\

.^jj;:r>^

iStUUiam J?asl) ^kiUicm-nc, iW.X

_kJ.

A A

c^Ass £;

SHEL.? NO g^u)

Presented to the
LIBRARY of the

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

by

SHARON & KEN DENT

A HISTORY OF THE EARTH
AND ANIMATED NATURE.

BY OLIVER GOLDSMITH.

WITH COPIOUS NOTES;
^nt) an ^ppcntiix,

CONTAIMNG EXPLANATIONS OF TECHNICAL TERMS, AND AN OUTLINE Of
THE CUVIERIAN AND OTHER SYSTEMS,

BY

CAPTAIN THOMAS BROWN,

F.L.S., M.W.S., M.K.S.

VOL. III.— PART II.

A. FULLARTON AND CO.,
EDINBURGH, GLASGOW, AND LONDON.

1840.

VfrshvoI^'^^

to
v^3

GLASGOW:

Flll.I.AKTON AM) tO., PHINTI 1!S, VILLA FIEI.n.

GXLW

yi'. -•>..)«

t! /(•/'./ f,.i,h(ir . 7 H',>,',/.;icA- . A' t'.iiiiiiioi, Stiifi. !)7.,i/i.l';ii/

G.XL^TI

/ Shir //h;< />:■.:? i:i, /^-i- y>iir/c.-y Sh.nrt.-f.liri.i.. 11
t! lioiftirii/rr. / i'rl>r,tii . A' i '.uni.if.m > .

• il) III I'll J''»i

!'nHi:1i,-,l1n \v ! '.' /'iill.if..,,

.m*

R.Smlt.

I firy iraoktd I>fn/irorolapff'.i3hwS(rry Eater. iJlookedEatf U.J. 'linibiivi
riimortfns.i frestcd starhi .>^ rommrm Thirk£hee . 7 Bearded. Tnchophorus ■
S'Vhite fronted Wmakin .9 KthiteVin/ied fHdtmmUOJlnpfiruj iW^rfmtJt Southern
Aptfnyx . 12 Tatnnanicui H-rufuin .

MisVaiv ATrh*Prin3r<Tn& "? Cie^ffiyt.

GJOMK

J So/,i/i (ioosf:? S/i.i.i. 3 Creaf NorfJt^rn Dii'er. 4 Little Auk.
5 Grfa/ Auk. 6 Pu/'ft/i 7 l)ndo.

Published by j^rcli^ FuUajrton &C? Glasgow.

Gj.xe

I

/ t:/<vmf?ircUTor/r,isr " f/„.,Vr/^,/ /'" ; ,.v,-v, V!,,-//,' I ,'njuigeiu irocodHe.5 i.omrwu
n? 6 uocodiles F.,7ii

hiilili.fli.il by .Ar. li'' l-'iiUiii(.iii & i'') (Jlnsj^o*-.

(..r.Aiv'

1 liciinoj) Tailed. Gnr.ki).2 Coinnum Canw.lecm .S I'mnincyi ^ki>ik.4JiH7tilVritri.
.5 Eel Siiapnl !=,ir(ni .6 Crcnt Bnn,7 Bunrlrrl Tinlllc finnh:

I'litilinhL-.l l)y /\rMli'J riilliirron & C OlusgoH'.

GXXV

KScott
J Spectacle SiiakeSEel shaped c'eeci/ia . .? Creen F^o^. 4E<7<?s. b Tudpoles.
iiMcq.>hili<- Toads SalaiiuuuUr.S Siirui.unhi<.i 9 M'.il. r Vii^teiis }0 llonifA
ToadJl Trfe />»y.

T\iblisliL-d.ljy Arcli^ Fullirton & Ce Olasgoir

G.Lm

1 Lesst-r lamprey ZdutitunuHcuf. S Lesser Spotted Shark 4 Whie JJ? fi Par
■ r.jgU D' eUamnuarUrndeA T>' 7 Jjaskiiut Dr

fiJilj.sliHdhry Arct'l-Fullarton ?< CA'Clasgo

G.LI\r

Ji.SrfiU.

Ijtiit/rl flW/i J /■liin yixh.l TnipriUi 41)<rnuni Hoy .5 Nnrdifin I'liiiinvni .
C Si,iilhrr-„ />" 7 S'diriii-on.g/ti-tiiiifnlnl S/lnhiliitui .

I'ii)),liu}ii-.J Jjy ArN'li'.'rtill/irfati i-C'Clasgow

G.iV

/ KiiiiitJ Diod.:n 2 T.ineated Tclj-ot:bon.3 Slujrl Sun fmk .1 Old li^ifc or File Tj" 5l'iUconi
:• dll<,nufl TnmkD'? 7 fireaiPipeB'! S .'ijjstrcdianl^H-D'^ 9 DraaOtvPe^asw .

I'll)* .U>^>U'7A.-ili'^r\-illiu-l"ii i ir'vJlasijuH'.

GLVl

=^^

-.<^

"^(^®-^^Si=^

J Chine.f '/h/iiirrn pt/t,- l-'i.r/i :^ /'/li/w.ti' Car Fish .3 S/^a J'ilcc .4 Aiuliovu.ftliream
f) Tnro S/tinff/ Fi/f fish.7Jiarhel a1 Sharp Nosed Ban. 9 Anieruaji KtriijhtFish

I'uL.lisliedly Ai-ai^lTiUirtani:i:>^ laascow.

GLMI

a,-3>9ka^Sk'S» S>*s-=. s^

I MacropUf^notiu'. 2 Nilottf /'oUiftteriis S ^7i/m<r J-bh,.4 i,ohUri (\irt>.S> Four Kuci
JlnaJftntKt. lij'inielodus Jiaoiiriiu. ~JiJit>in/>.ir S.il/non iV Pt,i/iistiiciis i7i.i^,i

I'nlJlishcflliy Aivh"? KnLliirtou&c:^i';bi*-(<cw.

luUishi'd I'V Ai-i-h' liilLarlci

I.X

f}ir.'r':'i->-.,^-'f

4mn\%-'i^

l&il^-g0--

'•^i^-

•<«i!^

JSurituwi Ci/tffeiiJ.2 C.reeti Srar.ts 3 (iold Tailefl Spariis. 4 Tcuiu. 5 Soap
Holeceiitnc! .6 Spoaediroloantrwt./ Star Cr(vu;r.f: AnteniiaUd Scorpae'm.9Dra-

■ i^n VeeverlO Sunnull/^t

I'lillislu-Jby ATcU'lRillHitxu & CV Glusipw.

BOOK VI.

OF BIRDS OF THE CRANE KIND.

CHAP. I.

OF BIRDS OF THE CRANE KIND IN GENERAL.

The progressions of Nature from one class of beings to another,
are always by slow and almost imperceptible degrees. She has
peopled the woods and the fields with a variety of the most
beautiful birds ; and, to leave no part of her extensive territories
untenanted, she has stocked the waters with its feathered in-
habitants also : she has taken the same care in providing for the
wants of her animals in this element, as she has done with re-
spect to those of the other ; she has used as much precaution
to render water-fowl fit for swimming, as she did in forming
land-fowl for flight ; she has defended their feathers with a
natural oil, and united their toes by a webbed membrane : by
which contrivances they have at once .=ecurity and motion. But
between the classes of land-birds that shun the water, and of
water-fowl that are made for swimming and living on it, she has
formed a very numerous tribe of birds, that seem to partake of a
middle nature ; that, with divided toes, seemingly fitted to live
upon land, are at the same time furnished with appetites that
chiefly attach them to the waters. These can properly be called
neither land-birds nor water-fowl, as they provide all their sus-
tenance from watery places, and yet are unqnalifiod to seek it in
those depths where it is often found in greatest plenty.*

This class of birds, of the crane kind, are to be distinguished

* llift tenn waiiera is now applied to this description of birds. Tlic
jstrirhos, thoiigli differing considerably from otlicr families, belong properly
to tliis oriliT.

UI. 2 C

3(12 HISTORY OF

^rom others rather liy tlieir appetites than their conformation.
Yet even in this respect they seem to be sufficiently discrimi-
nated by nature : as they are to live among the waters, yet are
incapable of swimming in them, most of them have long legs,
fitted for wading in shallow waters, or long bills proper for grop-
ing in them.

Every bird of this kind, habituated to marshy places, may be
known, if not by the length of its legs, at least by the scaly sur-
face of them. Those who have observed the legs of a snipe or
a woodcock, will easily perceive my meaning ; and how different
the surface of the skin that covers them is from that of the
pigeon or the partridge. Most birds of this kind also, are bare
of feathers half way up the thigh ; at least, in all of them, above
the knee Their long habits of wading in the waters, and hav-
ing their legs continually in moisture, prevents the growth of
feathers on those parts ; so that there is a surprising difference
between the legs of a crane, naked of feathers almost up to the
body, and the falcon, booted almost to the very toes.

The bill is also very distinguishable in most of this class. It
is, in general, longer than that of other birds, and in some finely
fluted on every side ; while at the point it is possessed of extreme
sensibility, and furnished with nerves, for the better feeling their
food at the bottom of marshes, where it cannot be seen. Some
birds of this class are thus fitted with every convenience ; they
have long legs, for wading j long necks for stooping ; long bills,
for searching ; and nervous points, for feeling. Others are not
to amply provided for ; as some have long bills, but legs of no
great length ; and others have long necks, but very short legs.
It is a rule which universally holds, that where the bird's legs
are long, the neck is also long in proportion. It would indeed
be an incurable defect in the bird's conformation, to be lifted
upon stilts above its food, without being furnished with an in-
strument to reach it.

If we consider the natural power of this class, in a compara-
tive view, they will seem rather inferior to those of every other
tribe. Their nests are more simple than those of the sparrow ;
and their methods of obtaining food less ingenious than those of
the falcon ; the pie exceeds them in cunning ; and though they
have all the voraciousness of the poultry tribe, they want their
fecundity. None of this kind, therefore, have been taken into

BIRDS. 303

mail's society, or under his protection ; they are neither caged,
like the nightingale ; nor kept tame, like the turkey ; but lead a
life of precarious libeity, in fens and marshes, at the edges of
lakes, and along the sea-shore. They all live upon fish or in-
sects, one or two only excepted ; even those that are called vi^id.
suckers, such as the snipe and the woodcock, it is more than pro-
bable, grope the bottom of marshy places only for such insect*
as are deposited there by their kind, and live in a vermicular
state, in pools and plashes, till they take wing, and become fly-
ing insects.

All this class, therefore, that are fed upon insects, their food
being easily digestible, are good to be eaten ; while those who
live entirely upon fish, abounding in oil, acquire in their flesh the
rancidity of their diet, and are, in general, unfit for our tables.
To savages, indeed, and sailors on a long voyage, every thing
that has life seems good to be eaten ; and we often find them
recommending those animals as dainties, which they themselves
would spurn at after a course of good living. Nothing is more

common in their journals than such accounts as these " This

day we shot a fox — pretty good eating : this day we shot a heron

— pretty good eating : and this day we killed a turtle"

which they rank with the heron and the fox, as " pretty good
eating." Their accounts, therefore, of the flesh of these birds,
are not to be depended upon ; and when they cry up the heron
or the stork of other countries as luxurious food, we must al-
ways attend to the state of their appetites who give the character.

In treating of this class of birds, it will be best to observe the
simplest method possible ; neither to load the memory with
numerous distinctions, nor yet confuse the imagination by a
total want of arrangement. I will, therefore, describe some of
the larger sorts separately ; as, in a history of birds, each of
these demands peculiar distinction. The crane, the stork, the
Balearic crane, the heron, the bittern, with some others, may
rccjuire a separate history. Some particular tribes may next
offer, that may very naturally be classed together ; and as for all
the smaller and least remarkable sorts, they may be grouped
into one general description.

2c2

oOl HISTORY OF

CHAF. II.

THE CRANE.

There is something extraordinary in the different accounts
we have of this bird's size and dimensions. Willoughby and
Pennant make the crane from five to six feet long, from the tip
to the tail. Other accounts say that it is above five feet high ; and
others, that it is as tall as a man. From the many which I myself
had seen, I own this imputed magnitude surprised me ; as from
memory I was convinced, they could neither be so long nor so
tall. Indeed, a bird, the body of which is not larger than that
of a turkey-hen, and acknowledged on all hands not to weigh
above ten pounds, cannot easily be supposed to be almost as long
as an ostrich. Brisson, however, seems to give this bird its real
dimensions, when he describes it as something less than the
brown stork, about three feet high, and about four from the tip
to the tail. Still, however, the numerous testimonies of its
superior size are not to be totally rejected ; and, perhaps, that
from which Brisson took his dimensions, was one of the smallest
of the kind.

The crane, taking its dimensions from him, is exactly three
feet four inches from the tip to the tail, and four feet from the
head to the toe. It is a tall slender bird, with a long neck and
long legs. The top of the head is covered with black bristles,
and the back of it is bald and red, vvliich sufficiently distinguishes
this bird from the stork, to which it is very nearly allied in size
and figure. The plumage in general, is ash-coloured ; and
there are two large tufts of feathers, that spring from the pinion
of each wing. These bear a resemblance to hair, and are finely
curled at the ends, which the bird has a power of erecting and
depressing at pleasure. Gesner says, that these feathers, in his
time, used to be set in gold, and worn as ornaments in caps.

Such are the dimensions of a bird, concerning which, not to
mention modern times, there have been more fables propagated
than of any other. It is a bird with which all the ancient writers
are familiar; and, in describing it, they have not failed to mix
imagination with history. From the policy of the cranes, they
say, we are to look for an idea of the most perfect republic

BIRDS.

SOf)

amongst ourselve? ; from tneir tenderness to their decrepit pa-
rents, which they take care to nourish, to cherish, and support
when flying, we are to learn lessons of filial piety; but particu-
larly front! their conduct in fighting with the pigmies of Ethiopia,
we are to receive our maxims in the art of war. In early times,
the history of Nature I'ell to the lot of poets only, and certainly
none could describe it so well ; but it is a part of their province
to embellish also ; and when this agreeable science was claimed
by a more sober class of people, they were obliged to take the
accounts of things as they found them ; and, in the present in-
stance, fable ran down blended with truth to posterity.

In these accounts, therefore, there is some foundation of truth ;
yet much more has been added by fancy. The crane is certain-
ly a very social bird, and they are seldom seen alone. Tlicir
usual method of flying or sitting is in flocks of fifty or sixty to-
gether ; and while a jiart feed, the rest stand like sentinels upon
duty. The fable of their supporting their aged parents, may
have arisen from their strict connubial affection ; and as for their
fighting with the pigmies, it may not be improbable but that they
have boldly withstood the invasions of monkeys coming to rob
their nests ; for in this case, as the crane lives upon vegetables,
it is not probable that it would be the first aggressor.

However this be, the crane is a wandering, sociable bird, that,
for the most part, subsists upon vegetables ; and is known in
every country of Europe, except our ov.-n. There is no part of
the world, says Etllonius, where the fields are cultivated, that
the crane does <iot come in with the husbandman for a share in
the harvest. As they are birds of passage, they are seen to de
part, and return regularly at those seasons when their provision
invites or repels them. They generally leave Europe about the
latter end of autunni, and retiu'n in the beginning of summer.
In the inland parts of the continent, they are seen crossing the
country in flocks of fifty or a hundred, making from the northern
regions towards the south. In these migrations, however, they
are not so resolutely bent upon going forward, but that if a field
of corn offers in their way, they will stop awhile to regale upon
it : on such occasions they do incredible damage, chiefly in the
night ; and the husbandman, who lies down in joyful expecta-
tion, rises in the morning to see his fields laid entirely waste by
an enemy, whose march is too swift for his vengeance to overtake.

2c3 '

306 HISTORY Ol'

Our own country is free from their visits ; not but that they
were formerly known in this island, and held in great estima-
tion for the delicacy of their flesh ; there was even a penalty
upon such as destroyed their eggs ; but, at present, they nes'er
go so far out of their way. * Cultivation and populousness go
hand in hand ; and though our fields may offer them a greater
plenty, yet it is so guarded that the birds find the venture greater
than the enjoyment ; and probably we are much better off by their
absence than their company. Whatever their flesh might once
have been, when, as Plutarch tells us, cranes were blinded and
kept in coops, to be fattened for the tables of the great in Rome ;
or, as they were brought up, stuffed with mint and rue, to the
tables of our nobles at home ; at present, they are considered all
over Europe as wretched eating. The flesh is fibrous and dry,
requiring much preparation to make it palatable; and even
after every art, it is fit only for the stomachs of strong and la-
bouring people.

