS. ORIOLE.

In the systems of Linnaeus and Latham, the genus Oriokis
was composed of a number of birds having very little affinity
to each other, but w^hich Daudin, Vieillot, and others, have se-
parated into several genera. The American species have been
referred to the genera Cassicus, Icterus, XantJiornus, and some
others, which are in a manner intermediate between the Stur-
ninae and the Conirostres ; and the genus as now restricted com-
prehends only those species, all belonging to the Old Continent,
which bear a strong resemblance in form to the Golden Oriole,
Oriohcs Galbula, the only species that visits Europe. It ap-
pears to me strange that the Orioles should ever have been
associated with such birds as the Icteri and Quiscali, to which
they seem to have very little affinity. Their short tarsi and
broad toes appear to approximate them to the Rollers, and both
these genera seem to be allied in the form of their bill to the
Flycatchers and Shrikes. But upon the whole, the Orioles are
probably more allied to the Thrushes and Thremmaphilinae,
than to any other groups.

73

ORIOLUS GALBULA. GOLDEN ORIOLE.

Fig. 124.

Oriolus Galbula. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 160.

Oriolus Galbula. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 186.

Golden Oriole. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Loriot. Oriolus Galbula. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 129.

Golden Oriole. Oriolus Galbula. Selb. Illustr. I. 176.

Oriolus Galbula. Golden Oriole. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 102.

3fale with the plumage hright-yellow, the wings black, the
primary coverts, and all the quills excepting the first and second
tipped with yellow ; the tail-feathers black, tipped U'ith yellow, the
space of the latter colour enlarging from the medial to the lateral
feathers ; the loral space blach. Female greenish-yelloio above,
yellowish-white beneath, marked with longitudinal dusky lines ; the
icings and tail brown, tipped as i?i the male with yelloic.

Male. — This beautiful bird is about the size of the Black
Thrush, Turdus Merula, which it also resembles in form, al-

74 ORIOLUS GALBULA.

though its tail and feet are shorter, and its wings proportionally
longer. Indeed, its resemblance to the Thrushes is such that
several authors have named it the Golden Thrush. As it agrees
in every particular with the generic character above given, it
is unnecessary here to repeat the details already presented.

The plumage is blended, the feathers being oblong, with dis-
united barbs ; those on the fore part of the head very short.
The wings when closed reach to within an inch of the end of
the tail.

The bill is of a light-brownish red. The iris, according to
Temminck and Montagu, is red. The feet are bluish-grey, and
the claws are nearly of the same tint as the bill. The general
colour of the plumage is a rich and pure gold-yellow. The
space between the bill and the eye is black. The wings are
brownish-black, excepting the smaller coverts, and the margin,
which are yellow ; the tips of the primary coverts, and those
of all the quills excepting the two outer, being also bright yel-
low ; and the external margin of all excepting the first, yellow-
ish-white. The two middle tail-feathers are greenish-yellow at
the base, in the rest of their extent black, excepting a very nar-
row terminal edge, which is yellow ; the other tail-feathers are
black, with a yellow terminal space enlarging on the outer.

Length to end of tail 9 5 inches ; wing from flexure Q^^ ; tail
3/2 ; bill along the ridge l^^^, along the edge of lower mandi-
ble 1/2 ; tarsus ] ; first toe 5, its claw ^^ ; second toe |, its
claw II ; third toe y^^, its claw ^^ ; fourth toe /g, its claw /g.

Female. — The female is somewhat less than the male. The
bill and feet are similarly coloured. The plumage of the upper
parts is yellowish-green, the forehead brighter, and the upper
tail-coverts greenish-yellow. The fore part of the neck is pale
yellowish-grey, its sides greenish-yellow, the breast white, the
sides and lower tail-coverts bright yellow. The throat is marked
with longitudinal pale-brown lines, the breast with larger lines
of brownish-black. The wings are brown, their edges greenish-
yellow, the tips of the quills, except the two outer, and of the
primary coverts pale yellow. The tail is brownish-black, the
terminal yellow spaces of much less extent than in the male.

GOLDEN ORIOLE. 75

Length to end of tail 9^% ; wing from flexure 6 ; tail 3^\ ;
bill lj\^.

Habits. — The Golden Oriole, the only species of the genus
that is ever seen in Europe, is said to arrive in Spain, France,
and Italy about the end of spring, and it is not uncommon in
many parts of Germany, but is rare in the northern countries,
and in England is not a regular visitant, a few individuals only
having been seen there at long intervals, so that it ranks among
the accidental stragglers. It is described as preferring low
wooded districts, and resorting to the margins of the forests,
where it resides chiefly among the lower branches of the large
trees, or in the thickets. Its food consists of insects and larvae,
but as the season advances, it feeds on berries and fruits of
various kinds, occasionally visiting the gardens and orchards,
and showing, like the Blackbird, a preference for cherries. Its
manners, however, are not fully detailed by authors, but, judg-
ing from its appearance, they are probably similar to those of
the larger Thrushes. As its wings are long and broad, its
flight must be easy and sustained ; and the form of its feet
shows that it is equally adapted for hopping on the ground, and
for gliding among the branches, although the shortness of the
tarsi, and the disparity of the second and third toes indicate a
greater aptitude for the latter mode of progression. It is a
solitary bird, shy, and difficult to be approached.

Its nest is described by authors as of an oblong form, shaped
like a purse, having its aperture above, and suspended from a
forked branch, generally towards the top of a tree. It is com-
posed externally of long straws interwoven, internally of mosses
and lichens, with a lining of grass, and sometimes wool. Mr
Yarrell, however, in his History of British Birds, p. 214,
states that it is " rather flat and saucer-shaped, generally
placed in the horizontal fork of a bough of a tree, to both bran-
ches of which it is firmly attached," and composed of wool and
long slender stems of grass curiously interwoven. The eggs,
four or five in number, are of a regular oval form, smooth, an
inch and two-twelfths in length, ten-twelfths in breadth, white,
with a few brownish-black spots, among which are frequently

76 ORIOLUS GALBULA.

others of a paler tint. It is said to be very bold in defending
its nest against intruders, and to manifest great attachment to
its young.

The GoHen Oriole has occurred in several counties in
England, as well as in a few instances in Ireland ; but, I be-
lieve, no authentic case of its occurrence in Scotland has been
recorded. The birds in the museum of the University of Edin-
burgh, mentioned by Mr Selby as having furnished subjects for
his drawings, and as having been shot on the Pentland Hills,
were, to my knowledge, brought from France by the late Mr
Wilson, janitor of the University.

Young. — In its first plumage this bird is of a dusky yellowish-
grey tint on the upper parts, each feather having the central
part olive-brown. The lower parts are yellowish- white, each
feather with a central line of brown ; the sides and lower tail-
coverts bright yellow ; the wings and tail brown, marked with
yellow, as in the adult, but of less extent. The male is easily
distinguished from the female by its lighter colour.

The young are said to be difficult to rear, and not to thrive
well in captivity, otherwise creatures so beautiful would no
doubt be great favourites as cage-birds, although their natural
notes are loud and harsh, and their song unpleasant.

Hemarks, — The species most nearly allied to the Golden
Oriole, Oriolus Galbula, are the Mango Oriole, Oriolus Mango,
the Yellow Oriole, Oriolus aureus, the Chinese Oriole, Oriolus
sinensis, and the Black-headed Oriole, Oriolus melanocephalus.
Whether the first of these be really distinct, I can scarcely
venture to affirm. It is somewhat smaller, its wings propor-
tionally shorter, its bill larger, but the colouring is precisely
similar, only there is a small black spot behind the eye, in ad-
dition to that on the loral space.

77

TURDUS. THRUSH.

Bill of moderate size, straight, slightly ascending, a little
broader than high at the base, com^sressed towards the end :
upper mandible with its dorsal outline slightly arched, the
ridge rather narrow but convex, the sides convex, the edges
sharp and slightly overlapping, with an obscure notch close to
the rather obtuse narrow tip ; lower mandible straight, the
angle medial and narrow, the crura having the sides sloping
outwards, the dorsal line slightly convex, the ridge narrow and
rounded, the sides convex, the edges sharp and inflected, the
tip narrow and rather acute ; the gape-line nearly straight.

The mouth rather narrow ; the upper mandible internally
narrow, with a central prominent line ; the lower more deeply
concave, with a central line ; the palate nearly flat, with two
longitudinal ridges. The posterior aperture of the nares ob-
longo-linear, edged with small papillse, the lateral spaces slightly
inclined, and terminating behind in a flap beset with acicular
papillae. Tongue slightly extensile, sagittate and papillate at
the base, tapering, slender, concave above, its edges thin, and
beset with minute bristles directed forwards, the tip slit. The
oesophagus, PI. XIV, Fig. 2, rather narrow, of nearly uniform
diameter ; the proventriculus oblong, wuth short cylindrical
glandules. The stomach a gizzard of moderate strength, broadly
oblong, compressed ; its mviscular coat rather thick, with the
lateral and lower muscles distinct, and inserted into two rather
large tendons, of which the right is much larger ; the middle
coat thin; the inner or cuticular dense, tough, with longitudinal
rugae. Intestine of moderate length, its duodenal portion wider ;
the coeca very small, and cylindrical ; the rectum very short,
with a globular dilatation.

Nostrils elliptical, direct, in the lower and fore part of the
nasal membrane, which is covered with short feathers. Eyes
of moderate size ; the eyelids feathered, their edges bare and
crenate. External aperture of the ear rather large, and roundish.

78 TURDUS. THRUSH,

The general form varies a little, but is usually rather full,
the body ovate and compact ; the neck of ordinary length ; the
head oblong, rather compressed, and of moderate size. The
legs are of moderate length, and rather slender ; tarsus com-
pressed, covered anteriorly with one long plate above and four
small scutella below, laterally with two long plates meeting
behind at a very acute angle, and several transverse scales be-
low. Toes moderate, covered above with long scutella, papillar
beneath ; the first, second, and fourth nearly equal, the third
much longer, the third and fourth slightly connected at the
base. Claws of moderate length, slender, arched, compressed, la-
terally grooved, acute ; that of the hind toe considerably larger.

Plumage ordinary, rather blended, slightly glossed, the
feathers generally rounded, and having a small plumule of few
barbs ; the frontal feathers short and rounded. There is a
row of short bristle-feathers along the basal margin of the
upper mandible ; and all the feathers about the base of the bill
are terminated by bristly points. Wings of ordinary length,
or longish, broad, semi-ovate, rounded ; primaries ten, tapering
to a rounded point, the third, fourth, and fifth cut out on the
outer web ; the first extremely small, the third and fourth
longest ; secondaries eight, long, broad, broadly rounded, with
a minute tip. Tail of ordinary length, or rather long, slightly
emarginate, even, or a little rounded, of twelve rather narrow
feathers, which suddenly taper to a point.

The aflinities of this genus are numerous, and many of them
obvious. Thremmaphiliis, Oriolus, Alauda, Erythaca, Saoci-
cola, and Lanius, are all in various degrees allied to it, as are
several other genera ; and certain species manifest a more de-
cided resemblance to particular genera than others. Thus,
the Fieldfare, in its flight, in the form of its bill, and in some
of its habits, resembles the Sky Lark ; and the Blackbird in
its attitudes, motions, form, and cry presents some vague ana-
logy to the Magpie.

The Thrushes which occur in Britain vary from eight to
eleven inches in length. Some of them frequent the open
fields, others the gardens and hedges. Their food consists of
mollusca, insects, larvse, worms, berries, fruits, and seeds of

TURDUS. THRUSH. 79

various kinds. They are in general shy and suspicious of man,
although the Song Thrush and Blackbird are not remarkable
for these qualities. Their mode of progression on the ground
is by leaping, and they have a peculiar manner of looking for
their food, but their flight varies according to the species. All
are noted for their vocal powers, but especially the Song Thrush
and Blackbird. Of the seven species three are resident, two
are winter visitants, one resides with us in summer only,
and one is a very rare and accidental visitant. Three are
gregarious, and three unsocial. The flesh of all is savoury
and delicate, and the gregarious species are frequently shot
to be eaten. It has been asserted by Montagu, that the
Fieldfare " roosts on the ground, and rarely perches for that
purpose ;" but this assertion has not been confirmed by the ob-
servation of others, although, if correct, the fact would aiFord
an additional manifestation of the affinity which this bird has
to the Lark. So far as I have seen, Fieldfares and Redwings
betake themselves to woods or tall trees in the evening ; nor
are they ever observed to crouch on the ground, like the
Lark, the Partridge, and other birds that rest there by night.
The Blackbird and Song Thrush however often rest on the
ground, but always under the shelter of bushes or stones, and
not in an open field. The mode in which the Thrushes procure
worms and larvae, although not peculiar, is very remarkable.
The bird stands perfectly still, in what may be called the atti-
tude of observation, the wings slightly drooping, the tail hori-
zontal, or a little raised, the head also a little elevated. The
moment it observes symptoms of life, it hops rapidly up to the
place. If the worm be above ground, it picks it up instantly ;
but if below the surface, it digs up the soil with its bill, using
the utmost expedition. When it has laid hold of the worm,
it either drags it up slowly, so as not to break it, or nips off" a
piece, which it swallows, and continues its attack until the
whole is procured. The Robin is the only British bird that I
have observed employing the same means of procuring its prey,
although it seldom, I believe, attacks the earth- worm, which to
most of our Thrushes is a principal article of food.

Some authors have generically separated the plain-coloured

80

TURDUS. THRUSH.

from the spotted Thrushes, giving the former the name of
3ferida, the latter that of Turdus, and distinguishing these
groups moreover by differences in the length of the tail, and
others of an equally unsatisfactory nature. Others, placing
both groups in one genus, have chosen to designate it by the
name of Merula^ in preference to that of Tiirdus^ alleging that
the former name was first employed by Ray. The latter, how-
ever, I retain, it being that used by Linnaeus, who was the
first naturalist who had any rational idea of generic and spe-
cific names. As to Ray, his notions were so vague that he
often employed several names for what he seems to have con-
ceived to be the same genus, as did Brisson, and all others,
until a better method was invented by LinnjBus, whose genua
Turdus may with propriety be retained, after separating from
it the species that belong to other groups.

^#

Fig. 125. Young Feaiale Blackbird.

81

TURDUS MERULA. THE BLACK THRUSH, OR
BLACKBIRD.

OUZEL. GARDEN OUZEL. MERLE. LON DUBH.

Frc. 126.

Turdus Merula. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 295.

Turdus Merula. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 340.

Blackbird. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Merle noir. Turdus Merula. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 163.

Blackbird. Merula vulgaris. Selb. Illustr. I. 167-

Turdus Merula. Blackbird. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 101.

TIT. 90.

Male with the plumage blacJc^ the hill yellow, the feet dusky.
Female with the plumage deep hrown above, lighter beneath, the
throat and fore-neck pale brown, streaked with darker^ the bill
and feet dusky. Young dusky-brown above, with didl yellowish
streaks ; pale yellowish-brown, spotted with dusky, beneath.

Male. — The Blackbird is perhaps the most elegant of our
British Thrushes, although the Mountain Ouzel and the Field-
fare are nearly of the same form. The body is ovate, nearly
as broad as deep ; the neck of ordinary length ; the head ob-

VOL. II. G

82 TURDUS MERULA.

long ; the legs rather strong ; the wings of moderate length ;
and the tail long. The bill is of moderate size, compressed
towards the end ; the upper mandible with its outline arcuato-
declinate, the ridge rather narrow and rounded, the sides con-
vex, the edges direct and sharp, with a slight notch close to
the narrow, rounded, sharp-edged tip ; the lower mandible
with the back and sides rounded, the angle or junction of the
crura medial, narrow and rounded, the edges sharp and erect ;
the gape-line slightly arched. Both mandibles are deeply con-
cave within, with a prominent medial line. The tongue is nar-
row, sagittate with long conical papillae at the base, the tip round-
ed and bristly. The oesophagus, PL XIV. Fig. 2, is four and
a half inches long, and of nearly uniform diameter ; the proven-
triculus oblong, with short cylindrical glandules. The stomach
is of a roundish, compressed form, its greatest diameter an
inch and five-twelfths, its lateral muscles large, its tendons
radiated; the inner coat tough, dense, and rugous. The intestine
is twenty inches long, and has an average diameter of four-
twelfths ; the coeca cylindrical, three-twelfths of an inch in
length, and coming off at the distance of an inch and a quarter
from the anus.

The nostrils are of moderate size, two-twelfths of an inch
long, elliptical, partially concealed by the feathers. The aper-
ture of the eye is two-twelfths and a quarter in diameter, that
of the ear four-twelfths. The legs are of ordinary length, rather
strong ; the tarsus compressed, covered anteriorly with a long
undivided plate above, and three large scutella below, pos-
teriorly with two undivided plates meeting at an acute angle,
inferiorly rugoso-granulate. The toes are of moderate length,
rather strong ; the second and fourth about equal, the first
large, the third considerably longer ; the third attached to the
fourth as far as the second joint ; the first with eight, the
second with ten, the third with thirteen, the fourth with
eleven scutella. The claws are long, moderately arched, com-
pressed, obscurely grooved on the sides, tapering, acute.

The plumage is full, soft, and glossy, the feathers oblong,
rounded, with the barbs discrete at the end, and a very slender
plumule, composed of a few long barbs. The frontal feathers

BLACK THRUSH, OR BLACKBIRD, 83

are short, those on the nasal membrane roundish. There is a
row of small bristle-feathers along the base of the upper man-
dible. The wings are broad, semi-ovate, the primaries consi-
derably longer than the secondaries ; the first quill extremely
small and narrow ; the fourth longest, the fifth scarcely shorter,
the third almost as long, the second a little shorter than the
third ; the other primaries slowly graduated ; the third, fourth,
fifth, and sixth, cut out on the outer web towards the end.
The secondaries are slightly incurvate, broadly rounded, with
a minute acumen. The wings when closed extend one-third
down the tail, which is long, nearly straight, slightly round-
ed, the feathers broad, rounded and acuminate.

The bill is bright orange, as are the mouth, tongue, and
margins of the eyelids. The irides are hazel ; the feet and
claws dusky-brown, the heel and soles yellow. The general
colour of the plumage is deep black, pure or slightly tinged with
brown, the lower parts as dark as the upper. The primary
quills are of a lighter tint, and obscurely edged with brown.
The central part of the concealed portion of each feather is
light grey.

Length to end of tail lOf ; extent of wings 16 ; bill along
the ridge ^§, along the edge of lower mandible If | ; wing
from flexure o^^ ; tail 4| ; tarsus l^^^^ '•> first toe y^, its claw
i\ ; second toe -^^ ; its claw || ; third toe 1, its claw -^^ ;
fourth toe ||, its claw ||.

Female. — The female differs considerably in colour. The
bill is dark-brown, paler towards the edges, the skin at the
corner orange ; the edges of the eyelids greenish-orange, the
irides hazel ; the feet dusky-brown, the claws darker. The
general colour of the plumage is deep brown above, the quills
darker, the tail brownish-black ; the lower parts lighter, the
throat brownish-white, the fore-neck dull light reddish-brown,
with obscure dusky triangular spots ; the central part of the
concealed portion of each feather light-grey.

Length to end of tail 10 inches; extent of wings 15;
wing from flexure 5i\ ; tail 4^ ; bill along the ridge /^ ;
tarsus 1/2 ; middle toe and claw l^^.

84 T URDUS MERULA.

Variations. — In the adult males slight variations are ob-
served in the tints of the plumage, the lower parts being some-
times tinged with grey or brown, and the margins of the quills
brown. In the females, the upper parts are sometimes of a
lighter brown, the forehead tinged with red, and the fore part
of the neck brownish-red ; but this part is always marked with
oblongo-triangular dark spots at the tips of the feathers, in
which respect the female Blackbird manifests an affinity to the
spotted species of the same genus. White, cream-coloured, or
variegated individuals are sometimes met with. In May 1832,
Mr Carfrae brought me an adult female patched with white,
some of the quills being also of that colour. A young male in
its second plumage, in my collection, has the lower parts varie-
gated with grey and greyish-brown feathers. Mr Stevenson
has a male which is white, with black feathers interspersed ;
the quills and tail black, except two feathers of the latter, and
one of the former, the bill pale-yellow, the feet dusky, curiously
variegated with pale-yellow.

The changes caused by the action of the weather are not very
remarkable. The bill continues of the same colour, but the
feet are more tinged with yellowish-brown in summer. The
quills and tail-feathers lose their minute tips, the wings become
much browner, and the glossy black of the males is considera-
bly tarnished, while the fore-neck of the females fades to
brownish-grey. The alterations, however, are not such as to
render necessary a formal description of the species in its sum-
mer plumage.

Habits. — The Blackbird, which is one of the most admired
of our native songsters, is a permanent resident, and occurs in
almost all parts of England and Scotland, although it prefers
the more cultivated districts, and is rarely met with in the cen-
tral and more elevated tracts. Being, properly speaking, an
inhabitant of bushy places and woods, it does not breed in the
northern and more remote Hebrides, nor in districts of the
mainland destitute of sylvan vegetation.

In winter it frequents the neighbourhood of houses and towns,
resorting to woods, hedges, and gardens, and generally keeping

BLACK THRUSH, OR BLACKBIRD. 85

in the shelter of trees or bushes. At this season its food con-
sists principally of snails, especially Helix aspersa and H. nemo-
ralis, the shells of which it breaks by raising them in its bill,
and dashing them against a stone or other hard surface. It
also occasionally breaks them open by pecking against the spire,
in which the shell is much thinner. Like many other birds,
however, it has a great range of food. Thus, having opened
five individuals, I found in the stomach of one a great quantity of
seeds and husks of gramineae, including wheat and oats ; in
that of another, coleopterous insects ; in that of a third, coleop-
tera, and seeds of various kinds ; in that of the fourth, mollusca,
and fragments of shells ; in that of the fifth, seeds, mollusca,
and a few grains of gravel. Earthworms, larvae, berries, and
seeds of various kinds I have also observed in the stomachs
of numerous individuals wdiich I have opened.

It is amusing to observe a Blackbird searching for food on the
smooth green of a garden, which one may easily do from the
window without being noticed. In December 1832 I watched
one in order to note its motions. After looking quietly at a par-
ticular spot for some time, it hopped up, began to peck the ground
with great energy, and after some exertion, succeeded in drag-
ging out a worm of moderate size, which it immediately threw
on the ground. It then pecked at the worm for nearly a minute,
and, beginning at one end, separated by a sudden stroke a small
portion, which it swallowed. In this manner it proceeded
until it had devoured the whole, not swallowing at any time
more than a small fragment. It then hopped about, looking
now and then attentively at a certain spot, and at length began
to dig vehemently for another worm, which it soon procured.
This was the first time that I had closely watched a Blackbird
while searching for worms ; but I have since had repeated
opportunities of convincing myself that it always proceeds in
the same manner, never swallowing an entire worm unless it
happen to be extremely small, and cutting the very large onea
into a great number of pieces.

" Blackbirds with us," writes my friend jSIr Archibald Hep-
burn of Whittingham, in East Lothian, " greedily devour
slugs, worms, and different sorts of berries and other fruits.
They seldom or never trust themselves free from the shelter of

86 TURDUS AIERULA.

the hedge or bush ; but I have seen Song Thrushes feeding in
the middle of a field nine acres in extent. They are also much
wilder than the Thrushes. If you wish to shoot one in a hedge
row, unless you succeed at once, he will lead you a wild-goose
chase, and then fly off, wishing you better sport farther off.
Blackbirds seldom mob a cat unless when they have young.
When gooseberries are in season, you may see them feeding
from sunrise to sunset, except when they betake themselves to
the pond to wash. In the winter they disperse over the
country, feeding on the different wild fruits in the hedges, and
on slugs and worms in the pastures. When hard-pressed for
food during a snow-storm, they frequent the stack-yard. The
female sits thirteen days, the male singing till the young are
hatched, after which he is seldom heard till the labours of nidi-
fication again commence. On the ] 8th of October I heard a
Blackbird sing, although in a very indistinct manner ; but
previous to this, the last time I heard either this species or the
Thrush, was about the middle of July."

The sides of hedges and walls are favourite places of resort,
for there it readily procures worms and snails. In hard weather
it often eats the berries of the hawthorn, which it swallows
whole, and betakes itself to the corn-yards, where it picks up
seeds chiefly on the ground. When searching for food, it hops
or leaps with great alacrity, keeping its tail a little raised, and
its wrings loose ; and when perched on a tree, twig, or wall, it
generally elevates its tail, unless disposed to doze, in which
case it draws in its neck, rufiles its plumage, tucks up its wings,
and allows the tail to droop. When disturbed, it flies off
uttering a loud chuckling noise, which, although clear and
shrill, reminds you of the chatter of the magpie ; and you may
pursue it from one part of a hedge to another, until you obtain
it, for it seldom shifts to a great distance. Although thus
easily procured, it is yet decidedly shy, and in this respect differs
greatly from the Song Thrush, which imagmes itself secure at
a very short distance.

The flight of the Blackbird over an open space is steady,
without undulations ; but along the hedges is wavering and
fitful, and the bird suddenly darts into the place which it
selects, and instantly settles. During the breeding season its

BLACK THRUSH, OR BLACKBIRD. 87

flight is peculiar, for then the female especially moves through
the air as if by starts, performing a single flap, followed by a
considerable interval, and then continuing its course. The
Missel Thrush, the Fieldfare, and the Redwing, frequently
take long flights, and are often seen advancing at the height of
several hundred yards ; but the Blackbird rarely ventures on a
long excursion, but prefers skulking as it were among the
hedges and trees. Compared with the Song Thrush, it is a
very lively bird, and it is amusing to observe one that has just
alighted on a twig, and see how gracefully it bends forward,
throws up/ its tail, jerking it at intervals, depresses and at
intervals flaps its wings, and then perhaps flits to another
branch, w'here it performs the same motions, or alights on the
wall, hops along, suddenly stops, jerks its tail, flaps its wings,
and then commences singing.

Even in severe weather in winter, Blackbirds are not gre-
garious ; and on no occasion have I seen more than three or
four together, and that only for a few minutes. Although a
male and a female may sometimes associate during that season,
it is much more common to find them solitary. Nor does this
species cherish the society of any other, though it may be seen
in the vicinity of a Song Thrush, a Hedge Chanter, or other
small bird. While the Fieldfares and Redwings cover a field
in search of food, the Blackbirds very seldom venture amongst
them, but prefer the shelter of the fences.

The female is less clamorous than the male, who, on being
alarmed or irritated, especially in the breeding season, emits a
loud clear chuckling cry, in some degree approaching to the
chatter of the magpie, fluttering or flapping its wings, and
bending its body forwards at the same time. This remarkable
cry, variously modulated by different individuals, sometimes
exhibits a slight resemblance to the cackle of a domestic hen
after laying ; but whether it be the same as that alluded to by a
correspondent in the " Naturalist," as similar to the crowing of a
cock, and by the editor of that journal as resembling the notes
of several varieties of that species, I am unable to determine,
not having listened to the individuals mentioned by them.
This much however I have observed, not as a singular circum-
stance, nor even as one common to a few individuals, but as

88 TURD US MERULA.

exhibited at all seasons, at the period of breeding and in the
middle of winter, and by very many birds of the species, that
the male, on perching, whether on a tree or on the ground,
but especially on the former, raises his tail, flutters, it might
almost be said, flaps his wings, emits his chuckling cry, and
continues balancing himself, or hops along, repeating the notes,
which, should he be alarmed, or in anyway excited, are some-
times raised and prolonged so that a person fond of tracing affi-
nities and analogies, might naturally enough liken it to the
crowing of a cock. Now, were we to adopt the mode of rea-
soning followed by some writers, what could appear more evi-
dent than that the Thrushes are analogous among the Inses-
sores to the Cocks among the Rasores. The Cocks are arborial
and terrestrial, so are the Thrushes ; they perch or roost at
night, so do the latter ; they crow, so does the Blackbird in a
way ; they have a thick covering of feathers on the rump, so
have the Thrushes ; they afford very delectable food, so in
truth do the Blackbird and all his family. Indeed the analogy
is much more clearly made out than three-fourths of Mr Swain-
son's ; and as to the discrepancies, all objects differ more or
less from each other. To end all this however let us listen to
another cry of the Blackbird, which resembles the syllable
chink^ several times repeated, and which the male very fre-
quently utters. The female, on the other hand, is always
remarkably quiet, and in this respect might be recommended
as a model to many females of the Homo nosce-teipsum species,
although there can be no reason for denying them a moderate
degree of loquacity. How delightful it would be to listen to
an exposition of the quinary and circular system from the ruby
lips of a lady ornithologist ! Indeed if it had been invented
by one, I feel assured that I should long ago have become a
convert to it ; but the pugnative propensity, or whatever else
the phrenognomists call the spirit of counteraction, has hither-
to prevented me from being deceived by it.

Few persons seek an opportunity of hearing the song of the
Blackbird in the early morning before the first rays of the sun
shoot across the eastern sky ; but many listen to it with de-
light in the quiet evenings of spring and summer, when the

BLACK THRUSH, OR BLACKBIRD. 89

other songsters, except the Thrush or the Nightingale, are
mute, and when its mellow notes come swelling on the ear,
shedding a benign influence on every heart not entirely har-
dened by a habitual disregard of nature. On the 1st of May,
1837, a Blackbird in the garden commenced his song at three
in the morning ; a fortnight after I heard one as early as half-
past two ; and in the middle of summer, I have listened to it
before going to bed, when the twilight peeped in between the
shutters upon the untired student thus admonished of the pro-
priety of intermitting his labours. The first morning song of
the Blackbird is very singular, and altogether different from
that of the evening, consisting of repetitions of the same
unmusical strain, performed with a harsh screaming voice. It
continues for a quarter of an hour or more, and is not again
heard until towards sunrise, when it is renewed in a bolder,
louder, and more joyous strain. In cold and cloudy weather
however, this twilight strain is seldom heard, for then the bird
waits until it is full day before it commences its song. Al-
though the Blackbird sings at all times of the day, it is more
especially in the mornings and evenings that it pours forth its
delightful melodies, which, simple as they are, I am unable to
describe in a more effective manner than by characterizing
them as loud, rich, mellow, and much surpassing in effect those
of any other native bird, excepting the Nightingale, Song
Thrush, Blackcap, and Garden Warbler. I have heard indivi-
duals singing most fervently in the midst of a heavy thunder
storm, when the rain was falling thickly, and the lightning
flashing at an alarming rate ; and both this species and the
Song Thrush seem to regard the summer rains with pleasure.
The season at which the Blackbird is in full song commences
about the middle of February, and ends about the begin-
ning of August ; but in calm and especially warm weather,
whether clear or cloudy, it may sometimes be heard in the
winter and early spring months. Thus in the uncommonly
mild winter of 1837, it was frequently heard in the south of
Scotland in December, although the severe frost and snow
which happened in January following entirely put an end to
its mirth for weeks.

90 TURD US MERULA.

It is not in the wild valley, flanked with birchen slopes, and
stretching far away among the craggy hills, that the music of
the Blackbird floats upon the evening breeze. There you may
listen delighted to the gentle song of the ISIavis ; but here, in
this plain, covered with corn-fields, and skirted with gardens,
sit thee down on the green turf by the gliding brook, and
mark the little black speck stuck as it were upon the top twig
of that tall poplar. It is a Blackbird, for now the sweet
strain, loud, but mellowed by distance, comes upon the ear,
inspiring pleasant thoughts, and banishing care and sorrow.
The bird has evidently learned his part by long practice, for
he sings sedately and in the full consciousness of superiority.
Ceasing at intervals, he renews the strain, varying it so that
although you can trace an occasional repetition of notes, the
staves are never precisely the same. You may sit an hour or
longer, and yet the song will be continued ; and in the neigh-
bourinof gardens many rival songsters will sometimes raise their
voices at once, or delight you with alternate strains. And
now, what is the purpose of all this melody ? We can only
conjecture that it is the expression of the perfect happiness
which the creature is enjoying, when, uncarked by care, con-
scious of security, and aware of the presence of his mate, he
instinctively pours forth his soul in joy and gratitude and love.
He does not sing to amuse his mate, as many have supposed,
for he often sings in winter, when he is not yet mated ; nor
does he sing to beguile his solitude, for now he is not solitary ;
but he sings because all his wants are satisfied, his whole frame
glowing with health, and because his Maker has gifted him
with the power of uttering sweet sounds.

The Blackbird pairs in February or March, and about the
middle of the latter month, or later in the season, according to
the temperature or the progress of vegetation, begins to con-
struct its nest, which it places in a bush of any kind, a haw-
thorn, a laurel, a holly, or a willow, for example, or among
ivy, or honeysuckle, or even in a hole in a wall or rock. For
the most part however it selects the lower part of a hedge, or
a briar or bramble thicket, or the concealment of a fresh young
fir or pine. The nest, which is bulky, is composed externally

BLACK THRUSH, OR BLACKBIRD. 91

of stalkg of grasses, supported or strengthened by some twigs
or stems of herbaceous plants, and interwoven with mosses.
This framework, coarsely intertwined, is lined with a thin
layer of mud, within which is a more neatly arranged layer of
fibrous roots, slender stalks of grasses, decayed leaves, and
hypna. The interior is hemispherical, about four inches in
breadth at the mouth, and three in depth. The nests however
vary considerably as to the materials of which they are com-
posed. In one before me, within a loose mass of grasses, roots,
and twigs, is a firm cup composed of blades and stems of soft
grasses rudely interwoven and compacted with sandy mud,
which has been applied in pellets, and having a thickness of a
quarter of an inch. Within this is a shell of about the same
thickness, composed of fine fibrous roots and slender grasses
well interwoven, especially at the mouth. The diameter with-
in is four inches, the depth two and a half. In another, the
mud-cup is formed of fine light-brown earth, mixed with
hypna ; the inner cup of fine grasses and decayed holly leaves.
Its dimensions are the same. The eggs are generally five, or
from four to six, pale blueish green, freckled with pale umber,
the markings closer towards the larger end, where they some-
times form an obscure ring. They differ in form from very
broad to elongated oval, the longest being about an inch and
two-twelfths by ten-twelfths, the shortest an inch and half
a twelfth by ten- twelfths and a quarter. Generally however
they are of a much longer form than those of the Song Thrush.
Two broods are commonly reared, the first being abroad to-
wards the end of May, the second by the middle of July. It
appears however that sometimes a greater number of broods is
reared. Mr Blyth states in the Naturalist, Vol. Ill, p. 152,
that a pair built four successive nests in 1837 upon the island
in St James''s Park, and succeeded in rearing seventeen young
ones, the three first broods consisting of five each, the last of
two only ; and that another pair which he knew of raised three
broods in a garden near his residence.

Mr Weir has favoured me with the following notice respect-
ing a matrimonial union between a Blackbird and a Thrush : —
" That birds in a state of confinement may be induced, by the

92 TURDUS MERULA.

solicitations of love, to form alliances with other species of the
same genus, or such as resemble them closely in size and habits,
when they have not an opportunity of making a choice, is not
wonderful ; but that they should do so when left to the freedom
of their will is rather strange, and what seldom occurs. Mr
Russell of Moss-side, my next neighbouring proprietor, and his
brother, informed me that about the conclusion of the winter
of 1886, a male Blackbird and a female Thrush fed occasionally
together within a short distance of their house. At the com-
mencement of spring their attachment to each other appeared
more decided ; they carried on a course of regular flirtation
which eventually ended in matrimony. How the Thrush should
have fallen in love with her dusky neighbour is not easily ac-
counted for ; but from this it would appear that the females of
the feathered tribe have their peculiar notions of beauty as well
as those amongst mankind. But, after all, the union of these
birds is not so wonderful as that of one of Eve's fair daughters
whose complexion is almost as white as the snow, with one
of Afric"'s flat-nosed sons with a countenance black as jet.
After a good deal of consultation the pair at length determined
to build their nest in a bush of heath which hung over what
our Scotch folk denominate a ' farret brae.' I did not see
their eggs, as they had four young ones before their nest was
discovered, so cunningly had they concealed it. When nearly
half fledged, I am sorry to say, that on Sunday forenoon the 3d
of July, during the hours of divine service, they were carried
off by some most daring nest-hunting youths, notwithstanding
all the care that had been taken to preserve them.*"

The same gentleman has furnished me with an account of a
series of observations having reference to the feeding of young
birds while yet unfledged. Those which refer to the present
species are here given.

" Mr Pennant says, that ' among the feathered tribe all the
cares of life fall to the lot of the tender sex."* ' The male does
not sing after the young are hatched :' — so says Charles F.
Partington, Esquire, in his work the British Cyclopaedia, now
publishing. And thus writes that distinguished naturalist
Colonel Montagu : — ' When the callow brood appears the

BLACK THRUSH, OR BLACKBIRD. 93

male is now no more heard in tuneful glee, unless a second
brood should force the amorous song again,"* If these state-
ments are correct, it will be seen from the following observa-
tions that in some of their habits, the Blackbirds in England
differ from those in this neighbourhood.

" On Saturday morning the 10th of June 1837, at half-past
2 o'clock, I went into a house made of the branches of trees to
watch the Blackbirds whilst they were feeding their brood. It
was within nine feet of their nest, which was built in the hole
of an old wall. It is a situation for which they and the thrushes
seem to have had a strong predilection, for it has been occupied
by one or other of them for a number of years successively.
The morning was so cold, with a heavy rain and a strong breeze
from the east, that I was obliged to wrap myself up in a warm
cloak and a Mackintosh waterproof.

" At a quarter past three o'clock in the morning they began
to feed their young, which were four in number. From that
time until four o'clock the male fed them only once, and sang
almost incessantly, whilst the female fed them six times. From
four to five o'clock the male fed them six, and the female three
times ; from five to six o'clock the male fed them four, and
the female five times ; from six to seven o'clock the male fed
them three, and the female five times ; and from seven to eight
o'clock the male fed them three times. For the last four hours
he sang most delightfully, except when he was feeding his
tender offspring. As he had induced one of them to fly out after
him, I was under the necessity of fixing it into its nest, and
this caused some interruption to their feeding. From eight to
nine o'clock the male fed them six, and the female seven times ;
and from nine to ten o'clock the male fed them four, and the
female three times. In keeping both the inside and outside of
their nest clean they are very particular. A dropping of one of
the young birds having fallen to the ground, the male immedi-
ately carried it off to some distance, in order, no doubt, to pre-
vent suspicion. From ten to eleven o'clock the male fed them
three, and the female two times ; from eleven to twelve o'clock
the male fed them two, and the female three times ; from twelve
to one o'clock the male fed them two, and the female four times ;

94 TURDUS MERULA.

and from one to two o'clock the male fed them twice, and the
female thrice.

" Although the hut in which I sat was very closely covered,
a Wren having alighted on the ground in pursuit of a fly, no
sooner observed one of my legs in motion, than it set up a cry
of alarm, on which, in the course of a few seconds, all the
birds in the neighbourhood collected to see what was the cause
of it. The Blackbirds hopped round about the house again
and again, made every effort to peep into the interior, and even
alighted on the top of it, within a few inches of my head ; but
they at length gave up the attempt.

" From two to three o'clock the female fed them twice, and
from three to four o'clock the male fed them three, and the
female four times.

" That some of the notes of birds are a language which con-
veys a direct meaning, may, I presume, be inferred from the
following interesting occurrence, which took place at half-past
three o'clock, an occurrence which I witnessed with the most
anxious curiosity, and which I could scarcely have believed
had I not seen it. The female having brought a large worm,
I am sure more than four inches in length, put it into the
mouth of one of the young, and then flew away. Upon her
return, having perceived that it was sticking in its throat, she
set up the moan of distress. To her assistance her cry imme-
diately brought her partner, who likewise seemed to be aware
of the consequences. To force it down they made several
efforts, but in this they were unsuccessful. Strange to tell,
the male at length discovered the cause of the catastrophe.
That part of the worm which by being entangled among the
feathers of the breast had been prevented from going down,
he carefully disengaged, and held it up with his bill, until
after the most unusual efforts, the young bird at length swal-
lowed it. But so much exhausted was it that it remained nearly
three hours without moving, and with its eyes shut. The
male, having alighted upon a tree a few yards from his nest,
poured forth some of his most enchanting notes, a song of re-
joicing, no doubt, for the narrow escape from death which one
of his family had just made.

BLACK THRUSH, OR BLACKBIRD. 95

" From four to five o'clock the male fed them three, and the
female four times ; from five to six o'clock the female fed them
only twice, and from six to seven o'clock she fed them three
times. In the evening the male was so much engaged in sing-
ing, that he left the charge of his family almost entirely to his
tender-hearted spouse.

" From seven to eight o'clock the male fed them only once,
and the female six times ; and from eight to twenty minutes
before nine o'clock, when they ceased from their mutual labours,
the male fed them once, and the female seven times. When
I left my retreat, to repair to my more comfortable abode, the
male was pouring forth his most charming melody.

" Thus, in the course of a single day, the male fed the young
"44, and the female fed them 69 times.

" Before these birds fed their young, they always alighted
upon a tree, and looked around them for a few seconds. They
sometimes brought in a quantity of worms, and fed the whole
of their brood alternately ; at other times they carried in only
one worm, and gave it to one of them. The worms were very
large, owing no doubt to some heavy showers of rain which
had fallen on the previous day. This may perhaps be the rea-
son why they fed them so seldom, compared \^"ith the number of
times that the Thrushes, which I watched a few days before,
gave food to their brood. The weather was then very dry, and
the worms were considerably smaller.

" The young birds often trimmed their feathers, and stretched
out their wrings ; they also appeared to sleep now and then.
With the note of alarm which the feathered tribes set up on
the discovery of their enemies, all the different species of the
little birds seem to be most intimately acquainted ; for no sooner
did a beast or a bird of prey make its appearance, than they
seemed to be anxiously concerned about the safety of their
family. From tree to tree they usually hopped, uttering their
doleful lamentations. At one time the Blackbirds were in an
unusual state of excitement and terror, and were attended by
crowds of their woodland friends. A man and a boy, who
were working in my garden, having heard the noise, ran to see
what was the cause of it. Upon looking into some branches

96 TURDUS MERULA.

lying on the ground, they observed a large weasel stealing
slyly along in pursuit of its prey. When they approached it,
instead of running off as they expected it to do, it climbed to
the top of a larch tree, where it remained until my pointer was
brought, when they shook it down, and it made its escape. It
is astonishing how very soon the young know this intimation
of fear ; for I observed that no sooner did the old ones an-
nounce it, than they cowered in their nest, and appeared to be
in a state of great uneasiness.

" During the whole day, except in two or three instances,
the Blackbirds svcallowed all the droppings of their brood.

" Boghead, 5th January 1838."

This last remarkable circumstance Mr Weir also found to
be the case with the Song Thrush, as will be mentioned in the
history of that species. It is therefore probable that the habit
is common to all the species of this genus, and perhaps to those
of others of the Cantatores. Many of my readers may be aware
that the Ruminantia, and especially the domestic cow, exhibit
a similar propensity, at least when their offspring is very young,
for they then lick up the excrement as it passes from the bowels.
The value of Mr Weir's observations respecting the feeding of
the young of this bird, and of several other species, as related
in the present volume, will be appreciated by the intelligent
reader, who may be aware that no such patient watchings have
ever been instituted by any ornithologist. Appended to the
above communication is the following note, which corroborates
my own remarks, as already stated : — " On the afternoon of
Tuesday the 26th, and on the morning of Thursday the 28th
of December 1837, I heard the Blackbirds singing as merrily
as if it had been in April or May."

The flesh of the Blackbird is excellent, as indeed is that of all
our other species, although, I believe, very seldom used as an
article of food. The good people who unhesitatingly feed on
innocent lambs, gentle doves, and confiding pullets, look with
a kind of abhorrence on the cruel slaughterer of Blackbirds.
This, however, it is obvious, is mere selfishness. The bird
amuses them with its song, and they are displeased with its

BLACK THRUSH, OR BLACKBIRD. 97

destroyer. Yet, when it has the audacity to appropriate a few
cherries, gooseberries, pears, or other fruit, it is very much in
the way of receiving some grains of No. 5, from those who would
hesitate to shoot it unless in anger. Its fondness of fruit is
scarcely counterbalanced by its helping to clear the gardens of
snails and worms ; but it amply repays all damage by its song,
which, in some respects is unrivalled. The period at which
it is in prime condition as an article of food, is from the be-
ginning of October to the end of February, unless a snow-storm
or hard frost should occur ; and even then, it retains its con-
dition much longer than the other Thrushes, excepting the
common species, for it still finds a supply of snails under the
hedges. The Blackbird is frequently kept in cages, where it
sings with nearly as much effect, even in the midst of a crowded
city, as in its wild haunts, although the natural associations of
cultivated scenery, and gentle emotions, are then entirely lost.
Very often, however, it is taught to whistle a tune of some
kind, and is thus rendered an object of admiration to those who
have little relish for nature, unless they can distort her so as to
suit their depraved tastes. The young are easily reared when
taken from the nest.

Young. — The bill is dark-brown, paler towards the edges ;
the iris brown ; the feet dusky. The general colour of the
plumage above is dusky brown, each feather with a longitudinal
median yellowish streak ; the wing-coverts tipped with a tri-
angular spot of the same. The lower parts brownish-white,
each feather with a terminal spot of brown ; the throat and
fore-neck whitish, streaked with dusky spots, the breast and
sides of the neck tinged with red.

Progress toward JSIaturity. — After the first moult, which
commences in September, and is completed by the end of No-
vember, the plumage of the males is in some almost uniformly
brownish-black, while in others the fore-neck, and especially
the breast, are more or less lunulated with light-brown and
grey. In all, the auricular coverts are brownish-black, with-
out light-coloured shafts, which is never the case in the young
females. In some the bill is all brownish-black, in others of
VOL. ir. H

98 TURDUS MERULA.

that colour, tinged and blotched with dusky orange. The
colour of the feathers undergoes no very remarkable change
until the next moult, when it becomes darker ; but the bill
gradually becomes more yellow, so that by the beginning of
summer, it is entirely of that colour. In the young females
the upper plumage is olive brown, the breast and fore-neck are
light umber, the abdomen more or less greyish, the auricular
coverts with whitish shafts, and the bill and feet brownish-black.

Remarks. — I have found very considerable differences as
to size in individuals, so that several females examined were
larger than many of the males, which, however, is not ordin-
arily the case. The dimensions of a number of specimens are
here given : —

M. M. M. M. F. F. F. F.

Length lOi

Extent 15

Bill !§

Tarsus 1^

Middle toe li

The British species most nearly allied to the Blackbird is
the Ring Ouzel, which presents the same form and habits, with
slight variations. The only known species of the genus Seri-
culus of Mr Swainson, which that distinguished naturalist
places among his Oriolinse, is much more closely related to
Turdus than to Oriolus. Indeed, his groupings of the Meru-
lidse require much of that kind of analysis which is performed
with the aid of the scalpel. Were it not for the elongated
filaments on the extremity of the tongue of the Sericulus, I do
not see why it should not stand simply as a species of Turdus.

On referring to the descriptions of the Blackbird by British
authors, I find nothing in them to which the reader may be
desired to look; and I may be allowed to observe that my own ob-
servations, and those of Mr Weir, recorded above, seem to afford a
fuller history of the species than any hitherto published in this
country at least. Montagu and Mr Selby are both remarkably
brief on the subject ; but Mr Wood treats it in an interesting

10 lOi^j

11

10

lOi

lOA

loi

15f 161

16i

15

15i

15

IH

] oi 7

12 8

6

s

1 0

1 0
12

H If

If

li

u

1|

U ]§

H

H

u

n

BLACK THRUSH, OR BLACKBIRD. 99

manner, presenting, as he generally does with species which
he has carefully studied, a full account of its habits. In one
or two cases of no great importance I should be inclined how-
ever to dissent from his opinion. Thus, he says, " its strains
are not so loud as those of the Garden Thrush ;" but I think
they are much louder, although probably they cannot be dis-
tinctly heard at so great a distance. I observe that in Lou-
don's Magazine are several notices respecting the alleged
crowing of the Blackbird. The following is so explicit, that
I think it leaves no doubt on the subject. " Within half a mile
of my residence, there is a Blackbird which crows constantly,
and as accurately as the common cock, and nearly as loud ; as
it may on a still day be heard at the distance of several hun-
dred yards. When first told of the circumstance, I conjectured
that it must have been the work of a cock pheasant concealed
in a neighbouring brake ; but, on the assurance that it was
nothing more or less than a common Blackbird, I determined
to ascertain the fact with my own eyes and ears ; and this day
I had the gratification of getting close to it, seated on the top
bough of an ash tree, and pursuing with unceasing zeal its
usual note. The resemblance to the crow of the domestic
cock is so perfect, that more than one in the distance were
answering to it, and the little fellow seemed to take delight in
competing with its rivals of the dunghill. It occasionally in-
dulged in its usual song, but only for a second or two, and
broke off in the middle into its more natural wdiistle.

" Barton Bouchier, Wold Rectory, near Northampton."

Fig. 127, Foot of Blackbird.

100

TURDUS TORQUATUS. THE RINGED THRUSH,
OR RING OUZEL.

ROCK OUZEL. TOR OUZEL. MOUNTAIN OUZEL. WHITE-BREASTED
BLACKBIRD. MOOR BLACKBIRD.

Turdus torquatus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 296.

Turdus torquatus. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 343.

Ring Ouzel. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Merle a plastron. Turdus torquatus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 1G6.

Ring Ouzel. Merula torquata. Selb. Illustr. I. 169.

Turdus torquatus. Ring Ouzel. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 101.

Male with the plumage hlackish-brown, the feathers margined
with grey ; a broad semilunar patch of nchite on the fore part of
the breast. Female similar, with more grey on the wings, the white
band tinged with brown. Young dusky, the feathers of the tipper
parts tipped with black, of the lower barred with yelloioish-white.

Male. — The Ringed Thrush is very similar to the Black-
bird in form and colour. It is however somewhat stouter, and
has the wings proportionally longer, and the tail shorter. As
it is only a summer resident with us, I am unable to describe

RINGED THRUSH. 101

its winter plumage, which must be of a deeper tint, with the
pale margins of the feathers broader.

The bill is almost exactly the same as that of the Blackbird,
being merely a little more attenuated at the point, and having the
notch more distinct. The tongue is nine-twelfths of an inch in
length. The oesophagus, PI. XIV, Fig. 3, is three inches and
a quarter long, with a general diameter of three-twelfths and a
quarter. The stomach when empty is oblong, compressed ; its
muscles distinct and of moderate size ; when distended, it is
broadly elliptical or roundish, its length being eleven-twelfths
and a quarter, its breadth nine and a half twelfths. The tendons
are radiated, and the inner coat tough, dense, and slightly rugous.
The intestine is very wide and rather short, its general diameter
four-twelfths of an inch, its length fifteen inches. Behind or
above the duodenal fold, is a second fold on the right side ; the
intestine then passes up behind the stomach, and descends in
a direct course to the anus. The coeca are four-twelfths of an
inch long, and one inch from the extremity. The feet are a
little larger, but otherwise similar to those of the Blackbird,
only that the claws are more curved and blunted. The plum-
age is rather compact, and slightly glossed, the feathers oblong,
rounded, and distinct. There is a row of bristle-feathers along
the base of the upper mandible, and all the feathers about the
base of the bill are terminated by bristly points. The wing is
broad and rounded, and when closed extends to near the middle
of the tail. The quills are eighteen ; the first extremely small
and narrow, the third longest, the fourth almost equal, the
second a little shorter than the fourth ; the third, fourth, fifth,
and sixth cut out on the outer web towards the end. The se-
condaries are long, broad, and broadly rounded with a minute
tip. The tail is long, slightly rounded, the feathers rather
broad, rounded, and acuminate.

The bill is yellow ; the mouth, basal margins of the man-
dibles, and edges of the eyelids orange. The feet olive-brown,
the claws blackish-brown. The general colour of the plumage
is blackish brown, the wings lighter : the outer margins of the
quills and first row of wing-coverts ash-grey. The feathers
of the lower parts, and wing coverts, margined with whitisl;-

102 TURDUS TORQUATUS.

grey, and the shafts of the lower tail-coverts white. There is
a broad semilunar patch of white, curving forwards, at the
junction of the neck and breast.

Length to end of tail Hi inches ; extent of wings 19 ; bill
along the ridge li ; along the edge of lower mandible 1/^;
wing from flexure 5^^ ; tail 4| ; tarsus \^^ ; hind toe y^j,
its claw i'^2 ; second toe ^^, its claw /^ ; third toe Ij;^, its
claw 4^ twelfths ; fourth toe 8g twelfths ; its claw ^^.

Feaiale. — The female is similar to the male, but of a duller
and lighter tint. The bill is brownish-yellow, the base of the
upper mandible dusky ; the iris brown ; the feet as in the male.
The colour of the plumage is dark chocolate brown, the wings
having the feathers margined with brownish-grey. The patch
on the breast is brownish- white, with semilunar marks of pale
brown, the tips being of the latter colour. The feathers of the
throat, breast, belly, and under part of the tail, are edged with
white, and the latter have a white line along the middle.

Length to end of tail 10| ; extent of wings 18 ; bill along
the ridge 10^ twelfths ; tarsus l/g ; middle toe and claw 1 i^*g.

Habits. — The Ringed Thrush arrives in the south of Scot-
land about the middle of April, and departs in the beginning
of October. It betakes itself at once to the open, hilly, and
mountainous tracts, where it prefers the shelter of the juniper,
furze, and heath bushes, to that of woods or thickets. Ex-
tremely shy and vigilant, it seldom permits a near approach,
but betakes itself to flight on the least alarm. Its manners
however are very similar to those of the Blackbird, and as I
have studied them with some attention, I am enabled to speak
with certainty respecting them. A few individuals are found
here and there among the Lammermoor and Pentland Hills,
generally in the vicinity of masses of furze and juniper ; and I
have met with the species in several other parts of Scotland,
and even in the island of Skye. Indeed it was there, in the
magnificent valley of Coruisk, that I first became practically
acquainted with it, having accidentally met with a whole
brood accompanied by their parents, in July 1818. There, on

RINGED THRUSH. 103

the craggy slopes of the lofty and singularly peaked masses of
the Cullin Mountains, among the scattered tufts of heath, they
seemed to be flying about in search of food, of which one might
imagine they could find but little in such a place. But on the
green sward of the Pentlands, where the mole is found nearly to
the summits, the Ring Ouzel, besides insects, can readily pro-
cure a plentiful supply of earth-worms, for which I have seen
it looking out in the manner described under the habits of the
preceding species ; like which it hops about with great celerity,
stands with drooping wings and slightly elevated tail, and digs
up its prey with great vigour. It feeds also on insects, testa-
ceous mollusca, and berries of different kinds. The stomach
of one which I examined on the 2d October 1 837, was filled
with berries of the Rowan, Pyrus aucuparia. In the statisti-
cal account of the Parish of Galashiels in Selkirkshire, the Rev.
Nathaniel Paterson states that " the Moor Blackbird, too, has
of late years become a most troublesome spoiler of the garden.
It is nearly of the same size as the singing Blackbird, but
dingy and tuneless, — a daring thief that comes before the win-
dows and carries oif a plum nearly as large as itself, shewing
by its chatter more of anger than fear when it is disturbed in
the work of depredation. Currants, gooseberries, cherries,
plums, and the finest wall-fruits are its prey.*"

Its flight is strong and direct, or with very little undula-
tion. When pursued, it generally flies at once to a considerable
distance, and it is only when you come near its nest or young,
that it ventures within shooting distance. Like the Sonsr
Thrush, it conceals itself among the bushes, but is much more
easily put to flight. When alarmed, it utters a repetition of
strong clear notes, like those of the Blackbird, but louder ;
and its song consists of a few simple, loud and mellow notes.

The nest, according to a person who informs me that he has
several times found it, is placed under the shelter of a furze
or juniper bush, or on the face of a rough bank, or among
fragments of rock. It is composed of coarse grass, plastered
internally with mud, and lined with finer grass. The eggs,
from four to six, are regularly oval, pale bluish-green, freckled
all over with pale brown. The young fully fledged I have
had from the Pentland Hills on the 7th of June.

104 TURDUS TORQUATUS.

Young. — Bill deep brown, the angle of the mouth orange.
Iris dark brown. Feet and claws pale brown. The plumage
of the upper parts is brownish black, the feathers tipped with
black, and edged with dark reddish-yellow ; the outer edges
of the secondary quills and their coverts pale yellowish-grey, as
are those of the primaries and their coverts, which however
are narrower ; the smaller wing-coverts with a central streak
of yellowish. The outer tail-feathers are edged, and all mar-
ginally tipped with pale grey. The lower parts are also
brownish-black ; the throat and middle part of the fore-neck
yellowish white, with which colour the rest of the feathers are
barred near the end. The lower tail-coverts have a longitu-
dinal white spot along the shaft, their tip yellowish.

Remarks. — In examining two specimens on the 2d of October,
I was surprised to find in both numerous entire seeds, and por-
tions of skin and even pulp of the berries of the Mountain Ash
in the intestines, having escaped the action of the gizzard, and
the solvent power of the various fluids. This is the only in-
stance in which I have found seeds and large fragments of
vegetable matter in the intestine of a bird. A similar observa-
tion was made by me on opening a large Tortoise from Trinidad,
which had been three months alive in this country, and yet
had portions of its intestines filled with Tamarind seeds, which
it must have eaten along with the pulp in its native country or
on the passage. In both cases, there must have been diseased
action. Indeed the Tortoise died of inflammation of the lungs ;
but no disease was apparent in the Thrushes. The dissemina-
tion of plants by birds in this manner has often been alleged
or supposed by botanists, probably from analogy, as grains of
barley and other cereal plants are sometimes found in the dung
of horses ; but I have always discredited the notion, because
neither among the excrement of birds nor in their intestines,
have I ever found entire seeds, this instance excepted.

105

TURDUS PILARIS. THE CHESTNUT-BACKED
THRUSH, OR FIELDFARE.

FELTYFARE. FELDYFAR. FELTYFLIER. GREY THRUSH. LIATH-TROISG.

/

Fig. 129.

Turdus pilaris. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 291.

Turdus pilaris. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 330-

Fieldfare. Mont. Oru. Diet.

Merle Litome. Turdus pilaris. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 103.

Fieldfare. Turdus pilaris. Selb. Illustr. I. 160.

Turdus pilaris. Fieldfare. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 99-

Head, hind-neck and rump, grey ; fore part of the hack chest-
nut ; space before the eye hrownish-hlack ; a whitish line over
the eye ; fore-neck and sides reddish-yellow, on the former the
feathers tipped with a hrownish-hlack triangular spot, oti the
latter their principal part of that colour.

^Iale. — In form and proportion.? the Fieldfare resembles the
Black and Ringed Thrushes ; but in colour is more allied to
the Missel Thrush and Redwing. It is in fact precisely inter-
mediate between the uniformly coloured species, or Ouzels,
and those of which the fore part of the neck is spotted, or the
Thrushes, having the form of the one, and the colouring

106 TURDUS PILARIS.

of the other set, to neither, or to either of which therefore it
may be referred according to caprice, while according to nature
it is the connecting link of both. It is a rather stout bird, to
which the length of the wings and tail impart a considerable
degree of elegance.

The bill is of moderate length and size, slightly ascending,
a little broader than deep at the base, where it is pentagonal,
compressed towards the end, acute ; the edges sharp and direct,
those of the upper mandible slightly overlapping, with a small
notch close to the tip ; the upper mandible with the ridge
rather narrow and rounded, the sides convex, internally con-
cave with a central prominent line ; the lower mandible with
the back and sides rounded, the angle medial, narrowish,
rounded, the outline slightly convex ; the gape-line slightly
curved towards the end. The palate is nearly flat, with two
prominent lines ; the posterior aperture of the nares oblongo-
linear. The tongue is sagittate wath long conical papillae at
the base, narrow, the tip rounded and bristly. The oesophagus
is three and a half inches in length ; the stomach roundish,
compressed, an inch and four-twelfths in its greatest diameter ;
the intestine seventeen inches long ; the coeca three-twelfths
and a half in length, and at the distance of an inch and a quar-
ter from the anus.

The nostrils are elliptical, direct, two-twelfths long, with a
narrow operculum, exposed, in the fore part of the nasal mem-
brane. The eyes are of moderate size, their aperture two-
twelfths and a quarter in diameter. The ear is large, its aper-
ture four-twelfths across. The legs are of ordinary length,
rather strong, the tarsus compressed, covered anteriorly with a
long undivided plate above, and four scutella below, posteriorly
with two plates meeting at a very acute angle, inferiorly rugoso-
granulate. The toes are moderately stout; the first with eight,
the second with ten, the third with thirteen, the fourth with
eleven scutella. The claws are of moderate length, compressed,
laterally grooved, slightly arched, acute.

The plumage is rather blended, soft, and slightly glossed ; the
feathers oblong, rounded, with the barbs discrete at the end,
and a very slender plumule composed of a few long filaments.

FIELDFARE THRUSH. 107

There is a row of small bristle-feathers along the base of the
upper mandible. A few very slender undivided filaments pro-
ject from among the feathers of the occipital region, whence
the specific name pilaris, or hairy ; but these filaments are not
peculiar to this species, being equally conspicuous in the
Missel Thrush and others, nor even to the genus, as they are
seen in the Redbreast and many small birds besides. The
wings are long, broad, semi-ovate, with nineteen quills ; the
primaries rounded, the secondaries truncato-rotundate, with a
minute acumen ; the first quill extremely small and narrow,
the third longest, the fourth next, and scarcely longer than the
second ; the third, fourth, and fifth cut out on the outer web
towards the end. The wings when closed reach to about the
middle of the tail-feathers. The tail is long, nearly even, the
feathers narrow, rounded and acuminate.

The bill is orange at the base, brownish -black at the end,
with a larger space of the lower mandible of the former colour ;
the inside of the mouth also orange, the edges of the eyelids
yellow, the iris brown, the feet and claws dusky. The head,
cheeks, and hind-neck are ash-grey, the forehead slightly
tinged with brown, and most of the feathers on the upper part
of the head having a central dusky streak. The anterior half
of the back and the wing-coverts are chestnut brown, the pos-
terior half shaded into ash-grey. The wing-coverts are greyish-
brown, edged with paler, the primary coverts slightly tipped
with grey ; the alula, primary -coverts, and quills, greyish-black,
margined with pale grey, the secondaries, however, having the
greater part of their outer webs brown. The tail is of a deeper
black, the lateral feathers greyish toward the end. The fore-
neck and breast are light yellowish red, marked with elongated
triangular brownish-black spots ; the sides paler and marked
with larger broadly rounded acuminate spots ; the middle of
the breast and belly greyish-white, tinged with red ; the lower
tail-coverts white, marked on either side with dusky. The
lower wing-coverts and axillar feathers pure white, and con-
spicuous when the bird is on wing.

Length to end of tail lOf ; extent of wings l7i ; bill along
the back j^jj, along the edge of lower mandible \l ; wing from

108 TURDUS PILARIS.

flexure 5f ; tail 4 ; tarsus Ij ; hind toe -^^^ its claw 5| twelfths ;
second toe 6^ twelfths, its claw /^ ; third toe \\, its claw 4^
twelfths; fourth toe 6 1 twelfths, its claw /g*

Female. — The female differs from the male only in having
the head more tinged with brown, the throat paler, the form
somewhat less robust, and the bill a little smaller and more
dusky ; but these differences are very insignificant, and it is
impossible to distinguish with certainty a male from a female
without dissection.

Length to end of tail 10^; extent of wings 16^ ; bill along
the ridge ^^ ; tarsus 1\ ; middle toe and claw l:j.

Variations. — Slight differences as to size and colouring are
observed, and albino individuals have been met with, as in the
other species. In the collection of Mr Stevenson, Edinburgh,
is a cream-coloured individual, with pale reddish markings on
the lower parts. The birds arrive in this country in full plu-
mage, as above described, and depart before any remarkable
change has taken place beyond the wearing of the tips of the
feathers.

Habits. — About the end of October, sometimes in the be-
ginning of November, the Fieldfares make their appearance in
the northern and eastern parts of Britain, where some of them
remain all the winter and spring, while others disperse over the
country. In the wooded parts they seem to rest at night on tall
trees, at least I have seen them so roosted after sunset; but Mon-
tagu affirms that they repose on the ground, which may be the
case, and certainly they must sleep there or on rocks in the He-
brides, where they are met with during the cold season. I know
no place where one can study their habits more effectively than
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, where they are met with in
flocks of from several hundreds to three or four individuals.
You see them at early dawn flying off to the fields in a loose
body, or meet them there even in the dim twilight ; but it
seems improbable that they remain at night in the open fields,
as they are never observed to crouch in the manner of the

FIELDFARE THRUSH. 109

larks, pipits, and other birds that repose on the ground. Their
flight, which is easy and rather slow, is performed with little
undulation, by quickly repeated flaps of the wings, the bird
spreading out those organs, making about twelve short flaps,
and as it were intermitting one or more. In this manner
they proceed, uttering a kind of chuckling chirp, until they
arrive over a field on which they have a mind to settle, when
they perform several circling evolutions, and at length alight.
After settling, each is seen to stand still with its wings close,
but a little drooping, its tail slightly declined, and its head
elevated. It then hops rapidly a few steps forward, stops,
picks up a seed, an insect, or other article of food, and again
proceeds. They generally move in the same direction, always
facing the wind if it be high, and those in the rear, especially
if left far behind, fly up to the front. When alarmed, they all
stand still for a short time, some utter a low scream, and pre-
sently all fly off" to a distance, or alight on the tall trees in the
neighbourhood. There they sit gracefully on the twigs, with
their tails declined, and generally with their heads all directed
one way, unless they have settled for the purpose of resting or
amusing themselves after procuring a sufiiciency of food. In
fine weather they often enact a concert of long duration, which,
although their song is neither loud nor very melodious, is very
pleasant. When they are upon trees their attitudes resemble
those of the Blackbird ; but they do not frequent bushy places,
woods, or gardens, for the purpose of picking up snails, worms,
or larvae, but repair to the open fields and meadows, where it
is amusing to see them in calm weather hopping about in all
directions, stopping now and then to pick up their food, or to
look around them. In this respect they resemble the Song
Thrush, as well as the Redwing and Missel Thrush, with the
two latter of which they often temporarily associate. They
are very shy, seldom allowing a person to approach within a
hundred yards in an open field, although when on trees they
are somewhat less suspicious. In the former situation they
keep at a distance from the hedges or walls, and fly off in a
body ; but in the latter several individuals frequently remain
behind the main body, and may sometimes be shot. Of the

110 TURDUS PILARIS.

three species the Redwing seems to be the least shy, and the
Missel Thrush the most so, but all are very easily alarmed.
The Song Thrush is the tamest of the genus, and next to it
the Blackbird, but these species are not gregarious, even in
severe weather. When the ground is covered with snow the
Fieldfares betake themselves to marshy meadows, where they
are often shot in great numbers ; for, although repeatedly
annoyed, they return at short intervals, and joersons stationed
here and there along the hedges are sure of obtaining many
chances. The irrigated meadows to the w^est of Edinburgh
are a favourite place of resort to all our Thrushes in frosty
weather. On the 19th January 1835, I there shot ten Field-
fares, five Redwings, four Song Thrushes, and four Blackbirds.
Should the pools and brooks be frozen, they repair to the woods
and hedges, where they obtain a supply of hawthorn, holly,
and other berries.

The food of the Fieldfare during winter and spring consists
of berries of various kinds, worms, larvse, pupae, and insects,
as well as seeds of cereal and other plants. I have never seen
it in cornyards however, even in the most severe weather, but
it frequently enters gardens in time of snow to eat the holly
berries. It employs a small quantity of fragments of quartz
and other hard substances to aid the trituration of its food.

Having neglected to note the alarm cry of this bird, I sought
an opportunity of supplying the deficiency during a snow storm
in March 1837, when I fell in with a great number of Field-
fares and Song Thrushes, with three Lapwings, busily engaged
in searching for food in a piece of marshy ground that remained
uncovered. The Fieldfares when flying off uttered a chuckling
cry, resembling the syllables yack^ chuck, chuck.) chuck.

If the weather be fine, they generally disappear about the
middle of April ; but I have several times met with flocks in
May. Thus, on Friday the 6th May 1836, I saw a flock of
about twenty Fieldfares in East Lothian, about half way between
Salton and Tranent. Mr Edward Lambert, in the Linnsean
Transactions, Vol. Ill, p. 12, states that the latest Fieldfare
he " ever saw was on the 1st of May in Dorsetshire, and the
earliest on the 29th of September." The Reverend Messrs

FIELDFARE THRUSH. Ill

Sheppard and Whitear, in the fifteenth volume of the same
work, have the following note on the same subject, " In back-
ward seasons, the Fieldfare is late before it leaves this country :
it has been killed in the neighbovirhood of Croma the first week
of June. On the 5th of May 1812, we saw Fieldfares in pro-
digious numbers, flying very high, and steering due north.
They were probably migrating at that time, as none were
afterwards seen. We observed a very large flock of these birds
on the od of May 1820 ; they were extremely tame, and
suffered us to approach within a few yards. They were ob-
served again on the following day in the morning, but were
all gone in the afternoon." According to various writers, they
retire in summer to the northern parts of the continent of
Europe, where they breed, forming their nests on the pine trees.

The Fieldfare has been celebrated as an article of food, or
rather as a luxury, and I have satisfied myself that it has not
been undeservedly praised in this respect. The flesh is tender
and sapid, and there is generally a great accumulation of fat in
the cavity of the abdomen and under the skin. It is this species
that is supposed to have been the Turdus so highly esteemed
by the Romans, and which was fattened with a paste composed
of figs and flour. Great numbers are sold in the London mar-
kets, and in those of other cities, but beyond the metropolis,
the species seems to be little regarded ; and in Edinburgh,
Redwings and Blackbirds are as often seen in the market as
Fieldfares, these and other small land birds going under the
general name of Thrushes and Larks, while the small Gralla-
tores are named Snipes.

As the species does not nestle with us, I am unable to describe
the nest, eggs, or young in their first plumage. In his " Notes
on the Ornithology of Norway," in the Magazine of Zoology
and Botany, Vol. II, p. 812, Mr Hewitson has the following
notice, " Of the thrushes, the Fieldfare is very common, al-
though rather local, not generally dispersed through the forests,
but occupying particular parts of them, to which it seems to
return year after year, nests of previous years being mixed
amongst those of the present. In these localities it abounds,
breeding in society. The nests (a hundred of which might be

112 TURDUS PILARIS,

found in a very limited distance) are placed in the spruce fir,
at distances from the ground varying from four to forty feet,
or upwards. They as well as the eggs very much resemble
those of the Blackbird ; the latter were often five, and not un-
frequently six in number. Their hurried flight from tree to
tree, and their loud harsh cries, very soon point out their
locality, Mr Swainson, in an article on the nests of birds in
Lardner's Cyclopsedia, in order to support a rule laid down by
him, that all insectivorous birds are solitary builders, states
that the Fieldfares are never known to breed together. In
this statement, as I have shewn above, he is quite mistaken.
How does he reconcile the habits of the House and Sand
Martins to this rule 1 They (especially the latter) are not
solitary builders."

Young in Second Plumage, — There is very little difference
between the young birds after autumn and their parents, the
yellowish-red of the fore-neck and breast being brighter, the
grey of the head and rump less pure, and the chestnut of the
back not so deep ; but the characteristic mark is found in the
feathers of the sides, which, in place of being brownish-black
with white margins, are light coloured, with a pale-brown or
dusky border within the white margin. The lower wing-
coverts also, in place of being pure white, are frequently marked
with dusky, and the dark streak along the centre of the feathers
on the head is much larger than in the adult birds.

Remarks. — Among the affinities of the genus to other
birds, it may perhaps seem surprising that I should indicate a
strong resemblance between the Fieldfare and the Sky Lark,
Let a person place the two birds beside each other, and he will
perceive that the general form is pretty similar, the proportions
nearly the same, the bills so like, that, leaving out the notch,
the same description would answer for both. The tarsi and
toes are nearly alike, although the claws differ greatly, and the
marks on the fore-neck and breast are not dissimilar. There
are differences to be sure, but there are certainly affinities.

In size and form, as well as in all the details as to the pro-

FIELDFARE THRUSH. 113

portions of parts, texture of plumage, and outlines of feathers,
the Migratory Thrush, Turdiis mi(fratorius of America, is most
intimately allied to the Fieldfare.

The following are the dimensions of a number of individuals :

Length 10^

Extent of wings 1 7i

Bill A

Wing 6

Tail Vj

Tarsus 1/g

Middle toe and claw.. 1^^

Several instances of the Fieldfare's breeding in this country
have been mentioned, and it is not improbable that they may
yet become more numerous, as has certainly been the case
with the next species. Perhaps it may in some cases have
been mistaken for it, as happened to a person who two years
ago brought me the eggs of the Missel Thrush for those of the
Fieldfare.

M.

F.

M.

lOr^,

lOi

lOi

lOiV

101

18i

161

16i

17

18

8

9
Ti

9
T2

1 0
T2

1 0
T2

6

5A

5i%

4< 1

4i

4, 5

lA

If

If

1 34

^12

1 5

1t^

n

u

1 4

1 4

At?

VOL. II.

114

TURDUS VISCIVORUS. THE MISSEL THRUSH,
OR SHRITE.

MISSEL THRUSH. MISTLE THRUSH. GREY THRUSH. STORM COCK.
HOLM THRUSH. SCREECH THRUSH.

Fig. 13L

Turdus viscivorus. Linn. Sj'st. Nat. I. 291.

Turdus viscivorus. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 326.

Missel-Thrash. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Merle Draine. Turdus Viscivorus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 16'1. ,

Missel-Thrush. Merula Viscivora. Selb. Illustr. \. 158.

Turdus viscivorus. Missel-Thrush. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 98.

Upper parts light hrown, tinged with grey, the fore part of the
head greyish ; the rump shaded with ochre-yellow ; secondary
coverts and tailfeathers tipped with greyish-white-^ a cream-
coloured hand from the base of the bill over the eye, the loral space
greyish-white ; the lower parts yellowish-white, each feather tipped
with a black spot ; the spots on the necJc smaller and triangular^
those on the breast larger, and transversely oblong.

MISSEL THRUSH. 115

Male. — The Missel Thrush, which is the largest European
bird of the genus, differs little in form from the species already
described, being however proportionally stouter, with the feet
and bill smaller, and the tail shorter. Its proportions are nearly
the same as those of the Song Thrush, which however it greatly
exceeds in size, and its style of colouring is similar. The body
is full, the neck rather short, the head of moderate size, the
wings long, the tail rather long, and the feet rather small.

The bill is shortish, straight, slightly ascending, broader than
high at the base, compressed towards the end, acute ; the edges
sharp, direct, the upper overlapping a little, with a distinct
notch close to the tip ; the upper mandible has its outline
arcuato-declinate, the ridge rather narrow, the sides convex,
the tip narrow and rounded ; the lower mandible has the angle
of moderate length, rather narrow, rounded, the back flattened
at the base, narrow towards the end, the dorsal outline slightly
convex, the sides convex, the edges considerably inflected ; the
gape-line slightly arched. Both mandibles are internally deeply
concave, with a prominent median line ; the palate flat, with
two prominent lines ; the posterior aperture of the nares ob-
longo-linear. The tongue is slender, sagittate with longish pa-
pillae at the base, its tip bristly and slit. The oesophagus is
four inches long, without dilatation, but rather wide, its ave-
rage diameter being about four-twelfths and a half The sto-
mach is a gizzard of moderate strength, irregularly oblong,
compressed, its muscles distinct, the right tendon largest, its
greatest diameter an inch and five -twelfths. The intestine is
nineteen inches long, its diameter in the duodenal portion five-
twelfths, afterwards contracting gradually to three-twelfths at
the coeca, which are cylindrical, three-twelfths long, and situ-
ated at the distance of an inch and a half from the anus.

The eyes are of moderate size, their aperture being two-
twelfths and three-fourths. That of the ear is circular, and
three and a half twelfths in diameter. The legs are rather
slender, and of ordinary length ; the tarsus compressed, an-
teriorly covered with a long undivided plate, and four inferior
scutella, posteriorly with two long plates meeting at an acute
angle. The toes are of moderate size, the first with eight, tho

116 TURDUS VISCIVORUS.

second with ten, the third with thirteen, the fourth with twelve
ecutella ; the fourth is a little longer than the second, the first
longer, and the third by much the longest. The claws are
rather long, much compressed, tapering, arched, acute.

The plumage is ordinary, rather compact, but soft, and slightly
glossed ; the feathers oblong, rounded, and nearly simple, hav-
ing but a slight plumule. There is a row of bristle-feathers
along the base of the upper mandible. From the hind-head
there are protruded beyond the feathers eight slender simple
filaments, as in the Fieldfare. The wings are long, broad, and
rounded ; the quills eighteen ; the first extremely small and
narrow, the second and fifth about equal, the third and fourth
equal and longest ; the third, fourth, and fifth slightly cut out
on their outer edge ; all the primaries rounded, the inner more
broadly, with a minute tip ; the secondaries long, broad, broadly
rounded, the outer abrupt, with a minute tip. The wings when
closed extend to the middle of the tail-feathers. The tail is
rather long, slightly rounded, nearly straight, its feathers of
moderate breadth, and rounded, with a minute tip.

The upper mandible is dusky-brown, its edges lighter ; the
lower flesh-coloured at the base, dark brown in its distal half;
the skin at the opening, and the inside of the mouth yellow.
The edges of the eyelids are dusky ; the iris brown. The feet are
flesh-coloured, the claws brownish-black. The general colour
of the plumage on the upper parts is light olivaceous brown
tinged with grey ; the upper part of the head, and especially
the hind-neck lighter, with more grey; the hind part of
the back passes into yellowish-brown, the rump into ochre-
yellow, and the upper tail-coverts are tipped with greyish-
white. The quills, alula, and primary coverts are deep brown,
narrowly margined with greyish-yellow ; the secondary coverts,
with the greater part of their outer webs greyish-brown, their
tips, and those of the first row of coverts yellowish-white.
The tail-feathers are greyish-brown, slightly margined with
yellowish, and more or less tipped with greyish-white ; the
greater part of the lateral feathers, and the terminal portion of
the next, grey, both largely tipped with white on the inner
web, and the inner web of the former indistinctly barred with

MISSEL THRUSH. 117

grey. There is a cream-coloured band from the base of the
upper mandible to above the eye ; the loral space greyish-
white. The general colour of the lower parts is pale ochre
tinged with red, each feather tipped with a black spot. The
throat is dull white, with faint spots. On the fore-neck the
spots are triangular, on the breast and sides transversely ob-
long, on the abdomen small and transverse. The lower tail-
coverts have two longitudinal dusky bands parallel to the shaft,
their medial part and tip white, their margins ochre-yellow.
The axillar feathers and lower wing-coverts white.

Length to end of tail 114 inches; extent of wings, 19?;
bill along the ridge {§, along the edge of lower mandible I5 ;
wing from flexure 6^ ; tail 41 ; tarsus 1/j ; first toe /j, its
claw /g; second toe -^^^ its claw /g '■> t^^i^d toe \\, its claw
^\ ; fourth toe, l\, its claw {^.

Female. — The female does not differ very perceptibly from
the male in colour or size, being merely a little paler, and
slightly smaller. The digestive organs are similar in dimen-
sions. The oesophagus four inches long, its average diameter
four-twelfths and a half ; the stomach an inch and a quarter in
its greatest diameter ; the intestine seventeen inches long, its
diameter varying from five to three twelfths ; the coeca three
twelfths of an inch long, and an inch and a half distant from
the anus.

Length to end of tail 11 inches; extent of wings 19 ; bill
along the ridge /g' along the edge of lower mandible \\ ; wing
from flexure 6^ ; tail 4| ; tarsus l^^ ; middle toe and claw li-

Vakiations. — Between adult individuals compared at the
same season, there are scarcely any apparent differences. White
and, variegated birds are said to occur, but I have not met with
any. A bird in the museum of the University of Edinburgh
is in all probability a hybrid between the Missel Thrush and
Blackbird, the upper parts being similar to those of a young
Missel Thrush, while on the lower black is the predominant
colour, as it also is on the head, and although there are irregular
light-coloured markings on the neck and breast, there are none

118 TURDUS VISCIVORUS.

of the triangular or roundish spots seen in the ordinary state of
the Missel Thrush. This individual may possibly be a me-
lanitic variety, but the two cases of matrimonial union between
the Blackbird and Song Thrush recorded in this work autho-
rize us to suppose that similar unions may take place between
the Blackbird and Missel Thrush. The following table exhi-
bits the dimensions of several individuals : —

F.

Length l^i'g

Extent of wings 18

Bill 1^

Wing 65

Tail U

F.

M.

loie

Hi

iiA

lU

18

191

184

19

9
12

0
12

9
12

8
12

6i

6i

6A

6i

41

4f

4i

4f

u

ifi

u

l|i

u

u

ll^i

li^i

Tarsus 1^

Middle toe and claw.. 1^%

Changes. — The plumage is perfect in November, and con-
tinues so until the end of winter. After that period, the
feathers of the tail are worn, and by the middle or end of sum-
mer, a considerable change has taken place. Summer specimens
in fact are easily distinguished from those killed in winter.
Their feathers are worn, the upper parts have assumed a grey
and bleached appearance, the yellow of the lower parts has
faded considerably, so that the colour of the throat and breast
is greyish-white, spotted with dusky. The moult commences
towards the end of summer, and is completed by the end of
November. Young birds in their second plumage have more
yellow on their lower parts.

Habits. — The Missel Thrush is a permanent resident, but the
native birds of the species are supposed to be joined by others from
the continent towards the end of October. They fly about in
loose flocks, composed of a few individuals, seldom more than
twenty, and at this season betake themselves to the open fields,
especially those recently ploughed, where they search for worms,
larvse, and seeds. On alighting, the bird stands for some time
with the body and tail inclined, the head raised, the wings

MISSEL THRUSH. 119

slightly drooping. Should it descry symptoms of danger, it
alarms its companions by a low harsh scream, when they all
remain attentive for a while, and fly off, or should they judge
themselves safe, commence their search, in prosecuting which
they scatter about more than the Fieldfares or Redwings. If
you watch the motions of one, you see it hop smartly along,
stop to pick up an object, then resume the attitude of attention,
hop forward, dig up a worm, break it to pieces, and swallow
it, then stand again, and thus continue until satiated or put to
flight. In this manner, which is precisely that of the Field-
fare and Common Thrush, they continue feeding for hours, un-
less disturbed, generally keeping at a considerable distance from
each other, so that two can very seldom be shot at once. They
are extremely vigilant, and the moment one is alarmed it emits a
low churr^ which is repeated by the rest, when they either fly
to the trees in the neighbourhood, or flit to a distant field. In
an open place, they hardly consider themselves safe at the dis-
tance of two hundred yards ; and although they remain while a
person passes them, they fly off" if he stands to watch them.
When perched on trees they seldom allow a nearer approach
than a hundred yards. If they are feeding near a low wall,
you may occasionally obtain a shot by going to the place and
suddenly starting up, but you have little chance of catching
them unawares by slowly raising your head and gun between
the stones. I once shot a fine specimen in a field near Edin-
burgh, through a hole at the bottom of a wall, just as, having
observed me, it was about to fly off.

The Missel Thrush, during winter and spring, is thus more
vigilant and suspicious than even the Fieldfare, and, for this
reason, as well as because it is much rarer, is seldom shot. It
sometimes associates with that species in the fields; but rarely
flies with it. Its flight, which is rather heavy, is performed
by a series of flappings, with short intervals of cessation, like
that of the Fieldfare, and has very little undulation. On occa-
sion, however, it becomes rapid ; and, when at full speed, a
Missel Thrush bears a considerable resemblance to a Sparrow-
Hawk or Merlin ; and small birds are sometimes seen pur-
suing it, as they are wont to fly after a bird of prey. It is

120 TURDUS VISCIVORUS.

seldom that the individuals of a flock fly low or close together.
While proceeding, they now and then utter a low scream, and
when they find an eligible place, they either alight abruptly at
a distance from each other, or fly over the field for some time.

The song of this bird resembles that of the Blackbird, but
its notes are less mellow and modulated, although equally loud.
It commences very early in spring, or even in winter, when
the weather is fine, and is continued until the middle of sum-
mer ; but, as the species is comparatively scarce in most parts,
it is seldom heard, and when it is, is usually mistaken for
that of the Blackbird or Song Thrush. Several individuals
have heard it sing when flying from one place to another, but
on such occasions I have only heard it utter its harsh scream.

The flocks break up in March, and about the end of that
month, or towards the middle of April, the different pairs
commence their building operations, selecting a natural wood,
a plantation, or frequently an orchard, for their summer resi-
dence, whence they make excursions into the neighbouring
fields and gardens. The nest, which is placed in the fork of
a tree, or on a branch, generally at an inconsiderable height,
is very bulky, and more rudely constructed than that of the
other species which build with us. It is composed externally
of twigs, straws, and grasses of various kinds, intermixed with
leaves and mosses ; within this is a rudely formed cup of mud,
generally in pellets, mixed with grass or fibrous roots. The
interior is a more carefully arranged layer of finer grasses, roots,
and moss, or frequently of grass alone. Sometimes the exterior
is partially covered with grey lichens and mosses ; but at other
times it is similar to that of the Blackbird's nest. The internal
diameter of one now before me is four and a half inches, its
depth two and three-fourths, and the thickness of its walls an
inch and three quarters. The eggs, usually four, or from three
to five, are of a regular oblongo-oval form, an inch and three-
twelfths in length, by ten-twelfths, flesh-coloured, or purplish-
white, marked with irregular scattered spots of light brownish-
red and more obscure spots of purplish-red.

Two broods are generally reared in the season, and the young
of the first nest keep together, or even unite with those of other

MISSEL THRUSH. 121

nests, so as to form small flocks. As an instance of the early
flocking of Missel Thrushes I may mention that on the 25th
of June 1837, I saw seventeen of them flying over the fields
in the evening, and settling on some tall trees, in the neighbour-
hood of Craigmillar Castle, near Edinburgh. By the middle
of September, large flocks are generally met with, and during
that month and the following, they eat great quantities of the
berries of the Mountain Ash and Service Tree. Even in the
breeding season, they are shy, although then it is not so difficult
to approach them when in the fields, and still less so if you have
discovered their nest. They defend their eggs and young with
great courage, drive off the Magpie and other suspected birds,
and even assail the Sparrow Hawk, although not always with
success.

The food of the JMissel Thrush consists, in summer, of earth-
worms, larva?, gooseberries, rasps, and insects ; in autumn of
geans or wild cherries, rowans, moor berries, worms and snails ;
in winter and spring, of haws, snails, worms, and especially seeds
of oats, wheat, and other plants. In the latter seasons, it keeps
in the open fields, very seldom betaking itself to gardens, unless
during a protracted snow-storm, when it searches the hollies
and hedges for berries, and drives off" the other Thrushes which
may betake themselves to the same places.

I have not met with it in the Hebrides, or even in the northern
division of Scotland. In the middle division of that country
it is very rare, although I have seen it there, even among the
Grampians. In the southern parts, on the contrary, it is not
uncommon, whether in the cultivated districts or among the
central hills. On the Slst August 1832, I observed a large
flock near Peebles, eating the berries of Sorbus aucuparia ;
and on the 2d September met with seven near the summit of
one of the Yarrow Hills. On the same excursion I found them
here and there in the counties of Selkirk and Peebles, and was
informed that they commit great havock among the gooseberries
in the gardens around Selkirk. At Giffbrd and Haddington,
in East Lothian ; Roslyn, Edinburgh, Colinton, and other
places in Mid-Lothian ; and generally in the wooded parts of
this division, they are seen here and there in pairs during

122 TURDUS VISCIVORUS.

summer ; and in winter occur in flocks in the fields. In
England the species is generally distributed, but is less common
in the northern than in the southern counties.

" The Missel Thrush,"" says Mr Weir, in a communication
dated 21st March 1837, "is the earliest songster of the spring.
Even on those cold and rainy or snowy evenings in which all
the rest of the musical tribe are mute, we hear him, perched
on the top of some high tree, pouring forth his strong, shrill,
monotonous song. It is not generally known, at least I do not
recollect of having seen it mentioned in books of natural history,
that the Missel Thrush is one of the most voracious of our
native birds. Having shot all the Magpies and Carrion Crows
which infested my immediate neighbourhood, I could not con-
ceive for a long time what had been the cause of the destruction
of so many young birds and eggs, until I observed one of them
flying out of a nest in which he had been carrying on his mur-
derous operations. As I was passing by Balbairdie Loch, I
saw one flying with something in its bill. It was, I suppose,
a young Hedge-Sparrow, as the robber was keenly pursued by
an old one, which attempted again and again to make it drop
its prey ; but alas ! to no jDurpose, for it carried it oiF to its
nest, where it no doubt afforded an agreeable repast to its
greedy young ones. One forenoon, wdien going to my garden,
I looked into the nest of a Thrush which was built on the
branch of a small spruce tree a few feet from the ground, and
contained four young ones nearly fledged. Having returned in
the course of a few hours I again peeped into it, when, to my
astonishment, I beheld one of them severely cut in the breast
and almost at the point of death. I could not imagine what
had been the cause of this sudden catastrophe. The gardener,
however, told me that whilst he was watching his bees, he
heard the male and female thrushes setting up the most doleful
screams. He immediately ran to the spot in the expectation
of seeing a cat or a weasel ; but in place of them he beheld a
Missel Thrush in the very act of killing one of their brood. So
determined was it in carrying into eftect its daring attempt at
murder that he got within a few yards of it before it observed
him. A few days after this, the same person, in company with

MISSEL THRUSH. 123

a friend, observed another Missel Thrush carrying a bird in its
bill to its nest, which was built in the cleft of a tall plane-tree,
within a few yards of my pigeon-house/''

Another very interesting communication, dated 5th January
1838, refers to the number of times which this species feeds
its young in the course of the day. " At the extremity of the
lowest branch of a spruce, within thirty-three yards of my
dwelling-house, about the middle of May 1837, a pair of Missel
Thrushes built their nest. In the erection of it they were
so exceedingly cunning, that although people were in the habit
of passing and repassing by it almost every hour in the day, it
was not discovered until the female had been sitting for a week
upon her eggs. From my drawing-room window, with an ex-
cellent perspective, on Wednesday morning the 14th of June,
I began to watch them whilst they were feeding three ripe
young ones.

" At twenty minutes past four o''clock they commenced the
labours of the day. From that time until five o'clock they fed
their young only five times ; from five to six o'clock three times ;
from six to seven o'clock six times ; from seven to eight o'clock
twelve times ; from eight to nine o'clock six times ; from nine
to ten o'clock four times ; from ten to eleven o'clock five
times ; from eleven to twelve o'clock four times ; from twelve
to one o'clock three times ; from one to two o'clock three
times ; from two to three o'clock three times ; from three to
four o'clock two times ; from four to five o'clock two times ;
from five to six o'clock two times ; from six to seven o'clock
five times ; and from seven to eight o'clock only once. During
this last hour it rained very heavily, and there was a good
deal of very loud thunder. At twenty minutes past eight
o'clock they ceased from their operations, having fed their brood
only sixty-six times during the day.

" To their young they brought in each time several large
worms and snails. Before they did so, however, they generally
alighted upon two or three trees, remaining some seconds upon
each of them, and looking around with the greatest jealousy
and circumspection. In the defence of their brood they were
very bold, for, no sooner did a Magpie make its appearance

124 TURDUS VISCIVORUS.

than they immediately attacked it, and did not desist until
they put it to flight. Except once or twice, they swallowed
the whole of the droppings of their family.

" In this neighbourhood, during autumn, they assemble in
large flocks. On the 11th of August 1837, on the estate of Sir
William Baillie, Bart, of Polkemmet, about two miles from
Bathgate, I saw about seventy of them flying and feeding in
the same way as the Fieldfares ; and on the 8th of September,
near my house, I observed another large flock of them."

Mr Archibald Hepburn has sent me the following notice : —
" Missel Thrushes are very wary birds. When they como
to our garden to eat the berries of the yew, holly, ivy, or moun-
tain-ash, they alight on a row of tall willow-trees to see if they
may remain with safety, and on finding matters according to
their wishes, descend to the feast, making a prodigious noise.
They are very quarrelsome. The snow is lying four inches deep
(January 5, 1839) ; a dozen of Missels are in the garden feed-
ing on the berries of the common and Irish yew and holly,
quarrelling amongst themselves, driving off the Blackbirds and
Song Thrushes, and even pursuing them on foot round the
roots of the evergreens, all the v/hile uttering their hax'sh notes.
In autumn I have seen them pursued by Sparrows and Chaf-
finches, but whether in sport or anger I could not say. In the
parish of Carnwath, county of Lanark, I have seen several
flocks of fifty or sixty birds in one day ; their great numbers
there lead me to supjjose that they must migrate from other
districts. Here you seldom see more than a dozen in a flock.
The last time I heard the Missel Thrush singing was on the
18th of October."

This species has obtained its common name from its being
supposed to feed by preference on the berries of the misseltoe,
Viscum album, a curious parasitic plant, abundant on apple
and other trees in many parts of England, but extremely rare
in the south of Scotland, and I believe not found in any other
part of that country. According to Pliny, the misseltoe will
not grow unless from seeds that have passed through the in-
testines of birds, especially Thrushes and Wood Pigeons, and
many authors have adopted the erroneous notion that the bird

MISSEL THRUSH. 125

of which we treat is its principal disseminator. Montagu,
however, discredits the necessity of the seed's passing through
the body of a bird in order to fit it for germinating, and remarks
that although it may germinate after so passing, this is no
more wonderful than that corn should grow when voided whole
by a horse. " Such a preparation," he asserts, " is no more
necessary in the one case than the other, but may be con-
sidered as one of the methods nature takes to disperse the seeds
of various plants." Now, although I have opened many hun-
dreds of berry-eating and seed-eating birds, among which were
probably sixty or more Thrushes of various species, I have
never, but in two instances, which have been already men-
tioned, found an entire seed in the intestines. The gizzard of
the Thrushes is sufficiently powerful to grind into a paste
the seeds of any fruit which they might eat ; and I do not be-
lieve that nature ever uses this method of dispersing plants,
simply because no person has ever actually observed seeds to
germinate after being passed by birds, because seeds could
escape from the action of the stomach only in carnivorous or
piscivorous species, and by no means in frugivorous or grani-
vorous, whose gizzards act like millstones ; and, lastly, because
mere fancies ought on no account to be admitted as facts.

As will be seen from the above account, this species presents
in its predatory habits, an affinity to the Shrikes, Jays, and
Magpies, and like other tyrants, is held in aversion by many
of the smaller birds, which sometimes pursue or hover about
it, as if it were a hawk. Its harsh screaming cry, when angry
or alarmed, is in accordance with its wild and savage temper,
which affords a complete contrast to the gentleness of the Song
Thrush.