The cold Arctic region seems to be this bird's favourite abode.
They come down in the more southern parts of Europe, rather
as visitants than inhabitants : yet it is not well known in what
manner they portion out their time, to the different parts of the
world. The migrations of the fieldfare or thrush, are obvious
and well known ; they go northward or southward, in one sim-
ple track ; when their food fails them here, they have but one
region to go to. But it is otherwise with the crane ; he changes
place, like a wanderer : he spends the autumn in Europe ; he
then flies off, probably to some more southern climate, to enjoy
a part of the winter ; returns to Europe in the spring j crosses
up to the north in summer ; visits those lakes that are never
dry; and then comes down again, to make depredations upon
our cultivated grounds, in autumn. Thus, Gesner assures us,
that the cranes usually begin to quit Germany, from about the
eleventh of September to the seventeenth of October; from
thence they are seen flying southward by thousands ; and Redi
tells us, they arrive in Tuscany a short time after. There
they tear up the fields, newly sown, for the grain just committed
to the ground, and do great mischief It is to be supposed, that,
in the severity of winter, they go southward, still nearer the line,

* They iiiQ still, though very rarely, to be seeu in this country.

BmDS. 307

They again appear in the fields of Pisa, regularly about the
twentieth of February, to anticipate the spring.

In these journeys, it is amazing to conceive the heights to
which they ascend when they fly. Their note is the loudest of
all other birds ; and that is often heard in the clouds, when the
bird itself is entirely unseen. As it is light for its size, and
spreads a large expanse of wing, it is capable of floating at the
greatest height, where the air is lightest ; and as it secures its
safety, and is entirely out of the reach of man, it flies in tracts
which would be too fatiguing for any other birds to move for-
ward in.

In these aerial journeys, though unseen themselves, they ha\e
the distinctest vision of every object below. They govern and
direct their flight by their cries ; and exhort each other to pro-
ceed or to descend, when a fit opportunity offers for depredation.
Their voice, as was observed, is the loudest of all the feathered
tribe ; and its peculiar clangour arises from the very extraordinary
fength and contortion of the windpipe. In quadrupeds, the
windpipe is short, and the glottis, or cartilages that form the
voice, are at that end of it which is next the mouth ; in water-
fowl, the windpipe is longer, but the cartihiges that form the
voice are at the other end, which lies down in their belly. By
this means they have much louder voices, in proportion to their
size, than any other animal whatever ; for the note when formed
below, is reverberated through all the rings of the windpipe, till
it reaches the air. But the voice of the duck or the goose, is
nothing to be compared to that of the crane, whose windpipe is
not only made in the same manner with theirs, but is above
twenty times as long. Nature seems to have bestowed much
pains in lengthening out this organ. From the outside, it enters
through the flesh into the breast-bone, which hath a great cavity
within to receive it. There being thrice reflected, it goes out
again at the same hole, and so turns down to the lungs, and thus
enters the body a second time. The loud clangorous sound
which the bird is thus enabled to produce, is, when near, almost
deafening : however, it is particularly serviceable to the animal
itself, eitlier during its migrations, or its stay ; by it the flock is
encouraged in their journeys ; and if, while tiiey are feeding,
which is usually performed in j)rofouiid silence, they are invaded

308 HISTORY OF

on any side, the bird that first perceives the danger is sure to
sound the alarm, and all are speedily ui)on the wing.

As they rise but heavily, they are veiy shy birds, and seldom
let the fowler approach them. Their depredations are usually
made in the darkest nights ; at which time they enter a field of
corn, and trample it down, as if it had been crossed over by a
regiment of soldiers. On other occasions, they choose some ex-
tensive solitary marsh, where they range themselves all day, as
if they were in deliberation ; and not having that grain which is
most to their appetites, wade the marshes for insects and other
food, which they can procure with less danger.

Corn is their favourite food ; but there is scarcely any other
that comes amiss to them. Redi, who opened several, found-tbe
stomach of one full of the herb called dandelion ; that of another
was filled with beans ; a third had a great quantity of clover in
its stomach : while that of two others was filled with earth-
worms and beetles ; in some he found lizards and sea-fish ; in
others, snails, grass, and pebbles, swallowed perhaps for medi-
cinal purposes. It seems, therefore, that these birds are easily
supplied ; and that they are noxious to corn-fields but on some
particular occasions.*

In general it is a peoceful bird, both in its own society, and
with respect to those of the forest. Though so large in appear-
ance, a little falcon pursues, and often disables it. The method
is, with those who are fond of hawking, to fly several hawks to-
gether against it ; which the crane endeavours to avoid, by fly-
ing up perpendicularly, till the air becomes too thin to support
it any higher. The hawk, however, still bears it company ; and
though less fitted for floating in so thin a medium, yet, possessed
of greater rapidity, it still gains the ascendancy. They both
often rise out of sight ; but soon the spectator, who keeps his
eye fixed above, perceives them, like two specks, beginning
to appear : they gather on his eye for a little space, and shortly
after come tumbling perpendicularly together, with great ani-
mosity on the side of the hawk, and a loud screaming on that of
the crane. Thus driven to extremity, and unable to fly, the
poor animal throws itself upon its back, and, in that situation,
makes a most desperate defence, till the sportsman coming up.
generally puts an end to the contest with its life.

* The aliment of cranes is more vegetable than that of storks, herons, &c.

Biuus. 309

It was once the barbarous custom to breed up cranes to be
thus baited ; and young ones were taken from the nest, to be
trained up for this cruel diversion. It is an animal easily tamed ;
and, if we can believe Albertus Magnus, has a particular affec-
tion for man.* This quality, however, was not sufficient to
guard it from being made the victim of his fierce amusements.
The female, which is easily distinguished from the male, by not
being bald behind as he is, never lays above two eggs at a time ;
being like those of a goose, but of a bluish colour. The young
ones are soon fit to fly, and then the parents forsake them to
shift for themselves ; but, before this time, they are led forth to
the places where their food is most easily found. Though yet
unfledged, they run with such swiftness that a man cannot easily
overtake them. We are told, that as they grow old, their plum-
age becomes darker; and, as a proof of their longevity, Aldro-
vandus assures us, that a friend of his kept one tame for above
forty years.

Whatever may have been the disposition of the great, the
vulgar of every country, to this day, bear the crane a compas-
sionate regard. It is possible the ancient prejudices in its favour,
which once having been planted are eradicated but slowly, may
still continue to operate. In some countries, it is considered as
a heinous offence to kill a crane ; and though the legislature
declines to punish, yet the people do not fail to resent the in-
jury. The crane, they, in some measure, consider as the pro-
phet of the season : upon its approach or delay they regulate the
periods of their rural economy. If their favourite bird comes
early in the season, they expect a plentiful summer; if he is
slow in his visits, they then prepare for an unfavourable spring.
Whatever wisdom there may be in despising the prejudices of
the vulgar, there is but little in condemning them. They have
generally had their origin in good motives ; and it should never
be our endeavours to sujjpress any tender emotions of friendship
or pity in those hard breasts that are, in general, unstisceptiblo
»f either.

* Biisbequiiis tells us of a Spaniard wlio was so bcloipd by a crane of
Majorca, tliat the pour bird would walk any where with him, aiid in his
absence seek about for him, msikc a noise Uiat he might hear her, and knock
at his door ; and when he took his hist farewell, not able to sustain licr loss
and passionate desire, she abstained from all food and died.

^'^ HiSToay or

CHAP. III.

THE STORK.*

Ir we regard the Stork externally only, we shall be very apt
to confound it with the crane. It is oi' the same size ; it has

* In the metliodical arrangements of Ray and Brisson the Storks formed
a distinct genus from the Herons and the Cranes, with Aviiich, and with
various other loss closely allied groups, they were united in tlie Liunean
nystem of classification. Later naturalists have, however, seen the necessity
of reverting to the older method, and of again separating these groups,
\vhich form in the arrangement proposed by Mr Vigors two famiUes, dis-
tinguished by well marked characters, and each comprehending several
genera of considerable numerical extent. The first of these famUies is tha
Gruidae, which comprise the Cranes, the trumpeter, and other nearly re-
lated genera, distinguished by the comparative shortness and obtuseness of
their bill, and the slight degree of palraation exhibited by their feet, which
are smaller in proportion and consequently better adapted to the terrestrial
habits of these birds, as the bill is to their vegetable food. The second is the
Ardeida, whose produced and generally pointed bill, and long, slender and
more deeply webbed toes, are equally well suited to their aquatic habits,
and to the nature of the food, cliiefly fishes and reptiles, on which they sub-
sist. In the latter family are comprehended not only the Storks and tho
Herons, but also the Spoonbills, the Ibis, and several other groups remark-
able as well for the singularity of their forms, as for the peculiarity of their
manners, and the interesting nature of many of the facts connected with
their history, both as regards themselves and with reference to the services
M'hich they actually render, or have been supposed to render to mankind.

The distinguishing characters of the genus which at present engages our
attention consist in a long straight beak, broad at the base, regularly nar-
rowing to the point, opening to a moderate extent, and unimpressed on its
upper surface either with lateral furrows or with a nasal pit ; nostrils in
the form of a longitudinal fissure, situated near the base of the bill and di-
rected upwards ; tongue extremely short ; eyes surrounded by a naked skin j
wings broad, expanding to a great extent, and prolonged posteriorly be-
yond the extremity of the tail j legs reticiUated with hexagonal scales, of
which the uppermost are the largest ; web between the two outer of tho
anterior toes much more developed than that which is found at the base oi
the inner; posterior toe on the same level with the .anterior ones; and
flaws broad, flat, and obtuse, approacliing in form to the nails of man, and
scarcely overlapping the extremities of the toes.

The species thus characterised are especially remarkable for the extent
luid regularity of their migrations, which are chiefly determined by the na-
ture of their food. This consists of various kinds of garbage, of worms and
insects, fishes and reptiles, and among the latter more particularly of frogs.
At the approach of the colder season, when these animals begin to conceal
Hicmselves in holes, in order to pass the winter in a state of torpor, the

B1RU3. 31 1

tl e same formation as to the bill, neck, legs, and body, except
that it is something more corpulent. Its differences are but very
slight ; such as the colour, which in the crane, is ash and black,
but in the stork is white and brown. The nails of the toes o^

storks are driven by the failure of their usual means of subsistence to seek
a more temperate climate, in which the same scarcity of food is not likely
to be felt ; but they constantly return northwards with the return of spring-.
The most common and the most celebrated among them is the White Stork,
which generally passes its winters in the north of Africa, and more parti,
cularly in Egypt, and migrates during the summer season to France and
Holland, Sweden, Germany, Poland, and sometimes even Kussia, but is
very rarely met with in England. It is rather larger than the black stork,
measuring more than three feet from the extremity of the bill to the tip of the
tail, and standing about the same height from the ground to the top of its head.
Its bill, which is usually of an orange red, measures from seven to eight
inches in length ; the naked and wrinkled skin surrounding its eyes is nearly
of the same colour, but generally of a duskier hue ; and its legs are also red.
The greater part of its plumage is of a clear white, which is however re-
lieved by the striking contrast of the feathers covering the lower part of the
shoulders, the larger wing. coverts, and the quill.fuathcrs, thirty in number,
all of which are of a glossy black, with a slight metallic reflection. When
fully expanded the extent of the wings exceeds six feet, and in this state
the eiglit or nine primary quill-feathers oflin- a very singular and indeed
unique disposition, being separated from each other so as to leave a vacant
space between. The feathers of the lower part of the neck are long, pen.
dulous, and pointed. There is little distinction in any of these particuLus
between the male and the female ; but the young have a browner tinge in
their wings, and their hills are of a duskier red.

These birds have in all ages been regarded with peculiar favour, amount-
ing, in some countries, almost to veneration, partly on account of the ser.
vices which they perform in the destruction of noxious animals, and in
removing impurities from the surface of the earth, and partly on aiconnt of
the mildness of their temper, the harmlessncss of their habits, and the moral
virtues with which imagination has delighted to invest them. Among the
ancient Egyptians the Stork wns regarded with a reverence inferior only
to that which, for similar causes, was paid to tlii' sacred Ibis, cr)nsidercd,
and with some show of reason, as one of tin; tutelary divinities of the land.
The same feeling is still prevalent in many parts of Africa and the East;
and even in Switzerland and in Holland sonn'thing like superstition seems
to mingle, in the minds of the connnon people, with the hospitable kindness
which a strong conviction of its utility disposes them to evince towards this
favourite bird. In the latter country more particularly, the protection
which is accorded to it is no more llian it fairly deserves as the unconscious
instrument by which the dikes and marshes are relieved from a largo por.
tion of the enormous quantity of reptihis engendered by the humidity and
fertility of the soil.

On the other hand, the white stork appears to be influenced by the sanio
friendly feelings towards man. Undismayed by his ))resence, it builds its
Iwst upon the liou»e-top, or on tla; sununits ol the loftiest trees in the inu

312 HISTORY OF

tbe stork also are very peculiar ; not being clawed like tboss ot
other birds, but flat like the nails of a man.

These, however, are but very slight difTerences ; and its true
distinctions are to be taken rather from its manners than its

modiate neighboiirhnod of the most frequented plares. It stalks perfectly
at its ease along the busy streets fif the most crowded town, and seeks its
food on the banks of rivers or in fens in close vicinity to his abode. In nume.
rous parts of Holland its nest, built on the cbimney-top, remains undisturbed
for many succeeding years, and the owners constantly return with unerring-
sagacity to the well known spot. Tlie joy which they manifest on again
taking possession of their deserted dwelling, and the attaclmieut which they
testify towards their benevolent hosts, are familiar in the mouths of every
one. Their affection for their yoimg is one of the most remarkable traits in
their character. It is almost superfluous to repeat the history of the female
which, at the conflagration of Delft, after repeated and unsuccessful attempts
to carry off her young, chose rather to perish with them in the general ruin
than to leave them to their fate : and there are many other and well authen-
ticated proofs of a similar disposition. They generally lay from two to four
egg."!, of a dingy yello«'ish white, rather longer than those of the goose, but
not so broad. The incubation lasts for a month, the male sharing in the task
during the absence of the female in search of food. When the young birds
are hatched, they are carefully fed by their parents, ivho watch over them
with the closest anxiety. As soon as they become capable of flying, the pa-
rents exercise them in it by degrees, carrying them at first upon their own
wings, and then conducting them in short circular flights around their nest.

When in search of food, the stork is commonly seen in its usual attitude
of repose, standing upon one leg, «'ith its long neck bent backwards, its head
resting on its shoulder, and its eye steadily fixed. Its motions are slow and
measured, the length of its steps corresponding with that of its legs. In
flight its head and neck are directed straight forwards, and its legs extended
backAvards; an awkward and apparently constrained position, but that
which is best calculated for enabling it to cleave the air with rapidity. The
large extent of its wings and the comparative lightness of its body are also
admirably adapted to the lofty pitch at which it flies, and to its long conti-
nuance upon the wing.

The storks generally migrate about the beginning of August, and the pre-
parations for their departure usually occupy several weeks. They appear
gradually to assemble in one spot from the whole of the surrounding district
to the number of many hundreds, making when they meet that peculiar
clattering with their beaks, which appears to serve them in the place of
voice. As soon as their number is completed the entire body mount at once
into the air, without noise or confusion, and are speedily lost sight of in tlie
loftiness of their flight. Their departure has rarely been witnessed by
scientific observers ; and many incredible stories liave consequently been
told respecting it. They return to Europe in smaller bands in the months
of March and April. Those which remain in the more northern countries
during the winter, either tamed or in captivity, in which state they appear
perfectly contented, do not seem to sufl'er in the least from the severity ot
the weather.

BIRDS. 313

form. The crane has a loud piercing voice ; the stork is silent,
and produces no other noise than the clacking of its under-chap
against the upper : the crane has a strange convolution of the
wind-pipe through the breast-bone ; the stork's is formed in the
usual manner : the crane feeds mostly upon vegetables and grain ;
the stork preys entirely upon frogs, fishes, birds, and serpents :
the crane avoids towns and populous places ; the stoik lives al-
ways in or near them : the crane lays but two eggs ; and the
stork generally four. These are distinctions fully sufficient to

The Black Stork resembles the White in form and proportions, but is
Boraewhat pmaller in size ; and the hue of its plumage, as might be gatliered
from the epithets applied to the two birds, is very different. But these
epithets, if taken strictly, are far from being correct : the White Stork hav.
ing, as we have seen, a portion of its plumage black ; and the Black exhi-
biting a variety of shades, of which, however, that from which it derives its
name is the most predominant. Its bill, like that of the former bird, is full
seven inches in length, and of a dusky red, approaching to orange ; as are
also the legs and toes. The colour of the naked skin surrounding the eyes
is dull red, and that of the irides hazeL On the head, neck, upper surface
of the body and wings, the feathers are of a deep glossy black, intermingled
with varying shades and reflections of violet and green, which become more
strongly marked on the back and wings. Those of the whole under surface
from the bottom of the neck to the base of the tail are white. The tail itself
is black. The wings are extremely long, and so powerful as to raise the
bird, in its fii{,'hts and migrations, to such a height in the air as to be almost
invisible to human eye.

Like the foregoing species, the black stork is a migratory bird, seeking the
more southern parts of Europe during the inclemency of winter. In the
spring it advances to a much higher latitude than the M'hite, visiting even
Russia and Siberia, and passing over Sweden towiU'ds the north in consider,
able numbers. But it seldom comes so far westward ;i3 the other, being al-
most unknown in Holland, although common in the eastern departments of
France and throughout the whole of Germany. A solitary instance of its
occurrence in Great Britain fell under the notice of the late Colonel Mon-
tagu, and forms the subject of an interesting paper in the twelfth volume of
the Linnean Transactions.

The character of the black stork is in one respect diametrically opposed to
that of the white. Instead of domesticating itself as it were with man, it
shuns his society and makes its temporary dwelling in the most secluded
Bpot«, frequenting impenetrable morasses or the banks of such rivers and
lakes as are seldom disturbed by the presence of intruders, and building its
nest on the summits of the loftiest pines. Its food is exactly similar to that
of its more social fellow; and their manners, except in this peculiar sul-
lenness on the part of the black stork, closely correspond. It submits itself
with perfect resignation to captivity, never using its powerful bill as a
weapon of offence against its companions. It appears to have no other voice
than the clatteriuff sound which it produces by the snapping of its mandible*
—Znohgical Society Gardens.

in- 2 I)

314 HISTORY OF

mark the species, notwithstanding the similitude of their
form.

Storks are birds of passage, like the former ; but it is hard to
say whence they come, or whither they go. When they with-
draw from Europe, they all assemble on a particular day, and
never leave one of their company behind them. They take their
flight in the night ; which is the reason the way they go has
never been observed. They generally return into Europe in
the middle of March, and make their nests on the tops of chim-
neys and houses, as well as of high trees. The females lay
from two to four eggs, of the size and colour of those of geese ;
and the male and female sit upon them by turns. They are a
month in hatching ; and when their young are excluded, they are
particularly solicitous for their safety.

As the food of these birds consists, in a great measure, of
frogs and serpents, it is not to be wondered at that different
nations have paid them a particular veneration. The Dutch are
very solicitous for the preservation of the stork in every part of
their republic. This bird seems to have taken refuge among
their towns ; and builds on the tops of their houses without any
molestation. There it is seen resting familiarly in the streets,
and protected as well by the laws as the prejudices of the peo-
ple. They have even got an opinion that it will only live in a
republic ; and that story of its filial piety, first falsely propagated
of the crane, has, in part, been ascribed to the stork. But it is
not in republics alone that the stork is seen to reside, as there
are few towns on the continent, in low marshy situations, but
have the stork as an inmate among them ; as well the despotic
princes of Germany, as the little republics of Italy. •

The stork seems a general favourite even among the moderns ;
but with the ancient Egyptians their regard was carried even to
adoration. This enlightened people, who worshipped the Deity
in his creatures, paid divine honours to the ibis, as is universally
known. It has been usually supposed that the ancient ibis is
the same with that which goes at present by the same name ; a
bird of the stork kind, of about the size of a curlew, all over
black, with a bill very thick in the beginning, but ending in a
point, for the better seizing its prey, which is caterpillars, locusts,
and serpents. But however useful the modern ibis may be in
ridding Egypt, where it resides, of the vermin and venomous

BIRDS. 315

Rnimals that infest it ; yet it is much dou1)ted whether this be
the same ibis to which tlie ancients paid their adoration. Mail-
let, the French consul at Cairo, observes, that it is very hard to
determine what bird the ancient ibis certainly was, because there
are cranes, storks, hawks, kites, and falcons, that are all equally
enemies to serpents, and devour a vast number. He farther
adds, that in the month of May, when the winds begin to blow
from the internal parts of Africa, there are several sorts of birds
that come down from Upper Egypt, from whence they are
driven by the rains, in search of a better habitation, and that it
is then tliey do this country such signal services. Nor does the
figure of this bird, hieroglyphically represented on their pillars,
mark it sufficiently to make the distinction. Besides, the mo-
dem ibis is not peculiar to Egypt, as it is to be seen but at cer-
tain seasons of the year ; whereas we are informed by Pliny,
that this bird was seen no where else. It is thought, therefore,
that the true ibis is a bird of the vulture kind, described above,
and called by some the capon of Pharaoh, which not only is a
devourer of serpents, but will follow the caravans that go to
JMecca, to feed upon the offal of the animals that are killed on
the journey.*

* That a bird so Iiiglily cclelrated in mythological history as the ibis of an-
cient Egypt, incessantly represented on the early monuments of the country
H-hich it still inhabits, and transmitted to us in ahnost infinite numbers in
the shape of mummies from a remote aiitiquity, should have been widely
mistaken by every modern writer until witliin the l;ist lifty years, is indeed
matter of aitonislunent ; but such is really the fact. Belon, an excellent
o^nilhologi^t, who visited Kgypt about the middle of the sixteenth century,
imagined that the stork was the true ibis of the ancients : Pocock niaiu-
tiUned that the latter was a species of Crane : and I)e r.Imllet conjectiued
that under the name of iliis were generically comprehended all those birds
which are instrumeiital i[i removing the noxious reptiles that swarm in tho
inundated lands. Teiranlt first introduced the erroneous notion that tho
ibis of iuiticiuity was a species of Tantalus, in which lie was followed impli-
fitly by naturalists throughout the whole of the la^t century. Brisson,
liuifun, Linuxus, and Latluun, all united to give it currency ; and the Tan.
talus ibis of the two latter authors was uuiversally regarded as the sacred
bird.

Our adventurous countryman Bruce was the first to throw a doubt upoi'
the authenticity of this determination, and to point (nit tlie identity between
the figures represented on the ancient monuments, tin' mnminies preserveti
iu tlic Egyptian tombs, and a living bird common on the hanks of tlie Nile
and known to tlii! Arabs liy the name of Ahou llannes. But it wax not
until after the return of llie I"rencli expediliou Moni Kgypt that tho <iihir.

2 D '<i

316 HISTORY OF

CHAP. IV.

OF THE BALEARIC AND OTHER FOREIGN CRANES.

Having ended the last chapter with doubts concerning tha
bis, we shall begin this with doubts concerning the Balearic

tion was definitively settled by a careful anatomical comparison of the ancient
mummies and recent specimens then brought home by Geoffroy-Saint-Hi-
laire and Savigny. From the examination of these materials M. Cuvier
was enabled to verify Bruce's assertion, and to restore to science a bird
which, after having formed for centuries the object of a nation's adoration,
had fallen into oblivion, and was wholly unknown to modern naturalists.
At the same time he pointed out those distinctive characters on which M.
I/acepede founded the genus ibis, formally established by M. Cuvier himself
in the first edition of his Uegne Animal.

The ibis genus is characterized by a long and slender bill, nearly square
at its base, where it is of less breadth than the head, almost straight for
about one half of its length, and having the remaining part gradually curved
downwards, blunt at its point and without any notch ; nostrils situated near
the base of the bill at the commencement of a grove which is continued
along each side of its upper surface as far as to its point ; the head, and
sometimes the neck, devoid of feathers to an extent varying in the different
races ; wings of moderate length ; tarsi slender ; and toes webbed at the
base, the hinder one placed somewhat above the level of the others but be-
ing of sufficient length to rest ui)on the earth. In many of these characters
we observe a considerable deviation from those of the Storks and other ty-
pical examples of the family with which the ibis is associated, and a marked
approach to the Curlews, From the natural habits and organization of the
ibis, confirmed by analogy, and fiu-ther corroborated by the testimony of
the modern Egyptians, it does not appear that it feeds upon reptiles. We
must, then, look for other reasons than the destruction of serpents, for the
veneration paid to the ibis by the ancient Egyptians, who admitted it even
into their temples, and prohibited the killing of it, under pain of death. In
a country, where the people, very ignorant, were governed only by super-
stitious ideas, it was natural that fictions should have been imagined, to
express with energy the happy influences of that phenomenon which every
year attracts the ibis into Egypt., and retains it there. Its constant presence
at the epoch of that inundation, which annually triumphs over all the sour-
ces of decay, and assiu-es the fertility of the soil, must have appeared to the
priests and the persons at the head of government admirably calculated to
make a lively impression on the minds of the people, to lead them to suppose
supernatural and secret relations between the movements of the Nile and
the sojourn of these inoffensive birds, and to consider the latter as the cause
of effects exclusively owing to the overflow of the river.

Besides the white and black ibis, another ibis, entirely black, was equally
reverenced in Egypt, and embalmed in a similar manner. This one is more
elegant and slender than the other in its external form, and its internal or

BIRDS. 317

Crane. Pliny has described a bird of the crane kind with a
topping resembling that of the green wood-pecker. This bird
for a long time continued unknown, till we became acquainted
with the birds of tropical climates, when one of the crane kind

pans are also more contracted. M. Savigiiy has opened about twenty iiidi.
viduals of this species, and has found nothing- in their very narrow gizzard,
but small fliiviatile bhells, with some debris of vegetables, wliicli probably
enveloped the shells at the moment in which they were swallowed, and can-
not be considered as properly constituting any part of the aliment of these
birds.

The two species have a powerful and elevated flight. In this action tne
neck and feet are extended horizontally, and from time to time, the birds,
all together, send forth deep and hoarse cries, more powerful in the white
ibis than in the black. When these birds alight on lands which they have
newly discovered, they remain crowded against each other, and may be
seen for entire hours, occupied in searching the mud with their bills, ad-
vancing slowly, step by step, and never springing with rapidity like the
curlews. The ibis does not nestle in Egypt, Those of the white kind ar-
rive as soon as the Nile begins to increase, and their number augments or
diminishes, as do its waters. Their migration takes place towards the end
of June, the epocha at which, according to Bruce, they arrive in Ethiopia.
The blatk ibis, which comes later into F.gypt, also remains there longer
The moment when the ibides retire with tlie watej-s of the Nile, is the time
in wliich the hunters prefer to pursue them. They seldom shoot them with
fire-arras, but lay nets for them; and during autumn, many, whose heads
have been previously severed from their bodies, are found in the markets of
Lower Egj'i)t, especially in that of Damietta. Many of the ibides, both
black and white, were brought alive to M. Savigny, who observed that they
moat IVefjuently held their body nearly horizontal, with the neck inflected,
and the head inclined — were in the habit of striking the earth with the end
of their bill, and sometimes resting on one foot only. The same naturalist
remarks, that the white ibis sometimes goes alone, and sometimes in small
troops of from eight to ten, while the black species, more numerous, forms
flocks of from thirty to forty.

The Scarlet Ibis is a native of America. 'I'hese birds live almost always
in flocks, and the old ones most frequently form distinct and separate bands.
Their flight is rapid and sustained, but they do not put themselves in mo-
tion, except in the morning and evening, for the purpose of seeking their
food, which consists of insects, shell animals, and small fishes, collected in
the slime along the soa.coa.st, or at the months of rivers. During the great-
est heat of thi! day and at night, they r<'main iu sheltered places. Tin-
broods commence iu January, and are conclndcd in May. They (lei)osit their
eggs, which arc- greenish, in large tufts of grass, or oji little iiili-s collected
in the brush-wood. Tliei(! ibides are spread throughout the warmest
countries of America, and being not at all wild they are easily accustomed
to live in houses. M. de la Horde nn'Mtions his having kept one for more
than two years. It w;ls fed with. bread, raw or cooked meat, and fich ; but it
gave the preference to the entrails of fish and fowl. It would frequently oc-
cupy itself in seckiuff for carth-worras around the house, or following the

2d 3

318 HISTORY OF

with a topping was brought into Europe, and described by AU
drovandus as Pliny's Balearic Crane. Hence these birds, which
have since been brought from Africa and the East in numbers,
have receivea the name of Balearic Cranes, but without any just
foundation. The real Balearic Crane of Pliny seems to be the
lesser ash-coloured heron, with a topping of narrow white fea
thers ; or perhaps the egret, with two long feathers that fall back
from the sides of the head. The bird that we are about to de-
scribe under the name of the Balearic Crane, was unknown to
the ancients, and the heron or egret ought to be reinstated in
their just title to tbat name.

When we see a very extraordinary animal, we are naturally
led to suppose that there must be something also remarkable in
its history, to correspond with the singularity of its figure. But
it often happens that history fails on those occasions where we
most desire information. In the present instance, in particular,
no bird presents to the eye a more whimsical figure than this,
which we must be content to call the Balearic Crane. It is
pretty nearly of the shape and size of the ordinary crane, with
long legs and a long neck, like others of the kind ; but the bill
is shorter, and the colour of the feathers of a dark greenish gray.
The head and throat form the most striking part of this bird's
figure. On the head is seen, standing up, a thick round crest,
made of bristles, spreading every way, and resembling rays stand-
ing out in different directions. The longest of these rays are
about three inches and a half, and they are all topped vidth a
kind of black tassels, which give them a beautiful appearance.
The sides of the head and cheeks are bare, whitish, and edged
with red ; while underneath the throat hangs a kind of bag or
wattle, like that of a cock, but not divided into two. To give
this odd composition a higher finishing, the eye is large and star-

labours of a negro gardener. In the evening', this bird would retire of itself
into a poultry-house, where it reposed in the midst of a hundred fowl. It
would perch on the highest bar, awake very early in the morning, fly round
the house, and sometimes proceed to the sea-shore. It would attack cats
with great intrepidity. It would have lived longer, had it not been acci-
dentally killed, by a fowler, who mistook it for a wild curlew, when it was
on a pond. All this shows the possibility of rearing in the warmer climates
of Europe a bird which, according to the testimony of Laet, has already
produced in a domestic state, and may, perhaps, one day be turned to good
account.

BIRDS. 319

ing; the pupil black and big, surrounded with a gold-coloured
iris, that completes the bird's very singular appearance.

From such a peculiar figure, we might be led to wish for a
minute history of its mariners ; but of these we can give but
slight information. This bird comes from the coast of Africa
and the Cape de Verd Islands. As it runs, it stretches out its
wings, and goes very swiftly, otherwise its usual motion is very
slow. Jn their domestic state, they walk very deliberately
among other poultry, and suffer themselves to be approached (at
least it was so with that I saw) by every spectator. They never
roost in houses ; but about night, when they are disposed to go
to rest, they search out some high wall, on which they perch in
the manner of a peacock. Indeed, they so much resemble that
bird in manners and disposition, that some have described them
by the name of the sea peacock: and Ray has been inclined to
rank them in the same family. But though their voice and
roosting be similar, their food, which is entirely upon greens,
vegetables, and barley, seems to make some difference.*

• Tfi£ Gigantic Crane. This is a very larg^e species, which belougs to
thi^ Stork genus, measuring from tip to tip of the wings nearly fifteen feet.
Tlie bill is of a vast size, nearly triangular, and sixteen inches round at the
base. The head and neck are naked, except a few straggling curled hairs.
'Jhe feathers of the back and wings are of a bluish ash colour, and very
stout ; those of the breast are long. The craw hangs down the fore part of
the neck like a pouch. The belly is covered with a dirty white down ; and
the upper part of the back and .shoulders are surrounded with the same.
The legs and half the thighs are naked ; and the naked parts are full three
feet in length.

This bird is an inhabitant of Bengal and Calcutta, and is sometimes found
on the coast of Guinea. It arrives in the internal parts of Bengal before the
period of the rains, and retires as soon as the dry season commences. Its
asp-^ct is filthy and disgusting ; yet it is one of the most useful birds of theso
roiuitries, in clearing them of snakes and noxious reptiles and insects. It
seems to finish the work begun by the jackal and vulture ; they clear-
ing away the flesh of animals, and these birds removing the bones by
swiillowing them entire. They sometimes feed on fish ; and one of them
will generally devour jus much as would serve four men. On opening the
body of a gigantic crane, a land tortoi.-o ten inches long, and a large bliick
male cat, were found entire within it ; the former in the craw, and the latter
ill the stomach. Bi'ing altogether undaunted at the sight of mankind, they
are soon rendered familiar ; and when fish or other food are thrown to them,
tliey catch them very nimbly, and iuunpdiatcly swallow them whole.