The Missel Thrush is apparently increasing with rapidity,
for, in places where fifteen years ago few or none were to be
seen, it is now pretty numerous. It is probable enough that
many come to us about the beginning of winter from more
northern countries ; but it would be difficult to ascertain
whether they really do so ; and the numbers seen in winter
and spring are not greater than might be expected from those
met with in summer and autumn.

126 TURDUS VISCIVORUS.

The flesh of this species aiFords good eating, being similar
to that of the Fieldfare, but tougher and generally leaner than
that of the Blackbird.

Young. — The young when fledged are much more beauti-
fully coloured than the old birds. Their bill is flesh-coloured,
with the upper mandible dusky ; the feet also flesh-coloured,
with the claws brownish. The general colour of the upper
parts is pale yellowish-brown ; the feathers of the head with
a whitish spot in the centre, those of the back with an oblong
central mark of greyish-yellow, the tip dark-brown. The
quills and tail-feathers are wood-brown, margined with greyish-
yellow. The lower parts are pale-yellow, each feather with
a triangular brownish- black mark on the tip.

Progress toward Maturity. — At the first moult, which is
completed by the end of November, the bird assumes the ap-
pearance described as that of the adult.

127

TURDUS MUSICUS. THE SONG THRUSH, OR
MAVIS.

THRUSH. COMMON THRUSH. GARDEN THRUSH. THROSTLE.
MAVIS. SMEORACH.

Fio. 132.

Turdus musicus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 292,

Turdus musicus. Lath. Ind. Om, L 327.

Throstle. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Merle Grive. Turdus Musicus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. 1. 164.

Song-Thrush. Merula Musica. Selb. lUustr. I. 162.

Turdus musicus. Song-Thrush. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 100.

Upper parts yelloivish-brown, the head tinged with red ; se-
condary coverts and first rota of small coverts tipped with red-
dish yellow ; fore part of neck and breast yellowish, each feather
terminated by a triangular brownish-Uach spot ; lower wing-
coverts reddish-yellow.

Male. — This generally distributed, familiarly known, and
much admired songster, exhibits no remarkable peculiarity of
form, its proportions being nearly the same as those of the
Missel Thrush, which greatly exceeds it in size. Its colour-
ing is neither altogether plain, nor yet of great beauty, the

128 TURDUS MUSICUS.

upper parts being of a uniform light-brown tint, the lower
spotted as in many other species. The body is rather full, the
neck rather short, the head of moderate size, the wings and
tail of ordinary length. The bill is rather larger in proj)ortion
than that of the Missel Thrush, slightly ascending, straight,
compressed towards the end ; the upper mandible with its
dorsal outline nearly straight at the base, arcuato-declinate to-
wards the end, the sides convex, the edges a little inflected
and overlapping, the tip declinate, narrow, with a slight notch;
the lower mandible with its dorsal outline ascending and slight-
ly convex, the back rounded at the base, narrowed towards the
end, the angle narrow and rounded, the sides sloping outwards
at the base, convex towards the end, the edges sharp and in-
flected ; the gape-line nearly straight. The mouth is rather
narrow ; both mandibles are deeply concave, with a central
prominent line ; the palate flat, with two prominent lines ;
the posterior aperture of the nares oblongo-linear ; the tongue
sagittate, elongated, thin and transparent towards the end,
where it is ciliato-lacerate, the tip slightly slit, the papillae at
the base conical, one of them at each angle much longer.
The oesophagus is three inches and a quarter long, three-
twelfths in diameter ; the stomach oblong, an inch and a
quarter in length ; the intestine seventeen inches long, and
varying in diameter from five to three twelfths ; the coeca
three twelfths long, and an inch and a quarter from the anus.

The eyes are of moderate size, the diameter of their aperture
two and a half twelfths ; that of the ear three twelfths. The
nostrils elliptical, direct, a twelfth and a half long. The legs
are of ordinary length, rather slender ; the tarsus compressed,
anteriorly covered with a long plate and three inferior scutella,
posteriorly with two long plates meeting at a very acute angle ;
the toes moderate, on the first eight, on the second ten, on the
third thirteen, on the fourth twelve scutella ; the claws arched,
much compressed, rather acute, laterally grooved.

The plumage is soft and rather blended, slightly glossed ;
the feathers oblong, rounded, with a long slender plumule of
few filaments. A few longish bristle-feathers along the base
of the upper mandible. The wings are of moderate length.

SONG THRUSH. 129

broad, semi-ovate, rounded ; the quills eighteen ; the first ex-
tremely small and slender, the third and fourth equal, the
second almost as long as the fifth, the sixth much shorter ;
the third, fourth, and fifth cut out along their outer web, the
first five slightly cut out on their inner edge ; the secondaries
broad, broadly rounded and minutely acuminate. The wings
when closed extend to near the middle of the tail-feathers.
The tail is of moderate length, even, the feathers nearly straight,
rather narrow, rounded and acuminate.

The upper mandible is blackish-brown, the lower yellowish
flesh-colour, dusky towards the end, and along the lower edge
of the crura. The skin at the sides of the mouth yellow, the
mouth orange. Iris chestnut brown. Tarsi and toes pale
yellowish-grey, or flesh-colour, the heel dull yellow, the soles
darker and tinged with yellow, the claws wood-brown. The
general colour of the plumage above is uniform light brownish-
olive, on the head tinged with reddish-brown, on the hind part
of the back with yellowish-grey ; from the nostril to the eye
and over it a faint greyish-yellow streak ; the ear-coverts dark-
brown, streaked with brownish-yellow, the central part of each
feather being of the latter colour. The quills are deep brown,
their outer webs reddish-brown, and edged with paler ; the
primary coverts like the quills; the secondary coverts lighter and
tipped with dull buff", as is the second row ; the smaller coverts
and scapulars uniform ; the tail feathers of the same colour as
the back, darker on their inner webs. The throat is yellowish -
white ; the lower part of the cheeks, the sides of the neck, and
its fore part, are pale reddish-yellow, each feather terminated
by a triangular brownish-black spot ; the sides are of the same
colour but duller, and shaded into that of the back, their spots
more elongated ; the breast and abdomen white, the former
marked with smaller spots, the latter nearly pure ; the lower
tail-coverts yellowish-white, streaked with brown. The lower
wing-coverts are buff", or light reddish-yellow, and the inner
webs of the quills are tinged of the same colour.

Length to end of tail 9 inches; extent of wings 14; bill
along the ridge j^^, along the edge of lower mandible ^| ; wing
from flexure 4<j\ ; tail 3^ ; tarsus l/g ' hind toe /g, its claw

VOL. II. K

130 TURDUS MUSICUS.

^2 ; second toe ■^^, its claw f j ; third toe |§, its claw f| ;
fourth toe ^|, its claw f|.

Female. — The female is generally smaller, but resembles
the male in colour, only the yellow of the fore-neck and sides
is paler, and the spots on these parts are of a lighter brown.

Length to end of tail 8^ ; extent of wings 12; wing from
flexure 4^ ; tail 8i ; tarsus 1 j% ; middle toe and claw 1^^.

Variations. — Individuals having more or less white on their
upper parts are sometimes met with. Slight differences in tint
are observable ; but in specimens shot at the same period they
are so slight as to be scarcely appreciable. As to size, there are
considerable differences, as may be seen from the following mea-
surements taken at different times : —

M. M. F. F. F.

Length 9i 9^ 9 8i 8^ 9 91 8

Extent 14i 14f 13 12i 12 Uk 14| 14

■Rill 3 8 3 3 3 3 3.

•Dill 4T2 4 4 4 4 4

Wing 4ifi

Tail 3f

Tarsus li U U lf| If 1^

Middle toe... li li 1/j 1/2 1| li

Changes. — As the summer advances the edges of the feathers
become more or less ragged, and the tail worn ; the colours
fade considerably, the brown of the back becoming greyish,
and the yellow disappearing from the lower parts, of which the
ground colour becomes nearly greyish-white. I have seen
specimens at this season from which the yellow had entirely
disappeared.

Habits. — The Song Thrush is associated in my memory with
the Hebrides, where it is perhaps more abundant than in most
parts of Britain. There, in the calm summer evening, such as
for placid beauty far exceeds any that I have elsewhere seen,
when the glorious sun is drawing towards the horizon, and

SONG THRUSH. 131

shedding a broad glare of ruddy light over the smooth surface
of the ocean ; when the scattered sheep, accompanied by their
frolicsome lambkins, are quietly browsing on the hill ; when
the broad-winged eagle is seen skimming along the mountain
ridge, as ho wends his way toward his eyry on the far promon-
tory ; when no sound comes on the ear save at intervals the
faint murmur of the waves rushing into the caverns and rising
against the faces of the cliffs ; when the western breeze stealing
over the flowery pastures carries with it the perfume of the
wild thyme and white clover; the song of the Thrush is poured
forth from the summit of some granite block, shaggy with grey
lichens, and returns in softer and sweeter modulations from
the sides of the heathy mountains. There may be wilder,
louder, and more marvellous songs, and the Mocking Bird may
be singing the requiem of the red Indian of the Ohio, or cheer-
ing the heart of his ruthless oppressor, the white man of many
inventions ; but to me it is all-sufficient, for it enters into the
soul, melts the heart into tenderness, diffuses a holy calm, and
connects the peace of earth with the transcendent happiness of
heaven. In other places the song of the thrush may be lively
and cheering ; here, in the ocean-girt solitude, it is gentle and
soothing ; by its magic influence it smoothes the ruffled surface
of the sea of human feelings, as it floats over it at intervals with
its varied swells and cadences, like the perfumed wavelets of
the summer wind.

Here on the hill-side lay thee down on this grassy bank,
beside the block of gneiss that in some convulsion of primeval
times has been hurled unbroken from the fissured crag above.
On the slope beneath are small winding plots of corn, with in-
tervals of pasture, and tufts of the yellow iris. The coast is
here formed of shelving crags, and jutting promontories, there
stretches along in a winding beach of white sand, on which
the wavelets rush with gentle murmur. Flocks of Mergansers
and dusky Cormorants are fishing in the bay, the white Gannets
are flying in strings toward the ocean, the Rock Doves glide
past on whistling pinions, and the joyous Starlings bound
toward their rocky homes. Hark to the cry of the Corn-crake,
softened by distance, now seeming to come from afar, now

132 TURDUS MUSICUS,

louder as if borne toward you by the breeze. It has ceased,
but the Cuckoo calls to his mate from the cairn on the hill.
Again all is silent. The streaks in the channel shew that the
tide is ebbing ; a thin white vapour is spread over the distant
islands ; and beyond them the spirit wings its flight over the
broad surface of the ocean, to where the air and the waters
blend on the western horizon. But it is recalled by the clear
loud notes of that speckled warbler, that in the softened sun-
shine pours forth his wild melodies on the gladdened ear.
Listen, and think how should you describe the strain so as to
impress its characters on the mind of one who never heard it.
Perhaps you might say that it consists of a succession of notes
greatly diversified, repeated at short intervals with variations,
and protracted for a long time ; that it is loud, clear, and mel-
low, generally sprightly, but at times tender and melting.
You might add that two birds at a distance from each other
often respond, the one commencing its song when the other
has ceased ; and that sometimes several may be heard at once,
filling a whole glen with their warblings. Listen again, and
say what does it resemble.

Dear, dear, dear,

Is the rocky glen ;
Far away, far away, far away

The haunts of men.
Here shall we dwell in love
V.'ith the lark and the dove,
Cuckoo and corn rail ;
Feast on the banded snail,

Worm, and gilded fly ;
Drink of the crystal rill,
Winding adown the hill.

Never to dry.

With glee, with glee, with glee.

Cheer up, cheer up, cheer up ; here
Nothing to harm us ; then sing merrily.
Sing to the loved one whose nest is near,
Qui, qui, qui, kweeu, quip,
. Tiurru, tiurru, chipiwi.

Too-tee, too-tee, chiu choo,
Chirri, chirri, chooee,
Quiu, qui, qui.

SONG THRUSH. ]3^

No more, pray : the Thrush's song is inimitable, and inde-
scribable. It is heard at all seasons in fine weather, but espe-
cially in spring and summer, particularly in the early morning
and about sunset. But it is not in sunshine only that this
gentle songster warbles its wild notes ; for often in the midst
of the thick rain, it takes its stand in some sheltered spot, under
the cover of a projecting crag or stone, and for hours perhaps
amuses itself with repeating its never-tiring modulations.

The Song Thrush, which is a resident species, is distributed
over all parts of Scotland and England. In summer it prefers-
the woods and hill-sides, the bushy banks of streams, and shel-
tered places at some distance from human habitations, although
in cultivated districts it often nestles in the orchards, gardens,
and hedges. In winter the individuals which had made the
woods and glens their summer residence, approach the houses,
and feed in the gardens and fields, or betake themselves to the
rocky shores, where they find subsistence by breaking the
welks and other shell-fish.

Although in the cultivated districts it is seldom seen unless
among the bushes or hedges, it is capable of flying to a great
distance, which it does in gentle curves, with quick flaps, in-
termitted at intervals, sometimes at a considerable height, but
more frequently only so high as to clear the trees. Its flight
is always rapid, and it selects its place with quickness, settling
instantaneously.

When on the ground, and in the attitude of observation, it
droops its wings a little, keeps its tail nearly horizontal, and
raises its head obliquely. On observing a worm or other ob-
ject, it leaps briskly towards it, picks it up, or, if it has with-
drawn, pecks at the earth until it has seized it. Its general
mode of progression on the ground is by leaping. When in a
listless mood, it droops the tail and wings, draws in its neck,
and ruffles its feathers. In this attitude it may often be seen
perched on a tree, bush, or stone.

Its food is chiefly found on the ground, and consists of snails,
earth-worms, larvfe, coleoptera, heps, berries, and seeds of
various kinds. Helix aspersa, hortensis, and nemoralis supply
great part of its food in winter. It breaks the shells by raising

134 TURDUS MUSICUS.

them in its bill, and knocking them repeatedly against a stone.
Large heaps of the shells thus broken may be seen by garden
walls, and in pastures on the edges of thickets. In the He-
brides, where it frequents the shores in winter, it treats the
Turbo littoreus and Trochus conuloides in the same manner ;
and of these shells the fragments may often be found under
shelter of some stone or slab, to which the bird flies with its
prey. Many years ago, having in the course of my littoral
rambles in Harris, frequently heard a sharp sound like that of
a small stone struck upon another, I endeavoured to discover its
cause ; but for a long time in vain, until at length, being one
day in search of birds, when the tide was out, I heard the well
known chink, and standing still discovered at a distance, in a
recess formed by two flat stones at the upper part of the shore,
a bird moving its head and body alternately upwards and down-
wards, each downward motion being followed by the noise
which had hitherto been so mysterious. Running up to the
place, I found a Thrush, which flying off", left a welk newly
broken, but with the animal in it, lying amidst a heap of frag-
ments around a smooth stone. Having some years after men-
tioned the circumstance to a scientific friend in Edinburgh, I
was favoured with an assurance of the utter impracticability of
the feat, which indeed is at first mention not very credible,
although one may easily satisfy himself that a welk, thick as
it is, is very easily broken by knocking it smartly against a
hard body.

In the plains Thrushes are sometimes met with in consider-
able numbers in winter, and during snow betake themselves,
along with the Fieldfares and Redwings, to wet meadows ;
but the species is not strictly gregarious at that season. It is
always more easily procurable than any other species of the
genus, it being almost as familiar in winter as the Robin.
Happening on the 12th March 1837, when there was snow on
the ground, to meet with a Thrush searching for food along a
wall, the base of which was clear, I followed it slowly over a
space of about two hundred yards, without its seeming in the
least alarmed, for it allowed me at times to approach within
six paces. On this occasion, and on others, I have observed

SONG THRUSH. I35

that just before rising to fly it runs a few steps, and does the
same after alighting,, although its ordinary mode of progression
is by leaps.

Song Thrushes are sometimes seen in the markets, along with
Fieldfares and Blackbirds. In the beginning of winter, when
they feed on snails and worms, they are very fat and sapid, as
well as savoury. Besides man, their principal enemies are the
smaller hawks. I have several times seen a Thrush take re-
fuge in a house when pursued by a Merlin or Sparrow Hawk.

The full song of this species is heard in April, May, and
June, although, as I have already said, it may be occasionally
heard at any season. In March it pairs, and by the end of that
month or in the beginning of the next, begins to construct its
nest, which is placed in a thick bush of any kind, or in a hedge,
at a small height, or on a rough bank among shrubs or moss.
In the unwooded parts of the country it is found under shelter
of a projecting stone or crag, in the crevice of a rock, or at the
root of a tuft of heath, or among the stunted willows on the
rocky bank of a stream. It is composed externally of slender
twigs, roots, grass, and moss, and is lined with a thin layer of
mud, cow-dung, or rotten wood, neatly laid on, and between
which and the eggs no other substance is interposed. The
diameter of the cavity is usually about four inches, its depth
from two and a half to four. As a good deal of wrangling has
taken place on the subject of Thrushes' nests, I may be allowed
to be somewhat particular in this matter.

Although the structure of the nest does not vary much, the
materials are very diversified. In a nest before me, which
is very bulky, the exterior is formed of the long tough
roots of various plants, a twig of Rumex crispus or latifolius,
another of the rasp, a clipping of boxwood, a piece of pack-
thread, numerous tufts of Poa annua and Stellaria media, two
or three mosses, and some other substances. Within this is a
more elaborate structure of fibrous roots, tufts of grasses, straws,
and some beech leaves, interwoven, and compacted with some
tenacious substance. This inner cup is lined or plastered with
a very thin but firm coating of what seems to be horse-dung,
on the surface of which are spread numerous chips of straw

136 TtJRDUS MUSICUS.

and slender grasses, but certainly no decayed wood, as some
allege to be usually the case. This nest is in diameter three
inches and a half, in depth two and a half, its greatest diame-
ter seven inches, and its greatest depth four and a half. This
is the nest of a civilized Thrush, it having been found in a
hedge in the immediate vicinity of Modern Athens.

On the 5th May, 1836, I found in a honeysuckle bush in a
wood between Haddington and Gifford, the nest of a Thrush,
in which the bird was working at the time, completing its in-
terior, in which was a piece of wet rotten wood, quite soft and
friable, which it was applying to the walls. Another nest
found near Gifford was plastered with horse dung. One
brought to me from Melville Woods, on the 3d May 1837, by
my son, who found in it five eggs, is composed externally of
twigs, straws, and stems of herbaceous plants ; its inner cup of
a few slender twigs of trees, stems and leaves of grasses, oak-
leaves, and a large proportion of mosses, interwoven and agglu-
tinated, but without mud. The lining, which is not thicker
than two-twelfths of an inch at most, is certainly composed
entirely of fragments of rotten wood and other vegetable sub-
stances, without any mud, clay, or dung. Its internal diame-
ter at the mouth is three inches and a half, but below the
mouth four inches, the depth two and a half. In all the spe-
cimens which I have examined, the mouth of the inner cup is
contracted and firmly woven.

The eggs are generally five, but vary from four to six, of a
regular or broad oval form, bright bluish-green, with scattered
spots of broM-nish-black, of a roundish form, and more numer-
ous at the larger end. They vary considerably in size, the
largest in my collection measuring thirteen-twelfths by nine
and a half, the smallest eleven and a half by eight and a half
twelfths. They are deposited in the end of April, sometimes
so early as the beginning of that month, and sometimes not
until ]May. The young I have found abroad from the twen-
tieth of April to the middle of June. Another brood is gene-
rally reared in the season.

!Mr Weir, to whom the reader of these volumes is indebted
for so many curious and interesting observations relative to the

SONG THRUSH. I37

habits of our native birds, has favoured me with the following,
having reference to the present species :

" Boghead, 16th December, 1887.— In Mr Mudie's Fea-
thered Tribes of the British Islands, a work published so re-
cently as 1834, I was astonished at finding the following noti-
fication with respect to this bird : — " When collecting food
for their young, the birds carry it not in the bill but in the
stomach." If in England the Thrushes carry food to their
young in their stomachs, I can affirm that in this neighbour-
hood they are not accustomed to do so.

" At the distance of nine feet from a Thrush"'s nest, which was
built in an old wall, I erected a hut with some branches of spruce
and Scotch fir, and toolf possession of it on the morning of
Thursday the 8th of June 1837, at a quarter past one o'clock,
for the purpose of making observations on the habits of these
birds. At half-past two o'clock they commenced feeding their
brood. From that time until four o'clock they fed them four-
teen times. From four to half-past five o'clock they fed them
twenty-two times. As one of the young birds was dressing its
feathers, it lost its balance, and fell on the ground. No sooner
did the old ones perceive it, than they set up the most doleful
lamentations. I replaced it in the nest. Having seen me re-
turn to my retreat, they would not feed their young until I
came out. I accordingly went home for my boy, who, after I
had gone in again, carefully concealed the entrance. His de-
parture attracted their notice, for, after having followed him to
a considerable distance, they returned, and without suspicion
commenced their labour. From half-past five until seven
o'clock they fed them twenty-four times. From seven to
eight o'clock they fed them sixteen times, and from eight to
nine o'clock eleven times. By this time I was so benumbed
with cold, for it blew boisterously from the east, and tired with
remaining in the same posture, that had I not on the preceding
evening made a resolution to continue my task, as the birds
were ripe, I would in all probability have relinquished it. I
was also annoyed by the visitation of Morpheus, who again and
again closed my eyelids, and nearly lulled me into repose.
Between nine and ten o'clock I kept them out of their nest, to

138 TURDUS MUSICUS.

see if during the succeeding hour, they would feed their young
ones more frequently. This however apjDeared to make but
little difference. From ten to eleven o"'clock they fed them
ten times, and from one to two o'clock eleven times. From
two to three o'clock they fed them eight times, and from
three to four o'clock six times. From four to five o'clock they
fed them five times ; from five to six o'clock six times ; and
from six to seven o'clock twelve times. From seven to eight
o'clock they fed them thirteen times, and from eight to half-
past nine o'clock seventeen times. They now ceased from their
labours for this day, after having fed their brood two hundred
and six times.

" In the forenoon and part of the afternoon, they frequently
stretched out the wings of the young birds, and with their bills
one would have thought that they sometimes trimmed almost
every one of their feathers. In keeping their young ones clean
they are uncommonly careful. As a proof of this, I ordered
my servant boy to rub the head and back of two of them with
soft cow dung. Upon coming in to their nest, they immedi-
ately perceived it, and seemed much enraged. They however
set to work, and did not desist until they had completely re-
moved it. For this purpose they made use of dry earth, which
in the operation appeared to me to assist them greatly.

" Their food in the morning consisted principally of snails and
slugs. They sometimes brought to their young one large worm,
at other times three and four worms. As for some weeks past
there had been a severe drought, the worms which they caught
in the middle of the day were smaller and in less quantities
than those which they procured in the morning and evening.

" During this day the Thrushes swallowed almost the whole
of the droppings of their young. As from personal observation
I had until now been ignorant of this circumstance, and did
not recollect to have seen it mentioned in any book which I
had perused, I was determined to be more fully convinced of
its truth, and accordingly next day put a female out of her nest,
in which she was sitting upon four well-feathered young ones.
In half an hour she returned, and after having fed them, stood
until they ejected their droppings, which she immediately

SONG THRUSH. 139

swallowed, and then, without flying off", sat down upon them an
hour and a half. A short time after this I observed her repeat
the same thing. In farther confirmation of this curious fact, I
shot a male the moment after he had swallowed the droppings,
and upon dissection they were found deposited in his stomach.

" They are so exceedingly acute of hearing, that the least
motion which I made attracted their attention ; and I am con-
fident that, had it not been a very stormy day, 1 should not
have succeeded in my observations.

" In erecting their nests Thrushes are sometimes very expe-
ditious. On Thursday morning, the loth of June 1837, a pair
began to build in an apple tree in my garden. On Friday
afternoon the nest was finished, and on Saturday morning, the
]7th, the first egg was laid in it, although the plaster in the in-
side was very wet. On Wednesday the 21st the female began
to sit on five eggs, and on Monday the l7th of July, the young
ones flew out of their nest.

" Thrushes are sometimes very tame. Although I have put
my head within a few inches of their nest, the female remained
upon her eggs without shewing any symptoms of uneasiness ;
and when the young ones were nearly ripe, I have stood within
a few yards of her whilst she was feeding them.

" In the inside of the barn of Bathville Farmhouse, about a
mile west from my residence, in the middle of June 1883, a
pair of Thrushes built their nest on the end of the shaft of a
thrashing-machine, which had been set up against the wall,
and there brought up five young ones. So familiar did they
become, that when the children put down bread to them, they
immediately picked it up, and gave it to their brood.

" Wishing to know how soon Thrushes would build after
having been deprived of their young, I took four ripe ones out
of a nest, on Tuesday the 6th of June 1837. Having caught
the female, I pulled the feathers out of her tail, and set her at
liberty. On Wednesday, the 21st of June, I discovered her
sitting upon four eggs, of which I deprived her, and on Mon-
day the 8th of July she again had a nest with eggs. I allow-
ed her to bring up her family unmolested,

" The feeling of tenderness which these birds manifest towar(J

HO TDRDUS MUSICUS,

the youngof other birds, hasbeendisplayedin several very striking
instances. I have now in my possession a male Thrush, which
when it was six weeks old, brought up a brood of half-fledged
larks. What is still more remarkable, he with the most tender
care and anxiety fed a young Cuckoo, which had been taken
out of a Titlark's nest in Pottishaw IMoss. No sooner however
had he taught this cruel bird to feed itself, than it requited its
benefactor with harshness and ingratitude. Of the least par-
ticle of food it would scarcely allow him to partake. With it
he had several very severe engagements ; and so quarrelsome
did the Cuckoo become that it deprived him of a great number
of his feathers, so that I was at length obliged to put them in
separate cages."

Young. — The young when fledged have the bill of the same
colours as the adult, but lighter ; the iris brownish-black ; the
feet pale flesh-colour, anteriorly tinged with blue, the heel yel-
low, and the sole of a brighter yellow than in the adult ; the
claws brown tinged with blue. The general colour of the
plumage above is brownish-olive, the head tinged with reddish-
brown, the rump with grey ; all the feathers of the head with
a slight central streak of ochre -yellow, those of the back more
decidedly marked in the same manner. The smaller wing-
coverts are largely streaked and tipped, and the secondary
coverts are tipped with ochre, and the outer webs of the quills
and wing-feathers generally tinged with the same. The colour
of the lower parts as in the adult, the yellow of the neck brighter,
and the spots darker. The young bird is easily distinguished
from the old by the greater looseness of the plumage, and espe-
cially by the ochre streaks and spots of the dorsal and alar fea-
thers.

Progress toward Maturity. — After the first autumnal
moult the plumage is complete. As the bird advances in age,
the buffy tints of the fore-neck and sides fade ; but the other
changes are hardly perceptible, I have seen individuals, ap-
parently old, in which the yellow of the lower parts had entire-
ly disappeared.

141

TURDUS ILIACUS. THE RED-SIDED THRUSH,
OR REDWING.

WIND THRUSH. SWINEPIPE.

Turdus iliacus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 292.

Turdus iliacus. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 32,0.

Redwing. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Merle Mauvis- Turdus Iliacus. Temm. Man. d'Orn.

Redwing. Merula iliaca. Selb. Illustr. I. 165.

Turdus iliacus. Redwing. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 100.

L 16c

Upper parts deep hair-broicn, inclining to olive; a blackish-
brown spot before the eye, a large whitish band over it ; secondary
coverts tipped icith greyish-tv^hite ; fore-part of neck and breast
tchite, with longitudinal streaks of blackish-brown and pale
broii'n ; middle of the sides and lower wing-coverts light red.

Male. — In form and colour the Redwing bears a great resem-
blance to the Song Thrush, from which however it may readily
be distinguished at a distance by its having a broad whitish
conspicuous band over the eye, and at hand by the large red patch
on its sides, and the more elongated and generally paler spots
on its lower parts. It is smaller, and proportionally more slen-

142 TURDUS ILIACUS.

der than the Song Thrush. Its bill is of the same form but
stouter, its outlines more convex. The oesophagus is three
inches and a quarter in length, of nearly uniform diameter ; the
proventriculus measures five-twelfths across. The gizzard is ob-
long, compressed, an inch and a quarter in length ; its muscular
coat thin, the right tendon much larger, the cuticular lining
rugous. The intestine is eighteen inches long, at its upper
part five-tw^elfths in diameter, and gradually diminishing to
two and a half twelfths ; the coeca cylindrical, three-twelfths
long, and one inch distant from the extremity.

The nostrils are elliptical, a twelfth and a half in length ;
the eyes of moderate size, their aperture two-twelfths ; that of
the ear three-twelfths. The feet are stouter than those of the
Song Thrush, and the claws much longer ; in other respects
they are similar.

The plumage is soft, rather blended, slightly glossy, the
feathers oblong and rounded ; those of the loral space and throat
bristle-pointed ; a few strong bristle-feathers along the base of
the upper mandible. The wings are rather long, of eighteen
quills ; the first extremely small, the fourth longest, the third
little shorter, the second and fifth about equal ; the outer
primaries tapering but rounded, the third, fourth, and fifth
cut out on the outer web towards the end, the rest and the
secondaries broadly rounded with a minute tip. The tail is of
ordinary length, even, the feathers rather narrow, and rounded,
but suddenly tapering to a point.

The bill is brownish-black above, and on the end of the lower
mandible ; its basal half, and the edges of the upper orange-
yellow. The iris is brown. The tarsi are pale flesh-coloured,
as are the toes, which are tinged with brown, the claws dusky,
but orange beneath. The general colour of the plumage of the
upper parts is deep hair-brown inclining to olive, darker on the
head, paler on the rump. The quills are deep brown, their
outer webs yellowish-brown ; some of the secondary coverts
and the three last secondary quills are tipped with greyish-
white. The tail is wood-brown, the outermost feather with a
white spot on the inner web at the end. The loral space is
blackish-brown. From the nostril over the eye, and extending

REDWING THRUSH. 143

to the occiput, is a broad band of yellowish-white ; the feathers
of the eyelids whitish ; those of the cheeks dark-brown streaked
with brownish-white; a band of yellowish-white from the
lower mandible halfway down the neck. The sides and fore-
part of the neck are white, tinged with yellow, each feather
with an elongated terminal and central brownish-black spot.
On the breast and sides these markings become pale brown.
The middle part of the breast and abdomen is greyish-white ;
the lower tail coverts are yellowish -white, more or less streaked
with brown. The sides and lower wing coverts are light red,
the inner webs of the quills toward the base tinged with the
same colour. The tibial feathers are pale greyish-brown.

Length to end of tail 8f inches ; extent of wings 14 ; bill
along the ridge ^'g, along the edge of lower mandible 1 ;
wing from flexure 4^ ; tail B\% ; tarsus li% ; first toe j%, its
claw j%; second toe j\, its claw j% ; third toe {^, its claw j^| ;
fourth toe j\, its claw ^|.

Female. — There is hardly any perceptible diiFerence in
colouring ; the yellow of the bill is less rich, the markings on
the neck are less black, and the red of the sides and wings
somewhat fainter. The size is also a little less.

Length to end of tail 8^ ; extent of wings 131 ; wing from
flexure 41; tail S/g ; bill along the ridge y| ; tarsus lj% ;
middle toe and claw 1 j^^.

Variations. — White and variegated individuals are said to
have been observed ; but the only remarkable variations that
have come under my notice refer to size.

Length 8| 8| 8i 8f 8^ 8^ 7!

Extent 14i 14i 14 14^ 14 14 13i

ia;il 7 7 7i 7 7 5

-Dlii 12 12 12 12 12 S

Wing 41 U 4i 4i U

Tail S^\ 8/3 3j% 3^

Tarsus U% lj% 1^ 1t'2 1t'2 U

Middle toe I/2 lj% l^^^ I/2 3/j li

144 TURDUS ILIACUS.

Habits. — The Red-winged Thrush arrives in the northern
and eastern parts of Scotland in the end of October or the be-
ginning of November. The individuals remain in flocks during
the winter and spring, and in open weather resort to the fields,
where they search for worms and grubs. When on the ground,
the Redwing may be observed to stand for a while motionless,
its wings slightly drooping, its tail horizontal or a little raised,
until its attention is drawn by some symptom of life, when it
hops briskly up to the spot, and if it has observed an earth-
worm, it pecks with its bill until it obtains a hold of its prey,
which it drags forth, breaks into pieces, and swallows. It is
interesting to observe a flock of these birds scattered over a
meadow, all proceeding against the wind, some standing in the
observ^ant attitude characteristic of the genus, others hojDping
briskly towards the objects that have attracted their attention,
and here and there one vigorously attacking a worm, and
mining it out, or tugging it from the ground. It does not seem
to eat the animal of the common Helices, as the Song Thrush
does, nor does it resort to bushy places or under hedges, but
keeps in the open fields, avoiding the vicinity of walls. When
the ground is covered with snow, the Redwings betake them-
selves to the holly and hawthorn bushes, of which they eat the
fruits, and when these fail, should the frost continue, they settle
about brooks and springs in meadows. On such occasions they
are destroyed in great numbers, for although they fly off when
a shot is fired, they soon return. They are at all times shy and
suspicious, and under ordinary circumstances do not permit a
nearer approach than eighty or a hundred yards.

Their common note is a rather harsh scream ; but in fine wea-
ther they often while perched on the trees sing in a very pleasing
manner, with a subdued voice ; but I believe they never sing
with us so as to exert their whole vocal powers. They fly in
loose flocks, sometimes mingling with the Fieldfares, and even
the Missel Thrushes, but only temporarily, for the flight of all
these species is somewhat different. When disturbed in a
field, they either perch on the neighbouring trees, or fly off to
a distance. Their flight is rapid, rather high, and little undu-
lated, being performed by series of flappings, with short inter-

REDWING THRUSH. 145

vals, during which they descend a little. When wounded, they
endeavour to run off, scream loudly, and on being seized, peck
at the hand. Under similar circumstances the Song Thrush,
which is the gentlest of all our species, is generally silent, and
does not attempt to bite, but submits quietly to its fate.

Flocks are often observed to remain during the greater part
of'the season in the same neighbourhood, although sometimes
they suddenly disappear. It is not until the end of April, or
the beginning of May that they take their final departure for
the season ; and in the island of Harris I have seen individuals
remain so late as the 25th of May, although I never observed
one in July or August, and should not have supposed that any
breed there, had not Mr Bullock stated that he had found a
nest in the neighbourhood of Rodill. According to Temminck
and other writers, they pass the summer in the northern coun-
tries of Europe, preferring bushes and thickets in the neigh-
bourhood of marshes.

The flesh of this species is perhaps inferior to that of the
Song Thrush and Fieldfare, but it is excellent notwithstanding,
and by no means bitter, as some have pretended.

Mr Hewitson (Mag.of Zool. andBot.) states that in the course
of his journey in Norway " the Redwing was but seldom seen,
and then perched upon the summit of one of the highest trees,
pouring forth its delightfully wild note. It was always very
shy, and upon seeing our approach would drop suddenly from
its height, and disappear amongst the underwood. Its nest,
which we twice found with young ones (although our unceas-
ing endeavours to obtain its eggs were fruitless), was similar to
that of the Fieldfare, but nearer the ground. The Redwing
is called the nightingale of Norway, and well it deserves the
name."

VOL. II.

14G

TURDUS VARTUS. THE VARIEGATED THRUSH.

Tardus varius. Horsfield, Zool. Researches in Java-

Turdus Whitei. White's Thrush. Eyton, Rarer Brit. Birds, 92.

Upper parts yellowish-hrown, lighter behind^ lunulated with
hi'ownish-hlack ; loral space and throat white ; sides and lou'er
fore-part of the neck^ breast and sides, yellowish-white, lunulated
with brownish-black ; wing of moderate length, the second and
sixth quills equal, the fourth longest, but the third and fifth
nearly equal ; tail even ; bill thirteentwelfths of an inch long ;
tarsus of the same length.

Adult. — The following description of this beautiful Thrush
is taken from a specimen from Java, selected as exhibiting the
peculiar characters of the species in the highest degree of per-
fection. The form, in as far as may be guessed from a stufted
skin, is similar to that of the Song Thrush, although the bird
is larger and the bill longer. The head is ovate, w^ith the fore
part rounded. The bill is large, compared with that of our
common Thrushes ; the upjicr mandible with its dorsal outline
slightly arcuate, the nasal gi-oove large, the sides beyond it slop-
ing and convex, the ridge narrow, the tip slender, but obtuse,
with a distinct notch ; the lower mandible with the angle
rather long and narrow, the sides erect at the base, the dorsal
outline straight, the tip narrow ; the gape-line straight, at the
end a little decurved. The feet are of moderate size ; the tar-
sus of ordinary length, compressed, with a long anterior plate
and three scutella ; the first toe very large, with ten, the
second with eight, the third with eleven, the fourth with twelve
scutella ; the lateral toes equal. The claws rather large, mo-
derately arched, much compressed, laterally grooved, acute.

The plumage is full, soft, and blended, although apparently
imbricated on account of the black tips of the feathers, which

VARIEGATED THRUSH. 147

are oblong. The wings are of moderate length, of seventeen
quills ; the first very small, curved a little inwards, an inch
and a quarter in length, the second of the same length as the
sixth, and three-twelfths of an inch shorter than the third,
which is a twelfth shorter than the fourth, the fifth scarcely
exceeded by the latter. The tail is of moderate length, even,
the outer feather being only one twelfth of an inch shorter than
the longest.

The upper mandible is dusky brown, blackish at the base,
but with the basal margin pale ; the lower mandible is pale-
brown, at the base lighter. The tarsi are pale yellowish-
brown, the toes a little darker, the claws pale. The general
colour of the upper parts is yellowish-brown, each feather
tipped with black in a narrow semilunar form. The smaller
wing-coverts are similar, but those of the first row are dusky,
with a large triangular pale ochre-yellow spot at the end ; the
alular feathers are light yellowish-brown, slightly tipped with
black ; the primary coverts are externally light yellowish-
brown, their extremity black, which forms a conspicuous short
bar on the wing ; the secondary coverts are dusky, with their
outer margin yellowish-brown, their tip yellowish-white. The
quills are light yellow^ish-brown on the outer web, umber-
brown on the inner, the tips of the secondaries especially pale,
and a large portion of the inner web of all excepting the outer,
white, that colour however not apparent. The four middle
tail-feathers are yellowish-brown, darker at the end, and
slightly tipped with whitish ; the next three on each side
much darker, w^ith more white on the tip, the outer much
paler on the outer web, and white on the inner toward the
end. The loral space and feathers margining the eyelids are
nearly white, the basirostral bristles dark brown ; the throat
is white, a narrow blackish band proceeds from the lower
mandible downwards ; the sides of the head and neck, the
lower part of the latter, and the rest of the lower parts white,
each feather tipped with a semilunar band of black, broader
than those of the dorsal feathers, the lower part and sides of
the neck tinged with red ; the middle of the abdomen unspot-
ted, and the lower tail-coverts with very slight dusky markings.

148 TURDUS VARIUS.

The brownish-yellow of the back comes forward on the side at
the shoulder. The axillar feathers are white, with the tips
black ; the smaller wing-coverts white, the larger dusky ; the
white band on the inner webs of the quills conspicuous beneath ;
the under surface of the quills and tail feathers, brownish-grey.

Length to end of tail lOf inches ; bill along the ridge Ij^^,
along the edge of lower mandible 1/^ ; wing from flexure 5^^;
tail 3| ^ ; tarsus 1 ^| ; first toe 5^ twelfths, its claw 5^ twelfths;
second toe j%, its claw /^^ ; third toe ^g, its claw j% ; fourth
toe j%, its claw 2^ twelfths.

Another individual, also from Java, and presented to the
Museum of the University of Edinburgh, by the East India
Company, is precisely similar in colouring, but differs a little in
the wings and tail ; the first quill being an inch and a quarter
lonsr, the second four and a half twelfths shorter than the third,
the third and fourth equal, the fifth scarcely shorter. The tail
is much rounded, the lateral feathers being nine-twelfths of
an inch shorter than the longest, and four-twelfths shorter than
the next, which is three-twelfths shorter than the third.

Length to end of tail 10^ inches; bill along the ridge 1,
along the edge of lower mandible, 1 f | ; wing from flexure 5j% ;
tail 4 J ; tarsus 1^% ; first toe 5^ twelfths, its claw 5h twelfths ;
third toe \h, its claw j%.

These specimens obviously belong to the species described
and figured by Dr Horsfield in his Zoological Researches in
Java. He states that " it inhabits the thick forests which
cover the mountain Prahu, and, as far as my observations ex-
tend, it never leaves a region between 6 and 7000 feet above
the level of the ocean. On this circumscribed region it is
extremely abundant. Its food consists chiefly of insects and
worms. It is easily surprised by the natives. During my last
visit to this mountain, I obtained in the course of a few days
a great number of individuals. I never found it in any other
part of Java."

To this species also belongs an individual in the possession
of Mr Bigge of Hampton Court, which, according to Mr Yarrell,
" is said to have been shot in the New Forest, Hampshire,
by one of the forest-keepers, who parted with it to a bird-pre-

VARIEGATED THRUSH. 149

server at Southampton, of whom Mr Bigge bought it for his
own collection." Mr Yarrell states that it " appears to be
identical with Dr Horsfield's Thrush from Java, and also with
specimens from Australia." It is " eleven inches and a half
long ; the wing five inches and four-eighths ; the first feather
short ; the second as long as the sixth ; the third, fourth, and
fifth of equal length, and the longest in the wing."

As nothing is known respecting the geographical distribu-
tion of this species beyond its occurrence in Java and Aus-
tralia, it must seem very strange that an individual of it should
appear in England. As I think there can be no doubt, from
the description of that individual, of its identity wnth Turdus
varius, I am obliged to relinquish the name of " White's
Thrush, Turdus Whitei," given to it by Mr Eyton.

Another Thrush, in almost every respect similar, but differ-
ing somewhat in the form of the wing, has, according to Mr
Yarrell, been shot by the Earl of jNIalmesbury on his estate at
Heron Court, near Christchurch, in January 1828. The same
eminent naturalist states that this bird agrees with a Ham-
burgh specimen figured and described by Mr Gould under the
name of " Turdus Whitei," which, if it really be distinct from
Turdus lunulatus of New South Wales, it ought to retain.
But as I cannot speak decidedly on the subject, not having
seen the European specimens alluded to, I must refer my reader
to the account given of it by Mr Yarrell in his excellent " His-
tory of British Birds," a work certainly far superior to any that
has hitherto appeared in this country. That gentleman has
been so kind as to inform me, in answer to my inquiry, that
" from the diiferences found on a comparison of Lord Malmes-
bury''s specimen with those from Java in the collection of the
East India Company, (he is) induced to consider Turdus va-
rius of Dr Horsfield as distinct from White's Thrush. Two
or three specimens," he adds, " have turned up lately, which
are also considered distinct,"

150

ALAUDIN^.

LARKS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The family of Alaudinse is composed of species of which the
average size is that of our Sky Lark or Corn Bunting. The
genera which enter into its comjjosition are Melanocorypha,
Macronyx, Myrafra, Certhilauda, ALauda, Anthus, and a few
others. In Britain there are representatives of the last two
genera, which some ornithologists however are pleased to di-
vide into five or six. The transition from the Turdinte to the
Alaudinae is direct, the genus Seiurus connecting Turdus with
Anthus, which again is so intimately allied to Budytes, and
that to Motacilla, that a separation of the Alaudinoe and Mota-
cillinae on the one hand is as arbitrary as that of the former
from the Turdinse on the other. In some of the Alaudinse,
the bill is scarcely different from that of many Turdinag, while
in others it is almost precisely similar to that of the genus
Budytes ; but the members of this family may always be
readily distinguished by the great muscularity of their gizzard,
their elongated and but slightly curved claws, their moderate
emarginate tail, and the form of their wings, of which the
inner secondaries are much elongated.

The bill is rather short, or of moderate length, stout in some
of the genera, slender in others, somewhat conical, compressed
towards the end ; the upper mandible has its dorsal outline
sloping and slightly convex, its tip narrow and a little deflected,
the edges sharp and overlapping, the notches generally obsolete,
never large ; the lower mandible has the angle of moderate
length and narrow ; the dorsal outline ascending and nearly
straight, the edges sharp and slightly inflected, the tip acute ;
the gape-line straight. Both mandibles are moderately con-
cave, with a medial prominent line, the upper generally with

LARKS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 151

two additional lines. The tongue is slender, emarginatc, and
finely papillate at the base, flat, thin-edged, with the tip slit
and bristly. The oesophagus is of uniform diameter, without
dilatation, in which respect it differs entirely from that of the
Deglubitores, to which most authors have referred this group ;
the proventriculus oblong, with simple oblong glandules. The
stomach is a powerful muscular gizzard, roundish, compressed,
its lateral muscles very large, as are their radiated tendons ;
its cuticular lining tough and rugous. The intestine is short
and of moderate width, its duodenal portion wider ; the rec-
tum with an oblong dilatation ; the coeca very small and cylin-
drical. See PI. XIII, Fig. 4, and PL VIII, Fig. 5.

The eyes are of moderate size ; the eyelids feathered, with a
narrow, bare, crenate margin. The external aperture of the
ear large, transversely oval. The nostrils elliptical or oblong
in the lower and fore part of the nasal depression, which is
rather large, and feathered except on its anterior portion.

The legs are of moderate length, or rather long, and slender ;
the tarsus compressed, anteriorly covered with eight scutella,
sharp behind, with two longitudinal plates. The toes slender,
compressed ; the first longer, scarcely stouter, generally with
a very long, straightisli, compressed, tapering claw ; the second
and fourth about equal, the third much longer ; their claws
longish, arched, slender, much compressed, laterally grooved,
and tapering to a fine point, that of the outer toe generally
shorter than that of the inner.

The plumage is generally soft and blended ; the feathers
ovate, of loose texture, with a long slender plumule. The
wings are rather long, broad, and semicordate ; the quills
eighteen, the first extremely small or entirely wanting; the
next three nearly equal and longest ; the secondaries very long,
emarginate, excepting the inner three, which are tapering, and
of which one is so elongated as nearly to equal the longest
primaries. The tail, of twelve feathers, varies in length,
being in some moderate, in others long, and is more or less
emarginate.

The skeleton is of delicate structure, but so similar to that
of the Passerinae described in Vol. I, p. 320, and that of the

152 ALAUDIN^.

Turdinae, Vol. II, p. 67, that it requires no separate description.
The skull, however, is smaller than that of the Passerinse, as
are especially the jaws ; the sternum shorter, but otherwise
similar, and the bones of the feet more slender.

The digestive organs are adapted equally for seeds and insects
in the Pipits, while in the Larks the gizzard is more muscular
than that of the Deglubitores. All the species feed essentially
on worms, larvge, pupae, insects, and small mollusca ; but the
thick-billed species, such as the Larks, especially in winter,
eat seeds of various kinds, which they swallow entire, without
removing the outer covering, as the Deglubitores always do.

These birds reside chiefly in the open fields, for although
some of them perch occasionally on trees, they seldom search
for food there. They run with celerity, generally in a half-
crouching posture, and differ from the Turdinae and Sylvianae
in never leaping or hopping. Their long straightish claws
seem to be intended for the purpose of enabling them to walk
more easily over grass and herbage, and to support themselves
in marshy places, to which they resort during frost. Their
ordinary flight is rapid and undulated ; but they have a pecu-
liar fluttering mode of flying which they perform while singing,
and which is peculiarly marked in the Larks, but less perfect
in the Pipits. Their song, although pleasing from its cheerful
character, is not generally melodious, but in several species is
extremely protracted. They nestle on the ground, deposit from
four to six spotted eggs, and often rear two broods in the season.
They are generally distributed over the country, the Larks pre-
ferring the cultivated districts, the Pipits pastures and meadows.
Being among the species most commonly met with in the fields
and pastures, the Sky Lark attracts attention by its song and
peculiar flight. That of the Pipits, although rather mono-
tonous, is pleasing to the wanderer who travels over our wild
moors and solitary valleys, or searches our rocky coasts.

The connections of the family are so obvious and direct that
they may here be adduced in illustration of the general princi-
ples stated in the introduction to the first volume of this work.
The thick-billed species, such as Melanocorypha Calandra
and tatarica, and even Alauda arvensis and alpestris, evidently

LARKS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 153

approach the Passerinae and especially the Emberizinse. In
colour, Emberiza Miliaria and Alauda arvensis are almost
precisely similar, and the elongated hind-claw of the larks has
its analogue in that of the Lark-Buntings. ISIacronyx flavi-
collis immediately calls to mind the American " Meadow
Lark," Sturnella, which belongs nearly as much to the Alau-
dinse as to the Sturnina3. Seiurus auricapillus and aquaticus
are almost as much Pipits as Thrushes. The Pipits themselves
are so intimately connected with the Larks, that the two genera
were until of late confounded, and the difference between Alauda
arborea and Anthus arboreus is generically very slight. A sys-
tem in which genera so very closely allied as Alauda and An-
thus are placed in different families cannot therefore be natural.
The Motacillinse are directly connected with the Alaudinas, by
means of the genus Budytes, which is almost as nearly allied
to the Anthi as to the Motacillse.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. ALAUDA. LARK.

Bill short, straight, rather stout, conical, a little compressed,
its upper outline slightly convex, the tip acute and destitute of
notch ; hind claw very much elongated and nearly straight ;
wings long and broad, the first primary minute or wanting,
the next three longest ; tail of moderate length, emarginate.

1. Alauda alpestris. Shore Lark. Male in winter with the
upper parts dusky-brown, the feathers edged with pale red, the
lower parts white ; a recurved band on the head, and a large
patch on the fore-neck, blackish, the first quill obsolete. JNIale
in summer with the bands on the head and neck deep black.
Female with the upper parts dusky-brown, the lower greyish-
white,

2. Alauda arvensis. Sky Lark. Upper parts light reddish-
brown, streaked with blackish-brown, the fore-neck light red-
dish, spotted with brownish-black ; an obscure brownish- white
band over the eye ; the second quill longest.

154 ALAUDINJE.

3. Alauda arbor ea. Wood Lark. Upper parts light reddish-
brown, streaked with blackish-brown, the fore-neck reddish-
white, streaked with brownish-black, a distinct yellowish-
white band over the eye, continuous with a patch of the same
on the nape ; the fourth quill longest.

GENUS II. ANTHUS. PIPIT.

Bill of moderate length, slender, straight, compressed towards
the end, its upper outline slightly declinate at the base, very
slightly declinato-arcuate towards the tip, which is acute, with
a slight notch ; hind claw elongated, moderately arched ;
wings rather long, the first primary wanting, the next three
longest, one of the inner secondaries almost as long ; tail rather
long, emarginate.

1. Anthus Richardi. Richard'' s Pipit. Upper parts oliva-
ceous-brown, spotted with dusky ; a streak over the eye, sides
of the head, throat, and belly, white ; breast and sides reddish-
yellow, the former with dusky spots ; the tarsi long, the hind
claw nearly straight.

2. A ntlms pratensis. Meadow Pipit. Upper parts olivaceous,
spotted w^ith dusky ; lower brownish- white, anteriorly tinged
with red ; the neck, sides, and fore-part of the breast marked
with ovato-oblong brownish-black spots ; the hind claw slightly
arched, and much longer than the first joint.

3. Anthus arhoreus. Tree Pipit. Upper parts olivaceous,
spotted with dusky ; lower brownish- white, anteriorly tinged
with reddish-yellow ; the neck, sides, and fore-part of the breast,
marked with ovato-oblong brownish-black spots ; the hind
claw strongly arched, and shorter than the first joint.

4. Anthus aquaticus. Shore Pipit. Upper parts olivaceous,
streaked with dusky ; lower yellowish-grey, the neck, sides,
and fore-part of the breast marked with oblong undecided oli-
vaceous or dusky spots ; the hind claw slightly arched, about
the same length as the first joint.

155

ALAUDA. LARKS.

Bill short, straight, somewhat conical, slightly compressed,
pentagonal at the base, and nearly as high as broad ; upper
mandible with its dorsal line deflected and slightly convex, the
ridge narrow, the nasal sinus long and anteriorly rounded, the
sides convex, the edges sharp and overlapping, without notch,
the tip rather acute ; lower mandible with the angle extending
to the middle, rather narrow and somewhat acute, the ridge
ascending and very slightly convex, the sides sloping outwards,
convex towards the end, the edges sharp, the tip rather acute,
the gape-line straight.

' " '\ ' /

The mouth rather narrow ; the upper mandible internally
with three converging ridges and four grooves ; the lower con-
cave with a central ridge ; the palate flat, soft, with a central
and two lateral prominent lines continuous with those of the
mandible. Posterior aperture of the nares linear, having on
each side an oblong inclined space covered with conical acute
papillae, and terminating behind in a flap beset with acicular
papillae. Tongue of moderate length, narrow, at the base
emarginate and papillate, two of the papilla? much larger,
flattened above, with the edges sharp, the tip slit, terminated
by two small bristly tufts, the lower surface horny with a deep

156 ALAUDA. LARKS.

central groove. The oesophagus is of moderate width, nearly
uniform in diameter, a little contracted at its entrance into the
thorax ; the proventriculus oblong with oblong glandules. The
stomach is a remarkably powerful gizzard, of a roundish form,
somewhat compressed. On each side is a large tendon into
which are inserted all round the muscular fibres, which pass
from the one tendon to the other. On the edges of the gizzard,
w^hich are thick and flattened, the fibres are very large and
softer. The muscular fibres are also inserted into the sub-
jacent tough coat. The cuticular lining is much thicker and
destitute of rugae opposite the muscles, opposite the tendons
thinner, transversely rugous, with rugulae at right angles to the
rugae. The intestine is of moderate length, rather wide, con-
tracts from the pylorus to half its length, then enlarges for a
short space, and again contracts. The cceca are very small and
cylindrical. The rectum is at first of the same diameter as the
intestine, and gradually dilates to form the cloaca.

The nostrils are elliptical, basal, in the fore and under part
of the broad and short nasal membrane, anteriorly marginate,
open. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids feathered, and having a
narrow bare crenate margin. External aperture of the ear
large, roundish.

The general form is rather full ; the body ovate ; the neck
rather short ; the head oblong, of moderate size. The feet are
of moderate length ; the tibia slender ; the tarsus slender, com-
pressed, with eight or nine anterior scutella, and about the same
number behind. The toes free, slender ; the first about the
length of the second, which is slightly longer than the fourth,
i , , , , the third consider-

' '"' ably longer ; — that

is, without includ-
ing the claws. The
first claw is ex-
tremely long, being
about double the
length of the first
joint, much compressed, slender, tapering to a point, very
slightly arched; the rest rather long, slender, compressed,
acute, slightly arched.

ALAUDA. LARKS. 157

The plumage is ordinary, on the lower parts blended ; the
general form of the feathers ovato-oblong ; a long slender plu-
mule of few barbs. Frontal feathers encroaching on the nasal
membrane and partially concealing the nostrils ; those on the
upper part of the head rather long ; bristle-feathers at the base
of the upper mandible. Wings long, broad, when extended
semicordate. Primaries ten, the first minute, the next three
longest ; the first five rounded, the rest emarginate ; second-
aries eight, the outer
emarginate, the inner
tapering, the sixth
much elongated. The
Fig. 136. tail is rathcF long,

straight, deeply emarginate, of twelve rather narrow feathers,
which taper to a rounded point.

The genus Alauda is closely allied on the one hand to Plec-
trophanes and Emberiza, and on the other to Anthus, which
passes into Motacilla. In all these genera the wings are nearly
of the same form, but in Anthus and Motacilla the first primary
is wanting. In the form of the bill, some Larks very closely
resemble certain Thrushes. Alauda arvensis, for example, is
very similar to Turdus pilaris in this respect. The Larks and
Thrushes also resemble each other in their ordinary flight, al-
though the former have a song-flutter of a very peculiar charac-
ter. To exhibit in some measure the affinities by which the
species of birds are connected, we may take the Sky Lark as a
centre of affinities. Its bill has a resemblance to that of the Field-
fare, also to the bill of the Pipits, which is more slender, and
to that of the Lark-Buntings, which is thicker. Its oesophagus
has no dilatation, and so is more like that of the Pipits, Wag-
tails, and Warblers, than that of the Emberizinfe or Passerinse ;
but its gizzard more resembles that of these latter families. Its
feet resemble those of the Lark-Buntings, Pipits, and Wag-
tails. The upper part of its plumage is extremely like that of
the Corn-Bunting ; all parts closely resemble that of the Tree
and Common Pipits ; its lower part shew^s an affinity to that of
the Thrushes. Its wing resembles that of the Pipits and Wag-
tails, as well as of the Lark-Buntings. Its tail is similar to
that of the Corn-Bunting. Its ordinary flight is very like that

158 ALAUDA. LARKS.

of the Redwing and Fieldfare ; and its song-flight has sojne
affinity to that of the Titlark. The genus Alauda forms the
transition in one direction from the Emberizinre to the Mota-
cillinie ; but although some of the species are as much grani-
vorous as insectivorous, they are not buskers, for they swallow
seeds entire, and have no crop. It certainly belongs more
strictly to the order Cantatores, to which I have accordingly
removed it, although very many authors have thrust it among
their Conirostres or Granivora^. The Sky Lark is no doubt
granivorous ; but so is the Blackbird to a certain extent, as
well as the Raven, the Carrion Crow, the Rook, and even the
Meadow Pipits and Robin Red-breast. It is also, however,
vermivorous ; and considering its structure, affinities, and
habits, we must place it, not among the Conirostres, but in
the midst of a group of birds, of which some are more grani-
vorous, others more insectivorous, but almost all have con-
siderable latitude as to their food.

The Larks are generally distributed on the old Continent,
and one species occurs in the northern parts of the new. They
prefer open places, search the fields, pastures, and marshes for
seeds, larvae, worms, and insects ; walk and run, but do not
leap like the Deglubitores and many of the Cantatores ; and
have a rather rapid, somewhat undulated flight. Their diges-
tive organs are evidently adapted for seeds and insects, and to
aid the action of the gizzard they swallow small fragments of
stone or particles of sand. They nestle on the ground, lay
from four to six freckled or spotted eggs, feed their young with
worms and insects, and generally produce more than one brood
in the season.

Some Larks have very thick, and others slender bills. The
former might constitute a distinct genus, as might the latter,
were slight deviations to be considered as affording sufficient
generic distinctions.

Three species occur in this country. One, the Sky Lark, is
generally distributed ; another, the Wood Lark, has not been
met with in Scotland, but is not uncommon in some parts of
England. Both species are permanent residents. Of the third,
the Shore or Alpine Lark, only a few individuals have been
met with.

159

ALAUDA ALPESTRIS. THE SHORE LARK.

HORNED LARK.

Fig. 137.

Alauda alpestris. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 289.

Alauda alpestris. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 498.

Allouette a hausse-col noir. Alauda alpestris. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 279.

Shore Lark. Wils. Amer. Orn. I. 85.

Horned or Shore Lark. Alauda cornuta. Swains, and Richards. Faun.

Bor. Amer. I. 245.
Shore Lark. Alauda alpestris. Aud. Orn. Biogr. IL 570.
Alauda alpestris. Shore Lark. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 126.

3fale in winter with the upper parts pale brow?iish-red,
streaked with dark-brown ; the lower parts tchite ; a recurved
band on the head, and a large patch on the loieer fore-nech
black, but the feathers tipped with reddish-white ; the throat and
a band over the eyes yellow. Male in summer with the bands on
the head and neck pure black ; the throat and band over the eyes
white. Female with the upper parts as in the male, the loicer
greyish-white.

Male in AVinter. — This beautiful bird resembles the Sky
Lark in form, the body being rather full, the neck short, the
head of moderate size, the wings and tail long. The digestive

160 SHORE LARK.

organs, PI. XIII, Fig. 4, are in all respects similar to those of
that species. The tongue is narrow, tapering, sagittate and
papillate at the base, its tip lacerated. The oesophagus is
three inches long, and of nearly uniform diameter, being des-
titute of crop. The stomach is a very muscular gizzard,
roundish, compressed, nine-twelfths of an inch long, its lateral
muscles very large, as are its tendons, its cuticular lining longi-
tudinally rugous, and of a reddish-brown colour, as is usually
the case in birds that feed on coleopterous insects. The in-
testine is seven inches and an eighth in length, and diminishes
in diameter from 2| twelfths to a twelfth and a half, then
expands into the rectum, which is one inch long ; the coeca
cylindrical, two twelfths in length. The tarsus is slender and
compressed, its upper scutella rather indistinct ; the hind and
lateral toes are nearly equal, excluding the claws, of which
that of the first toe is extremely elongated, nearly straight,
( J compressed, and tapering to an acute point,
the rest rather long, very slightly arched.
Fig. 138. laterally grooved, and very acute ; the

first toe has six, the second seven, the third nine, the fourth
ten scutella. The plumage is soft and blended, the feathers
ovate, with loose margins, and a long slender plumule. There
is a longitudinal band of slender, pointed, erectile feathers on
each side of the head, over the eye. The wings are long ; the
first quill obsolete, the third generally longest, the second
(which is actually the first) almost as long, and a little longer
than the fourth ; the inner primaries and outer secondaries
emarginate, the inner three elongated and obtuse. The tail is
of moderate length, and emarginate.

The bill is greyish-black, the base of the lower mandible
bluish-white ; the feet and claws brownish-black tinged with
grey. The upper parts are pale brownish-red, each feather
with its central part dusky brown, excepting on the hind-neck,
which is reddish grey, and the upper tail-coverts, which are
brownish-red. The wing-coverts are brownish-red, the first
row of small coverts and the secondary coverts slightly tipped
with whitish. The quills are dusky, edged with brownish -
red, the outer with white. The tail feathers are black, the

SHORE LARK. 161

two middle broadly edged with brownish-red, the outer with
an oblique band of white including nearly the whole of the
outer web, and the next margined towards the end, and tipped
with the same. A pale yellow band from the base of the bill,
over the eyes ; above it a semicircular band of black, which
includes the erectile tufts, but the feathers are edged with
light reddish-brown. The loral space and a band below tho
eye, curving downwards, black, as is a large transverse band
on the fore-neck, the feathers margined with whitish. The
throat is pale yellow ; the anterior part of the breast faintly
spotted with reddish-brown ; the sides dull brownish-red ; the
rest of the lower parts wdiite.

Length to end of tail 7i inches ; extent of wings 13| ; bill
along the ridge j\, along the edge of lower mandible j% ; w^ng
from flexure 4i% ; tail 3 ; tarsus ^i ; first toe 4| twelfths, its
claw j% ; second toe 4f twelfths, its claw 3^ twelfths ; third
toe j\, its claw j^ '■> fourth toe /^, its claw ^2.

Female in Winter. — The female has the upper parts nearly
as in the male, the low^er greyish-white. The top of the head
is slightly streaked with black, but the band on its fore part is
very inconspicuous. The wings and tail are as in the male.

Length to end of tail *7\ inches.

Changes. — Like the Snowflake and Lapland Bunting, this
species presents a very different appearance in summer, owing
to the abrasion of the light-coloured margins and tips of the
feathers. A male shot near Cape Wilson, 10th July 1822,
was as follows.

Male in Summer. — The upper parts wood-brown, the feathers
with pale reddish margins ; the lower parts whitish ; the throat
pale yellow ; the forehead and a streak over the eye white ; the
curved band on the head deep black, as is the lunate patch on
the fore-neck ; the auriculars blackish. The tail brownish-
black, the middle feathers wood-brown, the outer edges of the
lateral feathers white. The quills wood-brown.

Length to end of tail *J\ inches; bill y'^g ; tarsus |.

VOL. II. M

162 ALAUDA ALPESTRIS.

Habits. — As only a very few specimens of this species have
been obtained in Britain, I have no original observations to offer
respecting its habits. An individual is recorded to have been
shot near Sherringham in Norfolk, in March 1830. Mr Eyton
states that another has been killed in Lincolnshire ; and Mr
Yarrell has " heard of a pair that were obtained together on
an extensive down in Kent." According to M. Temminck,
the Shore Lark occurs in the north of Europe, Asia, and
America, and migrates as far south as some parts of Ger-
many. Mr Audubon has given a detailed account of its
habits as observed by himself in Labrador, where it breeds
on the high granitic tracts along the shores, placing its nest
among the moss and lichens, and rearing a brood of four or
five. In the beginning of August they unite into small flocks,
and in about a month after proceed southward, to return in the
beginning of June. The males sing in the air, performing
short excursions for the purpose, and sometimes also on the
ground. It feeds on insects, minute shell-fish, blossoms, and
seeds, and associates with the Brown Pipit. It thus in its
habits, as well as its size and proportions, bears a great resem-
blance to the Sky Lark, which in winter often associates, in
moist or marshy places remaining unfrozen, with the Meadow
and Rock Pipits.

Young. — In their first plumage the young have the bill
light reddish-yellow, the feet flesh-coloured, the upper parts
dark brown mottled with brownish-yellow, the lower parts
pale yellowish- grey, the lower part of the neck anteriorly light
reddish-brown mottled with dusky.

163

ALAUDA ARVENSIS. THE SKY LARK.

FIELD LARK. COMMON LARK. LAVEROCK. UISEAG.

./#fe-^M'C^

#^:;, ,.'<&'

Fig. 139.

Alauda arvensis. Liun. Syst. Nat. I. 287.

Alauda arvensis. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 491.

Sky Lark. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Alouette des champs. Alauda arvensis, Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 281.

Sky-Lark. Alauda arvensis. Selb, lUustr. I, 273.

Alauda arvensis. Sky- Lark. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 127.

Of both sexes the upiier parts light reddish-brown streaked with
blackish brown^ the fore-neck light reddish-brown spotted with
brownish-black, the sides streaked, the rest of the loicer parts dull
white ; an obscure brownish-white band over the eye ; the first
quill extremely small and acute, the second longest.

Male. — The Sky Lark, although of a rather elegant form, is
not remarkable for the beauty of its plumage, which on the
upper parts bears a very intimate resemblance to that of the
Corn Bunting. Its song and peculiar flight however have con-
tributed to render it one of the most generally known of our na-
tive birds. The body is ovate and moderately full, the neck

104 ALAUDA ARVENSIS.

short, the head oblong and of ordinary size, the wings and tail
long, the feet slender.

The bill is about half the length of the head, rather strong
and tapering, a little higher than broad at the base, its gape-
line straight, the edges sharp and without notch, the tips a
little rounded. The tongue is narrow, sagittiform, nearly flat
above, with the tip lacerated. The cesophagus is three inches
long, of nearly uniform diameter, when dilated measuring
about three-twelfths, when collapsed two-twelfths. The pro-
ventriculus is half an inch long, its glandules large and oblong.
The gizzard is eleven twelfths long, nine-twelfths in breadth,
its muscles distinct and large, its anterior or left tendon larger,
its cuticular lining tessularly rugous excepting on the spaces
opposite to the lateral muscles. The pylorus is situated in a
deep groove or fissure near the cardiac orifice, on the anterior
and right side of the stomach. The intestine is eleven inches
and three-fourths in length ; its duodenal portion for six inches
gradually diminishes from two and a half twelfths to a twelfth
and three-fourths, then for a short space enlarges to five-twelfths,
and at the coeca contracts to a twelfth and a half. The coeca
are cylindrical, two twelfths long, and half a twelfth in diame-
ter. The rectum is an inch and a half long.

The eyes are rather small, their aperture being two-twelfths.
That of the ear is broadly elliptical and very large, three-twelfths
and a fourth in diameter. The nostrils are small, elliptical, open,
but covered by the feathers. The tarsi are slender and com-
pressed, their anterior and posterior scutella indistinct above ;
the first, second, and fourth toes, excluding the claws, nearly
equal, the third much longer. The hind claw is singularly
elongated, especially in old birds, the third is much longer than
the two lateral ; they are all feebly curved, much compressed,
laterally channelled, and tapering. On the first toe are six, on
the second eight, on the third twelve, on the fourth twelve
scutella.

The plumage is soft, with slight gloss, rather compact above,
blended beneath. The feathers in general are much curved,
ovate, and rounded, with a slender plumule of few filaments.
Those about the base of the bill are bristle-tipped, and a series

SKY LARK. 165

at the base of the upper mandible have the tip prolonged and
decurved. The feathers on the top of the head are a little
elongated, oblong, and decurved. The wings are long and
broad, the quills very slightly curved ; the first quill is only
five-twelfths of an inch long; the next three are almost equal,
the third being generally longest ; the third, fourth, and fifth
slightly cut out on the outer w^eb ; the second, third, and
fourth on the inner. Excepting the first six and the last three,
the quills are deeply emarginate ; the sixth secondary extends
to three-fourths of an inch from the tip of the longest primary.
The tail is emarginate, and the lateral feathers are a little
shorter than the next.

The bill is dark greyish-brown above and at the point of the
lower mandible, yellowish-brown on the edge of the upper
mandible, the lower flesh-colour tinged with blue. The inside
of the mouth, and the skin at the commissure, are reddish
orange. Irides hazel. Feet yellowish-brown, soles oil-green,
claws blackish-brown, tip of the hind claw yellowish-grey.
The general colour of the upper parts is light reddish-brown,
streaked with blackish-brown, the central part of each feather
towards the tip being of the latter colour. The quills are cho-
colate-brown, the second with the outer web brownish-white,
the other primaries edged with the same, the secondaries more
broadly with reddish-brown, their tips whitish. The first and
second rows of coverts are similar. The tail-feathers are of a
darker brown, the middle ones broadly edged with light red-
dish-brown ; the outer with its outer web, excepting just at
the base, and an oblique portion of the inner web, white, as is
the greater part of the outer web of the next, and a slight edging
of the third. There is over the eye a pale yellowish-brown
streak. The auriculars are tinged with red, and spotted with
dusky. The sides and fore part of the neck, with the anterior
part of the breast, are light reddish-brown, each feather having
a terminal triangular spot of reddish-brown, the upper part of
the throat whitish and unspotted. The rest of the lower sur-
face is greyish- white, excepting the sides, which are pale red-
dish, the feathers having a slight central dusky streak.

Length to end of tail 7^ inches ; extent of wings 14f ; wing

166 ALAUDA ARVENSIS.

from flexure 4i§ ; tail 8; bill along the ridge ^^^ along the
edge of the lower mandible -^^ ; tarsus 1 ; first toe ^^, its claw
1; second toe -^^^ its claw /^ ; third toe -^^^ its claw ^^ ;
fourth toe 4^ twelfths, its claw 2A twelfths.

Female. — The female differs so little from the male in
colour, that the same description answers for both. The oeso-
phagus of an individual was three inches long, and on an
average a twelfth and a half in diameter. The stomach ten
twelfths long ; the intestine eleven inches and a half, without
remarkable dilatation, but gradually diminishing from two
twelfths to one and a half; the coeca cylindrical, a twelfth
and a half long. The foeces can readily be squeezed into
them, but it is probable that they do not naturally enter, as I
have always found them filled with mucus only, and of a pure
flesh colour. The females are a little smaller, somewhat more
slender, and in a faint degree less deeply coloured ; the feathers
of the head are also less elongated ; but the differences are so
slight that I am unable to distinguish a male from a female by
any external character.

Length to end of tail 6|§ inches ; extent of wings 13 ; wing
from flexure 4^^g ; tail 2j'^ ; bill along the ridge ^, along the
edge of lower mandible /^ ; tarsus \\ :, first toe /g, its claw
i\ ; second toe /g, its claw ^\ ; third toe 7i twelfths, its claw
Si twelfths ; fourth toe 1^2, its claw 2^ twelfths.

Variations. — In adult individuals the differences in colour
are not generally remarkable. In some extremely rare cases
the plumage is patched with white, or of a nearly uniform
cream-colour, or even pure white. An instance of the latter
kind has come under the observation of Mr Weir, who informs
me that " during the months of August and September 1835,
a most beautiful pure white lark frequented the farm of Tailend
belonging to Colonel S. Norvall, Esq. of Boghall. It disap-
peared about the end of October. Melanism also occurs, but
only, I believe, in caged birds.

Habits. — There is perhaps none of our native birds that

SKY LARK. 167

has attracted so much attention as the Sky Lark, nor any that
has been so much celebrated by poets and sentimental writers.
It might be a pleasant task to cull from our choicest authors
the flowers of \)oesj which derive their beauty from the gentle
influence of this sweet songster of the fields ; but I must leave
it for those who love to study nature from books, as I find it
more profitable to listen to the cheering notes of the Lark her-
self, to gaze upon her as she floats flutteringly high uj) in the
blue sky, to watch her descent, and run up to inspect her nest
among the green grass, while her beloved young ones are re-
joicing at her arrival.

Towards the end of autumn, the Sky Larks congregate in
large straggling flocks, generally keeping by themselves, al-
though occasionally mingling with small birds of the Passerine
and Bunting families. In open weather they frequent the
stubble and ploughed fields, where they pick up the seeds of
oats, wheat, barley, polygona, and other plants. Like the De-
glubitores and many of the Cantatores, they use a large quan-
tity of sand and gravel, consisting chiefly of grains of quartz,
to aid the process of digestion. I believe their food during the
winter consists almost entirely of seeds, although remains of
insects may now and then be found in their gizzards. At this
season they employ only their ordinary flight, w^hich bears some
resemblance to that of the Fieldfare, being performed by slight
undulations, and several consecutive flaps of the wings, with
short alternate cessations. They generally hover over a field,
or fly about in curves, before they alight, which they do in
rather an abrupt manner, but not so rapidly as the Corn and
Yellow Buntings. On alighting they disperse, and move
about, not by leaps, like most small birds, but by an alternate
action of the feet, in a half-gliding half-startful manner, keep-
ing their legs bent and their breasts consequently close to the
ground. When in any degree alarmed, they crouch, draw in
their neck, and remain motionless until the object of their ap-
prehension has disappeared. Should a person walk up to a
flock, he may get quite close to it before the birds think it ne-
cessary to rise ; and on such occasions thay do not all take
fliffht at once, a few here and there risinsf in succession. In-

168 ALAUDA ARVENSIS.

deed, unless the ground be all gone over, many will remain
and allow their companions to fly otF, Their movements while
rising are rapid and wavering, so that until they are at some
distance it is difficult to shoot them. Owing to their habit of
crouching, it is by no means easy to perceive them while on the
ground, especially if they are among stubble ; and as their mo-
tions are quick, they traverse a considerable space in a short
time. When there is snow on the ground, they betake them-
selves to corn-yards, and search the tops of the stacks for seeds ;
but in frosty weather, when the ground is clear, they prefer
settling on the spaces between or around the stacks. If dis-
turbed and forced to fly off", they do not, like the Buntings,
Chaffinches, and Sparrows, with which they then associate,
perch on the neighbouring trees or walls, but remove to a dis-
tance. During this season, they merely utter a short chirping
note as they fly, although occasionally a bright day even so
early as January will elicit their song.

In the beginning of March, or earlier if the weather is fine,
they separate and pair. At this period, the males often fight,
chiefly in the air ; and now their song commences, to be con-
tinued until the middle of autumn. I have heard larks in full
song on the 13th of February, in Fifeshire. This species is per-
haps that which, excepting the White-throat and Blackbird, be-
gins to sing earliest in the morning. On the 12th of March 1835,
while on an excursion along the coast, I was greeted at half-
past five, between Portobello and Musselburgh, with the full
song of the Lark, followed shortly after by those of the Robin
and Blackbird, and the harsh cry of the Partridge. In the
island of Harris, about the middle of June, in 1820, when on
my way to the summit of a hill to see the sun rise, I heard the
Lark at half-past one, and soon after the Snipe and Corn Crake.
It ceases however in the evening much earlier than several of
our songsters, especially the Blackbird, Thrush, and Robin.

The Song of the Sky Lark is familiar to most persons, even
those who in cities have exchanged the love of nature inherent
in humanity for the love of gain, fashion, and vicious excite-
ment ; but were it not, it would be as difficult for me to de-
scribe it as it would be for a musician to imitate it. Some-

SKY LARK. 169

times the Lark sings on the ground, perched on a clod, or
even crouched among the grass, but generally in commencing
its song, it starts off, rises perpendicularly or obliquely in the
air, with a fluttering motion, and continues it until it has at-
tained its highest elevation, which not unfrequently is such as to
render the bird scarcely perceptible. Even then, if the weather
be calm, you hear its warble coming faintly on the ear at in-
tervals. It has been alleged that the Lark ascends in a spiral
manner, but my observation does not corroborate the state-
ment. In rising, it often passes directly upward, but with the
body always horizontal or nearly so, then moves in a curve,
and continues thus alternately, but without a continued spiral
motion. At first, the motion of the wings is uniformly flutter-
ing, but afterwards it shoots them out two or three times suc-
cessively at intervals, and when at its greatest height exhibits
this action more remarkably. When it descends, the song is
not intermitted, but is continued until it approaches the ground,
when it usually darts down headlong, and alights abruptly.
Frequently it resumes its song after alighting, and continues it
for a short time, but more commonly it stops when it has reached
the ground. Often the Lark may be seen hovering over a field,
in full song, for a considerable time, at a small height. On the
4th May 1837, I observed a Lark perched on a half-burnt whin
branch, where it remained singing a long time. I have often
seen it perch on a wall, and several times on a hawthorn bush
in a hedge, but it never, I believe, alights on tall trees.

The song of the Lark is certainly not musical, for its notes
are not finely modulated, nor its tones mellow, but it is cheer-
ful and cheering in the highest degree, and protracted beyond
all comparison. In a sunny day in April or May, when the
grass fields have begun to resume their verdure, it is pleasant
to listen to the merry songster that makes the welkin ring with
its sprightly notes ; in the sultry month of July, still more
pleasant is it to hear its matin hymn while the dew is yet
on the corn ; and in winter should you chance to hear the
well-known voice on high, it reminds you of the bright days
that have gone, and fills you with anticipation of those that
are to come. No doubt much of the pleasure derived from the

170 ALAUBA ARVENSIS.

Lark's song depends upon association, and to him who finds de-
light in wandering over the green fields, along the daisied mar-
gin of the clear stream that winds in the bottom of the pastoral
glen, or upon the ferny brae, where the " lang yellow broom,"
and " blossomed furze unprofitably gay," shoot up amidst the
wild thyme, yarrow, and blue-bell, it is pleasant to listen even
to the " skirl" of the Corn Bunting, the see-saw song of the
Tit, the creaking cry of the Partridge, or the singular crake of
the Land Rail ; but, independently of circumstances and asso-
ciations, the song of the lark imparts an elasticity to the mind,
elevates the spirits, and suspends for a time the gnawing of
corroding care. The mellow song of the Merle or Mavis is
apt to inspire melancholy, especially if heard in a sequestered
valley toward the close of day, and the feelings which it excites
have perhaps as much of a depressing as of a soothing tendency ;
but the carol of the Lark, like the lively fife, excites pure cheer-
fulness, and might with propriety be prescribed as an antidote
to dulness. It is not merely music that we look for in the song
of birds ; but variety, and the expression of passions, feelings,
and wants. Were all our warblers to tune their throats ac-
cording to rule, we should become sickly and sentimental, fill
the valleys with sighs^ and groan from the mountain tops ;
but the loud war-whoop of the Eagle, the harsh scream of the
Heron, and the croak of the Raven, are antidotes to the be-
witching melody of the Black-cap and Nightingale. I have
endeavoured to trace a repetition at regular intervals in the
strains of the Lark ; but its modulations seem to have no rule.
In confinement this bird sings every whit as well as when at
large ; and when rapidly perambulating the square bit of faded
turf in its cage, it enacts its part with apparently as much de-
light as when mounting " towards heaven's gate."

" No bird," says Mr Main, in the Magazine of Natural His-
tory, Vol. IV, p. 414, " sings with more method : there is an
overture performed vivace crescendo, while the singer ascends ;
when at the full height, the song becomes moderato, and dis-
tinctly divided into short passages, each repeated three or four
times over, like 2i fantasia in the same key and time. If there
be any wind, he rises perpendicularly by bounds, and after-

SKY LARK. 171

wards poises himself with breast opposed to it. If calm, he
ascends in spiral circles ; in horizontal circles during the prin-
cipal part of his song, and zigzagly downwards during the
performance of the Jincde. Sometimes, after descending about
half-way, he ceases to sing, and drops with the velocity of an
arrow to the ground. Those acquainted with the song of the
Sky Lark can tell without looking at them whether the birds
be ascending or stationary in the air, or on their descent ; so
diiferent is the style of the song in each case. In the first there
is an expression of ardent impatience ; in the second an an-
dante composure, in which rests of a bar at a time frequently
occur ; and in the last, a graduated sinking of the strains, often
touching the subdominant before the final close. The time
and number of the notes often correspond with the vibrations
of the wings ; and though they sometimes sing while on the
ground, as they are seen to do in cages, their whole frame seems
to be agitated by their musical efibrts.""

" Larks," says Mr Weir, are strongly attached to their young.
I saw a collier last summer (1837) gin a pair and put them
and their nestlings, which were four in number, into a cage.
In the course of a few hours they began to feed them, and con-
tinued to do so until they were able to peck. I know a woman
who has kept a male lark for several years. During that time
he has acted as a faithful step-father, having brought up a
number of his own species, likewise several broods of linnets.
And what is still more wonderful, I saw a lark which was
only a few weeks old, assisting him most assiduously in giving
food to a family of young birds."

The Sky Lark generally rears two broods each season, the
first being usually abroad by the lOtli of June, but often earlier,
and in fine seasons so soon as the middle of May. The nest is
formed in a hollow scraped in the ground, among corn, in a
hay field, or in an open pasture. It is composed of stalks and
blades of withered grass ; rather loosely put together, and lined
with finer fibres. The eggs are four or five, from ten to eleven-
twelfths of an inch in length, about eight and a half twelfths
across, of a broadly oval form, greenish-grey, irregularly freckled
with deeper greenish-grey, or greyish-brown, or umber-brown,

172 ALAUDA ARVENSIS.

so thickly at the larger end as to obscure the ground-colour.
They vary greatly in form, the longest in my collection mea-
suring an inch and half a twelfth, with a breadth of only seven
and a quarter twelfths, the shortest being nine and a half
twelfths long and seven twelfths broad, while another is ten
and a half twelfths long and eight and a half twelfths in
breadth. Although few authors, in speaking of the nest,
make mention of an artificial hollow for its reception, I
have never found it otherwise situated than in a cavity so
regularly rounded that it could not but have been scraped
out by the bird itself. Two nests in particular, one in
gravelly soil on the Braid Hills near Edinburgh, another in an
outfield of which the soil was almost pure sand, in Harris,
were so deeply sunk that their edge was level with the surface.
When sitting on the eggs, the Lark will allow a person to walk
quite close by without rising, and I once caught one thus oc-
cupied which I accidentally perceived while walking through a
corn-field. When disturbed and forced to rise, she flies off
low, with a cowering tremulous flight, and either alights at a
little distance, or ascends and hovers around, emitting a faint
churm, which generally brings up the male. When bringing
food to her young, she sometimes hovers a few moments over
the nest and drops beside it, but often alights at a little distance
and runs up to it. Boys frequently discover Larks' nests by
watching their fluttering descent into them.

This bird always reposes on the ground at night, squatting
frequently in the barest places. Its principal enemies, besides
man, are Polecats, Weasels, Merlins, Sparrow Hawks, and
Kestrils. The latter sometimes devour the young birds, which
also fall a prey to the quadrupeds mentioned. I remember
seeing in a grass field, many years ago, a number of Larks
hovering over a particular spot, and incessantly uttering cries
that seemed to me indicative of anxiety or distress. On going
up, I observed a Polecat rush through the grass and disappear.
It had been disturbed while in the act of eating the young
birds in a nest, and had killed the whole, for those which re-
mained had the head bitten through.

From the middle of spring to the end of June, Larks may

SKY LARK. 173

very frequently be seen on the roads, and when disturbed some-
times ahghting on the walls, to return when the intruder has
passed. In warm dry weather they flutter in the dust, like
Sparrows and many other birds, appearing to derive great en-
joyment from this action. In autvimn, they have no song, and
fly about in a very quiet manner, in pairs, or a few together,
apparently intent on recruiting their energies by the abundant
food which they obtain in the stubble and grass fields.

The Sky Lark is generally distributed in Britain, and is
plentiful even in the most northern parts of the mainland and
islands of Scotland. It remains all the year, but in winter the
aggregated individuals repair to the lower districts. Although
not confined to arable land and green pastures, it is rarely met
with on heathy tracts. According to authors it is of general
occurrence on the Continent of Europe, and inhabits many
parts of Asia, as well as the north of Africa.

Larks cannot be considered of much importance as an article
of food ; yet vast numbers are sent to our markets in winter,
especially in London, and some other English cities ; but in
Scotland they are in little request. They taste well, not better
however than the Corn Bunting, but are decidedly inferior to
the Blackbird, Fieldfare, and Thrush. The eggs of all small
birds are delicious, those of the Sky Lark, Meadow Pipit,
Wheatear, Thrush, and Corn Bunting, I have often, when a
boy, eaten in the Hebrides, after being roasted in peat ashes.

Young. — The general colour is light yellowish-grey, all the
feathers of the upper parts dusky, tipped and margined with
the former, the ear-coverts reddish. The young in their second
plumage may be distinguished from the old birds, by their
having the dark markings larger, the bill and feet paler, the
claws, especially that of the hind toe, shorter.

174

ALAUDA ARBOREA. THE WOOD LARK.

^

/ X

^^.^^'^®'

Alauda aiborea. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 297.

Alauda arborea. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 492.

Alauda cristatella. Lath. Ind, Orn. II. 499.

Wood Lark. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Alouette Lulu. Alauda arborea. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 282.

Wood-Lark. Alauda arborea. Selb. Illustr. I. 2/6.

Alauda arborea. Wood-Lark. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 127-

Of both sexes the upper parts light reddish-brown streaked with
brownish-blacky the fore-neck reddish-wliite streaked with brotmiish-
black^ the sides light brown, the rest of the lower parts yellowish-
white, a distinct yellowish-ivhite band over the eye conti7iuous with
a patch of the same on the nape ; the first quill minute, the
fourth longest.

Male. — The Wood Lark, although considerably smaller
than the Sky Lark, so closely resembles it in colouring, that it
is difficult to point out the differences between the species.
The bill of the Wood Lark is much more slender, its hind
claw less elongated, and its wing of a different form, as is in-
dicated in the specific character. The feathers on the head are

WOOD LARK. ]75

much longer ; the upper parts of a redder tint, the white of the
lower parts tinged with yellow, in place of brown, the fore-
neck lighter with its dark spots more slender.

The bill is rather more than half the length of the head,
slender, tapering, about the same height and breadth at the
base, its gape-line straight, the edges sharp and w^ithout notch,
the tips rather acute. The tongue is narrow, sagittiform, nearly
flat above, with the tip lacerated. The eyes are rather small,
their aperture being nearly two-twelfths ; that of the ear
three-twelfths in diameter ; the nostrils elliptical, three-fourths
of a twelfth long, with a distinct operculum, but concealed by
the feathers. The tarsi are slender and compressed, their upper
anterior and posterior scutella indistinct ; the first, second, and
third toes, excluding the claw^s, nearly equal, the third consi-
derably longer. The hind claw is extremely elongated, much
compressed, very slightly curved, and tapers to a fine point ;
the third is much longer than the two lateral ; the anterior
claws feebly curved, much compressed, laterally channelled,
and tapering. On the first toe are six, on the second eight, on
the third twelve, on the fourth also twelve scutella.

The plumage is soft, with slight gloss, rather compact above,
blended beneath. The feathers are generally ovate and round-
ed, with a slender plumule of few filaments. Those about the
base of the bill are bristle-tipped, and there are also small de-
curved bristle-feathers at the base of the upper mandible. The
feathers on the top of the head are elongated, decurved, and
oblong. The wings are long and broad, the quills very slightly
curved ; the first quill is extremely small ; the next three are
nearly equal, but the fourth is longest, the fifth shorter than
the second ; the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth, are slightly cut
out on the outer web ; the rest of the primaries, and five se-
condaries, are deeply emarginate ; the sixth secondary is much
elongated and tapering to a rounded point. The tail is emar-
ginate, its feathers broad and rounded.

The bill is dark greyish-brown, the basal edge of the upper,
and the greater part of the lower mandible flesh-coloured. The
iris is hazel. The feet are pale greyish-yellow, the claws yel-
lowish-brown. The general colour of the upper parts is light

176 ALAUDA ARBOREA.

reddish-brown, on the fore part of the back brownish-red, all
the feathers with a narrow brownish-black central spot towards
the end, excepting those of the rump and the upper tail- coverts.
The quills are chocolate-brown, edged and tipped with light
reddish-brown ; the larger coverts darker, tipped with pale
brown, as are the larger small coverts, so that there are two
rather conspicuous bands on the wing. The tail feathers are
blackish-brown, the central broadly edged with reddish-brown;
the outermost with an oblique terminal space of brownish-
white, and the three next on each side having a triangular spot
of white at the tip. The hind part of the neck and a band
over each eye, are yellowish-white ; the ear-coverts reddish-
brown tinged with dusky. The fore part of the neck is reddish-
white having a tinge of yellow, its sides more deeply tinged
with red, all, excepting a small part of the throat, streaked with
narrow oblong brownish-black spots, as is a portion of the
breast. The rest of the lower parts yellowish-white.

Length to end of tail 6j^ ; extent of wings 12^ ; bill along
the ridge /g, along the edge of lower mandible |f ; wing from
flexure 8^^ ; tail 2j% ; tarsus i§ ; first toe j%, its claw ^^ ;
second toe j^, its claw ^^ ; third toe /j, its claw /^ ; fourth
toe ^1, its claw f |.

Female. — The female differs very little from the male in
external appearance, the dark markings however being gene-
rally larger, and the lower parts less tinged with yellow.

Length to end of tail 6 inches ; extent of wings 12.

Habits. — The Wood Lark is met with chiefly in the southern,
western, and midland districts of England, being of rare occur-
rence in the northern parts of that country, and not having
hitherto, I believe, been observed in Scotland. It is a permanent
resident, and in winter generally appears in small parties, which
search the fields for insects, larvae, and seeds of various kinds.
Its mode of progression on the ground, and its ordinary flight,
are similar to those of the Sky Lark ; it reposes at night in
the fields or pasture grounds ; but by day it frequently perches
on trees or bushes. In time of snow, it betakes itself to marshy

WOOD LARK. 177

meadows, in search of worms, or, if the ground be entirely
frozen, to stack-yards, where it joins the Sparrows, Buntinorg,
and other small birds, in appropriating to itself as many of the
seeds as it can obtain.

Early in spring the small flocks disperse, and by the middle
of March, should the season be favourable, the different pairs
have commenced the building of their nests. At this time
the Wood Lark is in full song, and may be seen springing
from a field in the same manner as the common species, as-
cending either perpendicularly or in a slanting direction, then
sweeping along in circles, and all the while pouring forth its
cheerful song, which, although not so diversified as that of the
Sky Lark, is considerably more melodious. Indeed as a song-
ster this bird has been considered as little inferior to the Nicrhtin-
gale or Garden Warbler. It also sings at times when perched
on a tree, as well as on the ground, and its song is continued
through the greater part of the year, ceasing only from the
middle of autumn to that of winter, although in the latter
season, and in early spring, it is to be heard only on fine sunny
days.

The nest is placed on the ground, generally in a corn field,
or in pasture land, in the vicinity of a wood or thicket, and
is composed externally of dry grass, and lined with finer blades
intermixed with hair. The eggs, four or five in number,
average ten-twelfths of an inch in length, seven -twelfths and a
half in breadth, and are of a pale yellowish-brown colour,
freckled with umber or greyish-brown, and sometimes having
a few irregular dusky lines at the larger end.

Some of the above particulars are given on the authority of
Montagu, as the opportunities which I have enjoyed of observ-
ing this species in the south-western counties of England have
been few. The descriptions, however, are taken from actual
specimens.

Young. — Upper parts yellowish-brown, the feathers with a
band of dusky, and light edges ; lower parts pale greyish-
yellow, sides and fore part of neck with angular dusky spots ;
part of the breast tinged with yellowish- red.

VOL. II. N

17«

ANTHUS. PIPIT.

Bill of moderate length, slender, straight, at the base rather
broader than high, compressed towards the end ; upper man-
dible with the dorsal outline slightly declinate at the base,
very slightly declinato-arcuate towards the end, the ridge nar-
row at the base, the nasal depression being large, the sides
towards the end convex, the edges direct, soft and rounded at
the base, sharp in the rest of their extent, with a slight notch
close to the tip, which is declinate, narrow, and rounded ;
lower mandible with the angle rather long, narrow, and
rounded, the dorsal outline straight, the back broad and con-
vex at the base, narrowed towards the end, the sides convex,
the edges erect and sharp, slightly overlapped by those of the
upper ; the gape-line straight, a little deflected at the base.

The upper mandible within is concave and narrow, with a
central prominent line ; the palate flat, with two parallel
ridges ; the posterior aperture of the nares oblongo-linear, and
edged with small pointed papillae. The lower mandible is
very narrow and rather deeply concave, with a median pro-
minent line. The tongue is very slender, sagittate at the
base, and finely papillate, tapering to a slit point. The oeso-
phagus is of moderate width, nearly equal throughout, with-
out crop or remarkable dilatation ; the proventriculus oblong,
with oblong glandules. The stomach is a gizzard of con-
siderable power, roundish, compressed ; its muscles distinct,
the tendons large. The intestine is short, its duodenal portion
wider ; the cceca very small and cylindrical ; the rectum very
short, with an oblong dilatation.

Nostrils descending, perforate, short-elliptical, or oblong, in
the lower and fore-part of the nasal depression, which is
feathered, except in its anterior portion. Eyes of moderate
size ; eyelids feathered, with a narrow, bare, crenate margin.
External aperture of the ear large, transversely oval. '

ANTHUS. PIPIT.

179

The general form is slender, the body ovate, the neck rather
short, the head small, narrow, ovato-oblong. The feet are
rather long, and slender ; the tarsus much compressed, ante-
riorly covered with eight scutella, acute behind. Toes longish,
slender, compressed ; the first large, narrow beneath ; the
second and fourth about equal, the third much longer, united
to the fourth as far as the second joint. Claws long, slightly
arched, extremely compressed, tapering to a fine point, laterally
grooved, that of the hind toe much elongated.

Plumage soft, on the upper parts the feathers rather distinct,
on the lower blended ; the feathers generally ovate, of loose
texture, with a long slender plumule. Wings rather long, of
eighteen quills, of which nine are primary, the first four nearly
equal and longest ; the secondaries very long, one of them
nearly as long as the outer primaries when the wing is closed ;
the inner primaries and outer secondaries emarginate. Tail
rather long, straight, emarginate, of twelve feathers.

The Pipits are very intimately allied to the Larks, Alauda,
on the one hand, and to the Wagtails, ISIotacilla, on the other.
Although much more slender than the former, their affinity to
them, both in form and colouring, is so great that by the older
ornithologists they were included in the same genus. On com-
paring a Lark and a Pipit, it will be seen that the bill is formed
on the same plan, that the feet agree in presenting the very
elongated hind claw, and that the wings are of the same form,
one of the inner secondaries being much lengthened and ta-
pering. Compared with a Wagtail, a Pipit presents similar
analogies ; its bill is almost precisely similar, its wings are of
the same form, its feet differ very little, but its tail, although

180 ANTHUS. PIPIT.

rather long, is very much shorter. Indeed there can be no doubt
whatever, that the Pipits are precisely intermediate between the
Larks and the Quaketails and Wagtails. In their digestive or-
gans they resemble the Larks, at least in the form and great
muscularity of the gizzard, which is much compressed on the
edges ; and they use a considerable quantity of gravel to aid
in triturating their food.

They are small, slender, active birds, remarkable for their
sharp, rather weak, notes, which they utter in a rapid manner,
and for their habit of vibrating the body when standing. They
frequent meadows and pastures, but may be seen in all kinds
of situation, on the sea-shore, and on elevated moors, although
each species has its peculiar predilections. They nestle among
the grass, generally beside a tuft, turf, or stone, form a rather
large, neatly constructed nest, which is lined with finer fila-
ments, and deposit four or five spotted eggs. Frequently two
broods are reared in the season. They are social, but not
strictly gregarious ; have a rapid, wavering, undulatory flight ;
and feed for the most part upon insects, pupse, and larvae, but
also on seeds of various kinds.

Four species occur in Britain : Richard's Pipit, the Wood
Pipit, the Meadow Pipit, and the Rock Pipit. Of these the
first is extremely rare, the second not uncommon, but often
confounded with the third, which is generally distributed,
while the fourth occurs chiefly in the vicinity of the sea. I
shall describe first the most common species.

181

ANTHUS PRATENSIS. THE MEADOW PIPIT.

TITLARK. TITLING. COMMON TITLARK. GLASIAN.

Fio. 142.

Alauda pratensis. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 493.

Alauda campestris. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 495.

Tit Lark. Mont. Orn. Diet.— Suppl.

Pipit Lark. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Pipit Farlouse. Anthus pratensis. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 269.

Meadow Pipit, or Tit. Anthus pratensis. Selb. Illustr. I.

Anthus pratensis. Meadow Pipit. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 117.

Upper parts olivaceous, spotted with duslcy ; lower brownish-
white, anteriorly tinged icith red ; the neck, sides, and fore part
of the breast marked with ovato-oblong , broicnish-hlack spots ; the
frst quill shorter than the fourth ; the hind claw slightly arched,
extremely slender, much longer than the first joint,

Male. — The Meadow Pipit, which is met with in all parts
of the country, is of a slender and rather elegant form, although
not remarkable for the beauty of its plumage, its colouring be-
ing very similar to that of the Sky Lark. As it is very inti-
mately allied to the Tree Pipit, I consider it expedient to de-
scribe both species in detail.

182 ANTHUS PRATENSIS,

The bill is straight, slender, broader than high at the base,
compressed towards the end. The upper mandible has its
dorsal outline slightly declinate at the base, then nearly straight,
towards the end very slightly declinato-areuate, the edges di-
rect, sharp, with a distinct notch close to the narrow, slightly
declinate tip. The lower mandible has the angle medial, the
back convex, the sides convex, the edges a little inflected and
sharp. Both mandibles are narrow and concave within, with
a prominent median line ; the palate is flat, with two ridges ;
the tongue very slender, half an inch long, emarginate and pa-
pillate at the base, grooved above, its tip slightly slit and
fringed. The oesophagus is two and a half inches long, with-
out dilatation, its average diameter a twelfth and a half; the
proventriculus is rather large, having a diameter of three -
twelfths, its glandules large, and oblong. The stomach is
seven-twelfths long, six-twelfths broad, compressed ; its mus-
cles distinct and strong, its tendons three-twelfths in breadth.
The intestine is seven and a half inches long, its diameter in
the duodenal portion a twelfth and a quarter. The coeca are
cylindrical, scarcely half a twelfth long, and a quarter of a
twelfth in diameter. The rectum is ten-twelfths long.

The nostrils are oblongo-elliptical, three quarters of a twelfth
long, with a narrow, bare operculum. The aperture of the
eyes is a twelfth and a half in diameter ; the eyelids with two
rows of small rounded feathers. The ear is transversely ellip-
tical, two and a half twelfths in its greatest diameter. The
feet are of moderate length, and very slender. The tarsus
much compressed, anteriorly covered with seven long scutella,
posteriorly edged, with two plates and inferior rugse. The
outer toe is slightly shorter than the inner ; the first has eight,
the second nine, the third fourteen, the fourth eleven scutella.
The claws are extremely compressed, slightly
arched ; that of the hind toe extremely at-
tenuated, curved in about the eighth of a
Fig. 143. circle, longer than the first joint, and, when

the toes are brought together, extending beyond the point of
that of the middle toe.

The plumage is soft, slightly glossed ; the feathers ovate,

MEADOW PIPIT, 183

rounded, with a long, slender plumule of few barbs ; somewhat
distinct on the upper parts, blended beneath. There are a few
short bristle-feathers at the base of the bill. The wings are
rather long : the first four primaries are nearly equal, but the
third is longest ; the first shorter than the fourth, (whereas in
the Tree Pipit, the first is longest) ; the second, third, and
fourth, are cut out on the outer web towards the end ; the
inner four primaries, and outer five secondaries, are emarginate;
the three inner secondaries tapering and rounded, the sixth
nearly as long as the longest primaries when the wing is closed.
The tail is rather long, and slightly emarginate.

The edges of the upper mandible, and the greater part of the
lower, are yellowish-red, or flesh-colour; the rest of the upper,
and the tip of the lower, dusky. The irides are deep blackish-
brown. The feet light yellowish-brown ; the claws dusky.
The general colour of the upper parts is light greenish-brown,
each feather with the central part blackish-brown, excepting
on the rump. The quills and coverts are clove-brown, mar-
gined with dull greyish-green ; the tips of the first row of
small coverts, and of the secondary coverts greenish, inclining
to grey. The tail-feathers are dark brown, the two middle
lighter and edged with green, the rest very narrowly edged
with the same ; the outer having an oblique terminal band of
white, occupying nearly half its length ; the rest with a white
triangular spot at the tip. The general colour of the lower
parts is pale yellowish-grey, or brownish- white, with a tinge of
red on the throat and breast. The edges of the eyelids are of
the same colour. The cheeks are olivaceous, faintly spotted
with dusky ; there is a slender line of dusky spots from the
base of the lower mandible down each side of the neck ; the
fore part of the breast and the sides, marked, the former with
oblongo-triangular, the latter with long, narrow, brownish-black
spots ; the abdomen, and lower tail-coverts, unspotted.

Length to end of tail 6/^ inches ; extent of wings 9| ; bill
along the ridge {'^^ along the edge of lower mandible j^ ; wing
from flexure 3 ; tail 2^ ; tarsus y| ; first toe j^|, its claw /^ ;
second toe ^^, its claw ^^^ ; third toe ^\^ its claw ^^ ; fourth
toe y|, its claw -^^.

184 ANTHUS PRATENSIS.

Female. — The female is scarcely distinguishable from the
male, being merely a little smaller, with the colours of the plu-
mage slightly duller.

Length to end of tail 5y§ ; extent of wings 9i ; bill along
the ridge/l, along the edge of lower mandible y"^ '■> tarsus j% ;
middle toe and claw { ^ ; hind toe and claw | ^ ? the claw being
if I ; wing from flexure 8 ; tail 2^.

Male in Summer. — The difference of colour and texture pro-
duced in the plumage by exposure to the weather is consi-
derable, birds shot in summer having a very faded appearance,
owing to the abrasion of the greenish margins of the feathers.
The general colour of the upper parts is light greyish-brown,
the central part of each feather dark-brown, excepting on the
rump, where the markings are very obscure. The wings are
greyish-brown ; the secondary coverts, and first row of small
coverts, have their margins greyish-w^hite. The middle tail-
feathers are greyish-brown, the rest dark-brown, edged with
lighter ; the outer with an oblique white band, including the
terminal part of the inner web, and the whole of the outer, ex-
cepting the basal part. There is a light coloured line over the
eye. The lower parts are of a dull whitish-grey, slightly tinged
with brown ; the sides of the neck, its fore-part below, the fore-
part of the breast, and the sides, spotted with blackish brown.

Female in Summer. — The female undergoes the same changes.

Variations. — I have not met with any remarkable variations
in colour, excepting those produced by the gradual decay of the
plumage. Individuals vary in length from 6^% to 5j% inches,
and in extent of wing from lOf to 9 J. The claw of the hind
toe is sometimes j\ long, and scarcely ever less than f | in
adult birds.

Habits. — The Meadow Pipit is a very common bird in most
parts of Scotland and England, being met with on moors, in pas-
tures, meadow land, and cultivated fields, from one extremity
of the island to the other. In the haunts of the Grey Ptarmi-

MEADOW PIPIT. 185

gau on the stony summits of the central Grampians, in the
grassy valleys of the Highland streams, in the fertile plains of
the south, and on the downs that border the sea, it is equally
at home ; but it is more abundant in the green pastures that
flank the upland glens, and on the sedgy moors of the interior.
There it is seen at all seasons, in small companies, flying about
in its peculiar wavering manner, and chirping its weak, shrill
note. In winter, however, most of the individuals betake
themselves to the lower grounds, many to the sea-shore, where
they mingle with the Rock Pipits. During snow, they search
the margins of streams and lakes, frequent unfrozen marshes,
and even appear in the stack-yards. Their food consists of
insects, pupae, larvre, and occasionally small seeds, along with
which they pick up particles of gravel, and frequently in the
lower districts small bits of coal and other dark coloured sub-
stances. When searching for it, they walk by short alternate
steps, keeping the body close to the ground, in the manner of
the Sky Lark, and when alarmed either crouch, or spring up,
uttering a repetition of their ordinary cheeping note, and fly off"
to a distance. You may see them perch occasionally on a bush
or tree, frequently on a wall, a stone, or a rock ; but they are
essentially ground birds, and while they are employed all day
in traversing the meadows and pastures, they repose at night
among the dry grass of the moors and hills, or under the shel-
ter of tufts of heath, furze, or other small shrubs. Their ordi-
nary flight is wavering and desultory, but when travelling they
fly w^ith speed, in an undulating line. They are not generally
very shy, so that they are easily shot, but at the same time they
are evidently watchful and suspicious, and fly off" when one ap-
proaches nearer than thirty yards.

When the warm weather commences they pair, and disperse
over the moors and pastures. The song of the male is rather
pleasant, being composed of a series of sharp modulated notes,
which it utters on wing, first ascending, silently, or emitting
only its usual cheep, to the height of about twenty yards, and
then descending with expanded wings and tail. Sometimes
also it sings when perched on a stone or crag. Its song may
be heard from the middle of April to the end of July. During

186 ANTHUS PRATENSIS.

the breeding season, the male is easily alarmed, and flutters
over an intruder, emitting its shrill notes ; but while incubat-
ing, the female will allow a person to walk close to her without
rising ; and when she does fly off, it is with a cowering flutter-
ing motion, with the tail expanded, as if she were under the
influence of disease or extreme terror. I have several times
caught the female while sitting on her eggs, by creeping up, hav-
ing previously marked the nest, and clapping my hand upon it.
The nest is usually placed on a grassy bank, or beside a tuft or
turf, and is often so sunk into the ground as to be with great difii-
culty discovered. It is bulky, but neatly constructed, the ex-
terior being formed of stems and leaves of grasses, the interior
of finer straws, and sometimes of fibrous roots, with occasionally
a good deal of hair. The eggs, generally five, but varying from
four to six, are of a regular oval form, from nine to nine and
a half twelfths long, about seven and a half twelfths across.
They vary much in colour, but generally have a light grey, or
brownish-white ground, dotted and freckled all over with pur-
plish-grey, reddish-brown, or dusky, the dots most abundant
on the larger end, where they are often so thick as entirely to
conceal the ground colour. They are generally deposited about
the middle of April, and the young are abroad by the end of
May. Another brood appears about the middle of July.

Young. — When fledged, the young differ little from the old
birds. The plumage of the upper parts has the dark brown
spots larger, and their margins dull greenish-yellow ; the spots
on the fore-neck and breast are larger; and the breast and
sides are strongly tinged with light red. The outer tail-
feather has the inner web white in its terminal half, the
outer web grey towards the end, white in the middle and nearly
to the base ; the second has a small white spot at the tip.
The bill is dusky above, yellowish beneath ; the feet and claws
pale reddish-yellow.

Progress toward Maturity. — Little change takes place at
the first moult, which is completed towards the end of autumn.
Young birds are more brightly tinted than old ones, at least
the green colour of their upper parts is brighter. As the bird

MEADOW PIPIT. 187

advances in age, the bill becomes stronger and darker ; the
toes assume a dusky tint, and the claws are ultimately blackish,
excepting the tip of the hind claw, which always remains light-
coloured and transparent.

Remarks. — It is not wonderful that the older ornithologists,
who attended more to colour than to form, should have con-
founded the Pipits, and sometimes made several species out of
one ; but the characters which these birds present when closely
examined are quite sufficient to enable any person to distin-
guish the species at once. Montagu describes the present bird
in its perfect jDlumage, that is in winter, wdien the feathers are
complete, under the name of Pipit Lark, and in its faded or
summer plumage under that of Tit Lark. Of the former, he
observes, " we have never been able to procure one specimen
in summer ;" — certainly not, for in that season the colours are
materially altered. On more mature consideration, however,
having examined specimens at all seasons, he came to the con-
clusion that the Pipit Lark and the Tit Lark are one and the
same species. And here, it may not be improper to observe,
that the perfect plumage, in which all species ought to be first
described, is that of winter, when the feathers have their edge-
ings complete. The abrasion which subsequently takes place,
may frequently bring out brighter and more uniform tints, as
in the Linnets ; but still the plumage in summer is always
imperfect.

The jNleadow Pipit is the species to which the charge of the
young Cuckoo is most frequently consigned. This circumstance
has not eluded the observation of our country people, who, hav-
ing often seen the " Gowk " followed by the " Titling," employ
the comparison derisively in speaking of a parasite and his
patron, not aware that here the larger and more patron-looking
animal is really the parasite.

188

ANTHUS ARBOREUS. THE TREE PIPIT.

MEADOW LARK. SHORT-HEELED FIELD LARK.

Alauda trivialis. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 288.

Alauda trivialis. Lath. Tnd. Orn. IL 493.

Alauda minor. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 494.

Field Lark. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Pipit des Buissons. Anthus arboreus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 271.

Tree Pipit. Anthus arboreus. Selb. Illustr. I. 262.

Anthus arboreus. Tree Pipit. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 118.

Upper parts olivaceous, spotted with dusky ; lower brownish-
white, anteriorlt/ tinned with reddish-yellotc ; the neck, sides, and
fore-part of the breast marked with ovato-oblong, brownish-black
spots ; the first quill longest ; the hind claw strongly arched,
shorter than the first joint.

Male. — The Tree Pipit, which is of much less frequent oc-
currence in Britain than the Meadow Pipit, and does not re-
main there during winter, is so very similar to that species, as
to require a minute comparison with it, before one can readily
distinguish the two species. The differences are expressed in
the specific characters given above.

TREE PIPIT. 189

The bill is considerably thicker than that of the Meadow
Pipit, but otherwise similar, being straight, slender, broader
than high at the base, compressed towards the end, with a dis-
tinct notch, and small slightly declinate tip. The digestive
organs are in all respects similar to those of the Meadow Pipit.
The oesophagus is of nearly uniform diameter throughout, two
inches and a half long, its average breadth a twelfth and a
half; the proventriculus with short oblong glandules. The
stomach is eight-twelfths of an inch long, six and a half broad,
roundish, compressed, its lateral muscles very thick and cari-
nate, or forming a thin edge, the lower muscle very thin ; the
tendons very large, four-twelfths in diameter ; the inner coat
tough, thin, and broadly rugous. The intestine is eight inches
long, varying in diameter from two-twelfths to one-twelfth ;
the coeca extremely small, cylindrical, half a twelfth long ; the
rectum eleven-twelfths in lenoi;h. The nostrils are oblono-o-
elliptical, three quarters of a twelfth long, with a narrow, bare,
operculum. The aperture of the eyes is a twelfth and a half in
diameter ; the eyelids with two rows of small, rounded feathers.
The ear is transversely elliptical, two and a half twelfths in its
greatest diameter. The feet are of moderate length, and very
slender. The tarsus much compressed, anteriorly covered with
eight long scutella, posteriorly edged, with two plates and in-
ferior rugae. The outer toe is slightly shorter than the inner ;

the first has eight, the second
ten, the third thirteen, the
fourth ten scutella. The claws
are extremely compressed, mo-
derately arched ; that of the
hind toe curved in about the
fifth of a circle, rather shorter
than the first joint, and when

Fig. 145. , i

the toes are brought together
not extending so far as the point of that of the middle toe.

The plumage is soft, and slightly glossed ; the feathers ovate,
rounded, with a long slender plumule of few barbs, somewhat
distinct in the upper parts, blended on the lower. There are
a few short bristle -feathers at the base of the bill. The wings

190 ANTHUS ARBOREUS.

are rather long ; the first primary is longest, the second very
slightly shorter ; the second, third, and fourth, slightly cut out
on the outer web towards the end ; the inner four primaries,
and outer five secondaries, emarginate ; the inner three secon-
daries tapering and rounded, the sixth almost as long as the
first primary when the wing is closed. The tail is rather long
and slightly emarginate. A few pencil-tipped delicate bristles
protrude from the nape.

The edges of the upper mandible, and the greater part of the
lower, are pale greyish- yellow ; the rest of the upper and the
tip of the lower dusky. The irides are deep brown. The feet
and claws pale greyish-yellow. The general colour of the upper
parts is light greyish-brown, tinged with green, the central part
of each feather dark brown, excepting on the rump, where
there are no dark markings. The wings are greyish-brown ;
the first row of small coverts broadly tipped with greyish-white ;
the secondary coverts with similar but smaller tips, and mar-
gined with pale brownish-grey. The middle tail-feathers are
greyish-brown, the rest blackish-brown, edged with lighter ;
the outer with an oblique greyish-white band, including the
terminal half of the inner web, and the whole of the outer, ex-
cepting the basal part. There is a whitish band over the eye.
The lower parts are brownish-white. The sides and fore part
of the neck, the fore part of the breast, and the sides, strongly
tinged with reddish-yellow, and marked with ovato-oblong
brownish black spots ; the upper part of the throat, the abdo-
men, and the lower tail-coverts unspotted.

Length to end of tail 6^^^ inches ; extent of wings Hi ; bill
along the ridge 5i twelfths, along the edge of lower mandible
74 twelfths ; wing from flexure 8^ ; tail 2/^ ; tarsus ^§ ; first
toe 4^ twelfths, its claw 4g twelfths ; second toe 5^ twelfths,
its claw 2 5 twelfths; third toe /^, its claw -{'^ ; fourth toe f|,
its claw j%.

Female. — The female differs so little in external appearance
as to be incapable of being distinguished without dissection.

Length to end of tail 6^% inches ; extent of wings 11 ; bill || ;
tarsus {§ ; middle toe and claw i§ ; hind toe and claw j%.

TREE PIPIT. 191

Habits. — The Tree Pipit, which although almost precisely-
similar to the Meadow Pipit in form and colouring, is readily
distinguishable by the inferior elongation and greater curvature
of its hind claw, and the pale greyish-yellow tint of its tarsi,
toes, and claws, is a migratory species, appearing in England
about the 20th of April, and in the south of Scotland in the
beginning of May. It has been observed in most of the southern,
western, and midland counties of the former country ; more
rarely in the northern districts. In Scotland it was, in so far
as I know, first observed by Mr Weir, who found it in Lin-
lithgowshire in 1833. I have in my collection a specimen ob-
tained in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, in the summer of
1835 ; and another in a recent state, which had been shot near
Dalkeith, on the 21st June 1836, was given to me by Mr
Carfrae.

This species does not frequent the heaths and open grassy
pastures, which are the favourite places of abode of the Meadow
Pipit in summer ; but is found in the cultivated parts in the
vicinity of woods and thickets. Its song, which is of the same
lively character, but mellower, more modulated, and longer
continued, is given out during its descent from an elevation of
from twenty to thirty yards, during which it flutters with ex-
panded wings and tail. Sometimes also it sings while perched
on a tree, and more frequently while descending from one to
the ground. The song continues until the middle of July.

The nest, which is placed among the grass, in a wood, or
near its margin, is similar to that of the Meadow Pipit, being
composed of dry grass, lined with finer blades, and having the
interior of hair. One in my possession is bulky and rather
rudely constructed, externally composed of stalks and blades of
grass, together with moss, internally of finer grasses, rather
neatly arranged. Its internal diameter three inches, the walls
one inch thick. The eggs, four or five in number, are greyish
or purplish-white, or flesh-colour, marked with spots and
blotches of dark red or purplish-brown, and average in length
nine-twelfths of an inch, in breadth seven-twelfths.

Mr Weir has favoured me with the following account of the
species, as observed in West Lothian. " About the beginning

192 ANTHUS ARBOREUS.

of June 1835, the song of a Pipit, which I observed upon the
top of a tree, in a plantation in my neighbourhood, attracted
my attention. As its notes in variety and sweetness seemed
to be superior to those of the Meadow species, I was very an-
xious to examine it. I accordingly shot it, and sent it to a
friend of mine in Edinburgh, telling him that from its appear-
ance and notes I considered it to be the Tree Pipit. He shewed
it to some of his ornithological acquaintances, who, as well as
himself, firmly maintained that it was but a variety of the
Meadow Pipit. Being determined however not to give up
my opinion until I was fully convinced of its being incorrect,
I paid more attention to these birds than I had formerly done.
Having shot a few of each kind, and compared them together,
I must acknowledge that I was not now astonished at the opi-
nion which my friends had formed, for in the tints, markings,
and distribution of their colours, they so closely resembled each
other, that one could hardly distinguish them. When mi-
nutely compared however they are easily seen to be distinct.
The Tree Pipit is larger and heavier, and the claws on the
hind toe are much shorter, and more curved than that of the
other species, as you will see from the specimens which I have
sent you. After a great deal of trouble and research, I at last
discovered one of their nests with eggs, Mdiich put an end to
all dispute on the subject. Those of the JNIeadow Pipit are
closely freckled, sometimes with dark and sometimes with
light brown ; those of the Tree Pipit are blotched with deep
vinous purple, and ' the ground colour of them partakes of a
tint of the same, but much paler."*

" The Tree Pipits generally make their appearance here about
the beginning of May, and frequent the woods. They perch
upon the highest branches of a tree, from which they ascend
into the air, uttering a twittering note at each extension of the
wings. They send forth their song during their descent, which
they perform with wings expanded and tail erected, till they
again reach the tree, where they continue a short time after
perching, and then descend to the ground in the same manner.
They generally build their nests in plantations, at the root of a
tree, and amongst long grass. It is very difficult to discover

TREE PIPIT. J93

them, as they are so cunningly concealed, and as the birds gene-
rally run several yards from them before they mount into the
air. The nest on which I caught the old ones being in a park
which had been grazed by cattle, and very near a plantation,
afforded me an excellent opportunity of observing their motions.
When they fed their young ones, which they did with flies,
caterpillars, and worms, they always alighted at the distance of
twenty or thirty feet fi'om their nest, cowering and making zig-
zag windings, and now and then putting up their heads, and
looking around them with the greatest anxiety and circumspec-
tion. They are seldom met with in my neighbourhood ; and
in the long space of fourteen years I have seen only two or
three of their nests."

The food of this species is similar to that of the Meadow
Pipit. The contents of the stomach of one which I examined
in June 1836 were remains of insects, but chiefly husks of
very small seeds, with a considerable quantity of mineral frag-
ments.

YouxG. — The young when fledged are similar to the old birds,
but have the bill paler, the upper parts more tinged with green
and marked with darker spots, the lower parts more yellow.
One before me, just able to fly, on the 6th of June, has the bill,
tarsi, toes, and claws flesh-coloured, the upper mandible tinged
with brown ; the plumage is coloured as in the adult, but the
spots on the fore-neck are narrower, and those on the back of a
deeper tint. Another from the nest, sent to me by Mr Weir,
has the bill and feet flesh-coloured, the feathers of the upper
parts brownish-black, margined with light greyish-yellow, the
lower parts of a paler tint of the latter colour, the fore-neck
marked with elongated brownish-black spots, the two lateral
tail-feathers greyish-white on the inner web, the exterior pale
brownish-grey on the outer web.

194

ANTHUS AQUATICUS. THE SHORE PIPIT.

ROCK PIPIT. ROCK LARK. SEA LARK. DUSKY LARK. GLASIAN.

Alauda obscura. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 494.

Rock Lark. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Pipit Spioncelle. Anthus aquaticus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 2(i.).

Rock or Shore Pipit. Anthus aquaticus. Selb. lUustr. I. 2.58.

Anthus petrosus. Rock Pipit. Jen, Brit. Vert. An. 118.

Upper parts olivaceous^ obscurely streaked tnth dusky ; loicer
yellowish-grey ; the neck, sides, and fore part of the breast,
marked tcith oblong undecided dusky or oUraceous spots ; the
second qtiill longest; the hind claw slightly arched, about the
same length as the first joint.

Male. — The Shore Pipit is considerably larger than the
Meadow Pipit, from which it may be easily distinguished by
observing that the bill is much longer, the claw of the hind
foot shorter, the upper parts of a dull olivaceous tint, and very
obscurely marked with dusky streaks, while the spots on the
lower are greenish-brown, ill-defined, and gradually blended
with the ground colour, whereas in the Meadow and Tree
Pipits they are blackish, smaller, and abruptly edged.

SHORE PIPIT. 195

The bill is straight, slender, broader than high at the base,
much compressed, nearly as long as the head. The upper
mandible has its dorsal line at first a little declinate, then
slightly arched, the edges slightly inclinate, the tip sharp, with
the notch very small. The lower mandible has the angle long
and narrow, the dorsal outline ascending and straight, the tip
very narrow. Both mandibles are very narrow and concave
within, with a prominent median line ; the palate flat with two
ridges ; the tongue very slender, seven and a half twelfths
long, its tip slightly slit and fringed. The oesophagus is two
inches and eight-twelfths long ; the stomach elliptical, eight-
twelfths long, six and a half broad, its muscles distinct and
very strong; the intestine eight-twelfths long; the rectum
eleven-twelfths ; the ccEca cylindrical, one-twelfth long.

The nostrils are oblong, one-twelfth in length, with a nar-
row operculum. The eyes of moderate size, their aperture a
twelfth and a half in diameter ; that of the ear two and a half
twelfths. The feet are of moderate size ; the tarsus much
compressed, with seven anterior scutella ; the first toe nearly

as stout as the third, with eight
scutella ; the second with ten ;
the third with twelve ; the
fourth a little shorter than the
second, with twelve scutella.
The claws are moderately arch-
ed, very long, extremely com-
pressed, and tapering to a fine
point, that of the hind toe scarcely so long as the first joint.

The plumage is very soft and blended. There are a few very
small bristle-feathers at the base of the bill. The wings are
rather long : the first four primaries are nearly equal, the second
and third longest ; the second, third, and fourth cut out on
the outer web towards the end ; the inner primaries and outer
secondaries are abrupt and slightly emarginate ; the inner three
secondaries taper to a rounded point ; the sixth is nearly as long
as the longest primaries, when the wing is closed. The tail is
rather long, and slightly emarginate.

The bill is dusky, with the edges and the basal part of the

196 ANTHUS AQUATICUS.

lower mandible dull orange. The irides are deep blackish-
brown. The tarsi reddish-brown, the toes and claws dusky.
The upper parts are olivaceous, obscurely streaked with dark-
brown, the central part of each feather being of the latter co-
lour, as are the quills and coverts, of which the secondary coverts
and those of the first row are tipped with whitish. The tail-
feathers are blackish-brown, edged with olivaceous, the lateral
greyish -brown, with an oblique brownish-white terminal band,
including the greater part of the outer web, the next with the
tip brownish-white. The general colour of the lower parts is
greyish-yellow, of which there is a streak over the eye ; the
cheeks and sides of the neck yellowish-brown. A line of dusky
spots extends from the base of the lower mandible ; and the
lower part of the neck, the anterior part of the breast, and the
sides, are marked with oblong greyish-brown, or greenish-brown
spots, which are obscurely defined, their margins not being
abrupt as in the Meadow Pipit.

Length to end of tail 6/^ inches ; extent of wings lOf ; bill
along the ridge |^, along the edge of lower mandible j"| ; wing
from flexure Oj% ; tail 2i% ; tarsus { I ; first toe /g, its claw j^| ;
second toe j%, its claw || ; third toe i%, its claw || ; fourth
toe y|, its claw ||.

Female. — The female cannot be distinguished from the male
unless by dissection, being merely a little smaller.

Length to end of tail 6j% inches ; extent of wings 10^.

Variations. — I have not met with any other remarkable
variations in colour than those dependent upon the gradual de-
cay of the plumage. In summer, when the tips and margins
of the feathers have been abraded, the bird has a bleached ap-
pearance, the upper parts being of a rather uniform greyish-
brown, with very little olivaceous; thewingswith two brownish-
white bands ; the lower parts paler, as is the streak over the
eye. In short, the changes are similar to those exhibited by
the Meadow Pipit.

Habits. — The Shore Pipit, although not generally very abun-

SHORE PIPIT. 197

dant in any place, is by no means uncommon ; but from its
being confined to the vicinity of the sea, it is not so much in
the way of being observed as the Meadow Pipit, which fre-
quents the same localities in winter, and being very similar,
is apt to be confounded with it. Montagu, who was one of
the first ornithologists who clearly distinguished it from that
species, discovered it " in great plenty on the coast of South
Wales, where it was known by some of the natives by the
name of Rock Lark ;" and afterwards found it not uncommon
on all the coasts from Kent to the Land's End in Cornwall. It
occurs on most of the Scottish coasts, especially those which
are rocky, and is not uncommon in the Hebrides. Along the
shores of the Frith of Forth it is not unfrequent, especially
during winter, when it betakes itself to the muddy and
marshy places exposed by the tide, as well as to rocks or stones
covered with fuci. Its food consists of insects, larvae, small
molluscous animals, and seeds of various kinds, in searching for
which it mixes with the Meadow Pipits, and sometimes with
Snowflakes and Sky Larks. In summer when masses of sea-
weeds happen to be cast on the shore and become putrid, they
find among them an abundant supply of larvae ; and at all sea-
sons they frequent the ebb, in order to pick up minute shellfish
and other marine animals, often mingling with Redshanks,
Turnstones, or Purres. The flight of this species is wavering
and desultory, and its cry is a repeated shrill cheep. When
disturbed while feeding, it flutters about, frequently repeating
its note, settles on a rock or stone, or on the grass, keeps vi-
brating its body, and waits until the intruder departs. But
although shy, it is so only after a fashion, for it seems to con-
sider itself safe at no great distance ; and, indeed, it may gene-
rally do so with impunity, for it is very seldom molested, neither
its colours nor the quality of its flesh being suflUciently attrac-
tive to the sportsman to induce him to hold it in request. It
is scarcely gregarious at any season, but in winter may be said
to be at least not unsocial.

About the middle of spring it pairs, and towards the end of
April or the beginning of May forms a nest similar to that of
the Meadow Pipit, being rather bulky and composed of stems

198 ANTHUS AQUATICUS.

and blades of grass, with a lining of finer materials of the same
nature, together with some hair. It is placed on a grassy bank,
or among moss, in some rocky place, generally overhanging
the sea, or not far inland. The eggs are four or five, regularly
oval, ten-twelfths and a half long, eight-twelfths broad, of a
greyish or greenish-grey tint, freckled all over with purplish-
grey, often so thickly towards the larger end as completely to
obscure the ground colour. Seaweeds and moss sometimes but
not generally form part of the nest ; just as fuci are frequently
employed by the Golden Eagle and Raven, when they build
on maritime cliffs.

The song of this species is composed of a shrill warble, not
very agreeable, and is performed while the bird is hovering in
the air. It is louder and less pleasing than that of the Meadow
Pipit, not so protracted, but of the same general character.
When one approaches its nest, it hovers around, incessantly
uttering its shrill querulous notes, and betraying its anxiety
by its restlessness, I have never met with it at the distance
of half a mile from the shore, so that it appears to be strictly
maritime.

YouxG. — The young when fledged have the feathers of the
upper parts dark-brown edged with oil-green, the quills dusky
edged with olivaceous, the lower parts more yellow than in the
adult, and all streaked with olive -brown, except the abdomen,
the bill and feet of a lighter colour.

Remarks — M. Temminck states that this sjiecies inhabits
more especially the south of Europe, where it nestles in the
mountainous districts more frequently than on maritime rocks ;
and that it is migratory in the temperate countries. With us,
however, it is stationary, and has never been observed in the
hilly districts. It appears that with us at least, it was first
distinguished by ISIontagu, and first described by Latham and
Lewin, under the names of Dusky Lark and Alauda obscura.
^Montagu afterwards described it in the Linnaean Transactions,
naming it the Rock Lark, Alauda petrosa ; and various other
names have since been imposed upon it.

199

ANTHUS RICHARDI. RICHARD'S PIPIT.

Aiitlms Ricardi. Richard's Pipit. Selb. Illustr. I. 264.

Pipit Richard. Anthus Richardi. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 263. III. 185.

Authus Ricardi. Richard's Pipit. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 1 17.

Upper parts olitaceous-hrown spotted icith dark-hroicn ; lower
parts dull white, the fore part of the neck beneath and a portion of
the breast and sides tinged icith reddish-yellow and marked with
oblong dusky spots ; a line of similar spots from the base of the
bill ; tico outer tail-feathers ichite, loith a portion of the inner
web brown; tarsi long, hind claw much longer than the first joint
of the toe, and nearly straight.

Male. — This species, of which only a very few specimens
have been met with in England, is about the size of Anthus
aquaticus, from which it is distinguished by its different
colours, as well as by its more elongated tarsi, and hind claws.
The bill is of moderate length, straight, rather stout, compressed
toward the end ; the head oblong ; the neck rather short ; the
body somewhat slender. The tarsi are rather long, compressed,
with eight anterior scutella ; the toes rather long, the hind toe
proportionally large ; its claw very long, slightly arched, much
compressed, tapering to a point ; the fore claws also little
arched. The plumage is soft and blended ; the wings rather
long, the outer quill longest, but the next two almost equal ;
the tail long, slightly emarginate and rounded.

The bill is dark-brown above, brownish-yellow beneath ;
the iris black ; the feet and claws flesh-colour. The upper
parts are light yellowish-brown, each feather with the central
part dark-brown ; the quills and larger coverts are dark -brown,
margined with reddish -brown, the outer quill wnth white ; the
first row of small coverts with yellowish-white ; the tail-
feathers dark-brown, edged with pale jellowish-brown ; the

200 ANTHUS RICHARDI.

outer feather dull white, with its shaft of the same colour ; the
next also white, with its shaft brown, and both have a patch
of brown on the inner web, of less extent on the outer feather.
A whitish streak passes over the eye, and the ear-coverts,
which are light brown ; a line of small dusky spots proceeds
downward from the base of the bill ; the lower parts are dull
white ; the sides of the neck, its lower anterior part, and a
portion of the breast and sides tinged with reddish-brown, and
marked with oblong dark-brown spots ; the lower tail-coverts
also tinged with red.

Length to end of tail 6f inches ; wing from flexure Sf.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but has the
lower parts less tinged with red.

Habits. — This species is represented as being of very rare
occurrence on the continent, unless in the southern parts. It
was first made known as a British bird by the justly celebrated
ornithologist Mr Vigors, who described and figured a young
individual taken alive in a net, in the fields, north of London,
in October 1812. According to Mr Gould, two individuals
were caught near London, in the spring of 1836. Mr Rennie
mentions one taken near Oxford, and Mr Yarrell states that
Mr Proctor shot another near Howick, on the coast of Nor-
thumberland, on the 13th of February 1832. It is said to be
entirely terrestrial in its habits, to run with great celerity,
move its tail upw^ards and downwards, like the Wagtails, feed
on insects of various kinds, and emit a loud note while flying.
The eggs are white, marked with numerous small irrregular
reddish spots. This is a meagre account of the habits of a bird,
but such statements, worth little or nothing, seem to satisfy our
" best ornithologists."

Remarks. — The elongated hind claw of this bird assimilates
it closely to the Larks, and with some other circumstances has
induced Mr Vigors to place it in a genus apart from the Pipits,
to which he has given the name of Corydalla. The length of
its legs,-as he remarks, seems to correspond with Dr Horsfield's

RICHARD'S PIPIT. 201

genus Megalurus, which however has the feet much larger, the
wings of a different form, and seems to belong to the Turdinae.
Not having access to any of the British specimens, and having
failed in procuring a foreign one, I have been obliged to com-
pile the above account from the descriptions of Messrs Roux,
Temminck, Vigors, Yarrell, and Vieillot.

Under the name of the " Lark from Pensilvania" Edwards
figured a Pipit, which can be no other than the Alauda rufa of
Wilson, referred erroneously by ]Mr Swainson to Anthus aqua-
ticus, and which Lichtenstein, as well as the Prince of Musig-
nano, has named Anthus ludovicianus, it being Alauda ludo-
viciana of Gmelin and Latham. Of this American bird I have
now before me six specimens, and am thus enabled to say
with certainty that it is different from any of the species de-
scribed in this volume. Edwards says, " It is a bird common
to Europe and North America : I have found it in the neigh-
bourhood of London." JSIontagu also describes a bird which
he conceives to be the same, and which he names Red Lark,
Alauda rubra. Dr Fleming and other compilers have a Red
Lark, which they consider as an Alauda, not an Anthus ; but
Edwards's bird is a Pipit ; and, although his figure is incorrect,
and coloured too red, is very difficult to be distinguished from
Anthus pratensis. It is possible that we may have this Anthus ;
but the Red Lark of INIontagu is clearly quite different, and
probably a variety of the Sky Lark.

202

MOTACILLINJE.

WAGTAILS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The family of Motacillinae, which on the one hand is very
intimately connected with the Alaudinse, and on the other with
the Saxicolinae, is composed of the genera Budytes, Motacilla,
Enicurns, and Lessonia. In Britain there are representatives
of the first two of these genera.

The bill is of moderate length, straight, slender, rather
broader than high at the base, compressed beyond the nostrils ;
the upper mandible has its dorsal outline straight and a little
declinate, towards the end slightly convex, the tip slightly de-
flected, narrow, with the notches slight or obsolete, the edges
slightly inflected and overlapping towards the end ; the lower
mandible has the angle rather long and narrow, the dorsal out-
line ascending and nearly straight, the edges sharp and in-
flected, the tip acute ; the gape-line straight. Both mandibles
are concave and narrow within, with a median prominent line.
The tongue is very slender, emarginate, and finely papillate at
the base, flat, and tapering to a slit point. The cesophagus is
of uniform diameter without dilatation ; the proventriculus
with simple oblong glandules ; the stomach a gizzard of con-
siderable power, roundish or elliptical, compressed, its lateral
muscles distinct, and the tendons rather large, but not radiated;
its cuticular lining thin, with large longitudinal rugae. The in-
testine is short, and of moderate width ; the coeca very small
and cylindrical. See Plate XIII, Fig. 5.

The nostrils are elliptical or oblong, in the lower and fore
part of the nasal depression, which is feathered at the base.
The eyes are of moderate size ; the external aperture of the
ear large and transversely oval.

The general form is slender ; the head oblong, the neck
rather short. The feet of ordinary length, slender ; the tarsus

WAGTAILS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

203

much compressed, anteriorly covered with eight scutella, sharp
behind. The toes moderate or short, much compressed, the
outer slightly united at the base ; the claws generally of mo-
derate length, curved, and rather stout, but in Budytes long,
little curved, and extremely compressed.

The plumage is soft and blended ; the feathers ovate, of loose
texture, with a long slender plumule. The wings are rather
long, broad, of eighteen quills, the first being obsolete, the next
three nearly equal and longest; the secondaries very long,
emarginate, excepting the inner three, which are tapering, and
of which one is so elongated as nearly or entirely to equal the

longest primaries. The tail, of twelve narrow feathers, is always
long, in some double the length of the body, and more or less
rounded or graduated, although sometimes also emarginate.

The skeleton is of very delicate structure, the flat bones being
so thin as to be transparent ; but it does not differ in any essen-
tial respect from that of the Alaudinae, Turdinse, and Saxico-
linse.

The Motacillinas reside in open jDastures and meadows, fre-
quent the sides of streams and lakes, run with great celerity,
and have a remarkable habit of almost constantly vibrating
their body and especially the tail. Their flight is rapid and
undulatory, buoyant and graceful in the highest degree ; their
voice shrill, and their musical powers of a very inferior order,
most of them being destitute of song.

The Budytae have feet like those of the Pipits, and their bill
is very similar, so that the ISIotacillinre are closely connected
with the Alaudinse, from which, however, they are distin-
guished by being of a more slender form, , by having the bill

204 MOTACILLINiE.

straighter and more attenuated, the claws shorter, and the tail
much more elongated. The bill and feet of the Motacill^ re-
semble those of the Saxicolae, from which they differ in the
elongation of the tail ; and in Enicurus, the bill in some mea-
sure resembles that of the Flycatchers, although the feet are
much larger than those of that group.

The plumage of the Motacillinas is changed in the warm
season ; but in the Motacillae an additional partial alteration
takes place in spring, by which the colours of the fore part of
the neck are altered.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. BUDYTES. QUAKETAIL.

Bill of moderate length, slender, straight, a little broader
than high at the base, compressed towards the end, its upper
outline slightly declinate, at the end very slightly declinato-
arcuate ; the tip acute, with an obscure notch ; toes of mode-
rate length, much compressed ; hind claw elongated, slender,
tapering, extremely compressed, little arched ; wings long,
broad, the first primary wanting, the next three longest, one
of the inner secondaries as long when the wing is closed ; tail
long, straight, slender, rounded at the end.

1. Budytes flava. Blue-headed Quaketail. Male with the
head and hind-neck greyish-blue ; a white band over the eye ;
the upper parts yellowish-green, the lower bright yellow. Fe-
male similar, but with the head brownish-grey, the lower parts
paler, the throat white.

2. Budytes Eayi. Green-headed Quaketail. Male with the
head greenish-yellow ; part of the forehead, a streak over the
eye, the cheeks, and lower parts bright yellow ; the upper parts
pale greenish-yellow tinged with brown. Female similar, but
with the head yellowish-green, and the lower parts paler.
Young light brownish-grey above, the lower parts cream-
coloured, with an obscure dusky crescent on the fore -neck.

WAGTAILS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 205

GENUS II. MOTACILLA. WAGTAIL.

Bill of moderate length, slender, straight, a little broader
than high at the base, compressed towards the end, its upper
outline slightly declinate at the base, then straight, and at the
end very slightly declinato-arcuate ; the tip acute, with an ob-
scure notch ; toes rather short, moderately compressed ; hind
claw of moderate length, stout, compressed, much arched ;
wings long, broad, the first primary wanting, the next three
longest, one of the inner secondaries as long ; tail very long,
straight, slender, rounded at the end.

1. Motacilla alba. Grey-and-white Wagtail. ]\fale in win-
ter with the upper parts light grey, the head, nape, and upper
tail-coverts black ; the forehead, sides of the head, throat,
lower parts, and two bands on the wing, white ; a black crescent
on the fore-neck. Female similar, but with the black less ex-
tended on the nape, and the crescent on the fore-neck grey.
Male in summer with the whole fore-neck glossy black. Fe-
male similar, with the fore-neck greyish black. Young grey
above, greyish-white beneath, the fore-neck mottled with grey.

2. Motacilla YarrelU. Pied Wagtail. Male in winter with
the upper parts and a crescent on the fore- neck, black, the
middle of the back greyish ; the forehead, sides of the head,
throat, lower parts, and two bands on the wing, white. Female
similar, with more grey on the back. Male in summer with
the whole fore-neck and back glossy black. Female similar,
with the black less deep, and more grey on the back. Young
grey above, greyish-white beneath, the fore-neck mottled with
dusky.

8. Motacilla Boarula. Grey-and-yellow Wagtail. Male in
winter with the head and back bluish-grey tinged with green,
the rump greenish-yellow, the throat greyish-white, the lower
parts bright yellow. Female similar, but somewhat paler.
Male in summer with a black patch on the throat, laterally
edged with white bands. Female similar, but paler, with the
throat greyish-black. Young like the female, with a dusky
crescent on the fore-neck.

206

BUDYTES. QUAKETAIL.

Bill of moderate length, slender, straight, broader than high
at the base, compressed towards the end ; upper mandible with
the dorsal outline slightly declinate at the base, very slightly
declinato-arcuate towards the end, the ridge narrow at the base,
the nasal depression being rather large, the sides toward the end
convex and incurved, the edges slightly inflected and overlap-
ping, soft and rounded at the base, sharp in the rest of their ex-
tent, with a very slight notch close to the tip, which is slightly
declinate, narrow, and rounded; lower mandible with the angle
of moderate length, narrow, and obtuse, the dorsal outline
slightly ascending, straight, the back flattened at the base, nar-
row in the rest of its extent, the sides erect and convex, the
edges slightly inclinate and sharp ; the gape-line straight, a
little deflected at the base.

The upper mandible is narrow and concave within, with a
median prominent line ; the palate flat, with two prominent
ridges ; the posterior aperture of the nares oblongo-linear, and
margined with small pointed papillae. The lower mandible is
very narrow and concave, with a median prominent line. The
tongue is very slender, sagittate and papillate at the base, ta-
pering to a slit point. The oesophagus is of moderate width,
without crop or dilatation ; the proventriculus oblong, with
oblong glandules. The stomach is a gizzard of considerable
power, oblong, compressed ; its muscular coat thick, its lateral
muscles distinct, the tendons large ; the inner coat of moderate
thickness and nearly smooth. The intestine is short, of mode-
rate width ; the coeca very small and cylindrical ; the rectum
very short, with an oblong dilatation.

Nostrils direct, perforate, small, elliptical, in the fore part of
the nasal depression, which is rather large and feathered, un-
less in its anterior portion. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids
feathered, with a narrow, bare, crenate margin. External
aperture of the ear large, elliptical.

BUDYTES. QUAKETAIL. 207

The general form is slender, the body ovate, the neck rather
short, the head ovato-oblong, small, and narrow. The feet of
ordinary length, slender ; the tarsus much compressed, ante-
riorly covered with eight scutella, sharp behind. Toes of
moderate length, much compressed ; the first large, narrow be-
neath ; the second and fourth about equal ; the third much
longer, and united to the fourth as far as the second joint.
Claws long, laterally channelled, extremely compressed, slightly
arched, that of the hind toe very long. Fig. 149.

Plumage soft and blended ; the feathers oblong or ovate,
rounded, with the barbs loose at the end ; bristle-feathers at
the base of the upper mandible extremely small. The wings
are long, broad, and rather pointed, of eighteen quills, of which
nine are primary, the first three nearly equal and longest ; one
of the inner secondaries as long, when the wing is closed. Tail
long, slender, rounded, of twelve narrow, weak feathers.

The Quaketails form the transition from the Pipits to the
Wagtails, but are more allied to the latter, from which indeed
they differ only in having the tail shorter, and the claws less
arched and longer, that of the hind toe especially being much
elongated. In the form of their wings they resemble the Pipits
and Larks, which pass into the Lark Buntings and Buntings,
as well as the Wagtails, which lead to the Saxicolae.

These birds feed upon insects and larva?, frequent open j^as-
tures, ploughed fields, and moist meadovv^s, run with great
celerity, often jDursue insects on wing, sometimes on plants,
and fly with rapidity in beautiful curves. On settling, they
vibrate and expand their tail, like the birds of the next genus ;
their notes are shrill and frequently repeated, but they are desti-
tute of song. They nestle among the herbage or in stony places.
Two species occur in this country, both migratory, one pretty
common and generally distributed, the other very rare.

208

BUDYTES FLAVA. BLUE-HEADED QUAKETAIL.

YELLOW WAGTAIL. BLUK-HEADED WAGTAIL.

\'7^.^^ % ^^

Motacilla flava. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 331.

Eergeronette piintaniere. Motacilla flava. Temni. Man. d'Orn. I. 260 ;

Supp. 181.
Motacilla negJecta. Blue-beaded Wagtail. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 116.

Male with the head, hind-neck and ear-coterts greyish-hlue ;
a ti'hite band over the eye ; the upper parts yellowish green, the
lower bright yellow, the two lateral tail-feathers on each side par-
tially white. Female similar, but tcitli the head brownish-grey,
the upper paints tinged with greyish-brown, and the throat ichite.
Young light brownish-grey above, the wings and tail dusky, the
lateral feathers of the latter as in the adult, the lotcer parts yel-
lowish-white, tcith an obscure dusky crescent on the fore -neck.

Male. — The Blue-headed Quaketail is in form, proportions,
and plumage precisely similar to the Green-headed, from which
however it differs in the colour of the head. The bill is slender,
straight, tapering, the tip of the upper mandible slightly de-
flected; its dorsal outline straight, the sides convex, the edges
sharp and a little inflected, with a slight notch, the lower man-
dible with the angle rather long and narrow, the dorsal line
ascending and nearly straight, the edges sharj) and inclinate ;
the gape-line straight. The nostrils elliptical, one twelfth of

BLUE-HEADED QUAKETAIL. 209

an inch long. The feet slender ; the tarsus much compressed,
the upper scutella indistinct ; the toes slender and much com-
pressed, the lateral toes ahout equal, the middle toe with its
claw a little shorter than the hind toe and its claw, which latter
is a little longer than the first joint, tapering, much compressed,
and slightly curved.

The plumage is sojft and blended, the feathers ovate and
rounded ; the bristle-feathers at the base of the bill very small.
The wings are rather long ; the primaries nine, the secondaries
nine ; the first quill is thus wanting, the first and second are
about equal, the third a little shorter ; the inner primaries
and outer secondaries eniarginate, the inner three tapering,
and one of them as long when the wing is bent as the outer
primaries. The tail is very long and slightly rounded.

The bill is black, the feet brownish-black. The upper part
of the head, the hind-neck, the loral space, and the ear-coverts
are greyish-blue ; a white band extends from the bill over the
eye and ear ; the rest of the upper parts are yellowish-green,
tinged with brown, the central part of each feather being of the
latter colour, the rump greenish-yellow. The wing-coverts and
quills are dusky brown, all margined with yellowish-white,
the inner secondaries with broad edges ; the first row of small
coverts and the secondary coverts largely tipped with the same.
The tail and its coverts blackish-brown, the middle feathers
edged with greenish-yellow ; the two outer on each side white,
excepting an oblique band, including part of the outer web at
the base, and the greater portion of the inner web, extending to
half an inch from the end. The lower parts are bright yellow ;
but a small portion of the throat and a band on each side of the
neck are white.

Length to end of tail 6^ inches ; bill along the ridge f | ;
along the edge of the lower mandible /^ '•> wing from flexure
3/2 ; tail 2i§ ; tarsus \%^ ; first toe || ; its claw {'^ ; middle
toe y'% ; its claw j%.

Female, — The bill and feet are brownish-black ; the yellow
of the lower parts is paler, and on the throat and neck fades
into yellowish- white ; there are some brown feathers on the

VOL. ir. P

210 BUDYTES l^LAVA.

lower part of the fore-neck ; the head and hind-neck are of a
duller grey, and the rest of the upper parts more tinged with
greyish-brown.

Length to end of tail 6j inches ; bill along the ridge f | ;
wing from flexure Sj% ; tail 2{^ ; tarsus ^^^ ; hind toe f|,
its claw /g.

Habits. — This species is said to be generally distributed over
the continent, and to frequent the margins of lakes and rivers,
as well as meadows, where it searches for insects and larvse, on
which it exclusively feeds. I am not aware of its having been
found in Scotland, being of opinion that the individuals men-
tioned as having occurred there belonged to the next species,
but of which the feathers of the head appeared greyish-brown,
owing to the abrasion of their yellowish margins. It was
first distinguished from that species by Mr Gould, who gave
it the name of Motacilla neglecta, but who subsequently found
it to be the common Yellow Wagtail of the Continent, and
therefore, probably the 31. flava of Linn?eus. In summer it
is said to extend its migration to Sweden, Norway, and Lap-
land ; and it is stated to occur in Japan and Northern India,
from which latter country there is a specimen in my collection,
and another in the museum of the University of Edinburgh.
The habits of this species have not been minutely detailed by
authors, and I have had no opportunities of seeing it alive, the
descriptions here given being taken from French specimens ;
but it is said to resemble the next in this respect as well as in
its nidification, its eggs, five or six in number, being scarcely
distinguishable from those of that bird.

Variations. — I have seen a pure white individual. The
lateral tail-feathers vary in the proportion of white, as in the
other species. Sometimes the outer quill is longest, and some-
times the next.

Changes. — Toward autumn the yellowish tints of the upper
parts disappear, the plumage becoming greyish-brown, and the
lower parts are almost white. A specimen in which the moult

BLUE-HEADED QUAKETAIL. 211

is just commencing, has all the upper parts light greyish-brown,
with scarcely the least tinge of yellow ; the lower parts dull
white, with only a patch of yellow on the fore-neck, and an-
other on the abdomen. This individual shews that greyish-
brown and white are the colours, when the feathers have been
worn, and their tints faded. A Scottish female of the next
sjoecies in this state, can scarcely be distinguished. When the
moult is completed, however, the feathers are margined with
greenish-yellow, and the quills and their coverts, together with
the first row of small coverts are conspicuously edged with
yellowish- white, the lower parts bright yellow.

Remarks. — The differences between this and the next
species are so slight that some suspicion of their identity
might be entertained. It is impossible to distinguish the fe-
males in some states, and I have shot individuals of the latter
in which the head was nearly bluish-grey, and the line over
the eye almost white. Yet it does not appear that specimens
of it have been met with having the upper part of the head
and neck of that pure leaden grey seen in continental specimens
of the present species.

Mr Yarrell states that " the first British specimen of this
bird, obtained in October 1834 on Walton Cliffs, near Colchester,
was shot by Mr Henry Doubleday." It is mentioned in the
first volume of the Magazine of Zoology and Botany, that " an
adult male was killed by Mr Hoy in the parish of Stoke Nay-
land (erroneously printed Maryland), Suffolk, on the 2d of May
1836 ;" and that another " male was shot a little west of New-
castle on the 1st" of the same month. Another " fine male in
his full summer dress was taken in April 1837 near Finsbury,
a short distance north-east of London," and is represented in
Mr Yarreirs History of British Birds.

212

BUDYTES RAYI. THE GREEN-HEADED
QUAKETAIL.

YELLOW WAGTAIL. SPRING WAGTAIL. SUMMER WAGTAIL.
OAT-SEED BIRD.

Yellow Wagtail, Mont. Orn. Diet, and Suppl.

Bergeronette flav^ole. Motacilla flaveola. Temm. Man. d'Orn. III. 183.

Yellow Wagtail. Motacilla flava. Selb. Illustr. I. 255.

Motacilla flava. Yellow Wagtail. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 115.

Male inth the head greenish-yellow^ the cheeks and loicer parts
bright yellow^ the hack pale greenish-hroiim^ the two lateral tail-
feathers on each side partially white. Female similar., hut with
the head yellowish-green.^ and the lower parts paler. Young light
hrownish-grey ahote., the wings and tail dusky, the lateral feathers
of the latter as in the adult, the lower parts cream-coloured, with
an obscure dusly acescent on the fore neck.

Male. — This species resembles the preceding in form, having
the body equally slender, the neck rather short, the head small,
elongated, and compressed, the wings rather long, the tail
elongated, and the colours very similar, with the exception of
those of the head. As tine species has not come under my
observation in its winter plumage, I must confine my de-
scription to the state in which it presents itself to us in
summer.

GREEN-HEADED QUAKETAIL. 213

The bill is slender, straight, tapering, the tip of the upper
mandible scarcely deflected ; its dorsal outline straight, the
sides convex, the edges sharp, and a little inflected, with a
slight notch, the ridge obtuse but narrow ; the lower mandible
with the angle nearer the base than the end, narrow and round-
ed, the dorsal line ascending and nearly straight, the edges
sharp and slightly inclinate ; the gape-line straight. Both
mandibles are very narrow and concave within, with a me-
dian prominent line ; the palate flat, with two ridges ; the
tongue emarginate and papillate at the base, very slender, taper-
ing to a slit and slightly lacerated point, and fouf-twelfths and
a half in length. The oesophagus is two inches long, two and
a half twelfths in width ; the stomach six-twelfths in length,
five-twelfths in breadth, moderately muscular, with a longitu-
dinally rugous epithelium ; the intestine seven inches long, its
duodenal portion two-twelfths in diameter, the cfeca a twelfth
and a half in length, and an inch distant from the extremity.

The nasal depression is rather large, the nostrils elliptical,
one-twelfth long. The aperture of the eyes is two-twelfths in
diameter, that of the ear three-twelfths. The feet are slender,
the tarsus much compressed, the scutella indistinct unless at its
lower part ; the toes slender and much compressed, the lateral
toes about equal, the middle toe with its claw a little shorter
than the hind toe and claw.

The plumage is soft and blended, the feathers ovate and
rounded, those on the back somewhat distinct. The bristle-
feathers at the base of the bill are very' small. The wings are
rather long ; the primaries nine, the secondaries nine ; the
second quill longest, the first scarcely shorter ; the inner pri-
maries and outer secondaries emarginate, and one of the latter
elongated as in the other species. The tail very long and
slightly rounded, its feathers narrow.

The bill and feet are black ; the irides brown. The lower
parts are rich chrome yellow. The fore part of the head, a
line over the eyes, and the cheeks, bright yellow ; the rest of the
head and the hind-neck are yellow tinged with greyish-green.
The back is pale greenish-brown, the central parts of the fea-
thers being brown, their loose margins yellowish-green. The

214 BUDYTES RAYl.

quills and coverts are dusky-brown edged with whitish, the
inner secondaries with yellowish-white ; the first row of small
coverts largely tipped with pale yellow. The tail is also dusky,
the middle feathers edged with greenish-yellow, but the two
outer on each side are chiefly white, that colour being disposed
so as to include nearly the whole of the outer web and shaft,
and the distal half of the inner web.

Length to end of tail 6f inches ; extent of wings lOi ; bill
along the back j%, along the edge of lower mandible ^% ; tar-
sus ^§ ; first toe 85 twelfths, its claw ^% ; second toe ^%, its
claw j% ; third toe ^"<j, its claw -^^ ; fourth toe j%, its claw j% ;
wing from flexure 3x1^ ; tail 2|f .

Female. — The bill and feet are brownish-black ; the yellow
of the lower parts is paler, and on the neck and throat fades
into greyish-white ; the line over the eye is yellowish-white ;
the upper part of the head and the back are light greyish-brown
tinged with green, and the rump is green as in the male.
Tongue four and three twelfths long ; oesophagus two inches
long, its diameter two and a half twelfths. Stomach six
twelfths long ; intestine seven inches and two-twelfths long ;
its diameter two-twelfths ; coeca a twelfth and a half long, and
one inch distant from the extremity.

Length to end of tail 6f inches ; extent of wings 10.

Habits. — In the beginning of July 1831, during a continu-
ance of hot and dry weather, I found a considerable number of
Wagtails collected about a pool near Inverleith, the stream
that flowed from which was bordered by willows. Among
them were several individuals of the present species, which, as
well as the others, readily perched on the trees and bushes
when disturbed, and occasionally pursued insects on wing, in
the manner of Flycatchers. I shot a young bird of which the
plumage was scarcely complete, and of which I made a draw-
ing. This was the first time that I had an opportunity of see-
ing the Yellow-headed Quaketail alive.

One evening in July 1834, while looking for birds in the
meadows to the west of Edinburgh, my notice was attracted by

GREEN-HEADED QUAKETAIL, 215

great numbers of Wagtails which were scattered about. These
meadows are artificially irrigated with water from the town,
impregnated with putrescent matter, and produce abundant
crops of grass, which are cut down every now and then as green
food for cattle. Phleum pratense, Poa trivialis, Glyceria
fluitans, and other species form the valuable part of their pro-
duce ; but these plants are intermixed with Caltha palustris,
Lychnis Flos-cuculi, Rumex obtusifolius, and a variety of less
remarkable weeds. On the stems of the docks I observed
several small birds w^hich engaged my attention by the pecu-
liarity of their motions, although on watching them attentively
I supposed them not unlike those of the Grey Wagtail. That
bird however I had never seen in flocks in such a place ; nor
had I previously observed Wagtails searching for insects on
the stems and among the leaves of plants. So I shot several
specimens, and finding them different from any that I remem-
bered to have examined, was not a little pleased to think that
I had fallen upon something rare. On comparing them with
the descriptions in M. Temminck's manual, I found nothing
there that agreed precisely with them, although with the ex-
ception of the " Tete et nuque d'un cendre bleuatre tres pur*"
of his Motacilla flava, all the particulars of his characters of
that bird corresj)onded sufficiently with mine. Having made a
drawing of them, and noted their characters, I allowed the mat-
ter to remain undecided; but afterwards, hearing of Mr Gould's
observations, supposed that I had found his Motacilla neglecta.
I believe several hundreds of them, old and young, were col-
lected in these meadows, and busily employed in picking up
the insects that abounded there. Their flight was performed in
long undulations, like that of the Grey Wagtail, and they sel-
dom shifted from place to place by short starts. In alighting
they spread or rather jerked out their tail, so as to render con-
spicuous the white colour of the lateral feathers. They seemed
to prefer the large leafy plants, such as the docks ; but they
also settled in places where the grass had been recently mown,
and there ran about precisely in the same manner as the Wag-
tails. They remained in the meadows for several days, and
then disappeared.

216 BUDYTES RAYI.^

In so far as I have observed, there is nothing in the habits
of this species diifering from those of the Wagtails properly so
called, excepting its being more addicted to searching for in-
sects upon plants. For some time after its arrival in the end
of spring, it keeps in the pastures and ploughed fields, where it
runs about with great celerity, vibrating its body, and at in-
tervals expanding its tail, as it searches for insects, after
which it now and then makes short excursions on wing. I
have not met with it in the northern parts of Scotland ; but
about Edinburgh it is not very rare during the summer. In
England, according to authors it is pretty generally distributed.
Montagu states that it arrives there about the time when the
Pied Wagtail takes its departure for the north. In Scotland
it disappears about the middle of August, and in the south of
England towards the end of September. It is a very remark-
able circumstance that this species has hitherto been very seldom
observed on any part of the continent ; and that although de-
scribed by Willughby, Ray, Montagu, Mr Selby, and others,
under the name of Motacilla flava, the Yellow Wagtail, it was
considered as identical with the INIotacilla flava of Linna:?us,
Temminck, and other continental authors, which however they
have characterized as having the head grey or ash-coloured,
until JNIr Gould recently pointed out the differences between it
and the other species.

According to Montagu, " It frequents arable land, especially
in the more champaign parts, sometimes uncultivated ground
interspersed with furze ; is also partial to bean fields : in all
such places it breeds, and does not seem to regard water so
much as either the other species. The nest is always placed
on the ground, composed of dried stalks and fibres, lined with
hair. The eggs are four or five in number, not very unlike
those of the Sedge Warbler, of a pale brown, sprinkled all
over with a darker shade, in some very obscurely, weighing
about twenty-seven grains."

Young. — The young when just fledged have the bill and feet
light brown, the irides dusky ; the upper parts light yellowish-
brown ; the quills and wing-coverts blackish-brown, edged and

GREEN-HEADED QUAKETAIL. 217

tipped with ochre-yellow ; the tail-feathers similar, except the
two lateral on each side, which are as in the adult ; the sides
of the head and the lower parts brownish-white tinged with
yellow, or cream-coloured ; a dusky hand over the eye ; the
ear-coverts tinged with brown ; a band of dusky spots down
each side of the neck to the fore part of the breast, where the
two bands meet ; the tibial feathers ochre-yellow, indistinctly
spotted with dusky.

When they are completely fledged, and have been abroad for
some time, they are as follows. The bill light dusky, its mar-
gins and the base of the lower mandible pale grey tinged with
red. The feet are of a leaden tint, the under part of the toes
of a dingy yellow ; the claws light brown. The general colour
of the upper parts is light brownish-grey, the rump pale yel-
lowish-brown ; the wings and tail dusky, much darker than in
the adult, the feathers largely edged with cream-colour, the
larger and smaller coverts conspicuously tipped with the same.
The two lateral tail-feathers on each side as in the adult, the
next with a small margin of white, and all the rest in some de-
gree edged with the same. There is a cream-coloured line over
the eye, and above it a dusky band. The lower parts are cream-
coloured, the neck tinged with red, the hind parts with yellow ;
and on the fore-neck is an obscure narrow gorgelet of dusky
spots.

Remarks. — This and the preceding species are intimately
allied to the Pipits, in the form of the bill and feet, the hind
claw being considerably elongated, and in their general form,
motions, mode of flight, and manners. Nothing can exceed the
elegance of the flight of the present species, which is performed
in long and graceful undulations. Its notes also have a consider-
able resemblance to those of the Pipits. At the same time, I
conceive that there is no very substantial reason for separating
it and the Grey-headed species generically from the Wagtails.

218

MOTACILLA. WAGTAIL.

Bill of moderate length, slender, straight, broader than high
at the base, compressed towards the end ; upper mandible with
the dorsal outline slightly declinate at the base, very slightly
declinato-arcuate towards the end, the ridge narrow at the base,
the nasal depression being large, the sides towards the end con-
vex and incurved, the edges slightly inflected and overlapping,
soft and rounded at the base, sharp in the rest of their extent,
with an obscure notch close to the tip, which is slightly decli-
nate, narrow, and rounded ; lower mandible with the angle of
moderate length, narrow, and obtuse, the dorsal outline slightly
ascending, straight, the back flattened at the base, narrow and
convex in the rest of its extent, the sides erect, and slightly
convex, the edges slightly inclinate and sharp ; the gape-line
straight, a little deflected at the base.

The u])per mandible is concave and narrow within, with a
central prominent line ; the palate flat, with two prominent
ridges ; the posterior aperture of the nares oblongo-linear, and
edged with small pointed papilla?. The lower mandible is very
narrow, and concave, with a median prominent line. The
tongue is very slender, sagittate at the base, and finely papil-
late, tapering to a slit point. The oesophagus is of moderate
width, nearly equal throughout, without crop or remarkable
dilatation ; the proventriculus oblong, with oblong glandules.
The stomach is a gizzard of considerable power, oblong, com-
pressed ; its muscular coat thick, its muscles distinct, the ten-
dons large ; the inner coat of moderate thickness, and inter-
nally smooth. Intestine short, thin, of moderate width ; the
cooca very small and cylindrical ; the rectum very short, with
an oblong dilatation. Plate XIII, Fig. 5.

Nostrils direct, perforate, small, elliptical, in the lower and
fore part of the nasal depression, Avhich is large, and feathered.

MOTACILLA. WAGTAIL. 219

except in its anterior portion. Eyes of moderate size ; eyelids
feathered, with a narrow, bare, crenate margin. External aper-
ture of the ear large, transversely OA'al.

The general form is remarkably slender, the body ovate, the
neck of moderate length, the head ovato-oblong, small, and nar-
row. The feet of ordinary length, slender ; the tarsus much
compressed, anteriorly covered with seven scutella, sharp be-
hind. Toes of moderate length, much compressed ; the first
large, narrow beneath ; the second and fourth about equal ; the
third much longer, united to the fourth as far as the second
joint. Claws rather long, arched, laterally channelled, extreme-
ly compressed, tapering to a fine point, laterally grooved, that
of the hind toe much longer.

Plumage soft, blended ; the feathers oblong, rounded, with
loose barbs, and slender plumules consisting of a few long fila-
ments. The frontal feathers encroach on the nasal membrane,
and are very short and roundish. No bristle feathers along the
base of the upper mandible in adult birds, although in young
individuals they exist, but are very small. The wings are
long, broad, and rather pointed, of eighteen quills, of which
nine are primary, the first three nearly equal and longest ; the
secondaries very long, one of them nearly as long as the outer
primaries when the wing is closed ; the inner primaries and
outer secondaries emarginate. Tail very long, straight, slender,
rounded, of twelve narrow, weak feathers.

The Wagtails are very intimately allied to the Pipits, from
which they diifer chiefly in having the tail much more elon-
gated, and the claws shorter, wdiile at the same time the colours
of their plumage are more beautiful, and disposed in uniform
masses. Their bill is almost precisely similar to that of the
Saxicolse and Sylviae, and is scarcely distinguishable from that
of the Antlii.

The birds of this and the preceding genus are remarkable for
their peculiarly slender and elegant form, and for the vibratory
motion which their body exhibits while they are standing or
walking. In this respect they resemble the Pipits and Totani, as
well as some other genera, but their tail being so much more
elongated, the motion in question is more observable in them

220 MOTACILLA. WAGTAIL.

than in any other group ; whence their popular and generic
names. They feed upon insects, pupte, and larvae, frequent
moist meadows, watery places in general, and especially the
muddy margins of streams and lakes. While searching for food
they w^alk with alternate steps, often run with great celerity,
and occasionally pursue an insect on wing. Their flight is rapid,
performed in beautiful, strongly marked curves, and affording
a most typical example of the undulatory variety. On settling,
they vibrate as if on a pivot, spread out and contract their tail,
keeping it considerably inclined upwards. Their notes are short,
shrill, rather weak, and frequently repeated. They nestle among
the herbage near water, or among stones, form a rather bulky
nest of slender stalks and blades of grass, lining it with hair,
and deposit from four to six spotted eggs.

They moult in autumn like the other genera of this family ;
and in spring undergo a partial change of plumage, the feathers
of the head, neck, and body being renewed then, and partially
altered in colour. Three species are met with in this country :
the Grey-and- White Wagtail, the Pied or Black-and-white
Wagtail, and the Grey-and-yellow Wagtail.

221

MOTACILLA ALBA. THE GREY-AND-WHITE
WAGTAIL.

GREY WAGTAIL. CINEREOUS WAGTAIL.

Motacilla alba. Linn. Syst. Nat- I. 3.31.

La Lavandiere. Motacilla. Briss, Ornith. IIL 461-

Motacilla alba. Gmel. Syst. Nat. I. 960.

Motacilla alba. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 501.

Motacilla cinerea. Gmel. Syst. Nat. I. 961.

Motacilla cinerea. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 502.

Cinereous Wagtail. Motacilla cinerea, Steph. Shaw's Zool. X. 550.

Bergeronette grise. Motacilla alba. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 255.

Male in winter with the forehead, sides of the head, throat and
lower parts lohite ; a hlack crescent on the fore-neck ; the head,
nape, and upper tail-coverts hlack ; the back and sides ash-gret/ ;
wing-coverts blackish, the larger margined and tipped with white ;
quills greyish-black, edged with ichite ; tail black, the two lateral
feathers white, excepting part of their inner webs. Female simi-
lar, but with the black less extended on the nape, the wing -coverts
and crescent on the fore-neck dusky -grey.

Male in summer, icith the ichole fore-neck black, the upper
parts of a darker grey . Female similar, but icith the fore -neck
greyish-black.

Young light grey above, greyish-ichite beneath, with a grey
crescent on the fore-neck.

Male. — The Grey-and-white Wagtail, which is generally
distributed on the continent, was described by INIr Stephens,
in 1817, as different from our common Black-and-white Wag-
tail ; but the Motacilla cinerea of Gmelin and Latham, to
which he refers as a compiler, was usually considered as the
young of the former bird, and the continental Grey-backed
Wagtail was by the ornithologists of this country confounded
with the Pied Wagtail, until the two species were clearly

222 MOTACILLA ALBA.

distinguished from each other by Mr Gould, to whose ahnost
unriA^alled exertions the science is so much indebted. In form
and proportions, the two species are ahiiost exactly alike, the
only difference being that the present Wagtail is rather smaller.
Its bill is rather short, slender, straight, tapering, compressed
towards the end, and rather sharp-pointed ; the gape-line
nearly straight ; the upper outline declinate, and straight,
until near the end, when it becomes slightly curved downwards ;
the lower outline ascending, and nearly straight, the edges in-
flected. The nostrils are elliptical, one twelfth of an inch
long. The feet are of moderate length ; the tarsus slender,
much compressed, its upper scutella blended ; the first toe with
eight, the second with nine, the third thirteen, the fourth
twelve scutella. The claws are of moderate length, rather
slender, extremely compressed, laterally grooved, moderately
arched, tapering to a fine point, but in old birds often blunted.

The plumage is soft and blended. The wings are rather
long, the primary quills nine, the first scarcely longer than the
third, and only half a twelfth shorter than the second ; the
first five rounded, the rest emarginate ; the secondaries nine,
the first five emarginate, the sixth elongated and tapering, so as
to extend as far as the outer primaries when the wing is closed,
the rest graduated and tapering to a rounded point. The tail
is very long, rounded at the end, the feathers nearly straight,
and narrow.

The bill and feet are deep black. The upper part of the
head and a portion of the nape are black, as are the upper tail-
coverts and some of the feathers in their vicinity ; the back
light ash-grey ; a broad band on the forehead, the sides of the
head, and all the lower parts white, excepting the sides, which
are grey, and a crescent of black on the fore-neck. The wings
are brownish-black, the first row of smaller coverts largely
tipped with white ; the secondary coverts broadly margined
and tipped with the same ; all the quills more or less edged
with white, the inner secondaries more broadly. The tail is
black, excepting the two outer feathers on each side, which
are white, with a black stripe along the inner margin, and a
small portion at the base also black.

GREY-AND -WHITE WAGTAIL. 223

Length to end of tail 71 inches ; bill along the ridge ^\, along
the edge of lower mandible |i ; wing from flexure 3 /^ ; tail 3g ;
tarsus {h ; first toe j^^, its claw || ; third toe j%, its claw ^%.

Female. — The female differs from the male in having less
black on the head, the wing-coverts grey, the quills and tail-
feathers tinged with brown, and the crescent on the fore-neck
dusky-grey.

Variations. — Individuals at this season vary a little in their
tints. Some have been seen entirely white, or variegated with
that colour.

Changes of Plumage. — The partial change which takes place
in spring fills up the space intervening between the crescent on
the fore-neck and the bill with deep black. A similar change
is produced in the female, of which however the fore-neck is
of a less deep tint.

Habits. — The above descriptions are taken from individuals
obtained from the continent, where it appears to be generally
distributed, while the next species, so common with us, is rarely
met with, and that only in the north-western parts. Our com-
mon Black-and-white or Pied Wagtail was always considered
to be the same as the Bergeronette grise or Motacilla alba of
continental ornithologists until the differences between the two
species were pointed out in the following terms by Mr Gould
in the Magazine of Natural History, Vol. I., N. S., p. 459.
" While engaged upon this tribe of birds during the course of
my work on the Birds of Burope, I was equally surprised to
find that the sprightly and pied wagtail, so abundant in our
islands at all seasons, could not be referred to any described
species, and that it was equally as limited in its habitat ; for,
besides the British islands, Norway and Sweden are the only
parts of Europe whence I have been able to procure examples
identical with our bird, whose place in the temperate portions
of Europe is supplied by a nearly allied, but distinct species,
the tnie M. alba of Linnaeus ; which, although abundant in

224 MOTACILLA ALBA.

France, particularly in the neighbourhood of Calais, has never
yet been discovered on the opposite shores of Kent, or in any
part of England. As, therefore, our bird, which has always
been considered as identical with the M. alba, proves to be a
distinct species, I have named it after my friend W. Yarrell,
Esq., as a just tribute to his varied talents as a naturalist.

" The characters by which these two species may be readily
distinguished are as follows : — The pied wagtail of England
(M. Yarrelli) is somewhat more robust in form, and in its
full summer dress has the whole of the head, chest, and back,
of a full deep jet black ; wdiile in the INI. alba, at the same
period, the throat and head alone are of this colour, the back
and the rest of the upper surface being of a light ash-grey. In
winter the two species more nearly assimilate in their colour-
ing, and this circumstance has, doubtless, been the cause of their
hitherto being considered as identical ; the black back of M.
Yarrelli being grey at this season, although never so light as
in M. alba. An additional evidence of their being distinct (but
which has, doubtless, contributed to the confusion) is, that the
female of M. Yarrelli never has the back black, as in the male ;
this part, even in summer, being dark grey, in which respect it
closely resembles the other species."

Individuals of this sj)ecies I have several times met with in the
south of Scotland. At least I am unable to distinguish them
from undoubted French individuals. Its habits, as described
by continental authors, seem to be precisely similar to those of
M. Yarrelli. It is said to extend its migrations to the extreme
north, to feed on insects and larvae, which it procures in moist
pastures, by the margins of pools and running waters, as well
as in the streets of villages and towns, and even on the roofs
of buildings, and to nestle in meadows, in the crevices of rocks,
in holes of trees, or in walls, laying five or six eggs of a greyish-
white colour, freckled with dusky.

Young. — The young have the bill and feet reddish-brown,
the lower parts greyish-white ; on the breast a greyish-brown
or grey crescent ; all the upper parts light brownish-grey, ex-
cepting the wings and tail, which are brownish-black, the latter
with the outer feathers as in the adult.

225

MOTACILLA YARRELLI. THE PIED WAGTAIL.

WHITE WAGTAIL. BLACK-AND-WHITE WAGTAIL. WINTER WAGTAIL.
WATER WAGTAIL. DISH-WASHER. BREAC-ANT'SIL.

Fig. 1o3.

Motacilla alba. Lath. lud. Orn. II. 501.

White Wagtail. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Pied Wagtail. Motacilla alba. Selb. Illustr. I. 251.

Motacilla alba. Pied Wagtail. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 114.

Male in winter icith the forehead^ throaty lower parts, and two
bands on the wing white ; a black crescent on the /ore-neck ; the
head, hind-neck and rump^ black, the middle of the back grey ;
wing-coverts black, the larger margined and tipped with white ;
quills black, edged with white ; tail black, the two lateral feathers
white, excepting part of their inner webs. Female with more gr eg
on the hack, but otherwise similar. Male in summer tcith the
whole fore-neck glossy black, as is the back, except a tinge of grey
about the middle. Female similar, but with more grey. Young,
light grey above, greyish-ichite beneath, with a dusky crescent on
the fore-neck.

The Pied Wagtail, which is the most common species in
Britain, varies so much in colour at different seasons and at

VOL. II. Q

226 MOTACILLA YARRELLI.

different ages, that one might be very apt to consider a speci-
men obtained in summer specifically distinct from another pro-
cured in winter, or from a young bird. I shall, as usual,
describe it first in its perfect or winter plumage.

Male in Winter. — Although a common, this is a very ele-
gant bird, and attracts attention not less by its strongly con-
trasted colours thau by its activity and the beauty of its flight.
Its bill is rather short, slender, straight, tapering, compressed
towards the end, and rather sharp-pointed ; the gape-line nearly
straight, the upper outline slightly curved downwards, the
lower slightly ascending. Both mandibles are narrow and
concave within, with a prominent median line ; the palate flat,
with two ridges ; the tongue very slender, five-twelfths long,
emarginate and papillate at the base, its tip slit and slightly
bristly. The oesophagus is two inches and six-twelfths long,
with an average diameter of two-twelfths ; the stomach oblongo-
elliptical, compressed ; its length eight-twelfths, its lateral
muscles of moderate thickness, the lower thin and inconspicu-
ous, the cuticular lining thin, rugous, and of a reddish-brown
colour. The intestine is seven and a half inches long, its duo-
denal portion two-twelfths in diameter ; the rectum, which is
an inch long, dilates to the diameter of half an inch, and the
coeca are a twelfth and a half in lensfth.

The nostrils are elliptical, and about a twelfth in length ; the
aperture of the eyes two and a half-twelfths in diameter ; that
of the ears three-twelfths. The feet are of moderate length,

slender ; the tarsus much com-
pressed, its scutella indistinct,
excepting the lower ; the first
toe with eight, the second with
nine, the third with thirteen,
the fourth with twelve scutella.
The claws are of moderate length, extremely compressed, lat-
erally grooved, moderately arched, tapering to a fine point, but
in old birds usually blunted by being worn ; the hind toe pro-
portionally larger.

The plumage is soft and blended. The wings are rather

PIED WAGTAIL. 227

long, the primary quills nine, the second longest, the first longer
than the third, but all nearly equal, the first four rounded, the
rest emarginate ; the secondaries nine, the first five emarginate,
the sixth elongated and tapering, so as to extend nearly as far
as the outer primaries when the wing is closed, the rest gradu-
ated and tapering to a rounded point. The tail is very long,
rounded, of twelve nearly straight, narrow, rounded feathers.
There are short bristle-feathers at the base of the upper man-
dible.

The bill and feet are deep black, as is the inside of the
mouth ; the irides dusky. The forehead, a narrow space over
the eye, the cheeks, the throat, and the upper part of the fore-
neck are white. A broad, transverse, semicircular band of
black on the lower part of the neck and fore part of the breast,
having the convexity downwards, and extending narrower up-
wards to near the base of the jaw. The rest of the lower parts
white, the sides tinged with dark grey. The upper part of the
head and the hind-neck deep black ; the middle of the back
and smaller wing-coverts greyish-black, that colour passing
into deep black on the rump and upper tail-coverts. The quills
and primary coverts are greyish-black, margined with greyish-
white, the inner secondaries more broadly edged with white,
the secondary coverts edged and broadly tipped with white, as
is the next row, there being thus two transverse bars of white
on the wing. The tail is black, the middle feathers narrowly
edged with white, the greater part of the two lateral feathers
and a narrow margin to the third white. Usually the outer
feather is white, with a narrow black band along the inner
edge, excepting towards the end ; the next also white, with
the inner black band more extended ; the base of both
black. The feathers of the tibia are black at the base, with
white tips, as are the lower wing-coverts, the axillaries white.

Length to end of tail 7f inches ; extent of wings 1 H ; bill
along the ridge /g, along the edge of lower mandible y"^ ; wing
from flexure 3ij ; tail 3|§ ; tarsus {^ ; first toe j'^, its claw f| ;
second toe y*|, its claw f| ; third toe j%, its claw j% ; fourth
toe ^1, its claw j%.

228 MOTACILLA YARRELLI.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but somewhat
less. The colouring is the same, but the crescent on the lower
part of the fore-neck is not so large ; there is more grey on the
back, and the edgings and tips of the wing-coverts are greyish-
white. Young females have the back all grey.

Length 7| inches ; extent of wings 11^.

Male in Summer. — In spring a change is produced in the
colouring by the addition of a patch of black feathers to the
throat, filling up the space between the crescent and the bill ;
and as the season advances the extent of dusky grey on the
back is diminished, not by the obliteration of the tips of the
filaments, but by the substitution of black for grey feathers.
In summer the male is as follows. The bill and feet are deep
black. The forehead, cheeks, supraocular space, and a broad
band passing down each side of the neck, are pure white ;
as are the breast, abdomen, lower tail-coverts, the two lateral
tail-feathers on each side, except a band along their inner
edges, the tips of the first row of small coverts, the edges
and tips of the secondary coverts, and the outer edges of the
three inner elongated secondaries ; the sides however are tinged
with grey. The fore-neck, lower part of the sides of the neck,
the hind part of the head and neck, and the anterior half of the
back are deep glossy bluish-black ; the rump and upper tail-
coverts similar, but a portion of the back still tinged with grey.
Smaller wing-coverts brownish-black, edged with grey. Quills
and tail-feathers, as in winter, but with the edges and tips
worn.

Length of an individual in this state 7^ inches ; extent of
wings 12 ; tarsus {^ ; middle toe and claw i%-

Female in Summer. — The female is similar to the male ; but
with more grey on the back, the black on the fore-neck tinged
with grey ; the lower parts greyish-white ; the two middle
feathers of the tail brownish-black.

Length to end of tail 7i inches ; extent of wings lOf.

Variations. — The principal variations that I have observed

PIED WAGTAIL. 229

refer to the changes of plumage, from the young to the adult
state, and the winter to the summer tints. Sometimes in sum-
mer the back is entirely black ; but generally there is more or
less grey upon it. Even in winter I have seen it almost all
black. Two large and apparently old males in my collection
have the whole of the back deep black, with scarcely any tinge
of grey. Albino individuals have been met with. Frequently
adults have some yellow on the lower parts.

Changes. — This species moults from the end of summer to
that of autumn, the new or winter plumage being complete by
the end of October. I have found it so occasionally even by
the end of August. In February another moult commences,
and is completed by the middle of April. The feathers on the
throat are first renewed, then those on the head, hind-neck,
sides, back and lower parts in succession ; but the quills and
tail-feathers are not changed.

Habits. — The places usually frequented by this beautiful bird
are the margins of streams, ditches, pools, and lakes. Towards
the end of July, when the cares of rearing their young are over,
they betake themselves in great numbers to the mouths of rivers,
especially such as have marshy meadows along their sides, or
muddy expanses to which the tides have access. Often one may
see them wading in shallow places in quest of insects and worms,
carefully holding up their tail to prevent its being draggled. If
you watch the motions of an individual just coming up to join
the party, you see it alight abruptly, twittering its shrill notes,
and perching on a small stone, incessantly vibrate its body, and
jerk out its tail. It now perhaps walks out into the water, and
searches for food, or finding none flies to the shore, and runs
along with great rapidity, stopping and stooping now and then
to pick up a tiny wormlet, and momentarily spreading out its
ever-vibrating tail. Its light footsteps leave no impression on
the soft sand, and if it walk out upon the mud you wonder that
its little toes do not get clogged ; yet so rapid are its motions
that it never sinks in the mire, and when the latter becomes
too soft, it aids itself with its wings, or flies to a place where it

230 MOTACILLA YARRELLI.

may fiud more secm'e footing. Now, it runs into the meadow,
in pursuit of a fly, which it has no sooner caught than it spies
another. The lazy geese, that have nibbled the grass bare,
allow it to pass in the midst of them without molestation, or
if some malicious gander or foolish gosling attempts to seize it,
they find that they have given themselves too much credit for
dexterity. There the cows are grazing, in the midst of a swarm
of gnats and other insects, and the Wagtail has arrived in their
vicinity. Running forward it catches a small fly, bends to one
side to seize another, darts to the right after a third, and springs
some feet into the air before it secures a fourth. Now see it
picking among the old dung, where there are doubtless many
larvae concealed, again running off in pursuit of a fly, passing
close to the cow's nose, or among her feet. There, while in
pursuit, it encounters another of its own species ; but they
quarrel not, no doubt aware that there is room enough for
them in the world, or even in the meadow, which you now see
to be covered with wagtails, all busily occupied, some walking,
others running, a few flying off, and many arriving. You may
walk in among them ; they are not very shy, for they will
allow you to come within fifteen yards or sometimes less ; and
you may shoot as many as you please, for although some will
fly ofl" others will remain, and of the former a few will settle
in the neighbourhood. Day after day you will find them here,
when the tide is out. At other times you may search for them
by the edges of the river, along the mill-dam, in the meadows,
or even in the dry pastures. Occasionally you may see them
perched on a roof, a wall, or a large stone, but very rarely on
a tree or bush. Towards the middle of October many of them
take their departure from the middle and southern parts of
Scotland, and the rest wander over the country, frequenting
watery places, and in hard weather approaching houses, search-
ing the sides of the roads, the dunghills, and even the cottage
doors. In most parts of the south of Scotland, they are not at
all uncommon in winter ; but in England they are much more
abundant.

About the beginning of March the migratory movement com-
mences. Many remain in the south, but many also move north-

PIEU WAGTAIL. 231

ward, and some arrive in the northernmost parts of Scotland
and in the Outer Hebrides by the middle of March. It is a
pleasant sight to see a small group of these birds walking and
running with light and graceful steps along the newly turned
furrows, on a cold dry morning in spring, when the east wind
nips your fingers, and calls the blood into your cheeks. Rooks
are scattered over the field, a few Hooded Crows are searching
the distant end of the ridge, but they, having little dread of the
ploughman, follow close upon his heels, or merely rise before
the horses to resume their station when they have passed. At
this season they obtain an abundant supply of food, and as the
labouring lasts until the warm weather sets in, they need never
sutler for lack of larvje or insects. But at all seasons they are
fond of rambling along the shores of the sea, and especially of
estuaries, lakes and rivers.

About the middle of April, when they have paired and scat-
tered over the country, they begin their preparations for the
more important business of the season. Their nests are placed
by the side of a river or stream, on a rocky bank, or among the
grass, or on a heap of stones, or in a hole in a wall ; and are
composed of stems and leaves of withered grasses, mixed with
some moss and leaves, and thickly lined with wool and hair ;
sometimes also with feathers. One now before me is of a some-
what flattened form, rather bulky, and rudely constructed, its
external diameter five inches, the internal three and a half. The
outer layer is composed of fibrous roots, stems and blades of
grasses, intermixed with hair ; the inner is a rude mass of hair
of various kinds in tufts : human hair, black, brown, red, and
sand-coloured ; hair of dogs, cats, cows, and horses ; hogs'
bristles, and some cotton, thread and feathers. The eggs, five
or six in number, are greyish- white, spotted all over with grey
and brown, their average length nine-twelfths of an inch, their
greatest breadth seven and a quarter twelfths.

Mr Weir has sent me the following notes illustrative of their
habits while breeding.

" In the silver-mine quarry, in the neighbourhood of Bath-
gate, in May 1836, a pair of Pied Wagtails built their nest in
an old wall, within a few yards of four men, who during the

232 MOTACILLA YARRELLI.

most part of the day wrought at the limestone, which they
occasionally blew up with powder. There the female laid and
hatched four eggs. She and the male became so familiar with
them that they flew in and out without shewing the least signs
of fear, but if I approached (so quickly did they recognise a
stranger) they immediately flew ofi", and would not return until
I had departed at least five or six hundred yards from their-
abode."

" At Colinsheils Coal-work, in the Parish of Bathgate, Lin-
lithgowshire, in May 1887, a pair of Pied Wagtails made
choice of a singular situation where they erected their abode.
It was beneath the strike-board, the wooden platform upon
which the hutches, wdien filled with coals, are put. Although
they struck against it with considerable force every time that
they were drawn up to the top of the pit, the Wagtails never-
theless brought up to maturity a family of five young ones.
With the colliers and other individuals connected with the
work they became quite familiar, and flew in and out within a
few feet of them without shewing the least symptoms of fear.
The nest was built beneath that part of the platform upon
which the banksman stood when he took hold of the hutches,
and within three or four inches of his feet."

The ordinary note of this species is a sharp cheep. When
alarmed or otherwise agitated, it flies about in a wavering man-
ner, uttering a repetition of this note, and alarming the small
birds in the neighbourhood. In sunny weather, especially in
the mornings, it may be heard singing a pleasant, mellow, and
modulated little song. Its flight is light, buoyant, and undu-
lated : it propels itself by a repetition of smart flaps, ascends in
a curved line, then ceases for a moment, descends in a curve,
repeats the motion of its wings, and thus proceeds as if by starts,
and with great velocity. Like many other birds, it is not fond
of flying down the wind, but prefers an oblique course. In its
habits it is quite terrestrial ; at least I have never seen it search
for food on trees, bushes, or even herbaceous plants, although it
not unfrequently perches on a hedge or bush when disturbed
in the breeding season.

It is curious to observe this species pursuing its prey in diffe-

PIED WAGTAIL. 233

rent localities. Thus, if you watch it for some time, when it has
taken its station among stones or fragments of rock, you cannot
fail to be pleased with the activity and dexterity which it dis-
plays. There it stands on the top of a stone, gently vibrating
its tail, as if poising itself. An insect flies near, when it starts
off, flutters a moment in the air, seizes its prey, and settles on
another stone, spreading and vibrating its tail. Presently it
makes another sally, flutters about for a while, seizes two or
three insects, glides over the ground, curving to either side, and
again takes its stand on a pinnacle. Again, you perceive seve-
ral Wagtails flying in a wavering and buoyant manner over the
rushes that skirt a large pool. It is a calm bright evening ; the
Coots are swimming about among the reeds and horsetails, ut-
tering now and then their short loud trumpet-like cry, and the
white-rumped Swallows are glancing along, now dipping light-
ly into the water to seize a fly, then darting here and there
amongst the tiny insects that sport over the rank weeds. A
Wagtail tries an excursion over the water, and although its flight
does not equal that of the Swallow in elegance or velocity, it
yet performs its part with considerable grace, flutters here a
while, seizing a few insects, sweeps away in a curve, as if to
acquire sufficient speed to keep it up without fluttering, turns
suddenly, then shoots forth in a straight line, and thus continues
for several minutes, until at length, fatigued, it betakes itself
to the top of the stone wall, where it rests a little, and then
commences a new excursion. Not unfrequently it may be seen
running along the roof of a house in pursuit of insects, which
it seizes in the manner of the Flycatcher or Redstarts. Often
also it is to be found among rocks, and it is not uncommon on
the streets of country villages, where it searches for insects
chiefly along the gutters.

Young. — When fledged the young have the bill dusky, the
edge of the upper mandible, and a considerable portion of the
lower, yellowish ; the feet brownish. The plumage of the
upper parts is dull grey ; the crown and hind part of the head,
and the upper tail-coverts, darker. A narrow light-grey band
over the anterior part of the forehead ; a line over the eye, the

234 MOTACILLA YARRELLI.

cheeks, and the fore part and sides of the neck, greyish-white ; a
dusky line on each side down the throat, forming a curved band
or crescent on the fore-neck ; the sides light grey ; the rest of
the lower parts greyish-white, the breast tinged with yellowish-
brown. The wing-coverts and quills are blackish-brown, edged
with greyish-white, of which there are two bands formed by
the tips of the first row of small coverts and secondary coverts.
The middle tail-feathers are blackish-brown, the rest darker,
but the two lateral on each side nearly all white. The fea-
thers on the legs are greyish-brown tipped with whitish ; the
lower wing-coverts similar.

Progress toward Maturity.' — In the first brood, the moult
commences in the end of July, and is completed by the end of
September. The young birds are then similar to the old, but
with more grey on the back, and the dark crescent on the breast
less extended.