The gigantic^ cranes are believed by Uw. Indians to Ik; animated by the
Bouls of the Bramins, and ccmspquently to be invulnerable. They. are held
in the liighcst veneration both by the Indians and Africans. Blr Ives, in

320 HISTORY or

In this chapter of foreign birds of the crane kind, it will be
proper to mention the Jabiru and the Jabiru Guacu, both natives
of Brazil. Of these great birds of the crane kind we know but
little, except the general outline of their figure, and the enormous
, bills which we often see preserved in the cabinets of the curious.
The bill of the latter is red, and thirteen inches long ; the bill of
the former is black, and is found to be eleven. Neither of them,
however, are of a size projjortioned to their immoderate length
of bill. — The jabiru guacu is not above the size of a common
stork, while the jabiru with the smallest bill exceeds the size of
a swan. They are both covered with white feathers, except the
head and neck, that are naked ; and their principal difference is
in the size of the body and the make of the bill ; the lower chap
of the jabiru guacu being broad, and bending upwards.*

attempting to kill some of them with his gun, missed his shot several times ;
which the bye-standers observed with the greatest satisfaction, telling him
triumphantly that he might shoot at them as long as he pleased, but he
never would be able to kill them.

Gigantic cranes are found in companies ; and when seen at a distance,
near the mouths of rivers, coming towards an obser\'er, (which they do
with their wings extended,) it is said that they may be easily mistaken for
canoes on the surface of a smooth sea ; and when on the sand-banks, for
men and women picking up shell-fish on the beach.

* The Jabirus are not considered by lUiger and Temrainck, as forming a
distinct genus from the storks. But Linnaeus, Latham, Lacepede, and other
oniithnlogists, have not hesitated to form a separate genus of ttiis bird,
under the name of Mvctehia, giving as the principal character the slight
recurvation of the bill upwards. In other respects, the characters of the
jabirus resemble those of the storks.

The American Jubiru is described by Azara under the name of Collier
Rouge, and is called in Paraguay Aiaiai. It also inhabits Brazil, where it
is named Jabiru Gtuicu, and is found in some other parts of South America.
It is the Negro of the Hollanders, and the Touyouyou of the native tribes of
French Guiana. It is one of the largest and strongest of shore-birds. It is
mounted on very high stilts, and its body is as bulky and more elongated
than that of the swan. The skin of the neck is wrinkled, and so flaccid that
it depends like the dew-lap of a cow. This circumstance hiis given rise to
the name of Jabiru, which in the language of the Guaranis signifies any
thing inflated by the wind. The legs, very robust, are covered with large
Bcales, and denuded of feathers for about the space of six inches.

The jabirus constantly inhabit the h\unid grounds of South America, and
are found in considerable abundance in the inundated savannalis of Guiana.
They never quit their sojourn but to rise slowly into the heights of the at-
mosphere, where they suppiirt themselves for a very long time. These
birds are voracious, and live only on fish and reptiles. They construct, on
lofly trees, with loug branches carefully interlaced, a spacious nest, in wliich

BIROS. 321

A bird still more extraordinary may be added to this class,
call the anhima, and, like the two former, a native of Brazil.
This is a water-fowl of the rapacious kind, and bigger than a
su'an. The head, which is small for the size of the body, bears
a black bill, which is not above two inches long ; but what dis-
inguishes it in particular is a horn growing from the forehead
as long as the bill, and bending forward like that of the fabulous
unicorn of the ancients. This horn is not much thicker than a
crow-quill, as round as if it were turned in a lathe, and of an
ivory colour. But this is not the only instrument of battle this
formidable bird carries ; it seems to be armed at all points ; for
at the fore-part of each wing, at the second joint, spring two
straight triangular spurs, about as thick as one's little finger : the
foremost of these goads or spurs is above an inch long ; the hinder
is shorter, and both of a dusky colour. The claws also are long
and sharp ; the colour is black and white ; and they cry terribly
loud, sounding something like Vyhoo, Vyhoo. They are never
found alone, but always in pairs ; the cock and hen prowl to-
gether ; and their fidelity is said to be such, that when one dies,
the other never departs from the carcase, but dies with its com-
panion. It makes its nest of clay, near the bodies of trees, upon
the ground, of the shape of an oven.

One bird more may be subjoined to this class, not for the
oddity of its figure, but the peculiarity of its manners. It is
\Tjlgarly called by our sailors the buffoon bird, and by the French
the demoiselle, or lady. The same qualities have procured it
these diflferent appellations from two nations, who, on more
occasions than this, look upon the same objects in very dif-
erent lights. The peculiar gestures and contortions of this
bird, the proper name of which is the Numidian Crane, are ex-
tremely singular ; and the French, who are skilled in the arts
of elegant gesticulation, consider all its motions as lady-like and

tlie female deposits but one or two eggs. Tlio young are fed with fish until
they are strong enough to descend from the nest, and are di'fended by tlie
p;iri'nt3 with great courage. This nest is said to serve for several brood;'.

Thejabirus appear to be less wild in Guiana than in Paraguay. Bajon
tells us that in 1773 a little negro contrived, by merely concealing his faca
with the branch of a tree, to approach a young one that bad almost acquired
its full growth, sufficiently near to seize it by the legs and catch it. The
flesh of the old is hard and oily ; but that of the young is tender, atul toU-r.
ably good bating.

'i22 msroRY ok

(graceful. Our English sailors, however, who have not entered
so deeply into the dancing art, think, thut while thus in motion,
the bird cuts but a very ridiculous figure. It stoops, rises, lifts one
wing, then another, turns round, sails forward, then back again ;
all which highly diverts our seamen ; not imagining, perhaps,
that all these contortions are but the awkward expression, not
of the poor animal's pleasures, but its fears.*

It is a very scarce bird ; the plumage is of a leaden gray ; but
it is distinguished by fine white feathers, consisting of long
fibres, which fall from the back of the head, about four inches
long ; while the fore-part of the neck is adorned with black
feathers, composed of very fine, soft, and long fibres, that hang
down upon the stomach, and give the bird a very graceful ap-
pearance. The ancients have described a buffoon bird ; but there
are many reasons to believe that theirs is not the Numidian
crane. It comes from that country from whence it has taken
its name.

• The Demoiselle Heron, Ardea Virgo, Grus Virgo, Demoiselle de
Kumidie, Sec, owes its name to its elegant gait, tlie oruamental plumes of
its head, and certain mimic gestures which it makes, — inclining its liead,
walking with a kind of ostentatious air, and leaping and bounding as if it
were about to dance. All these peculiarities of the demoiselle of Numidia
are mentioned by many ancient writers j and Xenoplion in Athenaeus
speaks of a stratagem by which these birds might be caught, which consisted
in rubbing one's self with water in their presence, and then filling the vessel
with glue bef(ire going away. Notwithstanding this, the acquaintance of
the moderns with this species is comparatively of but recent date. They at
first confounded it with the Scops and Otus of the Greeks, Asia of the
Latins, in consequence of the gestures which that owl makes with its head,
and by mistaking its ears for the tuft of slender threads which covers those
of the demoiselle. M. de Savigny, in his observations on the system of the
birds of Egypt and Syria, demonstrates, with much acumen, that the bird in
question Iiere is the Crex of the Greeks ; and he also mentions that it is the
Bibio, or Grus Balearina, and Grus Minor, of the Latins, though ornitholo-
gists place these denominations in the synonymy of the preceding species.

These birds are lound in various parts of Africa and Asia, in the interior of
the countries of tht Cape of Good Hope, but more particuliu-ly in the ancient
Numidia ; and they are observed to arrive in Egypt at the epoch of the in-
undation of the Nile. Some are also found on the southern coasts of the
Black Sea, and the Caspian ; but it is invariably marshy places which they
frequent. They feed indifferently on grains, insects, worms, shell-nioUusca,
and even small fishes, which they catch with great dexterity. Their cry
resembles the clamoious tones of the crane, but is much more feeble, and
fihiirper.

Bians. 323

CHAP. V.

OF THE HERON, AND ITS VARIETIES.*

Birds of the Crane, the Stork, and the Heron kind, bear a
very strong affinity to each other : and their differences are not

* Cranes are distinguished by having- the head bald ; Storks have the or-
bits round the eyes naked; and Herons have the middle claw serrated in-
ternally. Herons comprehend the species knouTi under the names of
Egrets, Bitterns, Crab-eaters, &c. In the genus Ardea, now limited to the
Herons and Bitterns, the bill is considerably longer than the head, sharp at
the point, straight or very slightly curved, compressed laterally, cleft to
the very base, and frequently armed at the edges with sharp denticulations ;
the upper mandible is marked on either side by a longitudinal groove, in
which the linear nostrils are perforated near the base of the bill ; from tho
bill to the eyes extends a space destitute of feathers ; the tarsi r.re long and
covered with large scales ; the legs naked for some distance above the
knee-joints ; the toes long and slender, the outer one united to the middle
by a membranous expansion, and the posterior attached so low do«Ti as to
allow of its resting its whole length upon the ground ; the anterior claws
of moderate length, slightly curved and pointed, with a denticulated dilata.
tion on the inner side of that of the middle toe ; the posterior claw very
long, arched, and pointed; and the wings long, with the first quill-feathors
shorter than the two succeeding ones, which are the longest of the
series. Thus restricted, the genus is extremely numerous ; for M. Vieillot
states it to be composed of no fewer than eighty species. These are dis-
tributed by M. Cuvier into six sections or subdivisions, among which tho
true Herons are principally distinguished by the great length of their legs
and neck, the long pendant i)Iumes of the lower part of the neck, and the
perfectly straight direction of the bill.

The Common Heron is, as its name implies, one of the most frequent and
best known species of the group. It is about three feet four inches in length,
measuring from the end of the anterior toes to the extremity of the bill ;
from the bill to tho tail it measures ne;u-ly three feet, of which the tiiil forms
about eight inches ; and the expanse of its wings exceeds five feet. It does
not, however, weigh more than three pounds and a half, and its buoyancy
In flight is consequently very considerable. The general coh)ur of the
whole upper surface of the bird is an a.shy gray with somewhat of a bluish
tinge. This is deeper on tho back of the head, which is likewise ornamented
with a dcpendert crest of narrow blai'kish feathers, three inches or more in
length, overshadowing the back of the neck. The upper part and sides of
the neck are of a light gray, running int<i (lie pure ash-colour of the back,
and the latter passing into a deeper shade of :ushy gray upon the tail. Tho
■n ing-covert-s are nearly of the same colour, with a slight tinge of reddish ;
and the quill-feathers black with a bluish gloss. On the under parts the
ground-colour of the plumage is a pure white, marked on the fore part of
the neck and breast with large longitudiiuil black drops. The abdomeiv

324 HISTORY OF

easily discernible. As for the crane and the stovk, they differ
rather in their nature and internal conformation, than in their
external figure ; but still they may be known asunder, as well
by their colour as by the stork's claws, which are very peculiar,

upper part of the throat, and legs, are pure wliite. Tlie naked space be-
tween the bill and eyes is of a grayish yellow ; the iris is yellow ; the bill
bluish above and yellow beneath ; the legs, which are bare of feathers for
two or three inches above the knees, are somewhat flesh-coloured in their
upper part and grayish brown below j and the claws black. The middle toe,
with the addition of its claw, does not measure more than four inches ; and
is consequently much shorter than the tarsus, which exceeds six inches in
length. Beneath the anterior half of the bill, which is about five inches
long, the skin is capable of considerable distention, 'there is little diflfereuca
in the colours of the female ; but the young bird has no crest on the head,
and its back and wings are of a darker gray.

The Herons may be regarded as birds of passage, but their stay or depar.
ture seems everywhere to be regulated by their means of procuring food.
They are no where very abundant, although they are met with in almost
every part of the northern and temperate regions of the Old Continent, and
perhaps also in the New. In Europe they migrate as far northward as
Drontheim, and are foimd even in Russia and Poland, but they are most
common in England, France, and Holland.

They buUd their nests, in numerous companies, on lofty trees, and more
especially oaks, in the immediate neighbourhood of streams and marshes.
The nest is of large dimensions, constructed externally of twigs, dry herbs
and reeds, and lined internally with feathers and wool. In this the female
deposits her eggs, three or four in number, about the size of those of the
common hen, but more elongated, and of a greemsh brown colour without
spots. The male does not share in the task of incubation ; but flies abroad
in search of food, whUe the female tends her charge at home. They are par.
ticularly fond of the society of ravens, but the latter often carry oif their
eggs ; and the falcons, weasels, and martens, are dangerous enemies to their
young. When the young are hatched, both parents assist in providing them
with food until they are able to fly, and bring them abundance of fish for
their support. But as soon as they become capable of a continued flight they
are driven from the nest, and proceed each in a separate direction to seek
Its own subsistence wherever it may be most plentifully procured.

The old birds quit their nests about the middle of August, and wander
from stream to stream, and from lake to lake, forming themselves into gra-
dually increasing bands as the colder season approaches. Towards the be-
ginning of September they are often met with in companies of from twenty
to thirty in a spot ; but as soon as the frost sets in, they begin their migra.
tion to the southward, taking their flight by moonlight, like the Cranes, but
not with the same order and regtilarity. They return about the latter end
of March, when the severity of the season is no longer to be dreaded. Some
few, however, remain throughout the winter, especially when the weather
is variable, and are occasionally seen, in company with the wild ducks, at
the commencement of a sudden thaw. They usually disappear with the re.
turn of frost

EIRD3. 325

anrl more rpsembling a man's nails than the chivvs of a bird. The
heron may be distinguished from both, as well by its size, which
is much less, as by its bill, which in proportion is much longer ;
but particularly by the middle claw on each foot, which is toothed

Their food consists principally, like that of most of the birds of the wading
order, of fresh, water fishes, but more particularly of the young fry of carp
and trout. In pursuit of these they wade gently into the water, where the
!ish aboiin.i, and stand in it up to their knees, (or rather to their knee, for
they rest only on one foot,) with tlieir heads drawn in by the folding of their
long- necks upon the breast, quietly watching the approach of their prey. It
li;is been remarked, not merely by the vulgar, but by observers deserving
of implicit confidejice, that the fish generally swarm around tliem in sufficient
number to afford them a plentiful supply j and this has been commonly ac-
counted for on the supposition that their legs communicate a peculiar odour
to the water wliich entices the fish to their destruction. But M. Bechstein,
who vouches for the fact as one which he had seen innumerable times, sus-
pects that the source of attraction is in the excrements of the bird, which it
lets fall into the water, and which the fish, as is proved by experiment, de.
your w-ith the utmost avidity. The time of fishing is usually before sunrise
or after sunset. They generally swallow their i)rey entire, and many
stories are current of eels escaping alive througli their intestines, and being
a secotid time devoured by the voracious birds. Besides fishes, frogs form
a considerable portion of their food, and in winter they are frequently com-
pelled to content themselves with snails and worms, or, according to M. de
Saleme, even with the duck-weed that floats upon the stagnant waters.
At such times they occasionally become so emaciated as to appear to co)isist
of little else than feathers and bones.

Herons are taken in various ways. Sometimes they are shot while fishing,
or sweeping leisurely along the banks ; but they are so shy that the sports,
man can rarely get within gunshot of them. Occasionally a living fish is
attached to a hook at the end of a line, and left to swim in the waters which
they are known to frequent; and tliey are thus caught ;is it were by angling.
When falconry was in fashion, hawking at the hermi wiis regarded as the
most noble of its branches ; the powerful wings of the heron, unequalled by
any bird of its size, enabling it to mount in the air to an almost incredible
height, and thus to put the powers of the falcon to their proof For this pur.
pose it wiis customary to establish the herons in aproper situation, to which
tliey were attached by precautions taken for providing them witli necessii-
ries. These heronries, as tliey were called, have now become extremely
r;ire ; but one ot them may stiJl be seen in the parish of Craigie, near Kil.
marnock, in Ayrshire.