Remarks. — I do not feel perfectly satisfied as to the diffe-
rence of Motacilla alba and JNI. Yarrelli, there being nothing
in their form, size, and plumage sufficient to indicate distinct
species, although the bill of the former seems to be generally
more slender, and I should not be surprised to find that they
are in reality one and the same. AVhether this be the case or
not, Motacilla alba of Linnaeus is as much the present species
as the preceding, since he refers to Willughby and Ray ; and
therefore I think the Pied Wagtail might with propriety be
named M. alba, and the Grey-^nd- white Wagtail INI. cinerea.
I have ascertained that the spring moult is complete, with the
exception of the quills and tail-feathers, and not confined to the
throat, as has been alleged. Thus in a specimen killed by Mr
Weir on the 25th of February, there are young feathers on the
throat, head, hind-neck, sides, back, and breast ; and the glossy
entire feathers of the upper parts in April and May are seen
to be fresh, and not merely changed in colour by abrasion of
their filaments.

235

MOTACILLA BOARULA. THE GREY-AND-
YELLOW WAGTAIL.

GREY WAGTAIL. YELLOW WAGTAIL.

Motacilk Boarula. Linn. Mant. 527.

Motacilla Boarula. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 502.

Motacilla melanops. Lath. Ind. Oni. II. 503.

Grey Wagtail. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bergeronette jaune- Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 257.

Grey Wagtail. Motacilla Boarula. Selb. Illustr. I. 253.

Motacilla Boarula. Grey Wagtail. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 115.

Male in winUr xcitli the head and hack hluish-grey tinged
with green, the rump greenish-gellou', the throat greyish-white,
the lower parts bright yellow. Female similar, but somewhat
paler. Male in summer with a black patch on the throat,
laterally edged with ichite bands. Female similar, but paler,
and having the black on the throat tinged tcith grey.

INIale. — This remarkably elegant and beautiful bird is some-
what smaller than the Pied Wagtail, which however it exceeds
in length, its tail being proportionally longer. The bill is
very slender, straight, tapering, compressed towards the end,
and in all essential respects as described in the generic charac-

236 MOTACILLA BOARULA.

ter. Both mandibles are narrow and concave within, with a
prominent median line ; the palate flat, with two ridges ; the
tongue very slender, five-twelfths long, emarginate and papillate
at the base, grooved above, its tip slit and slightly fringed. The
oesophagus is two and a half inches long, with an average
diameter of two-twelfths; the proventriculus five-twelfths long.
The stomach is oblongo-elliptical, compressed, its length eight-
twelfths, its greatest breadth five and a half twelfths, its mus-
cles distinct, the tendons two-twelfths across, the cuticular
lining thin and smooth. The intestine is six and a half inches
long, of nearly uniform diameter as far as the coeca, its duo-
denal portion measuring two-twelfths across. The rectum is
an inch long, dilates immediately, and forms a roundish sac
at its lower part, half an inch in width. The coeca are cylin-
drical, a twelfth and a half in length.

The nostrils are very small, being only three-fourths of a
twelfth in length, direct, open, elliptical, with a narrow oper-
culum. The aperture of the eyes is two-twelfths and a half
in diameter ; the eyelids with two sub-marginal rows of small
rounded feathers. The ear is transversely elliptical, and
nearly three-twelfths in its greatest diameter. The feet are
of moderate length, very slender ; the
tarsus very much compressed, with
only the lower scutella distinct ; the
first toe with eight, the second with
ten, the third with fourteen, the fourth
Fig. 156. with fourtceu scutella. The claM^s are

of moderate length, arched, extremely compressed, that of
the hind toe much larger, but curved in the same degree as
the rest.

The plumage is soft and blended. The wings are of ordin-
ary length, although their tips are three inches short of the
extremity of the tail. The primaries are nine, the first and
third equal, the second scarcely larger, the second, third, and
fourth slightly cut out on the outer web towards the end ;
the outer narrowed and rounded, the inner very broad and
obliquely rounded ; of these eight secondaries the outer are
rounded and slightly emarginate, the inner three tapering,

GREY-AND-YELLOW WAGTAIL. 237

the sixth equalling the longest primary when the wing is
closed. The tail is longer than the body, nearly straight, slen-
der, rounded, of twelve narrow tapering feathers.

The bill is greyish-black, the lower mandible light grey in its
basal half, the inside of the mouth dusky orange. The iris dark
brown. The feet and claws are yellowish-brown, the latter
of a deeper tint. The head and back are ash-grey, slightly
tinged with greenish -yellow, shaded on the rump into green-
ish-yellow. The wings are chocolate brown, the elongated
inner secondaries blackish -brown and glossed. The smaller
coverts are broadly edged with grey, the larger more narrowly,
and the inner three secondaries have a broad external margin
of white ; a band of white commences on the fifth primary,
and passes inwards over the other quills near their base, but is
concealed by the coverts. The central six tail feathers are
brownish-black, edged with greenish-yellow ; the outermost
entirely white, but slightly tinged with yellow at the base ; the
next with the inner web white, the outer blackish-brown, ex-
cepting towards the tip, where it is white, and towards the
base, where it is paler and edged w^ith yellow ; the next
similar, but with a narrow longitudinal band of dusky close
to the inner margin. There is a whitish line over the eye ;
the cheeks and sides of the neck are grey, the throat greyish-
white ; the fore part of the neck below, and all the under
parts bright-yellow, tinged with red on the breast, purest on
the lower tail-coverts ; the sides tinged with grey. Tibial
feathers pale brown. The concealed parts of the plumage are
grey on the upper parts, blackish-grey on the lower.

Length to end of tail 8^ inches ; extent of wings 10 j ; bill
along the ridge 5 5 twelfths, along the edge of lower mandible
^^5 ; wing from flexure 8j ; tail 4i ; tarsus if ; first toe j^,
its claw 4 5 twelfths ; second toe 4| twelfths, its claw 2f
twelfths ; third toe 6i twelfths, its claw 2| twelfths ; fourth
toe 4^ twelfths, its claw 2j twelfths.

Female. — The female is somewhat smaller, but differs little in
colour. The line over the eye is tinged with ochre yellow, as
is the throat. The tint of the under parts is as bright as in the

238 MOTACILLA BOARULA.

male. The bill a little paler. QEsophagus two inches and a half

long ; stomach eight-twelfths ; intestine six and a half inches.

Length to end of tail 7{^ inches ; extent of wings 10 ; bill

along the ridge 5| twelfths; tarsus |§ ; middle toe and claw i^.

Male in Spring. — A change takes place in March, by which
the colour of the throat is altered, the greyish-white feathers
of that part being substituted by others which are deep black,
but slightly margined with whitish. This black patch is se-
parated on each side from the grey of the neck by a white band
which runs down from the base of the bill. The other feathers
remain unaltered until the general autumnal moult.

Length of an individual 7| ; extent of wings 10^; bill along
the ridge j%, along the edge of lower mandible j% ; tarsus 9?
twelfths ; middle toe and claw 9| twelfths.

FexMale in Spring. — The female undergoes a similar change,
the throat becoming dark grey, mottled with yellowish-grey.
Length 7i ; extent of wings 9f .

Changes in the Plumage. — After the autumnal moult, the
grey of the upper parts is tinged with green, the margins of the
feathers being of that colour ; but some months after this tint
has nearly disappeared, and by the month of July the upper
parts are pure grey. The quills, which are at first edged with
pale brown, also lose their margins, as do the smaller coverts,
when the wing becomes of a uniform dark tint, although the
whitish outer edgings of the inner secondaries are never entirely
obliterated. The yellow of the lower parts, which is at first
deeply tinged with red on the breast, becomes purer and
brighter, but towards the end of summer paler. The tail-
feathers are then much worn at the point, so that birds mea-
sured at that period are several twelfths shorter than in winter.

Habits. — Like the old man and the ass, I would fain please
all the world ; but the little experience which I have had, and
the moderate portion of good sense which I possess, suffice to
warn me of the impracticability of such a scheme. I have

}

GREY-AND-YELLOW WAGTAIL. 239

gone out to describe the actions of the Grey Wagtail. There
it is. What shall I say respecting it ? "A regular winter
visitant in the southern parts of the kingdom, but in the nor-
thern a summer visitant," frequents the sides of rivers, runs
w^itli celerity, nestles on the ground or in holes, lays five eggs,
and rears two broods in the year I No, — thou beautiful little
thing, thou deservest more regard than those men are willing
to bestow upon thee. How prettily and pleasantly thou runnest
along the sandy margin of the brook ! The pattering of thy
tiny feet can be heard only by fairy ears, so light is thy slender
frame, which vibrates as if thy joints were too delicate, and thy
muscles too sensitive for thee to fix them for a moment in
rest. The gentle breeze that scarce bends the young grass,
curves the long feathers of thy tail, and the sudden blast
sweeps thee away quivering and emitting thy shrill notes ;
but thou hast alighted again, and runnest along, search-
ing for thy favourite food, the small insects that gambol
in the warm sunshine, and the wormlets that wriggle in the
moist earth. Thy partner is now by thy side ; thou hast no
care, no sorrow ; thy vesture is such as no art could weave,
thy knowledge such as no philosophy could supply, thy simple
spirit is pleased with simple pleasures, and thou carest not
what of evil or of good may be thy lot. Happy bird ! thou
wilt fly with thy beloved, cleaving the air like an arrow, to
some retired spot in the valley, thou wilt search out a place for
thy nest where the willows fringe the clear brook, thou wilt
gather many bits of straw, many hairs and feathers, thou wilt
see thy mate seated on her dear eggs, wilt supply her with food
day after day, wilt take her place for a while, and talk to her
in thy simple style until thy young ones burst the shell. Then
what bustle from morn till night to provide those six open
throats with suitably delicate and nutritious food ! and often
wilt thou and thy partner pinch yourselves to afford them that
abundant supply necessary for their growth. Soon will ye
lead them to the margins of the eddying pool, and there, with
your family around you, ye will sport in the sunshine, as ye
do now, pursuing your avocations in peace and security. Soon
again ye will form another nest, and rear another brood ; and

240 MOTACILLA BOARULA.

then, your labours over for the season, ye will enjoy life for
some weeks, visiting the lakes and pools, and feasting on the
bounties of nature. When the frosts of winter have closed
the waters, your season of distress will come, as come it must
to all on earth ; but then, dear little things, ye may fly if ye
will to some lovelier land. And now, thou pretty Wagtail,
what more can I say to thee ? Why thou shouldst so interest
me I know not, if it be not that thou art very gentle and very
harmless. Thou art but a simple thing it is true, and the
philosopher might spurn thee, but in thy small frame is more
than a Newton or an Arago can comprehend ; and pleasant it
is to me to gaze upon thee, thou marvellous epitome of mind
and matter harmoniously organized. But I must now address
myself to a very different personage.

The Grey Wagtail frequents the margins of streams, pools,
and lakes, at all seasons, and is generally distributed in the
lower and more cultivated parts ; but it is of very rare occur-
rence to the north of Inverness, and is not met with in the
Outer Hebrides. From the middle division of Scotland, it
shifts southward in the end of autumn, and even from the
southern division the greater part migrate, although it is not
uncommon to meet with individuals about Edinburgh through
the winter and spring. When there is snow on the ground,
they search the ditches and roads, and appear along with the
Pied Wagtail at the doors of cottages and farm-houses.

Its flight is rapid and performed in large curves. When
alighting, it spreads out its tail, displaying the lateral white
feathers, which then become very conspicuous, and when stand-
ing it vibrates its body continually, so that the tail, which it
now and then spreads by a sudden jerk is always in motion.
It is very lively and active, walks in the prettiest manner ima-
ginable, moving its head backward and forward at each step,
runs with great speed, and although not very shy, is not in-
sensible to danger from the proximity of man. Its food con-
sists of insects of various kinds, which it usually picks from the
ground, although it often performs a short aerial excursion in
pursuit of them.

It is now the beginning of May. Our little favourites we

GREY-AND- YELLOW WAGTAIL. 241

have not seen for many months ; but here are two of them,
upon the stones in Braid Burn. There they flutter about,
alight, run, and shoot into the air ; they are evidently a pair,
and the male is easily distinguished from the female by the
deep black patch on his throat. They have no doubt chosen
this quiet spot, flanked with steep banks covered with trees, in
which to rear their young. While the Pied Wagtails are now
found in the neighbourhood of quarries, on stony slopes, in pas-
tures, or in meadows, this species is rarely to be seen elsewhere
than on streams, although instances of its nestling at a consi-
derable distance from them sometimes occur. They are now
shy, observant, and somewhat clamorous ; but although they
are constantly flying from place to place, they imagine them-
selves safe at no great distance.

The nest is placed on the ground, among grass or stones,
and is composed of stems and blades of dry grass, mixed with
moss and vrool, and lined with wool, hair, and feathers. The
eggs, from five to eight, are generally nine-twelfths long, seven-
twelfths in breadth, with a greyish-v^hite ground, spotted all
over M^ith faint greyish-brown. Sometimes the nest is found
in a hole of a bank, or between large stones.

" In our neighbourhood," Mr Weir writes, " the Grey Wag-
tails generally build their nests in a rocky situation on the water
side. To this however I know one exception. For several
years past, a pair have built at Balbardie House. In the year
1835 they erected their abode in a small wooden spout above
the feather-house door. Last year, one of the panes of glass
above the said door having been broken, they changed their old
situation, being determined to try an inside residence. They
accordingly flew in by the window, and built their nest on a
shelf, where they brought forth five young. They made a
second nest on the window sole of the dairy, a few yards from
the former one. And, what is remarkable, their nests were
about two hundred yards distant from Balbardie Lough, or the
nearest place where there is water."

In autumn, when the young are full-grown, and accompany
their parents, it is amusing to watch these Wagtails as they
seek their food along the margins of some pebbly stream. On,

VOL. II. R

242 MOTACILLA BOARULA.

tlie 28th of September, 1838, I went out for the purpose of re-
freshing my memory, and betook myself to Cohnton, three and
a half miles from Edinburgh. The Water of Leith there enters
a narrow wooded valley, extending to Slateford, and upwards
of a mile in length. Just below the village is a mill-dam,
where, among the large stones are seen several Wagtails flit-
ting about, ever in motion, chasing the insects on foot, and now
and then flying a short way after them. One has perched on
the dam dike, my companion shoots it, and we find that it is a
most beautiful male, having the nevf plumage just completed,
and the black patch of summer replaced on its throat by a fine
yellow tint. Alarmed by the report, the rest fly down the
stream. Another shot is fired ; the wounded bird flutters up
the bank and falls among the grass, while one of those near it
alights on a tree. Again we have come up to them, as they
are busily feeding on the edges of the stream. Singling out an
individual, I see it fly to a stone in the water, run a few steps
upon it and seize an insect, launch into the air after another,
betake itself to a flat ledge of slate-clay, run, turn, double, and
stand, vibrating its body, and emitting a few shrill notes. On
being disturbed by us, some fly down the valley, others perch
on the trees, and two or three, making a circuit, return toward
the mill. At various other points we again meet with them,
and take note of their graceful action, their vivacity, their beau-
tifully buoyant and undulated flight ; but, as nothing more of
their history can be traced at present, we leave them to enjoy
themselves. Not a single Summer Warbler is to be seen, the
Sandpiper has long ago retired, a very few Swallows are flying
high over the trees, the valley being sheltered from the cold
east M^ind, but none are to be found in the villages, and they
have entirely disappeared from Edinburgh.

After the breeding season, great numbers are seen at the
mouths of rivers, along with the Pied Wagtails, especially in
marshy places to which the tide has access. About the middle
of spring they disperse in pairs, and are met with along the
streams and brooks, in the vicinity of which they generally
nestle. The first brood is abi-oad by the end of May, the
second in July.

GREY-AND-YELLOW WAGTAIL. 243

This beautiful bird lias no song, at least I have never heard
it emit more than a few shrill and rather feeble notes. In its
stomach I have always found insects exclusively, for the most
part coleopterous, without any grains of sand or gravel. Ac-
cording to Montagu and other writers, it is seen in the south of
England only in the winter season. In the north, and in most
parts of Scotland it is not uncommon in summer, although
there are few places in which it can be said to be plentiful.
Mr Hepburn informs me that it is the only Wagtail that re-
mains all winter, in his neighbourhood, in the interior of East
Lothian, the Pied Wagtail departing in the middle of October,
and not returning until near the end of February.

Young. — The young when fully fledged have the bill dusky,
the feet yellowish-brown, the claws light brown. The upper
parts are grey, tinged with green, the rump greenish-yellow ;
the wings and tail as in the adult, but the former with a trans-
verse bar formed by the greyish tips of the secondary coverts.
There is an ochraceous streak over the eye ; the throat is
brownish-white ; a faintly marked crescent of dull grey fea-
thers is seen on the fore-neck, of which the lower part and the
anterior portion of the breast, are dull greyish-red ; the sides
grey ; the rest of the lower parts greyish- white, tinged with
yellow behind, the lower tail-coverts pale yellow.

Progress toward Maturity. — At the first autumnal moult,
the bird assumes its complete colouring.

Fig. 157.

244

SAXICOLINyE.

STONEGHATS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

Feom among the very numerous species of birds belonging
to the order Cantatores may be selected those which in form
and habits bear a more or less decided resemblance to the
Wheatear, and which may be formed into a group so blended
on all sides with others, that the species on its limits may with
equal propriety be referred to them. If any general and cha-
racteristic idea can be given of this group, it may perhaps be
expressed as follows : —

The bill is rather short, straight, slender, tapering, depressed
at the base, compressed beyond the nasal groove ; the upper
mandible with its dorsal outline declinate and straight at the
base, convex toward the tip, which is slightly decurved and
obsoletely notched ; the gape-line straight. Both mandibles
are concave, with a medial prominent line. The tongue is of
moderate length, slender, papillate at the base, two of the
papillae being much larger, horny towards the end, with the
edges lacerate and the tip slit. The oesophagus is of nearly
uniform width, the proventriculus oblong with simple ob-
long glandules; the stomach of moderate size, roundish or
elliptical, compressed, its lateral muscles rather thick, the ten-
dons rather large, the cuticular lining tough, thin, and longi-
tudinally rugous ; the intestine of moderate length and width ;
the coeca very small and oblong ; the rectum dilated into an
elliptical cloaca, PI. XIII, Fig. 6. There is thus no essential
difference between the digestive organs and those of the other
families, especially the Sylvianae, Parinae, and Turdinae, the
Alaudinse alone differing in having the stomach more muscular.

The general form is slender ; the head rather large, broadly
ovate, and anteriorly convex. The eyes of moderate size ; the
nostrils oblong, in the lower and fore part of the nasal depres-

STONECHATS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 245

sion, which is feathered at the base. The legs are of moderate
length, that is, varying from rather long to rather short ; the
tarsus slender, compressed, anteriorly covered with a long plate,
in which the divisions of the scutella are sometimes, however,
distinctly marked. The toes are moderate, compressed, scutel-
late, the lateral equal, the first strong ; the claws rather large,
arched, compressed.

The plumage is soft and blended, the feathers ovato-oblong
and of loose texture. The basirostral bristles small. The wings
of moderate length, broad ; the quills eighteen, the first very
small, the next three longest, the last three secondaries gradually
shorter. The tail, of twelve feathers, is of moderate lengih.

The skeleton is similar to that of the Turdinse and Sylvianae.
The digestive organs are especially adapted for insects and
worms, but many of the species feed also on small soft fruits,
and occasionally seeds.

The Saxicolina? reside chiefly in stony places and open pas-
tures, especially those covered with small shrubs, but some of
them frequent woods. On the ground they advance by hop-
ping. Their ordinary flight is moderately rapid and somewhat
undulated. They search for food on the ground, on walls, or
among thickets, and often pursue insects on wing. Their
nests are large and lined wnth soft materials, and the prevail-
ing colour of their eggs is blue. Most of them are migratory,
and those which are permanently resident, shift their quarters,
frequenting the neighbourhood of houses in winter.

Intimately allied to the Turdinse by Erithacus and Gryllivora,
to Alaudinse by IVIotacilla and Accentor, and blending directly
with the Sylvianae, the Saxicolinoe present no abrupt and decided
characters, such as, being expressed in words, could enable the
student always to refer a species to the family ; and they who
have attempted to define the groups of this order have completely
failed, the indications which they give being either exaggerated
or not distinctive. Thus Mr Swainson gives as a general cha-
racter of his Sylvianae, including Saxicolinae, Philomelinae, Syl-
vianae, Parinae, and Motacillinae : — " Size universally small.
Bill very slender, distinctly notched. Feet formed for walking,
perching, or climbing. Tarsus slender, lengthened.'' The small
size is not peculiar or distinctive, and is, moreover, a useless cha-

246 SAXICOLINiE.

racter unless there were equally natural groups of a large or mode-
rate size, and that uniformly. The bill is slender, but in many
cases it is not distinctly notched, for example in the Wheatear, and
especially in his own sub-family "Parianse,'"' of which the charac-
ter as expressed by himself, " Bill either entire or very slightly
notched," cannot be reconciled with the general character of
" bill distinctly notched." To say that the feet are " formed
for walking, perching, or climbing," is simply to state what is
not peculiar to the family nor in any way distinctive of it. Nor
is the tarsus always lengthened, for in the Parinse it is very
short. The characters which he gives to his Saxicolinae, includ-
ing " Grillivora," Thamnobia, Saxicola, Erythaca, andPetroica,
are equally uncharacteristic, and contradicted by those which
he assigns to the different genera. His Philomelinse we are
informed are " larger and more robust than the typical war-
blers," which is a character equally applicable to his Saxicolinae ;
their " feet formed more for perching," which is no character
at all. " Sylvianae : — size very small, structure weak. Bill
very slender, straight, and with the under mandible much
thinner than the upper." These attempts at legislation are poor
indeed, and cannot fail to excite some surprise in those who
may have been induced to purchase the " Natural History and
Classification of Birds."

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.
GENUS I. ACCENTOR. CHANTER.

Bill short, straight, slender, a little broader than high at the
base, compressed toward the end, the tip slightly declinate,
the notches very slight ; tarsi of ordinary length, rather slender,
with seven anterior scutella ; claws rather long, arcuate ; wings
rather short, much rounded, the fourth and fifth quills longest ;
tail rather long, slightly arcuate, rounded.

1. Accentor modularis. Hedge Chanter. Upper parts red-
dish-brown and grey, with dusky streaks ; lower dull ash-grey,
the sides streaked with brown.

2. Accentor alpinus. Alpine Chanter. Upper parts light

STONECHATS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 247

brown, and grey, with large dusky spots ; fore part of neck
greyish-white, spotted with black.

GENUS II. ERITHACUS. REDBREAST.

Bill short, straight, slender, broader than high at the base,
compressed toward the end, the tip declinate, the notches small
but distinct ; tarsi rather long, slender, with a long undivided
plate and three inferior scutella ; claws of ordinary length, ar-
cuate, acute ; wings short, broad, concave, much rounded, the
fourth quill longest ; tail of moderate length, slightly decurved,
nearly even.

Erlthacus Rubecula. Robin Redbreast. Upper parts olive-
green ; forehead, cheeks, fore-neck and part of the breast
bright red.

GENUS III. FRUTICICOLA. BUSHCHAT.

Bill short, straight, slender, depressed at the base, compressed
toward the end, the tip deflected, the notches small ; tarsi of
moderate length, slender, with a long plate and four anterior
scutella ; toes rather short, slender ; claws long, moderately
arched, extremely acute ; wings short, broad, curved ; first
primary a fourth of the length of the second, the third and
fourth about equal, the latter longest ; tail short, nearly straight,
even.

1. Friiticicola Rubetra. Whin Bushchat. Male with a
yellowish-white band over the eye, the upper parts light yel-
lowish-red, with distinct oblong dusky spots ; a patch on the
wing, a band on each side of the neck, and the basal part of
the tail, white. Female with the dark spots larger, the white
markings less conspicuous.

2. Fruticicola Rubicola. Black-headed Bushchat. Male with
the head and throat black, the upper parts brownish-black, the
feathers edged with brownish-red ; a s])ot on the wing, the
sides of the neck, and the basal part of the upper tail-coverts,
white. Female with the head and upper parts streaked with
brownish-black and yellowish-grey, a white spot on the wings,
the upper tail-coverts yellowish- red.

248 SAXICOLINiE.

GENUS IV. SAXICOLA. STONECHAT.

Bill of moderate length, straight, slender, depressed at the
base, compressed toward the end, the tip declinate, with a
slight sinus ; tarsi rather long, slender, with a long plate and
four inferior scutella ; toes rather short, slender ; claws rather
long, moderately arched, acute ; wings long, broad, the first
primary a fourth of the length of the second, the second, third,
and fourth longest, and nearly equal ; tail of moderate length,
nearly even.

1. Saxicola (Enantlie. White-runiped Stonechat. IMale ash-
grey above, with a black band on the sides of the head, the rump
and upper tail-coverts white. Female with the upper parts
brownish-grey, a brown band on the cheek, the rump as in
the male.

GENUS V. RUTICILLA. REDSTART.

Bill rather short, slender, a little depressed at the base, com-
pressed towards the end, the tip slightly declinate, with a slight
sinus ; tarsi moderately long, very slender, anteriorly with a long
plate and three inferior scutella ; toes rather long, very slender ;
claws rather long, moderately arched, very slender, acute.

1. Ruticllla Cyanecula. Blue-throated Redstart. Male with
the upper parts wood-brown, the fore-neck and breast marked
with ultramarine blue, wdiite and light red. Female similar,
the throat blue, with a curved blackish-line.

2. Buticilla Phoenicurus. White-fronted Redstart. Male
with the middle of the forehead white, its anterior part, the
cheeks, and throat, black, hind-head and back ash-grey. Fe-
male with the upper parts reddish-grey, the throat reddish-
white. In both sexes the breast, rump, and tail light red.

3. Rutic'dla Tithys. Black-hreasted Redstart. Male with
the upper parts ash-grey ; the throat and part of the breast
black. Female with the upper and lower parts grey, the
throat whitish. In both sexes the rump and tail light red.

249

ACCENTOR. CHANTER.

Bill short, straight, slender, a little broader than high at
the base, compressed towards the end : upper mandible with
its dorsal outline declinate and nearly straight, the ridge nar-
row at the base, then convex and somewhat flattened, and
towards the end convex, the sides convex, the edges sharp and
direct, the tip slightly declinate, narrow and rather obtuse, the
notch very slight ; lower mandible with the angle rather long,
narrow, and rounded, the dorsal outline ascending and almost
straight, the sides convex, the edges decidedly involute, the
tip narrow and rather blunt, the gape-line nearly straight, the
edge of the upper mandible being slightly arched towards the
end.

The mouth narrow ; both mandibles deeply concave within,
the upper with three prominent lines, the lower with two ; the
palate slightly concave ; the posterior aperture of the nares
oblongo-linear, edged behind with small papillse. Tongue
short, sagittate, narrow, terminated by two acute points. The
oesophagus of moderate width, nearly uniform in diameter ;
the proventriculus oblong, with short oblong glandules. The
stomach rather large, roundish-elliptical, compressed, its la-
teral muscles thick, the lower rather distinct, the tendons
large, the cuticular lining tough and longitudinally rugous.
The intestine of moderate length and width ; the coeca very
small, oblong ; the rectum dilated towards the end.

Nostrils longish, linear, straight, in the lower and fore part
of the nasal depression, which is large, rather acute anteriorly,
and lilled up by a membrane, which is bare anteriorly and
thickened over the nostril. Eyes of moderate size ; the eye-
lids feathered towards the margin, their edges bare and crenate.
External aperture of the ear large, and roundish.

The general form is moderately full; the body ovate, of

250 ACCENTOR. CHANTER.

nearly equal diameter vertically and laterally ; the neck short ;
the head rather small, ovate, anteriorly narrow, the legs of
ordinary length, rather slender ; tarsus compressed, covered
anteriorly w^itli seven scutella, posteriorly with two long plates
united at a very acute angle. Toes of moderate size, much
compressed ; the first large, the two lateral about equal, the
third much longer, and united to the fourth as far as the se-
cond joint of the latter. Claws rather long, arcuate, greatly
compressed, laterally grooved.

Plumage soft, indistinct, slightly glossed ; the feathers ob-
long, with a plumule consisting of a few long barbs. There
are no distinct bristle-feathers along the base of the upper
mandible ; but the feathers on the fore part of the face are
terminated by bristly points. Wings rather short, broad,
much rounded ; of eighteen quills, the first very small, being
about a fourth of the length of the longest, the second consi-
derably shorter than the third, the fourth and fifth longest ;
the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth slightly cut out towards the
end. Tail rather long, slightly arcuate, rounded, of twelve
rather narrow, rounded feathers.

The genus Accentor is intimately allied to Sylvia, differing
chiefly in the involution of the edges of the lower mandible,
and the greater muscularity of the stomach, in consequence of
which the species become partly granivorous. They move on
the ground with a kind of gait intermediate between leaping
and walking, and search for insects, worms, pupae, and seeds
near the shelter of bushes, to which they retreat on being dis-
turbed. Our common species, Motacilla modularis of Lin-
naeus, has been with propriety referred to the genus ; but,
although it has received that name, it is not so remarkable
for melody as many other species of the Linnaean Motacilla.
However, it is not altogether inaptly named, and Accentor is
just as applicable to the genus as Sylvia, Saxicola, and Fruti-
cicola, are to their respective groups.

Besides the common and generally distributed Accentor
modularis, one or two individuals of another species have oc-
curred in England.

251

ACCENTOR MODULARIS. THE HEDGE
CHANTER.

HEDGE SPARKOW. HEDGE WARBLER. DUNNOCK. DICK-DUNNOCK.
SHUFFLE-WING.

Motacilla modularis. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 3"29.

Sylvia modularis. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 511.

Hedge Warbler. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Accenteur mouchet. Accentor modularis. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 249.

Hedge Accentor. Accentor modularis. Selb. Illustr. L 248.

Accentor modularis. Hedge Accentor. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 103.

Upper part of the head and neck grey, streaked with brown ;
the back reddish-brown, icith dark brown spots ; the fore-neck
and breast dull ash-grey, the sides streaked u-ith brown.

Male. — This familiar, gentle, and modest little bird, the
very emblem of innocence, is perhaps the most despised of all
our native species. Had it swaggered along in a red jacket,
or screamed from the top of every eminence, or throttled all
the smaller birds that came in its way, it would no doubt have
attracted the regard of many, who scarcely deign to look upon
it. The only person whom I have ever heard to praise it,
was one of whose esteem it might be proud, if any praise
could elate so simple a creature. Indeed, I was not a little
surprised to hear him call it " a beautiful little bird ;"" but by that
epithet he no doubt meant to designate its moral more than its

252 ACCENTOR MODULARIS.

physical character. This admirer of the despised Hedge Spar-
row was the celebrated American Ornithologist.

The form and proportions of the Hedge Chanter have been
detailed in the generic character, to which it is unnecessary to
add more than a few particulars. The tongue is five-twelfths
of an inch long ; the oesophagus two inches and a quarter, with
an average diameter of two and a half twelfths ; the stomach
ten-twelfths long ; the intestine seven inches, its duodenal por-
tion two-twelfths across ; the coeca oblong, and two-twelfths
in length, their distance from the extremity ten-twelfths.

The nostrils are linear, and nearly a twelfth and a half long ;
the aperture of the eyes a twelfth and a half; that of the ears
three-twelfths. The tarsi are rather stout ; the hind toe strong,
with eight scutella, the second with ten, the third with thirteen,
the fourth with twelve. The claws are rather long, moderate-
ly arched, extremely compressed, and rather blunt, the first
much stronger than the third.

The plumage is blended, the feathers broadly oblong and
rounded. The wings are rather short, broad, and rounded.
The fourth quill is longest, but scarcely exceeds the fifth,
which is very little longer than the sixth ; the third is a little
shorter than the sixth, the second considerably shorter, and
the first about a third of the length of the second. The
quills are all rounded. The wings when closed reach to
about a third of the lengih of the tail-feathers. The tail is
slightly curved downwards, rounded, the lateral feathers bent
a little outwards.

The upper mandible is brownish-black ; its margin toward
the base reddish flesh-colovir, as is the lower mandible, which
becomes dusky toward the tip ; the iris dark brown ; the feet
brownish -yellow, the toes darker, the claws M^ood-brown. The
head and neck are dull grey above, streaked with dark brown,
the central part of each feather being of the latter colour. The
back and scapulars are light reddish-brown, spotted with dark
brown ; the rump and upper tail-coverts pale greenish-brown.
The wings and tail are dark greyish-brown, the quills and
secondary coverts broadly edged with reddish-brown, the tail-
feathers more narrowly. The auricular coverts are light brown,

HEDGE CHANTER. 253

with a central paler streak ; the throat, neck, and fore part of
the breast, are light purplish-grey ; the sides and tibiae pale
brown, the central part of each feather darker ; the abdomen
greyish-white ; the lower tail-coverts brown, with greyish
edges ; the lower wing-coverts light grey, tinged with brown.
The concealed part of the plumage is bluish-grey.

Length to end of tail 61 inches ; extent of wrings 8| ; bill
along the ridge j%, along the edge of lower mandible j\ ;
wing from flexure 2{§ ; tail 2| ; tarsus 10^ twelfths; first
toe 4^ twelfths, its claw 4i twelfths ; second toe 4i twelfths,
its claw If twelfths; third toe 7| twelfths, its claw /^ ;
fourth toe 4i twelfths, its claw If twelfths.

Female. — The female resembles the male so closely that the
sexes can scarcely be distinguished by any external characters.
The grey of the neck and breast is duller and tinged with brown,
and the rump is more olivaceous.

Length to end of tail 6 inches ; extent of wings 8i ; bill
along the ridge /^ ; wing from flexure 2-{^ ; tail 2j% ; tarsus
\%^ ; hind toe ^^, its claw j% ; middle toe {-r,, its claw ^^.

Variations. — Accidental variations are extremely rare, but
albinoes are sometimes met with. As the summer advances
the colours become fainter, and the reddish-brow^n edges of the
feathers narrower ; the grey of the lower parts assumes a paler
tint ; but in general the difference between the winter and
summer plumage is not remarkable.

Habits. — The history of the " Hedge Accentor" has been
penned by many sages, and cut into almost all possible sizes,
from four lines to as many paragraphs, and half as many pages ;
but we need not refer to books, for nothing is more easy than to
take our sketch from nature. Come here, station yourself at the
window, and observe the little brownish-grey birds that are
movincr about under the shade of that Laurocerasus. What
can they be looking for there, in the middle of winter, when
surely very few insects are to be found? Yet they shuffle along,
with short steps, with a half-hopping and half- walking move-

254 ACCENTOR MODULARIS.

ment, in a sort of crouching posture, looking intently on the
ground, and every now and then pick up some small article,
apparently too minute for us to perceive it were we quite close
to it. Quietly, peaceably, and industriously they search among
the tiny protuberances of the soil, gently raising and shaking
their wings as they proceed. A person passes within a few yards
of them, and yet they merely move a little way off, or quietly
hop into the bush, where they frisk about among the branches.
A pert Robin drops in among them, and they disperse, not
liking so troublesome a companion, but they shew no fear of
the Sparrows that have perched beside them, nor of the Thrush
that stands on one of the branches. They sometimes pick up
the small crumbs that are scattered near the door ; but fami-
liar and gentle as they are, they never enter the house, in the
most severe weather, or under any enticement.

At all seasons these birds are seen in the gardens, and by
the hedges, near houses ; but during winter and spring they
are much more numerous there, for those which in summer
preferred remote places, then approach the habitations of man,
although some still keep aloof. Hawthorn hedges are their
favourite haunts, and on the ground along their bases they
search for small seeds and insects, frequently making short
pedestrian excursions into the fields on the one hand, or the
footpath on the other. They flit about among the bushes with
great liveliness, often running along the ground, and seldom
perching on the upper branches. Owing to the dulness of
their colouring, and the celerity with which they take shelter,
they are not very readily perceived ; but they can scarcely be
called shy under any circumstances, and they often allow a
person to approach within a few yards, or even feet, without
shewing any apprehension. Even in winter they are not at
all gregarious, for you seldom find more than two or three to-
gether, and it is very rare to see two flying in the same direc-
tion. Their flights are generally very short, and without un-
dulation.

After the middle of spring, they are less frequently seen
about houses ; and at all seasons they are to be found in hedges
and among bushes, seldom appearing in open ground or upon

HEDGE CHANTER. 255

trees. In fine weather they sing even in winter, nor is there
any season of the year at which they are entirely mute ; but
from the middle of spring to the end of May especially, they
are heard chanting their short, clear, pleasantly modulated,
but not remarkably mellow song, generally when perched on
a twig, but sometimes on the ground, or a wall. During the
breeding season, the shake of their wings increases to a shuffle
or kind of flutter, which they execute at short intervals ; and
this habit can hardly fail to be observed by the most incurious.
Their ordinary cry is a slight cheep. They are not by any
means quarrelsome, either among themselves, or with other
small birds, and they seem to pair in the quietest possible
manner.

In dry sunny weather in summer I have watched them
basking on the road near a hedge. They would stand quite
motionless, their legs much bent, their tail touching the ground,
their wings spread a little, and their plumage all ruffled ; and
thus they remain a long time, seeming to enjoy the heat ex-
ceedingly, and suffering a person to approach very near them,
before they fly oif. At all seasons, but especially in winter, I
have found their stomach to contain small seeds of various
kinds, and frequently those of grasses ; but they also feed on
insects, pupae, and larvae. They use a great quantity of mi-
nute fragments of quartz and other hard minerals, which are
seldom met with in the gizzards of the Sylviae ; so that with
respect to feeding they resemble the Larks and Thrushes.

They nestle from the middle of March to the beginning of
May, choosing very frequently a hedge, or a holly bush, but
often contenting themselves with any low and moderately thick
shrub ; and as the nest is often completed before the leaves
have made much progress, it is very liable to be destroyed by
boys. It is bulky, from four and a half to five inches in
diameter externally, its interior two inches and a quarter
across, and nearly two inches deep. One before me is com-
posed externally of a few hawthorn twigs, a great quantity of
dry grass, and then a thick layer of moss. The lining is a
quarter of an inch thick, and composed of hair of different
kinds, with a considerable quantity of wool. Another is lined

258 ACCENTOR MODULARIS.

with horse and cow hair, intermixed with a large quantity of
the fur of the hare. The eggs, five or six in number, are of
a fine greenish-blue colour, and have an oval rather pointed
form, with a glossy surface ; their longitudinal diameter varying
from nine to ten twelfths, the transverse from six and a half to
seven twelfths. There are generally two broods in the season,

Mr Neville Wood remarks, that " none of our smaller
British Birds (the Field Thrush excepted) will build in a tree
or bush which already contains a nest, whether that nest be
deserted or not." I have seen however in a honeysuckle bower
three nests of small birds, namely the Thrush, the Green Lin-
net, and the Hedge Chanter ; and Sparrows sometimes build
among Rooks'' nests. That successful observer of the habits
of birds has given a very detailed and most accurate account
of those of the present species, which I therefore beg leave to
recommend to notice ; but from which I must refrain from
making extracts, being anxious to relate as little as possible of
the observations of others.

This bird is liable to a singular disease, consisting of tuber-
cular and apparently carcinomatous excrescences upon the eye-
lids and about the base of the bill. I have several times shot
individuals thus affected, but am unable to say whether the
complaint ever proves fatal. Indeed it is very seldom that
one falls in with small birds that have died, from whatever
cause, and the reason probably is that they are soon picked
up by rapacious quadrupeds and birds.

The Hedge Chanter is resident throughout the year, and
generally distributed. Even in the bare islands of the north
of Scotland, where there are no hedges, and scarcely a shrub
four feet high, it is here and there met with in the vicinity of
houses, where it builds in holes of walls, wood piles, and
similar places. Being extremely hardy, it does not perform
partial migrations, but remains in its native district, merely
drawing nearer to the habitations of man in winter, and oc-
casionally tending to enliven the dull season by its pleasant
song. It seems from the following note of my friend Mr
Weir, that it also claims a place among the nocturnal songsters.
" In a holly hedge about thirty yards from my bedroom win-

HEDGE CHANTER. 257

(low, when I resided at Lauriston near Edinburgh, I have
again and again heard the male, about eleven o'clock, in the
darkest evenings of autumn and winter, and even when it was
cold and frosty, go through his usual notes. At the regularity
of the time when he poured them forth, I have often been
astonished." Possibly this regularity may have depended uj)on
that of my friend, who in retiring to bed may have sent a
blaze of light through his window upon the hedge.

" The Hedge Chanter," says Mr Hepburn, " commences
singing about the 20th of February. I have seen its nest and eggs
by the beginning of April. Often two broods are raised in the
season. I have often seen it sitting on the very top of a tree
about tM'enty-five feet high, singing its sweet notes eight or
nine times in succession ; but during cold windy weather, it sel-
dom repeats it so often. The female sits eleven days."

Young. — When fully fledged, the young have the bill and
feet light brownish-red ; the plumage of the upper parts con-
fusedly mottled with dusky and light brownish-red, the tips of
the feathers being of the latter colour ; the quills dusky-brown,
with broad light-red edges, the secondary coverts tipped with
dull white ; the tail-feathers brown with light-reddish mar-
gins ; the lower parts light greyish-yellow, streaked with duslcy ;
the ear-coverts dusky, with a light central streak.

Remarks. — Although the bill of this bird is not properly
speaking conical, nor by any means stouter than that of many
Saxicolinae, it yet approaches in form to that of the Deglubi-
tores, and as its food consists for the most part of seeds, it is
certainly allied to that order, and in its own group may be
considered as representing them. This observation applies
with still more force to the next species, which some authors
have considered as a Warbler, others as a Starling or a Finch.

VOL. 11.

258

ACCENTOR ALPINUS. THE ALPINE CHANTER.

Fig. 159.

Motacilla alpina. Gmel. Syst. Nat. I. 957.

Sturnus collaris. Gmel. Syst. Nat. I. 806.

Sturnus collaris. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 323.

Accenteur Pigot ou des Alpes. Accentor alpinus. Temra. Man. d'Om.

I. 248.

Alpine Accentor. Accentor alpinus. Selb. lUustr. I. 247.

Accentor alpinus. Alpine Accentor. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 103.

Light broifiiish-grey ; the back with large dusky spots ; the
wing-coverts dusky, with a terminal white spot ; the throat white,
with small triangular black spots ; the sides broicnish-red ; the
bill yellowish-white at the base.

Male. — In its general appearance thi.<3 species bears an ob-
vious resemblance to our common Hedge Chanter, although
larger, differently coloured, and having the bill proportionally
more tapering. The form is rather full, the neck short,
the head ovate and of moderate size. The bill is rather
stout, conical, compressed toward the end, and pointed ; the
upper mandible with the dorsal line sloping and very slightly
deflected at the end, the edges a little involute beyond the

ALPINE CHANTER. 259

middle ; the lower mandible with the angle narrow, the dorsal
line straight, the sides inflected, the tip narrow. The feet are
rather stout ; the tarsus compressed, with eight anterior scu-
tella ; the toes of moderate length ; the hind toe stout, with
seven scutella, the second with nine, the third with thirteen,
the fourth with ten. The plumage is blended ; the wings are
of ordinary length ; the first quill very small, being only ten-
twelfths of an inch long, the second, third, and fourth almost
equal, but the third longest. The tail is of moderate length,
and even.

The upper mandible is dusky, excepting its basal margins,
which are yellowish- white, of which colour are three-fourths of
the lower mandible, its tip only being brown. The feet are
reddish-brown, the claws dusky. The head, hind part and
sides of the neck, are dull light brownish-grey ; the feathers of
the back blackish-brown, with greyish -brown margins ; the
rump of the latter colour. The wing-coverts are dusky, mar-
gined with reddish-brown ; the first row of small coverts, and
the secondary coverts, tipped with white ; the quills blackish-
brown, the inner secondaries brownish-black, margined with
reddish-brown. The tail is of the same colours, and tipped
with white. The cheek-feathers and ear-coverts are brown,
with a central whitish streak ; on the throat is a large patch
of greyish-white, marked with small triangular dusky spots ;
the sides and part of the breast are light brownish-red mixed
with grey ; the sides of the neck, its lower part anteriorly, and
the fore part of the breast, are of the same brownish-grey as
the hind-neck ; the abdomen greyish- white ; the lower tail-
coverts greyish-brown, margined with brownish-white.

Length to end of tail 7 inches ; bill along the ridge ^^ ;
along the edge of lower mandible y | ; wing from flexure 3 j\ ;
tail2| ; tarsus 1^^^ ; hind toe i\, its claw |^^ ; second toe |i, its
claw l\ ; third toe y\, its claw t% ; fourth toe ||, its claw 1%.

Female. — The female is similar to the male.

Habits. — This species, which is said to be of frequent occur-
rence in the Alps, and in the mountainous parts of Germany,

260 ACCENTOR ALPINUS.

France, and Italy, having been met with in a few instances in
England, must be admitted into the list of British birds as a
rare visitant. In November 1822, a female was killed in the
garden of King's College, Cambridge, and is now in Dr
Thackeray''s collection. It had been accompanied by another
individual, which was supposed to have become the prey of a
cat, these birds having evinced an extraordinary degree of tame-
ness. In January 1882, Mr James Pamplin, in a letter to Mr
Loudon, published in the Magazine of Natural History, an-
nounced his having shot another in a garden on the borders of
Epping Forest. Lastly, Dr Goodenough, Dean of Wells in
Somersetshire, has intimated to Mr Yarrell the occurrence of
a third, which was shot in his garden. On the continent it is
said to frequent the higher regions in summer, whence it de-
scends on the approach of winter. Its food consists of insects
and seeds of various kinds, in which respect, as well as its in-
apprehension of danger from the proximity of man, it resembles
our common species. It generally breeds in rocky places, form-
ing its nest of moss, wool, and hair, and laying five light
greenish-blue eggs.

Remarks. — The difference in the bills of Accentor and Eri-
thacus is very slight, and their wings are very similar. In
their habits these genera have no resemblance to the Tits ;
yet, in Mr Swainson's system, Accentor is a genus of the
Parinse, and has for a subgenus Seiurus, which certainly in
form and habits has not more affinity to Parus than to Mota-
cilla. The specimens from which the above description has
been taken were obtained from Paris.

261

ERITHACUS. REDBREAST.

Bill rather short, straight, slender, broader than high at
the base, compressed towards the end ; upper mandible with
its dorsal outline slightly convexo-declinate, the ridge rather
obtuse, the sides sloping at the base, convex towards the end,
the edges sharp, direct and overlapping, the tip narrow and
abruptly rounded, the notch small but distinct ; lower man-
dible straight, the angle of moderate length, rather narrow and
somewhat rounded, the dorsal outline ascending and slightly
convex, the back convex, the sides of the crura nearly flat and
sloping outwards, towards the end convex, the edges direct, the
gape-line nearly straight.

The mouth narrow ; both mandibles concave within, with
a median prominent line ; the palate nearly flat, with two
longitudinal prominent lines ; the posterior aperture of the
nares oblongo-linear, edged behind with small papillae. Tongue
oblong, sagittate and papillate at the base, a little concave
above, its free part beneath a little convex, with a median
groove, its extremity rounded and lacerated. The aperture of
the glottis has two rows and a large pad of papillae behind.
The oesophagus is of moderate width, nearly uniform in dia-
meter ; the proventriculus oblong, with short oblong glandules.
The stomach of moderate size, roundish-elliptical, with strong
lateral muscles, a rather distinct inferior muscle, large tendons,
and rugous epithelium. The intestine is of moderate length
and width, nearly uniform in diameter ; the cceca very small,
cylindrical ; the rectum wider and dilated towards the end.

Nostrils longish, linear, straight, in the lower and fore part
of the nasal depression, which is rather long, large, feathered
in the greater part of its extent, anteriorly bare, with an oblong
operculum. Eyes of moderate size ; the eyelids feathered,
their bare edges crenate. Aperture of the ear large, roundish.

262 ERITHACUS. REDBREAST.

The general form is rather compact ; the hody ovate, a
little deeper than broad, the neck short, the head of moderate
size, and oblong. The legs longish, slender ; tarsus much com-
pressed, anteriorly covered with a long undivided piece, and
three inferior scutella, but with indications of seven scutella in
all, posteriorly sharp-edged with two longitudinal plates. Toes
of moderate size, much compressed ; the first stout, the lateral
about equal, the third much longer. Claws of ordinary length,
arcuate, acute, extremely compressed, laterally grooved.

Plumage full, soft, blended, the feathers ovate, rounded,
with a plumule composed of a few very long barbs. A row
of pretty long bristle-feathers along the basal margin of the
upper mandible. Feathers at the base of the bill and in the
loral space bristle-tipped. Wing short, broad, concave, much
rounded ; quills eighteen ; the first about half the length of
the second, w^iich is much shorter than the third, the fourth
longest ; the secondaries rounded, with a slight acumen. Tail
of moderate length, slightly decurved, nearly even, the feathers
rather narrow and obliquely acute.

The genus Erithacus, for which I adopt the Aristotelian
name 'E^/^axog is very nearly allied to the genera Saxicola and
Rubicola, as well as to Sialia and Turdus. In the form of
their bill the Erithaci and Sialise greatly resemble the Thrushes,
and their habits are in several respects similar, as will be
seen more particularly on comparing my descriptions of the
Robin and the Song Thrush. They frequent woods, thickets,
and gardens, but seek their food chiefly on the ground,
where they hop in the manner of the Thrushes, keeping
their wings depressed and their tail horizontal. They feed
on insects, larvre, and worms ; form a bulky nest, which
is placed on the ground in some concealed spot, or in the
holes of trees or walls ; lay from five to seven eggs, and
generally breed twice in the season. Their song is short,
modulated, and melodious; they are extremely pugnacious,
bold in the defence of their young, and less apprehensive of
danger from man than most small birds. Only a single species
occurs in this country, the familiar, universally known, and
favourite Robin Redbreast.

263

ERITHACUS RUBECULA. THE ROBIN
REDBREAST.

ROBIN. REDBREAST. ROBINET. RUDDOCK. BROINUERG.

Fig. IGO.

Motacilla Rubecula. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 337.

Sylvia Rubecula. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 520.

Redbreast. Moat. Orn. Diet.

Bee-fin, Rouge-gorge. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 215.

Redbreast. Erythaca Rubecula. Selb. Illustr. L 188.

Sylvia Rubecula, Redbreast. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 103.

Plumage of the upper parts oUte-green ; the forehead^ cheeks^
fore-neck and part of the breast, light yellowish-red.

Male. — It may by some be considered superfluous to give a
minute description of a bird so well known as the Robin ; but
the common and familiar are at least as worthy of attentive
observation as the scarce and shy, and it is not consistent with
the plan of this work to pass over any object or circumstance
however trivial. The general form of this species has been
described in the generic character. Its bill is rather short, slen-
der, with the tip slightly decurved and extending very little be-
yond that of the lower mandible. The tongue is four and a half
twelfths long. The oesophagus two inches and two twelfths
in length, its average diameter two twelfths ; the stomach
broadly elliptical, nine twelfths long, its lateral muscles strong ;

264 ERITHACUS RUBECULA.

the intestine eight inches long, and from two to one and a
half twelfths in diameter ; the coeca cylindrical, two and a
half twelfths long, and one inch distant from the extremity.

The nostrils are linear, nearly two twelfths long ; the aper-
ture of the eyes two twelfths across ; that of the ears three
twelfths. The feet are slender, the tarsi slightly longer than
the middle toe with its claw, slender, and much compressed,
covered anteriorly with a long plate in which however are
traces of four scutella, and three inferior distinct scutella ; the
hind toe stouter, with eight, the second with eight, the third
with thirteen, the fourth with twelve scutella. The claws are
of moderate length, moderately arched, extremely slender,
laterally grooved, and acute.

The plumage is very soft and blended, the feathers ovate
Avith very loose barbs, of which the barbules are long and
downy. The feathers about the base of the bill, and especially
those before the eyes are terminated by bristle-points ; there
is a row of small bristle-feathers along the basal margin of the
upper mandible ; and a few extremely slender filaments, hav-
ing a slit or penicillate tip, protrude from among the feathers
of the nape, as in many Thrushes. The wing is broad, con-
cave, and much rounded ; the first quill about half the length
of the second, the fourth longest, the fifth scarcely shorter,
the third almost as long as the fifth, the second much shorter ;
the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth slightly cut out on the outer
web towards the end ; the primaries rounded, the secondaries
broadly rounded, with a slight acumen. The tail is of mo-
derate length, nearly straight, narrow, a little emarginate, the
feathers narrow and obliquely pointed.

The upper mandible is brownish-black, the lower flesh-
coloured at the base, dusky at the end. The iris brown. The
feet are yellowish-brown, the claws of the same colour. The
upper parts of the plumage are olive-green ; the quills and tail-
feathers greyish -brown, the outer edges of the former olive-
green, of the latter, especially at the base, reddish-brown ; the
outer secondary coverts have a small brownish-yellow spot at
the tip. The feathers on the anterior part of the forehead,
loral space, sides of the head, fore-neck, and anterior part of

KOBIN REDBREAST. 265

the breast, are yellowish red. A line of ash-grey extends from
the forehead over the upper eyelid and down the side of the
neck, expanding and terminating on the side of the thorax.
The middle pectoral and abdominal feathers are greyish-white,
those of the sides dull yellowish ; the lower wing-coverts grey,
tinged with yellowish-red. The concealed part of all the
feathers is greyish-black, the shafts whitish.

Length to end of tail 6^2 inches ; extent of wings 9 ; wing
from flexure 2}! ; tail 2^ ; bill along the ridge ^^, along the
edge of lower mandible ^^ ; tarsus 1 j*^ ; first toe y^, its claw
|i ; second toe /j, its claw /^ ; third toe l\. its claw /^ '
fourth toe H, its claw /g.

Female. — The female differs very little from the male. The
red on the neck is somewhat paler, the longitudinal grey band
less distinct, and the upper parts are tinged with grey.

Length to end of tail o^-^ inches ; extent of wings 9.

Variations. — Individuals of a greyish or yellowish-white,
and others with some of the feathers white, are rarely met
with. Adult individuals in perfect plumage vary slightly in the
tint of the upper parts, as well as in that of the fore-neck.

Changes. — As the plumage becomes old, the olive-green of
the upper parts becomes tinged with grey, and the wings and
tail assume a bleached appearance, while the red of the neck
acquires a lighter or more yellowish tint.

Habits. — The lively, pert, pugnacious, and cheerful Robin,
doubtless merits a more able biographer than he whose duty it
is here to describe its mode of life ; but, leaving the poetry of
its history to those whose delight is in the marvellous and dis-
torted, let us walk abroad to look on nature as she is. It is
now the end of September ; the corn is nearly all secured, most
of the wild flowers have faded, the woods begin to assume a
yellow tint, and the hot days are succeeded by chilly evenings,
the still soft and humid air of which imparts a feeling of reno-
vated vigour. In the gardens, along the hedges, and about the

266 ERITHACUS RUBFX'ULA.

farm-houses, you meet here and there with the ever welcome
and familiar Redbreast, who since the end of April had dis-
appeared, having betaken himself to the woods and thickets,
where, no doubt, he has passed a busy and a happy season.
Now, he revisits his w^inter haunts, where, in the vicinity of
human habitations, he finds a more ample supply of worms,
pupfE, and insects, than occurs in the fields and pastures.

The ordinary attitude of the Robin is very similar to that of
the Song Thrush. There he stands under the hedge, as if lis-
tening, or surveying the neighbourhood, his body inclined, his
wings drooping, his head a little raised, and his full and humid
eye beaming with a mild lustre. Now he starts, hops forward
a short w^ay, picks up something which he has spied, resumes
his former attitude, observes a worm partially protruded and
wriggling among the grass, attacks it, and wrenches offa good-
ly piece, which he divides into morsels and swallows. And
thus he goes on all day, taking matters quite coolly, seldom
appearing in a hurry, but gleaning the small dainties which
the bounteous hand of providence has spread around for his
use. When disturbed, he flies into the hedge, or perches on
the wall, where he stands a while, and then perhaps amuses
himself with a sweet little song.

The flight of the Robin is usually rapid, direct, and without
undulations, never performed at a great height, but generally
by short starts from hedge to bush, or from wall to railing. At
all seasons, when the weather is fine, it may occasionally be
heard chanting its short, mellow, and enlivening song. It is
quite solitary in winter, two individuals being seldom seen to-
gether, and it scarcely ever mingles with other species, even
the Hedge Chanter, its nearest neighbour. Indeed, it has a
sort of dislike to other small birds, which it sometimes attacks
and generally puts to flight. Even the House Sparrow, stout
as it is, cannot withstand its onset, but is glad to escape from
so troublesome a little fellow.

But pert and forward as he is, in ordinary times he is not
perfectly disposed to trust to man; for the Hedge Chanter and
the Sparrow generally allow a much nearer approach. Yet,
when his wants are urgent, during protracted hunger caused by

ROBIN REDBREAST. 2()7

the continuance of snow or frosty weather, he ventures much
nearer than any other species, stands in the window or door,
picks up the crumbs that are scattered about, or have been pur-
posely left, and, when an opportunity presents itself, sometimes
even visits the interior of the house, where, if there be no cat,
he is perfectly safe, as every body loves him, and the children,
mindful of " the babes in the wood,"" cherish the friend of in-
nocence.

The song of the Robin is rich, mellow, and modulated. Two
birds, perched on a tree, bush, or wall, at a distance, often re-
spond to each other, in the manner of the Song Thrush, espe-
cially in calm and clear evenings. Not unfrequently it sings
even in dull or rainy weather, when no better music is heard
than the chirping of Sparrows, or the cheep of the Hedge Chan-
ter, which, although it is a very tolerable musician, is not so
lavish of its song.

Although most of the Redbreasts retire from the vicinity of
human habitations in summer, and betake themselves to the
woods and distant parts of hedges, yet some go to no great dis-
tance, but take up their abode in a hedge or copse, or on a
mossy bank, close to their winter haunts. It does not appear
that they remain paired in winter ; but at all events, they are
seen in pairs by the end of February ; and sometimes the
young have been found in their nests so early as the end of
March. In general however, the eggs are deposited about the
beginning of April. On the 9th of May, 1831, I saw a young
Robin, nearly fully fledged, in a hedge at St Bernard's Well,
in Edinburgh, the season being rather backward, and authors
have given a much earlier period for their appearance. On the
2d of June, 1837, after a remarkably severe winter and spring,
my son brought me two scarcely fledged birds, which, with the
rest, scrambled from the nest ; and these were in all probabi-
lity of the first brood.

The nest is placed under a hedge or bush, on the ground,
among herbage, or on a mossy bank. I have never met with
it in a tree, shrub, or hedge. It has been variously described
by authors, some of whom have given a most marvellous ac-
count of it, stating that it is constructed of oak leaves, arched

268 ERITHACUS RUBECULA.

over, and having a long porch built of the same materials be-
fore the door. Here is one found in Dalhousie woods, some
miles southward of Edinburgh, on the 22d April 1837. It is
bulky, rather loosely constructed, its external diameter five
inches and three quarters, its internal diameter two inches and
a half, its walls an inch and three-fourths in thickness. Its
basis is composed of moss and decayed leaves of trees, with
broad blades of grass ; the middle layer of fine stalks and leaves
of grass, mosses of several species, loosely interwoven, with a
few skeleton leaves ; the lining of hairs and wool of a white
colour, and a quarter of an inch thick. The eggs in this nest
were five, and their general number is five or six. They are
of a regular oval form, averaging nine and a half twelfths in
length, and seven and a fourth twelfths in their greatest breadth,
of a delicate reddish- white, faintly freckled with light purplish-
red, the markings thickest on the larger end, and sometimes
forming a kind of belt there.

In summer the Robin, although not at all shy, is less fre-
quently observed, as it prefers the woods, thickets, and hedges
to the open fields. Although pugnacious enough on ordinary
occasions, it is not nearly so bold as many other small birds
when its nest is approached by man, but keeps hopping about
at some distance, and uttering a feeble cheep, without making
any manifest attempts to decoy him away ; yet it will attack
a cat, and is more than a match for any bird of its own size.

To these observations of my own, I add the following by
my friend JMr Weir. " It is a mistaken notion that the Red-
breasts during summer remove from the habitations of man,
and build their nests in wild and secluded places. At a little
distance from my stable a pair have built on the same bank for
several successive years. Another pair built on the side of a
ditch, a few feet from the door of my shrubbery, and brought
to maturity six young ones, although people passed and repass-
ed the nest many times during the day. Another pair have
built for several years at the bottom of a hedge not far from
my house, and now have young ones (10th June 1837) which
are flying about, and are very tame. Many of those however
which in summer had resided at a distance, approach the

ROBIN REDBREAST. 269

abodes of man in winter, and when there is a fall of snow or
a severe frost, there is scarcely a cottage or a house in the
country, at the doors of which they fail to make their appear-
ance. Sometimes they even tap at the windows with their
bills, as if to solicit admission ; and when it is given to them,
they will hop up and down the floor, and pick up the crumbs.
In every age their familiarity has engaged the attention, and
secured to them the protection of mankind. In my parish
they are held as sacred by the bird-searching youths as the
vultures are in the neighbourhood of Grand Cairo, where no
one is permitted to destroy them. For very few even of the
most daring and hard-hearted amongst them will venture to de-
stroy either them or their eggs. So deeply have their minds
been impressed by the recital of the well-known and affecting
history of the babes of the wood, who, after they had been
left to perish with hunger, were covered with leaves by these
little creatures.

" During the months of autumn and amidst the desolations of
winter, when almost all the songsters of the woods are silent,
we listen to their pleasing notes with delight. I have known
several curious facts relative to their tameness, of which I shall
relate only one at present. In the summer of 1835 a male
robin in my garden became so tame that he picked worms
from the hand of the gardener, and in the middle of the day,
when the latter took his dinner, he constantly attended for
the purpose of obtaining a portion of it. Upon the knee
of my wnfe I have repeatedly seen him alight, and take
bread out of her hand as familiarly as if he had been
tamed from the nest. To me he likewise became very much
attached. He continued so during the autumn. One cold
morning in the beginning of winter, as I was standing at the
door of my house, having heard my voice he immediately flew
to me, and, seeming to claim my protection, followed me into
the parlour, where he was quite at ease. I caught him
and put him into my garret, in which, during the winter, he
sang most delightfully. Being sorry to see him alone, I got
for him a helpmate to cheer him in his confinement. About
the middle of April I set them at liberty, and, to my surprise,
a few days after I discovered a very neat nest which they had

270 ERITHACUS RUBECULA.

built. The outside of it was composed of the stalks of dried
horehound, ^Yhich I had sus^^euded from the roof as a medicine
for the cold, and the inside was lined with a few feathers, and
the down of the ragwort which I had there kept for my bul-
finch. It shews to what shifts birds have recourse when de-
prived of the proper materials for the construction of their nests.
About eight days after this, whilst I was sitting in the parlour,
my old friend flew in, and immediately recognised me. After
keeping him for two weeks I put him out, when he flew to the
garden, where he remained during the summer, and with his
partner reared a brood of six fine robins."

This species is generally distributed, being found in all parts
of England and Scotland, and occasionally even in the bare
islands of the Outer Hebrides and Shetland. On the continent
it is stated to be very extensively dispersed and stationary even
in the coldest parts. There seems to be no reason for supposing
that any individuals leave this country in winter, or that any
accessions to the indigenous stock are made by migrants from
the north of Europe.

The Robin, no doubt, is exposed to many enemies, but I am
not qualified to say any thing on the subject, not having met
with an instance of its capture by weasel or fitch et, hawk or
howlet. Whatever may be the quality of its flesh, its blood
has a singularly bitter and nauseous taste, as I happened acci-
dentally to ascertain by removing with my mouth some drops
from one which I intended for description.

Young. — The young, which are at first sparingly covered
with loose down of a greyish-brown colour, are w^hen fledged
as follows : — The upper mandible is light purplish-brown, its
edges yellow, the sides and greater part of the lower mandible
yellowish, the end brown. The feet are yellowish flesh-colour,
the soles and heels yellow. The upper parts are variegated
with dusky olive and dull orange, there being a spot of the
latter on each feather ; the wings and tail olivaceous, the se-
condary coverts largely tipped with dusky orange ; the lower
parts are brownish-yellow, deeper on the breast, minutely
mottled with dark-brown, the tips and edges being of that
colour.

271

FRUTICICOLA. BUSHCHAT.

Bill short, straight, slender, depressed at the base, compress-
ed towards the end : upper mandible with its dorsal outline
declinate and nearly straight, the ridge narrow at the base on
account of the breadth of the nasal membrane, and continuing
rather sharp to the tip, which is deflected, narrow, and rather
acute, with a small notch, the sides sloping at the base, con-
vex towards the end, the edges sharp and overlapping ; lower
mandible straight, the angle of moderate length, rather nar-
row, and somewhat rounded, the back broad and flattened
at the base, narrow and convex towards the end, the sides of
the crura nearly flat and sloping outwards, towards the end
convex, the edges sharp and inflected, the tip narrowed to a
blunt point ; the gape-line straight.

The mouth rather wide ; both mandibles concave within,
with a median prominent line ; the palate nearly flat, with
two longitudinal prominent lines ; the posterior aperture of
the nares oblongo-linear, edged behind with small papillge.
Tongue short, sagittate, rather narrow, at the base emargi-
nate and papillate, two of the papillse much larger, concave
above, horny towards the end, bristly on the edges, the tip
slit. Aperture of the glottis with two rows and a large pad
of papilloe behind. The oesophagus is of moderate width,
nearly uniform in diameter ; the proventriculus oblong, with
short oblong glandules. The stomach of moderate size, round-
ish-elliptical, compressed, its lateral muscles rather thick, the
lower not very distinct, the tendons rather large, the cuticu-
lar lining tough and longitudinally rugous. The intestine is
of moderate length and of nearly uniform width ; the coeca
very small ; the rectum dilated towards the end.

Nostrils small, elliptical, direct, pervious, in the fore part of
the large and broad nasal membrane, which is anteriorly bare.
Eyes of moderate size ; the eyelids feathered towards the mar-

272 FRUTICICOLA. BUSHCIIAT.

gin, their edges bare and crenate. External aperture of the
ear large, and roundish.

The general form is rather compact ; the body ovate and
rather full, the neck short, the head rather large, ovate and
convex above. The legs of moderate length, and slender ;
tarsus of moderate length, slender, much compressed, covered
anteriorly with a long plate and four anterior scutella, poste-
riorly with two long plates meeting at an extremely acute
angle. Toes rather short, slender, the second and fourth
about equal, the first strongest and longer, the third much
longer, and united to the fourth as far as the second joint of
the latter. Claws long, moderately arched, extremely compress-
ed, laterally grooved, tapering to an extremely acute point.

Plumage soft and blended, the feathers ovate, with very
loose filaments, and slender plumule. Wings short, curved,
broad, semi-ovate ; quills eighteen ; the first primary ex-
tremely small, being about a fourth of the length of the se-
cond, which is shorter than the third, the latter about equal
to the fourth, the fifth scarcely shorter ; the primaries rounded,
the secondaries broad, and obliquely rounded. Tail short,
nearly even, the feathers rather narrow, obliquely rounded.
The feathers about the base of the bill are bristle-tipped, and
the bristle-feathers are rather large.

This genus diifers little from Saxicola, and one of its species,
Fruticicola Rubetra, has the point of the wing nearly of the same
form as Saxicola CEnanthe. The bill is shorter and broader,
the tarsi shorter, the wings also shorter, and moreover curved,
as is the case with the tail. The whole form is more abbre-
viated, with the plumage more tufty and of looser texture.
While the Saxicolse inhabit open pastures and betake them-
selves to stony and rocky places, making their nests in holes,
the Fruticicolas prefer bushy places, perch on the twigs, whence
they sally forth in pursuit of insects like the Flycatchers, and
place their nest on the ground under a shrub. Their nearest
allies are the Saxicolre, Sialiae, Phoenicuri, and Muscicapse.

Two species occur in Britain, one migratory, the other resi-
dent. They are found chiefly on heaths, commons, and wastes
overgrown with juniper, furze, brambles, sloes, and other shrubs.

273

FRUTICICOLA RUBETRA. THE WHIN
BUSHCHAT.

WHINCHAT. FURZECHAT.

Motacilla Rubetra. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 332.

Sylvia Rubetra. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 525.

Whinchat. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Traquet Tarier. Saxicola Rubetra. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 244.

Whin-Chat. Saxicola Rubetra. Selb. lllustr. L 183.

Saxicola Rubetra. Whin-Chat. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 120.

Male tcith the upper parts light yellowish-red^ streaJced with
distinct oblong hlackish-hrown spots ; a yellowish-white hand over
the eye ; a patch on the wing, a longitudinal hand on each side
of the neck, ancl the hasal part of the tail, ichite ; the lower parts
light red anteriorly, paler hehind. Female with the dark spots
larger, the white markings less conspicuous, that on the icing occu-
pying only the tips of some of the coverts, the lower parts of a
duller and pcder tint. Young icith the upper parts dusky, each
feather marked xcith a central oblong yellowish-grey spot, the
lower parts light greyish-brown, the feathers on the fore-neck mar-
gined with dusky.

Male. — The Whinchat is intermediate in form and propor-
tions between the White-rumped Stonechat and the Black-
headed Bushchat. It is a small, compact, lively bird, which

VOL. II. T

274 FRUTICICOLA RUBETRA.

renders itself consjjicuous by its habit of perching on the top
twigs of bushes, whence it sallies forth in pursuit of insects.
Its bill is of moderate length, considerably dilated at the base,
compressed towards the end, the edges of both mandibles sharp
and inclined outwards. The tongue is fiv^e -twelfths of an inch
long, narrow-sagittate, a little concave above, thin-edged, the
margins lacerated towards the tip, which is slit. The oesopha-
gus is an inch and eleven-twelfths long, its average diameter
two-twelfths. The stomach is broadly elliptical, compressed,
eight-twelfths long, its lateral muscles large. The intestine is
seven inches long, and varies in width from two and a half
twelfths to tw^o-twelfths ; the coeca oblong, one-twelfth long,
and an inch distant from the extremity.

The nostrils are elliptical, pervious, w^ith a small operculum,
and only three quarters of a twelfth long. The aperture of the
eyes is a twelfth and a half; that of the ears three-twelfths.
The tarsi are of moderate length, slender, and much com-
pressed, their anterior scutella indistinct, excepting the lower
four ; the toes small, much compressed ; the first with eight,
the second with ten, the third with thirteen, the fourth with
twelve scutella ; the claws long, slightly arched, extremely com-
pressed, laterally grooved, tapering to an extremely acute point.

The plumage is very soft and blended ; the feathers ovate,
with loose filaments ; the bristle-feathers at the base of the
upper mandible rather strong. The wings are of moderate
length, a little curved, with eighteen quills, wdiich are all
rounded ; the first primary very small, being about a third of
the length of the second, which is but slightly shorter than the
third and fourth ; the third, fourth and fifth are cut out on the
outer edges towards the end. The wing thus, in the form of its
tip, resembles that of the White-rumped Stonechat, but is pro-
portionally shorter and less straight. The tail is short, nearly
even, the lateral feathers a little shorter ; all the feathers rounded.

The bill and feet are black. The iris dusky brown. The
general colour of the upper parts is pale yellowish-red, streaked
with oblong blackish-brown spots, the central part of each fea-
ther being of the latter colour. A white band extends over the
eye, from near the middle of the forehead to the side of the oc-

WHIN BUSHCHAT. 275

ciinit, being tinged with yellowish -red behind ; below it is a
broad band or patch of black, including the auricular coverts,
which are streaked with brown. The quills are dusky brown,
margined with light yellowish-red, the coverts darker. When
the wing is expanded, three white spots appear upon it : a large
patch including some of the small coverts and the basal portions
of the nearer secondary quills ; another on the edge of the wing
formed by the basal part of the primary coverts ; and a smaller
formed by the basal part of the outer primary quills. But
when the wing is closed, the first of these only is seen. The
rump is yellowish-red, its dusky spots much smaller than those
of the back ; the tail dusky brown, its basal half white, but
only a fourth of the two middle feathers of that colour, the
shafts of all dusky. A white band passes from the throat down
the side of the neck, under the black patch ; the fore-neck and
anterior part of the breast are light yellowish-red, and the rest
of the lower parts are reddish- white tinged with grey, except-
ing the axillar feathers which are white, the lower wing-coverts,
which are dusky, broadly margined with whitish, and the tibial
feathers, which are also dusky in their basal portion.

Length to end of tail 5^ inches ; extent of wings 9:i ; wing
from flexure 2{^ ; tail l^S ; bill along the ridge j%^ along the
edge of lower mandible ^\^ ; tarsus ^'| ; first toe j'^, its claw ^^ ;
second toe j|, its claw j| ; third toe ^"g, its claw j^ ; fourth
toe J I, its claw /g.

Female. — The female is scarcely inferior in size to the
male, and is coloured in the same manner, but differs in the
brightness of the tints. The dark spots on the back are broader,
and of a much lighter brown. The ear-coverts are dull reddish-
brown, the longitudinal white bands on the neck are narrower,
the lower parts paler, and the white patch on the wings is con-
fined to the tips of some of the small coverts. The tongue is five-
twelfths of an inch long. CEsophagus an inch and three quarters
long ; stomach eight-twelfths ; intestine six inches and a half;
coeca one-twelfth.

Length to end of tail oj inches ; extent of wings 9 x% ; wing
from flexure 2{^ ; tail Iji ; bill along the ridge ^^^ ; tarsus i"|;
middle toe and claw ^§.

276 FRUTICICOLA RUBETRA.

Variations. — The variations which this species exhibits are
so very sHght as scarcely to admit of being described.

Changes. — The phimage being coloured as above described
in spring, when the species makes its first appearance with us,
undergoes considerable change as the season advances. The
upper parts become darker, as the edges of the feathers are
abraded ; the wings of a more uniform but lighter brown ; the
fore-neck and breast of a paler red, and the white markings of
a purer tint. By the end of summer, the oblong blackish-
brown spots on the upper parts are rendered more conspicuous,
by the abrasion of the light-coloured edges of the feathers, and
the red on the fore-neck has faded in a very remarkable degree,
while the rest of the lower parts have become greyish-white.
The female exhibits similar changes. Specimens shot in the
beginning of July by Mr Weir are in this state.

Habits. — The Whin Bushchat generally arrives about a
month later than the White-rumped Stonechat, and in the
south of Scotland seldom makes its appearance before the end
of April, while it is stated to arrive in the south of England
about the middle of that month. It is generally distributed
over the country, occurring here and there in pastures, chiefly
in hilly and upland parts, though also in low and level tracts,
that are overgrown with furze, juniper, sloe, brambles or briars.
On the ground, where it is seldom seen however, it hops with
great activity, flitting on wing by short starts from place to
place. The station on which it is most frequently met with
is the topmost twig of a bush, "vs'hence it issues now and then
to pursue an insect on wing, or search for food on the ground.
When stationed, it is continually jerking its body and tail, and
at every movement it utters a short and rather sharp note re-
sembling the syllable cliack or cliat^ whence, w^ith its usual
place of resort, it has obtained the vernacular name of Whin-
chat. Its food consists chiefly of small coleopterous insects.
In the stomachs of those which I have opened, I have never
found any other substance, nor any particles of quartz or other
mineral. It is when perched on a twig, and often when flut-

WHIN BUSHCHAT. 277

tering in the air over it, that it performs its short, modulated,
cheerful song, which resembles that of the White-rumped
Stonechat, but is inferior to it in mellowness and compass. In
this respect the Bushchats resemble the White-throated War-
bler ; and, in fact, both in form and habits, a gradation may
easily be traced through the different species of the extensive
family of Cantatores. The Whin Bushchat is generally shy
and vigilant, so that it is not easily shot, unless in the vicinity
of its nest, from which it endeavours in various ways to decoy
an intruder. If wounded, it hides among the bushes, and is
very difficult to be traced.

When one approaches their nest, they evince great anxiety ;
but at first keep at some distance, perch on the top twigs of
the bushes, and at short intervals emit a mellow plaintive note
followed by several short notes resembling the ticking of a
clock, or that produced by striking two pebbles together, and
at the same time jerk out their tail and flap their wings. When
the plaintive note alone is uttered, they do not move the body
or wings ; but for every two ticks, there is a jerk of the tail,
accompanied by a slight elevation of the wings. The notes
may be represented by the syllables, peep^ tick^ tick^ ticJc^ tick.
Sometimes a single tick only is emitted, frequently four or five,
rarely six. If you go nearer the nest, they advance, redouble
their cries, flit about from bush to bush, and sometimes hover
in a fluttering manner at the height of a few feet.

This species breeds twice in the season, the first brood being
abroad from the middle of June to the beginning of July, the
second in August. The nest is concealed among shrubs and
herbage, being placed on the ground, and is composed of stems
and blades of grasses, with fibrous roots, and mosses, its interior
formed of finer fibres and hair of various kinds. It is very large,
its external diameter being six inches, the internal two and a
half. The eggs, which are four or five in number, are of a
uniform light greenish-blue, sometimes marked with brownish-
red dots, but generally unspotted ; their average length eight
and a half twelfths, their greatest breadth six and a half
twelfths.

278

FRUTICICOLA RUBETRA.

Young. — The young when fledged have the bill and feet
greyish-brown, the upj^er parts dusky, gradually passing into
light yellowish-red behind, each feather with a terminal ob-
long narrow brownish-yellow spot ; the w^ing and tail-feathers
brownish-black, broadly edged with brownish-red ; the tips of
some of the smaller wing-coverts whitish, the lower parts light
yellowish-brown, passing into brownish-white on the abdomen ;
the feathers on the fore-neck margined with dusky ; the basal
half of the tail-feathers, excepting the two middle, white.

Progress toward Maturity. — The young of the first brood
moult before the species takes its departure, and are then simi-
lar to the old birds.

Remarks. — This species is easily distinguished from the next,
by the two bands on each side of the head, the one white and
the other dusky ; as well as by the difference in the propor-
tional length of the outer primaries, as represented by the ac-
companying figures.

279

FRUTICICOLA RUBICOLA. THE BLACK-HEADED
BUSHCHAT.

STONECHAT. STONESMICH. STONECH.VTTER. BL.\CKY-TOP. SNAC.

Motacilla Rubicola. Linn. Syst. Nat. I.

Sylvia Rubicola. Lath. Ind. Oru. II. 523.

Stonechat. Mont. Oin, Diet.

Traquet patre. Saxicola rubicola. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 24().

Traquet rubicole. Saxicola rubicola. Temm. III. 168.

Stone-Chat. Sasicola Rubicola. Selb. lUustr. I. 185.

Saxicola Rubicola. Stone-Chat. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 121.

Male with the head and throat black, the breast brownish-red,
the sides of the neck, a spot on the icings, and the basal part of
the upper tail-coverts, white, the upper parts brownish-black, the
feathers edged with brownish-red. Female with the head and
xipper parts streaked ifith brownish-black and brownish-red, the
throat yellow ish-greg, the breast dull brownish-red, a white spot
on the wings, and the upper tail-coverts yellowish-red. Young
xcitli the upper parts dusky, streaked with pale yellowish-red, the
lower dull yellowish-brown, the fore-neck mottled ivith dusky, and
some of the inner secondary coverts white.

Male. — This species closelyreserablesthe Whiiichat in form,
but has a shorter and fuller appearance, chiefly produced how-

280 FRUTICICOLA RUBICOLA.

ever by the greater looseness and tufty texture of its plumage.
The bill is rather short, considerably dilated at the base, com-
pressed towards the end, in short in all respects similar to that
of the preceding species, but with the tip of the upper man-
dible more decurved. The tongue is five-twelfths of an inch
long, narrow-sagittate, concave above, thin-edged, the tip slit
and slightly lacerated. The oesophagus is an inch and ten
twelfths long, its average diameter two twelfths. The stomach
is seven and a half twelfths long, broadly elliptical, compress-
ed, its lateral muscles large, the lower indistinct ; the inner
coat rugous and of a reddish-brown colour. The intestine is
six and a half inches long, its diameter from two-twelfths and
a quarter to two-twelfths ; the coeca one-twelfth long, and an
inch distant from the extremity.

The nostrils are elliptical, three-quarters of a twelfth long,
and partially concealed by the feathers. The aperture of the
eyes is a twelfth and a half, that of the ears two twelfths. The
tarsi are of moderate length, slender, much compressed, their
anterior scutella blended, the three lower only remaining dis-
tinct ; the toes small, much compressed ; the first with eight,
the second with ten, the third with thirteen, the fourth wuth
twelve scutella ; the claws rather long, slightly arched, ex-
tremely compressed, laterally grooved, tapering to an extreme-
ly acute point.

The plumage is remarkably soft, blended, and tufty ; the
feathers ovate, with loose filaments ; the bristle-feathers at the
base of the upper mandible rather strong. The wings are
rather short and considerably curved ; the quills eighteen ; the
first very small, being less than half the length of the second,
which is much shorter than the third ; the fourth longest, but
the third and fifth scarcely shorter ; the secondary quills are
broadly rounded. The tail is short, nearly even, all the
feathers rounded.

The bill and feet are black, the mouth and tongue flesh-
coloured. The iris brown. The head, cheeks, and throat are
black, but all the feathers edged with brownish-red ; the up-
per parts are similar, but the red margins enlarge on the rump
and tail-coverts, w^hich are white at the base. The quills and

BLACK-HEADED BUSHCHAT. 281

coverts are also brownish-black, edged with red ; those of the
tail similar, but the outer margined with brownish -white.
There is a patch of white tinged with light red on each side
of the neck, and another of pure white on the wing, includ-
ing the inner secondary coverts, and the bases of some of the
secondary quills. The upper tail-coverts are of the same
colour, but tipped with red and having a dusky spot. The fore
part of the neck and breast is of a deep brownish- red ; the rest
of the lower parts of the same colour but paler, excepting the
axillar feathers, which are dusky, tipped with white.

Length to end of tail oi inches ; extent of wings 9 ; wing
from flexure 2j'| ; tail If ; bill along the ridge j^^, along the
edge of lower mandible -^^ ; tarsus j§ ; hind toe j*j, its claw
^-^ ; second toe {%, its claw {% ; third toe /g, its claw |t ;
fourth toe ^-g, its claw ^-j.

Female. — The bill, mouth, iris, and feet as in the male.
The head, hind-neck and back are streaked with dusky and
brownish-red, the margins of each feather being of the latter
colour, the tail-coverts without any white, being yellowish-
red with a dusky streak. The quills and tail-feathers are as
in the male, but of a browner tint ; the white spot on the
wing is of much smaller extent. The throat is light greyish-
brown ; the cheeks of the same colour, but more dusky ; the
fore-neck and breast yellowish-brown, the rest of the lower
parts of a paler and duller tint.

Length to end of tail 5^ inches ; extent of wings 9.

Variations. — I have not observed any remarkable variations
in this species.

Changes. — The above descriptions are from individuals in
perfect plumage in November, when the moult is completed.
The colours remain unchanged until the beginning of spring,
after which they gradually alter, so that by the middle of sum-
mer the male has the head pure black, the upper parts less
variegated with red, the white on the neck pure, and the lower
parts of a much lighter red ; the quills and tail more tinged

282 FRUTICICOLA RUBICOLA.

with brown. The female imdergoes less change. These al-
terations are produced by the abrasion of the margins and tips
of the feathers, and the action of the weather.

Habits. — This bird has hitherto been generally named the
Stonechat, but very inaptly, for it does not frequent stony or
rocky places, its usual haunts being similar to those of the
Whinchat. It is generally distributed, and although nowhere
abundant, is to be seen here and there on commons, heaths,
and hill pastures, overgrown with whins, juniper, and other
low shrubs. I have met with it at all seasons ; but in Scot-
land it is of unfrequent occurrence in winter, although I have
seen it and obtained recent specimens there even in the midst
of severe snow storms. Even in England it appears to be
rarer in winter, so that probably a partial migration takes place.
It is very seldom observed on the ground, its favourite station
being the top twig of a wdiin bush or other shrub, whence it
sallies forth on wing in pursuit of insects. When pursued it
flits with rapidity from bush to bush, seldom allowing one to
get w^ithin shot, and now and then concealing itself among the
twigs. If wounded it creeps among the herbage and is with
difficulty traced, although birds of this size are seldom so little
injured by shot as to proceed far. If you watch its motions,
without alarming it, you observe that it flits about by short
starts, with a direct flight, perches on a twig, jerks its body
and tail, utters at intervals a sharp note resembling the sylla-
ble snack, now and then flies off in pursuit of an insect, creeps
among the foliage, and sometimes hops along the ground, or
takes its stand on a turf or other eminence. I have always
found its stomach exclusively to contain insects, chiefly small
coleoptera, and without any intermixture of mineral particles.
In April it forms its nest, which it conceals among the grass
or other herbage, generally under a whin bush or other shrub,
and wdiich is composed of stems and leaves of grasses inter-
mixed with moss, and lined with finer straws, fibrous roots,
hair, and wool, as well as feathers. The eggs, five or six in
number, are of a light greenish-blue, marked towards the larger
end with pale brown dots, their average length eight-twelfths

BLACK-HEADED BUSHCHAT. 283

and a half, their breadth nearly seven-twelfths. When one
approaches their nest, they manifest much anxiety, flutter and
flit about, incessantly emitting their sharp snapping note, and
endeavouring to lead the intruder off in pursuit of them. The
young are abroad about the end of ^lay, or the beginning of
June ; but I have not been able to ascertain that two broods
are reared in the season.

In winter I have seen this species about the gardens and even
the doors of cottages, apparently not much less familiar than
the Robin ; but this happens only in severe weather, for at this
season it generally continues in its summer haunts, or betakes
itself to thickets and hedges. Its song is short, modulated,
and not unpleasant, being very similar to that of the AVhin-
chat, and frequently performed while the bird is hovering over
a bush. It is seldom heard before the beginning of April, or
after the middle of June.

Mr Weir remarks that in the neighbourhood of Bathgate,
in Linlithgowshire, they generally remiain among whins, but
that in severe winters they leave them, and retire to swampy
situations. " In January 1837,"" he continues, " I saw two or
three of them on the public road, within a few yards of a house,
in search of fQod. They sit on the highest branch of a whin-
bush, cry chert, chert, several times, then rise in the air, and
hover like a hawk, while they sing their little song. Of all
the nests of which I have been in pursuit, theirs is the most
difficult to discover, as it is usually built in the middle of a col-
lection of whins, and covered by them. The best way to find
it out is to watch the female when she comes off her eggs to
take food. Even then she will not go in until you retire to so
great a distance that you will scarcely be able to observe her,
as she hops so quickly from bush to bush, and then in a mo-
ment disappears. I have again and again beat the bush in
which they had their nest, before I could make them rise, so
closely do they sometimes sit. They build their nest about the
middle of April. It is composed of dry grass and moss, lined
with hair and feathers, and sometimes with wool. They have
commonly six eggs, of a greenish-blue colour, with small spots
of reddish -brown at the thicker end. I have seen the brood

284 FRUTICICOLA RUBICOLA.

when they were very young come out from under a bush to be
fed by the old ones, and then immediately retire to their con-
cealment. Their eggs are sometimes destroyed by mice."

Young, — The young when fully fledged have the bill dusky
above, light-brown beneath ; the feet greyish-brown. The
upper parts are brown, the head darker, each feather with a
linear central light greyish-yellow mark ; the back mottled
with larger spots of the same, edged with dusky, the tail-
coverts brownish-red ; the quills and tail-feathers brownish-
black, edged with brownish- red, the first and second quills and
the outer tail-feather edged with brownish-white ; the secon-
dary coverts are broadly tipped with light-red, and a few of the
inner are more or less white. The sides of the head are dusky,
mottled with brown ; the throat greyish ; the lower parts light
yellowish-brown; the fore part of the neck and breast mottled
with dusky.

Progress toward Maturity. — The young acquire the full
plumage of the adults at their first moult in the end of autumn.

285

SAXICOLA. STONECHAT.

Bill of moderate length, straight, slender, depressed at the
base, compressed towards the end : upper mandible with its
dorsal outline slightly declinate and nearly straight, the ridge
narrow at the base on account of the breadth of the nasal mem-
brane, the sides sloping at the base, convex towards the end,
the edges sharp and overlapping, with a slight sinus, the tip
declinate, narrow and rather blunt ; lower mandible straight,
the angle of moderate length, rather narrow, and somewhat
rounded ; the back broad and rather flattened at the base, nar-
row and convex towards the end, the sides of the crura nearly
flat and sloping outwards, towards the end convex, the edges
sharp and inflected, the tip narrowed to a blunt point ; the
gape-line straight.

The mouth rather wide ; both mandibles concave within,
with a median prominent line ; the palate nearly flat, with
two longitudinal prominent lines ; the posterior aperture of the
nares oblongo-linear, edged behind with small papillse. Tongue
of moderate length, sagittate, narrow, at the base papillate, two
of the papillse much larger, concave above, horny towards the
end, bristly on the edges towards the end, which is slit. Aper-
ture of the glottis with two rows and a large pad of papillae
behind. The oesophagus is of moderate width, nearly uni-
form in diameter ; the proventriculus oblong with short oblong
glandules. The stomach of moderate size, roundish-elliptical,
compressed, its lateral muscles rather thick, the lower not
very distinct, the tendons rather large, the cuticular lining
tough and longitudinally rugous. The intestine is of mo-
derate length and width, of nearly uniform diameter through-
out ; the cceca very small, oblong ; the rectum dilated towards
the end.

Nostrils oblong, direct, pervious, in the fore part of the

286 SAXICOLA. STONECHAT.

large and broad nasal membrane, which is anteriorly bare.
Eyes of moderate size ; the eyelids feathered, their edges
bare and crenate. External aperture of the ear large, and
romidish.

The general form is rather compact ; the body ovate, the
neck short, the head rather large, ovate, and somewhat de-
pressed. The legs rather long and slender ; tarsus rather long,
slender, much compressed, covered anteriorly with a long
plate and four inferior scutella, posteriorly with two long
plates meeting at an extremely acute angle. Toes rather
short, slender, the second and fourth about equal, the first
strongest and longer, the third much longer, and united to
the fourth as far as the second joint of the latter. Claws
rather long, moderately arched, extremely compressed, late-
rally grooved, acute.

Plumage generally blended, the feathers rounded, with loose
filaments, their plumule slender. Wings long, broad, semi-
ovate, straight ; quills eighteen ; the first primary extremely
small, being about a fourth of the length of the second, which
is almost as long as the third, the latter scarcely longer than
the second, so that the second, third and fourth are longest and
nearly equal ; the primaries rounded, the secondaries broad,
abruptly rounded, the outer slightly emarginate. Tail of mo-
derate length, nearly even, straight, the feathers of moderate
breadth and abruptly rounded. There are short bristle-
feathers at the base of the upper mandible, and the gular fea-
thers are bristle-tipped.

I have judged it proper to divide the genus Saxicola of Tem-
minck and other authors, for the following reasons. Motacilla
ffinanthe, M. Rubetra, M. Rubicola, and M. Phoenicurus of
Linnaeus are very intimately allied, but present considerable
differences. In the first of these species the bill is much longer,
but of nearly the same form as in the rest, only the tip of the
upper mandible is much less deflected, and the notch obsolete ;
in the second and third the tip is distinctly declinate and the
notch distinct ; in the fourth the bill resembles that of the first,
but is shorter. The tarsi are proportionally longer in the first,
which has stronger and shorter claws. In it the winsfs are

SAXICOLA. STONECHAT. 287

long, almost straight, and more pointed ; in the second the
wings are shorter and slightly concave ; in the third still
shprter and decidedly concave ; in the fourth like those of the
first. In the first the tail is of moderate length, in the second
and third rather short, and in the fourth rather long. If we
assume the length and form of the wing and tail as characteris-
tic of genera, it is obviously impossible to include all the above-
mentioned birds in one genus. If the form of the bill and the
digestive organs alone determine the genus, all these birds
ought to be grouped along with the Sylviae, Wagtails, and
other genera. But if it be expedient to separate species which
differ considerably in form and habits, we may form out of the
four species in question three genera. The fourth species,
which by most authors is referred to a different genus, is much
more allied to the first, than either the second or the third are ;
and it will be seen on comparing Motacilla CEnanthe of Lin-
naeus with the generic character of Saxicola as given by M.
Temminck, that it does not agree with it in respect to the
wings. That species, with Turdus leucurus of Gmelin, Mo-
tacilla stapazina of the same author, and some others, I con-
sider as forming a genus apart from such species as Motacilla
Rubetra and M. Rubicola, which have the tarsi shorter, and
the wings rounded and concave.

The Saxicolse thus restricted are generally, as their name
implies, inhabitants of rocky or stony places, although some
frequent also open pastures. Our only British species, for
example, is nearly as frequently found in the one kind of
place as in the other ; but unless they find holes or cavities to
which they can retreat, they are not fond of exposed feeding-
grounds. They nestle among stones, in crevices of rocks,
or in holes in the ground, whether made by quadrupeds or
not ; move with considerable speed by leaping, and feed on
insects and worms. Through the genus Petrocincla, they are
allied to the Thrushes ; their nearest kinsfolk on the other
hand are the Bushchats and Redstarts ; and with them they
are nearly related to the Flycatchers, both in form and habits.
The bill of the Saxicolae is almost precisely similar to that

288

SAXICOLA. STONECHAT.

of the Friiticicolae and Phoenicuri, differs but very slightly from
that of the Motacillae and Anthi, and is merely narrower
than that of the Musicapse. The Saxicolae differ from tjie
Fruticicolae in having long straight wings, and rather long tarsi,
in place of short curved wings and moderate tarsi, as well as
in other respects. The Sialiae or Blue-birds of America have
the wings of the Saxicolae, with the bill of Erithacus, and very
short tarsi, like those of Flycatchers, but stouter.

Only one species of Saxicola occurs in Britain, and is migra-
tory, arriving about the middle of spring, and departing about
the beginning of October.

289

SAXICOLA ffiNANTHE. THE WHITE-RUMPED
STONECHAT.

WHITE-RUMP. FALLOW SMICH. WHEAT-EAR. WHITE-TAIL. STONE-CHAT.
STANECHACK. CLACHARAN.

Motacilla CEnanthe. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 332.

Sylvia CEnanthe. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 529.

Wheat-ear. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Traquet moteux. Saxicola OSnanthe. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 237.

Wheat-ear. Saxicola CEnanthe. Selb. lUustr. I. 181.

Saxicola CEnanthe. Wheat-ear. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 119.

Male with the upper parts light ash-grey ; a black band from
the bill, over the cheek and auricular region, rump and upper tail-
coverts white. Female with the upper parts brownish-grey, a
brown band on the cheek, the rump as in the male. Young with
the upper parts greyish-brown, the central part of each feather
paler, the lower parts light greyish-yellow, the feathers of the
neck and breast tipped with brown, the dark band on the side
of the head wanting.

Male. — This lively and beautiful bird, which, by its at-
tachment to stone walls, and the brightness of its colours as
compared with those of most of our small birds, attracts the
notice of the least observant, is of a rather compact form, its

VOL. II. u

290 SAXICOLA (ENANTHE.

body being moderately full, the neck short, the head rather
large, ovate and depressed, the wings and legs rather long, and
the tail of moderate length. The bill is also of moderate length,
and in all respects as described in the generic character. Both
mandibles are internally concave, with a central prominent line.
The tongue is five-twelfths and a half in length, slit and fringed
at the point. The oesophagus is two and a half inches long,
moderately wide, its average diameter being two-twelfths and
a quarter. The stomach is broadly elliptical, compressed,
eight-twelfths long, its lateral muscles moderately strong, the
lower indistinct ; its cuticular coat tough, rugous, and of a
reddish-brown colour. The intestine is seven inches long, its
duodenal portion two-twelfths and a half in diameter ; the
coeca oblong, one-twelfth in length, and one inch distant from
the extremity.

The nostrils are oblongo-elliptical, one-twelfth long ; the
aperture of the eyes two-twelfths across ; that of the ears three-
twelfths. The feet are slender ; the tarsi longer than the
middle toe, slender, much compressed, covered anteriorly with
a long plate and four inferior scutella, posteriorly with two long
plates meeting at a very acute angle ; the hind toe stouter, the
two lateral equal, the third much longer ; the first with eight,
the second with eight, the third with thirteen, the fourth with
twelve scutella. The claws rather long, moderately arched,
much compressed, laterally grooved, very acute, but in old birds
often blunted.

The plumage is soft and blended ; the gular feathers bristle-
tipped, the bristle-feathers at the base of the upper mandible
small. The wings are rather long ; the quills eighteen ; the
first about three quarters of an inch long, the third longest, but
the second and fourth almost equal ; the third and fourth
slightly cut out on the outer web towards the end ; all the
primaries rounded, the outer secondaries abruptly rounded and
slightly emarginate. The tail is of moderate length, emar-
ginate, the lateral feathers slightly bent outwards, all broad
and rounded.

The bill, inside of the mouth, and tongue, deep black. The
iris brown. The feet and claws black. The upper part of the

WHITE-RUMPED STONECHAT. 291

head, the hind-neck, the back and scapulars, are ash-grey, each
feather when perfect slightly tipped with pale-brown. The
forehead is white, and a band of the same colour extends to a
considerable distance beyond the eye. From the nasal mem-
brane a broad band of black passes under the eye, including
the cheeks and auricular region. A small part of the rump
and the upper tail-coverts are white. The fore-neck and an-
terior part of the breast are of a delicate pale yellowish -brown
approaching to cream-colour, the throat and the rest of the
lower parts greyish- white. The quills, alula, and coverts, are
brownish-black, all more or less margined and tipped with
bro wnish- white ; the lower wing-coverts brownish -black, broadly
edged with white. The tail-feathers are white in their basal
portion, brownish-black at the end for nearly a fourth of their
length, the two middle for more than half their length. The
tibial feathers are blackish at the base, their edges yellowish-
white.

Length to end of tail 6f inches ; extent of wings 12^ ; bill
along the ridge -^t,^ along the edge of lower mandible \% '■< wing
from flexure 3{i, tail 2| ; tarsus 1 Jj ; hind toe 4i twelfths,
its claw ^*2 ; second toe 4f twelfths, its claw j% ; third toe 7i
twelfths, its claw /„ ' fourth toe 4f twelfths, its claw /j.

Female. — Bill deep black ; feet and claws brownish-black ;
iris light brown. The general colour of the upper parts is
light reddish-brown, intermixed with ash-grey ; the forehead
brown ; a brownish- white band over the eye ; and a broader
band of brown under it, including the ear-coverts. The fore-
part and sides of the neck, and the anterior part of the breast,
are light reddish-brown, the rest of the lower parts pale greyish-
brown ; the axillar feathers greyish-white, and the lower
wing-coverts blackish-brown, broadly edged with brownish-
white. The feathers of the wings are blackish-brown, edged
with dull reddish-brown ; the tail darker, the proximal
portion of each feather white in the same proportion as in the
male, excepting the two middle feathers, of which the shaft
only is white at the base. The upper tail-coverts and hind
part of the rump are dull white.

292 SAXICOLA (ENANTHE.

Length to end of tail 6^ inches ; extent of wings II5 ; bill
along the ridge 6^ twelfths ; along the edge of lower mandible
^^ ; wing from flexure 3jJ ; tarsus 1 ; middle toe and claw j|.

Variations. — In adult individuals the variations of colour
are considerable, some having the upper parts of a purer grey
than others, and the lower parts more white. But these dif-
ferences are chiefly dependent upon age, the grey and white
becoming purer, and the black and brown deeper in old birds,
and upon the season at which specimens are obtained, those
shot towards the end of summer being more purely coloured
than those procured in spring, when the tips of the feathers are
more or less complete. Individuals are seen of much larger
size than others, and these I have usually found in the hilly
districts.

Changes. — The changes which the plumage undergoes in
the individual arise from the wearing of the edges of the fea-
thers, in consequence of which the grey of the back is lighter
and more uniform the nearer the period of moult.

Habits. — The Stonechat is the earliest of our summer visi-
tants, arriving generally about the middle of March, but in
some seasons considerably later or earlier. I have seen it near
Edinburgh on the 28th of February, more commonly, however,
about the 20th of March, while in the Outer Hebrides it does
not appear before the middle of April. It immediately be-
takes itself to open dry pastures, whether in the vicinity of the
sea, or in the interior, but always in places where it can retreat
to holes or cavities, whether among stones or in the ground. It
is generally distributed in such localities, being to be found
equally in the southern parts of England, and in the most
northern districts of Scotland, and is nowhere more plentiful
than in the Outer Hebrides, and in the Orkney and Shetland
Islands. Along the coast, especially on sandy downs, where
there are rabbit-warrens, or at least abrupt banks, it is most
frequent ; but in the valleys of the midland districts, especially
where there are extensive stone or turf fences, it is by no means

WHITE-RUMPED STONECHAT. 293

uncommon. It is especially fond of stony slopes in the vicinity
of pasture grounds, and in such places several pairs may often
be met with in a small space, whereas on open downs they occur
only at long intervals. But in whatever place it may be, its
presence is readily detected, for, although generally shy, it flies
up to a safe distance, and attracts notice by its rather loud and
sharp cry, which bears some resemblance to the noise made by
knocking a small stone against another. On moist moorlands,
in heathy tracts, and in woods or thickets, I have never met
with it.

On the ground it hops with great celerity, jerking out its
tail, and inclining its body, whenever it stops. When engaged
in searching for food, and still more if disturbed or pursued, it
emits a cry resembling the syllables peep^ chack^ ckack^ whence,
and on account of its predilection for stony places, it is named
in most parts of Scotland the Stane-chack. In the Gaelic dis-
tricts it bears the name of Clacharan, or little mason. It flies
low over the ground, by short starts, and on alighting usually
commences hopping. An intruder on its haunts usually ob-
serves it perched on a stone or turf, or other eminence ; and
when alarmed it betakes itself to walls, along which it flies,
generally keeping at a considerable distance. But although
shy and vigilant, it comes up when one approaches its nest,
and manifests much anxiety, fluttering about, hopping, dipping,
and incessantly emitting its chacJc chacJc, and this the more
vehemently the nearer you come to its treasure. On ordinary
occasions it is extremely active, and is seldom to be seen un-
less in motion.

Its food consists of insects of various kinds, small testaceous
mollusca, and worms. In pursuit of flies it often performs a
short excursion into the air, springing from an eminence, or
even from the plain ground. Its song is a short, lively, and
pleasantly modulated warble, which it performs sometimes
when perched on a rock, wall, or turf, but more frequently
while hovering at a small height in the air, and often in the
midst of its short flights when pursued or disturbed. It is
much superior in clearness and sweetness to the song of the
Bushchats, which it yet resembles in character.

294 SAXICOLA CENANTHE.

The stony slopes of Arthur's Seat and Salisbury Craigs, in
the King's park, near Edinburgh, are favourite resorts of the
Wheatears ; and there, although they are much disturbed by
boys, their manners may be satisfactorily studied with little
trouble. So abundant are they in Harris that the boys regu-
larly search the walls every year in the beginning of May for
their nests, of which great numbers are destroyed, the object of
the plunderers being to procure the eggs for food. I have often
joined in these expeditions, and in that district never found the
nest elsewhere than in holes in the stone walls. But in the
sandy pasture tracts along the shore, the nests are often found
in deserted rabbit-holes. The materials of which the nest is
composed vary according to the locality. It is bulky, with a
rather shallow cavity ; its exterior formed of grasses and fibrous
roots, intermixed with mosses of various kinds, the interior of
moss, hair, wool, and feathers. One taken from a stone wall
at the base of the Pentland Hills, was composed of stalks and
roots of grasses, fibrous roots of other herbaceous plants, and a
large proportion of liypna, the interior being of mosses of va-
rious genera, chiefly hypna, several feathers of the Wood
Pigeon, two or three quills of Parus coeruleus, and a consider-
able quantity of horse hair and wool. Another obtained in
West Lothian is hemispherical, rather compact, composed of
straws and fibrous roots, the latter predominating internally,
and mixed with hair and wool, with a few ducks' feathers ; its
external diameter four inches and three quarters, the internal
two and three quarters. The eggs are from four to seven, of
an elongated oval form, sharpish at the small end, light greenish-
blue, without spots, averaging ten-twelfths in length, and seven-
twelfths in their greatest breadth.

The young are abroad from the middle of ]\Iay to that of
June ; and a second brood is generally reared before the end of
July. Thus, on the 7th June 1832, I saw in the King's Park
at Edinburgh two families of Wheatears, of which I shot three
young individuals ; on the 2d September of the same year, I
saw a flock of young birds with their parents on the top of a
hill near Selkirk ; and on the 15th August 1834, chased a
similar assemblage near the lower part of Manner Water in

WHITE-RUMPED STONECHAT. 295

the same county. Both young and old birds moult previously
to their leaving the country, as I have ascertained from obser-
vation ; but probably the young of late broods take their de-
parture without changing their plumage. When the young
birds are pursued, they scatter, fly along the walls, dive into
holes, reappear in another place, and are very shy, although
always much ipore easily obtained than old individuals. Al-
though this bird is by no means fond of perching on bushes, I
have seen it alight on whins growing in stony places, and I
saw an individual in April 1837 settle on an ash tree close to
the wall of the lunatic asylum at Morningside, near Edinburgh.
Its habits in this respect are very different from those of tho
Bramble and AVhin Bushchats, which are essentially twig-
frequenters.

At its arrival and previous to its departure, it is generally
in good condition, and its flesh being very delicate and sapid,
it is caught in the southern parts of England in great numbers,
and sold in the markets at a high price. In Scotland, how-
ever, I have not heard of its being used as an article of food,
although I am entitled from experience to commend the good
taste of those who consider it a delicacy. The eggs are still
more delicious ; but as a truly aristocratic food, especially for
nervous females, and hysterical dandies, I can more conscien-
tiously recommend those of the Golden -crested Kinglet and
Blue Tit. " The number of Wheatears," says Montagu, " that
breed in this country, must be very considerable, but so dis-
persed that few are seen at that season in the same situation.
In September they begin to retire, and seem to assemble from
all parts to the Sussex and Dorset downs contiguous to the
coast, preparatory to their departure. The quantity taken an-
nually about Eastbourn is prodigious ; Mr Pennant says 1840
dozen. These are caught in a singular manner, by placing
two turfs on edge ; at each end a small horse-hair noose is fixed
to a stick, which the bird, either in search of food or to evade
a storm of rain, attempts to get under, and is caught. Upon
inquiry of the shepherds, whose trade it is, we have been in-
formed fifty or sixty of these traps have had a bird in them of
a morning ; sometimes several mornings together, and then for
a day or two, scarce one is to be seen ; and yet they are never

296 SAXICOLA CENANTHE.

observed to come in flocks ; and it is the general opinion that
they come in the night. These birds usually sell for a shilling
a dozen ; and it is a common custom in those parts where they
are taken to visit the trap, take the bird out, and leave a
penny in each as a reward for the shepherd."

Mr William Markwick, in the fourth volume of the Linneean
Transactions, states that being found in great plenty on the
South Downs, and being justly esteemed a great delicacy for
the table, " vast numbers of them are annually caught by the
shepherds as they tend their flocks. These Wheatear traps
consist of horse-hair nooses, placed under a sod of turf dug out
of the ground for that purpose. They are set up every year on
St. James's day, the 25th of July, soon after which time they
are caught in numbers truly astonishing, when we reflect that
it is a solitary bird, more than two or three being scarcely ever
found together. Observing that all the birds which are caught
in the proper season had the same coloured plumage as the hen
birds, I made some inquiries respecting them of a shepherd at
Eastbourn, who informed me that the flights consisted chiefly
of young birds, which arrived in the greatest numbers when a
westerly wind prevailed, and that they always came against
the wind. He told me that on the 15th and 16th of August
1792 he caught twenty-seven dozen with only a few old birds
amongst them ; but this is a small number compared with the
almost incredible quantity sometimes taken. A gentleman in-
formed me that his father''s shepherd once caught eighty-four
dozen in one day. Early in the spring only a few old birds
are to be seen, and none (that I could ever observe) in the
winter. I enquired of the shepherd whether these birds breed
on the South Downs ; the answer was, a few only."

Young. — The young when newly fledged are coloured as fol-
lows. The upper parts are light greyish -brown, the central part
of each feather on the head paler ; the rump white, most of the
feathers tipped with brown. The lower parts are light greyish-
ochre, the feathers of the neck and breast tipped with brown.
The band over the eye is indistinct, and the dark band on the
side of the head is wanting ; the smaller wing-coverts are
dusky with greyish-yellow margins ; the larger coverts, alula,

WHITE-RUMPEU STONECHAT. 297

quills, and tail-feathers are deep brown, broadly margined and
tipped with brownish-red. The tail-feathers are white at the
base, excepting the two middle. The bill is dark-brown above,
paler beneath ; the feet bluish-grey, the claws dusky. The
males differ from the females chiefly in having the rump white,
it being in the latter brownish-white.

Progress toward Maturity. — At the first autumnal moult,
the young assume the colours described as characterizing the
old birds ; but the tints are more tinged with brown.

Male in Winter Plumage. — In its perfect plumage the
male has the grey of the upper parts tinged with red, the edges
of all the feathers being of the latter colour ; the lower parts
light reddish -brown, deeper on the fore-neck and breast; the
white and black bands on the head as in summer, but the ear-
coverts slightly tipped with brown. In all other respects the
plumage is as described, the edgings of the wing and tail-
feathers being only broader. The bill and feet deep black.

Female. — The female is of a uniform pale brown above, the
forehead tinged with red, the band over the eye reddish-white,
that under it brownish-red ; the lower surface light brownish-
red, deeper on the fore-neck and breast, and fading behind into
cream-colour.

Remarks. — I have found individuals of both sexes in May
retaining the winter plumage in its perfect state, the feathers
entire, and the colouring as above described. Such birds are
probably individuals of late broods, which have moulted in
their southern retreats. Similarly perfect individuals of the
Willow Wren, and other species of this family, are met with.

Mr Jenyns, perhaps copying Temminck, states that in the
male the two middle feathers of the tale are wholly black ; but
I apprehend that both gentlemen are wrong in this matter ;
at least, I have never met with an adult male that had not
more than a fourth of the basal portion of the two middle tail-
feathers pure white. The females, however, have only the
base of the shaft and a small portion of the downy part of
these feathers white.

298

RUTICILLA. REDSTART.

The small group of birds known by the name of Redstarts is
intermediate between the Motacillae, Saxicolae, Sylvise, and
Setophagas ; and, according to the principle of minute division
which I have adopted, cannot with propriety be referred to any
of these genera, although they are perhaps more closely allied
to Saxicola.

Their bill is rather short, slender, a little depressed at the
base, compressed towards the end : the upper mandible with
its dorsal outline slightly declinate and nearly straight, the
ridge very narrow at the base, the nasal membrane being pro-
portionally broad, the sides sloping at the base, convex towards
the end, the edges sharp, direct and overlapping, the tip slightly
declinate, very narrow, and rather acute, with a slight sinus on
each side ; the lower mandible straight, the angle of moderate
length, rather narrow, and somewhat rounded, the back rather
flattened at the base, very narrow towards the end, the sides
of the crura nearly flat and sloping outwards, convex towards
the end, the edges sharp and inflected, the tip narrowed to a
bluntish point ; the gape-line straight.

The mouth of moderate width : both mandibles concave
within, with a median prominent line ; the palate nearly flat,
with two longitudinal prominent lines ; the posterior aperture
of the nares oblongo-linear, edged behind with small papillse.
Tongue of moderate length, sagittate, narrow, at the base pa-
pillate, two of the papilla? much larger, concave above, bristly
on the edges towards the tip, which is slit. The oesophagus is
of moderate width, and nearly uniform in diameter ; the pro-
ventriculus oblong, with short oblong glandules ; the stomach
roundish-elliptical, compressed, its lateral muscles rather thick,
the cuticular lining longitudinally rugous ; the intestine of mo-
derate length and width ; the coeca very small, and oblong.

Nostrils very small, elliptical, pervious, in the fore part of

RUTICILLA. REDSTART. 299

the large nasal membrane, which is anteriorly bare. Eyes of
moderate size ; the eyelids with two rows of feathers near the
edge, which is crenate. External aperture of the ear large and
roundish.

The general form is rather slender ; the body ovate, the neck
short, the head ovate, rather flattened anteriorly. The legs of
moderate length, and slender ; the tarsus moderately long,
slender, very much compressed, anteriorly with a long plate
and three inferior scutella. Toes rather long, very slender,
much compressed, the third much longer than the two lateral,
which are nearly equal, the first stouter. Claws rather long,
moderately arched, very slender, extremely compressed, late-
rally grooved, acute.

Plumage blended and very soft. Wings rather long, broad,
semi-ovate, almost straight ; quills eighteen ; the first primary
very small, being about a third of the length of the second,
which is considerably shorter than the third ; the latter longest,
but scarcely exceeding the fourth, which is little longer than
the fifth ; the primaries rounded at the end, the secondaries
rather broad, and obliquely rounded. Tail rather long, nearly
even, straight, of twelve narrow, obliquely rounded feathers.
There are short bristle-feathers at the base of the upper man-
dible, and the gular and loral feathers are bristle-tipped.

The Redstarts have the bill shorter than that of the Stone-
chats, and more slender than that of the Bushchats. Their
form is less full, their bill more slender, their wings longer and
straighter, and their tail also longer, than those of the Bush-
chats. They have a rather weaker bill and longer tarsi and
wings than the Sylviae, which however they very closely re-
semble. Intermediate in form between the JSIotacillae, Saxi-
colse and Sylvise, their habits are analogous, some species in
this respect resembling one of these genera more than another.
Their food is composed of insects, which they generally catch
on wing, of larvge, pupas, and berries.

This genus is composed of Sylvia Suecica, S. Phoenicurus,
S. Tithys, and three or four other species, all natives of the old
continent. Only one species is of common occurrence in Bri-
tain ; but two others have been met with there in a very few
instances.

300

RUTICILLA CYANECULA. THE BLUE-THROATED
REDSTART.

Fig. 167.

Motacilla suecica. Linu. Syst. Nat. I. 336.

Motacilla suecica. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 521.

Bee-fin Gorge-bleue. Sylvia suecica. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 216.

Blue-throated Redstart. Phcenicura suecica. Selb. Illustr. I. 195.

Sylvia suecica. Blue-throated Warbler. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 104.

Male with the tipper parts wood-brown ; the fore-neck and
breast tcith patches of ultramarine blue and light-red ; the tail
light-red, toicards the end brotcnish-black. Female with the
upper parts as in the male ,• the throat blue, with a curved
blackish line.

Male. — The Blue-throated Redstart, which has a very
slender claim for admittance into the British Fauna, is some-
what larger than the White-fronted species, which it resem-
bles in form, and so far in colour as to have a portion of the
tail red. It is altogether, however, more slender, its head
more inclining to oblong, its bill rather short, straight, much
compressed towards the end, the point of the upper mandible
very slightly deflected, the notch obsolete. The feet are very
slender ; the tarsus rather long, much compressed, anteriorly
covered with a long plate and three inferior scutella ; the toes
of moderate length, extremely slender, the first with ten, the

BLUE-THROATED REDSTART. 301

second with ten, the third with fourteen, the fourth with
twelve scutella ; the claws rather long, moderately arched,
slender, extremely compressed, and tapering to a fine point.

The plumage is soft and blended, the feathers oblong, with
loose margins, and a slender plumule. The wings are rather
long ; the first primary scarcely more than a third of the length
of the second, which is four-twelfths of an inch shorter than
the third ; that and the fourth are equal, and scarcely exceed
the fifth ; the second and sixth nearly equal ; the secondary
quills very long and rounded. The tail is rather long, slightly
rounded, straight, its feathers of moderate breadth, and ob-
liquely rounded, but with the extremity rather pointed.

The bill is light-brown at the base, darker towards the end ;
the tarsi wood-brown, the toes and claws a little darker. The
upper parts are wood-brown, the feathers of the head dusky in
their middle parts, the rump paler, and somewhat tinged with
red ; the upper tail-coverts with a light red patch in the middle.
The wings are of the same colour as the back, the quills mar-
gined externally with paler, the middle tail-feathers are wood-
brown, their outer web reddish at the base ; all the rest are
light-red or reddish-orange for nearly two-thirds of their length
from the base, the remaining third brownish-black, the tips
fading to brownish-grey, and the margins of the outer greyish-
white. A whitish band extends from the nostrils over the eye ;
the loral space dusky. The throat is ultramarine blue, that
colour margined beneath by dusky spots ; then succeeds a patch
of orange red, on the lower part of which are some white spots ;
then a broad band of ultramarine, terminated by a narrow band
of black, and another of white ; beneath which, occupying the
fore-part of the breast is a broad band of orange red. The
rest of the lower parts are whitish, the sides, wing-coverts, and
tail-coverts pale reddish-yellow.

Length to end of tail 5{ § inches ; bill along the ridge 5^
twelfths ; along the edge of lower mandible 8^ twelfths ; wing
from flexure 3^ ; tail 2^ ; tarsus lj\ ; first toe 3^ twelfths,
its claw i\ ; second toe 4^ twelfths, its claw 2^ twelfths ;
third toe j%, its claw 2f twelfths ; fourth toe 4^ twelfths, its
claw 2i twelfths.

302 RUTICILLA CYANECULA.

Female. — The female has the upper parts as in the male,
but with the red of the tail less bright, and the dark band more
brown. The throat is white, with a curved band of blue hav-
ing black spots intermixed. The rest of the fore-neck and
upper part of breast pale orange-brown ; the remaining parts
brownish- white.

Variations. — Individuals vary considerably in colour, the
tints being more or less bright, and the red patch between the
ultramarine bands on the fore-neck in some white.

Habits. — This very beautiful bird has hitherto occurred in
Britain only in two instances. In May 1826 an individual
was shot on the hedge bounding the Town Moor of Newcastle,
and is now in the museum of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of that city. Another is stated in the Naturalist, Vol.
II, p. 275, by Mr Dale, to have been killed in Dorsetshire,
and to be preserved in the museum of Mr R. A. Cox. The
species is said to be not uncommon in various parts of the con-
tinent during summer and autumn, and to extend from Spain
and Italy to Siberia, Russia, Finland, and the north of Sweden.
It feeds on insects, worms, and small fruits. Its song is re-
presented as lively and pleasantly modulated, sometimes per-
formed when the bird is on the wing, and often heard in the
dusk, or in the early part of the night. It frequents low moist
places, covered with grass, willows, or other shrubs, among
which it places its nest, which is composed of withered stems
and leaves, the lining being of finer materials of the same
nature. The eggs, five or six in number, are nine-twelfths of
an inch long, five and a half twelfths broad, greenish-blue,
without spots. The nest, in its position and texture, resembles
those of the Pipits and Chirpers ; but the eggs are similar to
those of the common Redstart and Hedge Chanter.

Young. — The young are said by M. Temminck to have the
plumage brown, spotted with whitish, and to have a large
white space on the throat.

BLUE-THROATED REDSTART. 303

Remarks. — The bird which forms the subject of this article
is unquestionably more closely allied to the common or White-
fronted Redstart than to any other British bird. The wings
of the two species are so very similar, not only in form, but in
colour, that when separated one cannot distinguish them. The
tail is of the same length, and similar in form, as well as partly
even in colour. But the bill is more slender, and the tarsi are
much longer. The form of the head of the Common Redstart
is similar to that of the Wheatear and Pied Wagtail, and that
of the Blue-throated Redstart more resembles that of Motacilla
flava. The bill of the Ruticilla Cyanecula is narrower at
the base than that of the other species or of the Wagtails, and is
almost precisely the same as that of Anthus pratensis. Its feet
are proportionally longer than those of any of our Wagtails, or
of the other RuticilljB. Its affinity to the Wagtails is less,
however, than to the Sylvife and Chirpers, for its wings differ
essentially from those of the Anthin^, inasmuch as in the
latter the first quill is obsolete or minute, and some of the
secondaries extremely elongated, so as to give a peculiar charac-
ter to the wing. I cannot therefore agree with Mr Blyth in
considering the species which forms the subject of this article
as belonging " to the Wagtail subfamily." As to its claims
for generic distinction, I have only to say that its peculiarities
either of form or of habits do not seem to me sufficient to warrant
our separating it from the Redstarts. Mr Blyth thinks other-
wise, and gives reasons for his opinion : — " When first I saw the
Bluebreast alite., in Mr Rennie^s aviary at Lee, I was not a
little surprised to perceive that the bird which has been placed
by every writer in the same genus with the Redstarts and the
Robin Redbreast, belonged most obviously to a very different
group, to the Wagtail subfamily. Nothing can more strongly
shew the difficulty of arranging birds from mere cabinet speci-
mens, and the necessity of studying living nature, than this
placing of the Bluebreast in the genera Sylvia and Phoenicura.
I think I may confidently assert, that no naturalist who has
thus arranged it had ever seen the living bird. The tail of the
Bluebreast is partly red, but, with the exception of this very
trivial particular, there is no resemblance whatever between

304 RUTICILLA CYANECULA,

this bird and the Redstarts." (This assertion is certainly not
correct). " Even in a stuffed specimen, the form of the head
will shew its proper situation. The Bluebreast does not hop
like the Redstarts, but runs about in the manner of the Wag-
tails and Pipits ; it has a remarkable habit of continually
spreading its tail ; and should there not be already a genus of
foreign birds, in which this beautiful species could be placed,
the term Pandicilla might be given to it for a generic desig-
nation.""

I imagine this bird, however, to be one of those which be-
long so to speak to several genera ; or rather to belong more
peculiarly to the genus Ruticilla, but to indicate the affi-
nity of that genus, as to the bill and the form of the head, to
Anthus, as well as to Sibilatrix. The habit of spreading its
tail, especially when singing in the air, is common to all birds
which sing during their descent, even the Whitethroat ; and
that of running instead of hopping, is not necessarily Motacil-
lary, for the Hedge Chanter and even the Common Redstart,
run rather than hop. Every species of a genus indicates affi-
nity to species in other genera, and this very circumstance pre-
vents the possibility of forming strictly defined genera, which
in fact have no existence in nature.

305

RUTICILLA PHCENICURUS. THE WHITE-
FRONTED REDSTART.

REDSTART. REDTAIL. FIRETML.

Motacilla Phcenicurus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 335.

Sylvia Phoenicurus. Lath. Ind. Orn. L 191.

Redstart. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Becfin des murailles. Sylvia Phoenicurus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 220.

Redstart. Phoenicura Ruticilla. Selb. lUustr. I. 191.

Sylvia Phoenicurus. Redstart. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 104.

Male with the middle of the forehead white, its anterior part,
the cheeks and throat black, the hind-head, neck and hack deep
ash-grey, the breast, rump and tail reddish-orange. Female with
the upper parts reddish-grey, the throat reddish-white, the breast,
rump^ and tail light reddish-orange.

Male. — This beautiful and lively little bird is in its propor-
tions exactly as described in the generic character, its general
form being rather slender, its head ovate and of ordinary size,
its bill rather short, straight, with the edges a little inflected,
the tip of the upper mandible slightly declinate, and the notch
obsolete ; the tarsi of moderate length, and slender, as are the
toes ; the claws rather long and arched.

VOL. II. X

306 RUTICILLA PH(ENICURUS.

The plumage is soft and blended, the feathers being linear-
oblong with the margins loose. The wings are rather long ;
the first primary quill about a third of the length of the second,
which is shorter than the sixth, the fourth longest, the third
and fifth scarcely shorter ; the third, fourth, and fifth slightly
cut out on the outer web ; the sscondaries obliquely and abrupt-
ly rounded. The tail rather long, slightly rounded, its feathers
narrow, and obliquely rounded.

The bill and feet are black ; the iris dark brown. The an-
terior part of the forehead, the loral, auricular, gular, anterior
and lateral cervical spaces, are black, the feathers tipped with
brownish-white. The forehead and a line over the eye are
white. The upper part of the head, the hind-neck, and the
back, are ash-grey, the feathers slightly edged with light brown.
The rump and tail are reddish-orange, or yellowish-red, the
inner webs of the two middle feathers brown. The quills and
large coverts are wood-brown, edged with paler. The breast
is yellowish-red, the sides, lower wing-coverts, and other infe-
rior parts the same but paler, the abdomen nearly white.

Length to end of tail 5f inches ; extent of wings 9j ; wing
from flexure 3^Hj ; tail 2j ; bill along the ridge /g, along the
edge of lower mandible j% ; tarsus { \ ; first toe ^\, its claw /^ ;
second toe ^^l, its claw ^l ; third toe ^^^ its claw ^\ ; fourth
toe y^, its claw y|.

Female. — The female differs considerably in colour. The
upper parts are reddish-grey, the quills and upper wing-coverts
greyish-brown, margined with reddish ; the rump and tail red-
dish-orange, lighter than in the male, the two middle-feathers
brown. The throat is reddish-white, the breast light orange-
red, the lower tail-coverts paler, the abdomen reddish-white.

Length to end of tail b{'^ ; extent of wings 9 1^3.

Variations. — The variations of colour in adults are incon-
siderable, excepting those arising from the effects of the weather.
The above descriptions are from individuals in perfect plumage;
but when the summer is advanced, the edges of all the feathers
being worn, the grey of the back becomes pure, as do the black

WHITE-FRONTED REDSTART. 307

of the throat and the red of the other parts. The wings and
tail are then lighter.

Habits. — The Wheatear and the Redstart present a con-
siderable mutual resemblance in form, colour, and habits. The
first time when I took particular notice of the actions of the
latter bird, was on the 26th July, 1835, when, observing a
male at Swanston, a village about four miles from Edinburgh,
at the base of one of the Pentland Hills, I watched it for some
time. It took its station on one of the top-stones of a rude
wall, where it kept in almost constant motion, and at intervals
uttered its two notes, which I fancied to resemble the syllables
oi-chit, the first long and plaintive, the other short and simi-
lar to that of the Bushchats. Sometimes two of these short
notes were emitted. Observing me it evinced much restless
anxiety, but flitted now and then from the wall, caught an
insect on wing, returned, and watched me, moving its body,
and vibrating its tail several times with rapidity at each start
or movement, and uttering its cry of alarm. At length, hav-
ing by several little excursions caught a number of insects on
wing, and finding that I was not disposed to depart, it flew
into a whin bush at hand, where I saw it deliver the insects
to a bird, which, on going up, I found to be a young one
perched on a lower twig. It was fully fledged, and flew off
to a distance. No cry was emitted all this time by the young
bird, which seemed instinctively, or rather from being apprised
of danger by its parent, to keep as much concealed as possible.

In June 1837, I watched for some time another male, which
had taken its station on a garden wall, at Newington, and ob-
served that in its motions and mode of flight it greatly resem-
bled the Grey Flycatcher. It not only caught insects by
sallying after them on wing, but made excursions into the
neighbouring bushes, and repeatedly descended to a green,
where it remained only a few moments to pick up something,
vnthout hopping about, and flew back to the wall.

But the Redstart, although very partial to walls, whether
bare or ivied, rough or plastered, of stone or brick or even turf,
also frequents trees and bushes, especially those in lanes and

308 RUTICILLA PHCENICURUS.

on the margins of woods and thickets, and there searches for its
insect food, moving about much more by the aid of its wings
than of its feet. I have also met with it in hawthorn hedges
near gardens, and the young on leaving the nest generally be-
take themselves to bushes or trees, where they are fed for some
days until able to shift for themselves. It might therefore be
disputed whether it ought to be named the Tree Redstart, or
the Wall Redstart, and should one propose to name it the
Bush Redstart, he would have good reason to do so. Gene-
rally shy and vigilant, it seldom allows a near approach, unless
in the breeding season, when the male may frequently be seen
stationed on some eminence not far from the nest in which his
mate is sitting. There he now and then attunes his pipe and
sings his little song, which although brief and not possessed of
much melody, is pleasing. Sometimes the song is emitted
while the bird hovers on wing, and even while it flies from
one station to another. It is heard in fine weather at early
dawn, as well as in the evening twilight, and at all inter-
mediate hours, although, being neither loud nor attractive by
its character, it is little noticed.

The mode of progression of the Redstart is similar to that of
the Wheatear, for it neither walks nor runs, but advances by
leaps. Unless on a wall, or on bare ground, however, it sel-
dom hops much, for it procures its food chiefly by sallying' after
insects on wing, or by alighting on the ground to pick up those
which it has observed among the herbage, and on trees it flies
from branch to branch.

It is always to gardens or the neighbourhood of old walls
that it betakes itself on its arrival, which happens later or
earlier, according to the mildness of the season, but in the
south of England about the middle, and in that of Scotland
towards the end of April. It has been observed in the southern,
eastern, and northern counties of England, as well as in Wales ;
and in Scotland, although nowhere very common, it occurs in
the lower districts from the borders to the extreme north, but
does not visit the Outer Hebrides. Although thus extensively
distributed, it is seldom to be seen by a person traversing the
country, as it does not travel far from its place of abode. In

WHITE-FRONTED REDSTART. 309

the Lothians, for instance, one scarcely meets with a pair in
the course of a ramble of fifteen or twenty miles, although in
gardens it may be the subject of everyday observation, and is
not difficult to be procured by those who know the places fre-
quented by it. Sometimes it takes up its residence in rocky
or stony places, like those selected by the Stonechat. When
its young come abroad, it seems to prefer the hedges, thickets,
and woods. The period of its departure varies from the mid-
dle of September to near the end of October.

The nest is generally placed in a hole or cavity in a w^all, or
among stones, or in the chink of a rock, but sometimes in the
hole of a tree. One found in the first of these situations is
rather bulky, having an external diameter of four inches and a
half, its internal being three inches, and its depth an inch and
a half. It is composed of fibrous roots and moss, and is plenti-
fully lined with hair of various animals, and a few small fea-
thers. The eggs are generally six or seven, of a light greenish-
blue colour, and scarcely distinguishable from those of the
Hedge Chanter, being of the same form, but considerably
smaller, their average length nine-twelfths of an inch, their
breadth six-twelfths. I have known of its building in the
thatched roof of a house, but the place usually chosen is the
hole of a wall, so that, considering also its habits, I think the
name of Tree Redstart, applied to it by some writers, is less ap-
propriate than that of Wall Redstart.

As to the motion of the tail in this bird, which has supplied
some observers with a subject of dispute, I am convinced that
it is vertical, that is, up and down, and not alternately to either
side, although at each jerk the feathers are a little spread out,
as is the case with those of many other birds of this order, as
the Stonechat and Bushchat. It is sa-id to imitate the notes
of other species. " In confinement," says Mr Sweet, " it will
sing by night as well as by day, if a light be kept in the room
where it is; if brought up from the nest, it may be learned
(taught) to sing any tune that is whistled or sung to it. One
that I was in possession of some years back, learned to sing
the Copenhagen Waltz, that it had frequently heard sung,
only it would sometimes stop in the middle of it, and say

310 RUTICILLA PH(ENICURUS.

chipput, a name by which it was generally called, and which it
would always repeat every time I entered the room where it
was, either by night or day."

Mr Weir has favoured me with the following notice respect-
ing this species. " In this neighbourhood (Bathgate, Linlith-
gowshire) it appears a'bout the end of April or beginning of
May. A short time after their arrival, they make choice of
their partners, and look out for situations where they intend to
build their nests, which they place in old walls, and in clefts
of the rocks. Although they are very shy birds, yet they some-
times nestle in places that are much frequented. About a mile
from Bathgate, there are three cottages belonging to the Earl
of Hopetoun, within a few yards of the public road, where, at
the extremity of a hole in the gable of one of them, about the
middle of ^May 1885, a pair of Redstarts took up their residence,
and reared their young. And, what is very astonishing, a pair
built last summer (1837) in the same situation, although a
weaver had taken possession of the house, and had, from five
©"■clock in the morning until ten at night, three looms in con-
tinual operation, within twelve feet of the nest, which was in
the inside of the garret, and only a few open planks placed be-
tween them. At the bottom of the air-pipe of the stables of
Mr Gillon of Wallhouse, for four successive years, a pair of
them built their nest. About the beginning of June 1835 I
caught them in a trap cage, and neither last year nor this have
any made their appearance. From the annual continuance of
a nest in the same spot, it is highly probable that one, if not
both, of the birds had traversed the whole of the south of Eu-
rope, and perhaps part of Africa, exposed to innumerable dan-
gers and occasional want of food. I have heard the male sing
some very sweet and plaintive notes, but so low that he could
not be heard at any great distance."

Young. — The young have the upper parts brownish-grey,
the forehead without white, the throat lunulated with white,
the red of the fore-neck and breast similarly variegated.

311

RUTICILLA TITHYS. THE BLACK-BREASTED
REDSTART.

BLACK REDSTART. BLACK REDTAIL.

Sylvia Tithys. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 512.

Bee-fin Rouge-queue. Sylvia Tithys. Temm. Man. d'Orii. I. 218.
Tithys Redstart. Phcenicura Tithys. Selb. Illustr. I. 193.
Sylvia Tithys. Black Redtail. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 105.

Male with the upper parts greyish-blue ; the throat and breast
blacky the rump and tail-coverts red. Female gret/ish- brown
above, light grey beneath.

Male. — The Black-breasted Redstart is in form and size al-
most precisely similar to the White-fronted or common species,
but differs in colour, its breast being black instead of red. Its
general form is rather slender, its neck short, its head ovate,
its bill shortish, nearly straight, broader than high at the base,
compressed towards the end, the upper mandible with the tip
slightly declinate, and without notch. The feet are slender,
and of ordinary length ; the tarsus compressed, with a long
plate and three scutella anteriorly ; the lateral toes equal ; the
claws arched, extremely compressed, laterally grooved, acute.
The plumage is soft, blended, rather loose. The wings are of
ordinary length ; the first quill eleven-twelfths of an inch long,
the second four-twelfths shorter than the third which is longest,
but scarcely exceeding the fourth and fifth, the seventh and
second equal. The tail is of moderate length, and nearly even.

The bill, tarsi, toes, and claws are black. The upper part
of the head, the hind-neck, and the back are light greyish-blue ;
the rump and tail-coverts brownish -red ; the tail light-red, ex-
cept the two middle feathers, which are brown ; the wing-
coverts and quills are greyish-black, the latter edged with
greyish-white, of which colour is a large portion of the outer
webs of the secondaries, so that the cubital portion of the wing
seems greyish-white when closed. A band across the lower

312 RUTICILLA TITHYS.

part of the forehead, the loral space, a narrow portion over the
eye, the cheeks, the sides and fore part of the neck, with the
breast and sides of the body, black, all the feathers margined
with light grey when entire ; the abdomen light grey, ulti-
mately greyish-wdiite ; the lower tail-coverts reddish ; the
lower wing-coverts greyish-white.

Length to end of tail 6 inches ; bill along the ridge -^^ ;
wing from flexure S/^ ; tail 2 5 ; tarsus 1 ; hind toe ||, its
claw ^V2 ; middle toe ^%, its claw -i^.

Female. — The female has the upper parts greyish-brown,
the lower light grey ; the wings dusky, the secondaries broadly
margined with yellowish-white ; the rump reddish-brown, the
tail brownish-red, of a duller tint than in the male. It can
scarcely be distinguished from that of the preceding species.

Length to end of tail 5f inches.

Habits. — The above descriptions are taken from French
specimens, as only a few individuals have been met with in
this country. It is described by continental authors as being rare
in the northern parts of Europe, but common in the southern,
whence, however, it migrates in autumn, although a few indivi-
duals sometimes remain all winter. In its habits it resem-
bles the Wheatear, preferring stony places, and bare pastures.
It feeds on insects, larvae, worms, and berries ; nestles in the
fissures of rocks, the holes of walls and buildings, or among
stones, forming its nest of dry grass, and lining it with hair.
The eggs are five or six, white and glossy.

The first British specimen was obtained at Kilburn, near
London, in October 1829, and described by Mr Gould in the
fifth volume of the Zoological Journal. In the summer of
1830, another was obtained near Bristol, and a third at Brigh-
ton. In January 1833, a fourth was procured at Teignmouth
in Devonshire, and a fifth near Bristol in December 1835.

Young. — According to M. Temminck, the young are similar
to the adult female until spring. The female is distinguished
from the male by having the body of a paler grey, and the
rump of a duller red.

313

SYLVIANiE.

WABBLERS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

Taking the Blackcap, Garden Warbler, and Whitethroat as,
along with other species, forming the genus Sylvia, and as-
sociating with it various groups of small Songsters belonging to
both continents, and more or less related to the Turdinae, Saxi-
colinse, and Parinse, I consider the family thus constituted to
be sufficiently natural, although it might be difficult to distin-
guish as belonging to it several species placed on its limits.
The European genera are S^/lvia, Philomela, Phyllopneuste,
Calamoherpe, Sibilatrix, Begulus, and several others ; and the
American genera are Syhicola, Vermivora, Trichas, Beguliis,
and some less natural groups. They may collectively be cha-
racterized as follows.

The Sylvianse are birds of small size, none of them much
exceeding the Nightingale. They are generally of a slender
form, with the head rather large and ovate ; the bill short,
straight, slender, tapering, rather broader than high at the base,
compressed toward the end, its outlines very slightly convex,
the mandibles sharp-edged, the notch of the upper obsolete or
faint. The tarsus is of moderate length, slender, much com-
pressed, distinctly scutellate before ; the toes moderate, slender,
with arched, extremely compressed, acute claws. The plumage
is soft and blended ; the wings of moderate length, more or less
rounded, of eighteen quills ; the tail also of moderate length,
and composed of twelve feathers, but rounded in various de-
grees, even, or emarginate. The nostrils are small, oblong,
operculate ; the aperture of the ear large and elliptical. The
palate is flat, the mandibles moderately concave ; the tongue
is of moderate length, emarginate and papillate at the base,
narrow, grooved above, horny, thin-edged, its point slit and

314 SYLVIAN^.

lacerated. The oesophagus is of moderate width, destitute of
crop ; the stomach elliptical, with the lateral muscles strong,
and the epithelium thin, tough, and longitudinally rugous ;
the intestine short and rather w ide ; the coeca very small ; the
cloaca an ovate or oblong dilatation of the rectum.

The Sylvianse are distinguished from the Saxicolinse by be-
ing less robust, by having the bill narrow'er at the base, and
the tarsi more slender ; but the two groups blend into each
other. They are active, lively, and generally gifted with the
faculty of emitting agreeably modulated notes, several of them
being among the most celebrated songsters. They feed on in-
sects and larvae, but not exclusively, for almost all the species
are fond of juicy fruits, and many occasionally eat small seeds.
They search for their food chiefly on trees and bushes, not
often betaking themselves to the ground for that purpose.
Most of them, owing to their being essentially insectivorous,
are migratory, retreating southward as the cold increases in
autumn, and returning northward in spring. They form an ela-
borate, neatly constructed, generally cup-shaped nest, lay from
five to eight eggs, and usually rear two broods in the season.
In migrating they do not generally proceed in flocks ; the males
precede the females several days ; and their flight is rapid, pro-
tracted, and undulated.

All the species met with in Britain are migratory, except-
ing two, and most of them are generally distributed ov^er the
island.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.
GENUS I. PHILOMELA. NIGHTINGALE.

Bill of moderate length, straight, its outlines declinate and
slightly convex ; tarsus rather long, slender, compressed, with
eight scutella, of which the upper are indistinct ; toes of mode-
rate length, slender ; claws arched, extremely compressed, very
acute ; wings of moderate length, broad, the first quill scarcely
a third of the length of the second, which equals the fifth, the

WARBLERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 315

third longest, the secondaries rounded ; tail rather long, straight,
slightly rounded.

1. Philomela Luscinia. Brake Nightingale. Upper parts
reddish-brown, the tail brownish-red ; lower parts greyish-
brown, the throat and belly whitish.

GENUS II. SYLVIA. WARBLER.

Bill rather short, slender, straight, its outlines slightly con-
vex ; tarsus rather short, much compressed, with seven dis-
tinct scutella ; toes of moderate length, slender ; claws rather
stout, well arched, much compressed, laterally grooved, acute ;
wings of moderate length, broad, the first quill minute and
pointed, the third longest, the second and fifth very little
shorter, the former exceeding the latter, secondaries broadly
rounded ; tail of moderate length, straight, slightly emarginate.

1. Sylvia Atricapilla. Black-capped Warbler. Male with
the head black. Female with the head reddish-brown.

2. Sylvia hortensis. Garden Warbler. Upper parts light
greyish -brown, tinged with olive ; wings and tail clove-brown,
the margins of the quills and wing-coverts of the same colour
as the back, the lateral tail-feathers like the rest.

3. Sylvia cinerea. White-throated Warbler. Upper parts
light greyish-brown, the head brownish-grey ; wings and tail
brown, the secondaries and their coverts broadly edged with
light brownish-red, the lateral tail-feathers in part greyish-
white ; lower parts greyish- white.

4. Sylvia Curruca. White-breasted Warbler. Upper parts
light brownish-grey, the head grey, wings and tail dusky, the
secondaries edged with light grey, the lateral tail-feathers nearly
white ; lower parts white.

GENUS III. PHYLLOPNEUSTE. WOOD-WREN.

Bill rather short, very slender, straight, its outlines almost
straight ; tarsus rather long, much compressed, with seven
scutella, of which only the three lower are distinct ; toes of
moderate length, very slender, much compressed ; claws rather

316 SYLVIAN^.

long, arched, extremely compressed, laterally grooved, acute,
that of the hind toe curved in a semicircle ; wings of moderate
length, the first quill very small, the third longest, the second-
aries abruptly rounded ; tail rather long, straight, slightly
emarginate.

1. Phyllopneuste Sylvicola. Yellow Wood-wren. Length
about five inches ; wings long, the second quill intermediate
in length between the third and fourth ; upper parts light yel-
lowish-green ; throat and sides of breast yellow ; breast, abdo-
men, and lower tail -coverts white.

2. Phyllopneuste Trocliilus. Willow Wood-ioren. Length
about five inches ; wings of moderate length, the second quill
shorter than the fifth ; upper parts light greenish-brown, the
feathers edged with yellowish-green ; fore-neck and sides greyish-
white, streaked with yellow, breast and abdomen white, lower
tail-coverts yellowish.

3. Phyllopneuste Hippolais. Brown Wood-wren, or Chiff-chaff.
Length about four inches and a half; wings rather short, the
second quill of the same length as the seventh ; upper parts
greyish-brown, lower brownish-white, tinged with yellow.

GENUS IV. MELIZOPHILUS. FURZELING.

Bill short, slender, its upper outline convex ; tarsus rather
long, stoutish, compressed, with eight distinct scutella ; toes of
moderate length ; claws rather long, arched, compressed, late-
rally grooved, acute ; wings short, the fourth and fifth quills
longest, the second shorter than the sixth ; tail long, straight,
graduated.

1. Melizophilus provincialis. Provence Furzeling. Uj)per
parts greyish-black, fore part of neck and sides chestnut-
brown, belly white.

GENUS V. CALAMOHERPE. REEDLING.

Bill of moderate length, straight, slender, its upper outline
slightly convex, the lower straight ; tarsus rather long, much
compressed, with eight distinct scutella; toes of moderate

WARBLERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 317

length ; claws long, moderately arched, extremely compressed,
laterally grooved, very acute ; wings of moderate length, a lit-
tle curved, the first quill a fifth of the length of the second,
which is about the length of the third ; tail rather long,
straight, rounded.

1 . Calamokerpe phragmitls. Sedge ReedUng. Tail slightly
rounded ; feathers of the head brownish-black, edged with light
brown, the back light olive-brown, spotted with dusky, the
rump reddish-brown, the tail-coverts unspotted.

2. Calamoherpe arundinacea. Marsh ReedUng. Tail con-
siderably rounded ; upper parts olive-brown, unspotted.

GENUS VI. SIBILATRIX. CHIRPER.

Bill of moderate length, straight, very slender, much com-
pressed toward the end, its outlines nearly straight ; tarsi rather
long, extremely compressed ; claws rather long, moderately
arched, extremely compressed, very acute ; wings of moderate
length, a little curved, broad, the first quill about a fourth of
the length of the second, which is a little shorter than the third,
the secondaries rounded ; tail rather long, and much gra-
duated.

1. Sihilatrix Locustella. Grasshopper Chirper. Upper parts
dull olive-brown, with oblong dusky spots, lower pale yellowish-
brown, the fore-neck with a few dusky lines. Young yellowish-
brown, spotted with dusky above, brownish-yellow beneath.

GENUS VI. REGULUS. KINGLET.

Bill shortish, straight, very slender, flattened at the base,
compressed towards -the end, acute, its outlines almost straight,
the upper mandible destitute of notch ; toes rather large ;
claws long, arched, acute, wings of ordinary length, concave,
rounded ; the first quill very small, the fourth and fifth longest,
but scarcely exceeding the third ; tail of moderate length,
curved at the base, narrow, emarginate.

1 . Begulus auricapillus. Gold-crested Kinglet. Top of the

318 SYLVIANiE.

head reddish-orange, with a band of lemon-yellow and another
of black on each side, cheeks yellowish-grey. Young with the
crown lemon-yellow,

2. Regulus ignicapilhis. Fire-crested Kinglet. Top of the
head reddish-orange, with a band of lemon-yellow and another
of black on each side ; cheeks yellowish-grey, with a dusky
transverse streak, and another in the loral space.

Some authors have placed the Reguli in the Family of Pa-
ring, to the smaller species of which they certainly bear a con-
siderable resemblance, not only in form but also in manners.
But the transition from Phyllopneuste Hippolais to Hegulus
auricapillus is so slight that the former has by some been re-
ferred to the same genus as the latter, and in all the Pari the
bill is much stronger than that of Regulus, which is formed on
the same model as that of the other Sylvianae. There are two
generic names in the above synopsis to which objections may
with propriety be made. Melizophilus evidently signifies a lover
of music, yet the bird to which it applies does not appear to be
very remarkable in this respect. It has been suggested that
Melissophilus ought to be the name ; but the bird is not known
to be particularly fond of bees. For the Kinglets, a better name
than Regulus, would be Trochilus, which is that applied to the
common species by Aristotle ; but that name has been given
by Linnaeus to the Humming-birds ; and if Regulus be contrary
to rule, yet it is not so much so as Bex, Tgrannus, or Pastor,
and may be allowed to remain.

319

PHILOMELA. NIGHTINGALE.

Bill of moderate length, straight, rather broader than high
at the base, compressed toward the end : upper mandible with
the dorsal outline slightly declinate and somewhat convex to-
ward the end, the ridge narrow, the edges slightly overlapping,
with a faint notch, close to the declinate, acute tip ; lower
mandible with the dorsal line ascending and slightly convex,
the ridge rounded, the sides convex, the tip rather acute.

Both mandibles moderately concave internally, with a me-
dian prominent line ; the palate flat, with two ridges, the pos-
terior aperture of the nares oblongo-linear, margined with acute
papillae. Tongue slender, sagittate and papillate at the base,
tapering to a slit and lacerate point. The mouth bedewed
with a clammy fluid from two slender submaxillary glands.
(Esophagus of moderate width, without dilatation ; proventri-
culus oblong ; stomach a gizzard of moderate power, roundish,
compressed, its lateral muscles rather thin, the tendons large,
the epithelium thin, tough, and longitudinally rugous ; intes-
tine short, of moderate width, with very small cylindrical
coeca, and an oblong cloaca. PI. XIII. Fig. 7.

Nostrils rather large, oblong, operculate. Eyes rather small ;
eyelids feathered, with a narrow, bare, crenate margin. Exter-
nal aperture of the ear large, roundish.

General form slender, the body ovate, the neck short ; the
head ovato-oblong ; tarsi rather long, slender, compressed, with
eight scutella, of which the upper are indistinct ; toes slender,
compressed ; the first stout, the lateral equal. Claws of mo-
derate length, arched, extremely compressed, laterally grooved,
acute.

Plumage soft and blended, the feathers oblong ; bristles very
small. Wings of moderate length, broad, rounded ; the first
quill about a third of the length of the second, which is equal

320 PHILOMELA. NIGHTINGALE.

to the fifth, the third longest, the fourth scarcely shorter. Tail
rather long, straight, even, or slightly rounded, of twelve rather
broad feathers.

The Nightingales differ from the Warblers chiefly in being of
a more slender form, and in having the bill, tarsi, and tail more
elongated. They are very intimately allied to the Turdinge
by means of some of the smaller Thrushes, especially Turdus
Wilsoni and Turdus minor, which in form and colour, with
the exception of the spots on the breast, are very similar to the
common Nightingale. They are insectivorous, migratory in
temperate and cold countries, plainly coloured, and remarkable
for their song, which excels that of the other Sylvianae. One
species occurs in England, but has not hitherto been with cer-
tainty observed in Scotland.

321

PHILOMELA LUSCINL\. THE BRAKE
NIGHTINGALE.

Motacilla Luscinia. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 328.

Sylvia Luscinia. Lath. Ind. Orn. U. 506.

Nightingale. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bee-fin, Rossignol. Sylvia Luscinia. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 195.

Nightingale. Philomela Luscinia. Selb. Illustr. I. 206.

Sylvia Luscinia. Nightingale. Jen, Brit. Vert, An, 107.

The upper parts reddish-brown^ the tail hrownish-red ; the lower
parts pale greyish-brown^ the throat and belly whitish.

Male, — The Nightingale, unrivalled as it may be as to its
vocal powers, is one of the most homely of our native birds in its
attire. In size it is somewhat larger than the Blaekcapped and
Garden Warblers, which it greatly resembles in form, although
its bill and tarsi are more elongated. The former organ is of
moderate length, straight, rather broader than high at the base,
compressed toward the end ; the upper mandible with the dor-
sal outline declinate and slightly convex, the sides sloping and
convex, the ridge narrow, the edges sharp and slightly over-
lapping, the tip declinate, acute, with a faint notch ; the lower
mandible with the angle of moderate length and rather nar-
row, the dorsal line ascending and straight, the ridge round-
ed, the sides convex, the edges a little inflected, the tip rather

VOL. II. Y

322 PHILOMELA LUSCINIA.

acute ; the gape-line nearly straight. Both mandibles are con-
cave internally, with a slightly prominent median line. The
palate flat, the posterior aperture of the nares oblongo-linear,
papillate on the edges. The tongue is half an inch long, slen-
der, sagittate at the base, with two strong papillae and inter-
mediate acicular points, slightly concave above, the point slit
and bristly. The oesophagus, PI. XIII, Fig. 7, is two inches and
a quarter long, its average diameter two twelfths and a half.
The stomach is six twelfths and a half long, elliptical, its lateral
muscles strong, its cuticular lining thin and tough, with three
prominent transverse and several longitudinal rugae on each
side. The intestine is seven inches long, the coeca cylindrical
and one-twelfth in length. The trachea is an inch and eight-
twelfths in length, with sixty-five rings, its muscles as in the
Thrushes and Crows.

The whole form is slender ; the head ovate and of moderate
size ; the aperture of the eyes two-twelfths in diameter, that of
the ears three-twelfths ; the nostrils large, oblong. The tarsi
are rather long, slender, compressed, w^ith eight scutella, of
which the upper are blended ; the toes slender, compressed ;
the first stout, rather broad at the base, with eight scutella, the
second with ten, the third eleven, the fourth ten. The claws
are of moderate length, arched, extremely compressed, laterally
grooved, and very acute.

The plumage is soft and blended ; the feathers oblong, with
loose filaments, and a very slender plumule ; the bristle-feathers
at the base of the bill very small. The wings are of moderate
length, broad, with eighteen quills ; the first scarcely a third of
the length of the second, which is equal in length to the fifth,
the third longest, and the fourth almost as long ; the secondaries
rounded and rather slender. The tail is straight, rather long,
even, the feathers rather broad.

The upper mandible is reddish-brown, the lower pale yellow-
ish, its tip brown ; the iris is hazel ; the feet and claws pale
greyish-brown. The general colour of the upper parts is red-
dish-brown, redder on the head and rump, the tail of a brighter
tint ; the inner webs of the quills dusky brown. The feathers
of the eyelids are brownish-white ; the ear-coverts dull

BRAKE NIGHTINGALE. 323

brownish-red. The throat, lower part of the breast, and abdo-
men, are greyish-white ; the lower neck anteriorly and the
sides pale greyish-brown ; the lower tail-coverts dull yellowish-
white.

Length to end of tail 6j% inches; extent of wings 10| ; bill
along the ridge j%, along the edge of lower mandible j^ ;
wing from flexure 8-^% ; tail 2^% ; tarsus 1 ; hind toe ^^, its
claw ^% ; second toe j%, its claw j| ; third toe i\, its claw
^^ ; fourth toe j%, its claw /j.

Female. — The female is similar to the male in colour, and
nearly of the same size.

Length to end of tail 6^ inches ; extent of wings 10.

Variations. — Individuals vary considerably in the tint of
the upper parts, which are more or less tinged with red or grey.
The feathers sometimes become white, wholly or partially.

Habits. — So much has been said of the Nightingale that it
would be difficult for me to bring forward any thing new as to
its manners, without submitting them to a more careful ob-
servation than my opportunities have hitherto afforded me. I
have therefore applied to a friend well knoMm to all my readers,
as an original and successful describer of the habits of birds.

" The blasts of winter have passed away. The humble
violet hangs on its delicate stem, embedded, as it were, in the
midst of its deep green foliage. The sweet odour of the purple
floweret diffused through the bland air proves that the delight-
ful days of spring have returned. Its companion the pale prim-
rose spreads all over the mossy bank; there the virginal eglan-
tine prepares to open its snowy blossoms ; golden butter-cups
and daisies bright cover the green pastures ; and the groves
send forth from amid their yet tender foliage tufts of flowers,
some yet budding, like the laburnum, others bursting into
beauty, like the purple lilac, and the delicate cream-coloured
elder. Peach blossoms brightly blushing glow amid the varied
hues of the orchard, whose clusters of nectared petals have in-
vited the humble bee to trim her wings anew, to ramble hither

324 PHILOMELA LUSCINL4.

and thither, and with constant and most industrious care to
reap the delicious harvest intended for her sustenance during
the gloomy months of winter.

" How often at such a season as I have here attempted to
describe, have I left my downy couch, awakened, not by the
rays of the orb of day, but by an intuitive sensation, far more
pleasing than that of indolent repose, and sallied forth to watch
the eventful moments when nature's rest was for a time inter-
rupted, and she arose fresh, blooming, and full of renovated
vigour ! How oft, I repeat, have I betaken myself to the
fields and groves before the objects around me were clearly dis-
cernible, to watch the first notes of the vernal visitors of the
feathered tribe, which from their sojourn in more sunny lands
have returned to the abode of their youth ! Then the Winter
Fauvette would be heard to sing its humble lay, the little
Wren would pour forth its lively chirpings, the Chaffinches
challenged each other on the sprays, the loud notes of the
Blackbird came on the ear from afar, while perhaps overhead,
amid the branches of that sturdy elm, the Song Thrush, cousin
to the Mocking Bird, poured forth his unpremeditated notes, so
sonorous, so varied, and so mellow that, methinks, while lis-
tening to the lay, the rogue has actually practised the gamut
of the Louisiana songster.

" In the midst of a thicket I now see a solitary bird, humble
in its attire, and of most modest mien, peeping at me with a
caution so uncommon, and yet so inviting, that I feel tempted
to seek its acquaintance. With care I gradually approach
the feathered stranger. Its form is somewhat elongated, yet
not incompact ; its eyes are large, and of peculiar mildness ; it
stands rather high on a pair of light flesh-coloured, and as it
were, transparent legs ; its wings, which are of moderate
length, droop and seem at intervals to tremble ; and as it
moves from one twig to another, I see that it hops or leaps,
and does not walk step by step like many other birds. Its
colour is a dull brownish-olive, but the hind part of the back
and the tail are of a richer tint, though corresponding with the
general hue. At this moment it flies lightly to the ground,
hops a few steps, picks up a grub, and then returns to its

BRAKE NIGHTINGALE. 325

former station. Can it be a Thrush ? surely, if it is not, it
ought to be. But I will watch your ways ; nay, I will note
down every one of your actions, mark the situation of your
nest, its form and component parts, your eggs and your brood,
and all about you and your mate, who methinks has not yet
reached this lovely and secluded spot ; so that perhaps at some
future time I may present you to some friend who feels as
much for and toward you as I myself do at this moment.

" Such may have been my thoughts in those bright days of
my youth. If they were, they are realized ; for I now present
my history of the Nightingale to such a friend. That friend,
sweet bird ! I might say, has a faithful resemblance of your
handsome person, nay, such a perfect portrait, that could you
look at it, it would cause within your gentle breast, especially
at this season, quite an angry commotion, finding its truth so
remarkable that you might feel disposed to attack it as a rival,
and chase it far away from your favourite thicket. This friend
however I knew not in those sunny days.

" When I was yet quite a lad, my father spoke to me of the
songs of birds, both of Europe and of other countries, and fre-
quently would endeavour to give me some idea of the afBuities
of different species. ' The Sky- Lark, if not so abundant,' he
said, ' would be thought a most charming songster ; the Gold-
finch, the Linnet, the Blackbird, the Song Thrush, and many
others are all pleasantly musical ; but the Nightingale is
amongst our birds as much superior as the ISlocking Bird of
your country is to every other songster there : and, although I
am fully aware that America possesses many song birds of con-
siderable powers, nay perhaps, on the whole, more so than
Europe, I have never been able to convince either my country-
men or Englishmen of this truth. Of all this however you
must judge for yourself. Go early and late to the woods, lis-
ten with attention to the songs of the birds ; and be assured
that while you will find them daily becoming more and more
pleasing, you will be enabled to establish the truth of these
matters, to which, I am sorry to say, few persons pay much
attention.'

" Such lessons, Reader, have never been forgotten by me.

326 PHILOMELA LUSCINIA.

With all the anxious enthusiasm of youth I resolved to judge
for myself of the powers of song in birds, and to begin by study-
ing first those of the Nightingale, the very bird which had
attracted my regard in its plain brown garb, and most modest
mien. The part of France in which I then was, proved, as I
thought, remarkably well adapted for this purpose. Rambling
occasionally between Rheims and the capital, during the genial
season at which this distinguished songster appears there in
considerable numbers, and keeping away from the main roads,
I would seek all such byeways as were deeply cut beneath the
surface of the country around, and especially such as were well
supplied with tall and well-set hedge-rows, in the neighbour-
hood of orchards, and almost close to the cottages of the hum-
ble tillers of the soil. In solitudes like these I was sure to
meet with Philomel. Now perched scarcely ten or fifteen feet
from the ground, on some branch of a thicket, I have watched
it on its first appearance, in the beginning of April, as for
several days the males which I observed exhibited an appear-
ance of lassitude and melancholy almost painful to me. Silent,
still, and in a position almost erect, the Nightingale would
stand, as if in a state of stupefaction, for more than an hour at
a time, or until, pricked by hunger, it would fly to the ground,
hop over it in a direct line, and meeting with an insect, would
seize it precisely in the manner of a Thrush. By this, Reader,
I would have you understand that after having spied its prey,
the bird stopped for an instant, quickly bent its legs, lowered
its head without changing as it were the general position of its
body, then took up the insect, and swallowed it at once, looked
around, and flew to the very twig which it had a few moments
previously left. On all such occasions, during those few days
of lassitude, and indeed at almost all other periods of the stay
of this species in France, the least attentive observer will see
that on its alighting on a branch to rest, a certain tremulous
action of the wings takes place, whether those members droop
or are in their ordinary position.

" After three or four days the birds evidently became more
circumspect or shy, while a corresponding improvement took
place in their aspect. Their motions, though not quick at any

BRAKE NIGHTINGALE. 327

time, always seemed to me to partake of more elegance, as if
produced by the knowledge that the arrival of their partners,
and the season of song and love were at hand. An attentive-
ness to the notes of all the passing birds about them, I thought,
was very perceptible ; and when it propitiously happened that
one of them was produced by a female Nightingale, the males
would simultaneously fly with speed to the spot, and at once
seek for the fair one, which, by the way, I should say arrived
singly, and in the same manner as the male had done some
days previously. I moreover discovered that this species travels
altogether under night, and I believe singly, because, on seeing
these birds alight about day-break, I never observed more than
one at a time, although on several occasions I have seen one,
two, or even three, come towards the ground within the lapse
of half an hour or so, one coming after the other at the dis-
tance, as I should conceive, of from eight to sixteen miles. I
am also pretty well satisfied that in this species, as in many
others, the older males and older females reach their destina-
tions first, after which the others, according to their respective
strength of body.

" The arrival of the Nightingale in the portions of the coun-
try of which I speak, varies by a full fortnight, according to
the temperature of the season, as I have observed some of them
on the 20th of JSIarch, and in other seasons not before the 5th
or 10th of April.

" Many of my readers may think it strange that I should
say to them that I never heard a Nightingale sing on its arrival,
or before it was on the eve of being mated, when the first sight
of the female appears to bring forth its musical powers. On
the other hand, I have heard these birds in full song until within
a few days of their departure about the middle of August. But
this may possibly have been overlooked by students of nature,
who, having heard the song of the Nightingale at a very early
period, were not aware that at the same moment the bird had
already formed a nest, and its mate was snugly incubating.

" About a week after the arrival of the female birds, the male
Nightingales first seen are mated, and a spot has been chosen
for the nest. The situations of their choice are generally in

328 PHILOMELA LUSCINIA.

the interior of close thickets, but not unfrequently also at the
roots of the thick sets of hedge-rows. I never saw one either
in a bush, or on a tree of any sort. The colour of the mate-
rials employed in the composition of the nest, and even that
of the eggs, are in accordance with the dull reddish-brown garb
of the bird itself. The whole of this fabric may be said to
be of a rather rude construction, it being large, loosely put
together externally, and rather scantily lined. I have no doubt
that, like some of the smaller Thrushes, as well as several of
the larger Warblers, the Nightingale to some extent scratches
a seat for the basis of its tenement. The outer layer is usually
composed of the dried leaves of various trees of the previous
season, extending at times in a loose manner to the distance of
several inches from the proper nest. The latter is cup-shaped,
with its cavity about four inches in breadth, and nearly as
much in depth, formed of dry fibrous roots of small size, now
and then interwoven with a few horse hairs. The eggs are
from four to six, rather large for the bird, three quarters of
an inch in length, seven twelfths in breadth, and of a pale
brownish colour. The parent birds incubate alternately, al-
though the female spends more time on the eggs than her mate.

" Young Nightingales, like most young birds of their tribe,
are at first fed with macerated substances, for eight or ten
days, after which they receive small larvae, worms, and insects.
On two or three occasions, I have seen the young, when yet
not much more than half-fledged, leave the nest, and hop about
its vicinity during the day, but return towards evening and
huddle together, their mother covering them with due care.
So similar is their colour to that of the ground at this period,
that it is almost impossible to discover them, until the parents,
through their anxiety for their safety, are seen to hop round
them, and thus point them out to the searcher. At this early
age I have observed that they exhibited a great desire for small
insects, and even at times seized a butterfly extremely common
in France, especially in the neighbourhood of gardens and or-
chards, to which the Nightingale not unfrequently resorts for
food.

" During the summer, and towards the period of its de-

BRAKE NIGHTINGALE. 329

parture, this species, Thrush-like, feeds on several sorts of small
and juicy berries ; those which tarry latest especially, for I
have seen Nightingales in the neighbourhood of Paris as late
as the 15th of September, or about a month later than the
period chosen by the young birds to migrate toward their win-
ter quarters.

" In its general disposition, the Nightingale might be said
to be of a quiet nature ; but during the love season I have
oftentimes seen two males contending not only for a female,
but also for the exclusive right to a certain district, which they
were both equally desirous of appropriating to themselves.
Their warfare however produces no bloodshed. Indeed, like
loud-talkers, who never come to blows, they usually settle the
affair without pecks, but with much pomposity of action, and
he who surpasses his antagonist in this, is sure to maintain his
ground, while the other sneaks away, humbled and crest-fallen.

" The flight of the Nightingale is smooth, swift, generally
even, but of short extent, after it has once settled for the season.
Unlike true Warblers, Vireos, or Flycatchers, it never launches
forth on wing after its prey, but frequently, as is the habit of
both Thrushes and at times also Vireos, it is wont to move
along the branches, peep under the leaves, and snatch the in-
sects suited to its appetite.

" The young of the Nightingale bear a considerable resem-
blance to those of the Garden Fauvette, and I have seen the
latter not unfrequently sold in the markets for Nightingales.
But the person who has any knowledge of the differences that
exist between the two species, w^ill at once see, even at this
early age, that the bill of the true bird is much larger, and that
its tail, however short it may yet be, shews a dull red tint
never seen on that of the Fauvette. Again, w^hen the Nightin-
gale has become of age, the female is often palmed upon the
unknowing as a male, and I have often been amused by seeing
how carefully the vender of the female bird had darkened her
prison with a green cloth, under the pretence that this species
seldom sings unless in dai-kness. Now, Reader, it has been my
fancy to keep many Nightingales in my youth, and although
I never employed any trappings about their cages, they never

330 PHILOMELA LUSCINIA.

failed to sing both at early and at late hours, but never at
night, unless the moon was near its full, the weather calm,
and the sky serene. Indeed it has never been my fortune to
hear one of these birds sing at night, that is, at midsummer,
from eleven to one o'clock, or at an earlier time from nine to
three, for they always cease in an hour or so after sunset.

" It is probably the opinion of every person acquainted with
the songs of birds, that the Nightingale surpasses every other
songster in this country. Be it so ; but with all due deference,
allow me. Reader, to make a few observations on this subject.
Before I proceed one line farthei', will you have the goodness
to tell me whether you have ever heard a Nightingale tutored
to sing in perfect good tune " Over the water to Charlie," or
any other such regular air ? " No," being of course your an-
swer, I offer you my thanks ; and now you have most positively
acknowledged that the Nightingale, with all its natural powers,
is not equal to the Bullfinch, which naturally has no song at
all. The Sky-Lark I am assured will sing eight or ten mi-
nutes at a time without the least intermission, and, although
the voice of that bird is not so sweet as that of the Woodland
Philomel, its song is very methodical, and of great compass.
Then the pretty Blackcap, what think you of it l Is its song
not varied, gay, sweet, and mellow, as much so as that of the
Nightingale l And what say you to the notes of the Goldfinch,
the Crimson-breasted Linnet, and above all, that charming
cherub the Wood Lark 1 A friend of mine, yet a resident of
York, once made me a present of two males of this species.
Sweet delightful creatures ! how oft they chased away from
me moments of despondency ! methinks I am still listening
to their most agreeable song, which indeed not unfrequently
called the attention of my neighbours in Great Russel Street,
where I then resided.

" I am far, Reader, from being at all partial to the song of
any particular bird ; for, in fact, I love to listen to them all,
and am even fond of the hoarse croak of the Cormorant. You
may then well understand how delighted I feel when I listen
to the lively notes of any of the sweet singers which I have
mentioned.

BRAKE NIGHTINGALE.

331

" When I was a lad, and in France, I not only studied the
habits of many of the birds of that country, or those which
resort to it during the season of reproduction, but made con-
stant inquiries respecting them among the country people. One
day, after partaking of a delicious breakfast of buck-wheat
cakes and sweet milk, under the roof of a ' paysan,' I chanced
to ask him what he knew of the ' Rossignol." ' Ah ! Mon-
sieur !'' replied the goodman, ' c'est un oiseau qui chante joli-
ment.' I went on and asked him, ' pray can you tell me
what it says when it sings V My host scratched his ear, ac-
cording to the custom of men of his rank, and after a while
answered, ' Oui, Monsieur.' If I recollect aright, I rubbed
my hands, smiled, and desired him to describe it to me. He
rose, straightened himself, coughed a few times, and in a very
decent musical tone sung out the following ditty.

S;

m

t

(*J

Le Bon Dieu in'a don-ii6 une femme. Que j'ai tant.

*

f-p-

^P

-^

1 I r

tant, tant bat- tue, Que s'ilm'endonneune autre, Je

&i

t 1^'

-^-Zr

^^^^F^^^

la bat-ter-ais plus, plus, plus, plus, Qu'un petit, qu'un petit, qu'un petit !

" I thought this quite original, and even now would venture
to say that you have never, Reader, seen it in print before.
It is however in point of fact a most true description of the
expressions, if I may so speak, of the nightingale's notes, and
marks the compass of that bird's voice, the emphasis placed
on the different notes, and the terminating cadences, in what
I would call a happy manner.

" There exists a singular arrangement of nature relative to

332 PHILOMELA LUSCINLV.

singing birds of all sorts, of which never having read, I may
here make mention. It is this : — I have never met with birds
truly migratory, by which I mean birds that visit countries
from which they retire as soon as their young are able to tra-
vel, that ever sing in confinement during winter in the coun-
tries to which they had migrated to breed, though they sing
in the country to which they return to spend the winter. Of
these the Nightingale is one, for it does not exhibit its vocal
powers in confinement until after the spring moult, either in
France or in England ; but you no doubt have heard on mild
winter days the Song Thrush, the Linnet, or the Goldfinch, when
the cages of these birds have been placed in the sunshine, and
out of doors, pour forth their songs, and not unfrequently some
brief strains are emitted by the Sky-Lark, the AVinter Fau-
vette, and that little musical box the Kitty- Wren.

" Almost all the Nightingales that I have known whilst
kept in confinement, have died at an early age, through the
mismanagement of their owners, who, thinking that this spe-
cies, as it comes from warmer climates, ought to be kept at a
very high artificial temperature, especially during winter, have
thus overheated it. I have ascertained from experience that«a
room kept at the moderate heat of 58° to 60° Fahr. is best
suited to their constitution. Again, the general custom of keep-
ing these birds in cages covered with trappings of various tex-
tures, is absurd, inasmuch as,, in no portions of the countries
in which the Nightingale is found, is it known to conceal or
hide itself as it were, from the genuine and only pleasing free-
dom of the air and the rays of the sun. Indeed, Reader, when-
ever I have seen this sweet bird so confined, I have thought of
the melancholy lives led by pets of another sort, when confined,
I would say almost tortured, in rooms called nurseries, w^here
they become heartily tired of all the playthings presented to
them, and pant for the delight of gambolling over the green
grass plat in view of their glazed prisons. I have known bird-
sellers wicked enough to put out the eyes of the Nightingales
taken from the nest, under the pretence that they sing best
when blind. This is a most barbarous practice, and certainly
ought to be discountenanced by amateurs, who can easily put
it down, by never purchasing a bird so horribly maimed.

BRAKE NIGHTINGALE. 333

" Perhaps, Reader, you will allow me to present you with
some observations on the feeding of birds in confinement, and
applicable to the Nightingale as well as to others. If you are
not an observer of nature, read books, and in some of them
perhaps you will find what I am about to relate to you ; yet,
I would rather advise you to go to the woods and fields, and
see for yourself. When there, seated or standing, you will soon
discover if the food of a particular species is simple or complex,
whether it is composed of seeds only or of flesh in the form of
worms, larvse, snails, &c. and berries or other ripe fruit. Then
as to the Nightingale, you will soon perceive that although it
is fond of fruits, it never sucks the eggs of birds, and that to
feed it on hard-boiled yolk of eggs is quite wrong, for such food
induces constipation, soon renders the bird dull in spirits, and
ultimately extinguishes its musical powers. No, if you can-
not procure insects and fresh fruits for it during winter, do so
in the summer, and save them by threading them with a needle,
and drying them in the sunshine ; and, when the cold weather
has returned dip some of them daily for a few minutes in tepid
water, when they will swell, recover a part of their colours,
and will be sought for with avidity by your nightingale. Worms
cannot well be saved in this manner •, but grasshoppers, crickets,
and a variety of coleopterous insects, may. Instead of worms,
furnish your pet with something resembling them. Cut slen-
der slices of raw flesh, beef or mutton, roll them between your
fingers, throw them scantily into the cage, and judge for your-
self of the pleasure with which your winged captive devours
these welcome bits. Give it the best of dried figs too, or raisins
or prunes ; sand its prison well and often, have a good-sized
bathing-basin half-filled with cold water ; talk to your bird as
you would to a friend in captivity, and, depend upon it, the
captive wnll repay you amply, by its sweet and melodious song,
for all your not unpleasing cares."

To this original history by Mr Audubon, may be added a few
remarks. — The Nightingale, which in summer is spread over the
greater part of the continent, extending its migrations to Swe-
den and the temjierate parts of Russia, arrives in the south
of England about the middle of April, or a few days later

334 PHILOMELA LUSCINIA.

should the weather be severe, the females, according to various
observers, coming a week or ten days after the males. Indivi-
duals settle in the southern counties, including part of Devon-
shire, in the eastern and midland districts, and as far north as
the vicinity of York and Carlisle ; but none are to be seen in
Cornwall, Wales, or the north-western parts of England, and
the migration of this species does not extend into Scotland, al-
though on the continent it proceeds much farther north. Seve-
ral individuals, however, have alleged that the Nightingale
has been heard north of the Tweed. Thus, in a letter with
which I am favoured by Mr Robert D. Duncan, is the fol-
lowing notice respecting it : — " The Nightingales arrived in
Calder Wood, in West Lothian, in the early part of the sum-
mer of 1826. I cannot remember so far back, but creditable
eye and ear witnesses, on whose testimony implicit reliance
may be placed, gave me the information. Before and about
midnight, while the full moon shone bright and clear, the
superior warble of the male was first heard, which soon attracted
a number of admiring individuals, who hastened to the spot,
supposing it at first to be a scape-canary. The owner of the
wood was extremely anxious to preserve them, thinking per-
haps that they might propagate ; but with all his care and
attention, some malicious and selfish individuals attempted to
take them with bird-lime, but failing in their efforts, they after-
wards shot the male, upon which the female left the wood." It
leaves its summer residence from the middle of September to
the end of that month, and betakes itself to the countries west-
ward of the Mediterranean.

Its favourite haunts in this country are woods, copses, and
hedgerows, especially in places where the soil is moist ; and
in the neighbourhood of London it is not unfrequently found
in the numerous market-gardens from which that vast city is
supplied with vegetables. But so hideling are its habits that
one seldom obtains a glimpse of it, and then its homely attire
is little apt to attract notice. " Its food," according to Sweet,
" consists entirely of insects of various sorts, but it prefers the
eggs of ants to any other ; it is also very fond of the young
larvae of Wasps or Hornets."

BRAKE NIGHTINGALE. 335

For some days after the first arrival of the Nightingales, the
bird-catchers are on the alert, as it has been found that the
males which are caught before they have mated, thrive better
in captivity than those obtained after the females have made
their appearance. If the weather be not unfavourable, the
males begin to sing presently after their selection of a locality.
They continue in full song, however, only until the young are
hatched ; but it has been remarked that, when the female has
been killed, or the young removed, the male will commence
his song again, and continue it until he has obtained another
mate. Although the sweet strains of the Nightingale may be
heard at intervals through the day, they excite more admiration
when listened to in the quiet evenings, during which they are
protracted to a later hour than those of any other songster, ex-
cepting the Sedge Warbler, Most authors profess to be in rap-
tures when describing the song of this far-famed bird ; but
some would detract from its alleged merits, and consider it in
some respects inferior to the " Mavis and Merle." My ac-
quaintance with this species, however, is so slight, and my
capability of appreciating musical talent so feeble, that I am
obliged to refer to the report on this subject of a gentleman
who seems to me to possess the qualifications wanting in my-
self. Mr Wood, in his " British Song Birds," gives the fol-
lowing account of it. " The strains are loud, rich, mellow,
silvery, and clear, and so far from being a miserahile carmen, as
sung by Virgil and other classic poets, I know few songs
which are its equal in sprightliness and vivacity, with the ex-
ception, however, of one part, consisting of three or four
lengthened notes, beginning very piano, and gradually rising
to crescendo and forte, which are certainly of a peculiarly melan-
choly character. The song of this bird does not equal that of
the Garden Ouzel in mellowness, nor that of the Garden
Thrush in loudness, but it certainly excels all others as a whole,
at least all other British birds." Isaac Walton's eulogy is
more flattering : — " The Nightingale, another of my airy
creatures, breathes such sweet music out of her little instru-
mental throat, that it might make mankind to think that
miracles are not ceased. He that at midnight, when the very

336 PHILOMELA LUSCINIA.

labourer sleeps securely, should hear, as I have very often, the
clear airs, the sweet descants, the natural rising and falling,
the doubling and redoubling of her voice, might well be lifted
above earth and say, ' Lord, what music hast thou provided
for the Saints in Heaven, when thou affordest bad men such
music on earth V "

After the period at which the young are hatched, the Night-
ingale is seldom heard, and its song is exchanged for a low
hoarse note, supposed to be an expression of anxiety for its
young. Its nest, which I have never seen in situ, is said to be
frequently placed on the ground, but sometimes in shrubs ; and
according to Montagu is " made of dry leaves, generally of
the oak, and lined with dry grass." One now before me is
composed of slips of the inner bark of willow, mixed with
leaves of the lime and elm, and lined with fibrous roots, grass,
and a few hairs ; its external diameter five inches and a half,
its internal three, its depth three and a half. The eggs, which
are four or five in number, are of a regular oval form, some-
what pointed, nine and a half twelfths of an inch in length;
seven twelfths in their greatest breadth, glossy, and of a uniform
pale olive brown, often, however, tinged with greyish-blue,
especially at the small end.

Young. — The young when fledged differ from the adult only
in having the feathers of the upper parts tipped with reddish-
yellow, and those on the lower margined with dusky.

337

SYLVIA. WARBLER.

Bill rather short, slender, a httle broader than high at the
base, slightly compressed toward the end ; upper mandible
with the dorsal outline straight and declinate, at the end convex,
the ridge narrow and rather distinct, the nasal depression large,
the sides convex and declinate, the edges sharp and overlapping,
with a rather distinct notch close to the tip, which is declinate,
very narrow and rounded ; lower mandible with the angle of
moderate length, rather narrow and rounded, the dorsal outline
very slightly convex, the back broad and flattened at the base,
convex towards the end, the sides convex and sloping outwards,
the edges sharp, the tip broader than that of the upper ; the
gape-line straight.

The upper mandible within is concave, with a median pro-
minent line, the palate flat, with two ridges, the posterior aper-
ture of the nares oblongo-linear, margined with minute papillae.
The lower mandible more concave, with a median prominent
line. The tongue slender, sagittate, and finely papillate at the
base, tapering to a slit and lacerate point. The mouth bedewed
with a clammy fluid. CEsophagus of moderate width, without
croj) ; proventriculus oblong ; stomach a gizzard of moderate
power, roundish, compressed, its lateral muscles rather thin,
the tendons large, the epithelium thin, tough, longitudinally
rugous ; the intestine short, of moderate width ; the coeca very
small and cylindrical, the cloaca oblong. PL XIIL Fig. 8.

Nostrils oblong, narrow, oj)erculate. Eyes rather small ;
eyelids feathered, with a narrow bare crenate margin. Ex-
ternal aperture of the ear large, roundish.

General form slender, the body ovate, the neck short ; the
head ovate ; the feet slender ; tarsus rather short, much com-
pressed, with eight distinct anterior scutella ; toes of moderate
length, much compressed ; the first rather large, broad at the

VOL. II. z

338 SYLVIA. WARBLER.

base, and flattened beneath, the lateral equal, the third and
fourth united at the base. Claws rather stout, well arched,
much compressed, laterally grooved, acute.

Plumage soft and blended, the feathers ovate, rounded.
Wings of moderate length, with eighteen quills, of which the
first is minute and pointed, the third longest, the second and
fourth very little shorter; the primaries rounded, the secondaries
broadly rounded. Tail of moderate length, straight, slightly
emarginate, of twelve rather weak rounded feathers.

The Warblers are small, generally delicate, active, and lively
birds, which frequent woods, thickets, hedges, and gardens,
feed on insects and small fruits, and amply repay the slight
depredations which they commit, by their pleasantly modulated
song. Four species occur in Britain, all migratory, arriving in
the beginning of summer and departing after the middle of
September. This genus differs little from the preceding or the
following ; the tarsi, however, are shorter and the bill weaker
than in Luscinia ; and the latter organ is wider, and less com-
pressed toward the end than in Phyllopneuste,

339

SYLVIA ATRICAPILLA. THE BLACK-CAPPED
WARBLER, OR BLACKCAP.

MOCK-NIGHTINGALE.

Fig. 170.

Motacilla Atricapilla. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 332.

Sylvia Atricapilla. Lath, Ind. Orn. IL 508.

Blackcap. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bee-fin a t^te noire. Sylvia Atricapilla. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 201.

Blackcap. Sylvia Atricapilla. Selb. Illustr. I. 209.

Sylvia Atricapilla. Black-cap Warbler. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 108.

Male with the upper parts light yellowish-grey^ the head blacky
the lower parts ash-grey^ paler behind^ and tinged icith yellow ;
wings and tail greyish-brown. Female similar ^ but with the head
reddish-brown.

Male. — The Black-capped Warbler, although not remarkable
for beauty of colouring, is elegantly formed, and distinguished
above all our native species of its genus, excepting the Garden
Warbler, by the excellence of its sweetly modulated song.
It is very similar in size and colour to the next species, but is
easily distinguished from any other British bird of this family,
the male having the top of the head black, and the female
light-brown. The bill is rather short, broader than high at

MO SYLVIA ATRICAPILLA.

the base, compressed towards the end, and sharp ; the upper
mandible with the dorsal outline nearly straight and sloping,
until near the tip, which is a little declinate and narrow, the
ridge rather distinct, the sides convex, the edges sharp and
slightly overlapping, with a faint notch ; the lower mandible
with the angle of moderate lengih, rather narrow and rounded,
the dorsal line ascending, and very slightly convex, the sides
sloping outwards and convex, the edges sharp and direct ; the
gape-line nearly straight. Both mandibles are concave inter-
nally, with a slightly prominent median line. The palate is
flat, the posterior aperture of the nares oblongo-linear, papillate
on the edges. The aperture of the glottis also papillate, and
with numerous papilloe behind. The tongue is emarginate and
serrulate at the base, with a large conical papilla at each angle,
narrow, horny, grooved above, thin -edged, terminated by two
lacerated acute points ; its length three-twelfths and three-
fourths. The oesophagus is two inches and a quarter long, its
average diameter two-twelfths and a half The stomach is
elliptical, nine-twelfths long when distended, its lateral muscles
large, the lower very thin, its cuticular lining thin and rugous.
The intestine is seven inches long, its diameter at the upper
part two and a half twelfths, at the cceca one and a half ; the
cojca a twelfth and a half long, and one inch from the extremity.
Plate XIII. Fig. 8.

The head is oblong, and of moderate size ; the whole form
slender ; the aperture of the eyes two-twelfths in diameter ;
that of the ear two and three-fourths ; the nostrils elliptical,
and a twelfth and a half long. The feet are of ordinary length,
slender ; the tarsus compressed, acute behind, anteriorly with
eight distinct scutella ; the toes slender, compressed ; the hind-
toe broad and flat at the base, with eight scutella above, the
second with ten, the third with eleven, the fourth with ten
scutella. The claws are of moderate length, arched, extremely
compressed, laterally grooved, very acute.

The plumage is soft and blended ; the feathers oblong, with
loose filaments, and a very slender plumule. Those at the
base of the bill bristle-tipped ; the bristle-feathers scarcely
distinguishable. The wings are of moderate length, broad.

BLACK-CAPPED WARBLER. 341

and rounded ; the quills eighteen ; the primaries rounded,
excepting the first, which is very small and narrow, scarcely
a third of the length of the second, which is shorter than the
fifth, the third longest, and the fourth almost as long ; the
secondaries rounded and rather slender. The tail straight,
slightly rounded, rather long, its feathers rather narrow and
rounded.

The bill is brownish-black above, paler beneath, its edges
yellowish-grey, the lower mandible greyish -blue ; the inside of
the mouth is bluish-grey ; the iris brown. The feet greyish-
blue, the toes tinged with green beneath, the claws wood-brown.
The upper part of the head is black, the cheeks and hind part
and sides of the neck ash-grey ; the rest of the upper parts
light yellowish-grey ; the quills greyish-brown, their outer
edges pale yellowish-brown ; the tail similar. The lower parts
are ash-grey, fading posteriorly into pale yellowish-grey.

Length to end of tail 6jr> inches; extent of wings 9j ; bill
along the ridge j%, along the edge of lower mandible j% ; wing
from flexure 3^;^ ; tail 2^ ; tarsus || ; hind-toe y\, its claw
j| ; second toe y| ; its claw l\j ; third toe /j, its claw ^i ;
fourth toe y|, its claw -/i.

Female. — The female scarcely differs from the male in size,
and is similar in colour, only that the upper part of the head is
light reddish-brown.

Length to end of tail C^-g inches ; extent of wings 9^.

Habits. — My first acquaintance with the Blackcap took
place on the 19th May 1831, M-hen, having accompanied two
friends to the garden of Dean House, near Edinburgh, in quest
of young Rooks, I heard a delightful warble among the bushes.
On asking the gardener if he thought it was that of a Robin,
he said he thought it was a Mavis. I conceived it to be dif-
ferent from either, and my friends presently went in search of
the bird, which was shot by one of them, Mr Houston. Since
then I have had opportunities of observing the habits of the
species in other parts of the country. Its song is in feet very
similar in some respects to those of both the Robin and Thrush,

342 SYLVIA ATRICAPILLA.

but softer, more mellow, and more modulated than that of the
latter, and of more compass than that of the former.

This species is shy and not easily discovered, as it lurks
among the bushes, seldom appearing in an open place. Its
favourite haunts are gardens, orchards, and thickets, where it
feeds on insects and larvae, as well as currants, strawberries,
rasps, and cherries. If pursued, it flits from bush to bush, but
seldom takes a long flight ; and although extremely lively and
agile, it has not the petulance of the White-throat, nor the pert-
ness of the Robin, but seeks to hide itself from the observation
of man, and is in all respects a solitary bird, more than two
adult individuals being seldom or never seen together. It
arrives in Scotland about the beginning of May, but in the
south of England early in April, and is found pretty exten-
sively distributed in the cultivated parts. Its song is continued
from the period of its arrival until the end of June, and, if de-
scription could convey an adequate idea of its character, is
worthy of the pen of a Wilson or an Audubon. And here it
may be not amiss to present the opinions of some of our best
observers respecting it.

Montagu merely states that " it delights us with its charm-
ing melodious song, which is very little inferior to that of the
Nightingale, except in variety of notes."

According to Sweet " the song of the Black-cap is very loud
and agreeable, and it has a great variety of notes; it is also a real
mock-bird, and will catch the notes of any bird that it chances
to hear sing ; I have heard it imitate the Nightingale so ex-
actly, that it has deceived me ; also the Blackbird, Thrush, and
the greater Pettichaps, all of which it imitates so much in its
voice that it is almost impossible to detect it, except when it
runs from one into the other, or shews itself in the open part
of a tree."

" The song of the Blackcapt Fauvet," says Mr Neville Wood,
" is, perhaps, not surpassed by any other of the family, with
the exception, however, of those of the Brake Nightingale and
Garden Fauvet. It is loud, rich, clear, and rapid, and, in its
way, almost equals that of the leader of the vernal chorus, the
Brake Nightingale. It sings more constantly than any of its

BLACK-CAPPED WARBLER. 343

congeners, and indeed it is much more frequently heard than
seen. If, however, you will sit upon a mossy bank, shaded
with bushes and trees, near the spot from which the song pro-
ceeds, it will not be long before you obtain a sight of him, as,
when undisturbed, he generally sings on rather a conspicuous
station, at the top of a tree. But if you approach incautiously
or hastily, it instantly darts down into the midst of the thickest
brake the spot affords, where it will patiently wait your de-
parture. In the meanwhile, however, for the sake of employ-
ment, it will renew its strains, even though you be standing
within a few yards of it."

These descriptions are accurate, and yet after reading them,
you will be surprised when, under favourable circumstances,
you hear the bird pouring forth its rich strain from its perch
on some tree by the edge of a wood. It is a sunny day in the
middle of June ; the foliage of the trees is now expanded and
the woods exhibit tufted masses of fresh green of various shades,
that of the ash alone, as if fearful of the lingering colds, being
yet scanty and pale. Let us skirt the plantation, although at
this season there is not much chance of observing many birds,
as their duty calls them away in quest of food for their young,
and those that remain are concealed by the clustered leaves.
Listen to those strains that issue from the midst of that broad
plane-tree, so loud, so clear, so melodious, so modulated, so sur-
passingly beautiful, if one may so speak, that surely no bird
ever sang so sweetly. It is a Thrush, I know it by that pecu-
liar inflection : yet no, it cannot be, for the sounds are not quite
so loud, nor is the strain so broken. The notes follow each
other with rapidity, now the enunciation is hurried, anon de-
liberate, but always distinct, and neither strained not slurred by
haste. You fancy that parts of the song resemble that of the
Redbreast, the Garden Warbler, the Song Thrush, and per-
haps the Sky Lark ; or that it is a graceful and harmonious
combination of the songs of these and perhaps other birds ; yet
if you listen more attentively you will be persuaded that the
bird is no imitator, but that it sends forth in gladness the spon-
taneous, unpremeditated, and unborrowed strains that nature
has taught it to emit as the expression of its feelings. The

344 SYLVIA ATRICAFILLA.

isong, if divided into fragments, would suffice for half a score of
ordinary warblers, and is of surprising compass, and melodious
beyond description. None of the notes seem to resemble those
of the Blackbird, although they have been so represented ; nor
are they so plaintive as those of the Thrush. The song is de-
cidedly cheerful, but not merry like that of the Lark, and is
therefore not apt to cherish melancholy, but rather to encourage
hope, and induce a placid and contented frame of mind, in
which are combined admiration of the performer, and a kind
of affection towards it, which renders it almost impossible for
you to level your death-dealing tube at it.