The licron, when taken young, readily becomes habituated to captivity ;
6ut the old birds generally refuse all sustenance, and perish of inanition. In
former days, when it w;ls necessary to procure such for the tr.iining of the
hawks, it was nsmil, according to Sir J. Sebright, " to cram them with food,
and to tie a piece of mat round their necks to prevent them from throwing
it lip again." Sonu'times, however, the old birds have been kno^^n to be.
come tame and even domesticated ; ami the siunu distinguished authority
to whom we have just referred, mentions on instance that occurred within
III. Si E

326 HISTOllY OF

like a saw, for the better seizing and holding its slippery prey.
Should other marks fail, however, there is an anatomical distinc-
tion, in which herons differ from all other birds ; which is, that
they have but one ccecum, and all other birds have two.

Of this tribe, Brisson has enumerated not less than forty-

liis own knowleilg-e, in which, after recourse had been liad to the operation
of cramming and tying down the food, tlie bird " became so tame as to fol- .
low its master on the wing to the distance of some miles, to come into thc«
house when called, and to take food from the hand."

The Night Heron, so called from the hoarse croaking whicli it utters dur.
ing the night, is about twenty Indies in length. The bill is three inches and
three quarters long, slightly arched, strong, and black, inclining to yellow
at the base ; the skin from the beak round the eyes is bare, and of a greenish
colour ; irides yellow. A white line is extended from the beak over each
eye ; a black patch, glossed with green, covers the crown of the head and
nape of the neck, from whicli three long narrow white leathers, tipped with
brown, hang loose and waving ; the hinder part of the neck, coverts of the
«"ings, the sides and tail, are ash-coloured ; throat wliite ; fore part of the
neck, breast, and belly, yellowish white or buiF; the back black ; the legs
a greenish yellow. The female is nearly of the same size as the male ; but
she differs considerably in her plumage, which is less bright and distinct, be-
ing more blended with clay or dirty wliite, bro^vn, gray, and rusty ash-
C/olour ; and she has not the delicate plumes that flow from the head of the
male. The lught-heron frequents the sea-shores, rivers, and inland marshes ;
and lives upon insects, slugs, frogs, reptiles, and fish. It remains concealed
during the day, and does not roam abroad until the approach of night, when
it is heard and known by its harsh, rough, and disagreeable cry, which is by
some compared to the noise made by a person straining to vomit. Some or-
nithologists affirm, that the female builds her nest in trees ; others, that she
builds it on rocky cliffs ; probably both accounts are right. She lays three
or four Avhite eggs.

Crested Purple Heron. — It inhabits Asia, and is t«'0 feet ten inches in
length. The bill is brown, tipt with dusky brown, and is yellowish be-
ueath ; the crest is of a black colour ; the orbits naked and yellowish ; from
the angle of the mouth to the hind head it has a black streak ; the chin is
white ; upper half of the neck ruflFous, with three longitudinal black lines ;
the rest olive behind, and rnffous at the sides, and reddish on the fore-part ;
the feathers are long, narrow, each marked with a black spot ; a black band
passes from the middle of the breast to the vent ; the lower tail coverts are
white, mixed with ruffous and tipt with black ; angles of the wings rnffous ;
the quill feathers dusky ; and the legs greenish ; hind-head black ; the crest
pendent, consisting of two long feathers ; the body is of an olive colour, and
beneath it is purplish.

The smaller herons with shorter feet have been called Crah-eaters. The
Egrets are herons, whose plumes on the lower part of the back are, at a cer-
tain period, long and attenuated. These plumes were formerly used to
decorate the helmets of warriors ; they are now applied to a gentler and
better purpose, in ornamenting the head-dresses of the European ladies, and
the turbans of the Persians and Turks.

BIRDS. 327

seven sorts, all differing in their size, figure, and plumage ; and
with talents adapted to their place of residence, or their peculiai
pursuits. But, how various soever the heron kind may be in
their colours or their bills, they all seem possessed of the same
manners, and have but one character of cowardice, rapacity, and
indolence, yet insatiable hunger. Other birds are found to grow
fat by an abundant supply of food ; but these, though excessively
destructive and voracious, are ever found to have lean and
carrion bodies, as if not even plenty were sufficient for their
support.

The common heron is remarkably light, in proportion to its
bulk, scarcely weighing three pounds arrd a half, yet it expands
a breadth of wing which is five feet from tip to tip. Its bill is
very long, being five inches from the point to the base ; its claws
are long, sharp, and the middlemost toothed like a saw. Yet,
thus armed as it appears for war, it is indolent and coward-
ly, and even flics at the approach of a sparrow-hawk. It was
once the amusement of the great to pursue this timorous crea-
ture with the falcon : and heron.havvking was so favourite a di-
version among our ancestors, that laws were enacted for the
preser\'ation of the species ; and the person who destroyed their
eggs was liable to a penalty of twenty shillings for each offence.

At present, however, the defects of the ill-judged policy ot
our ancestors, is felt by their posterity ; for, as the amusement
of hawking has given place to the more useful method of stock-
ing fish-ponds, the heron is now become a most formidable ene-
my. Of all other birds, this commits the greatest devastation
in fresh waters ; and there is scarce a fish, though never so large,
that he will not strike at and wound, though unable to cany it
away. But the smaller fry are his chief subsistence ; these,
pursued by their larger fellows of the deep, are obliged to take
refuge in shallow waters, where they find the heron a still more
formidable enemy. His method is to wade as far as he can go
into the water, and there patiently wait the approach of his prey,
wliich, when it comes within sight, he darts upon with inevita-
ble aim. In this manner he is found to destroy more in a week
tlian an otter in three months. " I have seen a heron," says
Willoughby, " that had been shot, that had seventeen carps in
his belly at once, which he will digest in six or seven hours, and
then to fisliing again. I have seen a carp," continues lie, " taken

2 i; y

328 iiisJouY OF

out of a heron's bellj', nine inches and a Imlf long. Several
gentlemen who kept tame herons, to try what quantity one of
them would eat in a day, have put several smallei- roach and dace
in a tub ; and they have found him eat fifty in a day, one day
with another. In this manner a single heron will destroy fifteen
thousand carp in half a year.

So great are the digestive powers of this fresh-water tyrant,
and so detrimental to those who stock ponds with fish. In ge-
neral, he is seen taking his gloomy stand by the lake's side, as
if meditating mischief, motionless, and gorged with plunder.
His usual attitude on this occasion is to sink his long neck be-
tween his shoulders, and keep his head turned on one side, as if
eyeing the pool more intently. When the call of hunger returns,
the toil of an hour or two is generally sufficient to fill his capa-
cious stomach ; and he retires long before night to his retreat in
the woods. Early in the morning, however, he is seen assiduous
at his usual occupation.

But, though in seasons of fine weather the heron can always
find a plentiful supply ; in cold or stormy seasons, his prey is no
longer within reach : the fish that before came into the shallow
water, now keep in the deep ; as they find it to be the warmest
situation. Frogs and lizards also seldom venture from their
lurking places ; and the heron is obliged to support himself upon
his long habits of patience, and even to take up with the weeds
that grow upon the water. At those times he contracts a con-
sumptive disposition, which succeeding plenty is not able to re-
move ; so that the meagre glutton spends his time between want
and riot, and feels alternately the extremes of famine and excess.
Hence, notwithstanding the care with which he takes his prey,
and the amazing quantity he devours, the heron is always lean
and emaciated j and though his crop be usually found full, yet
his flesh is scarcely sufficient to cover the bones.

The heron usually takes his prey by wading into the water ;
yet it must not be supposed that he does not also take it upon
the wing. In fact, much of his fishing is performed in this
manner ; but he never hovers over deep waters, as there his prey
is enabled to escape him by sinking to the bottom. In shallow
places he darts with more certainty ; for though the fish at sight
of its enemy instantly descends, yet the heron, with his long bill
and legSj instantly pins it to the bottom, and thus seizes it sc-

BIRDS. S29

curely. In this manner, after having been seen with his long
neck for above a minute under water, he rises upon the wing,
with a trout or an eel struggling in his bill to get free. The
greedy bird, however, files to the shore, scarcely gives it time to
expire, but swallows it whole, and then returns to fishing as be-
fore.

As this bird does incredible mischief to ponds newly stocked,

Wilioughby has given a receipt for taking him " Having found

his haunt, get three or four small roach or dace, and having pro-
vided a strong hook with a wire to it, this is drawn just vvithiii-
side the skin of the fish, beginning without-side the gills, and
running it to the tail, by which the fish will not be killed, but
continue for five or six days alive. Then having a strong line
made of silk and wire, about two yards and a half long, it is tied
to a stone at one end, the fish with the hook being sulfered to
swim about at the other. This being properly disposed in shal-
low water, the heron will seize upon the fish to its own destruc-
tion. From this method we may learn, that the fish must be
alive, otherwise the heron will not touch them, and that this bird,
as well as all these that feed upon fish, must be its own caterer ;
for they will not prey upon such as die naturally, or are killed
by others before them."

Though this bird lives chiefly among pools and marshes, yet
its nest is built on the tops of the highest trees, and sometimes
on cliifs hanging over the sea. They are never in flocks when
they fish, committing their depredations in solitude and silence ;
but in making their nests they love each other's society ; and
they are seen, like rooks, building in company with flocks of their
kind. Their nests are made of sticks, and lined with wool ; and
the female lays four large eggs of a pale green colour. The
observable indolence of their nature, however, is not less seen
m their nestling than in their habits of depredation. Nothing is
more certain, and I have seen it a hinidred times, than that they
will not be at the trouble of building a nest, when they can get
one made by the rook, or deserted by the owl, already provided
for them. This they usually eidarge and line within, driving off
the original possessors, should they happen to renew their fruit-
less claims.

The French seem to have availed themselves of the indolence
of this bird in making its nest ; and they actually provide a place

•d Eli

'J30 HISTORY OF

with materials fitted lor their nestling, which they call heronries.
The heron, which with us is totally unfit for the table, is more
sought for in France, where the flesh of the young ones is in
particular estimation. To obtain this the natives raise up high
sheds along some fishy stream ; and furnishing them with mate-
rials for the herons to nestle with, these birds build and breed
there in great abundance. As soon as the young ones are sup-
posed to be fit, the owner of the heronry comes, as we do into a
pigeon-house, and carries off such as are proper for eating ; and
these are sold for a very good price to the neighbouring gentry,
" These are a delicacy which," as my author says, " the French
are very fond of, but which strangers have not yet been taught
to relish as they ought." Nevertheless, it was formerly much
esteemed as food in England, and made a favourite dish at great
tables. It was then said that the flesh of a heron was a dish for
a king ; at present nothing about the house will touch it but a
cat.

With us, therefore, as the heron, both old and young, is
thought detestable eating, we seldom trouble these animals in
their heights, which are for the most part sufficiently inaccessi-
ble. Their nests are often found in great numbers in the mid-
dle of large forests, and in some groves nearer home, where the
owners have a predilection for the bird, and do not choose to
drive it from its accustomed habitations. It is certain that by
their cries, their expansive wings, their bulk, and wavy motion,
they add no small solemnity to the forest, and give a pleasing
variety to a finished improvement.

When the young are excluded, as they are numerous, vora-
cious, and importunate, the old ones are for ever upon the wing
to provide them with abundance. The quantity of fish they
take upon this occasion is amazing, and their size is not less to
be wondered at. I remember a heron's nest that was built near
a school-house ; the boys, with their usual appetite for mischief,
climbed up, took down the young ones, sewed up their vents,
and laid them in the nest as before. The pain the poor little
animals felt from the operation increased their cries ; and this
but served to increase the diligence of the old ones in enlarging
their supply. Thus they heaped the nest with various sorts of
fish, and the best of their kind ; and as their young screamed,
they tlew off for more. The boys gathered up the fish, which

Eiuus. 331

the young ones wero ineaiiable of eating, till the old ones at last
quitted their nest; and gave up their brood, whose appetites
they found it impossible to satisfy.

The heron is said to be a very long-lived bird ; by Mr Kej-s.
ler's account, it may exceed sixty years ; and by a recent in-
stance of one that was taken in Holland, by a hawk belonging
to the Stadholder, its longevity is again confirmed, the bird
having a silver plate fastened to one leg, with an inscription,
importing that it had been struck by the elector of Cologne's
hawks thirty-iive years before.

CHAP. VI.

OK THE BITTERN, OU MIItE-lHU'M.*

Those who have walked in an evening by the sedgy sides ot
unfrequented rivers, must remember a variety of notes from dif-
ferent water-fowl : the loud scream of the wild-goose, the croak-
ing of the mallard, the whining of the lapwing, and the tremu-
lous neighing of the jack-snipe. But of all those sounds, there
is none so dismally hollow as the booming of the bittern. It is
impossible for words to give those who have not heard this even-
ing-call an adequate idea of its solemnity. It is like the inter-
rupted bellowing of a l)ull, but hoUower, and louder, and is
heard at a mile's distance, as if issuing from some formidable
being that resided at the bottom of the waters.

The bird, however, that produces this terrifying sound, is not
so big as a heron, with a weaker bill, not above four inches long.
It differs from the lieron chiefly in its colour, which is in general
of a paleish yellow, spotted and barred with black. Its wind-
pipe is fitted to produce the sound for which it is remaikahlc ;
the lower part of it dividing into the lungs, is supplied with a
ihin loose membrane, that can be filled with a large body of air,
and exiiloded at pleasure. These bellowing exjjlosions are

* Bittonig are to bo fouiul ii\ all <-oiiMtiios wlioro tlicrn ure marslins. Tin-
Little />i/t'irn i« tint, iiiiich liifTKcr than the (lirosllo, and is rare in <iroal
Hritaiii. Tlio Yrllow Itilli'in is an inlml'itaiit of J?ra/,il, and in about two
feet, tlircc iuches in lpn(;th.

332

msioRV OS

L'hiefly heard from the beginning of spring to the end of autumn
and, however awful they may seem to us, are the calls to court-
ship, or of connubial felicity.

From the loudness and solemnity of the note, many have been
led to suppose, that the bird made use of external instruments to
produce it, and that so small a body could never eject such a
quantity of tone. The common people are of opinion, that it
thrusts its bill into a reed, that serves as a pipe for swelling the
note above its natural pitch ; while others, and in this number
we find Thomson the poet, imagine that the bittern puts its
head under water, and then violently blowing produces its boom-
ings. The fact is, that the bird is sufficiently provided by na-
ture for this call ; and it is often heard where there are neither
reeds nor waters to assist its sonorous invitations.

It hides in the sedges by day, and begins its call in the even-
ing, booming six or eight times, and then discontinuing for ten
or twenty minutes, to renew the same sound. This is a call it
never gives but when undisturbed, and at liberty. When its
retreats among the sedges are invaded, when it dreads or expects
the approach of an enemy, it is then perfectly silent. This call
it has never been heard to utter when taken or brought up in
domestic captivity ; it continues under the control of man a
mute forlorn bird, equally incapable of attachment or instruc-
tion. But though its boomings are always performed in soli-
tude, it has a scream which is generally heard upon the seizing
its prey, and which is sometimes extorted by fear.

This bird, though of the heron kind, is yet neither so de-
structive nor so voracious. It is a retired timorous animal, con-
cealing itself in the midst of reeds and marshy places, and living
upon frogs, insects, and vegetables ; and though so nearly re-
sembling the heron in figure, yet differing much in manners and
appetites. As the heron builds on the tops of the highest trees,
the bittern lays its nest in a sedgy margin, or amidst a tuft of
rushes. The heron builds with sticks and wool ; the bittern
composes its simpler habitation of sedges, the leaves of water-
plants, and dry rushes. The heron lays four eggs ; the bittern
generally seven or eighty of an ash -green colour. The heron
feeds its young for many days ; the bittern in three days leads its
little ones to their food. In short, the heron is lean and cadaver-
ous, subsisting chiefly upon anirnal food; the bittern is plump

BIRDS. 333

and fleshy, as it i'eeds upon vegetables, when more nourishing
food is wanting.

It cannot be, therefore, from it voracious appetites, but its
hollow boom, that the bittern is held in such detestation by the
vulgar. I remember, in the place where I was a boy, with what
terror this bird's note aflFected the whole village ; they considered
it as the presage of some sad event ; and generally found or
made one to succeed it. I do not speak ludicrously ; but if any
person in the neighbourhood died, they supposed it could not be
otherwise, for the night-raven had foretold it ; but if no body
happened to die, the death of a cow or a sheep gave completion
to the prophecy.