The nest of the Black-capped AVarbler is placed in the fork
of some shrub, and, according to Montagu, is " composed of
dried stalks, generally of goose-grass, put together with a little
wool, and sometimes a little green moss on the outside ; the in-
side is lined with fibrous roots, upon which are frequently
placed a few long hairs. The eggs are four or five in num-
ber/' of a very broad oval form, eight and a half twelfths long,
and seven-twelfths in breadth, greyish-white, faintly mottled
and freckled with purplish-grey, with some marks and streaks
of blackish-brown.

This species is generally distributed in England, and is met
with sparingly in the southern districts of Scotland. In the
valley of the Clyde, especially about Hamilton, it is not un-
common. It is mentioned by Dr A. R. Young as occurring
near Paisley, in Kenfrewshire, is also stated to be found at
Stevenston, Ayrshire, and has been met with in the counties
of Perth and Forfar ; but it has not been observed farther
north. On the Continent it is dispersed in summer from Nor-
way and Lapland to Spain and Italy, and has been found in
Northern Africa, the Cape of Good Hope, Japan, and Java.

Young. — When fledged the young resemble the adult, with
the exception of having the upper part of the head greyish-
brown.

34o

SYLVIA HOllTENSIS. THE GARDEN WARBLER
OR PETTYCHAPS.

GREATER PETTYCHAPS. FAUVETTE. NETTLE-CREEPER.
BILLY WlllTETHROAT. GARDEN FAUVET.

Sylvia hortensis. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 50".

Bee-fin Fauvette. Sylvia hortensis. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 20(!.

Greater Pettychaps. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Greater Pettychaps. Curruca hortensis. Selb. Illustr. I. 211.

Sylvia hortensis. Greater Pettychaps. Jen, Brit. Vert. An. 108.

Upper parts light greyish-brown, tinged with olive, the wings
and tail dusky, the margins of the quills and coverts of the same
colour as the back, the lateral tail-feathers like the rest, the lower
parts greyish-white, the breast and sides tinged with brown.

Male. — The Garden Warbler is almost of the same size as the
Black-capped Warbler, which it also closely resembles in form.
It is somewhat larger than the White-throated Warbler, to
which it is very similar in form and somewhat in colour. The
specific characters which I have given to these species however
will, I am confident, be found sufficient to enable the student to
distinguish them. The bill of the present species is rather short,
broader than high at the base, compressed towards the end,
acute ; the upper mandible with the dorsal outline nearly

346 SYLVIA HORTENSIS.

straight and sloping until near the tip, which is a little de-
clinate and narrow, the ridge rather distinct, the sides convex,
the edges sharp and slightly overlapping, with a faint notch ;
the lower mandible with the angle of moderate length, rather
narrow, the dorsal line ascending and very slightly convex, the
sides sloping outwards and nearly flat at the base, convex to-
w^ards the end, the edges sharp and direct ; the gape-line nearly
straight. Both mandibles are concave internally, with a pro-
minent median line.

The head is oblong, and of moderate size ; the whole form
slender. The aperture of the eye two-twelfths in diameter,
that of the ear two and a half ; the nostrils elliptical, and a
twelfth and a half long. The feet are of ordinary length,
slender ; the tarsus much compressed, acute behind, anteriorly
with eight scutella, of which the upper are rather indistinct ;
the toes slander, compressed, the hind toe broad and flat at the
base, with eight scutella above, the second with six, the third
with ten, the fourth with nine scutella. The claws are of mo-
derate length, arched, extremely compressed, laterally grooved,
acute.

The plumage is soft and blended ; the feathers oblong, with
loose filaments, and a very slender plumule. Those at the base
of the bill bristle-tipped ; the bristle-feathers scarcely distin-
guishable. The wings are of moderate length, broad and rather
pointed ; the quills eighteen ; the primaries rounded, except
the first, which is extremely small, being only a fifth of the
length of the second, which is as long as the fourth, and about
a twelfth and a half of an inch shorter than the third ; the se-
condaries abruptly and obliquely rounded. The tail straight,
almost even, of moderate length, its feathers rather narrow,
and obliquely rounded.

The bill is of a dusky brown, the base and edges of the lower
mandible yellow, the inside of the mouth orange. The iris is
hazel. The feet and claws greyish-brown. The general colour
of the upper parts is light greyish-brown, tinged with olive ;
the sides of the neck brownish-grey. The quills and coverts
are dusky brown, slightly margined with the same colour as
that of the back. The tail is of the same dusky brown, its

GARDEN WARBLER. 347

lateral feathers like the rest. A small space around the eye
whitish ; the cheeks pale brownish ; the lower parts yellowish-
white, the lower part of the neck anteriorly tinged with reddish-
brown, as are the sides ; the axillar feathers, and lower wing-
coverts of a fine ochraceous yellow tint, the lower tail-coverts
pale greyish-brown, with white margins.

Length to end of tail 6 inches ; extent of wings 9 ; bill
along the ridge j%, along the edge of lower mandible j-^ ; wing
from flexm-e 3j ; tail 2j\ ; tarsus y| ; first toe j^^, its claw
j% ; second toe j\ , its claw ^ ^^ ; third toe ~ | , its claw j ^ ;
fourth toe j|, its claw |^.

Female. — The female scarcely differs from the male in size
or colour.

Habits. — The Garden Warbler makes its appearance in the
south of England in the end of April or early in May, and ac-
cording to various authorities is generally distributed in that
country, although nowhere very common. Mr Robert D.
Duncan, who has favoured me with some interesting notices
respecting birds, writes as follows : — " Amongst the summer
visitants of Midcalder in West Lothian I have noticed the
Fauvette, or Greater Pettychaps, Sylvia hortensis. I have
only twice seen or heard it however, and both times it was fre-
quenting an underwood plantation, and there it warbled with
its peculiar mellowness and sweetness combined, as it threaded
its way round the trunks of the trees, through the brakes and
the bushes of the copse."" Mr Syme states that he has heard it
on Corstorphine Hill and in Roslyn Woods, in the vicinity of
Edinburgh. I have also heard of its occurring at Currie in
the same neighbourhood, but have not met with it in any part
of Scotland, and have failed in procuring specimens shot there.
Mr Selby however has been more fortunate, for he has " found
it throughout the greater part of Scotland, particularly where
the wooded districts margin the lakes and rivers.""

Not being well acquainted with the habits of this species,
I must refer to those who have described them. The follow-
ing is Montagu's account. " This species of Warbler, which

348 SYLVIA HOllTENSIS.

is not very plentiful in England, was first discovered in Lan-
cashire, and sent from thence to Dr Latham by Sir Ashton
Lever. However, since it has been better known, it is found
to arrive in several of the southern counties about the latter
end of April or beginning of ]\Iay. Its song is little inferior to
that of the Nightingale. Some of the notes are sweetly and
softly drawn ; others quick, lively, loud, and piercing, reach-
ing the ear with pleasing harmony, something like the whistle
of the Blackbird, but in a more hurried cadence : sings fre-
quently after sunset. This bird chiefly inhabits thick hedges,
where it makes a nest composed of goose-grass, and other
fibrous plants, flimsily put together, like that of the com-
mon Whitethroat, with the addition sometimes of a little
green moss externally : the nest is placed in some bush near
the ground. It lays four eggs, about the size of a Hedge Spar-
row''s, weighing about thirty-six grains, of a dirty white, blotch-
ed all over with light brown, most numerous at the larger end,
where spots of ash-colour also appear. In Wiltshire, where
we have found this species not uncommon, it resorts to gar-
dens in the latter end of summer, together with the White-
throat and Blackcap, for the sake of currants and other fruit."
According to Sweet, " It first visits us in the spring, about
the latter end of April, or the beginning of May ; and its ar-
rival is soon made known by its very loud and long song. It
generally begins very low, not unlike the song of the Swallow,
but raises it by degrees, until it resembles the song of the Black-
bird, singing nearly all through the day, and the greater part
of the time it stays with us, which is but short, as it leaves us
again in August. In confinement it will sing nearly all through
the year if it be treated well. In a wild state, it is generally
found in gardens and plantations, where it feeds chiefly on
fruits, and will not refuse some kinds of insects ; it is very fond
of the larva or caterpillar that is often found in abundance on
cabbage plants, the produce of Papilio Brassicw, and I know
no other bird of the genus that will feed on it. Soon after its
arrival here the strawberries are ripe, and it is not long before
it finds them out ; the cherries it will begin before they are
quite ripe ; and I know not any kind of fruit or berry which is

GARDEN WARBLER. 340

wholesome that it will refuse ; it generally tastes the Plums,
Pears, and early Apples, before it leaves us ; and, when in con-
finement, it also feeds freely on Elder, Privet, and Ivj Berries ;
it is also partial to Barberries, and a soft Apple or Pear/"'

Mr Neville Wood says he has seen it " darting into the air
to catch insects, in the same manner as the Spotted Flycatcher
(Muscicapa grlsola), often taking its stand on a dahlia stake,
watching for its prey, darting aloft with inconceivable rapidity,
with its bill upwards, catching the fly with a loud snap of the
bill, and immediately returning to its station, again and again
to renew the same process, with similar success,"

This species, then, is found chiefly in thickets, plantations
or woods in which there is a rank growth of brambles, and in
gardens, where it lives a quiet and retired life, not usually ob-
truding itself on the notice of those who may have occasion to
visit its haunts, otherwise than by its song, which it emits in
the midst of the dense foliage, although sometimes when perched
on a tree. It feeds on insects and worms, as well as pulpy
fruits ; is extremely active and restless, gliding with ease
among the twigs, and when on the ground advancing by leap-
ing. Its flights are generally short and rapid ; but the charac-
ter of its migratory movements has not been ascertained. Its
nest is frequently placed on the ground, among rank grass, or
under the protection of brambles or other plants, and in form
and structure resembles that of the Whitethroats. The eggs,
from four to six in number, are of a regularly oval form, nine-
twelfths in length, six and a half twelfths in their greatest
breadth. It appears to rear two broods in the season, and de-
parts by the middle of September.

Young. — When fledged the young resemble their parents,
but have the upper parts of a richer yellowish-brown tint, the
lower more tinged with yellow, the axillars and lower wing-
coverts pure yellow, the bill pale brown, the feet and claws
yellowish-brown.

350

SYLVIA CINEREA. THE WHITE-THROATED
WARBLER, OR WHITE-THROAT.

WHEY-BEARD. WHEETIE-WHY. PEGGY-WHITE-THROAT. NETTLE-CREEPER.

CHURR. MUFF. MUFFET. MUFTY. CHARLY-MUFTY. BEARDY.

BLETHERING TAM. WHATTIE. WHISHEY.

Fig. 172.

Sylvia cinerea. Lath. Ind. Orn. I. 514.

White-throat. Mont Orn. Diet.

Bee-fin grisette. Sylvia cinerea. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 207.

White-throat. Curruca cinerea. Selb, Illustr. I. 213.

Sylvia cinerea. White-throat. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 109.

Male with the upper parts light greyish-hrown, the head hrown-
ish-grey, the wings and tail dusky, the secondaries and their
coverts broadly edged with light brownish-red, the lateral tail-
feathers with the outer web and a portion of the inner greyish-
white ; lower parts greyish-white, the loicer part of the fore-neck
tinged with red, the sides and tibial feathers with brown. Fe-
male similar, the upper parts yellowish-brown, the head less tinged
with grey, the lateral tail-feathers with brownish-white.

Male. — This lively and loquacious little bird, which is ex-
tensively distributed in Britain, and in the cultivated parts
chiefly frequents hedges, is of a slender and delicate form, al-
though from its habit of swelling its plumage it has the appear-
ance of being rather stout for its size. In other respects it
presents the characters which I have given as common to all

WHITE-THROATED WARBLER. 351

the species of the genus. The bill is short, about the same
breadth and depth at the base, beyond the middle compressed ;
the upper mandible has its dorsal outline at first straight and
slightly declinate, towards the end convexo-declinate, the sides
convex, the edges sharp, slightly inclinate, and overlapping,
the tip narrow and sharpish with an obsolete sinus on each
side ; the lower mandible with the dorsal outline nearly straight
and ascending, the sides erect but a little convex, the edges
sharp and slightly inclinate ; the gape-line nearly straight.
Both mandibles are concave within, the upper with a slight
prominent median line. The palate is flat ; the aperture of the
glottis oblongo-linear, edged with papillae. The tongue emar-
ginate and serrulate at the base, with a large conical papilla
at each angle, tapering, nearly flat above, its edges thin, the
point narrow, slit, and minutely lacerate ; its length four-
twelfths and a half. The aperture of the glottis is margined
behind with large pointed papillae, of which there are also
many behind. The oesophagus is two inches and a quarter
long, without crop or dilatation, its average diameter two-
twelfths and a quarter ; the stomach is eight and a half twelfths
long, oblong, compressed, its lateral muscles large, the lower
extremely thin ; the tendons moderate, the inner coat very thin.
The intestine is six inches and three quarters in length, its
diameter diminishing from two and a half twelfths to one and
a half ; the coeca oblong, one-twelfth long, and an inch distant
from the extremity.

The aperture of the eyes is two-twelfths in diameter. The
nostrils elliptical, one-twelfth long. The ear circular, two-
twelfths and three-fourths. The feet are slender, the tarsi com-
pressed, with eight distinct anterior scales ; the first toe with
eight, the second with eight, the third with eleven, the fourth
with ten scales. The claws are extremely slender, compressed,
laterally grooved, moderately arched, rather long, and very
acute.

The plumage is very soft and blended. All the feathers at
the base of the bill are bristle-tipped ; the bristle-feathers at
the base of the upper mandible so small as scarcely to be dis-
tinguishable. The wings are of moderate length, broad, semi-

352 SYLVIA CINEREA.

ovate, with eighteen quills ; the first minute and acuminate,
the second, third, and fourth almost equal, the third longest,
the third and fourth slightly cut out at the end ■; the secondaries
very long ; the primaries rounded, the secondaries truncato-
rotundate. The tail is rather long, straight, and rounded ; the
lateral feathers considerably shorter than the next ; the feathers
weak and rather narrow.

The upper mandible and the jDoint of the lower are dusky,
the rest flesh-coloured; the mouth yellow. The iris is brownish-
black, the edges of the eyelids dusky. The tarsi are brownish-
red, the toes darker, the claws dusky-brown. The general
colour of the upper parts is light greyish-brown, the head
darker and more tinged with grey, the rump more brown ; the
feathers of the eyelids whitish ; the loral space, and a band be-
low the eye, of the same colour as the head ; the ear coverts
brown ; the sides of the neck pale brownish-grey, a faint patch
of that colour projecting before the wing. The feathers of the
wings and tail are dusky brown, edged with light brownish-
red, the primaries narrowly with paler, the secondaries and
their coverts broadly with deeper red ; the lateral tail-feathers
with an oblique longitudinal band of greyish -white, including
the terminal half of the inner web, and the whole of the outer ;
the next two feathers tipped with the same ; the lower parts
are greyish- white ; the fore part of the neck tinged with reddish,
the sides and tibial feathers with brown. Some authors de-
scribe the throat and abdomen as white, but these parts are
always more or less tinged with grey.

Length to end of tail 5{^ inches ; extent of wings 8f ; bill
along the ridge |*g, along the edge of lower mandible j\ ; wing
2i| ; tail 2-^^ ; tarsus ^^ ; hind toe A, its claw j| ; second
toe -^%, its claw j% ; third toe |i, its claw ^^ ; fourth toe |>,
its claw 1%.

Female. — The female does not differ materially in size. Its
colours also are similar, but the upper parts, in place of being
strongly tinged with grey, are generally of a uniform light-
brown ; the brownish red on the wings is paler, and more tinged
with yellow; the fore-neck is almost destitute of the faint

WHITE-THROATED WARBLER. 353

reddish tint generally seen on that of the male ; and the white
on the lateral tail-feathers is more obscure, being tinged with
brown. The oesophagus is two inches and a quarter long,
with an average diameter of two twelfths and a quarter. The
stomach is eight and a half twelfths long ; the intestine seven
and a fourth twelfths long, its diameter varying from two and
a half to one and a half twelfths ; the coeca oblong, two twelfths
in length.

Length to end of tail 5 } § inches ; extent of wings 85 ; bill
along the ridge ^^g '•> wing 21**^ ; tail 2j\ ; tarsus ^g ; middle
toe and claw ^^1.

Changes. — Individuals shot in May vary little in their colours,
and are generally in full plumage, with the tips and edges of
the feathers entire. It is therefore certain that this species
moults in its southern residence. Individuals, however, occur
in which some of the old feathers remain. I have before me,
on the 25th ISIay 1837, two specimens recently shot. In
the female the plumage is all new and perfect ; the tail consi-
derably rounded, the two middle feathers being longest, the
lateral three eighths of an inch shorter ; while the male, although
otherwise fresh, has one of the middle tail-feathers quite ragged,
half of the outer web being worn off, and the other middle
feather growing, and shorter than the lateral, both which are
also unrenewed. The wings and the rest of the plumage are
perfect. As the season advances, the colours fade, and the
feathers are more or less worn ; the upper parts assume a
greyer tint, and the lower a more dusky hue, the reddish
colour on the fore-neck becoming more conspicuous ; the red
edgings on the quills are sometimes almost obliterated, and the
head is much darker. In specimens shot in July, the tail-
feathers are often in a singularly ragged condition, especially
the two middle and the lateral.

Habits. — The White-throated Warbler arrives from the
20th of April to the 10th of May, and immediately betakes
itself to thickets or hawthorn hedges, where its presence may
be detected by the short pleasantly modulated warble of a few

VOL. II, A A

354 SYLVIA CINEREA.

notes, which it emits at intervals. Were it not for this habit,
it would be difficult to discover it, for, although it allows a per-
son to approach very near, it flits incessantly and with extreme
agility among the twigs, and if pursued, generally keeps on the
other side of the hedge, flies off to a short distance, emits its
song, sometimes while on wing, more frequently the moment
it alights, then glides along, takes flight again, sings, and so
continues for a long time. If you follow it to a distance, it
returns in the same manner. When not disturbed, it often
rises over the hedge or bush, to a height varying from a few
feet to several yards, flutters in the air with fitful and fantastic
motion, singing all the while, and then drops to its perch. In
all its movements, if excited, it keeps the feathers of the head
erected, and when singing swells out its throat conspicuously.
Even after being shot, you find the feathers of that part stand-
ing out more than is usual in birds ; and from this habit is
probably derived the familiar names of Muftie or Muffety, or
Charlie Muftie, by which it is generally known in Scotland.
Its song is heard immediately after its arrival, and in a few
days it is seen in pairs.

" The Whitethroat, Sylvia cinerea," Mr Hepburn writes,
" was first seen here in 1838 on the 7th of May. Many of these
active birds were sporting about in the very same hedge, in a
well sheltered glen, where I first observed the Willow Wren ;
their lively notes and animated gestures shewing that they
were not fatigued by their long journey to our northern clime ;
and the silvery whiteness of their throat and abdomen con-
trasting beautifully with the delicate green of the young foliage
as they glided along. Every now and then one would start
off for a distant part of the hedge, singing all the while, and
accompanying its song with curious jerks and gesticulations of
the body. When they sing in the hedge they erect the feathers
on the occiput, and distend their throat slightly. Although
the song is harsh, and may be called displeasing, I love it for
variety's sake, and because it contrasts with the wild sweet
warble of the Wood and AVillow Wrens, and the soft song of
the Swallow, Hirundo rustica. In a few days they were dis-
persed over the country. Several pairs breed annually in the

WHITE-THROATED WARBLER. 355

neighbourhood of our homestead. They frequently enter our
garden in search of food. They delight to mob cats, never
ceasing their alarm note till their foe retires. The peasant
boys in this part of East Lothian imagine that this bird is
mocking or laughing at them, as it tumbles over the hedge and
bushes in the lane, and therefore they persecute it at all times,
even more virulently than they do sparrows. AVhen the cur-
rants, rasps, and gooseberries are ripe, the White-throats flock
to our garden, and commit great havoc among these fruits.
The last bird of this species that I saw was singing gaily in a
sloe thicket at the foot of the Lammermoors, from which I had
just descended after a very long excursion, on the evening of
the 10th of September. The provincial names of the White-
throat are Whishey, Whishey-whey-beard, and Whattie.""

The activity, liveliness, and petulance of the White-throat,
render it an amusing object of observation. If you happen to
approach its nest, it comes up scolding vehemently with a
churring sort of voice, and flits about until you leave the place,
attempting by short flights to induce you to pursue it, when it
flies along the hedge before you. Its song is often heard very
late at night, and is among the earliest that comes on the ear
in the fine summer mornings. If you be walking along a
hedge in the early twilight, the little creature is sure to come
up, announcing its presence by its song, and flitting in advance
for perhaps a long way. One morning in July 1885, when
approaching Edinburgh after walking all night from Glasgow,
I encountered several White-throats in this manner, some of
which accompanied or preceded me several hundred yards, al-
though I could not see one of them.

Its food consists of insects and larvse of various kinds, for
which it searches among the shrubs and herbaceous plants in
their vicinity, occasionally darting into the air after its prey.
I have never met with it on open ground, nor have I found
seeds in the stomachs of any that I have opened. But it often
in gardens feeds on currants, rasps, and other fruits. The
gizzard usually contains a considerable quantity of sand or par-
ticles of quartz, as is usual in insectivorous birds.

Its nest is usually placed among brambles or briars, or among

356 SYLVIA CINEREA.

rank plants in the vicinity of a hedge or thicket, and is ele-
gantly but loosely constructed, the exterior being composed
chiefly of withered stems of Galium aparine, with similar
slender and brittle or flexible stalks, some fine grass, and a little
hair, all neatly arranged, but from the unpliant nature of the
goose-grass, which bends only in an angular manner, leaving
large vacuities. The lining is of finer filaments, with hair of
various kinds, and neatly smoothed. The eggs, generally five,
are of a regular oval form, greenish- white, spotted and freckled
with greyish-green and purplish-grey, their average dimensions
nine twelfths by six and three quarters. In the south of Scot-
land, the nest is seldom completed until the end of May.

This species is met with in all the lower parts, and in most
of the valleys of the north of Scotland, and as you proceed from
thence southward, you find it generally distributed ; but in
places where the shelter of thickets or hedges is not to be
found, it does not make its appearance. Its song ceases to be
heard about the middle of July, and by the end of September
it has disappeared.

YouxG. — The young when fledged have the bill less dusky,
and the feet paler than those of the adults. The upper parts
are of a uniform reddish-brown ; the quills more broadly mar-
gined with light-red, the lateral tail-feathers reddish-white in
their whole extent, with the shaft dusky, the lower parts
greyish- white, tinged with brown.

Remarks. — This species is very intimately allied to the pre-
ceding, but may readily be distinguished from it by compar-
ing the specific characters given above. Its bill is considerably
shorter, and less expanded at the base ; the tail is proportionally
longer. The lateral feathers of that of the other species are
dusky like the rest, the quills are not edged with red, and the
tarsi are leaden-coloured.

The above descriptions of the male and female are taken
from two fresh specimens shot on the 22d of May, and exa-
mined internally as well as externally ; the female ascertained
by her largely developed oviduct, the eggs having all been laid.

357

SYLVIA GARRULA. THE WHITE-BREASTED
WARBLER.

LESSER WHITE-THUOAT. BABILLARD. BABBLING WARBLER.

Motacilla garrula. Linn. Fauna .Siiec. 254.

Curruca garrula. Briss. III. 384.

Sylvia Curruca. Lath. Ind. Oni. II. 509.

Lesser White-throat. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bee-fin Babillard. Sylvia Curruca. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 209.

Sylvia Curruca. Lesser White-throat. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 109.

Lesser Whitethroat. Curruca garrula. Selb. Illustr. I. 215.

Upper parts hroiKnish-grey ^ the head dark ash-grey^ the wings
and tail dusky, the secondaries edged tcith light grey, the lateral
tail-feathers nearly ichite ; lower parts ichite, the breast tinged
with red, the sides with grey.

Male. — The Babillard, which although very closely allied
to the species last described, and very similar to it in form and
habits, is not so extensively distributed, nor so common in any
locality, may be described, as to form, in nearly the same terms
as that bird. The bill is short, rather broader than high at the
base, compressed beyond the middle, its outlines straight, the
upper declinate at the end, the tip with a slight sinus. The
feet are slender, the tarsi compressed, with eight anterior scu-
tella, the hind toe with eight, the inner with the same num-
ber, the third with twelve, and the fourth with eight scales ; the
claws extremely slender, compressed, laterally grooved, mode-
rately arched, rather long, and very acute.

The plumage is very soft and blended. The bristle-feathers
at the base of the bill very small. The wings of moderate
length, broad, semi-ovate, with eighteen quills ; the first quill
is minute and acuminate, the second, third, and fourth nearly
equal, the third however longest, the third and fourth with the
outer web slightly cut out toward the end ; the secondaries

358 SYLVIA GARRULA.

very long and broadly rounded. The tail is rather long,
straight, and rounded.

The bill is brownish- black, excepting the base of the lower
mandible, which is brownish-yellow. The iris yellowish-
white. The tarsi, toes, and claws bluish-grey. The general
colour of the upper parts is brownish-grey, the head darker,
the ear-coverts blackish-grey, those of the eyelids whitish.
The feathers of the wings and tail are blackish-brown, edged
with greyish-brown ; the outer tail-feather on each side with
an oblique longitudinal band of greyish-white, including the
terminal half of the inner web and the whole of the outer. The
throat, breast and belly, white, the latter tinged with red ; the
sides light brownish-grey.

Length to end of tail 5^^ inches ; extent of wings 8 ; bill
along the ridge i*|, along the edge of lower mandible j% ; wing
from flexure 2i\ ; tail 2/g ; tarsus }§ ; third toe ^^1, its
claw y|.

Female. — The female is slightly smaller, and resembles the
male in colour, only the upper parts are more tinged with
brown, the lower with grey, and the cheeks paler.

Habits. — The White-breasted Warbler arrives about the
same time as the White-throated species, appearing in the
south of Scotland, where however it is very uncommon, about
the 10th of ]May, and in the south of England a fortnight or
three weeks earlier. It has been met with in most of the eastern
and midland counties of England, becoming gradually rarer as
we proceed northward. In Haddingtonshire it has been found
by my friend INIr Hepburn, Mr Rennie mentions its occur-
rence at Musselburgh and in Ayrshire, and I have met with
it near Edinburgh, where however it is extremely uncommon,
while the other species is very abundant. It is stated by Dr
A. R. Young to occur in the neighbourhood of Paisley in
Renfrewshire ; and in the Statistical Report of the Parish of
Hamilton, in Lanarkshire, this species is mentioned in the
following terms : — " Curruca S^kiella, lesser Whitethroat. This
bird, supposed to be confined to England, is common here. The

WHITE-BREASTED WARBLER. 359

nest is sometimes in a hedge, but more frequently among long
dry grass, by the side of a wood, four or five inches from the
ground, and generally overshadowed by a twig of bramble or
some other shrub. The nest is more compact than that of the
larger White-throat, which, in addition to its numerous names,
is here called ' Beardy,' and ' Blethering Tam." The song
of the Sylviella is sweeter and more perfect than that of the
common sort, and its eggs are also very different."

It frequents gardens, hedges, and thickets, searching for food
among the branches, and is extremely active, petulant, and at
the same time shy and wary, although in avoiding intruders
upon its haunts it does not generally fly to a distance, but con-
ceals itself among the foliage. Its food consists of insects,
larvae, and small fruits, especially currants. Its song is a short,
not unpleasant warble, not so loud as that of the White-throat,
nor performed on wing, but shriller and less melodious.

It begins to form its nest about three weeks after its arrival,
usually placing it among briars or brambles, or in the lower
part of a hedge, or among the herbage on a fence-bank, or the
side of a ditch. It is composed of stems and leaves of slender
grasses, rather loosely interwoven, with a lining of finer straws,
fibrous roots, and hair. The eggs are five, eight-twelfths in
length, six-twelfths in breadth, white or greyish-white, marked
with spots and small patches of light grey and brown, more
numerous toward the larger end.

Mr Hepburn, who was the first to discover this species in
East Lothian, has furnished me with the following notice re-
specting it. " On the 7th of May 1838, I first heard the song of
the Lesser White-throat, Sylvia Curruca. In its habits it is shy
and retiring ; it loves to frequent copses and gardens. When
you approach its haunts, it conceals itself in the thickest shade,
where it utters its alarm note, distending its throat a little.
One day in July, when lying in wait for Wood Pigeons in a
ditch beneath the shade of some hedge-row trees, I observed
one sporting amongst the hawthorn twigs. He once sprung
into the air, caught an insect, and then began to sing in a very
low voice, ending in a very shrill tremulous cry. House Spar-
rows, Hedge Chanters, Chaffinches, Wagtails, Willow Wrens,

360 SYLVIA GARRULA.

Wood Wrens, and the Greater White-throat, dart into the air
after insects in the very same way. The little fellow ceased
his song when he observed me, and sought the middle of the
hedge, where he remained till I left my place. I teased him
thus for about twenty minutes. He had young ones at the
time. It was about the beginning of July that I observed that
both the Greater and the Lesser White-throats made excursions
into fields of growing wheat and beans. In the former case
they settle on the stalk near to the ear, which they diligently
examine. The Wheat Fly, Cecidomyia tritici, at this season
deposits its eggs between the glumes of the corn, and we may
reasonably suppose that the White-throats devour this destruc-
tive insect, in doing which they must confer a great benefit on
the farmer, so far as their influence extends. After this I
shall never grudge them a few currants. But this is not all,
for besides destroying vast numbers of other insects which feed
on the honey contained in the nectary of the bean, I have seen
their little mouths filled with the black or collier Aphides,
which often commit much damage by adhering to the top of
the field bean, and sucking its juices, so that sometimes fruit,
leaves, and stem perish. This bird prefers the Red currant to all
other fruits. It departs about the 8th or 10th of September."

Mr Weir also informs me that in the end of May 1888,
while watching the habits of the Missel Thrush, he observed
in a plantation belonging to Mr Gillon of Wallhouse, a male
Lesser Whitethroat singing upon the branch of an elm tree.
It allowed him to go within about ten yards of it, so that he
could not be mistaken as to the species.

On the continent this species is said to be generally distri-
buted, proceeding as far north a& Sweden, but in all the dis-
tricts migratory. It is distinguished from the White-throated
Warbler, by having the lower parts of a much j)urer white, the
uj)per of a tint approaching to deep grey, the secondary quills
destitute of rufous margins, and the feet dark bluish-grey.

Young. — The young when fledged resemble the female.

361

PHYLLOPNEUSTE. WOODWREN.

Bill rather short, very slender, straight, rather depressed
at the base, compressed towards the end : upper mandible
with the dorsal outline straight, towards the end slightly de-
clinate, the ridge very narrow at the base, the nasal depres-
sion being large, the sides towards the end convex, the edges
sharp and direct, with a distinct notch close to the tip, which
is declinate, very narrow, and truncate ; lower mandible with
the angle of moderate length, narrow and rounded, the dorsal
outline very slightly convex, the back broad and rather flatten-
ed at the base, narrow towards the end, the sides convex, the
edges erect and sharp, slightly overlapped by those of the upper ;
the gape-line straight.

The upper mandible within is slightly concave, with a cen-
tral prominent line ; the palate flat, with two parallel ridges ;
the posterior aperture of the nares oblong behind, anteriorly
linear and edged with minute pointed papillae. The lower
mandible is moderately concave, with a median prominent
line. The tongue is slender, sagittate at the base and finely
papillate, tapering to a slit point, and flat above. The mouth
is bedewed with a clammy fluid. The oesophagus is of mode-
rate width, nearly equal throughout, having no crop or distinct
dilatation ; the proventriculus small, with oblong glandules.
The stomach is a gizzard of moderate power, roundish, com-
pressed ; its muscular coat thin, and divided into two lateral
and an inferior muscle ; the tendons large ; the inner coat thin,
tough, with broad rugae. The intestine is short, its duodenal
portion wider ; the coeca very small and cylindrical ; the rec-
tum very short, with an oblong dilatation.

Nostrils oblong, narrow, in the lower anterior part of the
large nasal depression, of which the membrane is feathered,
excepting the narrow operculum. Eyes rather small, eyelids

362 PHYLLOPNEUSTE. WOODWREN.

feathered, with a narrow bare crenate margin. External aper-
ture of ear large, roundish.

The general form is slender, the body ovate, the neck short,
the head oblong, the wings of moderate length, the feet very-
slender. Tibia rather long and very slender ; tarsus longish,
much compressed, with seven anterior scutella, of which only
the three lower are distinctly defined, its posterior edge sharp.
Toes of moderate length, very slender, much compressed ; the
first rather large, flattened beneath ; the second and fourth
about equal ; the third much longer, united to the fourth as far
as the second joint. Claws rather long, arched, extremely
compressed, laterally grooved, acute, that of the hind toe
curved in a semicircle.

Plumage soft and blended, the feathers ovate, rounded, with
loose barbs. The nasal membrane is covered with very small
bristle-tipped feathers ; and there is a series of small bristle-
feathers along the base of the upper mandible. Tibial feathers
very short, and extending a little below the joint anteriorly.
Wings of moderate length, semicordate when extended, with
nineteen quills, of which the first is very small, the next four
longest, but varying proportionally in the different species ; the
primaries all rounded, with the shaft extremely attenuated at
the end, and in the outer curved inwards ; the secondaries
broad and abruptly rounded. Tail rather long, straight, slight-
ly emarginate, of twelve rather slender, weak feathers.

The Woodwrens are very small and delicate birds, of ex-
tremely active habits, intimately allied to the Warblers on the
one hand, and to the Kinglets on the other. Three species
occur in Britain, where they are migratory, visiting us about
the middle or towards the end of April, and retiring in Sep-
tember. They frequent woods and bushy places, especially
in the lower grounds and by rivers, brooks, lakes and pools.
They feed entirely on insects of various kinds, larvse, pupae, and
worms, which they search for among the foliage, on the twigs,
and sometimes on the ground. Their flight is rapid, gliding,
and undulated, but generally short in ordinary circumstances.
Their song is short, lively, and melodious. They are generally
distributed in the wooded districts, but are not equally dispersed.

PHYLLOPNEUSTE. AVOODWRExN. 363

The separation of the Wood wrens from the preceding genera
is rather arbitrary, as they diiFer merely in being more deli-
cate, with more attenuated bill and feet. They however bear
so strong a mutual resemblance that it is difficult to distin-
guish them specially, although the proportional length of their
outer primary quills affords a character sufficiently distinctive.
This circumstance, with other cases of a like nature, ought to
admonish those who place faith in the form of the tip of the
wing as affijrding a generic character.

Fig. 173. Yellow Woodwren.

Fig. 174. Willow Woodwren.

Fig. 175. Chiff-chaff.

364

PHYLLOPNEUSTE SYLVICOLA. THE YELLOW
WOODWREN.

Wood Wreu. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bee-fin siffleur. Sylvia Sibilatrix. Temm. Man. d'Orn, I. '22.'3.
Sylvia sylvieola. Lath. Ind. Orn. Suppl. Vol. II. 53.
Wood-Wren. Sylvia Sibilatrix. Selb. Illustr. I. 224.
Sylvia sibilatrix. Wood-Wren. Jen, Brit. Vert. An. 110,

Length about Jive inches ; wings long, the second quill inter-
mediate in length between the third and fourth, tchich icith the
fifth hate their outer webs cut out totvards the end ; the upper
parts light yellowish-green, the throat and sides of the breast gel-
low, the breast, abdomen, and lower tail-coverts white.

Male. — The Yellow Wooclwren bears so great a resem-
blance to the next species, the Willow Woodwren, that a per-
son not having before him specimens of both, would find some
difficulty in determining to which of the two an individual of
either belonged. At the same time, the characters afforded by
the wings are perfectly distinctive. The present species is a
slender, delicate, and lively little bird, not unfrequent in open
woods and thickets in many parts of the country, but not near-
ly so often met with as the Willow Woodw^ren, as it more
commonly keeps among the higher branches, and is besides
much less numerous.

YELLOW WOODWREN. 365

The bill is rather short, slender, broader than high at the
base, compressed towards the end, and in all other respects
corresponds with the description of that organ given in the
generic character, the sides sloping and towards the end con-
vex, the tip declinato-decurvate, very narrow, but truncate,
and having a distinct notch. The tongue is slender, three and
a half twelfths long, emarginate and papillate at the base, con-
cave above, its tip slit, with two acute points, and slightly
bristled. The oesophagus is two inches long, its average dia-
meter two-twelfths. The stomach when distended is half an
inch long, and four and a half twelfths in breadth, of an ellip-
tical form and moderately compressed ; its muscular coat thin,
but divided into three somewhat distinct muscles ; the inner
coat with broad longitudinal rugae. The intestine is only five
inches long, its duodenal portion a twelfth and a half in dia-
meter, the rest diminishing to one-twelfth ; the coeca one-
twelfth long, and an inch distant from the extremity.

The eyes are of moderate size, their aperture having a dia-
meter of two-twelfths. That of the external ear is two and a
half twelfths. The feet are very slender ; the tarsi of moderate
length, much compressed, with seven anterior scutella, of
which the upper four are very long and indistinct ; the toes of
moderate length, much compressed, the first with eight, the
second with eight, the third with ten, the fourth also with
ten scutella. The claws are arched, acute, extremely com-
pressed, laterally grooved, that of the hind toe curved in a
semicircle.

The plumage is very soft and blended, the feathers large,
ovate, rounded, with very loose barbs ; the nasal membrane
with short roundish feathers ; the basal margins of the upper
mandible with small bristle-feathers. The wings are rather
long, their tips when closed reaching to within a third of the
end of the tail ; the quills, nineteen in number, are all round-
ed, excepting the first which is pointed and only half an inch
long ; the second nearly two-twelfths shorter than the third,
which is about half a twelfth longer than the fourth ; the third,
fourth, and fifth have the outer web cut out towards the end ;

366 PHYLLOPNEUSTE SYLVICOLA.

the secondaries long. The tail is rather long, and a little
emarginate, the middle feathers being about a twelfth of an
inch shorter than the lateral.

The upper mandible is dusky brown, with the edges yellow-
ish; the lower mandible brownish-yellow, towards the end
dusky. The tongue and mouth are orange ; the iris brown.
The feet are light brown, the claws wood-brown. The gene-
ral colour of the upper parts is a delicate yellowish-green ;
a band of pale yellow passes from the nasal membrane over
the eye ; the loral space is slightly dusky ; the eyelids, cheeks,
throat and fore part of the neck, a small part of the breast and
sides under the wing pale yellow ; the rest of the lower parts
of a silvery or greyish-white. The quills and coverts are
greyish-brown, edged externally with yellowish-green, ex-
cepting the first and second quills, which are faintly edged
with brownish- white ; the tail-feathers similar, the lateral
edged with pale brown ; the lower wing-coverts greyish-
brown, margined with pale yellow, the series over the quills
white.

Length to end of tail 5 j^^ inches ; extent of wings 8f ; wing
from flexure Sj^ ; tail 2/^ ; bill along the ridge j|, along the
edge of lower mandible f% ; tarsus ^i ; first toe j%, its claw ^^ ;
second toe |*g, its claw l^-^ ; third toe ^ j, its claw l^g ; fourth
toe l^g, its claw j%.

Female. — The female is not with certainty distinguishable
from the male, unless by dissection, the colours being in gene-
ral precisely similar.

Length to end of tail 5^% ; extent of wings 8^% ; bill along
the ridge ^^| ; tarsus |*^ ; middle toe and claw /| .

Variations. — I have not observed any other variations than
those dependent upon the wearing of the plumage and the fad-
ing of its tints. The above descriptions are from individuals
in perfect plumage, not in the smallest degree worn, obtained
in May. Many individuals arrive in that state, and must
therefore have moulted in their winter residence, while in

YELLOW WOODWREN. 367

others the quills and tail are more or less worn. As the
season advances, the yellowish edgings of the wings and tail
gradually disappear, and the lower parts become of a purer
white.

Male and Female in Summer. — Towards the end of summer,
the colour of the upper parts of the male is yellowish-brown
tinged with grey ; the wings and tail wood-brown ; the lower
parts nearly pure white. By the middle of June the female is
of a nearly uniform greyish-brown above, and the yellow on
the fore-neck is almost obliterated. The new plumage is com-
pleted by the middle of September.

Habits. — The Yellow Woodwren arrives from the 20th of
April to the middle of May, and immediately betakes itself to
woods and thickets, where it may be found during the summer
in most parts of England and in the southern and middle divi-
sions of Scotland. Its flight is rapid and undulatory, and it
glides among the branches with extreme agility, in pursuit of
insects, which it occasionally also follows to a short distance
on wing. It is generally seen on trees, often on those of large
size, and prefers woods and plantations to thickets or gardens.
While flitting about it now and then emits a protracted rather
feeble cheep ; and its song, which it performs while perched
on a twig, is, like that of the next species, soft, modulated, and
short, being as it were a repetition of the syllable ticee, the first
notes prolonged, the last rapid, and forming, as Sweet expresses
it, a ' ' shrill shaking sort of note, which may be heard at a
great distance, and cannot be confounded with the song of any
other bird." " When it first arrives," as the same author
states, " it continues to sing nearly all day long, and its song
is continued more or less through most part of the summer,
except the time that it is engaged in feeding its young ; it is
then discovered by a dull mournful sort of call, quite different
from that of any other bird. It may be easily watched to its
nest, which is built on the ground, in a thicket of small bushes,
and consists of moss and dried leaves, with a covering at the
top of the same materials, so that it is scarcely possible to dis-

368 PHYLLOPNEUSTE SYLVICOLA.

cover it, without watching the okl birds to it, either when they
are building, or carrying food to their young."

Mr Weir informs me that he once found a nest of Wood-
wrens, " which was buih on the side of an old mossy ditch,
in the middle of a plantation, about 230 yards from the house.
They began it on Friday morning, the 2d of June 1837, and
finished it on Saturday afternoon. The female laid six eggs ;
the first on Sunday the 4th, and the last on Friday the 9th,
and began to sit on Saturday the 10th. The ground colour of
the eggs is white, with markings of reddish-purple. In shape
the nest was very much like the Willow Wren's, except that
instead of being lined with feathers, it was built with fine grass
and a few long hairs. I ginned the female, which was the
finest specimen that I ever saw, and shot the male. The colour
of the under part of their breast was a most beautiful pure sil-
very white, except the thighs, which were of a fine pale yel-
low. They have a very curious hissing and whistling trill,
from which no doubt they have got the name of Sibilatrix."

My friend Mr Hepburn has favoured me with the following
notice respecting this bird. " It was on the 5th of May last
(1838), the thermometer at 58°, that I first observed the
Wood Wren, Sylvia sibilatrix. A solitary bird was skulking
about a hedge-row, which bounds a plantation on this farm
(Whittingham) ; the wind was cold, and the sky overcast.
The following morning w^as most delightful, dew-drops hung
from every spray, glistening like pearls in the rays of the
bright sun ; the Wood Wrens, joyous at returning to their
native land, and full of animation, were sporting about, and
making the woods resound w^itli their sweet wild notes. Nor
were our more common birds silent ; a mysterious sympathy
seemed to unite all in performing one common hymn of grate-
ful praise to the God of nature ; the very calmness of the clear
blue sky seemed to utter the gentle breathing of enjoyment.
For some time after their arrival, the male loves most to mount
to the very top of the tallest tree, where, adroitly poising him-
self, he pours forth his beautiful song, resembling the syllables
twee, twee, tii-ee, at first rather slow, but afterwards in a
hurried manner, and accompanied by a curious shake of the

YELLOW WOODWREN. 369

wings, and occasionally by a slight vertical motion of the tail.
On Monday the 14th May, when observing the manners of
this bird, one of which was sporting in a tall hedge-row, I
disturbed a humble bee, Bombus terrestris, which was feeding
on the expanded flower of the common but beautiful Dande-
lion. After circling and murmuring round my head, it flew
off in a direction parallel to the hedge ; and as it passed the
Wood Wren, he ceased his song, and darted at it. I was so
near that I distinctly heard his bill crack against the bee''s
horny sides. The insect was stunned, and nearly fell to the
ground, while the Wood Wren returned to the hedge, from
which he again made an unsuccessful dart at the poor bee.
From the 14th to the 28th of July, I never heard the Wood
Wren''s song, although I saw plenty of the birds daily. Dur-
ing this period the weather was cloudy and very often wet, the
east winds felt cold, although the thermometer ranged from 58°
to 69° at noon. After this we had fine weather, when their
song was again heard. As this bird is a great favourite of
mine, I resolved to note every day on which I heard his
delightful song ; but at that time I little expected that I
should ever have the honour of submitting the result of my
labours to your inspection. I began on the 8th of August,
and found that it sung on the 8th, 10th, 15th, 18th, and
26th, the thermometer at noon being 60°, 64°, 60°, 68°, and
6B°; and on the 2d, 6th, 9th, and 10th of September, when
the thermometer was 55°, 52°, 50°, and 50°. Between the
8th of August and the 10th of September, their voice was
not heard during windy weather, unless when it fell calm.
Notwithstanding the high range of the thermometer, the wind,
particularly the east wind, felt very cold, when they did not
sing. The 6th of September was a very stormy day, but
about noon the wind and rain ceased, the sun broke forth, and
the Wood Wren's note was again heard. When bad weather
was impending, they sung very little. Both this bird and the
Willow Wren are very tame ; those in our garden would
allow me to approach to within five or six feet of them, and
often nearer. It was on the 10th of September that I last

VOL. II. B B

370 PHYLLOPNEUSTE SYLVICOLA.

saw this favourite bird ; several were sporting on a row of tall
poplars in the garden ; the weather was very calm ; their song
was very distinct. It still rings in my ears, and I long for
the season when the Wood Wren will revisit his native place.
The young are fledged about the beginning of July."

As a British bird, the Woodwren seems to have been first
noticed by White of Selborne, and afterwards by Montagu ;
but it was first described and figured by Mr Thomas Lamb, in
the second volume of the Transactions of the Linnaean Society,
p. 245. Part of that gentleman's account of it is as follows :
" It inhabits woods, and comes with the rest of the summer
warblers, and in manners is much the same, running up and
down trees in search of insects. I heard it first early in May,
in Whitenight's Park, near Reading ; it was then hopping
about on the upper branch of a very high pine, and having a
very singular and shrill note, it attracted my attention, being
very much like that of the Emberiza Miliaria (Linn.), but so
astonishingly shrill that I heard it at more than a hundred
yards distance : this it repeated once in three or four minutes.
I never heard these birds before last spring, and nevertheless I
have heard nine in the course of a month ; four in White-
nighfs Park, and five in my tour to the Isle of Wight, viz.
one in a wood at Stratfield Lea, one at East Stratton Park, two
in the New Forest, and one in a wood near Highclerc." A
more particular account was afterwards given by Montagu in
the fourth volume of the same work.

Young. — When their plumage is perfect, the young can
scarcely be distinguished from their parents, their colours be-
ing the same, only of a lighter tint.

Remarks. — This species is said to be common in the southern
and middle parts of the continent, and to extend as far north as
Sweden. It migrates southward from all these countries, from
the middle to the end of September. In Scotland it does not
renew its plumage previous to its departure, which is also the
case with the next species.

371

PHYLLOPNEUSTE TROCHILUS. THE WILLOW
WOODWREN.

WILLOW WARBLER. WILLOW WREN. GROUND WREN. HAY BIRD.
HUCK-MUCK.

Motacilla Trochilus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 3.38.

Sylvia Trochilus. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 550.

Yellow Wren. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bee-fin Pouillot. Sylvia Trochilus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 224.

YeUow Wren. Sylvia Trochilus. Selb. lUustr. I. 226.

Sylvia Trochilus. Willow Wren. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 11 L

Length about fite inches ; wings of moderate lengthy the second
quill shorter than the fifths which, with the third and fourth, has
its outer web cut out towards the end ; the tipper parts light
greenish-brown, the feathers edged with yellowish-green ; the
cheeks and sides of the neck pale greyish-brown tinged with yel-
low ; the fore-neck and sides greyish-white streaked with yellow ;
the breast and abdomen white ; the lower tail-coverts yellowish-
white.

Male. — The Willow Woodwren, which is generally dis-
tributed, and in most parts of the country of common occur-
rence, is, like the last, a delicate and most active little bird,
less brightly coloured than it, but equally pleasing on account
of its liveliness and its cheerful song. Of the three British
species of this genus it is that which is most frequently met
with.

The bill is rather short, very slender, straight, broader than
high at the base, compressed towards the end ; the upper man-
dible having the dorsal line towards the end declinate, the tip
a little longer than that of the lower, and although very nar-
row, truncate, and having a distinct notch ; the lower man-
dible with its dorsal line very slightly convex. Internally the
upper mandible is very slightly concave, with a prominent

372 PHYLLOPNEUSTE TROCHILUS.

central line ; the lower more concave, with a finer median line.
The tongue is slender, tapering ; its tip slit. The oesophagus
is of nearly uniform diameter throughout, its length two inches
and two-twelfths, its average breadth two-twelfths. The sto-
mach is six and a half twelfths long, of an oblongo-rotundate
form ; its muscular coat thin, but divided into three somewhat
distinct muscles ; the tendons large ; the inner coat thin, with
broad longitudinal rugae. The intestine is seven inches long,
its duodenal portion two-twelfths in diameter, the rest diminish-
ing to one-twelfth ; the cceca one-twelfth long.

The eyes are of moderate size, their aperture having a dia-
meter of nearly a twelfth and a half. That of the external ear
is two and a half twelfths. The nostrils are linear-oblong, a
twelfth and a half in length. The feet are very slender ; the
tarsus longish, much compressed, with seven anterior scutella,
of which the upper four are indistinct ; the toes of moderate
length, much compressed, the first with eight, the second with
eight, the third with ten, the fourth also with ten scutella.
The claws are arched, acute, much compressed, with deep la-
teral grooves.

The plumage is very soft and blended, the feathers broad,
with discrete barbs ; the nasal membrane with small roundish
feathers, the basal margins of the upper mandible with small
bristle-feathers. The wings are of moderate length, their tips,
when closed, being an inch distant from the end of the tail.
The quills, nineteen in number, are a little decurved ; the first
is nine-twelfths of an inch long, the second intermediate in
length between the fifth and sixth ; the third; fourth, and fifth,
havinsf the outer web cut out towards the end ; the secondaries
long and abruptly rounded. The tail is rather long, and a lit-
tle emarginate, the middle feathers being a twelfth and a half
shorter than the longest.

The upper mandible is dusky brown, the lower brownish-
yellow, its edges dusky orange, those of the upper paler ; the
inside of the mouth and the tongue light orange. The irides
are dusky-brown. The feet are yellowish-brown, the claws
wood-brown. The plumage of the upper parts is light greenish-
brown ; the wing-coverts, quills, and tail-feathers greyish-

WILLOW WOODWREN. 373

brown, all edged externally with yellowish-green, excepting
the first and second quills, and the outer tail-feather, which are
whitish on the edge. The lower wing-coverts, the edge of the
wing, and the lower tibial feathers, are gamboge yellow. A
streak from the bill over the eye yellow, fading behind into
white ; a dusky loral streak ; and an obscure yellow streak
under the eye. The cheeks and sides of the neck are pale oliva-
ceous, or greenish-grey, tinged with yellow ; the fore-neck
greyish-white, streaked with yellow ; the throat greyish- white,
as are the sides, on which however are yellow streaks ; the
breast silvery white ; the hind part of the abdomen, and the
lower tail-coverts, tinged with yellow.

Length to end of tail 5 inches ; extent of wings 7f ; wing
from flexure 2^^ ; tail 21*^2 '■> ^^^^ along the ridge 4^ twelfths,
along the edge of low^er mandible /^ ; tarsus 9 4 twelfths ;
first toe Sj twelfths, its claw {^ ; second toe 3^ twelfths, its
claw If twelfths; third toe -^^, its claw ^^tj ; fourth toe 3f
twelfths, its claw 1^ twelfths.

Female. — The female is a little larger, and has its colours
slightly duller, but in external appearance is otherwise similar,
the upper parts being greyish-brown tinged with green, the
lower silvery white, with the same yellow markings as in the
male.

Length 5^% inches ; extent of wings 8 ; wing from flexure
2i% ; tail 2/jj ; tarsus \^ ; first toe 3^ twelfths, its claw j^ ;
second toe {\, its claw 2j twelfths ; third toe ^^, its claw 2^
twelfths ; fourth toe 3j twelfths, its claw ^^.

Variations. — I have not observed any other remarkable
variations than those connected with the periodical change of
plumage. The above descriptions refer to individuals having
their feathers perfect. When these birds arrive in this country
in April, the old individuals have their plumage considerably
worn, in consequence of which the yellowish-green edgings
are diminished, and the yellow tints more or less obliterated.
At the same period, individuals are met with having the plu-
mage in all respects perfect, and of a much brighter colour.

374 PHYLLOPNEUSTE TROCHILUS.

These most probably are young birds reared in the southern
regions during the absence of the species, or at least young
birds of the previous year, which have been long in moulting.

Male and Female in Summer. — As the season advances,
the upper parts become of a nearly uniform greyish -brown, the
yellow tints fade, so that the line over the eye becomes nearly
white, as does the greater part of the lower surface. The
new plumage is completed by the middle of September, when
they take their departure.

Habits. — The Willow Woodwren arrives in the south of
England early in April, and in the middle parts of Scotland
about the 20th or 25th of that month, resorting to woods and
thickets, especially those in the neighbourhood of water, where
it remains until its departure late in September. It is extreme-
ly vivacious, and is seen briskly flitting about among the twigs,
in search of insects, frequently making little excursions on
wing in pursuit of a fly, and sometimes betaking itself to the
ground, where it liops and frisks with equal activity. It flies
with rapidity, in an undulating manner, but is seldom seen to
perform long flights, and indeed is not very liable to be scared,
for, at all times it seems to feel secure among the branches,
and, during the breeding season, instead of quitting its usual
place of abode on the approach of man, it advances toward
him, flitting from twig to twig with restless anxiety. Al-
though it sometimes appears in gardens, it prefers plantations
and shrubbery in places remote from houses, and is frequently
seen among willojvs and osiers. In the copses of hazel, oak,
and alder, that skirt the streams of many of the Scottish val-
leys, it is a very frequent resident, although, "from its diminu-
tive size, unobtrusive manners, and plain tints, it excites little
interest in the passing traveller. Its food consists of insects of
various kinds, even of considerable size, as I have found re-
mains of Muscae in its stomach, as well as larvae and pupag,
together with aphides. While flitting about, it emits a small
shrill cheep, and during a great part of the season, but espe-
cially in May and June, may often be heard chanting its soft,

WILLOW WOODWREN. 375

mellow, and most pleasing song, which consists of a repetition
of the syllable ticee, ten or more times, the first notes pro-
longed, the rest gradually falling and becoming shorter.

About a fortnight or three weeks after their arrival, they
begin to form their nest, which is placed on the ground, among
the herbage, on a dry bank, under a hedge, or beneath a bush ;
and is generally very bulky, and of a roundish form externally,
with the aperture near the top. It is composed of moss and
sometimes a few withered leaves ; then of blades and stalks of
fine grass, with long fibrous roots, and a good deal of hair ;
the internal layer consisting of feathers. Like the nest of the
Common Wren, it varies in form and texture, but is always
lined with feathers, in which respect it differs from that of
the Yellow Woodwren, and agrees with that of the Chiff-chafF.
Properly speaking, the nest is of the ordinary hemispherical
form, with an arch or dome of a looser texture. One which
I obtained on the 7th of July 1837, contained four eggs, and
the parent bird was caught in the act of incubating, and slain,
contrary to good feeling, by a boy hired to disclose his dis-
covery of what he termed " a Whitie's nest." The descrip-
tion which I took at the time is as follows. " In the first
place it is very large for the size of the bird, its external trans-
verse diameter being just five inches, the inner two and a half
inches. The top being removed, its cavity is hemispheri-
cal, but its external form is a little flattened, the walls being
thicker at the sides. The exterior is composed of hypna and
a few stalks and blades of grass ; then a thick layer of fine
stems, blades, and roots of grass, with a little moss intermix-
ed ; then a thin layer of long, undulated fibrous roots ; then
a lining, neatly woven, of hair of different colours, black,
white, grey, and brown, and of different qualities, some be-
ing horse hair, others fine, together with a little wool ; and,
lastly, a very comfortable bedding of feathers, among which
I can distinguish some of the Wood Pigeon and Blackbird.
The dome is merely a continuation of the outer layers, not
being lined with hair or feathers. The eggs are of a regular
oval form, seven and a half twelfths long, five and a half twelfths
broad, reddish-white, marked all over with irregularly dispers-

376 PHYLLOPNEUSTE TROCHILUS.

ed dots and spots, generally roundish, and not exceeding half
a twelfth in their diameter, of a pale purplish-red. When
blown, their ground colour becomes pure white, but the spots
remain unaltered. They vary considerably in size, and a little
in the tint of their spots, which are sometimes crowded at the
larger end, and sometimes very thinly scattered.

Mr Weir informs me that on Friday the 2d of June 1837,
he discovered " in a sloping bank, in his neighbourhood, a
nest of the Willow Wren, built amongst long grass. The
framework of it was composed of the stems of dried grass, in-
termixed with green moss, and the inside was lined principally
with the feathers of the female pheasant. The entrance into
it was wider than that of the Common Wren. The eggs were
seven, white, with rusty brown spots, thinly dispersed, except
at the larger end."

The eggs vary in number from four to seven, in form from
oval to roundish, in length from seven to seven and a half
twelfths, in the tint of the spots from light red to purplish -red,
and in the number and distribution of the spots. The young
are abroad from the middle to the end of June, when they be-
take themselves to bushes and trees ; but a second brood is
reared, and comes abroad in the beginning of August.

The male during the period of incubation often continues
perched on a tree or bush for a long time, emitting at intervals
its song, which in calm weather may be heard at the distance
of six hundred yards or more. It seldom however remains
many minutes in the same spot, but shifts from twig to twig.
Having gone out w^ith a friend, Mr Madden, on the 14th June
1837, to observe the habits of this bird and the Whinchat,
both of which are plentiful along the base of the Pentland
Hills, I first fell in with a male singing most melodiously, and
at very short intervals, as it shifted and flitted about among the
whin bushes. After watching it some time I shot it; and pre-
sently after, entering Swanston Wood, I came upon another
perched on the summit of a tall tree, amusing itself in the same
manner. It has been stated that the Woodwren frequents the
top branches of lofty trees, while the Willow Wren keeps on
the lower branches or in bushes ; but I believe this distinction

WILLOW WOODWREN. 377

to be imaginary, for both birds may be seen on the tops of tall
trees, in shrubs, and even among whins and brambles, and both
nestle on the ground. When the Willow Woodwren w^arbles,
it swells out its throat, and the efforts used in enunciating the
notes cause its body to vibrate in a small degree. This is pro-
bably the most common and most extensively distributed of all
our warblers, and its song affords a most pleasing contrast to
the discordant jingle of the Buntings, and the yelping of
Sparrows.

INIr Hepburn has sent me the following notice regarding this
species as observed by him in the interior of Haddingtonshire.
" On the 9th of May 1838, I heard a great many AVillow
Wrens, Sylvia Trochilus, singing in a tall hedge-row, in a well-
sheltered glen, also a few in the plantation in which I observed
the Wood Wren. I saw none anywhere else until the 12tli,
when they were very generally distributed. The situations
which they most frequent are gardens, plantations, and hedges,
in the latter case giving the preference to those which have not
been subjected to pruning. Their song is very pleasing, con-
sisting of several plaintive notes on a regular descending scale.
During v^^indy weather we only hear a plaintive note resem-
bling iche-u-ee. The song of this species is heard till the mid-
dle or end of July. In autumn, great numbers may be seen
gliding amongst our fruit-trees and bushes. I do not think
they ever eat fruit, their sole object being to feed on the mul-
titudes of insects which resort thither. The young are fledged
about the beginning of July, and from this neighbourhood the
species takes its departure about the 8th or 10th of September.
The provincial name of both this and the Yellow Wren is
Willie Mufty."

Sweet, in his account of " British Warblers," p. 17, observes
that " it is easily taken in a trap, baited with small caterpillars,
or a rose branch covered with Aphides ; and it will soon be-
come very tame in confinement. One that I caught in Sep-
tember was, in three days afterwards, let out of its aviary into
the room to catch the flies, which were numerous at that sea-
son. After amusing itself for some time in catching flies, it
began singing ; it did the same several other times when it was

378 PHYLLOPNEUSTETROCHILUS.

let out, and in a few days it began to sing in its aviary. It
soon became so familiar, that it would take flies out of the
hand ; and when it was out in the room, if a fly was held to-
wards it, would fly up, and take it out of the hand." At length
it became so very fat, by eating bruised hemp-seed, bread, and
milk, that it cared little for any thing else. " The Willow
Wren,"" he continues, " seems to be more tender than the
Lesser Pettychaps, to which it is nearly related. When in
confinement, it is fond of creeping up to the other birds, for the
sake of their warmth, particularly at night ; and it will not
rest till it is very near to one, against which it squeezes itself
as close as possible." Dr Liverpool, in Wood's "■ British Song-
Birds," p. 134, also states that three or four in his aviary en-
tirely lost their natural shyness after they had been with him
for a month, and were the most amusing little pets he ever had.

Young. — The young when fledged differ little in appearance
from the old birds in their newly completed plumage, having
the upper parts light greenish-brown, the quills and tail-
feathers edged with yellowish-green, the fore-neck yellow, and
the greater part of the breast and abdomen tinged with the
same.

Remarks. — According to authors, this species is generally
distributed over the continent, from Italy to Sweden. It is
in a manner precisely intermediate in form between the Yel-
low Woodwren and the ChiiF-chaff", which latter however,
were characters derived from the form of the wing of essential
importance, ought to be referred to a distinct genus. The
males arrive before the females, and presently commence sing-
ing on the tops of the trees. On the 1st of May 1839, great
numbers were seen by me thus occupied along the Water of
Leith, from Currie to Slateford near Edinburgh, as well as in
the woods on the southern side of the Pentland Hills.

379

PHYLLOPNEUSTE HIPPOLAIS. THE SHORT-
WINGED WOODWREN, OR CHIFF-CHAFF.

CHIP-CHOP, HAY BIRD.

Sylvia Hippolais. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 507.

Lesser Pettychaps. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bee-fin veloee. Sylvia rufa. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 225.

Lesser Pettychaps. Sylvia Hippolais. Selb. Illustr. I. 222-

Sylvia Hippolais. Chiff-chaff. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 111.

Length about four inches and a half ; icings rather short, the
second quill about the same length as the seventh ; tipper parts
light greenish-broion tinged icith grey, the feathers slightly edged
with yellowish-green ; lower broicnish-ichite, tinged with yellow.

Male. — This species closely resembles the Willow Wood-
wren in colour, and is nearly equal in size, but may be easily
distinguished by its shorter and more rounded wings. In form
it seems intermediate between the other Woodwrens and the
Reguli or Kinglets. Its bill is short, very slender, depressed
at the base, its upper outline convex toward the end, the notches
very faint, the edges thin and inclined outwards, the tip acute.
The head is ovate, rather depressed in front ; the neck short ;
the body slender ; the feet of moderate length ; the tarsus
much compressed, with only the three lower scutella distinct ;
the hind toe proportionally stouter, the inner slightly shorter
than the outer, the claws arched, extremely compressed, acute.

The plumage is very soft and blended, as in the other spe-
cies. The bristles at the base of the bill are pretty distinct.
The wings are of moderate length, much more rounded than
in the Willow Woodwren, the second quill being a quarter
of an inch shorter than the third, which is equal to the fifth,
and slightly exceeded by the fourth, while the seventh is rather

380 PHYLLOPNEUSTE HIPPOLAIS.

longer than the second, which in some specimens does not ex-
ceed even the eighth. The tail is rather long and scarcely
emarginate, the middle feathers being hardly one-twelfth shorter
than the enter.

The bill is dark -brown, its margins pale toward the base ;
the iris brown ; the tarsi and toes dark -brown, the claws
lighter. The general colour of the upper parts is of a nearly
uniform light greenish-brown tinged with grey, the edges of
the feathers being only a little paler ; the quills and tail-
feathers of a darker brown, with paler margins. A brownish-
white streak passes over the eye ; the cheeks are light greyish-
brown ; the lower parts are dull brownish-white, with a tinge
of grey, and faint streaks of yellow ; the axillar feathers and
lower wing-coverts pale yellow.

Length to end of tail 41 inches ; extent of wings 6 ; bill
along the ridge ^i, along the edge of lower mandible {'^ ; wing
from flexure 2j% ; tail !{§ ; tarsus j% ; hind toe /I, its
claw j%2 '•> second toe ^^tj, its claw ^1 ; third toe'^^l, its claw i% ;
fourth toe y'^, its claw i'|.

Female. — The female cannot be distinguished from the male
without dissection.

Habits. — This little bird, which has received its most fami-
liar name from the character of its song, the notes of which
may be fancifully syllabled into cliiff-cliaff^ is generally distri-
buted in England, although nowhere so common as the Willow-
wren, and has been observed in various parts of Scotland,
especially in the Lothians. It usually arrives in the southern
parts about the beginning of April, sometimes however so early
as the middle of March, so that, with the exception of the
Wheatear it is, as Montagu has observed, the earliest of our
migratory birds of the group of Songsters, properly so called.
In the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, where it is very rare, it
arrives from the 15th to the 25th of April, a week earlier
than the Willow-wren, which it resembles, not in form and
colours only, but also in its active and restless habits. On the
other hand, it remains with us to a later period than that spc-

SHORT-WINGED WOODWREN. 381

cies, generally delaying its departure until the beginniiig of
October. Individuals indeed have been known to remain all
winter. Thus Montagu mentions two that were seen in his
garden about Christmas, and I have in my collection a speci-
men shot near Newhaven, in a turnip field, in January 1836.

In spring it is first observed among bushes in sheltered places,
in nursery-grounds and gardens, searching among the twigs for
insects, pecking the buds in quest of larva?, and sallying forth
occasionally on wing in, pursuit of a passing gnat or other fly.
As it proceeds it emits at intervals its notes, which are shrill,
rather weak, and seem to resemble the syllables cheep, cheep,
cheep, cheep, chee, rather than chiff-chaff, cherry churry, as some
have interpreted them. It nestles from the beginning to the
middle of June, and seems to rear two broods in the season.
The nest is of an elliptical form, being arched over, with the
aperture near the top, and is composed of withered leaves,
grass, and fibrous roots, with a lining of feathers. The eggs
are five or six, seven-twelfths in length, five and a half twelfths
in breadth, white, with purplish-red spots chiefly near the
larger end. " On a sloping bank," Mr Weir writes to me,
" in Glenmavis, a beautiful and romantic valley, in the neigh-
bourhood of Bathgate, belonging to Mrs Marjoribanks of Bal-
bardie, in the last week of June 1886, I discovered a nest
of the Chifl'-chafl'. In its structure it resembled that of the
Willow-wren, but it was not so neatly finished. The outside
of it was composed of dried grass, and the inside lined with
feathers. It was carefully concealed amongst moss. The eggs
were five, white with purple-red markings." It is usually
placed on the ground, among grass or moss, on a hedge-bank,
or by a ditch or brook.

According to authors this species is generally distributed on
the continent, extending as far north as Norway in summer,
and remaining in some of the southern parts in winter.

Young. — The young when fledged are similar to the adult,
from which they can scarcely be distinguished. The yellow
tints on their lower parts are brighter, their bill is much lighter,
and the tarsi and toes are of a paler brown.

382

MELIZOPHILUS. FURZELING.

This genus, which was first proposed by Dr Leach, is scarcely
distinguishable from Phyllopneuste on the one hand and Sylvia
on the other. The only species of which it is composed is a
small bird having in form and manners a considerable resem-
blance to the Whitethroat, but with the tail remarkably elon-
gated.

Bill short, slender, broader than high at the base, compressed
toward the end ; upper mandible with its dorsal outline slight-
ly declinate and convex, the ridge narrow, the edges thin and
overlapping, the notches very small, the tip acute ; lower man-
dible with the angle of moderate length and narrow, the sides
convex, the edges a little inflected, the tip acute ; the gape-
line slightly arched. Tarsi slender, rather long, with the
scutella distinct ; claws of moderate length, much compressed,
arched, very acute.

Nostrils elliptical, pervious, in the fore part of the nasal
membrane, which is feathered behind. Eyes of moderate size ;
eyelids feathered, their bare edges crenate. External aperture
of the ear large and roundish.

Plumase blended, the feathers ovate and rounded, with loose
filaments ; those at the base of the bill bristle-pointed. AVings
rather short ; the first primary very small, being about a fourth
of the length of the second, which is shorter than the third
and sixth, the fourth and fifth longest. Tail long, straight,
graduated, the feathers rather narrow and weak.

The only species of this genus is confined to the southern
parts of England, where it appears to be permanently resident.

383

MELIZOPHILUS PROVINCIALIS. THE PROVENCE
FURZELING.

DARTFORD WARBLER.

Fig. 177.

Motacilla provincialis. Grael. Syst. Nat. I. 958.

Sylvia Dartfordiensis. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 517.

Dartford Warbler. Mont. Orn. Diet, and Suppl.

Bee-fin pitte-chou. Sylvia provineialis. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 211.

Dartford Warbler. MeUzophilus provincialis. Selby, 911- 1.219.

Melizophilus provineialis. Dartford Warbler. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 112.

Upper parts hlackish-grey, fore part of neck and sides reddisk-
hrown^ belly wJiite ; tail long, graduated.

Male. — This diminutive and plainly coloured bird may be
described as about the size of the Short- winged Woodwren, but
with the tail much more elongated. Its form and proportions,
with the texture of its plumage, having been described in the
generic character, it will suffice here to indicate its colours. The
bill is brownish -black, with the base of the lower mandible and
the edges of the upper orange. The tarsi and toes are light
reddish-brown, the claws dusky. The general colour of the
upper parts is blackish-grey ; the wing-coverts, quills, and
tail-feathers, blackish-brown, edged with grey, the edge of the

384 iMELIZOPHILUS PROVINCIALIS.

wing white, the lateral tail-feathers tipped and margined with
greyisliAvhite. The cheeks are of the same colour as the back,
the throat, fore-neck, breast and sides, reddish-brown or light
reddish-purple; the chin with some whitish streaks, the belly
white ; the lower tail-coverts purplish-grey, as is the lower
surface of the wings and tail.

Length to end of tail 5 inches ; bill along the ridge ^| ;
wing from flexure 2/^ ; tail 2i^g ; tarsus j% ; hind toe j% ;
its claw ^2 '•> second toe i^|, its claw j% ; third toe ^|, its claw
j% ; fourth toe |-g, its claw ^%.

Female. — The female resembles the male, but has the tints
lighter. JNI. Temminck observes that there is on the throat a
greater number of fine whitish streaks than in the male, which,
if very old, often presents no traces of them.

Habits. — This bird was first discovered as British by La-
tham, who communicated his observations to Pennant, by
whom it w^as described under the name of Dartford Warbler,
the specimens having been killed on Bexley Heath, near that
place, on the 10th of April 1773. Since that period it has
been found on furzy commons in Kent, Surrey, Middlesex,
Devonshire, Cornwall, Hampshire, and in several other coun-
ties, but has not been observed farther north than Liecester-
shire. According to the account given by Montagu and others,
it is a permanent resident, inhabiting furze thickets, among
W'hich it glides with the greatest activity, flying with short
jerks in the manner of the Bushchats, and feeding on small
insects, which it frequently seizes on wing, returning to its
perch. Its song is weak and shrill, but often repeated, and
is emitted either when the bird is stationed on a projecting
twig, or hovering over a bush or thicket, in the manner of the
White-throat and Bushchats. From these circumstances, it
is probable that the true station of this bird is among the
Saxicolinae, between Accentor modularis and Fruticicola Ru-
betra. It is very shy, and on being approached conceals itself
among the shrubs, creeping in the quiet and hideling manner
of the Hedge Chanter. It was first ascertained to breed

PROVENCE FURZELING. 385

with us by Montagu, \s'ho gives the following account of his
observations.

" My opinion that this species of Warbler bred with us, was
greatly strengthened by a letter which I had the pleasure of
receiving from a scientific friend in Cornwall, well known in
the literary world, Mr Stackhouse of Pendarvis, who assured
me, that his brother had observed these birds for several years
to inhabit furze, near Truro ; and that he had not only seen
them every month in the year, but had observed young ones
soon after they had left the nest, though his search for the nest
and ewgs had been in vain.

" This information redoubled, if possible, my ardour, and
I visited a large furze common in my neighbourhood, where I
had seen several the preceding autumn ; and upon close search
on the 16th of July, three pairs of old birds were observed, two
of which had young evidently by their extreme clamour, and
by frequently appearing with food in their bills. On the l7th
my researches were renewed, and after three hours watching
the motions of another pair, I discovered the nest with three
young. It was placed amongst the dead branches of the thick-
est furze, about two feet from the ground, slightly fastened
between the main stems, not in a fork. On the same day, a
pair were observed to be busied in carrying materials for build-
ing ; and by concealing myself in the bushes, I soon discovered
the place of nidification, and upon examination, found the nest
was just begun. As early as the 19th the nest appeared to be
finished ; but it possessed only one egg on the 21st, and on the
26th it contained four, when the nest and eggs were secured,

" The nest is composed of dry vegetable stalks, particularly
goose-grass, mixed with the tender dead branches of furze, not
sufficiently hardened to become prickly; these are put together
in a very loose manner, and intermixed very sparingly with
wool. In one of the nests was a single partridge's feather. The
lining is equally sj^aring, for it consists only of a few dry stalks
of carex, without a single leaf of the plant, and only two or
three of the panicles. This thin flimsy structure, which the
eye pervades in all parts, much resembles the nest of the White-
throat. The eggs are also somewhat similar to those of Syl-

VOL. II. V. (J

886 MELIZOPHILUS PROVINCIALIS.

via cinerea, but rather less, weighing only 22 grains. Like
the eggs of that species, they possess a slight tinge of green ;
they are fully freckled all over w^ith olivaceous-brovrn and cin-
ereous, on a greenish-white ground ; the markings becoming
more dense, and forming a zone at the larger end.

" The young were taken when of the proper age, and fed with
grasshoppers, a mixture of bread and milk, chopped boiled
meat, and a little finely pounded hemp and rape seed. They
began to shew some of their mature feathers on each side of
the breast about the middle of August, when the sexes became
apparent.

" The nestling attachment of these little birds was very con-
spicuous towards the dusk of the evening, for a long time after
they had forsaken the nest ; they became restless, and appar-
ently in search of a roosting place, flying about the cage for
half an hour, or until it was too dark to move with safety,
when a singular soft note was uttered by one which had chosen
a convenient spot for the night, at which instant they all as-
sembled, repeating the same plaintive cry. In this interesting
scene, as warmth was the object of all, a considerable bustle
ensued, in order to obtain an inward birth, those on the out-
side alternately perching upon the others and forcing in be-
tween them. During this confusion, which sometimes con-
tinued for a few minutes, the cuddling note was continually
emitted, and in an instant all was quiet.

" Nothing can exceed the activity of these little creatures ;
they are in perpetual motion the whole day, throwing them-
selves into various attitudes and gesticulations, erecting the
crest and tail at intervals, accompanied by a double or triple
cry, which seems to express the words clia^ cha, cha. They
frequently take their food while suspended to the wires, with
their heads downwards, and not unusually turn over backwards
on the perch. The males, of which there were three out of
the four (a bird from another nest having been added), began
to sing with the appearance of their first mature feathers, and
continued in song all the month of October, frequently with
scarcely any intermission for several hours together. The
notes are entirely native, consisting of considerable variety,

PROVENCE FURZELING. 387

delivered in a hurried manner, and in a much lower tone than
I have heard the old birds in their natural haunts. This song
is different from any thing of the kind I ever heard, but in
part resembles most that of the Stone-chat.

" The Dartford Warbler, like the White-throat, will some-
times suspend itself on wing over the furze, singing the whole
time, but is more frequently observed on the uppermost spray,
in vocal strain for half an hour together. It is rather an early
breeder. In 1805, we observed a pair of these birds carrying
food in their bills early in the month of May ; from which,
and their continual vociferations, there could be no doubt of their
having young, and it was also evident the young had quitted
their nest and were skulking amongst the thick furze. The
artifices these little creatures made to induce us to follow them,
in order to entice us from the spot, were highly amusing :
their usual cry was changed into a scream of distress ; they
would almost suffer the hand to touch them, and then fall
from the spray, and tumble along the ground, as if fluttering
in their last struggle for existence."

" Its habits," according to Rusticus of Godalming, who
thus describes them in Loudon's Magazine, " are very like
those of the little Wren ; and when the leaves are off the trees,
and the chill winter winds have driven the summer birds to
the olive gardens of Spain, or across the Straits, the Furze
Wren, as it is there called, is in the height of its enjoyment.
I have seen them by dozens skipping about the furze, lighting
for a moment on the very point of the sprigs, and instantly
diving out of sight again, singing out their angry impatient
ditty, for ever the same. They prefer those places where the
furze is very thick, high, and difficult to get in."

Young. — According to M. Temminck, the young in their
second plumage " have a greater number of small streaks on
the throat, and the lower parts are interspersed with white
feathers."

388

CALAMOHERPE. REEDLING.

The species of which this genus is composed are remarkable
for their habit of frequenting marshy places, and the banks of
rivers and lakes, among the willows, reeds, sedges, and other
plants of which they seek their food, creejiing along the stalks
and foliage, to which they cling with as much ease and free-
dom as the Tits and Kinglets exhibit while searching the twigs
of trees. But unless in having the tarsi rather more elongated,
the claws larger, and the wings shorter and more concave, they
differ little from some of the Sylviae,

Bill of moderate length, straight, slender, broader than high
at the base, compressed toward the end ; upper mandible with
its dorsal outline slightly declinate, towards the end a little
convex, the ridge narrowed at the base, the sides convex to-
wards the end, the edges direct, sharp, and overlapping, the
tip narrow, the notches obscure ; lower mandible with the
angle of moderate length and narrow, the sides convex, the
edges inflected, the tip acute ; the gape-line straight.

The mouth narrow ; both mandibles dee^jly concave within,
with a median prominent line ; the palate nearly flat, with two
longitudinal prominent lines ; the posterior aperture of the
nares oblongo-linear, edged behind with small papilla?. Tongue
of moderate length, very narrow, sagittate and papillate at the
base, two of the papillae much larger, concave above, horny
towards the end, bristly on the edges at the tip, which is
slit. The oesophagus is of moderate width, nearly uniform
in diameter ; the proventriculus oblong, with short oblong
glandules. The stomach of moderate size, elliptical, com-
pressed, its lateral muscles moderately thick, the lower not
very distinct, the tendons rather large, the cuticular lining
tough and longitudinally rugous. The intestine is of mode-
rate length and width, of nearly uniform diameter through-
out ; the coeca very small ; the cloaca oblong.

CALAMOHERPE. REEDLING. 389

Nostrils elliptical, pervious, in the fore part of the nasal mem-
brane, which is feathered behind. Eyes of moderate size ; the
eyelids feathered, their bare edges crenate. External aperture
of the ear large and roundish.

Plumage generally blended, the feathers ovate and rounded,
with loose filaments. Wings of moderate length, a little
curved, broad, semi-ovate ; quills eighteen ; the first primary
extremely small, being about a fifth of the length of the second,
which is about the same length as the third ; all the quills
rounded. Tail rather long, straight, rounded, the feathers of
moderate breadth, and weak.

The general form is slender, the neck short, the head ovate,
flattened above and narrow before. The feet of moderate
length, slender ; the tarsus rather long, much compressed,
with eight anterior scutella, and two longitudinal plates be-
hind meeting so as to form an extremely thin edge. Toes
much compressed, the second and fourth about equal, the first
strongest, the third much longer than the lateral, and con-
nected with the fourth at the base. Claws long, moderately
arched, extremely compressed, laterally grooved, very acute.

The birds composing this genus are all of very small size.
They frequent low marshy grounds, overgrown with rank
plants, among which they pursue their prey, consisting of in-
sects and occasionally small mollusca, seldom shewing them-
selves, but skulking as it were among the herbage. The
genus is closely allied on the one hand to Sylvia, and on the
other to Anorthura, several species of both these genera ex-
hibiting not only considerable resemblance as to form, but
also a great similarity in their habits. Two species occur
in Britain, the Sedge Reedling, and the Marsh Reedling,
both summer birds.

As specific names ought to remain as much as possible un-
altered, that amid the fluctuations of opinion something of no-
menclature may remain, I have adopted the name Calamoherpe
of Meyer, which is expressive of the habits of the species, and
that of Reedling, proposed by Mr Blyth, and employed by Mr
Neville Wood in his excellent " British Song Birds.""

390

CALAMOHERPE PHRAGMITIS. THE SEDGE
REEDLING.

SEDGE WARBLER. SEDGE-BIRD. SEDGE-WREN.

Sylvia Salicaria. Lath. Ind. Oin. II. 516.

Sedge Warbler. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bee-fin phragmite. Sylvia Phragmitis. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 189.

Sedge- Warbler. Salicaria Phragmitis. Selb. lUustr. I. 201.

Sylvia Phragmitis. Sedge Warbler. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 106.

Tail rather long and slightly rounded ; the upper part of the
head broicnish-black, the feathers edged icith light brown ; the
back and icing-coterts light olive-brown tinged with yellow, the
central part of each feather dark brown ; the rump light reddish-
broicn ; a yellowish-white streak over the eye ; the lower parts
brownish-white, the tail-coverts unspotted.

Male. — The Sedge Reedling is a delicate and lively little
bird, which frequents the margins of streams and pools over-
grown with reeds, sedges, and other strong aquatic plants,
among which it seeks its food and nestles, so that it frequently
eludes observation in places where it is not uncommon. Its
size and proportions are nearly similar to those of the Grass-
hopper Chirper, but it is considerably more robust. The head
is of moderate size, anteriorly narrowed, and flattened above.
The bill is of moderate length, very slender, but less so than in

SEDGE REEDLING. 391

that species, it being considerably broader than high at the
base, compressed towards the end ; the upper mandible with
its dorsal outline sloping a little, the sides convex towards the
end, the edges direct, the notch very slight, the tip a little de-
flected ; the lower mandible straight, its angle narrow, the
dorsal outline ascending and almost straight, the edges a little
inflected, the tip acute. The nostrils are elliptical, scarcely
three quarters of a twelfth long ; the aperture of the eyes a
twelfth and a half, that of the ears two-twelfths and a half.
The feet are rather long and slender ; the tarsus much com-
pressed, as are the toes ; the former with seven distinct scu-
tella, the first toe with six, the second with eight, the third
with ten, the fourth with nine. The claws are long, arched,
very slender, extremely compressed, laterally grooved, and very
acute.

The plumage is blended, the feathers oblong and rounded ;
the bristle-feathers at the base of the upper mandible very
small. The wings are rather short, a little concave, with nine-
teen rounded quills ; the first about a fifth of the length of the
second, which is scarcely shorter than the third, but a little
longer than the fourth. The tail is rather long, straight, and
slightly rounded.

The upper mandible is brownish-black, the lower pale flesh-
coloured, towards the end dusky. The iris is brown. The
tarsi are pale yellowish-grey, the toes a little darker, the claws
wood-brown. The upper part of the head is brownish-black,
streaked with light brown, the edges of the feathers being of
the latter colour ; the hind-neck, scapulars, and fore part of the
back are reddish-brown, tinged with grey, each feather having
a dark brown central spot ; the hind part of the back is light
reddish-brown, unspotted, although there is still a brown cen-
tral mark, the upper tail-coverts more dusky. The quills and
coverts are dusky-brown, edged with pale greyish-brown ; the
tail similar, the lateral feathers of the same colour as the rest.
A broad yellowish-white band extends from the base of the
nasal membrane over the eye ; the loral space is dusky-brown,
as are the ear-coverts. The lower parts are brownish-white,
the fore part and sides of the neck, and the sides of the body

392 CALAMOHERPE PHRAGMITIS.

strongly tinged with yellowish -brown, as are the lower tail-
coverts ; the tibial feathers brown.

Length to end of tail 5 ^^^ inches ; extent of wings 7i^2 ; wing
from flexure 2/^ ; tail 2 ; bill along the ridge ^^1, along the
edge of lower mandible ^-^ ; tarsus H ; first toe j%, its claw
y| ; second toe y| ; its claw ^^ ; third toe j^|, its claw j^ ?
fourth toe ^|, its claw '^^.

Female. — The female is slightly larger, and in colour resem-
bles the male, the upper part of the head however being more
tinged with brown, the back of a lighter tint, and the rump
less bright.

Length to end of tail 4:^% inches ; extent of wings Vy^j ;
bill along the ridge || ; tarsus j| ; middle toe and claw j|.

Variations. — The variations in adult individuals are not
remarkable.

Changes. — As the summer advances the edges of the feathers
disappear, so that the upper part of the head becomes nearly
uniform brownish-black, and the lower parts dull greyish-
white. The feathers of the tail, and the longer primary quills
are generally worn and ragged, as in the White-throated
Warbler and other species.

Habits. — The Sedge Reedling is rather abundant in many
of the marshy parts of England, but is nowhere common in
Scotland, although in the southern and middle divisions it is
here and there to be met with. Its favourite resorts are marshy
places overgrown with tall aquatic plants, especially reeds and
carices, among which it usually makes its nest, sometimes
fastening it to the stems at some height from the ground, but
commonly placing it on the latter. At the margin of the
marsh at the west end of Duddingston Loch, near Edinburgh,
I found a nest of this species in the midst of a large clump of
Solanum Dulcamara, supported by the branches, but so con-
cealed that I discovered it only after cutting off a great num-
ber of the flowering twigs, which I was collecting for demon-

SEDGE REEDLING. 393

stration. The nest is bulky, rather neatly but loosely con-
structed, like that of the White-throat Warbler, composed of
stalks and leaves of grasses and other slender plants, and lined
with finer grass and some hair. The eggs, generally five, are
eight- twelfths of an inch long, six-twelfths across, of a greenish-
white colour, dotted and freckled with light brown and greenish-
grey.

A nest found by Mr Weir in a whin bush, and which is be-
fore me, measures in its external diameter four inches, internally
two and a quarter, and is composed of moss and straws, with
a thick lining of panicles of Aira caespitosa, and some down of
syngenesian plants. The eggs, four in number, are pale yel-
lowish-brown, freckled all over uniformly with greyish-brown.

During the breeding season this species is rarely seen unless
one search expressly for it, as it seeks its food among the tall
plants and willows ; and the female will allow a person to pass
quite close to her nest without flying oiF. When disturbed,
she slips in a cowering manner among the plants, but after a
little while comes up, and frisks about, evincing great anxiety.
The common note is a small shrill cheep ; but the song is
lively, modulated, and mellow, although mingled with hurried
notes, resembling a sort of chatter. Several authors have re-
marked that a stone thrown into the bush or among the her-
bage in which it is, will set it a- singing ; but in this it is not
peculiar, for the same effect is produced by disturbing the
White-throated Warbler, and the Common Wren, as well as
occasionally the Reed Bunting. - I have heard the song emitted
at midnight at short intervals in the month of June, when in
the quiet of a fine night it has a very pleasing effect. The
first time I thus heard it was in Renfrewshire, while walking
from Glasgow to Greenock, on a very close and warm night ;
but the fact has been mentioned by many ornithologists. Its
food consists of insects of various kinds, which it occasionally
pursues on wing, and, if the report of authors be correct, of
worms and slugs.

It arrives in England from the twentieth to the end of April,
but in Scotland seldom before the beginning of May ; and de-
parts in the end of September, or the beginning of the next month.

394 CALAMOHERPE PHRAGMITIS.

Young. — The young when fledged have the bill greyish-
brown above, flesh-coloured beneath ; the feet flesh-coloured ;
the upper parts reddish-brown, the head spotted with brownish-
black, the back with brown ; the rump unspotted ; the streak
over the eye reddish- white ; the lower parts dull brownish-
white : in short, they resemble the adults, only that they are
more tinged with red.

Remarks. — The Sedge Reedling is readily distinguished
from the Grasshopper Chirper by the light-coloured band over
the eye, as well as the much less rounded tail. It however
greatly resembles that species both in form and in habits, al-
though the one resorts to thickets and hedges, while the other
betakes itself to marshy or moist coverts. The bill of this spe-
cies, although slender, is rather broad at the base, and is
straighter and longer than that of the White-throated Warbler
and other species of that genus, of which however the general
appearance and proportions are not very dissimilar. Indeed,
were the birds of this family not so numerous, it would scarcely
be judicious to refer them to so many genera.

395

CALAMOHERPE ARUNDINACEA. THE MARSH
REEDLING.

REED WARBLER. REED WREN.

Motacilla arundinacea. Gmel. Syst. Nat. I. 992.

Sylvia arundinacea. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 510.

Reed Wren. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bee-fin des roseaux. Sylvia arundinacea. Temra. Man. d'Orn. I. 191.

Reed Wren. Salicaria arundinacea. Selb. lUustr. I. 203.

Sylvia arundinacea. Reed Wren. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 107.

Tail rather long and considerably rounded ; the upper parts
of a uniform light olive-brown ; the lower pale-yellow^ the throat
ichite.

Male. — The Marsh Reedling is in form and size very similar
to the Sedge Reedling, from which it is readily distinguishable
by its more slender and elongated bill, the absence of a white
streak over the eye, and the uniform tint of the upper parts of
the body. In its proportions it approaches nearer to the Grass-
hopper Chirper, and especially in the form of the bill, which
is very slender, considerably broader than high at the base,
compressed toward the end ; the upper mandible with its dor-
sal outline sloping and slightly convex, the sides convex toward
the end, the edges direct, the notch nearly obsolete, the tip acute
and a little deflected. The feet are rather long and slender ;
the tarsus much compressed, as are the toes ; the claws long,
very slender, extremely compressed, laterally grooved, and
tapering to a fine point.

The plumage is blended, the feathers oblong and rounded ;
the basirostral bristles rather strong. The wings are rather
short, a little concave, with nineteen quills, which are round-
ed at the end ; the first about a fourth of the length of the
second, the third longest, but the second and fourth nearly

396 CALAMOHERPE ARUNDINACEA.

equal. The tail is rather long, straight, and considerably
rounded, the lateral feathers being three twelfths shorter than
the middle.

The upper mandible is light brown, the lower pale flesh-
colour tinged with yellow, toward the end brown. The tarsi
and toes are yellowish-brown, the claws a little darker. The
general colour of the upper parts is pale reddish brown, with-
out dusky spots ; the quills a little darker. The fore part of
the neck is white ; the rest of the lower parts is pale greyish-
yellow.

Length to end of tail 5i inches; bill along the ridge j%,
along the edge of lower mandible /^ ; wing from flexure 2/^ ;
tail 2^%.

Female. — The female is somewhat smaller, but otherwise
similar to the male.

Habits. — The Marsh Reedling has not hitherto been observ-
ed in Scotland, nor in the northern counties of England. It
frequents marshy places margined or overgrown with reeds and
other aquatic plants, among which it searches for its food, in-
sects, worms, and slugs, in the hideling manner of the Sedge
Reedling ; with which no doubt it is frequently confounded,
It arrives in the end of April, and returns southward in Sep-
tember. Its song is loud, cheerful, much diversified, and
sometimes performed at night. Its nest differs from that of
the Sedge Reedling in being composed of blades and stalks of
grass, lined with fine grass and hair, fastened to the stalks of
several reeds at some height from the ground, of an obconical
form, from four to five inches in depth externally, about three
internally, and as much in breadth at the top. Being thus
deep, as Montagu remarks, it " gives security to the eggs,
which would otherwise be thrown out by the wind."" They
are four or five in number, eight and a half twelfths long,
nearly six twelfths in breadth, greyish-brown, faintly dotted
and spotted with greenish-brown, and usually having one or
two blackish irregular lines. The young are fledged by the
middle of July.

397

SIBILATRIX. CHIRPER.

The genus to which I give the name of Sibilatrix, or Chir-
per, is composed of a few species of birds having a very slender
form, and remarkable especially for their hideling habits, and
peculiar sibilous cry, which, in one species has been compared
to that of a Grasshopper or Mole Cricket. They differ from
the species of the genus Calamoherpe in having the (bill longer
and more compressed, the tarsi and toes also more elongated,
while the claws are shorter but more attenuated, and the tail
larger and graduated.

Bill of moderate length, straight, very slender, slightly
broader than high at the base, much compressed toward the
end ; upper mandible with its dorsal outline sloping a little,
toward the end convex, the ridge narrow at the base, broader
beyond the nostrils, the edges a little inflected, the tip very
narrow, the notches slight ; the lower mandible with the angle
rather long and very narrow, the sides convex, the edges in-
flected, the tip acute ; the gape-line nearly straight.

The nostrils linear-oblong, pervious, in the fore part of the
nasal membrane, which is feathered behind. Eyes of mode-
rate size. External aperture of the ears large and roundish.

The general form is slender and delicate, the neck rather
short, the head ovato-oblong, flattened above, very narrow be-
fore. The feet of moderate length, slender ; the tarsus rather
long, extremely compressed, with eight large distinct anterior
scutella, and two longitudinal plates behind, meeting so as to
form an extremely thin edge. Toes extremely compressed,
the second and fourth equal and rather long, the hind toe
large, but with its claw not so long as the third and its claw,
the fourth united as far as the second joint. Claws rather long,
moderately arched, extremely compressed, laterally grooved,
very acute.

398 SIBILATRIX. CHIRPER,

Plumage soft and blended, the feathers broadly ovate and
rounded, with loose filaments. Wings of moderate length,
a little curved, broad, semi-ovate ; quills eighteen ; the first
primary about a fourth of the length of the second, which is
a little shorter than the third, the rest of the primaries gra-
dually diminishing, and with the secondaries rounded. Tail
rather long, broad, graduated, nearly straight, the feathers of
moderate breadth, and weak.

Of this genus only one species, " the Grasshopper Warbler,"
is found in Britain.

399

SIBILATRIX LOCUSTELLA. THE GRASSHOPPER

CHIRPER.

GRASSHOPPER WARBLER. CRICKET BIRD. SIBILOUS BRAKEHOPPER.

Fig. 179.

Sylvia Locustella. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 515.

Grasshopper Warbler. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Bee-fin Locustelle. Sylvia Locustella. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 184.

Salicaria Locustella. Grasshopper Warbler. Selb. lUustr. L 199.

Sylvia Locustella. Grasshopper Warbler. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 106.

Tail long, much graduated, and rounded ; plumage of the
upper parts dull olive hroicn, tcith ohlong dushy spots, of the
lower parts pale yellowish-broicn, the fore part of the neck with
a few dusky lines, the tail-coverts with a central brown mark.
Young yelloicish-hrown, spotted with dusky above, brownish-
yellow beneath.