Whatever terror it may inspire among the simple, its flesh is
greatly esteemed among the luxurious. For this reason, it is as
eagerly sought after by the fowler, as it is shunned by the pea-
sant ; and, as it is a heavy-rising slow^-winged bird, it does not
often escape him. Indeed, it seldom rises but when almost trod
upon, and seems to seek protection rather from concealment
than flight. At the latter end of autumn, however, in the even-
ing, its wonted indolence appears to forsake it. It is then seen
I'ising in a spiral ascent, till it is quite lost from the view, mak-
ing at the same time a singular noise, very difl!erent from its
former boomings. Thus the same animal is often seen to as-
sume different desires ; and while the Latins have given the bit-
tern the name of the star-reaching bird, (or the stellaris,) the
Greeks, taking its character from its more constant habits, have
given it the title of the on'/o;, or the lazy bird.

CHAP. VII.

OK THE SI'OONlill.I,, OR SHOVKLEU.

As we proceed in our description of the crane kind, birds of
peculiar forms oflTer, not entirely like the crane, and yet not so
far different as to rank more pro])erly with any other class.
Where the long neck and stilt-legs of the crane are foiuid, they
make too striking u resemblan<;e not to admit such birds of the
nuuibor; and though the bill, or even the toes, should (Mitirely

334 HISTOUY OF

differ, yet the outlines of the figure, and the natural habits and
dispositions, being the same, these are sufficient to mark their
place in the general group of nature.

The Spoonbill is one of those birds which differs a good deal
from the crane, yet approaches this class more than any other.
The body is more bulky for its height, and the bill is very dif
ferently formed from that of any other bird whatever. Yet still
it is a comparatively tall bird ; it feeds among waters ; its toes
are divided ; and it seems to possess the natural dispositions of
the crane. The European spoonbill is of about the bulk of a
crane; but as the one is above four feet high, the other is not
more than three feet three inches. The common colour of
those of Europe is a dirty white ; but those of America are of
a beautiful rose colour, or a delightful crimson. Beauty of
plumage seems to be the prerogative of all the birds of that
continent ; and we here see the most splendid tints bestowed
on a bird, whose figure is sufficient to destroy the effects of its
colouring; for its bill is so oddly fashioned, and its eyes so
stupidly staring, that its fine feathers only tend to add splen-
dour to deformity. The bill, which in this bird is so very par-
ticular, is about seven inches long, and running out broad at
the end, as its name justly serves to denote, it is there about
an inch and a half wide. This strangely fashioned instrument
in some is black; in others of a light gray; and in those of
America, it is of a red colour, like the rest of the body. All
round the upper chap there runs a kind of rim, with which it
covers that beneath ; and as for the rest, its cheeks and its
throat are without feathers, and covered with a black skin.*

* The Spoonbills are voyaging- birds, not very wild, and show no aver-
sion to living in a state of captivity. They are found in almost all conntries
of the old world. In Europe they are seen but seldom in the anterior parts,
and are only passagery on some lakes or the banks of rivers. They frequent
the marshy coasts of Holland, of Brittany, and of Picardy. They are also
seen in Prussia, in Silesia, and in Poland, and in summer they advance as
fai as West Bothnia and Lapland. They are .again to be found on the coasts
of Africa, in Kgypt, and at the Cape of Gkiod Hope, where they are called
Slangen-wreeter, that is, serpent-eaters. Commerson has seen them at
Madagascar, where the islanders give them the name of Fungutt-am-bani,
which means spade-bilL The negroes in some districts call them Vang.van,
and in others Vourou Doulou, or birds of the deviL

The White Spoonbill is an occasional, but rare visitor of this country.
They rise very high, and fly in wav'ng lines. Their flesh is tolerably gooii

BIRDS. 336

A biid so oddly fashioned might be expected to possess some
very peculiar appetites ; but the spoonbill seems to lead a lifs
entirely resembling all those of the crane kind ; and Nature,
when she made the bill of this bird so very broad, seems rather
to have sported with its form, than to aim at any final cause for
which to adapt it. In fact, it is but a poor philosophy to ascribe
every capricious variety in nature to some salutary purpose : in
such solutions we only impose upon each other, and often wil-
fully contradict our own belief. There must be imperfections
in every being, as well as capacities of enjoyment. Between
both, the animal leads a life of moderate felicity ; in part making
use of its many natural advantages, and in part necessarily con-
forming to the imperfections of its figure.

The shoveler chiefly feeds upon frogs, toads, and serpents ; of
which, particularly at the Cape of Good Hope, they destroy
great numbers. The inhabitants of that country hold them in
as much esteem as the ancient Egyptians did their bird ibis : the

t-atin^, and is destitute of the oily taste which is peculiar to most shore
birds.

The Roseate S)yoonbill is an American species, and is the Ajaja of Brazil
(Marcgrave), and the Thiukquecul of Fernandez, and Guirapita of the na.
tives of Parag-uay. Its dimensions are not so great ivs those of the spoonbill
of the ancient continent. The plumag-e, in general, is of a beautiful rose-
colour, while the upper part of the wing- and the tail-coverts, are of a lively-
red. Age, however, operates tho oarae changes of colour in these spoon,
bills, as in the red curlew, and in the flamingo, which in their first years are
almost completely white or gray. The bill and its membrane are of a yel-
lowish.grcen, which becomes white when the bird is terrified.

The Spoonbills usually frequent wooded marshes near the mouths of rivers,
nuilding in preference upon the taller trees, but where these are wanting
taking up their abode among the bushes or even among the reeds. The fe-
males usually lay three or four whitish eggs. They iussociate together, hut
not in any considerable numbers, and feed upon the smaller fishes and their
spawn, shell-fish, reptiles, and other aquatic or amphibious animals. The
form and flexibility of their bills are well adapted for burrowing in the mud
after their prey ; and the tubercles which are pUu-ed on the inside of their
mandibles serve both to retain the more slippery animals and to breakdown
their shelly coverings. Their internal conformation, which is in nearly
every respect similar to that of the Stork, is iulmirably suited to this kind
of food. They have no proper voice, the lower laryn.t being destitute of
the muscles by which sounds are produced, and their only means of vocal
expression consist ia the snapping of their mandibles, which they clatter
with much precipitation when under the influence of anger or ahirm. In
captivity they are perfectly tame, living in peace and concord with the other
Inhabitant*! of the farm-yard, and rarely exhibiting any symptoms of wilA.
neM or desire of change. They feed on all kinds uf garbagii, /

ojC history of

slioveler nnis tamely about their houses ; and tliey are content
with its society, as a useful, though a homely, companion. They
are never killed ; and, indeed, they are good for nothing when
they are dead, for the flesh is unfit to be eaten.

This bird breeds, in Europe, in company with the heron, in
high trees ; and in a nest formed of the same materials. Wil-
loughby tells us, that in a certain grove, at a village called Seven
Huys, near Leyden, they build and breed yearly in great num
bers. In this grove, also, the heron, the bittern, the cormorant,
and the shag, have taken up their residence, and annually bring
forth their young together. Here the crane kind seem to have
formed their general rendezvous ; and, as the inhabitants say,
eveiy sort of bird has its several quarter, where none but their
own tribe are permitted to reside. Of this grove, the peasants
of the country make good profit. When the young ones are
ripe, those that farm the grove, with a hook at the end of a long
pole, catch hold of the bough on which the nest is built, and
shake out the young ones ; but sometimes the nest and all tum-
ble down together.

The shoveler lays from three to five eggs, white, and powder-
ed with a few sanguine or pale spots. We sometimes see, in
the cabinets of the curious, the bills of American shovelers,
twice as big and as long as those of the common kind among us ;
but these birds have not yet made their way into Europe.

CHAP. vin.

THE FLAMINGO.

The Flamingo has the justest right to be placed among cranes ,
and though it happens to be web-footed, like birds of the goose
kind, yet its height, figure, and appetites, entirely remove it from
that grovelling class of animals. With a longer neck and legs
than any other of the crane kind, it seeks its food by wading
among waters, and only differs from all of this tribe in the man-
ner of seizing its prey ; for as the heron makes use of its claws,
the flamingo uses only its bill, which is strong and thick for the
purpose, the claws being useless, as they are feeble, and webbed
like those of water-fow 1.

GIRDS. 337

The flamingo is the most remarkable of all the crane kind, the
tallest, bnlkiest, and the most beautiful. The body, which is ot
a beautiful scarlet, is no bigger than that of a swan ; but its legs
and neck are of such an extraordinary length, that, when it stands
erect, it is six feet six inches high. Its wings, extended, are
five feet six inches from tip to tip ; and it is four feet eight
inches from tip to tail. The head is round and small, with a
large bill, seven inches long, partly red, partly black, and crook-
ed like a bow. The legs and thighs, which are not much thicke.
than a man's finger, are about two feet eight inches high ; and
its neck near three feet long. The feet are not furnished with
sharp claws, as in others of the crane kind ; but feeble, and
united by membranes, as in those of the goose. Of what use
these membranes are does not appear, as the bird is never seen
swimming, its legs and thighs being sufficient for bearing it into
those depths where it seeks for prey.

This extraordinary bird is now chiefly found in America ; but
it was once known on ail the coasts of Europe. Its beauty, its
size, and the peculiar delicacy of its flesh, have been such temp-
tations to destroy or take it, that it has long since deserted the
shores frequented by man, and taken refuge in countries that are
as yet but thinly peopled. In those desert regions, the flamingoes
live in a state of society, and under a better polity than any other
of the feathered creation.

When the Europeans first came to America, and coasted
down along the African shores, they found the flamingoes on
several shores on either continent, gentle, and no way distrust-
ful of mankind.' They had long been used to security, in the
extensive solitudes they had chosen ; and knew no enemies but
those they could very well evade or oppose. The Negroes and
the native Americans were possessed but of few destructive arts
for killing them at a distance ; and when the bird perceived the
arrow, it well knew how to avoid it. But it was otherwise
when the Europeans first came among them ; the sailors, not
considering that the dread of fire- arms was totally unknown in
that part of the world, gave the flamingo the character of a fool-
ish bird, that suffered itself to be approached and shot at. When
the fowler had killed one, the rest of the flock, far fromattempt-

I Albiii'9 New History of Birdit.

338 HISTORV OF

ing to fly, only regarded the fall of their companion in a kind of
fixed astonibhment ; another and another shot was discharged ;
and thus the fowler often levelled the whole flock, before one of
them began to think of escaping.

But at present it is very diflferent in that part of the world ;
and the flamingo is not only one of the scarcest, but of the shy-
est birds in the world, and the most difficult of approach. They
chiefly keep near the most deserted and inhospitable shores ,
near salt-water lakes and swampy islands. They come down to
the banks of rivers by day ; and often retire to the inland moun-
tainous parts of the country at the approach of night. When
seen by mariners in the day, they always appear drawn up in a
long close line of two or three hundred together ; and, as Dam-
pier tells us, present at the distance of half a mile, the exact re
presention of a long brick wall. Their rank, however, is broken
when they seek for food ; but they always appoint one of the
number as a watch, whose only employment is to observe and
give notice of danger, while the rest are feeding. As soon as
this trusty centinel perceives the remotest appearance of danger,
he gives a loud scream, with a voice as shrill as a trumpet, and
instantly the whole cohort are upon the wing. They feed in
silence ; btit upon this occasion, all the flock are in one chorus,
and fill the air with intolerable screamings.

From this it appears, that the flamingoes are very difficult to
be approached at present, and that they avoid mankind with the
most cautious timidity ; however, it is not from any antipathy to
man that they shun his society, for in some villages, as we are
assured by Labat, along the coasts of Africa, the flamingoes
come in great numbers to make their residence among the na-
tives. There they assemble by thousands, perched on the trees,
within and about the village ; and are so very clamorous, that
the sound is heard at near a mile's distance. The Negroes are
fond of their company ; and consider their society as a gift of
Heaven, as a protection from accidental evils. The French,
who are admitted to this part of the coast, cannot, without some
degree of discontent, see such a quantity of game untouched, and
rendered useless by the superstition of the natives : they now
and then privately shoot some of them, when at a convenient
distance from the village, and hide them in the long grass, if they
perceive any of the Negroes approaching ; for they would proba-

BIRDS.

339

bly stand a chance of being ill used, if the blacks discovered tbtir
sacred birds thus unmercifully treated.

Sometimes, in their wild state, they are shot by- mariners ,
and their young which run excessively fast, are often taken.
Labat has frequently taken them with nets, properly extended
round the places they breed in. When their long legs are en-
tangled in the meshes, they are then unqualified to make their
escape : but they still continue to combat with their destroyer ;
and the old ones, though seized by the head, will scratch with
their claws ; and these, though seemingly inoffensive, very often
do mischief. When they are fairly disengaged from the net,
they nevertheless preserve their natural ferocity : they refuse all
nourishment ; they peck, and combat with their claws, at every
opportunity. The fowler is, therefore, imder a necessity of
destroying them, when taken ; as they would only pine and
die, if left to themselves in captivity.

The flesh of the old ones is black and hard ; though. Dam-
pier says, well-tasted : that of the young ones is still better.
But of all other delicacies, the flamingo's tongue is the most
celebrated. " A dish of flamingoes' tongues," says our author,
" is a feast for ati emperor." In fact, the Roman emperors con-
sidered them as the highest luxury ; and we have an account of
one of them, who procured fifteen hundred flamingoes' tongues
to be served up in a single dish. The tongue of this bird, which
is so much sought after, is a good deal larger than that of any
other bird whatever. The bill of the flamingo is like a iSrge
black box, of an irregular figure, and filled with a tongue which
is black and gristly ; but what peculiar flavour it may possess, I
leave to be determined by such as understand good eating better
than I do. It is probable, that the beauty and scarcity of the
bird might be the first inducements to studious gluttony to fix
upon its tongue as meat for the table. What Dampier says of
the goodness of its flesh, cannot so well be relied on ; for Dam-
pier was often hungry, and thought any thing good that could be
eaten : he avers, indeed, with Labat, that the flesh is black,
tough, and fishy ; so that we can hardly give him credit, when
he asserts, that its flesh can be formed into a luxurious enter-
tainment.

These birds us was said, always go in flocks together ; and
they move \u r.ink, in the manner of cranes. Tliey are soine-

2 *• 2

310 HIETOKY OF

I i Hies seen, at the break of day, flying down in great numbers
ironi the mountains, and conducting each other with a trumpet
cry, that sounds like the word Tococo, from whence the savages
of Canada have given them the name. In their flight they aj)-
pear to great advantage ; for they then seem of as bright a red
<is a burning coal. When they dispose themselves to feed, theic
cry ceases ; and then they disperse over a whole marsh, in si-
lence and assiduity. Their manner of feeding is very singular :
the bird thrusts down its head, so that the upper convex side of
the bill shall only touch the ground ; and in this position the
animal appears, as it were, standing upon its head. In this
manner it paddles and moves the bill about, and seizes whatever
fish or insect happens to offer. For this purpose the upper
chap is notched at the edges, so as to hold its prey with the
greater security. Catesby, however, gives a different account of
their feeding. According to him, they thus place the upper
chap undermost, and so work about, in order to pick up a seed
from the bottom of the water, that resembles millet : but as in
picking up this they necessarily also suck in a great quantity of
mud, their bill is toothed at the edges in such a manner as to let
out the mud while they swallow the grain.

Their time of breeding is according ^o the climate in which
they reside : in North America tney breed in our summer ; on
the other side of the line, they take the most favourable season
of the year. Thev ouild their nests in extensive marshes, and
.vh#re they are in no danger of a surprise. The nest is not less
curious than the animal that builds it : it is raised from the sur-
face of the pool about a foot and a half, formed of mud scraped
up together, and hardened by the sun, or the heat of the bird's
body ; it resembles a truncated cone, or one of the pots which
we see placed in chimneys ; on the top it is hollowed out to the
shape of the bird, and in that cavity the female lays her eggs,
without any lining but the well-cemented mud that forms the
sides of the building. She always lays two eggs, and no more ;
and, as her legs are immoderately long, she straddles on the nest,
while her legs hang down, one on each side, into the water.

The young ones are a long while before they are able to fly >
but they run with amazing swiftness. They are sometimes
caught ; and, very different from the old ones, suffer themselves
to be carried home, and arc tamed very easily. In five or six

BIRDS. 341

days they become familiar, eat out of the hand, and drink a sur-
prising quantity of sea- water. But though they are easily ren-
dered domestic, they are not reared without the greatest diffi-
culty : for they generally pine away, for want of their natural
supplies, and die in a short time. While they are yet young,
tbeir colours are very diflFerent from those lively tints they ac-
quire with age. In their first year they are covered with plu-
mage of a white colour, mixed with gray : in the second year the
whole body is white, with here and there a slight tint of scarlet ;
and the great covert feathers of his wings are black ; the third
year the bird acquires all its beauty ; the plumage of the uhole
body is scarlet, except some of the feathers in the wings, that
still retain their sable hue. Of these beautiful plumes the sa-
vages make various ornaments ; and the bird is sometimes
skinned by the Europeans, to make muffs. But these have
diminished in their price, since we have obtained the ait of dy-
ing feathers of the brightest scarlet.

CHAP. IX.

THE AVOSETTA, OR SCOOPER; AND THE CORRIBA, OR RUNNER.

The extraordinary shape of the Avosetta's bill might incline
us to wish for its history ; and yet in that we are not able to in-
dulge the reader. Natural historians have hitherto, like ambi-
tious monarchs, shown a greater fondness for extending their
dominions, than cultivating what they possess. While they have
been labouring to add new varieties to their catiJogues, tliey
have neglected to study the history of animals already known.

The avosetta is chiefly found in Italy, and now and then
comes over into England. It is about the size of a pigeon, is a
pretty upright bird, and has extremely long legs for its size.
But the most extraordinary part of its figure, and that by which
it may be distinguished from all others of the feathered tribe, is
the bill, which turns u]) like a hook, in an opposite direction to
tliat of the hawk or the parrot. This extraordinary bill is black,
flat, sharp, and flexible at the end, and about three inches and a
balf long. From its being bare a long way above the knee, it

2 t b

'M2 HISTORY OF

appears that it lives and wades in the waters. It has a chirping
pert note, as we are told ; but with its other habits we aie en-
tirely unacquainted. I have placed it, from its slender figure,
among the cranes ; although it is web-footed, like the duck. It
is one of those birds of whose history we are yet in expecta-
tion.*

To this bird of the crane kind, so little known, I will add an-
other, still less known ; the Corrira, or Runner, of Aldrovan-
dus. All we are told of it is, that it has the longest legs of all
web-footed fowls, except the flamingo and avosetta ; that the bill
is straight, yellow, and black at the ends ; that the pupils of the
eyes are surrounded with two circles, one of which is bay, and
the other white : below, near the belly, it is whitish ; the tail,
with two white feathers, black at the extremities : and that the
upper part of the body is of the colour of rusty iron. It is thus
that we are obliged to substitute dry description for instructive
history ; and employ words to express those shadings of colour
>sbich the pencil alone can convey.

CHAP. X.

SMALL BIRDS OF THE CRANE KIND, WITH THE THIGHS PARTLY
BARE OF FEATHERS.

As I have taken my distinctions rather from the general form
and manners of birds, than from their minuter though perhaps
more precise discriminations, it will not be expected that I

* The Avosets of Europe and America prefer cold and temperate climates
to hot countries. ITieir migrations are determined by the want or abun.
dance of food. In winter they assemble in small flocks of six or seven, and
frequent our shores, especially the mouths of large muddy rivers, in search
of worms and marine insects. These they scoop out of the mud with their
recurved bills, which are admirably adapted for that purpose, being tough
and flexible like whalebone. The feet seem calculated for swimming, but
tliey are never observed to take the water : it is therefore probable, that
they are furnished witli a web merely to prevent their sinking into the mud.
The female lays two eggs, about the size of those of a pigeon, of a white
colour tinged with green, and marked with large black spots. It is said to
be very tenacious of its yotuig, and when disturbed at tliis season, will fly
round in repented circles, uttering a note that resembles the word twit-twU,

BIRDS. 3 13

should here enter into a particular history of a numerous tribe of
birds, whose manners and forms are so much alike. Of many
of them we have scarcely any account in our historians, but te-
dious descriptions of their dimensions, and the colour of their
plumage ; and of the rest, the history of one is so much that of
all, that it is but the same account repeated to a most disgusting
reiteration. I will therefore groupe them into one general
draught ; in which the more eminent, or the most whimsical,
will naturally stand forward on the canvass.

In this tribe we find an extensive tribe of native birds, with
their varieties and affinities ; and we might add a hundred others,
of distant climates, of which we know little more than the col-
our and the name. In this list is exhibited the Curlew, a bird
of about the size of a duck, with a bill four inches long : the
Woodcock, about the size of a pigeon, with a bill three inches
long : the Godwit, of the same size ; the bill four inches : the
Green Shank, longer legged; the bill two inches and a half : the
Red Shank, differing in the colour of its feet from the former :
the Snipe, less by half, with a bill three inches. Then with
shorter bills — The Ruff, with a collar of feathers round the neck
of the male : the Knot, the Sandpiper, the Sanderling, the Dun-
lin, the Purre, and the Stint. To conclude : with bills very
short — The Lapwing, the Green Plover, the Gray Plover, the
Dottrel, the Turnstone, and the Sea-lark. These, with their
affinities, are properly natives or visitants of this country ; and
are dispersed along our shores, rivers, and watery grounds.
Taking in the birds of this kind, belonging to other countries,
the list would be very widely extended ; and the whole of this
class, as described by Jirisson, would amount to near a hundred. •

* We shall here notice more particularly the birds above enumerated.

The Curlew. — There arc two species of the Curlew to be found in Ku.
rope— the Common Curlew and the Little Curlew, but there are various
other species, in Asia, Africa, and America, differing very much in size, the
longest measuring about twenty-five inches, and sometimes weighing thirty-
Bix ounces. These birds fly in considerable flocks, and are well known upon
the sea-coasts in most parts, where, and in the marshes, they frequent iu
winter. '1 hey feed on worms, frogs, and all kinds of marine insects. In
April, or the beginning of May, they retire into mountainous and unfre.
qucntcd parts on the sea-shore, where they breed ; and do not return again
till the approach of winter. There have been some aikocatos in favour of
the flesh of this bird, but in general it is strong and fishy. It has a long
black bill, much curved or arched, about eight fingers long, aud bcgiiiumK

3H

HISTOUY OF

All these birds possess many marks in common ; though some
have peculiarities that deserve regard. All these birds are bare
of feathers above the knee, or above the heel, as some naturalists
choose to express it. In fact, that part which I call the knee,

to bend a little downwards about three fingers from the head. Tlie middle
parts of the feathers on the head, neck, and back, are black ; the borders or
outsides ash-coloured, with an intermixture of red ; and those between the
wings and back are of a most beautiful glossy blue, and shine like silk. The
vent and belly are white. The feet are divided, but joined by a little mem.
brane at the root. The tongue is very short, considering the length of the
bill, and bears some resemblance to an arrow. The female is somewhat
larger than the male, which is commonly called the jack-curlew ; and the
spots with which her body is covered almost over, is more inclining to a
red.

The Woodcock. — During the summer time the woodcock is an inhabitant
of Norway, Sweden, Lapland, and other northern countries, where it
breeds. As soon, however, as the frosts commence, it retires southward to
milder climates. These birds arrive in Great Britain in flocks ; some of
them in October, but not in great numbers till November and December.
They generally take advantage of the night, being seldom seen to come be-
fore sun-set

The time of their arrival depends considerably on the prevailing winds ;
for adverse gales always detain them, they not being able to struggle with
the boisterous squalls of the Northern Ocean. After their arrival in bad
weather, they have often been seen so much exhausted as to allow themselves
to be taken by the hand, when they alighted near the coast. They live on
u'orins and insects, which they search for with their long bills in soft ground
and moist woods, feeding and flying principally in the night. They go out
in the evening ; and generally return in the same direction, through the
same glades, to their day-retreat The greater part of them leave tliis
country about the latter end of February, or the beginning of March, al-
ways pairing before they set out. They retire to the coast, and, if the wind
be fair, set out immediately ; but if contrary, they are often detained in the
neighbouring woods and tliickets for some time. In this crisis the sports
men are all on the alert, and the whole surrounding country echoes to the
iischarge of guns ; seventeen brace have been killed by one person in a day.
But if they are detained long on the dry heaths, they become so lean as to
oe scarcely eatable. 'I'he instant a fair wind springs up, they seize the op-
portunity ; and where the sportsman has seen hundreds in one day, he will
not find even a single bird the next.

Very few of them breed in England ; and perhaps with respect to those
that do, it may be owing to theii- having been wouiided by the sportsman in
the winter, so as to be disabled from taking their long jouniey in the spring.
They build their nests on the ground, generally at the root of some tree,
and lay four or five eggs about the size of those of a pigeon, of a rusty col-
our, and marked with brown spots. They are remarkably tame during in-
cubation. A person who discovered a woodcock on its nest, often stood
over, and even stroked it ; notwithstanding it hatched the young ones, and
iu due time, disappeared with them.

BIRDS. 34.5

if compared with the legs of mankind, is analogous to the heel ;
but as it is commonly conceived otherwise, I have conformed to
tiie general apprehension. I say, therefore, that all these birds
are bare of feathers above the knee ; and in some they are vvant-

We have a very correct account of the migration of the woodcock in the
fullon-ing extract from Warner's Tour through Cornwall.

" Before I quit the Lands-end it may be amusingf to mention a particular
of its natural history, which I think throws some light on the much disputed
subject of the inigralion of English birds. You are aware, perhaps, that a
controversy has long subsisted between ornitliologists, wliether these birds,
which are seen amongst us at particular seasons, remain in the kingdom
concealed in indiscoverable recesses during the period of their disappearance,
or wliether they are actually absent from our climate at tliis time, and resi-
dent in countries more congenial to their nature and instincts. In this list
of migratory birds, as they are called, the woodcock, that important article
of luxury and sport, is enumerated. Mr Daines Barrington, amongst
others, is a strenuous opponent to the doctrine of this species of bird mak-
ing a periodical passage from England to other coimtries ; contending that
it builds its nest, and breeds amongst us, in the same manner as other indi-
genous British birds ; and is invisible during the summer only from the
caution of its habits, and privacy of its retreats, in season. He further
makes the assertion with respect to migratory birds in general, that there
is no well-attested instan<-e of such migration actually taking place, which
he considers as a convincing negative proof of the falsehood of tliat opinion.
What the value of these examples of migration may be, which are adduced
by Willoughby, Buffon, Ad.anson, &c. I know not, as I have never paid
any attention to the controversy j but I will venture to assert, that liad
Mr Daines Barrington made the question, with respect to woodcocks, a
Bubject of his inquiry when he was in Cornwall, he would have learned a
fact at the Lands-end, which must have at once settled scepticism on that
particular head. He would here have been told by every peasant and fisher-
man, that the annual periodical arrival of the woodcocks from the Atlantic,
at the close of the year, is as naturally expected, and as surely takes place,
as the return of winter and autumn ; and that the time of their visit is di.
rected by so certain an instinct, that the inhabitants can tell, by the tem-
perature of the air, the week, if not the day, on which they will arrive.
He would have been convinced that migration is the general habit of the
species, and not the wayw!U"d act of an individual bird, by the prodigious
(locks of tliem which reach the shore at the same time ; and no doubt would
liav(! reinaiiu'd on his mind of their coming from Asar, when he had been
told, tliat after their arrival, they might, for a day or two, bo easily knocked
dmvn, or catched by dogs, from the extreme exhaustion induced by their
flight. A short respite indeed amongst the bushes and stones of the Lands-
end again invigorates them, and enables them to take an inland course ; but
till they are thus recruited, they are an easy prey, and produce no mean
protit to tho.^e who live in the neighbourhooil of this place, at their firbt
binding in Kiigland. We were told at Truro, .as a proof of the defmitive
time of their arrival, that a gentleman there liiui sent to llie Lands-end for
several brace, to be forwarded to him for a purticiUar occasion. liia correa.

316 HISTORY OF

iiig half way up the thigh. The nudity in that part, is partly
natural, and partly produced by all birds of this kind habitually
wading in water. The older the bird, the barer are its thighs ;
yet even the young ones have not the same downy covering

pondent acquainted him in answer, that no woodcocks had yet arrived ; but
that on tlie tliird day from his writing, if the weather continued as it then
was, there would be plenty. The state of the atmosphere remained un.
changed, the visitors came as it was asserted they would, and the gentleman
received the number of birds he had ordered. — From ali these circumstances
we concluded, that woodcocks are actually migratory birds, that they retu'e
from Eugland wlien the temperature of our climate becomes too warm for
them, take their flight to more northerly regions, aud return to our coast as
soon as the cold of these liigher latitudes render it unpleasing for them to
remain."

The Snipes, tliough agreeing very much in external resemblance M-ith the
woodcocks, diiier from them in natural habits. They do not inhabit woods,
but remain in the marshy parts of meadows, in the herbage, and amongst
the osiers which are on the banks of rivers. They are still more generally
spread than the woodcocks, and there are no portions of the globe in which
some of them have not been found. They are observed to be incessantly
employed in picking the ground, ar.u Aldrovandus has remarked that they
have the tongue terminating in a sharp point, proper for piercing the small
worms, wliich, probably, constitute their food ; for though nothing is found
in their stomachs but liquid, and an earthy sediment, it must be that such
soft bodies as worms, &c. dissolve there very quickly, aud that the earth
which enters along with them, is the only substance unsusceptible of lique-
faction.

Autumn is the season for the arrival of the common snipe in most of the
southern and western countries of Europe. It then extends through mea-
dows, marshes, bogs, and along the banks of streams and rivers. When it
walks, it carries the head erect, without either hopping or fluttering, and
gives it a horizontal movement, while the tail moves up and down. When
it tiikes flight, it rises so high as often to be heard after it is lost sight of.
Its cry has been sometimes likened to that of the she.goat.

The snipes for the most part, migrating northwards, in the spring, nestle
in Germany, Switzerland, Silesia, &c. Some, however, continue in their ,
more southeru stations, making their nest in the month of June, under the
root of some alder or willow, in a sheltered place. This nest is composed
of dry plants aud feathers, and the female lays four or five oblong eggs, of a
wlutish tint, spotted with red. If the female be disturbed during incuba-
tion, she rises very high, and in a right line, then utters a particular cry,
and re-descends with great rapidity. While the female is hatching, the
male is frequently observed to hover around her, uttering a kind of hissing
noise. The young quit the nest on issuing from the shell, and then appear
very ugly and deformed. Until their bill grows firm, the mother continues
her care of them, and does not leave them until they can do without her.

The snipe usually grows very fat, both in Europe and North America ;
but much less so in warm climates. Its flesh, after the early frosts, acquires
a fine and delicate flavour. It is cooked, as well as the woodcock, without

BIRDS. 317

reaching so low as the birds of any other dass. Such a covering
there would rather be prejudicial, as being continually liable to
get wet in the water.

As these birds are usually employed rather in running than in

being drawn, and is in universal estimation as an exquisite game. It is
caught in various ways, and is well known to be a difficult shot, when
turning and winding in the air ; though by no means so when suffered to
proceed in a right line, especially as the smallest grain of lead is sufficient
to bring it down, and the slightest touch will make it fall.

The Double Snipe was considered by Buffon as a mere variety of the
common, as that naturalist probably took into consideration only its supe-
rior size, and the trifling difference of the plumage. It has, however,
since his time, been ascertained to be a different species. It differs from
the common snipe in its cry, in its flight, which is generally direct, and
with few or no circlings, and in its habits, prefeiTing to marshy and muddy
grounds, those places where there is but little water, and where it is clear.
There is little else worth remarking conci^rning it.

The Little Snipe is not l;u"ger than a lark. It is less generally ex-
tended than the common species. In France, it remains in the marshes
almost during the whole year, where it nestles and lays eggs, like those of
the common snipe. Concealed in reeds and rushes, it remains there so per-
tinaciously that it is necessary almost to walk upon it to make it rise. Its
flight is less rapid and more direct than that of the common snipe. Its fat
is equally fine, and its flesh similarly well-flavoured. It is not very com.'
men in this country.

There is a number of other species of woodcock and snipe, but there is
nothing in their habits to induce us to exceed the limits to which we are
necessarily prescribed in this portion of our work.

The Godwits are to be distinguished from the foregoing. The woodcocks,
properly so called, inhabit woods. The snipes live in fresh water marshes ;
but the godAvits prefer the sea-shore. The passage of the hist into the tem-
perate climates of Europe takes pl.ace in September, and, for their short
stay, they frequent salt marshes, where like the snipes, &c. they live on
small worms, which they draw out of the mud. Those which are some-
times to be met with in inland places, have doubtless been driven there by
the wind. Mauduyt, who observed some of them exposed for sale in the
Parisian markets, in spring, concluded, and justly, that they make a second
passage in spring, and not that they ever nestle on the French coasts,
'i'hese timid birds, whose sight moreover is weak, remain in the shade
during the day-timi', and it is only by evening twilight, or early dawn,
that they proceed in search of food, for the discrimination of which their
bill is particularly fitted. Little stones are sometinu's found in their giz.
7ard, but we cannot conclude that these hard substances answer with them,
AS with the galliuii', for the trituration of their food, which is too soft to
require any thing of the kind, but rather that they have been taken iu along
with it.