Male. — The Grasshopper Chirper is an elegantly formed al-
though plainly coloured little bird, remarkable especially for its
peculiar cry, which bears a great resemblance to that of the
Mole Cricket. Its general form is very slender; the head
rather small and much narrowed anteriorly, the neck rather
short ; the bill of moderate length, slender, acute, about the
same breadth and height at the base; the upper mandible
with its dorsal outline sloping a little, the sides sloping at the

400 SIBILATRIX LOCUSTELLA.

base, convex and compressed towards the end, the edges some-
what inflected towards the end, the notch shght, the tip very
narrow ; the lower mandible straight, its angle narrow, the
sides at first sloping a little outwards, afterwards convex, the
edges inflected, and the tip acute. The nostrils are linear-
oblong, a little more than a twelfth of an inch long. The feet
are very slender ; the tarsus and toes extremely compressed,
the former with eight distinct scutella, the hind toe stout, with
six scutella, the second with eight, the third with ten, the
fourth with nine. The claws are rather long, arched, extreme-
ly compressed, and very acute ; the tip of that of the hind toe
does not reach beyond the base of that of the middle toe.

The plumage is blended, the feathers ovate and rounded ;
the bristle-feathers at the base of the upper mandible not dis-
tinguishable. The wings are of moderate length, a little con-
cave, with nineteen rounded quills ; the first very small, being
about a fourth of the length of the second, the third longest,
but the second and fourth almost as long. The tail is long,
and much rounded or cuneate.

The bill is dusky brown above, the lower mandible pale
yellow, its extremity broMni. The iris brown ; the feet and
claws pale brownish-yellow. The general colour of the upper
parts is dull olive brown, slightly tinged with yellow, each
feather with its central part dusky, the dark markings much
paler on the rump and upper tail-coverts. The feathers of the
wings and tail are dark greyish-brown, edged with reddish-
brown. The lower parts in general are pale yellowish-brown ;
the throat whitish, the fore-neck with a few inconspicuous
brown lines, the abdomen paler, the feathers of the sides, and
the lower tail-coverts pale yellowish-brown, with a central
brown mark ; the lower wing-coverts light yellowish-grey.
The feathers of the tail are marked with numerous obscure
transverse bands, depending upon a difference of texture, being
obliterated in certain lights.

Length to end of tail 5 1^2 inches ; extent of wings 7 5 ;
wing from flexure 2i ; tail 2/;^ ; shortest tail-feather ^^^ of
an inch shorter than the longest ; bill along the ridge 4^
twelfths, along the edge of lower mandible 6^ twelfths ; tar-

GRASSHOPPER CHIRPER. 401

BUS {^ ; hind toe j%, its claw j% ; second toe j%, its claw ^% ;
third toe ^'^g, its claw 2^ twelfths ; fourth toe /j, its claw 1^
twelfths.

Female, — The female is exactly similar to the male, only
that the dusky lines on the fore part of the neck are wanting.
Length to end of tail 5/j ; extent of wings 7h

Variations. — I have not observed any remarkable variations
in the colour of adult individuals of this species.

Changes of Plumage. — As the summer advances, the fea-
thers of the tail and the quills become very ragged ; and as the
edges of the feathers generally fall off, the upper parts are more
of a greyish-brown colour, and the lower paler.

Habits. — The Grasshopper Chirper arrives in the south of
England about the middle of April, in the district around
Edinburgh not until the beginning of May, and betakes itself
to thickets and hedges, where, owing to its peculiar habits,
somewhat resembling those of the Hedge Chanter, it is very
seldom observed. " It is not a plentiful species," Montagu
observes, " but probably appears less so by its habit of conceal-
ing itself among furze and thick hedges, discovering their place
of concealment only by their singular cricket-like note, which
is so exactly like that of the Grilla-Talpa as scarce to be dis-
tinguished. We have found it in Hampshire, in South Wales,
and in Ireland, but nowhere so common as on Malmsbury
Common in Wiltshire, to which place the males come about
the second week in April. At this time only they expose
themselves upon the top branches of the furze, and are con-
tinually making their singular chirping notes, their only song.
In this situation we have killed several. As soon as the females
arrive, which is about ten days after, the males no longer ex-
pose themselves, and are almost silent till about the dusk of the
evening, when they are incessantly crying ; possibly to decoy
the larger species of Grasshoppers, or the Grilla-talpa, which
begin their chirping with the setting sun. The female very

VOL. II. D D

402 ^ SIBILATRIX LOCUSTELLA.

much resembles the other sex ; is so shy as to be obtained with
difficulty. On the eighteenth of May we found the nest of this
bird in a patch of thick brambles and furze, with two eggs ;
but as they had not been incubated, probably more would have
been laid. The nest is of a flimsy texture, like that of the
Whitethroat, composed of dried stalks and goose-grass, lined
with fibrous roots. The eggs are of a spotless bluish-white,
weighing twenty-one grains. From the scarcity of the bird,
and the artful manner in which it conceals its nest, it is rarely
found ; nor has any author noticed it."

Mr Selby, besides repeating some of the above particulars,
informs us that he has known it " for some years past, as a
visitant to several parts of Northumberland, where it haunts
low and damp situations, overgrown with furze, bramble and
underwood." " The nest," he says, " is composed of moss,
and the dried stems of the ladies' bed-straw (Galium), and
bears a great resemblance to that of the Pettychaps, or the
White-throat, though it is thicker, and more compact in tex-
ture. The eggs are four or five in number, of a pinkish-grey,
with numerous specks of a deeper tint. The young, when dis-
turbed, immediately quit the nest, although but half-fledged,
trusting, doubtless, to their instinctive power of concealment."

It is probable that Montagu had mistaken the eggs of some
other bird for those of the Grasshopper Chirper, for all other
observers have described the latter as spotted, although they
differ in their account of the tint of their markings. Mr
Yarrell in Mr Jenyns's British Vertebrate Animals, has de-
scribed the egg as " pale reddish- white, speckled all over with
darker red-brown : long. diam. eight lines ; trans, diam. six
lines." In his beautifully illustrated and carefully composed
" History of British Birds," he has the following statement : —
" This bird sometimes lays as many as seven eggs, eight lines
long by six lines in breadth, of a pale reddish- white colour,
freckled all over with specks of darker red. I have seen five
or six sets of the eggs of the Grasshopper Warbler which did
not differ either in colour or marks."

" Nothing," says White, " can be more amusing than the
whisper of this little bird, which seems to be close by, though

GRASSHOPPER CHIRPf^R. 403

at an hundred yards distance ; and, when close at your ear, is
scarce any louder than when a great way off. Had I not been
a little acquainted with insects, and known that the Grasshop-
per kind is not yet hatched, I should have hardly believed but
that it had been a locusta whispering in the bushes. The
country people laugh when you tell them that it is the note of a
bird. It is the most artful creature, skulking in the thickest
part of a bush, and will sing at a yard distance, provided it be
concealed. I was obliged to get a person to go on the other
side of the hedge where it haunted ; and then it would run, creep-
ing like a mouse before us for an hundred yards together, through
the bottom of the thorns, yet it would not come into fair sight;
but in a morning early, and when undisturbed, it sings on the
top of a twig, gaping, and shivering with its wings."

Mr Weir, from a pair snared by whom I have taken the
above description of the species, has favoured me with the fol-
lowing account of this interesting bird. " The Grasshopper
Warblers are very seldom seen, for they artfully conceal them-
selves amongst furze bushes, or in the thickest brakes and
hedges, from which it is very difficult to pvit them out. In
the dusk of a warm and still summer's evening they make a
lengthened grinding and hissing noise. About the beginning
of June 1835, whilst I was watching at the back of an old wall
upon the property of W. D. Gillon, Esq. of Wallhouse, near
the top of Bathgate Hills, a pair of Stonechats feeding their
young, I observed a little bird which I had never before seen
rise in the air again and again in the pursuit of flies. I im-
mediately ran to the spot to get a nearer view of it, and after a
good deal of searching at length discovered its nest. It was
placed in the middle of a clump of very thick whins, and com-
pletely overhung by their prickly branches. So cunningly
was it concealed that I was obliged to beat the female out of it
several times before I could find it out. It was composed of
coarse dried grass, and had in it six beautiful white eggs closely
freckled with carnation spots. I caught the birds with much
difficulty in a trap-cage when their young were nearly ripe."
The nest was rather bulky, but firmly put together, and was
composed of stems and blades of dried grass, the interior of

404 SIBILATRIX LOCUSTELLA.

similar but finer materials. One of the eggs, which Mr Weir
had removed, and of which, together with the birds, I have
made a drawing, was white, sprinkled all over with carmine
dots.

In July 1836, I obtained a young bird fully fledged, from
the neighbourhood of Penicuick ; and in August 1887, an
adult shot in " the Meadows'" at Edinburgh ; but I have not
met with the species in any other part of Scotland. In England
it has been seen in Durham, Northumberland, Yorkshire, Cum-
berland, Suffolk, Surrey, Middlesex, Hampshire, Wiltshire,
the counties along the southern coast, and South Wales.

Young. — The young bird when fully fledged has its plumage
as nrm as that of the old. The upper mandible is light brown,
the lower dull yellow ; the feet greyish-yellow. The upper
parts are light yellowish-brown, spotted with dusky ; the wing
and tail-feathers dusky, edged with light yellowish-brown ;
the loral space brownish-white ; the lower parts brownish-
yellow, the throat lighter, the sides tinged with brown, the
lower wing-coverts yellowish-grey ; the lower tail-coverts simi-
lar, with a faint dusky medial streak. The young is thus simi-
lar to the adult, but more tinged with yellow, much in the
same manner as happens in the Meadow Pipit, Anthus pra-
tensis.

405

REGULUS. KINGLET.

The diminutive, beautiful, and lively birds distinguished ge-
nerically by the name of Reguli, are placed on the limits of the
Sylvianae and Parinse, of which they combine the characters
and habits. They are readily distinguished by their small size,
the tuft of silky and coloured feathers on the head, which,
bearing a fanciful resemblance to a golden crown, has given
rise to their name. Their body is extremely short and roundish ;
the neck short ; the head large, roundish, anteriorly convex.

The bill is shortish, straight, very slender, rather broader
than high at the base, compressed towards the end, acute ; the
upper mandible with the culmen rather sharp, the sides slop-
ing, at the base concave, towards the end convex ; the edges
overlapping, slightly inflected towards the tip, which is a little
declinate, and destitute of notch ; the lower mandible straight,
its ridge and sides convex, the crura short, with a narrow but
rounded angle, the edges inflected, the tip very narrow ; the
gape-line quite straight. The mouth narrow ; both mandibles
with a central prominent line. The palate flat ; the posterior
aperture of the nares linear, margined with papillae. The
tongue sagittate, slender, thin, concave above, slightly bristly
at the tip. The oesophagus is narrow, without dilatation ; the
stomach elliptical, compressed ; its muscular coat thick ; its
cuticular lining dense and rugous. The intestine is short and
of moderate width ; the coeca very small and cylindrical.

The eyes are of moderate size ; the aperture of the ears large
and roundish ; the nostrils linear-oblong, direct, in the fore
part of the longish nasal groove, and covered by a single deli-
cate oblong feather. The legs are rather long ; the tarsus
longer than the middle toe, slender, compressed, scarcely
rounded anteriorly, where it is covered by a single long plate,
and three very short scutella at the lower part, posteriorly

406 REGULUS. KINGLET.

edged. Toes rather large ; the first more robust, and almost
equal in length to the third ; the second and fourth nearly
equal, and united to the third by a membrane as far as the
second joint. Claws long, arched, extremely compressed, late-
rally grooved, acute ; that of the hind toe proportionally very
large.

The plumage is extremely soft and downy ; the feathers
being broad, entirely downy, with a long very slender plumule
of three filaments, the central much larger. Those about the
base of the bill are bristle-pointed. The wings are of ordinary
length, broad, and rounded, with eighteen quills ; the first not
half the length of the second, which is considerably shorter
than the third, the fourth longest ; the secondaries rounded at
the end ; all much curved. Tail of moderate length, seeming
to come off abruptly from amidst the short downy coverts,
much curved at the base, slightly emarginate, of twelve fea-
thers, which are narrow and rounded w^ith a minute tip.

The Kinglets are the smallest birds of the family of Syl-
vianae. They inhabit the woods and thickets of the colder and
temperate regions of both continents, moving about with great
agility among the twigs, in search of insects, on which alone
they feed. In this occupation they mingle with various spe-
cies of the genus Parus, and are often accompanied by Certhise
and other small birds. Their characteristic habits will be found
exemplified by those of the species R. auricapillus, common in
Britain ; besides which a few individuals of another, E,. igni-
capillus, have been met with in England.

Having already imposed upon myself the rule laid down by
the venerable legislators of the last century, and adopted by
some of those of the present, that generic names shall not be
those of men, women, or children, crafts, offices, or professions,
it may seem inconsistent in me to name little birds having a
red or yellow tuft of feathers on their head, little Kings, King-
lets, or Reguli, which signifies the same thing ; but the dimi-
nutive termination in some measure does away with the im-
propriety of the appellation, especially as we have no order of
men now known by the name of Reguli. The ancient name
of one of these birds, T^o%/>.c»j, Trochilus, aviculse nomen, a

REGULUS. KINGLET. 407

Tfo^o?, cursus, quod a 1gix<^i curro, festino, it being so called
because of its nitnbleness, would however be more appropriate,
had it not already been given to the Humming birds. But
should any one desire another generic name, let him choose
from among the following, which have all been applied to the
" Gold-crested Wren:" — Calendula, Parus, Regulus, Regillus,
Rex, Senator, Basiliscus, Regaliolus, Orchillus, Tyrannus,
Motacilla, Sylvia, Passerculus. As to the English nomencla-
ture, perhaps Kinglet is as good a common name as Wrenlet,
but I should decidedly reject " Wren," because it belongs pe-
culiarly to another distinct genus. Perhaps however as the
Pari are named Tom-tits, Tit-mice, and Ox-eyes, some may
prefer naming the Reguli Tom-thumbs, Tit-nebs, or Pip-pops.

408

REGULUS AURICAPILLUS. THE GOLD-CROWNED

KINGLET.

GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN. TIDLEY GOLDFINCH. MARYGOLD FINCH.

Motacilla Regulus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 338.

Sylvia Regulus. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 548.

Golden-crested Wren. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Roitelet ordinaire. Sylvia Regulus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 229.

Regulus cristatus, III. 157.
Gold-crested Regulus. Regulus auricapillus. Selb. Illustr. I. 229.
Regulus aurocapillus. Gold-crested Regulus. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 113.

Plumage of the upper 'parts light yellowish-ht'oicn, of the lower
pale hrownish-grey ; the top of the head silky and reddish- orange,
with a longitudinal band on each side of black feathers, of which
the inner tvebs of the iiiner are lemon-yellow ; the cheeks yellow-
ish-grey. Female similar, but ti'ith the croicn lemon-yellow.

Male. — The Gold-crowned Kinglet, which is the smallest
of our native birds, agrees in all respects with the generic
character given in the preceding pages. The oesophagus is an
inch and a half in length ; the stomach elliptical, five twelfths
long, and four in breadth ; the intestine eight inches long, and
the coeca only half a twelfth. The plumage is blended, and
extremely soft and tufty, the feathers on the back and sides

GOLD-CROWNED KINGLET. 409

especially being very elongated, and when raised presenting
the appearance of a downy puff. Those on the top of the head
are also elongated, silky, and shining. The parts about the
base of the bill are covered with bristle-pointed feathers, and,
as in the other species, a single oblong feather, with discrete
filaments, lies over each nostril. The wings are of moderate
length, and rounded ; the first quill being about a third of the
length of the second, which is considerably shorter than the
third, the fourth longest. The tail is also of ordinary length,
narrow, arched at the base, and slightly emarginate ; the fea-
thers rounded, with a minute tip.

The bill is blackish-brown, the mouth dusky orange. The
iris dark brown. The feet dull yellowish-brown. The general
colour of the upper parts is light yellowish-brown, of the lower
pale brownish-grey. The sides of the head are yellowish-grey,
without any streaks. On each side of the crown is a longitu-
dinal black band, of which the inner feathers have their in-
ternal webs lemon-yellow ; between these bands the feathers
are of a beautiful reddish-orange tint, with silky lustre. The
quills and tail-feathers are dusky, margined with yellowish-
green ; the base of six of the outer secondaries and inner pri-
maries black, and the tips of the secondary coverts white, as
are those of the first row of small coverts.

Length to end of tail 3f inches ; extent of wings 6^ ; bill
along the ridge ^i? along the edge of lower mandible |^g ; wing
from flexure 2y| ; tail Ij^^ ; tarsus ^^ ; first toe /j, its claw
y| ; second toe -^^^ its claw \% ; third toe ^^g, its claw {^ ;
fourth toe 1*^, its claw \\.

Female. — The colours of the female are precisely similar,
the only difference being in the crown, which is yellow in the
centre, without any orange.

Length to end of tail 8^ inches ; extent of wings 6 ; bill
along the ridge l\ ; tarsus /^ ; middle toe \.

Variations. — I have not observed any remarkable deviations
from the ordinary appearance. M. Temminck however states
that " accidental varieties have the top of the head azure blue ;

410 REGULUS AURICAPILLUS.

others of more frequent occurrence have the head and part of
the plumage of a whitish colour ; and frequently the feathers of
the crest are of a livid yellow." Montagu also informs us that
" a pair in the collection of Mr Luscombe, of Kingsbridge,
are of a cream colour, with the usual yellow crown, by which
the two sexes are distinguished."

Habits. — This lively little creature is a permanent resident
in Britain, where it is generally distributed. It occurs abun-
dantly in most parts of Scotland, where it is usually seen in
woods of fir, pine, and larch, more especially in those of Pinus
sylvestris, although I have often met with it among birch, oak,
and other trees. It gives no preference to tall over stunted
trees, but may as often be met with in a young plantation as
in an old wood ; and I have seen individuals even alight on
broom bushes, in the neighbourhood of their favourite places
of resort. Essentially gregarious, you never meet with it but
in flocks, even in the breeding season, and in winter it forms
extensive associations, which shift about continually from place
to place.

While engaged in searching for food, the Kinglets inces-
santly emit a single shrill and feeble note, like the cry of a
Shrewmouse, by which they are easily discovered in the woods,
where it would otherwise be very difficult to trace them. They
are continually in motion, fluttering from branch to branch,
seldom hopping without using their wings, clinging to the twigs
and leaves in every variety of attitude, and often hanging with
their back undermost, in the manner of the Tits. They are
far from being shy under any circumstances, but allow a per-
son to approach within a few yards. In fact, they seem to pay
no attention to an intruder, being apparently so busily occupied
as to disregard every thing except the objects of their search.
When a shot is fired at one, the rest do not fly off, so that a
person, on falling in with a flock, may generally procure as
many as he wishes. They fly with a fluttering motion, and
without undulation, when the distance is short ; but when
moving from one wood to another their flight is rapid and un-
dulated.

GOLD-CROWNED KINGLET. 411

In pine or fir woods they are generally seen in company with
the Coal Tit, the Long-tailed Tit, frequently also the Creeper,
and occasionally the Blue Tit, and even the Greater Tit. Their
most common associate however is the first of these species.
All these birds live together in perfect amity, none of them
appearing on any occasion to interfere with its neighbours.

The following extract of a letter from the Rev. Mr George
Gordon, is so illustrative of the habits of this interesting bird,
that I cannot forbear inserting it here. " Elgin, 24th Novem-
ber 1831. All the birds (sent) were killed by Mr Taylor in
the ' Oakwood' (chiefly however composed of fir) near the
town. The Titmice, Golden-crested Wren, and Creepers, seem
to scour the wood in foraging parties of several dozens, all to-
gether, as one family. Generally the Long-tailed Titmouse
took the lead, appearing the most active ; the Blue Titmouse
and Colemouse in the centre, the latter by its louder note
bringing back such as were roaming too far from the main
body. The Golden-crested Wrens were found in the rear, in
greater numbers than any of the others. Through the flock a
Creeper or two were searching the trunk from bottom to top,
while its comrades left not a branch of the tree un visited. It
would have been a treat to have seen your friend Audubon,
engaged for the first time in witnessing such a foray."

No doubt it would ; but although I have not seen him ad-
miring for the first time a flock of Gold-crests, I have had the
pleasure of shooting several specimens along with him, on the
6th January 1831, at Granton, near Edinburgh, on the sea-
shore, and again at Craiglockhart, in November 1835.

In the fir woods along the Tweed and its tributaries, and by
the Dee, from Braemar to Aberdeen, as well as along the Spey,
I have found this species particularly abundant ; but it is of
general distribution in Scotland, and is very easily procured in
all parts of that country. Low states it to be indigenous even
in Orkney, which is a very extraordinary circumstance, seeing
there are no woods there. In the somewhat analogous tract
of the Outer Hebrides I have never met with it. It is plenti-
ful in the northern and midland counties of England ; and if
in the southern it is more rare, this probably arises from the
comparative deficiency there of its favourite woods.

412 REGULUS AURICAPILLUS.

Early in spring it commences its song, which consists of a
few feeble notes, and about the end of March begins to prepare
for the important duty of rearing its young. The nest is gene-
rally suspended from a twig, so as to rest upon the branch im-
mediately below ; at least this is the case when a spruce fir
has been selected. It is beautifully constructed of moss and
lichens, interwoven with wool, and lined with feathers, I
have before me three specimens furnished by Mr Weir. Two
of them are globular ; the first formed as described, and having
very small feathers in the interior ; its external diameter three
inches and a half, that of the mouth, which is the uppermost
part, an inch and a half ; the second similar in form, but com-
posed of moss mixed with willow down, and a few hairs, and
lined with feathers of various kinds, some of them larse. The
third, which was suspended from a larch twig, is four-sided, or
cubical, and is constructed of the same materials. The moss
has been cut small in all these nests, and the feathers have
been stuck into the walls of the nest so as to project inward,
and in a manner to cover the mouth. The eggs vary from five
to seven or eight, and are sometimes almost globular, but
generally broadly ovate, from five and a half to six twelfths of
an inch in length, and averaging nearly five-twelfths across.
They are usually brownish or reddish-white, much darker, or
light reddish-brown, at the larger end. They are smaller than
the eggs of any other British bird, those of the Longtailed Tit
being next in size.

Mr Selby, to whom we are indebted for many valuable con-
tributions to our knowledge respecting the birds of Britain,
communicated to the Wernerian Society in 1824 a very in-
teresting paper on this bird. He had for some years remarked
that towards the end of October, the Golden-crested Reguli
became very numerous along the coast of Northumberland, and
in 1822, had the pleasure of witnessing their arrival. " This
happened after a severe gale, which commenced on the 24th of
October, at N.E., and continued during the whole of the 25th ;
but which for some hours previous to its conclusion, veered
about to the E. and S. of E. On the morning of the 26th
they were seen to arrive by hundreds upon the beach, so fa-
tigued and overcome by the unfavourable change of wind, the

GOLD-CROWNED KINGLET. 413

length of their journey, or both combined, as to drop the mo-
ment they reached land, unable to make any further exertions.
Great numbers were in consequence at first taken by the hand,
unable to rise or escape their pursuers."' This flight he ascer-
tained to have extended from beyond Berwick northwards as
far as Whitby in Yorkshire. Redwings, Fieldfares, and
Woodcocks, arrived at the same time. The Kinglets soon
spread over the country, and their numbers daily decreased,
until about Christmas, when scarcely more than the usual num-
ber remained. There was a severe snow storm in the begin-
ning of January, and towards the end of that month, during a
thaw which preceded a second and still more severe storm,
they all disappeared. Next year none were seen in the dis-
trict until October, when a few arrived at the usual period. In
August and September 1823, during an excursion in Scotland,
he looked for them in every likely locality, but without suc-
cess. INIr Selby supposes this great flight which arrived on the
Northumbrian coast to have come " from the more northern
provinces of Europe," which would be probable enough, were
it not, that, as he could find none in Scotland the following
year, in places where he had previously seen them very plenti-
ful, they might as reasonably be supposed to have come from
that country.

In the neighbourhood of Edinburgh I have found them for
several years back common enough in all the fir woods ; but
we have no accession of numbers at the period of the arrival
of the Woodcock and Fieldfare. That an occasional irruption
from the continent may take place is not unlikely ; and it
seems probable that the individuals observed by Mv Low in
Orkney may have come from that quarter. Bechstein states
that in Germany they are seen passing southward in October,
and again northward in March, but that flocks reside there
during the whole year. It does not appear that with us any
other migration than a mere shifting from one wood to another
usually takes place.

In his edition of Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary, Mr
Rennie has given a very amusing account of a family of Gold-
crests. The young, eight in number (two having died), were

414 REGULUS AURICAPILLUS.

fed by the female alone, whose visits " were generally repeated
in the space of a minute and a half or two minutes, or, upon
an average, thirty-six times in an hour ; and this continued
full sixteen hours in a day, which, if equally divided between
the eight young ones, each would receive seventy-two feeds in
the day ; the whole amounting to 576. From examination of
the food, which by accident now and then dropped into the
nest, 1 judged from those weighed, that each feed was a quarter
of a grain upon an average ; so that each young one was sup-
plied with eighteen grains weight in a day ; and as the young
birds weighed about seventy-two grains at the time they began
to perch, they consumed nearly their weight of food in four
days at that time.""

The following observations, sent to me by my friend Mr
Hepburn, a very zealous young ornithologist, are characteristic
as to the habits of this species. " The Golden-crested Wren
is common in our woods and fir plantations. It also frequents
our hedge-rows and gardens, more particularly during the win-
ter. The activity of this little bird is surprising : it will alight
on the branch of a tall tree in the copse, and after a momen-
tary survey, it will dart at its prey reposing on the back of the
stem, suspend itself for a moment by a rapid motion of its
wings, then return to a branch, again glance at the stem and
flit to it. In this manner it gradually mounts to the top of the
tree, and, should its prey prove to be plentiful, it will ascend and
descend several times in succession, occasionally darting into
the air at some unwary gnat sporting in the beams of the win-
ter sun. Judging from their manner of capturing their prey,
I think live insects must form their principal food. Some-
times they will descend and hop on the ground for some min-
utes. In a fine day their notes are heard incessantly. They
resemble the cheep of a mouse, the chir-r-r of the Blue Tit,
and the if-hee if-hee of the Coal Tit. Their Song, which this
year, 1889, I heard first on the 28th February, is weak, yet
very sweet."

It is really astonishing that these diminutive birds should be
able to withstand the rigours of our climate, especially in such
elevated districts as the upper parts of the valleys of the Spey

GOLD-CROWNED KINGLET. 415

and Dee, where however they remain all the winter and spring.
Yet that they sometimes perish in great numbers is apparent
from their disappearance in particular districts after unusually
severe winters. Thus, in the summer of 1888, they were ex-
tremely scarce in the neighbourhood of Bathgate ; and yet in
that of Edinburgh, not twenty miles distant, their flocks seemed
to have undergone no diminution. Great numbers are annually
killed, to be stuffed, or in mere wantonness ; and I suppose that
not fewer than fifty individuals have been destroyed by myself.

Young. — In their first plumage, the young are entirely des-
titude of yellow on the head, the upper part of which is light
greyish-brown, with two lateral bands of greyish-black ; the
upper parts of the body are greyish-yellow ; the quills and
tail-feathers as in the adult, but not so decidedly marked ; the
cheeks yellowish-grey, the lower parts greyish-white tinged
with yellow ; the bill and feet much paler than in the adult.

Progress toward Maturity. — In the end of August I have
found the moult completed. The second plumage is similar
to that of the old bird, but with this difference that the males
have the orange of the crown much less extended, while in the
females the feathers there are of a greenish-yellow tint, with-
out any orange.

416

REGULUS IGNICAPILLUS. THE FIRE-CROWNED
KINGLET.

Roitelet triple-bandeau. Sylvia ignicapilla. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 231.

Regulus ignicapillus. Id. III. 1.58.
Regulus ignicapillus. Fire-crested Kinglet. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 113.

Plumage of the upper parts light yellowish-hr own, of the lower
pale brownish grey ; the top of the head silky and reddish-orange,
with a longitudinal hand on each side of black feathers, the inner
webs of some of which are pale yellow ; the cheeks yellowish-grey ;
a black band in the loral space, and behind the eye, a narroicer
dusky band from the base of the lower mandible. Female with
the crown dull pale orange, and the dusky bands on the cheek
obscure.

Male. — This species, although of the same size as the
other, and similar in colouring, is easily distinguished by its
two additional dusky bands on each side of the head. The
bill is slightly longer, and somewhat wider at the base, but the
differences in this respect, as well as in the form and propor-
tions of the other parts, are scarcely appreciable. The plumage
also may be described in the same terms ; but the tuft of silky
feathers on the head is larger, and the tail is a little longer.
The wings are of moderate length, rounded ; the first quill
about a third of the length of the second, the fourth longest ;
the tail arched at the base, and slightly emarginate.

The bill is blackish-brown ; the feet and claws dull yellow-
ish-brown. The general colour of the upper parts is light
yellowish-olive, of the lower greyish-white tinged with brown.
The sides of the head are yellowish-grey ; a narrow dusky
streak proceeds from the base of the lower mandible a short
way down the neck ; the loral space, and a band behind the
eye, black ; a greyish-white line beneath, and another above

FIRE-CROWNED KINGLET. 417

the eye, the latter succeeded by a broader black band, meeting
its fellow on the anterior part of the forehead, and enclosing a
set of silken feathers of a bright yellowish-red or orange colour,
more intense than that of the preceding species, and similarly
margined with pale yellow. The quills and tail-feathers are
dusky, margined with yellowish-green ; the secondary coverts
are tipped with greyish-white, and there is a conspicuous
brownish-black patch on the wing, the base of six of the outer
secondaries and inner primaries being of that colour.

Length to end of tail 3j^| inches ; bill along the ridge j*| ;
wing from flexure 2/^ ; tail l^f ; tarsus /^ ; hind toe y|, its
claw /g ; middle toe j^, its claw ^^|.

Female. — The female resembles the male, from which it
differs in having the orange crest much paler, and the dusky
streaks on the sides of the head fainter.

Habits. — This sjiecies having been met with only four or
five times in England, its habits have not been observed with
us. On the continent, it is migratory, although it is said to be
sometimes met with in France during the winter. Its habits
and food are described as similar to those of the Golden-crested
Kinglet, but it does not form large flocks, as that species fre-
quently does. The first individual found in this country was
obtained by Mr Jenyns in his garden at SwafFham Bulbeck,
near Cambridge, in the autumn of 1832. The other instances
of its occurrence mentioned have all been on the eastern coast
of England, whither the birds had probably been driven in the
course of their autumnal migration southward.

VOL. II. E E

418

PARINiE.

TITS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The Tits, of which several species are permanent residents
in Britain, may be taken as the typical representatives of this
family, which is composed of small birds seldom attaining the
size of a House Sparrow, and characterized as follows. Their
general form is moderately full ; their head large, broadly ovate
and convex. Their bill is short, straight, tapering, hard, with
its outlines more or less convex, the mandibles thin-edged, and
rather obtuse, the upper destitute of notch. The tarsus is of
moderate length, rather stout, and distinctly scutellate ; the toes
large, especially the first, and the claws strong, compressed,
arched, and acute. The plumage is always soft, loose, and fiill,
especially on the hind part of the back ; the wings rather short,
concave, and rounded ; the tail generally of moderate length,
sometimes elongated, more or less arched, always narrow, and
composed of twelve narrow feathers. The nostrils are rather
small, roundish, and concealed by reversed bristly feathers.
The tongue is short, narrow, sagittate at the base, with the tip
terminated by four bristles. The oesophagus is narrow, with-
out dilatation ; the stomach roundish, somewhat compressed,
its lateral muscles of moderate strength, its cuticular lining
rugous ; the intestine short, of moderate width, the coeca small
and cylindrical. The digestive organs are thus not essentially
different from those of the other families of the Cantatores.
Plate XIII. Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12.

In the form of their bill and feet, and in having the nostrils
covered by reversed bristly feathers, as well as in some of their
habits, the larger Pari exhibit a considerable affinity to the
Jays. Their bill approaches in form to that of the Sittinse
also, and their feet indicate a decided approximation of the two

TITS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 419

families, which moreover agree in many of their habits. On
the other hand, the Parinae are still more closely allied to the
Sylvianae. Thus the transition from the Reguli to the smaller
Tits is almost direct, and some of the Warblers, especially
those of the genera Sylvicola and Jora, are just as much Tits
as any thing else. The genera of which this family is com-
posed seem to me to be Parus, Mecistura, Ixos, and perhaps
Pachycephalus, for those which various authors have associated
with them do not present characters indicative of sufficient
affinity to authorise their admission into it. Indeed, the sub-
family Pariange of Mr Swainson, (properly Parinae, Parus
and not Paria being the generic name), is a most heterogeneous
association, in which are brought together, to form a circle,
birds belonging to the families of Myiotherinae, Sylvianae, and
Parinae. Thus, of its five genera, Setophaga, of which the bill
is acknowledged to resemble that of a Muscicapa, certainly
belongs to the Myiotherinae or Flychasers ; Sylvicola has been
improperly separated from the Sylvianae ; Accentor, obviously
is more a Saxicola or a Rubecula than a Tit ; and Trichas,
which completes the magic circle, has been stolen from among
its friends the Warblers. Many really distinct genera are re-
ferred by him to these groups as sub-genera ; while on the
other hand, in a different circle, that of the Motacillinae, in
order to retain his favourite number five, he finds it necessary
to tear away Anthus from Alauda, placing these two most in-
timately connected genera in separate families. In truth, it
can only be by exaggerating, misrepresenting, and suppressing
facts, that any system like that adopted by him can possibly be
upheld.

As to the habits of the Parinae, it is unnecessary to say much
respecting them here, as they will receive sufficient illustration
in treating of the different species. They inhabit forests, woods,
and thickets, where they search for insects and larvae among
the foliage and in the crevices of the bark, and the axils of the
branches, clinging to the twigs, and using every possible variety of
attitude and gesture. Small seeds also form part of their food,
and although generally seen on the branches and twigs, where
they move with the greatest ease, they sometimes betake them-

420 PARINiE.

selves to the ground, where they advance by leaping. Their
nests are large, formed of moss, lichens, and other textile sub-
stances, and well lined with feathers or other soft materials.
Many species nestle in holes or crevices in trees, buildings or
walls, and some, like Woodpeckers, scoop out cavities in de-
cayed or even in fresh trees. Their eggs are generally nu-
merous, and of a whitish colour, usually marked with brown
or red spots. Species occur on both continents, and, although
diminutive and essentially insectivorous, they do not require
to migrate far southward in the winter, at which season they
traverse the woods in large flocks. Their voice is loud and
shrill, and their song consists of a few notes, which are rather
singular than pleasant. They are capable of performing long
flights, but in general their excursions are short, and their
mode of flying rapid and undulated. Most of the species are
usually so intent on searching for their food, that a person
may approach quite close to them ; and they are extremely
active, lively, and courageous.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. PARUS. TIT.

Bill short, straight, strong, sub-conical, its outlines convex,
the point of the upper mandible destitute of notch and rather
obtuse ; toes strong ; claws long, much arched, high, and ta-
pering to an extremely acute point ; wings rather short, concave,
rounded, the first quill very small, the fourth and fifth longest,
but only slightly exceeding those on each side ; tail of moderate
length, narrow, even, or a little emarginate, somewhat arched.

1 . Parus major. Greater Tit. Head, fore part of the neck,
a transverse band on its sides, and a longitudinal band on the
breast and abdomen black ; cheeks white ; back yellowish-
green ; breast and sides yellow.

2. Parus cceruleus. Blue Tit. Upper part of the head light
blue, encircled with white.

TITS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 421

S. Parus Ater. Coal Tit. Head, hind-neck and throat
glossy bluish-black ; sides of the neck and a patch on the nape,
white.

4. Parus palustris. Marsh Tit. Head, hind-neck, and
throat dull brownish-black ; sides of the neck greyish-white ;
no white on the nape.

5. Parus cristatus. Crested Tit. Occipital feathers elon-
gated^ pointed, and slightly recurved, forming a conspicuous
crest.

GENUS II. MECISTURA. MUFFLIN.

Bill very short, straight, strong, its outlines very convex,
the point of the upper mandible destitute of notch and very
acute ; toes of moderate strength ; claws long, little arched, high,
and tapering to an extremely acute point ; wings rather long,
concave, rounded, the first quill very small, the fourth and
fifth longest, and considerably exceeding those on each side ;
tail very long, narrow, graduated, and nearly straight.

1. Mecistura longicaudata. Long-tailed Mufflin. Head
white, with a black band on each side, back black, scapulars
and abdomen light red.

422

PARUS. TIT.

Bill short, straight, subconical, generally strong, pentagonal
at the base, much higher than broad, being considerably com-
pressed, the point rather sharp : upper mandible with its dorsal
outline convexly declinate, the ridge convex, the sides convex
and deflected, the edges direct and overlapping, with a slight
festoon toward the base, the point sharp when viewed laterally,
but rather blunt when seen vertically, without notch or sinus ;
lower mandible with the angle short, of moderate width, and
rounded, the dorsal outline ascending and more convex than the
upper, the sides convex, the edges a little inflected, the tip rather
acute ; the gape-line straight.

The mouth very narrow ; the upper mandible slightly con-
cave within, with a central and two lateral prominent lines,
the former divided at the base by a groove ; the lower more
concave, with a stronger median ridge. The posterior aper-
ture of the nares is linear, margined with papillae ; the palate
transversely concave. The pharynx is narrow, the oesophagus,
which is of uniform diameter and moderate width, passes along
the right side of the neck, as does the trachea ; the stomach a
rather strong gizzard, of an irregularly elliptical form, its late-
ral muscles thick and long, the lower not distinct from the
right, the tendons rather large, the right muscle commencing
much lower than the left, and extending proportionally beyond
it ; the cuticular lining longitudinally rugous. The intestine
is short, rather wide ; the duodenum being much wider than
the oesophagus ; the rectum much wider and moderately
enlarged towards its extremity. The coeca very small and
cylindrical. Plate XIII. Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12.

The general form is short and full ; the body extremely
short, as is the neck ; the head large, roundish, convex ante-
riorly. The nostrils are small, round, in the fore part of the

PARUS. TIT. 423

short nasal membrane, and concealed by reversed stiffish
bristle-tipped feathers. The eyes are also small ; the eyelids
feathered, their bare margin crenate. The aperture of the ears
is large and roundish. The feet are of ordinary length, rather
strong ; the tarsus compressed, with seven very broad anterior
scutella ; the toes rather large, the first proportionally very
large and stout, being with its claw as long as the middle toe ;
the anterior toes united as far as their second joint, the fourth
or outer considerably longer than the second. The claws are
long, much arched, extremely compressed, laterally grooved,
high and tapering to an extremely acute point.

The plumage is extremely soft, loose and blended ; the fea-
thers of the upper part of the head rather compact and glossy ;
those about the base of the bill bristle-tipped ; but there are no
distinct bristle-feathers at the base of the upper mandible. The
feathers of the back form a very long almost downy bunch ;
those of the rump are short, so that the tail appears as if it
came off abruptly. The wings are of moderate length or rather
short, concave, very broad, rounded, with nineteen quills ; the
first very short, being about a third of the length of the second,
which is much shorter than the third, the fourth and fifth
longest, but only slightly exceeding those on each side ; the
secondaries very long ; all the quills narrow and rounded ; the
third, fourth, fifth, and sixth with the outer web cut out to-
wards the end. The tail is of moderate length, or rather long,
narrow, even or a little emarginate, somewhat arched, of twelve
narrow, rounded feathers.

The Tits are all of very small size, the largest not exceeding
a House Sparrow in bulk, and some of them not more than
four inches in length. They are essentially insectivorous, but
many also feed on seeds of various kinds, and some split open
a nut or other hard pericarp by repeated strokes of their bill.
Flesh of any kind, especially carrion and that of dead birds,
they often pick, and some of them, becoming familiar in severe
weather, search the neighbourhood of houses for fragments of
bread, fat, and other articles of food. Their favourite haunts
however arc the forests, woods, and plantations, especially
those of fir, pine, larch, oak, birch, and alder, the branches and

424 PARUS. TIT.

twigs of which they search for insects, aphides, pupae, and
larvj3e, hopping and fluttering about with surprising agility,
using almost every imaginable attitude, often clinging in an in-
verted position, and, when grasping a branch transversely, pivot-
ing their body from side to side in a singular manner. Their
flight is direct, executed by rapid flaps, not usually protracted,
but capable of being extended on occasion, when it becomes
undulated and rapid. They utter various shrill cries, and when
feeding generally emit a sharp note at intervals. They are petu-
lant, excitable, and courageous, defend themselves with energy,
and do not hesitate to attack much larger birds. They nestle
in holes in walls or trees, on branches of trees, or in cavities in
the ground ; lay numerous eggs, which are of a white colour
spotted or dotted with red or brown. The species which re-
side in the forests move about in troops, often associating with
other species of the same genus, as well as with Kinglets,
Creepers, and Nuthatches.

Although the Jays are comparatively large birds, they bear
a great aflinity to the Tits, both in structure and habits. The
bill of Parus major is extremely similar to that of Garrulus
coeruleus, and blue and grey tints prevail in both genera. The
resemblance of the Tits to the Nuthatches, in form, colour, and
habits, is much more striking ; and their affinity to the Cer-
thiae and Reguli, although much less apparent, is yet not diffi-
cult to be traced. With the genus Mecistura they are also
more intimately allied than with any other. Many authors
consider them as closely connected with the Sparrows, Finches,
and other genera of the Deglubitores, with which they associate
them under the common names of Conirostres, Granivori, and
others of similar import ; but their affinity to these birds is
very remote, insomuch that a person practically acquainted
with them might well marvel at so unnatural an association,
did he not reflect that scarcely any thing is too absurd to re-
ceive the approbation of some ornithologists. The genus Ixos
seems to me to belong to this group ; but Parus pendul'mus,
and P. hiarmicus of the older authors belong to a different
order, the latter being decidedly a Husker.

Six species occur in Britain, and are permanently resident.

425

PARUS FRINGILLAGO. THE OX-EYE TIT.

GREAT TITMOUSE. OX-EYE. GREAT BLACK-HEADED TOM TIT.
BLACK-CAP.

Fig. 181.

Parus major, Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 341.

Parus major. Lath. Ind. Orn. 11. 562.

Great Titmouse. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Mesange Charbonni^re. Parus major. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 287.

Great Titmouse. Parus major. Selb. Illustr. L 233.

Parus major. Great Titmouse. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 12L

The head, fore part of the necJc, a transverse hand on its sides,
and a longitudinal hand on the hreast and ahdomen, hlack ;
cheeks white ; hack yellowish green ; breast and sides yellow.

Male. — The Greater Tit, although the chief of its clan, is a
small bird, not so large as a Robin, but of a stoutish form,
active, lively, and courageous. Its body is short and ovate,
the neck short, the head of moderate size and oblong. The
bill is short, straight, sub-conical, being but little compressed ;
both mandibles with their dorsal outline a little convex, that
of the lower more so, the ridge obtuse, the sides convex, the
edges sharp, the tips rather obtuse but thin-edged. Both man-

426 PARUS FRINGILLAGO.

dibles have internally a median elevated line, that of the upper
divided at the base. The palate is flat ; the posterior aperture
of the nares linear, and edged with papillae. The tongue is
short, of nearly equal breadth in its whole length, sagittate at
the base, the tip truncate and terminated by four bristles. The
oesophagus is of nearly uniform diameter, without dilatation,
of moderate width, two inches long ; the proventriculus with
short glandules. The stomach is roundish, a little compressed,
seven-twelfths long, its muscular coat rather thin, its tendons
round, the cuticular lining rugous. The intestine is six inches
long, of moderate width ; the coeca cylindrical, a twelfth and
a half long.

The eyes are small, their aperture measuring a twelfth and
a half ; that of the ears two and a half twelfths. The feet are of
moderate length, and rather stout ; the tarsus compressed ; with
seven anterior scutella ; the toes rather large, compressed ;
the first much stouter, with eight scutella, the second with
ten, the third thirteen, the fourth twelve scutella ; the second
considerably shorter than the fourth. The claws are long,
much compressed, laterally grooved, arched, very acute, that of
the hind toe much larger.

The plumage is very soft and blended, more dense and
glossy on the head, downy on the rump and middle of the back,
where it is very much elongated. The wings are of moderate
length, curved, broad, much rounded, of nineteen quills ; the
first very short, the second four twelfths of an inch shorter than
the third, which is one twelfth shorter than the fourth, and
not quite so long as the fifth, which is but slightly longer than
the sixth ; the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth, are slightly cut
out on the outer web. All the quills are rounded, but the
secondaries have a slight acumen. The wings when closed
extend to one third of the length of the tail. The tail is rather
long, slightly rounded, of twelve narrow slightly arched, rounded
feathers.

The bill is black, its edges dusky horn-colour. The irides
are brown. The tarsi and toes greyish-blue, the claws dark-
brown. The feathers of the head and fore part of the neck are
black, glossed with blue ; that colour also forms a transverse

THE OX-EYE TIT. 427

band on the side of the neck, behind the white patch on the
cheek and ear-coverts, and extends along the middle of the
thorax in a broadish band, which expands on the abdonxen.
The posterior cervical and anterior dorsal feathers are yellowish-
green, that colour fading into pale greyish-blue on the hind
part of the back. There are a few white feathers on the nape.
The smaller wing-coverts are pale blue, the secondary coverts
tipped with white ; the quills dark greyish brown, margined
internally with white, externally with pale blue, excepting the
third, fourth, fifth, and sixth, which are white on the abbrevi-
ated part, and the inner three which are yellow ; all the quills
are slightly tipped with white, except the first three. The
tail-feathers are dark greyish-brown, their outer webs greyish-
blue ; the outer web and tip of the lateral feather, and a spot
on the tip of the next, white. The sides are greenish-yellow ;
the lower tail-coverts and wing-coverts white. The concealed
parts of the plumage dark.

Length to end of tail 6j inches ; extent of wings 10 ; wing
from flexure 3 ; tail 2^o ; bill along the ridge j%, along the
edge of lower mandible j'^g ' tarsus i| ; hind toe ^^g, its claw j% ;
second toe /^, its claw |% ; third toe j%, its claw ^^ ; fourth
toe j^g, its claw |*g.

Female. — In the female the distribution of colours is the
same. The yellow of the breast and sides is less bright, the
greyish-blue of the rump less pure, the black band on the
breast duller and narrower, and the black less extended on the
abdomen.

Length to end of tail 5f inches ; extent of wings 9 5.

Variations. — In adult birds I have not observed any re-
markable deviations from the colours as above described.

Changes of Plumage. — The changes caused by the action of
the atmosphere and friction are not very perceptible in this or
the other species, the tints being merely rendered duller, and
the light edgings of the quills obliterated.

Habits. — This species, which, like all the rest, is very active

428 PARUS FRINGILLAGO.

and lively, seldom appears in greater numbers than two or
three, and is not only less social than the other Tits with re-
spect to its own kind, but also with respect to its congeners ;
not, however, that it does not occasionally keep company with
some of them. In winter it frequents woods and thickets, not
seeming to give a decided preference to any particular species
of trees, and often makes its appearance in gardens, where how-
ever it does not take up its residence. Its food consists of in-
sects, pupae, larvse, buds, and seeds of various kinds, in search
of which it sometimes betakes itself to the ground. It is chiefly
on trees however that it is seen, and there it hops and skips
with great alacrity, manifesting a constant cheerfulness, stand-
ing and hanging in every variety of position, and continually
fluttering about in search of food in the crevices of the bark,
and among the buds and leaves. Its flight is usually short,
being merely from tree to tree, and is performed by a continu-
ous flutter of the wings ; but when necessary it can accomplish
a pretty extended excursion, and then it flies with considerable
undulation. It is not particularly shy, but may be easily ap-
proached within shot, although it is rather more observant of
intruders upon its haunts than the other species of the genus,
which, like the Kinglets, are remarkably inattentive to appear-
ances of danger.

The ordinary cry of this beautiful bird is a loud cheep,
followed by a harsh chatter which may be supposed to be
represented by chir, r, r, r, 7\ iJc. In spring and the early
part of summer its notes bear some resemblance to the
sounds produced by a file in sharpening the teeth of a saw,
and may be syllabled into tee-fa, tee-ta, tee-ta, tee-ta, tee-ta.
They are very loud for a bird of so small a size, and may be
heard distinctly, in calm weather, at the distance of about
eight hundred paces.

" Its spring notes,"" Mr Hepburn writes me, " are first heard
about the beginning of March, and continued till the middle
of May. In April 1839 I pursued one of these birds through
a narrow plantation. The first note I heard was that oiclmr-r-r,
then chir-r-r ; it then imitated very exactly the twink of the
Chafiinch, the alarm notes of the Robin and Wren, and the
doleful ditty of the Yellow Bunting ; next it produced a note

THE OX-EYE TIT. 429

of its own, which it repeated incessantly, as it sported amongst
the boughs of an old ash ; then it seemed to forget this note,
and emitted another, which also was soon forgotten ; and again,
as if tired of its own compositions, it essayed those of its more
musical brethren. This Titmouse was a great nuisance to me
when I began to study ornithology, often leading me astray by
his silly productions, which I thought were the notes of some
bird new to me."

I have remarked, in speaking of the affinities of the genus,
that the Tits are nearly allied to the Jays. This species, being
the largest, exhibits the relationship in a more remarkable de-
gree than the rest, not only in form, but also in manners. Thus,
it is in a manner omnivorous, for, not content with seeds, in-
sects, and larvae, it eats the flesh of birds or quadrupeds, and,
according to many respectable writers, sometimes attacks small
or young birds, and splits their skull with its bill. Seeds of
cereal plants and others, it husks by repeated strokes of the bill,
and therefore no more resembles the Deglubitores in this re-
spect, than it does in its organization. When wounded and
laid hold of, it bites most vigorously ; and should its nest be
attacked by other birds, it defends it with great energy.

The nest is placed in the hole of a wall, or in a cavity formed
expressly in the wood of a decayed tree. Mr Selby states that
he has " seen it repeatedly engaged in this task, and admired
the rapidity with which the work advanced."" ISIontagu has
known it " deposit its eggs in the hole of a decayed tree upon
the rotten wood, without the least appearance of a nest ;" but,
usually, the nest is composed of moss, and lined with hair and
feathers. One in my possession, taken from the cavity of a
tree, is rather bulky, but loosely constructed ; its base and ex-
terior formed of moss and fragments of decayed leaves, the next
layer of fibres of inner bark, flaxen filaments, some worsted
threads, a quantity of ravelled cotton thread, and hair of vari-
ous kinds ; while the lining is of wool, horse hair, bristles, and
large feathers. The eggs are about six, of an elongated oval
form, nine twelfths of an inch long, seven twelfths broad, bluish-
white, marked with roundish and oblong pale red spots and dots.
As Montagu has remarked, they are " so exactly like those of

430 PARUS FRINGILLAGO.

the Nuthatch as not to be distinguished." Indeed the Nut-
hatch is most intimately allied to the Tits in more important
matters, both its form and habits being very similar.

The Great Titmouse is generally distributed in the wooded
and cultivated districts, both in England and in Scotland ; but
is rare in the northern parts of the latter country. It is resi-
dent with us, but shifts about from place to place in the winter
season. On the Continent it is said to occur as far north as
Norway, Sweden, and Siberia, and to extend to its southern
boundaries.

Young. — When fiilly fledged, the young resemble the adult,
but have the tints much duller, and the dark medial band on
the breast less extended.

Remarks. — All the Tits have a kind of broad festoon on the
edge of the mandible, beneath the nostrils, and this species,
being the largest, shews it more conspicuously.

431

PARUS C(ERULEUS. THE BLUE TIT.

BLUE TITMOUSE. TOMTIT. BLUE-CAP. BLUE-BONNET. HICK-MALL.
BILLY-BITER. OX-EYE.

Fig. 182.

Parus coeruleus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 341.

Parus coeruleus. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 566.

Blue Titmouse. Mont. Orn. Diet.

M^sange bleue. Parus coeruleus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 289.

Blue Titmouse. Parus coeruleus. Selb. lUustr. I. 235.

Parus coeruleus. Blue Titmouse. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 122.

Upper part of the head light blue encircled with white, a hand
round the neck, and the spaces before and behind the eye of a
duller blue, the cheeks white, the back light yellowish-green, the
lower parts pale greyish-yellow, the middle of the breast dull blue.

Male. — The Blue Tit is the most familiar, perhaps the most
lively species of the genus, and by many is considered as the
most beautiful. It is of a remarkably short and compact form,
its head large and rounded, its bill very short, strong, com-
pressed, both its outlines convex, the ridge blunt, the sides
convex, the edges of the lower mandible a little inflected, the
tips rather obtuse. Both mandibles are concave within, the
upper with a central prominent line, which is grooved at the
base, two lateral ridges, and four grooves, the lower also with
a central prominent line. The oesophagus, PI. XIII. Fig. 9,

432 PARUS CCERULEUS.

bed, is an inch and a half long, its greatest diameter nearly a
twelfth and a half; the stomach, Fig. 10, irregularly elliptical,
compressed, scarcely six twelfths long ; the intestine, fg h ij,
five inches and a quarter, the diameter of its duodenal portion
a twelfth and a half, the coeca, Fig. 11, one twelfth long, and
three fourths of an inch from the extremity ; the rectum two
twelfths in width, and enlarging to three twelfths.

The eyes are of moderate size, the eyelids feathered. The
aperture of the ear large. The tongue short, emarginate and
papillate at the base, flat, horny, and thin-edged towards the
tip, which is abrupt, and terminated by four bristles. The
feet are rather short and strong ; the tarsus with seven anterior
scutella; the toes strong, the first much stouter, the three an-
terior united as far as the second joint, the two lateral nearly
equal, the first with six, the second with eight, the third
twelve, the fourth ten scutella. The claws arched, much com-
pressed, deep, laterally grooved, acute.

The plumage is soft, blended, and tufty, especially that of
the back. The wings are of moderate length, rounded, of nine-
teen quills, which are decurved ; the primaries rounded, the
first less than half the length of the second, the fourth and
fifth equal and longest, the third and sixth equal and slightly
shorter, the second as long as the eighth. The tail is rather
long, narrow, a little decurved, and slightly emarginate, of twelve
narrow, weak feathers, which are rounded and acuminate.

The bill is dusky, its edges horn-colour. The iris brown.
The feet greyish-blue, the claws brownish. The upper part of
the head is light blue ; the anterior part of the forehead, and
a band encircling the head, white. A line of dusky blue passes
from the bill to the eye, and another from it to the occiput,
where it meets a band of dark blue, which curves behind the
auriculars, and meets on the throat, which is blackish-blue.
The cheeks are white. Behind the blue collar, the back of
the neck is bluish- white. The back is pale yellowish-green,
tinged with blue, the rump lighter and faintly mottled with
whitish. The smaller wing-coverts are light blue, the secon-
dary coverts the same, tipped with white ; the quills, primary
coverts, and alula, are greyish-brown, broadly margined ex-

BLUE TIT. 433

ternally with light blue, internally with whitish ; the first two
primaries without the blue edging, the next five white on the
edge towards the end, the secondary quills tipped with white.
The tail is light blue, the feathers becoming tinged with dusky
towards the tip, the outer with its margin white. The fore-
neck, breast and sides are pale greenish-yellow, the middle of
the breast dull blackish-blue, the abdomen whitish. The con-
cealed part of the plumage is blackish-blue.

Length to end of tail 4| inches; extent of wings 7f ; wing
from flexure 2^ ; tail 2/g ; bill along the ridge /g, along the
edge of lower mandible i% ; tarsus -^^ ; first toe /g, its claw
^^ ; second toe ^^|, its claw ^\ ; third toe ^^|, its claw ^^ ;
fourth toe i\, its claw j|.

Female. — The female is a little smaller than the male, and
much less brightly coloured, the blue tints being tinged with
grey, the yellow of the lower parts fainter and less pure, and
the dark patch on the breast of less extent.

Length to end of tail 4x'^^ inches ; extent of wings 7^ •

Variations. — Individuals vary considerably as to size. Those
above described were " fine specimens," but those of somewhat
less dimensions are more frequent. The tints also vary in depth
and purity ; but I have not met with any " accidental" changes
of colour.

Changes of Plumage. — In the end of autumn, as in the
other species, the plumage is complete and as described ; but
towards the period of moulting it fades, often in a very re-
markable manner.

Habits. — About the middle of autumn, when the cares and
pleasures of rearing their young are over, the Blue Tits are
seen to approach the houses, and resort to the gardens and
orchards. Some of them, it is true, reside in such places all
summer ; but by much the greater number are then dispersed
among the woods and thickets. There it is, perched on a twig
of the apple-tree, not standing, for you rarely can see it sta-

VOL. II. F F

434 PARUS CCERULEUS.

tionary for a moment, but frisking about with a jerking motion,
searching all the little chinks and crannies, pecking at the back of
the leaves, or among the young buds, now hanging with its
back downward, now bobbing on the top branch, anon pivot-
ing from side to side, erecting the feathers of its head, and
ehurring its little objurgatory cry. It is obviously a pert, au-
dacious, and irritable little thing. Now it flies to the ground,
picks the seeds of the chickweed and other plants, or feasts on
the peas, boldly advancing among the sparrows, and little heed-
ing your presence. If you happen to be sulky or moody, look on ;
you cannot fail to be cheered and soothed by the sight ; so
lively, merry, and frisky a creature, must needs divert you ;
and, be sure, you will be more innocently employed in watch-
ing it than in admiring the most graceful figurante displaying
her marvellous acquirements to a crowd of cockneys. Tom-tit
is no actor, but an original, and a very clever one withal.

In winter it may be occasionally seen about the farm-yard,
where it finds, when other food fails, a wholesome supply of
oat or wheat seeds, which it jerks from their husks, with its
wedge-like bill. It also frequents the doors and dunghills, to
pick up a bit of suet, or nibble a morsel of flesh ; and where
carrion is kept, it is often seen to help itself to a share. Often
at this season too you may find it clinging to a wall, and digging
at the loose plaster, to get at the insects or pupas concealed be-
hind. It will even make occasional excursions into the stubble
near hedges or woods ; and, in short, being in a manner omni-
vorous, it manages to get through the cold j)art of the year as
well as its neighbours. It is accused of attacking other small
birds, and splitting their skulls ; but I have neither seen it do
so, nor met with any person who has ; and we know how,
when an assertion of any kind, however incredible, has been
made, all the ornithologists catch the cry. It reposes in holes
in walls, or among ivy, and seems to suffer less in severe frosts
than most birds.

In spring, it still makes excursions into gardens, where it
often demolishes the expanding buds of trees, probably to ob-
tain the larvag contained in them. At this season, it becomes
rather noisy, and emits a variety of cries, of which the most

BLUE TIT. 435

common and most remarkable may be syllabled into something
like cMcka, chicka, chicTca, chee, chee. It places its nest in the
chink of a wall, or under the eaves or thatch, or in a hole in a
tree. It is composed externally of moss, grass, and wool, and
lined with hair and feathers. The eggs are numerous ; some
authors having made them amount to twenty, while others
allege that they are not more than from six to eight. Mon-
tagu states that he never found more than the latter number,
and Mr Neville Wood considers twelve as the maximum ; but,
on this subject I cannot speak with certainty. They are of a
regular oval form, averaging in length seven and a half twelfths,
and in breadth six, of a slightly reddish-white colour, marked
all over with irregular small spots of light red. The female
will sometimes remain on the nest even when a person intro-
duces his hand, which it pecks, emitting a hissing noise, and
the male displays much courage in defence of the young, at-
tacking birds of prey, magpies, thrushes, and other susj)icious
strollers. In these respects, it greatly resembles the Nuthatch,
which is closely allied to this family.

The ordinary flight of the Blue Tit is direct and rapid, being
executed by continued quick flaps ; but when protracted, it is
somewhat undulated.

From the habit which this species frequently exhibits of
clinging to walls for the purpose of seizing the insects that
harbour in them, its claws are sometimes much worn. A very
remarkable instance of this I have at present in my left hand,
being an individual presented to me by Mr Carfrae, in which
all the claws are quite abrupt or truncated, a large portion of
their extremities having been rubbed off.

Mr Knap, in his justly popular Journal of a Naturalist, has
the following interesting notice respecting this species. " I
was lately exceedingly pleased in witnessing the maternal care
and intelligence of this bird ; for the poor thing had its young
ones in the hole of a wall, and the nest had been nearly all
drawn out of the crevice by the paw of a cat, and part of its
brood devoured. In revisiting its family, the bird discovered
a portion of it remaining, though wrapped up and hidden in
the tangled moss and feathers of their bed, and it then drew

436 PARUS CCERULEUS.

the whole of the nest back into the place from whence it had
been taken, unrolled and resettled the remaining little ones,
fed them with the usual attentions, and finally succeeded in
rearing them. The parents of even this reduced family la-
boured with great perseverance to supply its wants, one or the
other of them bringing a grub, caterpillar, or some insect, at
intervals of less than a minute through the day, and probably
in the earlier part of the morning more frequently ; but if we
allow that they brought food to the hole every minute for four-
teen hours, and provided for their own wants also, it will ad-
mit of perhaps a thousand grubs a day for the requirements of
one, and that a diminished brood ; and gives us some compre-
hension of the infinite number requisite for the summer nutri-
ment of our soft-billed birds, and the great distances gone over
by such as have young ones, in their numerous trips from hedge
to tree in the hours specified, when they have full broods to
support."

When searching for food upon the twigs of trees, creeping,
clinging, jerking, and fluttering, in the society of its fellows, it
emits a very feeble and shrill cheep at intervals. If alarmed,
or disposed to fly to another tree, it may be seen perching for a
moment, raising itself up, and erecting the feathers of its head.
Emitting a cry in some degree represented by the syllable
cMr-r-r-i\ it then bounces ofl", and alights elsewhere, to pursue
its avocations. In winter it is very frequently seen in hedges,
whether high or low, and occasionally alights on the gTOund.
I am not inclined to think that it eats the buds of trees and
shrubs at that season, for, on opening its stomach, I have com-
monly found it to contain slender white larvse about four
twelfths of an inch long.

" Of all the birds which frequent our woods during winter,"
says Mr Hepburn, " the beautiful Blue Tit is my chief fa-
vourite. He seems to have no leisure time, but is ever on the
move, searching for food, and in so doing conferring important
benefits on man. At present (the beginning of April) they
seem to frequent the elm in preference to all other trees. For
four successive days in the middle of December last, five of
these birds were sporting all day long on a row of tall old wil-

BLUE TIT. 437

low trees near our garden. They frequently opened and shut
their win^s like the Hedsje Chanter. When saunterins alone
through the pathless copse, where the loveliest flowers are
spread around, and no sounds are heard save the hum of insects
or the murmur of the brook, the wanderer is apt to indulge in
solemn thoughts and sylvan dreams ; but the joyous chir-r-r of
the Blue Tit recalls his scattered thoughts, and he beholds with
admiration its singular and often graceful postures, as it examines
the very extremities of the smallest twigs. It has just finished its
survey of the upper bark of that branch of the old moss-clad
oak, and now poising itself on the very edge it examines the
lower surface, when perceiving a likely crevice, it utters a cry
of joy, springs into it, and instantly begins its attack. Now
with great labour it has disengaged a piece of rotten wood, and
tries to separate the larvce from it ; but finding the cavity too
small for this purpose, mounts aloft, fixes the piece of wood
between its claws, and pecks until its efiorts are crowned with
success. With a joyous cry it again descends, and continues
picking out the larvae, which are now exposed, until, satisfied
that none remain, it bounds off to rejoin its companions.
When the ground is covered with snow, the Blue Tits flock to
our garden and stack-yard. In the former, the fruit trees and
the crannies in the fruit-wall attract their attention ; and in
the latter they cling to the thatch and sides of stacks. Even in
open weather, I have observed this bird examining the horso
droppings on the road. Several years ago I saw it descend
on the pieces of beef and mutton exposed at the door of a
butcher's shop in Haddington. On the 8th of May (1838) I
observed a pair building in a pollard ash in one of our fields.
When the young are abroad, they even frequent our closely
switched hedges, but their favourite haunts are thickets, copses,
tall hedge-rows, gardens, and woods."

The Blue Tit, with the Coal Tit, the Greater Tit, and the
Gold-crest, are among the few birds that in winter may be
found traversing in bands the woods and copses, as well as the
patches of juniper, furze, or broom, of the wildest parts of the
hilly regions of the country. It is generally dispersed, per-
manently resident, and very abundant in most districts.

438 PARUS C(ERULEUS.

Ml* Weir has favoured me with the following observations
relative to the feeding of its young : — " On Tuesday morning,
the -ith of July 1837, at a quarter past two o'clock, I went out
to observe the Titmice feeding their brood. It was a most de-
lightful and calm summer morning. It is then, and only then,
that we can form any conception of our British songsters, for
then only they pour forth their notes with redoubled vigour.
With their melody the wdiole air seemed to resound. About
a quarter past four o'clock, this music so enchanting gradually
died away, and all was again mute. In life, however, our
pleasures are often intermixed with pain, for the midges, those
poisonous little insects, gave me much annoyance.

" At half-past three o'clock in the morning, the birds began
to feed their young, which were six in number. From that
time until four o'clock they fed them twelve times, and from
four to five o'clock twenty-five times. From five to six o'clock
they fed them forty times, which was astonishing, as, during
the whole of this hour they flew to a plantation at the distance
of more than one hundred and fifty yards from their nest.
From six to seven o'clock they fed them twenty-nine times.
During a part of this hour they flew in every minute. From
seven to eight o'clock they fed them twenty times. During
this hour it rained very heavily. From eight to nine o'clock
they fed them thirty-six times, and from nine to ten o'clock
forty-six times. During a part of this last hour, they fed them
twelve times in five minutes. From ten to eleven o'clock they
fed them thirty-seven times, and from eleven to twelve o'clock
thirty-nine times, and from twelve to one o'clock twenty-four
times. From one to two o'clock they fed them twenty-three
times, and from two to three o'clock thirty-four times, and from
three to four o'clock eighteen times. From four to five o'clock
they fed them twenty-nine times, and from five to six o'clock
twenty-five times, and from six to seven o'clock twenty times,
and from seven to half-past eight o'clock twenty-five times.
They now stopped, after having been almost incessantly en-
gaged for nearly seventeen hours in their labours of love, and
after having fed their young 475 times ! They appeared to feed
them solely with caterpillars ; sometimes they brought in a

BLUE TIT. 439

single large one, and at other times two or three small ones.
It is therefore impossible to say how many had been carried in
by them during the day." If we admire the industry and un-
wearied perseverance of these little birds, stimulated and sus-
tained by parental affection, we may, I think, still more admire
the patience and resolution of their observer.

YouxG. — When fully fledged, the young have the bill light
yellowish-brown, the feet dull bluish-grey, the claws like the
bill. The upper part of the head, a band from the eye to the
hind-neck, and a ring on the neck, broader behind, are dull
light bluish-grey ; part of the forehead, a streak over the eye,
extended to the occiput, w^here it meets that of the other side,
a band across the lower part of the hind-neck, the cheeks,
throat, and lower parts dull yellow, tinged wnth grey on the
sides and abdomen. The back and scapulars are light green,
with a grey tinge ; the quills, their coverts, and the tail-
feathers, are greyish-blue ; the secondary coverts tipped with
yellow, the primaries narrowly edged with greyish-white, the
secondaries broadly with light-green, and tipped with yel-
lowish-white.

Progress Tow^\RD Maturity. — After their first autumnal
moult, the young resemble the adult, as is the case with all the
other species.

440

PAllUS ATER. THE COAL TIT.

COAL TITMOUSE.

Fig. 183.

Parus ater. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 341.

Parus ater. Lath. Ind. Orn. TL 564.

Cole Titmouse. Mont. Orn. Diet.

M^sange petite cliarbonniere. Parus ater. Temra. Man. d'Orn. I. 288.

Cole Titmouse. Parus ater. Selb. Illustr. I. 239.

Parus ater. Cole Titmouse. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 123.

The head and neck glossy bluish-hlack^ with a broad patch of
white on the cheek and side of the neck^ and a large spot on the
nape ; hack grey, breast white^ hind 'parts brownish-yellow ; two
white bars on the icing.

Male. — The Coal Tit is the smallest British species of the
genus, and indeed the least of our native birds excepting the
Mufflin, the Kinglets, and the Creeper. In form it is so very
similar to the Blue Tit and other species, as to render a minute
description unnecessary. The bill is longer and more slender
than that of the Blue Tit, and although more resembling that
of the Great Tit, proportionally narrower. The upper man-
dible is internally concave, but flattened, with a central pro-
minent line, which is also seen in the lower. The tongue is
nearly linear, thinnish, short, subsagittate at the base, abrupt
at the end, with four terminal bristles, the two middle ones
longer. The oesophagus, Plate XIII. Fig. 12, abed, is an

COAL TIT. 441

inch and a half long ; the stomach, d ef, roundish, compressed,
five twelfths of an inch in length ; the intestine, fg h ij, four
inches and three fourths long, the diameter of the duodenal
portion a twelfth and a half. The oesophagus is of uniform
width, its diameter one twelfth of an inch, the proventriculua
little larger ; the posterior muscle of the stomach is longer than
the anterior, the lower muscle distinct, and the inner coat
longitudinally rugous ; the coeca, ^, only half a twelfth long.

The plumage is blended, being soft and tufty, the feathers
of ordinary length, excepting on the back, where they form a
downy bunch of extraordinary length, as in most of the other
species ; those on the upper part of the head rather compact
and glossy. The wings are semiovate, convex, rounded ; the
quills nineteen, slender, the secondaries rather short ; the first
quill about a third of the length of the fourth and fifth, which
are longest, the third and sixth very little shorter, the second
three -twelfths of an inch shorter than the third ; the third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth slightly cut out externally. The wings
when closed reach to the middle of the tail, which, on account
of the comparative shortness of the rump feathers seems to
come off abruptly, and is longish, slender, a little emarginate,
of twelve narrow, rounded, slightly arched feathers.

The bill is black, with the edges inclining to horn-colour.
The iris dusky. The feet and claws livid blue. The head and
neck are deep black, the former glossed with blue ; a patch of
white on each side covers the cheek and side of the neck, and
there is another on the back of the neck. The back is yellowish-
grey, its hind part brownish-yellow ; the breast and belly
greyish-white, shaded on the sides and behind into brownish-
yellow. The quills and tail are brownish-grey, the former mar-
gined externally with yellowish-grey, internally with greyish-
white ; the latter with greenish ; the secondary coverts and the
first row of small coverts tipped with greyish-white. The con-
cealed part of the plumage is blackish -blue.

Length to end of tail 4^ inches ; extent of wings 7i% ; wing
from flexure 2/2 ^ tail l^i ; bill along the ridge y^, along the
edge of lower mandible -^\ ; tarsus i\ ; first toe y*^, its claw y% ;
second toe ^^^ its claw y% ; third toe {'^, its claw ^^ ; fourth
toe /g, its claw y'|.

442 PARUS ATER.

Female. — The female does not differ from the male in any
very perceptible degree, and cannot be distinguished otherwise
than by dissection.

Length to end of tail 4g: inches ; extent of wings 7/^.

Changes. — When the plumage is new, towards the begin-
ning of winter, all the feathers of the back are tinged at the
tips with brownish-yellow ; but in summer when the tips are
worn that part is bluish-grey. At the former period the fea-
thers of the lower part of the fore-neck are tipped with white,
but at the latter they are of a uniform black.

Habits. — The Coal Tit, partly on account of its diminutive
size, and partly from its haunts, is little apt to attract the no-
tice of the urban admirer of nature. It is seldom met with in
gardens, or in woods in the immediate vicinity of houses, al-
though I have several times seen it there, its favourite abode
being in forests and plantations of fir and pines, where it wan-
ders about in troops, often composed of a great number of in-
dividuals. In England it is not so abundant as the Blue Tit,
or even as the ISIarsh Tit ; but in Scotland, where the wild
woods and plantations are in many districts of vast extent, it is
much more numerous than either. Indeed, there is scarcely a fir
wood in any part of that country, in which it is not to be met
with.

Not only is the Coal Tit a social bird with respect to its own
species, but its flocks are very rarely unmixed with individuals of
other species, especially the Long-tailed JNIufilin, and Blue Tit ;
and, having in all respects a great similarity in habits and pur-
suits to the Gold-crest, it very frequently associates with it. In
the pine forests on the Dee and the Spey, where very few birds
are met with, it is pleasant to follow a troop of these tiny crea-
tures, as they search the tree tops, spreading all round, flut-
tering and creeping among the branches, ever in motion, now
clinging to a twig in an inverted position, now hovering over a
tuft of leaves, picking in a crevice of the bark, searching all the
branches, sometimes visiting the lowermost, and again winding
among those at the very tops of the trees. In wandering among
these woods you are attracted by their shrill cheeping notes,

COAL TIT. 443

which they continually emit as they flutter among the branches;
and few persons thus falling in with a flock, can help standing
still to watch their motions for a while. Even the geologist,
bent with a heavy load of granite chips, pondering on cata-
clysms, central fire, convulsions, and revolutions, and dreaming
of the overturning of the primeval forests and their conversion
into beds of coal, looks up and admires the busy creatures,
whose thoughtless glee has disturbed the workings of the
mighty genius which had almost completed the creation of a
world.

But it is not in fir woods only that it occurs, but also in those
of birch, oak, and alder ; and to study its habits, or procure
specimens, you need not make a journey to the desert, for you
will find it in almost every plantation on the skirts of the most
cultivated tracts. There is no part of Scotland in which I have
not met with it, excepting the treeless tracts and islands, in
which birds of sylvan habits cannot find subsistence. In the
southern division, in the counties of Dumfries, Selkirk, Peebles.,
and the Lothians, it is as numerous as in the northern. It
feeds entirely on insects, especially small coleoptera, pup?e, and
larvae, in pursuit of which it sometimes descends to the ground,
and not unfrequently to a shrub, while both it and its frequent
companion the Gold-crest sometimes betake themselves to
thickets of broom and whin. I have never found any sand or
gravel in its stomach, and it is probable that the elytra of the
coleoptera which form the principal part of its food are suffi-
cient for grinding it down.

Its flight is short, even, and produced by a continued flutter.
When searching for food it now and then emits a single sharp
cheeping note ; but on other occasions, especially in spring, it
has a loud clear cry, resembling the syllables che-chee, che-chee^
which may be heard nearly to as great a distance as that of the
Great Tit. In winter, most of the individuals that have passed
the summer in the higher parts of the country, descend into
the valleys and plains, and sometimes approach farm-houses
and towns, seeking for food on trees of all kinds. In summer
they are dispersed among the woods, where, on account of the
dense foliage, it is difficult to trace them, unless they be of fir

444 PARUS ATER.

or pine, of which the summer dress is not different from that
of winter.

" In woodlands," says Mr Hepburn, " it is common to see
it hopping on the ground, and uttering its harsh notes, if-hee,
if-hee. It delights to examine a ditch that has just been cleaned
out. I have seen it pull small earth-worms to pieces and de-
vour them. I have heard this bird compound a note, which
it repeated for twenty minutes or so, and then seem to forget
it. The young are fledged in the beginning of July.""

The nest, which is placed in the hole or crevice of a wall or
decayed tree, is composed of moss intermixed with the hair of
various animals, and with a lining of wool and hair. The
eggs are from five to eight, seven-twelfths long, nearly six-
twelfths in breadth, white, with light red spots and dots.

Young. — The young differ from the adult only in having
the tints duller.

445

PARUS PALUSTRIS. THE MARSH TIT.

MAUSH TITMOUSE. BLACK-HEADED TOMTIT

Parus palustris. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 341.

Parus palustris. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 565,

Marsh Tit. Mont. Orn. Diet.

M^sange nonnette. Parus palustris. Temm. Man. d'Orn. L 291.

Marsh Tit. Parus palustris. Selb. lUustr. I. 237.

Parus palustris. Marsh Tit. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 123.

The head and throat brownish-black, a broad patch of greyish-
ichite on the cheek and side of the neck; back greyish-brown,
lower parts brownish-yellow (no ichite on the nape or wing-coverts
as in the Coal Tit).

Male. — The Marsh Tit is considerably larger than the Coal
Tit, from which, although very similar in colour, it is readily
distinguishable, by the dull or brownish black colour of the
head, and the want of the white patch so conspicuous on the
nape of that species. The bill is very similar to that of the last
species. The tarsi are of moderate length, stout, with eight dis-
tinct scutella, the hind claw very strong, and the anterior toes
much larger than those of the Coal Tit. The plumage is blended,
very soft and tufty, the feathers much elongated on the hind part
of the back. The wings are semiovate, convex, rounded, and of

446 PARCS PALUSTRIS.

moderate length ; the quills nineteen, slender ; the first about
half the length of the second, which is about the same length
as the ninth, the fourth longest, but very little exceeding the
fifth. The tail is rather long, slender, a little emarginate as
well as rounded, the feathers pointed.

The bill is black, the iris dark brown ; the feet and claws
livid-blue. The uj)per part of the head, and the hind part of
the neck are black, with a tinge of brown ; the cheeks and
sides of the neck greyish-white ; the back, scajDulars, and up-
per tail-coverts, greyish-brown, with a tinge of green ; the
quills, their coverts, and the tail-feathers dark brownish-grey,
margined with yellowish grey, the secondary quills with yel-
lowish-brown, the outer tail-feathers having their outer webs
paler. The throat and fore-neck are greyish-black, the feathers
tipped with greyish- white ; the rest of the lower parts brownish-
white, with a tinge of yellow.

Length to end of tail 4^ inches ; hill along the ridge j^^ ;
wing from flexure 2j% ; tail 2^% ; tarsus j§ ; hind toe /^ ;
its claw 1% ; second toe j%, its claw j% ; third toe ^-^, its claw
^ ; fourth toe |tj, its claw /g.

Female. — The female differs from the male only in having
the colours somewhat duller, especially the black tints, which
are more tinged with brown.

Habits. — This species is not nearly so common in the
southern districts of Scotland as the Coal Tit, and I am not
aware of its having been met with farther north than Fifeshire,
although it may be more generally distributed than is supposed,
it being very liable to be confounded with the species just
named, although easily distinguishable by a person acquainted
with its characters, and somewhat different in its habits. In
England it has been traced from the northern counties to those
about London, and appears to be in some districts more abun-
dant than the Coal Tit. Although named the Marsh Tit, it
does not confine itself to marshy places, but examines the trees
and bushes growing in the driest soil as readily as those of
swampy ground ; and I have seen it alight on herbaceous

MARSH TIT. 447

plants, especially thistles. Its flight is rapid and undulated,
all its motions are quick and abrupt, and it creeps along the
twigs, flutters, and throws itself into all sorts of positions, just
like the other species. Its food consists chiefly of insects, but
in autumn and winter it also eats the seeds of various syngenesian
and other plants, and will pick at the flesh of a dead animal.
It remains all the year with us, and does not seem to shift its
quarters much. Its ordinary cry is a shrill cheep, but it also
emits a variety of chattering notes, and in spring has a kind of
song which may be expressed by the syllables cliicJca^ chicka^
chee. Toward the end of that season, the little flocks disperse,
separate from the individuals of the other species with which
they have associated in winter, and betake themselves to the
dense woods, or the marshy wooded borders of streams and
pools, the chief attraction to which seems to be the decayed
willows, of which the crevices afford an abundant supply of
insect food.

The nest is generally placed in the hole of a decayed tree,
which the bird has enlarged for the purpose, and is composed
of moss, wool, hair, and vegetable fibres interwoven, and lined
with the seed down of willows and syngenesian plants. The
eggs, from five to seven or eight in number, are from seven
and a quarter to nearly eight twelfths in length, six twelfths in
breadth, oval, and of a white colour, marked all over with
small spots and dots of light red. The same anxiety about its
eggs or young is manifested by this as by the other species of
the genus. It is remarkable that the Tits should be so late in
breeding, the young of this and the last species not being gene-
rally abroad until the end of July, at which time even nests
with eggs have been obtained.

Montagu states that he has " seen it excavating the decayed
part of the willow, carrying the chips in its bill to some dis-
tance, always working downwards, making the bottom for the
reception of the nest larger than the entrance. The nest is
composed of moss and thistledown, sometimes a little wool,
and lined with the down of the thistle." " All the species of
Tits," he observes, " whose eggs are known, are similar in
colour, and only to be distinguished from each other by size

448 PARUS PALUSTRIS.

and weight. Those of the nuthatch, creeper, wren, yellow-
wren, wood-wren and chiflf-chafF, all agree in their markings,
and are so like those of the Titmice that it is scarcely possible
to separate them with certainty, if once mixed together. It is
somewhat remarkable, all these birds breed in holes, or make
a covered nest."

As this bird is not often met with in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, I desired my friend Mr Weir to make as many
observations respecting its habits as he could, and the result
has been the following notice, which is not less interesting than
the many others with which this volume is enriched.

" In this neighbourhood the Marsh Titmice are seldom seen.
During the long period of fourteen years I have known only
two of their nests. On the 22d of July 1838, I discovered one
of them in which were five young ones. It was built in the
hole of the trunk of an old and decayed Scotch fir, which was
standing in the middle of a plantation. The ground round it
was very swampy, I have sent you the nest and part of the
tree, as you will describe its structure better than I can.

" On the morning of the 22d of July I watched the old ones
for a considerable time. During the course of an hour, they
fed their brood, which were about seven days old, generally
eighteen, nineteen, and twenty times. Their food consisted of
caterpillars. When I went near their abode, the female came
within fifteen or twenty yards of me, but the male was very
shy, and remained at a considerable distance.

" In the same plantation, on Saturday the 28th of July, in
the hole of the trunk of an old tree excavated by the Titmice
nearly in the same way as the former one, I discovered a nest
with five eggs, which were white with reddish-brown spots,
most numerous towards the larger end. I put her out of it,
to examine them ; she was however so shy that she did not re-
turn, which is not the case with the other members of this
family.'"

The portion of the tree bfought to me by Mr Weir has a
diameter of seven inches. It is in a state of decay, the wood
being of a brownish-yellow colour, soft, and friable, but still
enclosed by the equally decayed bark. There are two verticils

MARSH TIT. 449

of branches, ten inches distant ; at the base of the upper of
which, between the roots of two of the branches, is a small
hole, passing directly downwards into a roundish cavity four
inches in depth, and nearly two in breadth. In the bottom of
this hole it would appear the birds had at first intended to
form their nest, there being in it a quantity of fragments of
the decayed wood, and some moss. From this cavity there
passes obliquely downwards a passage communicating with an-
other five and a half inches in length, and two and a half in
breadth, on the opposite side of the trunk. To the depth of an
inch the bottom is filled with dust of the decayed wood, over
which is laid a mass, three quarters of an inch thick, of small
chips of wood, bits of blades and straws, a vast quantity of
brown scales of buds or catkins, intermixed with vegetable
fibres of various kinds, hair of various animals, a little wool,
and a few particles of moss, forming a very soft elastic bed.

Young. — The young when fledged, differ from the adult
only in having the tints duller, the upper parts more tinged
with green, and the black of the head approaching to a sooty-
brown ; the bill is black ; the iris dusky brown ; the feet light
blue ; the claws dusky greyish-blue. The upper part of the
head and the nape dull brownish-black ; throat blackish-brown,
the feathers tipped with yellowish-grey. The back is light
greyish-brown ; the quills and tail dusky, the feathers margined
with greyish-brown ; the cheeks, sides of the head, and all the
lower parts dull pale yellowish-grey.

Remarks. — I have carefully compared specimens shot in
France with those in my collection obtained in Scotland, and
am persuaded they are identical.

VOL. II. G G

450

PARUS CRISTATUS. THE CRESTED TIT.

CRESTED TITMOUSE.

Parus cristatus. Linn, Syst. Nat. I. 340.

Parus cristatus. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 567.

Crested Titmouse. Mont. Orn. Diet.

M^sange huppe'e. Parus cristatus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 290. III. 211.

Crested Titmouse. Parus cristatus. Selb. Illustr. I. 243.

Parus cristatus. Crested Titmouse. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 122.

Occipital feathers elongated, pointed, and slightly recurved^
forming a conspicuous crest ; feathers of the head black, with
white margitis ; cheeks white ; space behind the eyes, a decurved
hand over the hind-neck, and a large triangular spot on the fore-
neck, black ; upper parts grey tinged with yelloicish-brown ;
breast greyish-white ; sides, abdomen, and loicer tail-coverts pale
yellowish-brotcn.

Male. — This very beautiful little bird is apparently confined
with us to the extensive woods in the northern part of the mid-
dle division of Scotland, and is even there extremely rare. In
the course of fifteen years I have only heard of two specimens
that were sent to Edinburgh to be prepared. They were shot
somewhere on the Spey in November 1836 ; and from them
exclusively I have taken my descriptions, the specimens seen
in museums in this country being generally of exotic origin.
The general form resembles that of the Blue and Black Tits.
The bill is rather short, straight, somewhat slender, compress-
ed, acute ; the upper mandible with its dorsal outline slightly
arched, the edges straight and a little inflected ; the lower man-
dible with its dorsal line very slightly convex. The feet are
short and strong ; the tarsus with seven anterior scutella, and
small posterior scales ; the hind toe strong, M'ith four scales,
the second with nine, the third ten, the fourth eight ; the

CRESTED TIT. 451

claws much arched, high, extremely compressed, with erect
grooved sides, and very acute point.

The plumage is blended. The feathers of the upper part of
the head are rounded ; those of its hind part elongated, pointed,
and slightly recurved, forming a very handsome crest. The
wings are rather short, and rounded ; the first quill very short,
being a third of the length of the fourth, which is longest ; the
fifth almost as long ; the third nearly equal to the fifth ; the
secondary quills rounded and acuminate. The tail is rather long,
emarginate, of twelve rather narrow slightly rounded feathers.

The bill is black. The feet are black tinged with greyish-
blue ; the claws brownish-black. The feathers of the head
are black, margined with white. The loral spaces and cheeks
are white ; a black semicircular band from behind the eye, and
another of the same colour crossing the hind-neck and curving
downwards so as to join a large triangular black spot on the
fore part of the neck. The general colour of the upper parts
is grey tinged with light yellowish-brown ; the quills and tail-
feathers dusky-brown, margined with pale grey, the tail lighter.
The breast is greyish- white ; the sides, abdomen, and lower
tail-coverts, pale yellowish-brown.

Length to end of tail 4 j% inches ; extent of wings 8 ; wing
from flexure 2i ; tail 1^ ; bill along the ridge y^^, along the
edge of lower mandible ^^ ; first toe j%, its claw j% ; second
toe /j, its claw -/^ ; third toe j%, its claw /j ; fourth toe j%^
its claw j%.

Female. — The female is similar, but with the crest slightly
shorter.

Length to end of tail 4 ^^^ ; extent of wings 8.

Habits. — Of the habits of this species as observed in Britain,
I am not aware that any thing of importance is known. Mon-
tagu's remarks on this subject, which have supplied a text for
all subsequent writers, are as follows. " The Crested Titmouse
is a solitary retired species, inhabits only the gloomy forests, par-
ticularly those which abound with evergreens. It has not been
found in South Britain, but is not uncommon amongst the large

452 PARUS CRISTATUS.

tracts of pines in the north of Scotland, particularly in the forest
of Glenmore, the property of the Duke of Gordon, from whence
we have seen it. The eggs are said to be white, with small
spots of red ; the nest we do not find to be described by any
one." Thomas Macpherson Grant, Esq., who shot the speci-
mens above described, informs me that he obtained them in one
of the native pine forests of the uj)per part of the Spey, where
they were roaming in considerable numbers, and in their habits
not distinguishable from the Coal Tit. Mr Weir writes to me
that Alexander Campbell, Esq., y''. of Barcaldine, informed
him that in January 1838, he killed, about two miles from
Barcaldine House, Argyllshire, a very beautiful individual of
this species. If any of my readers should be curious to know
how an author may contrive to talk a great deal about nothing,
he may consult the article Crested Tit in an amusing work
entitled " The Feathered Tribes of the British Islands."

Remarks. — The Crested Tit is stated by authors to occur in
many parts of the continent, especially those abounding in pines
and juniper. M. Temminck informs us that it feeds on insects,
spiders, small caterpillars, berries, and seeds of evergreen trees ;
nestles in cavities of trees, holes in walls and buildings, and in
the deserted nests of squirrels and magpies, and lays as many
as ten eggs, which are white, marked on the large end with
blood-red spots. He further states that it is rare in the central,
and more so in the southern parts of Europe, is nowhere plen-
tiful, and is only met with, like the Bohemian Chatterer and
some other birds, during very severe winters, when it visits the
pine woods.

453

MECISTURA. MUFFLIN.

The Long-tailed Tit, Parus caudatus, of authors, differs so
much from the other species, in the length of the tail, the form
of the bill, and other particulars, that it has been, and I think
with propriety, referred to a separate genus, of which the fol-
lowing are the principal characters.

Bill very short, rather stout, compressed ; upper mandible
with its dorsal outline convex from the base, the ridge narrow,
the sides convex and deflected, the edges direct and overlap-
ping, the tip acute, considerably decurved and extending be-
yond that of the lower, without notch or sinus ; lower man-
dible with the angle very short, rather wide, and rounded, the
dorsal outline ascending and convex, the sides convex, the
edges inflected, the tip acute ; the gape-line a little arched.

The mouth is very narrow, its interior as in the Tits, as are
the digestive organs. The body short and full ; the head very
large and broadly ovate. The nostrils small, round, and con-
cealed by the feathers, as is the base of the bill. The eyes are
small, the bare margin of the eyelids very broad and crenate.
The feet of ordinary length, rather slender ; the tarsus com-
pressed, with seven large anterior scutella ; the toes rather
slender, the first proportionally large and stout, being with its
claw as long as the middle toe ; the anterior toes united as far
as the second joint. The claws are long, moderately arched,
extremely compressed, laterally grooved, and very acute.

Plumage exceedingly soft, loose, and elongated. Wings of
moderate length, concave, very broad, rounded ; the first quill
not half the length of the second, the fourth and fifth longest.
Tail very long, straight, graduated, of twelve narrow rounded
feathers.

There is but one British species of this genus.

454

MECISTURA LONGICAUDATA. THE LONG-
TAILED MUFFLIN.

BOTTLE TOM. BOTTLE TIT. LONG-TAILED MAG. HUCK-MUCK.
POKE-PUDDING. MUM-RUFFIN.

Parus caudatus. Linu. Syst. Nat. I. 342.

Parus caudatus. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 569.

Long-tailed Titmouse. Mont. Orn. Diet.

M^sange k loiigue queue. Parus caudatus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. I. 296.

Long-tailed Titmouse. Parus caudatus. Selb. Illustr. I. 241.

Parus caudatus. Long-tailed Titmouse. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 124.

Tail very long, graduated ; plumage extremely soft ; head,
throat, and breast white ; a broad band over the eye, the nape,
and the bach black ; scapxdars reddish ; tail black ; the three
lateral feathers on each side externally white. Young duller,
without red on the scapidars.

Male. — This singular-looking bird, the most diminutive of
our British species, except the Kinglets, differs from the Tits
chiefly in having the plumage softer and more bulky, and the
tail much more elongated. The bill is very similar to that of
the Blue Tit, but shorter, or more concealed at the base by the
feathers, and with the upper mandible longer and more de-
cufved. Both mandibles are internally concave, with a median

LONG-TAILED MUFFLIN. 455

prominent line. The tongue is linear, subsagittate at the base,
abruptly terminated, with four bristles. The oesophagus is an
inch and a twelfth long ; the stomach roundish, compressed,
five twelfths in length, moderately muscular, with a longitu-
dinally rugous epithelium ; the intestine four inches long,
averaging one twelfth in width ; the coeca very small, and the
cloaca globular.

The tarsi are rather slender, much compressed ; the hind toe
with its claw longer than the third with its claw ; the first
with eight, the second with eight, the third with ten, the fourth
with nine scutella. The nostrils are round, a quarter of a
twelfth in diameter. The eyelids are broadly margined with
a bare crenate skin. The plumage is extremely soft and tufty;
and the bristle-pointed feathers at the base of the bill lie over
so as to conceal the nostrils. The wings are rather long, con-
cave, rounded, of eighteen quills ; the first half an inch long,
the second four and a half twelfths shorter than the third,
which is a twelfth and a half shorter than the fourth, the
latter being a third of a twelfth shorter than the fifth, which
is the longest, the second and ninth about equal. The tail is
very long, straight, graduated ; the lateral feathers an inch and
nine twelfths long, eight twelfths shorter than the next, and
an inch and nine twelfths shorter than the middle feathers,
which, when complete, are longest.

The bill is black ; the iris brown, the bare margins of the
eyelids broad and of a reddish colour ; the feet and claws dusky.
The lower parts are white, the sides and abdomen tinged with
rose-colour. The fore part and crown of the head are white ;
a broad band of black extends from over the eye down the
neck ; the back is black, the feathers along its sides and on the
rump tipped with light red. The quills are brownish-black,
the secondaries broadly edged with white. The tail is black,
but the three lateral feathers are w^hite on the outer web and
part of the inner at the end, the white of the third feather ex-
tending only halfway down.

Length to end of tail 5}° inches; extent of wings 6j% ; bill
along the ridge ^%, along the edge of lower mandible j% ;
wing from flexure 2j% ; tail Sy'^ ; tarsus ^^^ ; first toe j-^g,

456 MECISTURA LONGICAUDATA.

its claw /g ; second toe /g, its claw j\ ; third toe j%, its
claw j% ; fourth toe ~^^, its claw -^l.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but has the
secondaries greyish-brown, the black band on the side of the
neck broader, and the feathers on the fore-neck with light
brown streaks.

Changes. — The plumage being complete in November is as
described above. In summer the white is purer, and the wings
more brown. In the end of spring the fleshy margins of the
eyelids are bright red.

Habits. — How pleasant it is to gaze upon these little creatures
streaming along the tops of the tall trees by the margin of the
brook, ever in motion, searching the twigs with care, and cheep-
ing their shrill notes as they scamper away, one after another !
The flight of the Mufflin, not inaptly named, as its tufty
plumage makes it look as if mufiled to the chin, is undulated
and rather rapid, when extended to a distance, but is not exe-
cuted with such speed as to justify, on that account alone, the
comparison which has been made of this bird when flying, to
an arrow or a dart. It is the long tail that suggests the idea
of a shaft, while the body and wings resemble the barbed head
of the arrow. The Wagtails, whose flight is more elegant
and rapid, present a similar appearance. Its shorter flights
from tree to tree are hurried and fluttering, like those of the
Tits ; and its notes bear some resemblance to those of the Blue
Tit, but are shriller and louder. Frequently it is found asso-
ciating with the Coal Tit and the Kinglet, and occasionally
with the Blue and Greater Tits ; but I have fully as often met
with it in flocks of about a dozen, searching the twigs, without
companions. It is easily shot, although somewhat more ob-
servant than the Tits, or perhaps more capricious, as it flits
about with great celerity, and clings to the branches in every
kind of posture. Its food consists of small insects, pupae, and
larvae, for which it searches trees of all kinds, apparently with-
out preference, it not being so partial to the Coniferae as the

LONG-TAILED MUFFLIN. 457

Coai Tit. Ill winter, and the early part of spring, it is chiefly
on tall trees that it is met with ; but at other seasons it fre-
quents thickets of low bushes, as well as woods, and now
and then travels ov^er the fields, settling here and there on the
grasses and other herbaceous plants.

My friend Mr Hepburn thus describes its habits : — " The
Long-tailed Tit, which is common in our plantations and tall
hedge-rows, is even more restless than the Blue Tit. From
the first streak of day until sunset you may see them in troops
searching the branches of the tall hedge, or following each
other in a stream through the woods, uttering a harsh note
resembling chur-chu)\ and a shrill one very like ticlt-tioit. In
the end of February (1839), one morning before the sun was
risen, I reached their haunts. They were sporting in a hedge
which bounds a plantation, and, although the cold was intense,
exhibited their usual alacrity and animation. Just as the sun
rose above the snow-clad Lammermoors, four or five of them
left the hedge, and perched on some stems of hemlock, which
had been cut down last autumn, within three inches of the
ground. They even spread over the barley stubble, and set-
tling on it diligently examined it till they were left behind by
their companions, when away they jerked to join them, but
still alighted every now and then on the stubble and hemlocks.
The young birds, which are fledged about the end of June,
follow their parents till the end of spring ; but they are such
social birds that I have seen the males feeding in company,
when the females were sitting."

About the beginning of April, the flocks break up, and
towards the end of that month the important business of the
season commences. The nest is not placed in a hole, like that
of many of the Tits, American as well as European, but is sup-
ported by the twigs or branches of a tree or bush, sometimes at
the height of many yards, but not unfrequently very near the
ground. Being of singular beauty, it has often been well de-
scribed ; but various writers, apparently not knowing how to
dispose of the long tail of the bird, have imagined it to have two
holes, one for the protrusion of that appendage. This account,
which I am authorized by observation to say is incorrect, may

458 MECISTURA LONGICAUDATA.

have perhaps been taken from a nest purposely or accidentally
mutilated. A short digression will illustrate this.

The season of deer-shooting was at hand, when a friend and
I went to try our guns with ball. One of the servants took a
barley cake from the kitchen-fire, and put it up as a mark.
Several shots were fired, but the balls merely tore up the turf
At length, taking a very steady aim from the corner of the
sheep-fold, I pulled the trigger once more, whereupon the lad
running to the cake declared that I had shot right through its
centre, and bringing it to us exhibited the proof of my dexterity,
but in a little while put an end to my vapouring and loosened
the mirth of my rival, by shewing how he had made the hole
with his thumb. So, I suppose, the nest in question may have
been thumbed before it was given to the ornithologist who first
described it. However this may be, here is a true and faithful
account of a genuine nest taken from a fir-tree near Lasswade, in
the autumn of 1838. It contained sixteen young birds nearly
fledged, which have been stuffed, and the two old ones, which
were caught in it at night.

This nest is extremely beautiful, being of a very regular
oval form, seven inches in length, and four inches and a
quarter in breadth at the middle. It is composed of hypna,
kept together by means of the flaxen fibres of plants, some
wool, and delicate filmy shreds, interwoven chiefly in a trans-
verse direction, and has nearly the whole of its outer surface
stuck over with small grey lichens, which are not aggluti-
nated, but kept attached by filaments. The aperture, which
is round, is an inch and a quarter in diameter, and an inch
and a half from the summit or dome. The outer shell thus
formed, although well felted and interwoven, is only a quarter
of an inch thick. Its inner surface is stuck over with large
feathers, and the whole internal cavity is not merely lined but
filled with the same materials. They are pretty closely com-
pacted at the bottom and along the sides, and when shaken
suffice to fill a hat of moderate phrenological pretensions, al-
though not exactly mine, which belongs to what may be called
a dunderhead. On being counted by a young man, the num-
ber is found to be 2379. They belong chiefly to the Pheasant,

LONG-TAILED MUFFLIN. 459

Wood-Pigeon, Rook, and Partridge ; but there are also feathers
of the breast of the Missel Thrush, of the Yellow Bunting, and
of several other birds. For this nest I am indebted to Mr
Carfrae.

Another now before me is much smaller, being five inches
and a half in length, and three and a quarter in its transverse
diameter. The aperture, which is near the top, is elliptical,
an inch and ten twelfths across, and an inch in height. The
walls are formed of moss felted with wool, covered externally
with grey lichens held down by hairs and delicate filaments,
and profusely lined with feathers.

The following interesting account of the construction of a
nest of this bird I have just received from Mr Weir.

" Boghead, 11th May 1839. — About seven o'clock, on Satur-
day morning, the 20th of April, I had the pleasure of observing
a pair of these active and interesting little birds, the Long-
tailed Titmice, lay the foundation of their nest, in the cleft of
an old ash-tree, at the distance of about fifty yards from my
garden. Before they commenced their operations they flew in
and out again and again, and examined the situation with the
greatest attention. The under part of their abode was con-
structed with mosses, and the sides with small portions of the
white and grey tree lichens, fine green mosses, some feathers,
and a few leaves of the beech tree, beautifully intermixed and
firmly interwoven with wool and the webs of spiders' eggs.
To give these materials the requisite solidity, they pressed
them down with their breasts and the shoulders of their wings,
and turned their bodies round upon them in all directions.
When I first began to observe their motions, they seemed to
be much displeased, and set up a strong clicking noise not un-
like that of the Stonechat ; but they soon became so tame that,
although I placed myself at no great distance from them, my
presence gave them but little annoyance. When the male was
at work, the female usually remained upon a branch of the
tree, about a foot from the nest, until he was done ; she then
went in, her partner remaining at the outside until she had
completed her task. They then flew off together in search of
materials, sometimes to a considerable distance, flitting through
the air with the rapidity of an arrow.

460 MECISTURA LONGICAUDATA.

" On Thursday forenoon, between ten and eleven o'clock, the
outside of the nest having been, after much labour, completed,
they commenced lining it with a great variety of feathers,
some of which were of considerable size. With almost every
kind of bird that came near their residence, even although
some were three or four times larger than themselves, they
fought most courageously, and did not desist from tormenting
them until they drove them away. When engaged in contest,
they uttered a harsh kind of chirp. It is asserted by Mr
Selby ' that a small hole is left on two opposite sides of the
nest, not only for ingress and egress, but also to prevent
the bird, during incubation, from being incommoded by its
long tail, which then projects through one of the orifices.''
If this be the form in which it is built in England, it is not
so in this neighbourhood, for in all the nests which I have
discovered, there was only one very small hole. When the
female is sitting upon eggs, the male usually resides with her
during the night. In this situation I have caught them after
sunset, about the beginning of May. How they keep their
tails from being injured is truly astonishing.

" On Wednesday afternoon the 1st of May, they finished
their snug and comfortable dwelling, after having been for
twelve days constantly and arduously engaged in its construc-
tion. All the sides and bottom of the interior were thickly
lined with a great variety of feathers. Of all our British nests
this is the most elegantly and artfully constructed. On Thurs-
day morning, the 2d, the female laid her first egg. There are
ten eggs in it to-day."

The eggs, usually about twelve, are smaller than those of
any other British bird except the Kinglet, of a regular oval
form, blunt at the smaller end, from six to seven twelfths
long, and about five twelfths broad, white, generally marked
with numerous faint red dots at the larger end.

This species is generally distributed in England, and is very
abundant in many parts of the south of Scotland, but also occurs
as far north as the county of Ross. In all parts it is a per-
manent resident.

Young. — The young when fledged have all the lower parts,

LONG-TAILED iMUFFLIN. 461

a longitudinal patch on the head, the outer edges of the secon-
dary quills, the outer webs of the three lateral tail-feathers and
a portion of the inner webs of the two outer, white ; the other
parts brownish-black, excepting the abdomen and lower tail-
coverts which are brownish-red. The bill and feet are at first
flesh-coloured, and gradually darken.

Progress toward Maturity. — In their second plumage the
young differ little from the old birds. The head and neck
however have the white obscured by dusky streaks, of which
there is one on each feather; the fore part of the neck is greyish-
white, with small faint brown spots; the rest of the lower parts
reddish-white, the lower tail-coverts brownish-red ; the hind-
neck and back as in the adult, as are the wings and tail. The
members of the family generally keep together during winter
and spring.

Remarks. — In revising the above, I find, on referring to M.
Valmont-Bomare's Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle, the fol-
lowing illustration of the fable of the nest with two holes :
— " Elle fait son nid a trois ou quatre pieds de terre, Tattache
aux branches dans leur enfourchement, et le construit de telle
maniere que Touvrage en entier ressemble a un ceuf place sur
une de ses pointes ; il y a une et quelquefois deux ouvertures
laterales, opposees Tune a Tautre, pour sortir et rentrer."

Parus minimus of Townsend, the " Chestnut-crowned Tit-
mouse," found in the Columbia River district, belongs to this
genus, and may be named Mecishira minima. Parus rufescens
of the same naturalist approaches nearly to it, as does Parus
hudsonicus.

462

PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

SIXTH LESSON.

AUDUBON, ORNITHOLOGUS. AND PHYSIOPHILUS MAKE A DIGRESSION TO THE
PENTLAND HILLS, HALT AT CURRIE, AND RETURN TO EDINBURGH, DIS-
COURSING ON BIRDS AND OTHER MATTERS. THEREAFTER MR WEIR
GIVES AN ACCOUNT OF THE MIGRATORY BIRDS OF WEST-LOTHIAN, OR-
NITHOLOGUS OF THOSE OF MID-LOTHIAN, AND MR HEPBURN OF THOSE
OF EAST-LOTHIAN. SOME OMISSIONS ARE JUDICIOUSLY DEALT WITH,
AND PROMISES MADE, WHICH THE AUTHOR INTENDS TO FULFIL TO THE
LETTER.

Ornithologus. A more beautiful morning, or one giving pro-
mise of a brighter day, we could not have desired. I am glad
that it is so, for this may be our last excursion, and I am
anxious that the favourable impression made upon you by our
Highland mountains and lakes, which we visited together last
September, may not be diminished by the sight of our Lowland
hills, of which the Pentlands on our right hand are not the
least celebrated.

Audubon. What you say as to the weather is true indeed,
for a finer May-day I have never seen in any country. The
thermometer was at 54° when we left Edinburgh, but the
unusual heat is tempered by this gentle breeze from the west.
As to your Highland scenery, I freely confess that it is in some
respects unrivalled, and your Lowlands are generally very
beautiful, while your capital is certainly not equalled by any
city that I have seen in Europe or America.

Physiophilus. There is Woodhouselee, the residence of a cele-
brated historian. There are some Titmice in the trees. Golden-
crested Wrens, and List ! did you not hear the Willow

Wren ?

GLENCORSE, PENTLAND HILLS. 463

Aud. I see it, on the top twig of that ash-tree. Do you
wish to have it ?

Orn. I do, but it is ofF; so, let us proceed. Akhough the
first of May is considered as the commencement of our summer,
yet vegetation, as you perceive, has made Httle progress. The
larch, a native of the Tyrol, I believe, has its leaves, of the
most lively green, more advanced than those of any other tree,
excepting these poplars, equally exotic ; the beautiful large
purple buds of the plane-tree are ready to burst ; from some of
them leaves have already protruded ; the beech is almost as
bare as in winter, and the ash shews nothing as yet but its
singular black buds.

Aud. It is wonderful to see how far behind the hawthorn
hedges are compared with those about Edinburgh, although
these have the advantage of a southern exposure. There are
several Willow Wrens, and a single Swallow. What summer
birds have arrived ?

Fhys. On the 25th I shot two Wheatears in the King's Park,
and on the 29th two Yellow Wagtails, five Chimney Swallows,
a Window Martin, and a Bank Swallow, at Colt Bridge.

0)m. The hollow there is a favourite place with Swallows
at their first arrival, especially when the wind is easterly, and
I have seen them there a fortnight before they were to be ob-
served in the town. They were seen at Airthrie, near Stir-
ling, on the 14th of April, and at Lasswade on the 20th. The
Willow Wren is the only other species that I have yet met
with.

Atid. These green hills are very pretty. I suppose this nar-
row pass leads to the glen of which you have spoken.

Orn. It is Glencorse. How few larks we hear to-day ! I
suppose they are busily occupied in forming their nests. See !
there are two Whinchats on the bushes by the brook. Let
me try one of them. Not killed. I suppose the gun is in bad
trim, or the shot too large, or the powder bad, or, what is more
likely, my aim has been ill-directed.

Aud. Let Physiophilus take the gun, while you and I clear
our eyes with a pinch. There must be some birds among these
thickets.

464 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

Or7i. The lambkins are basking in the sun, and there stands
a most lovely Pied Wagtail with a tuft of wool in its mouth.
It must have its nest in that quarry. Here are two fishers.
They must have poor sport, the water being so very low and
clear, and the sky so bright. Go to them, Physiophilus, and
say, Gentlemen, Piscatores, how fares it with you this fine May
morning ? I hope you have had several glorious nibbles. It
gives me pleasure to see two fools, each at one end of a rod,
and a sham fly at the other.

Phys. Nay, go thyself. / am no admirer of " quaint old
Izaac." A Wheatear ! two of them on the top of the wall.
They have alighted by the edge of the pond.

Orn. We cannot shoot them, as the Water Company
threatens all intruders. This is the reservoir that supplies
Edinburgh.

Aud. It is a fine sheet of water, considered as such, but as a
lake it is more remarkable for the bareness of its banks than
for any other quality ; and there seem to be no birds upon it,
not even a Heron. In such a place in America there would
be Ducks or Coots, or Water Hens. How amazingly like our
Red Lark are these Pipits. If I had met with them in a
prairie I should certainly have taken them to be the same as
ours. Are there no Dippers here l

Orn. The only bird to be met with on the margins of the
lake is the Sandpiper, but the Dipper I have often seen on the
brook below, as well as in the glen before us, although we have
not met with it to-day. Here, however, is a pair of Ring
Ouzels, which are migratory birds, arriving in the end of April,
and dispersing themselves over the hilly and mountainous
tracts, as far as the northern coasts.

Aud, Beautiful birds! their cry is very like that of our
Robin, the Turdus migratorius, and so is their flight.

Phys. Another pair. Hear the Red Grouse ! " Cok^ eok,
cok, go-hack, go-back.'''' There he bounces away ; down he
comes on the side of the hill, where he runs and struts with
his tail raised and his wings drooping. Whirr ! off goes the
hen. How easily I might shoot her !

Orn. Down with that gun of thine ! Thou mightst be

HABBIE'S HOW. 465

tempted to fire, and then we should be breakers of the game-
laws, and disturbers of the peace of this sequestered valley.
These birds are Mr Robertson's, not ours. Here is a shepherd.
How far is it to Currie ?

Shepherd. Six miles. Did the game-keeper not see you ?

Orn. I suppose not, at least we did not see him. We shoot
no game.

Shej). They dinna alloo folk wi' guns here. I dinna mis-
doubt ye, but I wad advise ye no to shoot ava, but pass on
quietly.

Orn. Well, we promise. Now, Mr Audubon, here is a
pretty valley, with heathery hills on both sides, grass in the
bottom, and a clear brook, tempting to the mouth in this hot
weather. More grouse, one, two, three.

Aud. I did not think there had been any so near town.
There must be good shooting on these hills. Your Grouse
never alights on trees, does it 1 all ours do, even the Willow
Grouse in winter, when it comes southward, as well as our
Partridge.

Orn. Neither of our Ptarmigans perches on trees, but the
Black Grouse does. Here are three more Ring Ouzels, and
Pipits in abundance. This is a famous place of resort for the
Cuckoos, but it does not seem that they have arrived yet.

Phys. A hare on the hill, scudding along ! I see a Sand-
piper by the brook in that hollow.

Aud. Let us sit down a few minutes, then. There is a small
stripe of water coming down the rock.

Orn. Yes, that is the celebrated waterfall, Niagara in minia-
ture, and this Habbie's How, for the history of which, and its
connection with Allan Ramsay, I refer you to the Society of
Scottish Antiquaries, or your friend Mr Maclaren. Here comes
a shepherd. A fine day, friend ! Is the lamb dead I

Pastor. No, but its no like to live ; the drouth's o'er sair,
an' the sheep can get little to eat.

Aud. Physiophilus comes with the Sandpiper. It is amaz-
ingly like our Totanus chloropygius. Five miles to Currie, and
nothing till then but water. Let us be oflf. Ah ! — a rattle-snake !

VOL. II. H H

466 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

Orn. Lacerta agilis — Who would have thought to find it
here ? I have it, and will keep it as a memorial.

Phys. A dead crow. Is it not Corvus Corone 2 It will
make a good skull.

Aud. See that little Hawk, how beautiftilly it glides along
in its rapid slanting descent. What a splendid figure the small
thing cuts ! It very much resembles our Pigeon Hawk. What
is it?

Orn. The Merlin, so like your Pigeon Hawk, as you say,
that some individuals of both species can hardly be distin-
guished. Indeed I think the authors of the Fauna Boreali-
Americana have mistaken the one for the other. There goes
its mate. Their cries very much resemble those of the Kes-
trel. Hear the Curlews respond to them. These birds are
very numerous on the hills and moors of this part of the coun-
try, as you may have observed.

Aud. Their cry is not at all like that of our Long-billed
Curlew — Ah — there now, that undulating whistle is just such
as that of our bird. Where does it breed 1

Orn. On the moors. I once came upon a nest over the way '
there. It was in the midst of a tuft of heath and sweet gale,
in a wet, or rather spongy place, and we came so close to it
that one of us had almost stepped upon the bird, which, on its
escaping, we imagined at first to be a hare. The Curlew lays
four remarkably large olive-coloured eggs, spotted with dusky,
in a shallow nest, formed of some straws and twigs, laid in a
superficial cavity. But now we have gained the ridge of the
hills, and there before us is a long moor covered with carices,
rushes, and heath. How beautifully the Lapwings fly ! It is
strange that a bird so nearly allied to the Plovers and Tringas
should have the wings so broad and rounded, while theirs
are so pointed. Have you no birds in America analogous to
this?

Aud. Not one. It is a beautiful and gentle creature, not-
withstanding its peevish wail. Don't shoot it Physiophilus ;
it has a nest, and if you kill it you probably destroy five birds,
or prevent four from being hatched. I hate to see birds shot
when breedinof.

CURRIE. 4(J7

Phys. By any person but yourself. Well, I desist, although
I am anxious to have the skull of one, being, as you know,
forming a series for the purpose of comparing the alleged phre-
nological indications with the known habits of the birds. The
many American skulls with which you have presented me will
prove of great interest in this respect.

Orn. There is a Sandpiper : it has flown down the brook
close upon the water.

PJiys. The fields are covered with Lapwings, picking up their
food here and there ; but they are too shy, and none near the
fences. A hare scuds across, and another is retreating to the
plantation. Great numbers of Rooks are scattered about,
gleaning for their young. How beautifully that grass field is
enamelled with daisies ; yet, I daresay, the farmer finds them
more ornamental than useful, and would gladly dispense with
them. Come now, a smart walk of half an hour on this road,
and we shall be at Currie.

Orn. Hot weather, gentlemen ! Get up this back stair if
you can ; and now, here is the house, " at whose friendly door
the weary traveller loves to call." Walk in. Which way ?
Rest is pleasant to the weary, drink to the thirsty, food to the
hungry ; and we three are all these.

Aud. What shall we have ? Whisky and water, porter,
bread and cheese, cold meat, and something besides.

Pliys. Gentlemen, with your permission, I take the porter.

AiLd. Do. Dull drink ! Hand me the noggin. Come,
here''s to our better acquaintance. We have had a very plea-
sant day. I have not seen so much game in Scotland before.

Orn. Here's to all lovers of nature, and especially to all true
ornithologists. May the quinarians reform, and study birds as
well as their skins. May Scotland flourish, and England and
America prosper, " Land of brown heath" ! thou art dear to
me ; for as yet all thy moors are not fenced and hedged and
hemmed in ; thy sons, thy physicians, philosophers, historians,
and poets, — have not their names been heard in distant lands !
— and our ornithologists, — Gentlemen, excuse me, I hope they
will yet equal those of England, and trust me, I have seen no
history of the birds of that country, nor any representations of

468 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

them, that I think may not, under favourable circumstances,
be surpassed by your humble servant.

Phys. Bravo ! To excel, a man must not undervalue him-
self. But I must qualify this drowsy stuff with a little of your
pure aqua. Now for the soup and oat bread. The expendi-
ture of so much fluid by cutaneous transpiration must be coun-
terbalanced by absorption.

Aud. Well now, having refreshed ourselves, let us march.

Orn. It is a sweet spot, and must be very beautiful in sum-
mer, M'hen all those trees and bushes are clothed with foliage.
The golden catkins of the willow margin the clear brook, the
pure light green of the larches enlivens that steep slope, and
here, amidst the grass of this bank, peep forth the Dog Violet,
the Pilewort, and the Barren Strawberry, while the Butter-
burs stand sturdily forth, their clusters of pink florets attractive
of the black-and-yellow bees, which eagerly pump out their
sweet juices. Many Willow Wrens warble at intervals on the
trees ; but I hear no other summer bird. The gentle Mavis
mingles its sweet notes with the louder and more lively song
of the Blackbird. There, Physiophilus, get us a pair of Willow
Wrens.

Aud. Were my friend Nuttall here, he might syllable the
song of these pretty little things into " twee., twee., tweee, ticeee,
twee, twai, twai, twiu, twin, ticiu, twi, twi, twi, tivi.'''' It is
strange that some European ornithologists have stated that the
Willow Wren occurs in America. No such thing, I assure
you. They must have mistaken the young of some of our
Sylvicolae for it. Physiophilus has shot one.

Orn. You must have many fine songsters in America.

Aud. That we have indeed. The Mocking Bird, of course,
stands first in my opinion, and is unrivalled. Then, perhaps
on account of my own sensitive nature, I would place next
the Wood Thrush, although the Cat Bird is far its superior
in many points, as is also the Turdus rufus. Think of our
Rose-breasted, Pine, and Blue Grosbeaks, how mellow and
sweet their continuous songs are, whether by day, or during
calm nights. Watch the varied ditties of the Orchard Oriole,
and the loud and more musical notes of its brother the Golden

SONG BIRDS AND RUSTICS. 469

Hangnest. You have never heard the Tawny Thrush or the
Hermit Thrush, otherwise, believe me, you would have en-
joyed much delicious pleasure. Bachman's Finch sings well
too, and copiously. So does its relative the White-crowned
Finch ; and were you with me over the waters, you would
hear the carols, all most interesting, of the Indigo and Non-
pareil Finches, and those more wild, though less varied, of our
curiously apparelled Bob-o-link or Rice-bird. I could men-
tion fully a couple of scores, but I will stop short, and simply
assure you that America possesses many fine songsters, as does
every other portion of the known world.

Miller. A fine day, gentlemen ; you are looking for birds, I
suppose, for stuffing.

Orn. Not exactly for that purpose. What birds do you
commonly see here, any Kingsfishers l

Miller. Yes, very often just here, below the bridge, and in
autumn and winter Water Crows. It's a fine place for birds ;
the water-side's just full o' them in summer.

Aud. Two splendid short-horned oxen fattening in the yard,
two Orkney queys, and a fine Newfoundland dog. Is it a flour
mill you have l I daresay you are very comfortable here.

Miller. Well enough. We grind oats and barley, have
plenty to eat, something to drink, good air, and room enough
to breathe.

Orn. How clean and happy-looking the ducks and drakes,
and cocks and hens, and turkeys are, compared with the starved
and draggled creatures about the towns ; the very sparrows are
fatter and more ruddy ; the rustics plump and rosy and cleanly,
compared with the poor mechanics of the city, sallow and dirty
by necessity, and I must say often rude. For my part, let
them talk of their scientific associations, reading-rooms, and
superior knowledge and civilization, I think the parish church
the best lecture-room, and the fields the best reading-room.
I maintain that no mechanic in Edinburgh will match in real
knowledge of nature a shepherd from Yarrow Braes or Tweeds-
muir.

Aud. I agree perfectly with you ; but let us be off. Good
evening !

470 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

Phys. Here are two Willow Wrens, I shot what I thought
a Blackcap, but it fell into a thicket of sloes and brambles, and
I could not find it.

Orn. Now, take the gun, Mr Audubon, and shoot me a bird
or two to be kept as memorials of this day's excursion, that,
when you are basking in the warmth of your American sun-
shine, under some flower-clad Magnolia, listening to the notes
of the Mocking Bird, and enjoying the repose so sweet after
protracted labours like yours, I may call to mind the many
happy days we have spent together in cold Scotland.

And. With good will. There is a lovely male Yellow
Bunting on the very tip of that fir-tree. Now for it. Come,
not amiss yet ! The first shot I have fired since I came to
England last.

Phys. Here is Colinton. Shall we go by the road, or through
the woods \

Orn. Take the woods by all means. But let us first quench
our thirst. Here is the public house.

Aud. With all my heart. Your Scotch whisky is excellent.
I wish we had as good in America. My service to you. May
you prosper, and may I live to see engraved your drawings of
the Birds of Britain, which I sincerely declare to be the best
representations I have yet seen.

Orn. You have so often said so, that I must believe your
partiality to the man has not deceived you into a belief that
his productions are better than they really are. I wish all the
world, excepting of course the authors of similar works, may
agree with you. Who knows but the day may come ?

Aud. Be assured more strange things have happened. How
little did I think when I commenced my drawings, that they
should ever form a series of engravings occupying more than
four hundred sheets of double elephant folio. Hope for the
best, and put me down as your first subscriber.

Orn. It is done. Now, Physiophilus, move a-head, and give

room for tacking. There are Dr Walker's cedars of Lebanon

on the bank opposite, and here a most beautiful male Chaffinch,

worthy of being shot by the American Ornithologist.

A^(d. Down it comes. A lovely creature it is indeed. Stop

WILD FLOWERS AND WARBLERS. 471

here now, and let us gather a hatful of these wild flowers, for
my daughter, that she may dry them, to keep in remembrance
of Scotland.

Orn. Tt will give me pleasure to assist. Here are som>e
anemones, a tuft of wood-sorrel, a blade of some grass or other,
a violet, a primrose, a chrysosplenium, and —

Phys. A bunch of Ranunculus auricomus, not quite in flower.
Now for the steep ascent that leads to Fame's proud temple !

Orn. Well, gentlemen, this is the village of Slateford, as full
of children as Currie was ; and now we have nothing for it but
a hard bare road. How the corn of my sixth toe aches !

Phys. Farewell, I must leave you here, and hasten home to
finish an essay on the organs of destructiveness in ornithologists,
and on the impossibility of determining the analogous parts in
the brains of birds.

Ornithologus — (solus in the street, at nine o'clock). A very
pleasant day we have had, and now having rested two hours
with Americanus Ornitherinus, and enjoyed his hopitality, I
go home to prepare for repose by writing half a dozen pages
or so. Who can this be I Ah, Mr Weir, how are you to-
night ? I have just been, with our friend Mr Audubon, over
the Pentland hills.

Mr Weir. Man, I wish I had been with you. If you had
sent me word I should have come to town for the purpose. I
have been at your house.

Orn. Perhaps you will return, for I want some information
about birds from you.

Mr Weir. With all my heart.

Orn. Well now, in the first place, did you ever meet with
the Garden Warbler, the lesser White-throat, or the Reed
Wren I

Mr Weir. The Garden Warbler I have seen several times.
I have a very fine specimen, stuffed by Mr Carfrae, which I
shot while in the act of singing upon the top of a tall ash-tree
about three hundred yards from my house. The Lesser White-
throat I saw once, and I had a nest of the Reed Wren ; but
I will send you a list of the summer birds that appear in West
Lothian.

472 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

Orn. Did you ever attend to the song of the Sky- Lark ? I
wish to ascertain its duration by actual observation, for you
know how many errors are committed by drawing on the ima-
gination. Hearing the larks on a fine day, one supposes them
to sing for hours together, and yet I have never found that
their strain continues more than fifteen minutes without inter-
mission. Thus, as I have here recorded, I watched three larks
that rose in succession from a gi-ass-field. A very beautiful
day, in the end of February, with a gentle breeze from the
east. The first ascended almost perpendicularly, facing the
wind, and singing without intermission. When at its greatest
height it shot away to the left, in a wide curve, then wheeled
to the right, regained its station, began to descend, floating as
it were with expanded wings, which, on coming to about two
hundred yards from the ground, it closed, and came down with
great rapidity, not headlong, but with its body inclined. This
excursion lasted seven minutes, and the song continued the
whole of that time, excepting the last eight or ten seconds of
rapid descent. The second lark proceeded in the same man-
ner, and sung about five minutes, the third only four.

My young friend, Mr Archibald Hepburn, whom I desired
to make observations on the subject, has sent me the following:
" On receiving your letter I began a series of observations on
the Lark. Friday 22d March. Larks sing from 30 seconds to

1 minute 20 seconds. They generally hung in the wind for
some time, then drifted down it, till they descended, singing
all the while. Sunny. Wind high, cold, W. and S. Therm.
40°. Very few singing. — Saturday 2Sd. Larks sing for about

2 minutes at most, then drop from a great elevation to the
ground, without uttering a note. Sunny. Wind W. and S.
Therm. 41°. — Sunday 24th. Larks sing for 2 minutes at most,
drop like a stone. Very few singing. Wind W. ; very
cloudy and cold. Therm. 41°. — Monday 25th, At 6 a. m.
Larks sing for 1 minute at most. So far as my observation
for one week extends, they seldom sing longer till the sun has
risen. Larks sing for 4 minutes at most. They sung in their
descent till they reached the ground. Wind W., very gentle.
Bright sunshine. Therm. 41°. — Tuesday 26th. Larks sing

SONG OF SKY-LARK. 473

for 4^ minutes at most. AVind W., colder than yesterday, and
fewer Larks singing. Cloudy. Therm. 44^°.— Wednesday 27th.
Larks sing for 4g minutes at most. I observed one sing for about
half a minute on the ground, after his descent. Very warm
and cloudy. Wind VV. Therm. 47°.— Thursday 28th. The
Lark's song lasted nearly 4 minutes at most. They sung
during their descent. Wind N. and E. A thick mist all
day. Therm. 38°.— Friday 29th. The Lark's song lasted
nearly 4 minutes at most. Wind S.E. ; cloudy. Therm. 89°.
— Saturday 80th. I observed one Lark sing for 6 minutes,
but generally their song did not last above 2 or 3 minutes at
most. The day very cold and cloudy. Very few birds were
singing. Wind S.W. Therm. 38°.— Sunday 81st. Very
high winds from S.W. Therm. 88°. No larks singing to-
day. So far as my little experience goes, I would say that a
high wind has more influence on the duration of the Lark's
song than a low temperature has. On the morning of the 15th
February last, the ground was covered with snow to the depth
of one inch. Just as the sun lifted his head above the snow-
clad Lammermoors, a Sky-Lark uprose to meet his gladdening
rays. His song was very distinct. After singing for 2 minutes
he again descended. It was intensely cold at the time, but
there was no wind. On the 26th February, I observed one
alight on a well-trimmed hedge, and remain there for about
one minute, singing all the while. I am inclined to think,
from observation, that they sing more on the ground when the
wind is high than when it is calm. In a fine night in June,
their song may be heard till about 10 o'clock, and as early as
2 in the morning. I never observed this bird sing longer than
15 minutes. On the 29th September last, I observed several
Sky-Larks sing after a silence of nearly six weeks. At this
season, it was first heard at 8 a.m., and never after 3 p.m.
The song seldom lasted above 6 minutes at a time. Its average
duration might be about 3 minutes. On the 12th October, I
observed several singing very briskly at 8 p.m., notwithstanding
the high winds, and it was so cold that there was ice on all
the pools till noon, and several showers of hail fell during the
day. A few days before and after the 19th October, their

474 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

song was reduced to a very few notes, uttered as they flew
from one place to another. On the 15th December, I observed
a flock of Larks in a stubble field. Two days after this I had
occasion to traverse the whole farm, but not a Lark was again
seen in this neighbourhood till the 7th February, when I saw
a solitary individual flying over a field. On the 12th February
they were singing in great numbers all over the farm. On
the following day the wind was high, and very few were heard.
Therm. 45^. I have shot several of them when singing, but
they all proved to be males. I shall endeavour to shoot one
dozen before I write you again.""

Mr Weir. A very correct and keen observer, and one who
I am persuaded will add much to our knowledge of the birds
of our own country, respecting which I believe very little is
yet known. Such observations as I have opportunities of mak-
ing are at your service ; but in the meantime, it being rather
late, I must bid you good-night.

Some days after I received from Mr Weir a List of the
Summer Birds observed in the neighbourhood of Bathgate, in
the county of Linlithgow, situated inland ; and from Mr Hep-
burn a similar List of those seen in the parishes of Whitting-
liam and Whitekirk, in the county of Haddington, also situ-
ated inland, and including part of the Lammermoor Hills. To
these I add a list of the species observed by me in the county
of Edinburgh. The three different districts are marked, M.
Mid-Lothian ; W. West-Lothian ; E. East-Lothian.

Summer Birds of the Lothians.

1. Ringed Thrush, or Ring Ouzel. Turdus torquatus.

M. Arrives about the middle of April, and departs in the
beginning of October. Not uncommon on the Pentland
Hills, especially in Glencorse.
W. A pair or two have for a number of years past appeared

SUMMER BIRDS OF THE LOTHIANS. 475

at the same place on the top of Bathgate Hills, generally
during the second week of April. In 1839, they were
first observed on the 8th.
E. Arrived on 19th April 1839. Departed on 20th Octo-
ber 1838. Lammermoor Hills. Rather rare.

2. Tree Pipit. Anthus arhoreus.

M. Arrives in the beginning of May. Not extremely rare.

I have examined several specimens shot in the district ;

among them one by my son on the 4th of May 1 839.
W. Generally arrives in the first week of May.
E. On 11th May 1839 I observed one rise from the top of

a tall tree at the east side of Pressman Copse. Like the

Titling, it sung in its descent, returning to the tree with

expanded wings and tail.

3. Green-headed Quaketail. Budytes Rapi.

M. Not very uncommon about Edinburgh. Arrives in the
end of April, frequenting at first ploughed fields, and dis-
appears about the middle of August. Sometimes plenti-
ful in Dairy meadows.

E. Arrived on 26th May 1838, and disappeared on 29th
August. Extremely rare, insomuch that it might be
reckoned among the stragglers. Last season I only saw
two individuals, one in May, the other in August.

4. Grey-and- White Wagtail. Motacilla alba.

M. I have shot Wagtails at Musselburgh which I believe
to have been of this species, but have not preserved
specimens.

5. Grey-and-yellow Wagtail. Motacilla Boarula.

M. Although individuals frequently remain all winter,
there is an influx in the end of March.

6. Whin Bushchat. Fruticicola Buhetra.

M. Arrives in the end of April, and departs in the begin-
ning of October. Not uncommon among whins on the
Pentland Hills, and scattered here and there in favour-
able places.

W. Generally first seen about the last week of April.

E. Arrived on 15th May 1838. Extremely rare.
7- White-rumped Sionechat, or Wheatear. Saxicola (Enanthe.

476 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

M. Arrives from the middle of March to the middle of
April, and departs in the end of September, King's
Park, Pentland Hills, quarries, and stone-walls. Not
uncommon.

W. Generally appears on Bathgate Hills about the begin-
ning of April. First observed in 1839 on the 4th. On
the 6th May two pairs seen building their nests under
stones in a limestone quarry.

E. Arrived on 12th April 1839. Departed on 28th Au-
gust 1838. Common.

8. White-fronted Redstart. Muticilla Plicenicurus.

M. Arrives in the end of April, and departs about the

middle of October. Not very rare.
W. Arrives usually about the middle of April. For the

last three years very few seen about Bathgate.
E. Arrived on 27th April 1839. Rather rare.

9. Black-capped Warbler. Sylvia Atricapilla.

M. Arrives in the beginning of May. Very rare. Dean
House, Braid Hermitage, Colinton, Canaan, and the
Duke of Buccleuch''s Park at Dalkeith.

W. In the neighbourhood of Bathgate, occasionally appears
about the beginning of May. On the 3d, 4th, and 5th
of May 1839, three remained in my shrubbery. One of
them sung most beautifully when perched upon the top
of a tall ash tree at my garden door ; its notes were clear
and well defined.

E. A pair seen on 11th May 1839, in a sloe brake, in the
glen of the Whittingham Water below Papal.

10. Garden Warbler. Sylvia hortensis.

W. Very shy, and seldom seen. I have however heard for
several successive years, two or three pairs of them in the
neighbourhood pour forth their sweet and mellow notes,
perched sometimes upon the top of some tall tree, or the
centre of some close retreat. In the beginning of July
1838, I discovered a nest with five eggs in Kinneil
Wood, belonging to the Duke of Hamilton. It was
built in a thicket of brambles, sloe, &c., about two feet
from the ground.

SUMMER BIRDS OF THE LOTHIANS. 477

11. White-throated Warhler, or White-throat. Sylvia cinerea.
M. Arrives in the beginning of May. Very abundant in

hedges and thickets. Departs in the end of September.

W. A great many of this species usually appear about
Bathgate in the end of April, or beginning of May.

E. Arrived on 1st May 1839. Departed on 10th Septem-
ber 1838. Rather common.

12. White-breasted Warbler, or Lesser White-throat. Sglvia

garrula.

M. Arrives about the 10th of May, Extremely rare.

W. In the end of May 1838, I observed in a plantation at
Wallhouse a bird which answered the description of the
Lesser White-throat. It was exceedingly shy and quick
in its motions.

E. Arrived on 14th May 1839. Departed on 8th Septem-
ber 1838. Rare.

13. Yellow Woodtcren. Phyllopneuste Syhicola.

M. Arrives in the beginning of j\lay. Not very rare.
Colinton and Rosslyn Woods. My son shot two on the
8th of May 1839.

W. A few pairs visit the neighbourhood of Bathgate about
the first and second weeks of May.

E. Arrived on 11th May 1839. Departed on 10th Sep-
tember 1838. Rather rare.

14. Willow Woodicren. Phyllopneuste Trochilus.

M. Arrives from the loth to the 25th of April. Very
common in woods and copses. Departs late in September.

W. In the neighbourhood of Bathgate very abundant, and
usually appear about the middle of April. The first seen
in 1839 was on the 24th.

E. Arrived on 24th April 1839. Departed on 9th Sep-
tember 1838. Abundant.

15. Chiff-chaff. Phyllopneuste Hippolais.

M. Arrives from the loth to the 25th of April. Extremely
rare. Departs in the beginning of October.

W. Very rare about Bathgate. I have seldom seen them,
and have only shot two or three specimens. I knew a
nest with five eggs.

478 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

16. Sedge Beedling. CalamoJierpe Phragmitis.

M. Arrives in the beginning of May. Rare. Dudding-
ston Locli.

W. Very seldom seen, but commonly heard about Bath-
gate in the middle and end of May, sometimes singing
during the whole night.

E. First seen on 4th May 1839. Extremely rare.

17. Marsh Eeedling. Calamohevpe arundlnacea.

W. Very rarely occurs in the neighbourhood of Bathgate.
I have only known of one nest, which had five eggs, and
was built among willows and some tall aquatic plants,
on the margin of Boarbaughlaw water, about the begin-
ning of June.

18. Grasshopper Chirper. Sihilatrix Locustella.

M. Arrives in the beginning of May. Extremely rare.

W. Seldom seen or heard in the neighbourhood of Bath-
gate. In a large and well-sheltered plantation on the
banks of the Avon, belonging to W. D. Gillon, Esq. of
Wallhouse, one or two, if the weather is very warm, may
be heard in the evening, about the middle and end of
May.

19. Banh Swallow. Hirundo riparia.

M. Arrives from the 20th to the end of April. Not un-
common about sandpits, quarries, and high banks. De-
parts in the end of September.

W. On the 10th of April 1889, a Sand Martin was seen
during the whole day flying around and over Bathgate
Mill-dam. On the 24th a pair visited Balbardie quarry,
and on the 1st of May ten or twelve pairs were seen at
the same place.

E. Arrived on 30th April 1839. Departed on 4th Sep-
tember 1838. Rather common.

20. Chimney or Red-fronted Swallow. Hirundo rustica.

M. Arrives from the 20th to the end of April. Abundant.

W. Generally appear about Bathgate in the end of April.
In 1839 they first appeared on the 24th.

E. Arrived on l7th April 1839. Departed on 23d Sep-
tember 1838. Plentiful.

SUMMER BIRDS OF THE LOTHIANS. 479

21. House Martin, or White-rumped Swallow. Hirundo urbica.
M. Arrives from the 25th of April to the 5th of May.

Abundant.

W. Arrives in the last week of April and beginning of
May.

E. Arrived on 17th April 1839. Departed on 23d Sep-
tember 1838. Plentiful.

22. Swift. Cypselus Miirarius.

M. Generally arrives from the 1st to the 8th of May,
and disappears about the 10th of August. Abundant.

W. Since the 20th of April, a solitary Swift has been seen
flying around the ancient church of Torphichen, where
several pairs annually breed. On Monday the 29th, ten
of them arrived at the same place. On the 7th of May
I saw fourteen of them. They flew to a great height in
the air, describing extensive circles, and uttering their
loud screams.

E. Arrived on 9th May 1839. Departed on 8th August
1838. Rather common.

23. Spotted or Grey Flycatcher. Muscicapa grisola.

M. Not extremely uncommon. A pair with young were
seen by me in one of the gardens at Lauriston, in July
1838 ; and I have obtained several specimens in the dis-
trict. Arrives late in May, and disappears early in
September.

W. A pair or two have for a number of years past visited
my garden regularly in the last week of May.

24. Cuckoo. Ciicidus canorus.

M. Arrives early in May. Two were seen and heard by
my son on Dalmahoy Hill, on the 4th of that month in
1837. Not rare on the Pentland Hills. Disappears in
August.

W. Not seen about Bathgate before the end of April. On
Monday morning, the 29th of April 1839, I observed
one alight upon a tree at a little distance from my gar-
den. What is very remarkable, I have for five or six
successive years heard the Cuckoo utter its well known

480 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY.

note on the 1st day of May. It was not however until
Saturday the 4th that it was heard here this year.
E. Arrived on 8th May 1839. Departed on 14th July
1838. The young departed on 15th SejDtember. Ra-
ther common.

25. Nightjar. Caprimulgus europwus.

M. Mr Carfrae has seen them in the " Meadows'" at Edin-
burgh, near Dalkeith, and in various other places.

W. Several pairs of them generally arrive in the parish of
Bathgate about the end of May, and they always resort
to the same situations.

E. Arrived on 25th May 1838, and disappeared on 25th
August. Rare.

26. Turtle Dove. Columha Turtur.

E. In the summer of 1837, I examined and dissected an
individual shot near Haddington, which was presented to
me by Mr Th. Fraser, Edinburgh.

27. Quail. Coturnix dactylisonans.

E. One was killed at Whittingham in 1836.

The summer visitants of the Grallatorial and Natatorial
tribes may be deferred until another opportunity occurs.

The following notes respecting the Sky-Lark I have recently
received from Mr Hepburn : — " On Wednesday, Sd April, I
observed a Lark sing for 4 minutes on the ground, and 3 mi-
nutes in the air. — April 15. Sky- Larks at present sing for
about 7 minutes at a time. I heard one or two sing for ] 1 or
12 minutes. I have shot a considerable number while sing-
ing, but as yet none of them proved to be females. — May 15th.
In the early part of the night, when the moon is shining bright,
and the stars have hung out their silver lamps, I have seen the
Sky-Lark spring from the ground, mount aloft, and sing for 2
or 3 minutes before descending to nestle by the side of his mate.
Judging from the positions in which I have seen heaps of their

SONG OF SKY-LARK. 481

excrements, I think that they generally, when paired, roost
within a few inches of each other. I still see daily parties of
from four to eight feeding together. The method which I
adopted to ascertain whether or not the females sing was to
walk in the fields, and when I perceived anything remarkable
in the song of a Lark, to shoot him. I thus procured eight or
nine, but none were females. My daily experience confirms
me in the statement which I formerly made to you, that Larks
sing less during windy than during cold weather. Yesterday,
the 14th May, we had showers of snow and hail. Till 10,
therm. 83°, wind W., but not high ; yet the Lark was in the
air. The Willow Wren, the White-throat, the Hedge Chanter,
the Blackbird, the Chaffinch, and Yellow Bunting were sing-
ing gaily. To-day the wind was high, and few songs were
heard, but in sheltered glens I heard many Willow Wrens,
and White-throats.""

The following observations on the same subject have recently
been naade by Mr Weir. " It is maintained by some modern
naturalists that the state of the weather has not much influence
on the songs of birds, except so far as it may affect their supply
of food. All I can say is, that for these eight or ten days past,
which have been uncommonly cold, with a strong east wind,
the sweet and harmonious song of our Sky- Lark, known and
admired by all, has scarcely been heard in this neighbourhood,
and when heard, its duration has been very short.

During the most part of the 14th May (1839) I paid some
attention to the singing of the Larks. In the forenoon and
the greater part of the afternoon, it was very cold, with showers
of snow, the wind from the east, and the thermometer between
37° and 40°. I saw and heard a considerable number of them
singing. Most of them however sung only about a minute
and none above two minutes. Between five and six in the
evening the wind changed to the west, and it became consider-
ably milder. I observed one continue to mount in the air, and
sing in full melody for the space of five minutes. It soared to
a very great height, and took about half a minute in descend-
ing. I saw another remain in the air singing for four minutes ;

VOL. 11. I I

482 SONG OF SKY-LARK.

it then came down with the rapidity of an arrow. — 15th May.
During this forenoon, the ground being covered with snow to
the depth of about six inches, and the thermometer at 46°, I
noticed several singing in the air ; none of them however con-
tinued more than half a minute. — l6th May. Between four
and six o'clock this morning, most of the Larks sung upon the
ground, or on the top of a wall ; some of them ascending in the
air ; their song did not exceed two minutes in duration. It
was a cold north*west wind, the thermometer 38°. During
the whole of the day I did not hear another. — l7th May. Be-
tween one and two o'clock this morning, several Larks were
singing, some upon the ground, and others appeared in the air.
Their song did not continue above two minutes. About three
o'clock they all ceased, and were not heard again during the
day. Thermometer in the morning 88°, at noon 50°. It blew
a hurricane from the south-west. About twenty minutes after
nine o'clock in the evening, I heard one sing for about three
minutes. — Monday, 20th May. Clear and sunny, with a cold
wind from the north-west ; thermometer 54°. I watched their
motions from eleven to five o'clock. During that time I heard
and saw a great many. Only one sang four and a half mi-
nutes ; another three and a half ; all the rest not above two
minutes. — 21st May. This day, which was sunny, with a
cold and strong wind from the north, the thermometer 46°,
very few sang, and of those which did, none continued above
two minutes. — 25th ISIay. During the afternoon, when the
wind was in the south-west, and the thermometer 56°, I saw
two Larks singing in the air, one of them continued six, the
other five minutes. — 27th JNIay. Very sunny, but the wind
cold, from the noth-west, and the thermometer 50°. I heard
and saw a great many singing ; none of them however con-
tinued above three minutes. — 28th May. Bright sunshine,
wind south-east, thermometer 60°. I saw a considerable num-
ber this forenoon. Between eleven and twelve, I observed one
singing in the air for about eight minutes. Two or three con-
tinued five ; some four, and several about three minutes."

WHITE AND PIED WAGTAILS. 483

Having, through Mr Audubon, obtained from Paris, a col-
lection of French birds, selected by his friend Dr Trudeau,
among which is a fine series of Motacilla alba and Budytes
flava, I embrace the opportunity thus offered of instituting a
comparison between them and specimens of our Pied and
Yellow Wacrtails.

Motacilla alba and Motacilla Yarrelli.

On comparing ten British specimens of Motacilla Yarrelli
with ten French specimens of Motacilla alba procured in the
neighbourhood of Paris, I find that of the French birds four
have the bill somewhat more slender than that of any of the
British, four have it equal in thickness to that of six of the
British, while in two it is equally broad at the base, and con-
siderably longer. The tarsus in the French birds is generally
more slender, and the claws are longer, but in all the specimens,
French and British, the tarsus is eleven twelfths of an inch in
length. Two of the French birds which have the smallest
bills, have the back black, and although nine of them have
been killed in April and May, and consequently have assumed
the black on the fore-neck and head entirely or nearly, five
have the back light grey, two deep black, two partly black and
partly grey. Some of these black-backed birds being thus as
darkly coloured as the finest old British males, that colour
affords no distinctive character. A French female in its
winter dress does not differ in any respect from a Scotch female
at the same season. The French birds which have the upper
parts grey, have them of a lighter and purer tint than those of
British specimens ; but the greys and yellows of French spe-
cimens of other species are equally brighter and purer than
those of British specimens. Among the French birds some
have the back pure grey, others grey with some new black
feathers coming in, and others black. The wings and tail of
the French birds are in all respects similar to those of the
British. After this comparison, I cannot but consider it ex-
tremely doubtful that the White Wagtail of the Continent
differs specifically from ours. The question can be finally

484 BUDYTES FLAVA AND RAYI.

settled only by a person who shall study both for a long period,
compare them in all their stages, carefully observe their habits,
and collect a great number of specimens, nests, and eggs.

BuDYTES FLAVA AND BuDYTES RaYI.

On comparing ten French specimens of Budytes jiata with
ten British specimens of Budytes Rayi^ I find no appreciable
difference in the bill, feet, claws, wings, or tail. Five French
specimens have the head, hind-neck, and cheeks greyish-blue,
with a white streak over the eye ; two have the head greyish-
blue, with some yellowish-green feathers interspersed and
white eyebands, which are yellow behind ; another has the
head greyish blue and yellow, half of the eyeband white, the
other half yellow ; another has the head yellowish-green, and
the eyeband yellow. In all, the cheeks are greyish-blue, ex-
cept the last, in which it is green. But in another, differing
in no other respect, the head is yellow anteriorly, green behind,
the eyeband yellow, the cheeks green. In all, the lower parts
are pure yellow ; but the chin, or upper part of the throat, in
those which have the head greyish blue and the eyeband white, is
more or less white. Some of them which have the head greyish-
blue have the feathers tipped with green. In all, the colours are
brighter than in British specimens, in none of which is there pure
greyish-blue on the head, that part being greyish-brown or
brownish-grey when the tips of the feathers are abraded. The
two green-headed French specimens agree precisely with two
British specimens, and are obviously of the same species ; but
unless as to the colouring of the head, neck, and cheeks, there
is no difference between them and the others ; and even the
colours of the other parts are precisely similar. On the whole,
I am much inclined to think that the two species are distinct;
but more extended observations than have hitherto been made
are necessary to settle the question. One character by which
they may be distinguished in all stages is this : — In Budytes
flava, the base of the feathers on the head is greyish-blue,
while in Budytes Rayi they are brownish ; hence, when the
tips and margins are abraded, the parts are bluish-grey in the

YOUNG OF BUDYTES FLAVA. 485

former, and brown in the latter. But it is possible that the
grey plumage may be merely seasonal.

Young of Budytes flava.

Five young birds shot, two on the 10th and three on the
25th of September 1885, in the neighbourhood of Paris, do not
differ materially from young birds of Budytes E,ayi shot in
Scotland. The general colour of the upper parts is a very
delicate light brownish-grey, the rump tinged with green ; the
wings and tail dusky, the feathers largely edged with greyish-
white, the first row of small, and the secondary coverts with
very pale brownish-grey. The two lateral tail-feathers on each
side as in the adult, the next with a small margin of white.
There is a cream-coloured band over the eye, becoming yellow
behind : the lower parts are yellow, the throat and abdomen
purer, the lower part of the neck tinged with red or ochre-
yellow ; and with some faintly dusky feathers arranged in a
semicircular manner. These birds are apparently in their
second plumage, the feathers being unworn.

In Motacilla and Budytes, the bills and claws vary in conse-
quence of being more or less worn at the tip, much in the same
degree as is observed in Cinclus Europseus. A large male, with
the tip of the upper mandible much worn, at first sight seems a
different species from a young individual, with the tip entire
and extending considerably beyond that of the lower mandible.

Blackcap. Sylvia atricapilla.

Three males and a female of this species having been shot
by my son in Colinton Woods, near Edinburgh, on the 31st
of May and the 1st of June, I embrace the opportunity thus
offered of adding some particulars to its history.

Length to end of tail

Extent of wings 8||

Bill along the ridge...

M.

M.

M.

F.

1 1
12

6A

"l2

6

1 1
12

n

q 2

•^12

9A

44

5

43

a

12

12

12

12

486 BLACKCAP.

M. M. M. F.

Gape-line /| |^ |^ 1^

Wing from flexure 3 8j^^ Sj\ 2^^

Tail , 2|^^ 2j% n ^%

Tarsus 9* ^* -9 ^

Hind toe |i {% |i j%

Its claw |{ II II 1^

Middle toe || f^ || ^e^

Its claw /_ ^2 1*2 ^2

His account of their manners is as follows : — " On the last day
of May and the 1st of June, while searching for the Blackcap
in Colinton Woods, near the spot where I had discovered a
nest a few days before, I was agreeably surprised at the sight
of several individuals of this species, which is considered of
very rare occurrence in this neighbourhood. But unfortunately
the nest which I had found was deserted before any eggs
were laid, probably because the female had seen me rummag-
ing in the neighbourhood. It was situated in a tuft of grass,
among a quantity of J]]gopodiuni Podagraria, at the root of a
young ash. In structure it resembled that of the Whitethroat,
but wanted the goose-grass (Galium Aparine) so invariably
found about the nest of that species. It was so admirably
concealed that in all probability I never should have seen it
had not the bird flown out. I observed that the males, besides
their regular song, uttered a variety of cries as they flew about.
One bird, for instance, repeated the syllable tic several times
in succession, while the cry of another resembled chic, chic,
repeated in the same way immediately on alighting. Another
imitated so exactly the sweet ditty of the Willow Wren,
Phyllopneuste Trochilus, of which several were singing at the
time, that I could hardly believe it until I saw its bill opening
and shutting in accordance with the umisual strain. That
there might be no mistake I shot him in the act. A female
which I procured was perfectly mute, and as she was sitting
on a low bush in a pensive attitude, resembled much the
Spotted or Grey Flycatcher, five of which I had shot the day
before in the same locality. The males on the contrary were

GARDEN WARBLER. 487

exceedingly shy, taking short flights from one tree to another,
immediately on alighting emitting their cry of tic^ tlc^ or chic,
chic, seldom continuing long in one place, but searching among
the leaves for insects with all the agility of a Woodwren or
even a Titmouse. I noticed that they alighted by preference
on the Plane-tree, Acer Pseudoplatanus, among the broad
leaves of which it was difficult to get more than a glimpse of
them."

Garden Warbler. Sylvia hortensi!^.

" In the same wood, where I procured the Blackcaps,"
says the same intelligent observer, " my attention was directed
to the song of a bird which I had never heard before, of sur-
passing beauty, combining with all the mellowness of that of
the Thrush and Blackbird, infinitely more variety and execu-
tion. On the following day I obtained a glimpse of this de-
lightful musician, and succeeded in shooting him, when he
turned out to be a beautiful specimen of Sylvia hortensis, of
whose occurrence in this part of the country I had not been
aware, and whose cranium will ere long form part of my col-
lection. The song of this bird pleased me more than that of
the Blackcap, or even the Nightingale, though I never heard
the latter to advantage. Were I to compare its notes to those
of any other bird, I know of none to which they bear a
greater resemblance than those of the Blackbird, when heard
at a considerable distance, on ' the crimsoned eve of a sum-
mer day.' But the song of the Fauvette is more exquisitely
modulated, and possesses more of that sweetness, which may
almost be said to be exclusively its own. I may here state
that an individual of Parus major, on the top of an enor-
mous Norway Fir, Pinus Abies, imitated the strain of the
Garden Warbler with such exactness as to induce me to com-
mit paricide, little imagining that I was shooting a poor Tit."
To this notice I have to add an account of the digestive organs,
and the measurement of the external parts. The tongue is
4^ twelfths long, sagittate and papillate at the base, with two
of the papilla? very large ; it is rather narrow, slightly concave

488 GRASSHOPPER CHIRPER.

above, horny, thin-edged, the tip rounded, deeply slit, and
lacerated. The oesophagus is 1{S long, of moderate and uni-
form width ; the proventriculus oblong ; the stomach rounded,
five twelfths long, and four and a half twelfths in breadth ; its
lateral muscles distinct, the left much larger ; the epithelium
very thin, dense, rather soft, with longitudinal rugae ; the in-
testine ten inches long, its greatest width two twelfths ; the
coeca two and a half twelfths lon^.

Length to end of tail 5{^ ; extent of wings 9j^ ; bill along
the ridge |l^ along the edge of lower mandible i% ; wing from
flexure Sj^^g ; tail 2f\ ; tarsus j% ; hind toe j^^, its claw 1*^ ;
middle toe l^^, its claw |t.

Habits of the Grasshopper Chirper.

" During a short residence in Norfolk, from the middle of
June to the beginning of October 1888, I had almost daily
opportunities of hearing the singular note of this interesting
bird, which is nowhere perhaps more abundant than in the
neighbourhood of Norwich, where J saw it alive for the first
time. While on my botanico-entomological rambles, I was
often surprised by a very remarkable cry which I frequently
heard, apparently coming from the hedges skirting the road,
and went to the spot in hopes of discovering some large species
of Grasshopper, or mayhap a mole-cricket, or similar insect,
but without success. The note, if once heard, can never be
afterwards mistaken for the sound of a grasshopper or cricket,
however striking the resemblance ; besides, the length of time
for which it is continued, provided the bird be not disturbed, is
much greater. Thus, on one occasion, while watching some
pike-lines, by the margin of a deep pool, I heard the trill of
the Grasshopper Chirper emitted from a neighbouring hedge for
at least twenty minutes, during which time the bird appeared to
have been sitting on the same spot. I cannot state the period
of the arrival of this bird in the eastern counties, but I ob-
served it as late as the end of September, up to which period
I regularly saw and heard my little friends in a lane through
which I passed every second day on my way to the bath-house

GRASSHOPPER CHIRPER. 489

at Heigham. Although it frequents hedges alone, in so far as
I have observed, I once heard two crying in the gardens at-
tached to the Bishop's palace at Norwich. It seldom perches
on trees, but I have occasionally heard its curious cry appa-
rently emanating from the elms in the hedge-rows, and have
more than once seen it in the same situation. In all its ac-
tions, and in some measure in the choice of its abode, it much
resembles the Sedge \Varbler, Calamoherpe phragmitis ; so
much so that to-day, 1st June, on seeing some of that species
skulking in a hedge near Edinburgh, I at first fancied that I
again saw my Norfolk friends, and almost regretted that the
procuring of a specimen put an end to the illusion. On Cos-
tessay Common, a few miles from Norwich, I never met with
it, although it is abundant in all the neighbouring hedges, so
much so that on a fine evening, I have at one time listened to
at least a dozen, and have heard their cries even until the Goat-
sucker and the Eat flitting about on noiseless wings announced
the close of day. A stone thrown into the hedge causes its in-
habitants to renew their cry, for song it cannot be called. I
have never heard any other notes uttered by this bird than that
single one which has procured for it in the neighbourhood the
name of Cricket-bird, from its similarity to the sound produced
by the Mole-cricket, Gryllotalpa vulgaris, and indeed of many
grasshoppers, although much louder. It has been stated that the
Grasshopper Chirper possesses the power of ventriloquism, in
common with the Corn Crake. This, however, I much doubt,
as by merely lowering and raising the voice, and at the same
time turning the head in various directions, the alleged ven-
triloquism might easily be produced. When on the ground,
which, however, it seldom is, unless at the root of a hedge or
thicket, where it is sufiiciently protected, it advances by a sort
of shuffling movement, somewhat like that of the Hedge
Chanter, Accentor modularis, although in activity it far sur-
passes that bird. In fact, it is continually in motion, and so
much does it trust to its powers of concealment for protection,
that I have several times in walking slowly along a narrow
lane driven the bird along for some distance, all the while
emitting its note, and keeping only a few yards in advance,

490 SEDGE REEDLING.

yet so well hidden that it was only at intervals that a glimpse
could be got of the tiny creature, which I would now and then
observe on the opposite side of the hedge. Almost the only
time that I saw it fairly on wing was under the following cir-
cumstances : — In one of the beautiful lanes near Costessay,
a large Dragonfly (Libellula depressa) had alighted on a
hedge, when, as I was stealing up to capture it, a Grasshopper
Chirper flew from the opposite hedge, about twelve feet dis-
tant, and pounced upon the insect, which, however, managed
to escape, although only to be presently caught by its other
pursuer. It could not have been for the purpose of destroying
so large an insect for food that the bird made this attack ; and
yet I have seen on the Braid Hills a still larger Dragonfly
( Jilstina grandis) pursued in like manner by a Pipit, Anthus
pratensis, which made several pounces at it, but without eftect."
The above notice is written by my son.

Sedge Reedling. Calamoherpe phragmitis.

Two males shot by the same person, by a hedge, in Gorgie
Meadows, near Edinburgh, on the 1st of June 1889, present
the following measurements :

Length to end of tail, S/g, 5|-j ; extent of wings, 7i§, 7i§ ;
bill along the ridge, i^^, ^% ; gape-line, |t' i^ ' ^^ing from
flexure, 2|^, 2|| ; tail, 2^%, 2^^ ; tarsus, f|, |% ; hind toe,
A> 1% ; its claw, ^1, 1^ ; middle toe, |^^-, j% ; its claw, ||, /^.

Tongue four and a half-twelfths long, sagittate and papillate
at the base, with two of the papillae very large ; narrow, horny,
and thin-edged, the tip with two bristle points ; oesophagus
one inch and eight-twelfths long ; stomach roundish, one inch
and four and a half-twelfths long, four and a half-twelfths broad,
the lateral muscles rather thick, the left much larger ; epi-
thelium very thin, with broad rugae ; intestine nine and a quar-
ter inches long, its greatest width one and a half twelfth ; coeca
one and a half twelfth long, nine-twelfths from the extremity.

EUROPEAN DIPPER. 491

CiNCLUS EUROP^US.

I have been favoured by Mr Weir with the following no-
tice. " Friday Evening, 17th May 1839, half-past nine. I
am now sitting before a blazing fire, exceedingly cold, having
just returned from watching, for a long time this day, the
young Dippers in their nest under the waterfall on the river
Avon (see p. 62). It contained five young ones. During the
time that I watched the old birds, they usually fed their off-
spring between thirty and forty times each hour. Notwith-
standing the great quantity of insects which they received,
they never appeared to be satisfied, for when their parents
came in view, they stretched their heads out of the door of
their dwelling, and set up a strong chirping, which was heard
at a considerable distance. When I observed the old ones,
they procured all their food at the bottom of the water, chiefly
in the stream. They generally dived from a stone, and after
a submersion of some seconds reappeared with the larvae of
some aquatic insects. They sometimes however did this seven
or eight times before they succeeded. This perhaps mio-ht
have been owing to the state of the water, as it was then j^retty
muddy. They carried away all the droppings of their brood
in their bills, and let them fall into the water, at the distance
of about forty and fifty yards from their residence. When I
put my hand into the nest, to feel if they were ripe, one of
them flew out into the middle of a broad and deep pool, and
dived with the greatest rapidity. It must have swam to a
considerable distance, as I could not see it again, although I
watched the sides of the river with the greatest circumspec-
tion.'"

Mr Hepburn informs me that he has in his neighbourhood
recently met with the Garden Warbler, Sylvia hortensis ; the
Sedge Reedling, Calamoherpe phragmitis ; and several speci-
mens of the Blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla.

492 CONCLUSION.

It was my intention to include in this volume the remaining
Terrestrial and Aerial birds, with the exception of the Rap-
tores ; but it has been found that these groups would occupy
nearly four hundred pages. I have therefore to intimate that
the Third Volume, which is now in progress, will appear on
the 1st of February next, and will contain the orders Repta-
tores, Immersores, Volitatores, Excursores, and Raptores.
Should these volumes be favourably received, the Fourth, con-
taining the Grallatorial, and the Fifth and last, occupied by
the Natatorial series, will be brought forward at intervals
shorter than that which is marked by the dates of the present
and the first volume. The intelligent reader may form a suf-
ficiently correct estimate of the labour aud expense necessary
for presenting so extensive a work to the public, to enable him
to perceive that any recommendation of it which his estimate
of its merits may permit him to make, will be gratifying to
the publishers as well as the author.

493

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Plate X. Respiratory and Vocal Organs of the Blackbird,
Turdus Merula.

FiG.l. Respiratory and Digestive Organs
of the Blaclchird exposed in situ.

a, the bill.

b, b, stylo-hyoideus.

c, c, branches of hyoid bone-

d, uro-hyal bone.
e,f, oesophagus.
g, stomach.

h, i, j, duodenal fold of intestine.
k, anus.

I, pectoral muscle.
m, heart.

n, right lobe of the liver.
o, left lobe of liver.
p, p, lungs.
q, r, s, trachea.
t, bifurcation of trachea,
w, It, bronchi.

V, V, contractor or sterno-tracheal mus-
cles.
tv, inferior laryngeal muscles.

Fig. 2.

Trachea of a Blackbird, ivith
its Muscles.

a, b, trachea.

b, b, cleido-tracheal muscles.

c, c, lateral or contractor muscles.

d, d, small slips.

e, e, sterno-tracheal slips.
f,f, bronchi.

Fig. 3. Tongue, Hyoid Bones, and
Larynx.

a, tongue.

b, b, horns of the hyoid bone.

c, ligament.

d, aperture of glottis.

e, Trachea.

f,f, cleido-thyroid muscles.
g, g, lateral muscles.

Fig. 4. Bones of the Larynx with two
pairs of Muscles, the Arytenoid and
Thyro-cricoid.

Fig. 5. Thyro arytenoid Muscles.

Fig. 6. Thyro-cricoid Muscles.

Fig. 7. Bifurcation of Trachea.

Fig. 8. Last entire Ring of Trachea.

Fig. 9. Lateral view of Inferior La-
ryngeal Muscles.

a, anterior internal muscle.

b, anterior external muscle,
e, posterior muscle.

d, intermediate muscle.

e, sterno-tracheal muscle.

Fig. 10. Posterior view of Inferior
Larynx.

494

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate XI. Respiratory and Vocal Organs of the Rook, Corvus

fruffileffus.

Fig. 1. Respiratory, Vocal, and Diges-
tive Organs of the Rook.

a, the tongue.

b, uro-hyal bone.

c, c, horns of hyoid bone.

d, d, genio-hyoidei.

e, e, stylo-hyoidei.

f, f, cleido-thyroidei.

g, h, i, oesophagus.
.;', proventriculus.
A, stomach.

I, m, n, n, duodenum and rectum.

0, 0, p, trachea.

q, inferior larynx, with its muscles.

r, r, bronchi,

s, s, contractor muscles.

t, t, lungs.

ti,, u, aperture communicating with the

thoracic cells.
V, V, V, three pairs of muscular slips

analogous to the diaphragm.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7, ribs.

Fig. 2. Hyoid Bone.

a, glosso-hyal element.
h, basi-hyal.

c, uro-hyal.

d, d, apo-hyal.

e, e, cerato-hyal.

/,/i terminal cartilages.

Fig. 3. Aperture of the Trachea or
Glottis.

a, base of tongue.

b, b, branches of hyoid bone.

c, rima glottidis.

d, triangular vacuity.

e, elastic ligament.

y,/, oval pad covered by papillae.

Fig. 4. Bones of the Larynx viewed from

before,
a, thyroid bone,

Fig. 5. Bones of the Lirynx viewed from
behind.

a, thyroid bone.

b, b, appendages to the thyroid bone.

c, cricoid bone.

d, d, arytenoid bones.

e, e, anterior margin of thyroid bone
with the two arytenoid ligaments.

Fig. 6. Bones of the Larynx viewed
laterally.

a, thyroid bone.

b, its appendage.

c, cricoid.

d, arytenoid.

f,f, cartilage appended to the aryte-
noid.
g, rings of trachea.

Fig. 7. Bones of the Larynx viewed
from behind.

a, thyroid.

b, b, its appendages.

c, cricoid.

d, d, arytenoid.

Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. Muscles of the
Larynx.

1, 1, thyro-hyoidei.

2, 2, thyro-arytenoidei, or apertores

glottidis.

3, 3, arytenoidei-obliqui.

4, 4, thyro-cricoidei.

5, 5, thyro-cricoidei postici.

Fig. 13. Bifurcation of the Trachea,
a, a, b, last entire ring.

Fig. 14. Last eiitire Ring of Trachea,
viewed from beneath.

Fig. 15. Bifurcation of Trachea and
Bronchi viewed from beneath.

a, bone of divarication.

b, b, last or divided tracheal rings.

Fig. 16. Inferior Laryngeal Muscles.

a, anterior internal muscle.

b, anterior external muscle.

c, intermediate muscle.

d, posterior muscle.

Fig. 17. Trachea of the Nightingale.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES,

495

Plate XII. Respiratory and Vocal Organs of Pigeons, Grouse,
and Parrots. Full size.

Fig. 1. Trachea of Wood Pigeon, Co-
lumba Pahcmbus, vieived from before.

a, the tongue.

b, b, processes of hyoid bone.

c, d, e, trachea.

f, thyro-hyoid muscles.

ff, g, contractor or lateral muscle, with

their sterno-tracheal slips.
h, h, single pair of inferior laryngeal

muscles.

Fig. 2. Lateral view of Inferior Larynx
or Syrinx.

a, sterno-trachealis.

b, tensor of the membrane of the sy-

rinx.

c, membrane of the syrinx.

Fig. 3. Last entire Ring, not divided.

Fig. 4. Glottis, vieived from behind.

a, tongue.

b, b, processes of hyoid bone.

c, aperture of glottis.

d, trachea.

e, e, lateral muscles.

Fig. 5. Bones of the Larynx.

a, thyroid.

b, its posterior prolongation.

c, cricoid.

d, arytenoid.

Figs. 6, 7. Rings of Trachea.

Fig. 8. Trachea of the Broivn Ptarmigan,
Lagopus scoticus.

a, the tongue.

b, b, apo-hyal and cerato-hyal bones.

c, trachea.

d, d, cleido-tracheal muscles,

e, e, sterno-tracheal slips.

f, inferior larynx, entirely destitute of

muscles.

g, g, bronchi.
h, h, lungs.

Fig. 9. Trachea of Psittacus ochroce-
phalus.

a, glosso-hyal bone.

b, basi-hyal bone,

c, uro-hyal bone,

d, d, apo-hyal bones.

e, e, cerato-hyal bones.

f, thyroid bone.

g, its appendages.
h, cricoid bone.

i, arytenoid bones.

j, k, trachea.

k, inferior larynx.

I, I, sterno-tracheal slips.
m, m, outer muscles.

n, n, inner muscles.

Fig. 10. Inferior Larynx, viewed later-
ally.

a, rings of trachea,

b, last entire ring.

c, dimidiate terminal ring.

d, first bronchial ring.

Figs. 11, 12, Muscles of the Larynx,

I I, thyro-hyoidei,

12, thyro-cricoidei.

Figs. 13, 14. Muscles of the Syrinx.

13, inner muscle.

14, outer muscle.

496

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate XIII. Digestive Organs of Cantatores. Half size.

In all the Figures, the tongue is marked a ; the oesophagus, bed; proventriculus,
c d : stomach, e ; intestine,/"^ A t\;; coeca, ?,- cloaca,,;.

Fig. 1. Dipper.
Fig. 2. BlachUrd.
Fig. 3. Ring Ouzel.
Fig. 4. Shore Lark.
Fig. 5. Pied Wagtail.

Fig. 6. Hedge Chanter.
Fig. 7. Nightingale.
Fig. 8. Blackcap.
Figs. 9, 10, 11. Blue Tit.
Fig. 12. Coal Tit,

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INDEX TO THE SPECIES DESCRIBED.

The Approved Names only are employed, the Synonymes and Provincial Names
being excluded.

Accentor alpinus,
Accentor modularis,
Alauda alpestris,
Alauda arborea,
Alauda arvensis,
Alpine Chanter,
Anthus aquaticus,
Anthus arboreus,
Anthus pratensis,
Anthus Richardi,

Blackbird,

Black-breasted Redstart,
Blackcap,

Black-capped Warbler,
Black-headed Bushchat,
Black Thrush,
Blue-headed Quaketail,
Blue- throated Redstart,
Blue Tit,

Brake Nightingale,
Budytes flava,
Budytes Rayi,
Bushchat, Black-headed,
Bushchat, Whin,

Calamoherpe arundinacea,
Calamoherpe phragmitis.
Chanter, Alpine,
Chanter, Hedge,
Chestnut-backed Thrush,
Chiff-chaff,
Chirper, Grasshopper,
Cinclus Europseus, .
Coal Tit,
Crested Tit,

Dipper, European,
VOL. II.

Page 258
251
159
174

163

258
194
188
181
199

81
311
339
339
279

81
208
300
431
321
208
212
279
273

393
390
258
251
105
379
399
50
440
450

50

Erithacus Rubecula, . Page 263

European Dipper, . 50

Fieldfare, . . 105

Fire-crowned Kinglet, . 416

Fruticicola Rubetra, . 273

Fruticicola Rubicola, . 279

Furzeling, Provence, . 383

Garden Warbler, . 345

Golden-crowned Kinglet, . 408

Golden Oriole, . . 73

Grasshopper Chirper, . 399

Green-headed Quaketail, 212

Grey-and-white Wagtail, . 221

Grey-and-yellow Wagtail, 235

Hedge Chanter, . .251

Kinglet, Fire-crowned, . 416

Kinglet, Golden-crowned, . 408

Lark, Shore, . . 159

Lark, Sky, . .163

Lark, Wood, . . 174

Long-tailed Mufflin, . 454

Marsh Reedling, . 395

Marsh Tit, . . 445

Mavis, . . 127

Meadow Pipit, . .181

Mecistura longicaudata, 454

Melizophilus provincialis, . 383

Missel Thrush, . 114

Motacilla alba, . . 220

Motacilla Boarula, . 235

Motacilla Yarrelli, . . 225

Mufflin, Long-tailed, . 454
K K

498'

INDEX TO SPECIES.

Nightingale, Brake, • Page 321

Sylvia atricapilla.

Page 339

Sylvia cinerea.

350

Oriole, Golden,

73

Sylvia hortensis,

345

Oriolus Galbula,

73

Sylvia garrula,

357

Ouzel, Ring, .

100

Stonechat,

279

Ox-eye Tit,

425

Stonechat, White -rumped,

289

Parus ater.

440

Thrush, Black,

81

Parus coeruleus.

431

Thrush, Chestnut backed,

105

Parus cristatus,

450

Thrush, Fieldfare, .

105

Parus Fringillago, .

425

Thrush, Missel,

114

Parus jtalustris,

445

Thrush, Red.sided,

141

Pettychaps,

345

Thrush, Redwing,

141

Philomela Luscinia,

321

Thrush, Ringed,

100

Phyllopneuste Hippolais,

379

Thrush, Song,

127

Phyllopneuste Sylvicola,

364

Thrush, Variegated,

146

Phyllopneuste Trochilus,

371

Tit, Blue,

431

Pied Wagtail,

225

Tit, Coal,

440

Pipit, Meadow,

181

Tit, Crested, .

450

Pipit, Richard's,

199

Tit, Marsh,

445

Pipit, Shore,

194

Tit, Ox-eye,

425

Pipit, Tree,

188

Tree Pipit,

188

Provence Furzeling,

383

Turdus iliacus.

141

Turdus Merula,

81

Quaketail,

208

Turdus musicus.

127

Quaketail, Green-headed,

212

Turdus torquatus, .

100

Turdus varius,

146

Redbreast, Robin,

263

Turdus viscivorus, .

114

Red-sided Thrush,

141

Redstart, Black-breasted,

311

Variegated Thrush,

146

Redstart, Blue-throated,

300

Redstart, White-fronted,

305

Wagtail, Grey-and-white,

221

Redwing Thrush,

141

Wagtail, Grey-and-yellow,

235

ReedHng, Marsh,

395

Wagtail, Pied,

225

Reedling, Sedge,

390

Warbler, Blackcapped,

339

Regulus auricapillus.

408

Warbler, Garden,

345

Regulus ignicapillus,

416

Warbler, White-breasted,

357

Richard's Pipit,

199

Warbler, White-throated,

350

Ringed Thrush, . •

100

Wheatear,

289

Ring Ouzel,

100

whin Bushchat,

273

Robin Redbreast,

263.

Whinchat,

273

Ruticilla cyanecula,

300

White -breasted Warbler,

357

Ruticilla Phoenicurus,

305

White-fronted Redstart,

305

Ruticilla Tithys,

311

White-rumped Stonechat,

289

Whitethroat,

350

Saxicola G^nanthe,

289

White-throated Warbler,

350

Sedge Reedling,

390

Willow Woodwren,

371

Shore Lark,

159

Wood-Lark,

174

Shore Pipit,

194

Woodwren, Short-winged,

379

Short-winged Woodwren,

379

Woodwren, Willow,

371

Sibilatrix Locustella,

399

Woodwren, Yellow,

364

Sky-Lark,

163

Song Thrush, .

127

Yellow Woodwren,

364

GENERAL INDEX.

Accentor, 246, 249.
Accentor alpinus, 246, 258.
Accentor modularis, 246, 251.
Air-cells, 16.
Alauda, 153, 155.
Alauda alpestris, 153, 159.
Alauda arborea, 154, 174.
Alauda arvensis, 153, 163.
Alaudinse, 150.
Alpine Chanter, 246, 258.
An Gobbchan uisge, 50.
Antcatchers and allied species, 45.
Anthus, 154, 178.
Anthus aquaticus, 154, 194.
Anthus arboreu3, 154, 188.
Anthus pratensis, 154, 181.
Anthus Richardi, 154, 199.

Babbling Warbler, 357.

Babillard, 357.

Beardy, 350.

Billy-biter, 431.

Billy Whitethroat, 345.

Bird, Cricket, 399.

Bird, Oat-seed, 212.

Black-and-white Wagtail, 225.

Blackbird, 69,81.

Blackbird, Moor, 100.

Blackbird, White-breasted, 100.

Black-breasted Redstart, 248, 311.

Blackcap, 339, 425, 485.

Black-capped Warbler, 315, 339, 485.

Black-headed Bushchat, 247, 279.

Black-headed Tomtit, 445.

Black Redtail, 311.

Black Redstart, 311.

Black Thrush, 81.

Blacky-top, 279-

Blethering Tarn, 350.

Blue-bonnet, 431.

Blue-cap, 431.

Blue-headed Quaketail, 204, 208.

Blue-headed Wagtail, 208.

Blue-throated Redstart, 248, 300.

Blue Tit, 420, 431.

Blue Titmouse, 431.

Bottle Tit, 454.

Bottle Tom, 454.

Brakehopper, Sibilous, 399.

Brake Nightingale, 315, 321.

Breac-ant'sil, 225.

Broinderg, 263.

Bronchi, 16.

Brown Wood- wren, 316, 379.

Budytes, 204, 206.

Budytes flava, 204, 208, 484.

Budytes Rayi, 204, 212, 484.

Bushchat, 247, 271.

Bushchat, Black-headed, 247, 279.

Bushchat, Whin, 247, 273.

Calamoherpe, 316, 388.

Calamoherpe arundinacea, 317, 395.

Calamoherpe phragmitis, 317, 390, 490,

Cantatores, 39.

Chanter, 246, 249.

Chanter, Alpine, 246, 258.

Chanter, Hedge, 246, 251.

Charly-mufty, 350.

Chestnut-backed Thrush, 105.

Chiff-chaff, 316, 379.

Chip-chop, 379.

Chirper, 317, 397-

Chirper, Grasshopper, 317, 399, 488.

Churr, 350.

Cinclus, 47, 48.

Cinclus Europaeus, 47, 48, 491.

Cinereous Wagtail, 221.

Clacharan, 289.

Coal Tit, 421, 440.

Coal Titmouse, 440.

Cock, Storm, 114.

Common Lark, 163.

Common Thrush, 127-

Common Titlark, 181.

Crested Tit, 421, 450.

Crested Titmouse, 450.

Cricket Bird, 399.

500

GENERAL INDEX.

Dartford Warbler, 383.
Dick-dunnock, 251.

Digestive organs of Blackbird, PI. XIIT.
Digestive organs of Blackcap, PI. Xill.
Digestive organs of Blue Tit, Pi. XIII.
Digestive organs of Coal Tit, PI. XIII.
Digestive organs of Dipper, PI. XIII.
Digestive organs of Hedge Chanter, PI.

XI 1 1.
Digestive organs of Nightingale, PI. XIII.
Digestive organs of Ring Ouzel, PI. XIII.
Digestive organs of Shore Lark, PI. XIII.
Digestive organs of Wagtail, PI. XIII.
Dipper, 47, 48, 491.
Dish-washer, 225.
Ducker, 50.
Dunnock, 251.
Dusky Lark, 194.

Erithacus, 247.

Erithacus Rubecula, 247, 263.

European Dipper, 47, 50.

Fallow Smich, 289.

Fauvette, 345.

Fauvet, (iarden, 345.

Feldyfar, 105.

Feltyfare, 105.

Feltyflier, 105.

Fieldfare, G9, 105.

Field Lark, 163.

Field Lark, short-heeled, 188.

Finch, Maryijold, 408.

Fire-crested Kinglet, 318, 416.

Firetail, 305.

Fruticicola, 247, 271.

Fruticicola Rubetra, 247, 273.

Fruticicola Rubicola, 247, 279.

Furzechat, 273.

Furzeling, 316, 382.

Furzeling, Provence, 316, 383.

Garden Fauvet, 345.

Garden Ouzel, 81.

Garden Thrush, 1 27.

Garden Warbler, 315, 345, 48?.

Glasian, 181, 194.

Gobha-dubh-nan-allt, 50.

Gobha uisge, 50.

Gold-crested Kinglet, 317, 408.

Golden-crested Wren, 408.

Golden Oriole, 69, 73.

Goldfinch, Tidley, 408.

Grasshopper Chirper, 317, 399, 488.

Grasshopper Warbler, 399.

Great Black-headed Tom Tit, 425.

Greater Pettychaps, 345.

Greater Tit, 420.

Great Titmouse, 425.

Green-headed Quaketail, 204, 212.

Grey-and-white Wagtail, 205, 221.
Grey-and-yellow Wagtail, 205, 235,
Grey Thrush, 105, 114.
Grey Wagtail, 221, 235.
Ground Wren, 371.

Hay Bird, 371, 379.
Hedge Chanter, 246, 251.
Hedge Sparrow, 251.
Hedge Warbler, 251.
Hick-Mall, 431.
Holm Thrush, 114.
Horned Lark, 159.
Huck-muck, 371, 454.

Kingsfisher, 50.

Kinglet, 317, 405.

Kinglet, Fire-crested, 318, 416.

Kinglet, Gold-crestid, 317, 408.

Lark, 153, 155.

Lark, Common, 163, 480,

Lark, Dusky, 194.

Lark, Field, 163.

Lark, Horned, 159.

Lark, Meadow, 188.

Lark, Rock, 194.

Lark, Sea, 194.

Lark, Shore, 153, 159.

Lark, Sky, 153, 163, 472, 480.

Lark, Wood, 154, 174.

Lai-ks and allied species, 150.

Laverock, 163.

Lesser White-throat, 35?.

Liath-troisg, 105.

Lon Dubh, 81.

Long-tailed Mag, 454.

Long-tailed Muiliin, 421, 454.

Lungs, 15.

Lungs of the Rook, 27.

Mag, Long-tailed, 454.

Marsh Reedling, 317, 395.

Marsh Tit, 421, 445.

Marsh Titmouse, 445.

Marygold Finch, 408.

Mavis, 70, 127.

Meadow Lark, 188,

Meadow Pipit, 154, 181.

Mecistura, 421, 453.

Mecistura longicaudata, 421, 454.

Meiizophilus, 316, 382.

Melizophilus provincialis, 316, 383.

Merle, 81,

Migratory Birds of East-Lothian, 4.

Migratory Birds of Mid-Lothian, 4.

Migratory Birds of West-Lothian, 4,

Missel Thrush, 70, 114.

Mistle Thrush, 114.

Mock Nightingale, 339.

GENERAL INDEX.

501

Moor Blackbird, 100.

Motacilla, 205, 218.

Motacilla alba, 205, 221, 483.

Motacilla Boarula, 205, 235.

Motacilla Yarrelli, 205, 225, 483.

Motacillinse, 202.

Moiintaiu Ouzel, 100.

Muff, 350.

Muffet, 350.

Mufflin, Long.tailed, 421, 454.

Mufty, 350.

Mum-ruffin, 454.

Myrmotherinae, 45.

Nettle-creeper, 345, 350.
Nightingale, 314, 319.
Nightingale, Brake, 315, 321.
Nightingale, Mock, 339.

Oat-seed Bird, 212.
Oriole, GO, 71.
Oriole, Golden, 09, 73.
Oriolus, 69, 71.
Oriolus Galbula, 69, 73.
Ouzel, 81.
Ouzel, Garden, 81.
Ouzel, Mountain, 100.
Ouzel, Ring, 69, 100.
Ouzel, Rock, 100.
Ouzel, Tor, 100.
Ouzel, Water, 50.
Ox-eye, 425, 431.
Ox-eye Tit, 425.

Parus, 420, 422.

Parus ater, 421,440.

Parus coeruleus, 420, 431.

Parus cristatus, 421, 450.

Parus Fringillago, 425.

Parus major, 420.

Parus palustris, 421, 445.

Parinae, 418.

Peggy White-throat, 345.

Pettychaps, 345.

Pettychaps, Greater, 345.

Philomela, 314, 319.

Philomela Luscinia, 315, 321.

Phyllopneuste, 315, 361.

Phyllopneuste Hippolais, 316, 379.

Phyllopneuste Sylvicola, 316, 364.

Phyllopneuste Trochilus, 316, 371.

Pied Wagtail, 205,225.

Pipit, 154, 178.

Pipit, Meadow, 154, )81.

Pipit, Richard's, 154, 199.

Pipit, Rock, 194.

Pipit, Shore, 154, 194.

Pipit, Tree, 154, 188.

Poke-pudding, 454.

Piactical Ornithology, 9, 462.

Provence Furzeling, 316, 383.

Quaketail, 204, 206.

Quaketail, Blue-headed, 204, 208.

Quaketail, Green-headed, 204, 212.

Redbreast, 263, 247.

Redbreast, Robin, 247, 263.

Red-sided Thrush, 141.

Redstart, 248, 298, 305.

Redstart, Black, 311.

Redstart, Black-breasted, 248, 317.

Redstart, Blue-throated, 248, 300.

Redstart, White-fronted, 248, 305.

Redtail, 305.

Redtail, Black, 311.

Redwing, 70, 141.

Reedling, 316, 388.

Reedling, Marsh, 317, 395,

Reedling, Sedge, 317, 390, 490.

Reed Warbler, 395.

Reed Wren, 395.

Regulus, 317,405.

Regulus auricapillus, 317, 408.

Regulus ignicapillus, 318, 416.

Respiration, function of, 18.

Respiration, organs of, 14.

Respiratory and vocal organs of Black-
bird, 19. PI. X.

Respiratory and vocal organs of Brown
Ptarmigan, 32. PI. XII.

Respiratory and vocal organs of common
Linnet, 29. PI. XI.

Respiratory and vocal organs of Parrot,
33. PI. XII.

Respiratory and vocal organs of Rook,
20. Pi. XI.

Respiratory and vocal organs of Wood
Pigeon, 30. PI. XII.

Richard's Pipit, 154, 199.

Ringed Thiush, 100.

Ring Ouzel, 69, 100.

Robin, 263

Robinet, 263.

Robin Redbreast, 247, 263.

Rock Lark, 194.

Bock Ouzel, 100.

Rock Pipit, 194,

Ruddock, 263.

Ruticilla, 248, 298.

Ruticilla Cyanecula, 248, 300.

Ruticilla Phoenicurus, 248, 305.

Ruticilla Tithys, 248, 311.

Saxicola, 248, 285.

Saxicolinse, 245.

Saxicola CEnanthe, 248, 289.

Screech Thrush, 114.

Sea Lark, 194.

Sedge-bird, 390, 490.

502

GENERAL INDEX.

Sedge Reedling, 317, 390, 490.

Sedge Warbler, 390.

Sedge Wren, 390.

Shore Lark, 153, 15.9.

Shore Pipit, 154, 194.

Short-heeled Field Lark, 188.

Shrite, 114.

Shuffle-wing, 251.

Sibilatrix, 317, 397-

Sibilatrix Locustella, 317, 399, 488.

Sibilous Brakehopper, 399.

Sky Lark, 153, 163.

Smeorach, 127.

Song of Sky Lark, 472, 480.

Songsters, 39.

Song-birds of America, 469.

Song Thrush, 127-

Sparrow, Hedge, 251.

Spring Wagtail, 212.

Stanechack, 289. •

Stonechat, 248, 279, 285, 289.

Stonechats and allied species, 245.

Stonechat, White-rumped, 248, 289.

Stonechatter, 279.

Stonesmich, 279.

Storm Cock, 114.

Suburban Excursion, 9.

Summer Birds of the Lothians, 474.

Summer Wagtail, 212.

Swinepipe, 141.

Sylvia, 315, 337.

Sylvia atricapilla, 315, 339, 485.

Sylvia cinerea, 315, 350.

Sylvia curruca, 315.

Sylvia hortensis, 315, 345, 487.

Sylvia Trochilas, 357.

Sylviana;, 313.

Throstle, 127-

Thrush, 69, 77, 127.

Thrush, Black, 81.

Thrush, Chestnut-backed, 105.

Thrush, Common, 127-

Thrush, Gaiden, 127.

Thrush, Grey, 105, 114.

Thrush, Holm, 114.

Thrush, Missel, 70, 114.

Thrush, Mistle, 114.

Thrush, Red-sided, 141.

Thrush, Ringed, 100.

Thrush, Screech, 114.

Thrush, Song, 127.

Thrush, Variegated, 70, 146.

Thrush, Wind, 141.

Thrushes and allied species, 66.

Tidley Goldfinch, 408.

Trachea, 21.

Trachea, mechanism of the tube of, 3.

Trachea of Brown Ptarmigan, 4, 32.

Trachea of Parrot, (Psittacus ochroce-

phalus,) 33.
Trachea of Rook, 22.
Trachea of Wood Pigeon, 30.
Tit, 420, 422.
Tit, Blue, 420, 431.
Tit, Bottle, 454.
Tit, Coal, 421, 440.
Tit, Crested, 421, 450.
Tit, Greater, 420,
Tit, Marsh, 421, 445.
Tit, Ox-eye, 425.
Tits and allied species, 418.
Titlark, 181.
Titlark, Common, 181.
Titling, 181.
Titmouse, Bhie, 431.
Titmouse, Coal, 440.
Titmouse, Ciested, 450.
Titmouse, Great, 425.
Titmouse, Marsh, 445.
Tom, Bottle, 454,
Tom Tit, 431.

Tom Tit, Black-headed, 445.
Tor Ouzel, 100.
Tree Pipit, 154, 188.
Turdinae, 66.
Turdus, 69, 77-
Turdus iliacus, 70, 141.
Turdus raerula, G9, 81.
Turdus musicus, 70, 127.
Turdus pilaris, 69, 105.
Turdus torquatus, 69, 100.
Turdus varius, 70, 146.
Turdus viscivorus, 70, 114,

Uiseag, 163,

Variegated Thrush, 70, 146.
Vital functions of Birds, 13.
Voice, how produced, 23,

Wagtail, 205, 218.

Wagtail, Black-and-white, 225.

Wagtail, Blue-headed, 208.

Wagtail, Cinereous, 221,

Wagtail, Grey, 224, 235,

Wagtail, Grey-and-white, 205, 221.

Wagtail, Grey-and-yellow, 205, 235.

Wagtail, Pied, 205, 225.

Wagtail, Spring, 212.

Wagtail, Summer, 212.

Wagtail, Water, 225.

Wagtail, Winter, 225.

Wagtail, White, 225,

Wagtail, Yellow, 208, 212, 235.

Wagtails a"nd allied species, 202.

Warbler, 315, 337.

Warbler, Babbling, 357.

GENERAL INDEX.

503

Warbler, Black-capped, 315, 339, 485.

Warbler, Dartford, 383.

Warbler, Garden, 315, 345, 487.

Warbler, Grasshopper, 399.

Warbler, Hedge, 251.

Warbler, Reed, 395.

Warbler, Sedge, 390.

Warbler, White-breasted, 315, 357-

Warbler, White-throated, 315, 350.

Warbler, Willow, 371.

Warblers and allied species, 313.

Water Crow, 50.

Water Ouzel, 50.

Water Piet, 50.

Water Wagtail, 225.

Whattie, 350.

Wheatear, 289.

Wheetie-why, 345.

Whin Bushchat, 247, 273.

Whinchat, 273.

Whishey, 350.

Whisky, ScDtch, commended, 470.

White-breasted Blackbird, 100.

White-breasted Warbler, 315, 357.

White-fronted Redstart, 248, 305.

White-rump, 289.

White-rumped Stonechat, 248, 289.
White-tail, 289.
Whitethroat, 345.
Whitethroat, Billy, 345.
White-throated Warbler, 315, 350.
White-throat, Lesser, 357-
White-throat, Peggy, 345.
White Wagtail, 225.
Willow Warbler, 371-
Willow Wood-wren, 31C, 371-
Willow Wren, 371-
Wind Thrush, 141,
Winter Wagtail, 225.
Wood Lark, 154, 174.
Wood-wren, 315, 361.
Wood-wren, Brown, 316, 379.
Wood-wren, Willow, 316, 371-
Wood-wren, Yellow, 316, 364.
Wren, Golden-crested, 408.
Wren, Ground, 371.
Wren, Reed, 395.
Wren, Sedge, 390.
Wren, Willow, 371-

Yellow Wagtail, 208, 212.
Yellow Wood-wren, 316, 364.

END OF VOLUME SECOND.

W. BURNESS, PRINTER, EDINBURGH.

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