Tliese birds are particularly wild, and fly precipitately from the slighti'^t
appearance of danger, uttering a iry which Helon compares to the smolli.
ered bleating of a she-goat. At the time of their arrival they are seen ia

318 HISTORY OF

flying, and as their food lies entirely upon the ground, and not
on trees or in the air, so they run with great swiftness for
their size, and the length of their legs assists their velocity
But, as in seeking their food, they are often obliged to change

flocks, and often heard, passing' very high, in the evening- or by moonlight.
But the moment they alight, they are so much fatigued that they resume
their flight with much difficulty ; at such times, though they run with
swiftness they can be easily turned, and sufficient numbers driven together
to enable the fowler to kill several of them with a single shot. They re-
main but a short time at one place, and it is not uncommon to find them no
longer in the morning, in those marshes, where, the preceding evening,
they had been extremely numerous. Their flesh is excellent eating.

The Sanderlings are found in Eiu-ope, in Asia, in North America, and in
New South Wales. They inhabit the sea-shores, and abound, in spring and
autumn, both on the cosists of Holland and of tliis country. They are only
seen accidentally in countries remote from the sea. There is but one species ;
but as these birds, which undergo two moultings, are most frequently seen
in their summer plumage, in which red, or reddish, is the predominant
colour, while in the winter it is gray, it is not wonderful that naturalists
have made a distinct species under the title of Cliaradrius Rubidus. The
sanderlings traverse in their periodical migrations a large portion of the
globe. But they are only seen accidentally along rivers, which leads to
the presumption that their aliment consists of small marine worms and
insects. They breed in the North

The Sea I, arks, a name exceedingly improper, as tending to the confu-
sion of two genera so widely remote, never quit the edge of waters,
and especially prefer the sea-shore, although they occasionally remove to a
considerable distance from it, since they are frequently seen aroimd the
lakesand along the rivers of the Vosges and the Pyrenees. They are birds of
passage, at least in many countries of Europe. They proceed very far to tlie
north ; for they are found in Sweden, on the borders of the Ca-spian Sea,
and throughout the whole of Siberia. During winter they are very com.
mou both in France and England. The species is named by Latham, Purre
Sandpiper. Except during the nestling time, these birds unite in flocks,
often so crowded, that a great number of them may be killed by a single shot.
Nothing, says Belon, is more wonderful concerning this little bird, than to
see five or six hundred dozens of them brought, on a single Saturday, in
winter, to the Paris market. They constitute an excellent game, but must
be eaten fresh ; they are not, however, destitute of that oily taste, which
appertains to almost ail species of aquatic birds.

The Plovers habitually frequent the sea-coast, the mouths of rivers, and
salt marshes. They feed upon Crustacea, and small muUuscous animals,
which they catch in the sand along the line of waters, over which they are
seen continually flying, uttering a little cry. Many species live solitarily,
or in couples ; some others in small flocks. These birds are to be found in
almost all the coimtries of the globe, from the equator to the coldest lati-
tudes of the northern and southern hemispheres. They are all clad in som-
bre colours, the distribution of which is, however, not unpleasing. Most of
them undergo a double moulting, and are vested in various liveries, accord-

BIRDS. 34.9

their station ; so also are they equally swift of wing, and traverse
immense tracts of country without much fatigue.

It has been thought by some, that a part of this class lived upon
an oily slime, found in the bottoms of ditches and of weedy

ingtoageand sex. Some species have spines, which serve as defensive
weapons, attacliod to their wings ; some others Iiave flesliy appendages at
the base of the bill. Tlie plovers emigrate every year, in Hocks of greater
or less numbers, and this principally takes place in autumn, during the
rainy season, whence their French name [plutners] is derived, and of which
our word plover is an obvious corruption. At this time they are seen in the
greatest abundance. They do not remain quiet when on the ground, but
are seen in incessant motion. They fly in an extended file, or in transverse
zones, very narrow and of a groat length. Their flesh is delicate and much
esteemed. They are frequently taken, in great quantities, in the coun-
tries where they are common, by means of nets variously fabricated.

Of these, the first and most common is the Golden Plotter. This bird
frequents humid and marshy grounds. In winter it is very common on
the coasts of France and Holland. It is found in England during the eu
tire year ; it is also very abundant in the Highlands of Scotland, in the
Western Islands, and in the Isle of Man. It is again found in America, in
Asia, and in the islands of the Soxith Soa. Throughout the north of Europe
it is common, and in all parts of Germany, Italy, and Spain. From the lat-
ter country we trace it into Barbary, and other parts of Africa ; and it is to
be found as far to the south-east of Asia, as India, China, and the Archipe-
lago of the Eastern Ocean. These birds lay from three to five eggs, of rather
an olive-green colour, with black spots. They live on worms, insects, and
larvae. There is very little difl'erence in appearance between the male and
female.

These plovers strike the earth with their feet to cause the worms, &c., to
issue from their retreat. In the morning, like the lapwings and the snipes,
they visit the water side to wash their bills and feet. They are rarely seen
longer than twenty-four hours in the same place, which doubtless proceeds
from their numbers, which cause a rapid exhaustion of their means of sub.
sistence in any given spot. They migrate from the districts which they in-
habit when the snow falls and the frost begins to be intense, as their re-
sources of provision are then cut off, and they are deprived of the water,
wluch their constitution renders indispensable to them. It is very rare to
see a golden plover alone, and Belon tells us that the smallest flocks in which
they fly amount at leivst to fifty each. When they are seeking their food,
several of them act as sentinels, and on the appearance of any danger, set
up a shrill cry, as a warning to the others, and a signal for flight. These flocks
disperse in the evening, and each individual passes the night apart ; but at
the dawn of day, the first that awakes gives a cry of appeal to the rest,
which inunediately re-a-ssemble on this call. This cry is imitated by the
fowlers to draw these birds into their nets. Tlie flesh of these plovers is in
high estimation, in general, though the peculiarity of its flavour does not
equally please every palate. It is best when the birds are rather fat than
otherwise.
The Dotterel Ploecr — The length of this bird is about nine inches. Its
ni. 2 u

350 niSTORY OF

pools : they were thence termed, by Willoughby, Mudsuckers.
But later discoveries have showni that, in these places, they
hunt for the caterpillars and worms of insects. From hence,
therefore, we may generally assert, that all birds of this class

bill is black ; the cheeks and throat are wliite ; the bark and wings are of a
light brown, inclining to olive ; the breast is of a dull orange : the belly,
thighs, and vent are of a reddish \vhite ; the tail is of an olive broAvn, and
tipped with white ; the legs are of a dark olive colour. The dotterel is
common in various parts of Great Britain, though in some places it is
scarcely known. They are supposed to breed in the mountains of Cumber-
land and Westmoreland, where they are sometimes seen in the month of
May, during the breeding season ; they likewise breed on several of the
Highland hills. They are very common in Cambridgeshire, Lincolnsliire,
and Derbyshire, appearing in small flocks on the heaths and moors of these
counties during the months of May and June ; and are then very fat, and
much esteemed for the table. This bird is remarkable for its stupidity.

The Redshank. — This bird weighs about five ounces and a half; its length
IS twelve inches, and the breadth twenty-one. The bill, from the tip to the
corners of the month, is more than an inch and three quarters long, black at
the point, and red towards the base : the feathers on the crown of the head
are dark brown, edged with pale ruft'ous ; a light or whitish line passes
over, and encircles each eye, from the corners of which a dark brown spot
is extended to the beak : irides hazel : the hinder part of the neck is ob-
scurely spotted with dark brown, or a rusty ash coloured ground; tlie
throat and fore-part are more distinctly marked in streaks of the same col-
our': on the breast and belly, wluch are white tinged with ash, the spots
are thinly distributed, and are shaped something like the heads of arrows
or darts.

The Spotted Redshank. — The length of this bird, from the tip of the bill to
the end of the tail, is twelve inches, and to the end of the toes fourteen
inches and a half; its breadth twenty-one Inches and a quarter; and its
weight above five ounces avoirdupois. The bill is slender, measures two
inches and a half from the corners of the mouth to the tip, and is, for half
its length nearest the base, red ; the other part black : irides hazel ; the
head, neck, breast, and belly, are spotted in streaks, mottled and barred
Ivith dingy ash brown and dull white, darker on the crown and hinder part
of the neck ; the throat is white ; and lines of the same colour pass from
the upper sides of the beak over each eye, from the corners of which two
brown ones are extended to the nosh-ils. The gromid colour of the should,
ers, scapulars, lesser coverts, and tail, is a glossy olive brown ; the feathers
on all these parts are indented on the edges, more or less, with triangular,
shaped white spots. The back is white : the rump barred with waved lines
of ash-coloured brown, and dingy white : the vent feathers are marked
nearly in the same manner, but with a greater portion of white : the tail
and coverts are also barred with narrow waved lines of a dull ash-colour,
and, in some specimens, are nearly black and white. Five of the primary
quills are dark brown, tinged with olive ; the shaft of the first quill is white ;
the next six are, in the male, rather deeply tipped with white, and slightly
spotted and barred with brown : the secondaries, as far as they are uncover-

BIRDS. 35]

live upon animals of one kind or another. The long-billed birds
suck up worms and insects from the bottom ; those furnished
with shorter bills, pick up such insects as lie nearer the surface
of the meadow, or among the sands on the sea-shore.

*.
ed when the wings are extended, are of the same snowy whiteness as the
back. The feathers which cover the upper part of the thighs, and tliose near
them, are blushed witli a reddish or -vinous colour : the legs are of a deep
orange red, and measure, from the end of the middle toe-nail to the upper
hare part of the thigh, five inches and a half.

The Green Sayiripiper.—Tlus bird measures about ten inches in length, to
the end of the toes nearly twelve, and weighs about three ounces and a half.
The bill is black, and an inch and a half long : a pale streak extends from it
over each eye ; between which, and the corners of the mouth, there is a
dusky patch. The crown of the head, and the hinder part of the neck, are
of a dingy, brownish ash-colour ; in some specimens narrowly streaked with
white. The throat is white ; fore-part of the neck mottled or streaked with
brown spots on a white or pale ash-coloured ground. The whole upper
part of the plumage is of a glossy bronze, or olive brown, elegantly maiked
on the edge of each featlier with small roundish white spots • the quills are
without spots, and are of a darker brown : the secondaries and tertials are
very long : the insides of the wings are dusky, edged with white gray ; and
the inside coverts next the body are curiously barred, from the shaft of each
feather to the edge, with narrow white lines, formed nearly of the shape of
two sides of a triangle. The belly, vent, tail coverts, and tail, are white ;
the last broadly barred with black, the middle feathers having four bars,
and those next to them decreasing in the number of bars towards the out-
Bide feathers, which are quite plain : the legs are green.

The Danli7i.—Tb\s is the size of a jack-snipe. The upper parts of the
plumage is ferruginous, marked with lari;e spots of black and a little white ;
the lower parts are white, with dusky streaks. It is found in all the nor-
thern parts of Europe.

The Lapwing or Peewit.— "Ds^s bird is about the size of a common pigeon,
and is covered with very thick plumes, which are black at the roots, but ot
a diflerent coluur on the outward part. The feathers on tlie belly, thighs,
and under the wings, are most of them white as snow ; and tlie under part
on the outside of the wings white, but black lower. It has a great liver,
divided into two piu-ts ; and, as some authors alVirni, no gall. Lapwings are
found in most parts of Europe, as far northward as Iceland. In the wintei
tliey are met with in Persia and EgJ'pt- 'I'heir chief food is worms ; and
sometimes they may be seen in flocks nearly covering the low marshy
grounds in search of these, which they draw with great dexterity from tlieir
holes. When the bird meets with one of these little clusters of pellets,
or rolls of earth that are thrown out by the worm's perforations, it first
gently removes the mud from the mouth of X\w hole, then strikes the ground
at the side with its foot, an<l steadily and attentively waits the issue ; the
reptile, alarmed by the shock, emerges from its retreat, and is instantly
seized. These birds make a great noise with their wings when flying ; and
are called pee.witJt, in Si-otland and the north of t-ngland, from their parti-
cular crv. In other parts of the island, they are called greou plovers. I'hey

2g 2

332 HISTORY OF

Thus tlie curlew, the woodcock, and the snipe, are ever seen
in plashy brakes, and under covered hedges, assiduously employed
in seeking out insects in their worm state ; and it seems, from
their fatness, that they find a plentiful supply. Nature, indeed,
has furnished them with very convenient instruments for procur-
ing their food. Their bills are made sufficiently long for search-
ing; but still more, they are endowed with an exquisite sensibi-
lity at the point, for feeling their provision. They are furnished
with no less than three pair of nerves, equal almost to the optic
nerves in thickness ; which pass from the roof of the mouth, and
run along the upper chap to the point.

Nor are those birds with shorter bills, and destitute of such
convenient instruments, without a proper provision made for
their subsistence. The lapwing, the sandpiper, and the red-
shank, run with surprising rapidity along the surface of the marsh
or the sea-shore, quarter their ground with great dexterity, and
leave nothing of the insect kind that happens to lie on the sur-
face. These, however, are neither so fat nor so delicate as the

remain here the whole year. The female lays two eggs on the dry ground,
near some marsh, upon a little bed which it prepares of dry^rass : these
are olive-coloiired, and spotted with black. She sits about three weeks ;
and the young, who are covered with a thick down, are able to run two or
three days after they are hatched.

The Turnstone— Is about the size of a thrush ; the bill is nearly an inch
long, and turns a little upwards. The head, throat, and belly, are white :
the breast black ; and the neck encircled with a black colour. The upper
parts of the plumage are of a pale reddish brown. These birds take their
name from their method of finding their food, which is by turning up small
stones with their bills to get the insects that lurk under them.

The Whimbrel. — The whimbrel is only about half the size of the curlew,
which it very nearly resembles in shape, the colours of its plumage, and
manner of its living. It is about seventeen inches in length, and twenty-
nine in breadth ; and weighs about fourteen ounces. The bill is about three
inches long ; the upper mandible black, the under one pale red. The upper
part of the head is black, divided in the middle of the crown by a white lino
from the brow to the hinder part ; between the bill and the eyes there is a
darkish oblong spot ; the sides of the head, the neck, and breast, are of a
pale brown, marked with narrow dark streaks pointing downwards ; the
belly is of the same colour, but the dark streaks upon it are larger ; about
the vent it is quite white ; the lower part of the back is also white. The
riimp and tail feathers are barred with black and white ; the shafts of the
quills are white, the outer webs totally black, but the inner ones marked
with large white spots : the secondary quills are spotted in the same manner
on both the inner and outer webs. The legs and feet are of the same shape
And colour as those of the curlew.

EIKDS. 353

former ; as they are obliged to toil more for a subsistence, tliey
are easily satisfied with whatever oifers ; and their flesh often
contracts a relish of what has been their latest, or their principal
food.

Most of the birds formerly described, have stated seasons for
feeding and rest : the eagle kind prowl by day, and at evening
repose ; the owl by night, and keeps unseen in the day-time : but
these birds, of the crane kind, seem at all hours employed ; they
are seldom at rest by day; and, during the whole night-season,
?very meadow and marsh resounds with their different calls, to
courtship or to food.

This seems to be the time when they least fear interruption
from man ; and though they fly at all times, yet at this season,
they appear more assiduously employed, both in providing for
their present support, and continuing that of posterity. This is
usually the season when the insidious fowler steals in upon their
occupations, and fills the whole meadow with tenor and de-
struction.

As all of this kind live entirely in waters, and among watery
places, they seem provided by nature with a warmth of constitu-
tion to fit them for that cold element. They reside, by choice,
in the coldest climates : and as other birds migrate here in our
summer, their migrations hither are mostly in the winter. Even
those that reside among us the whole season, retire in summer
to the tops of our bleakest mountains ; where they breed, and
bring down their young, when the cold weather sets in.

Most of them, however, migrate, and retire to the polar re-
);'wus -, as those that remain behind in the mountains, and keep
with us during summer, bear no proportion to the quantity which
in winter haunt our marshes and low grounds. The siii])e some-
times builds here ; and the nest of the curlew is sometimes found
in the plashes of our hills ; but the number of these is very
small ; and it is most probable that they are only some straggleis
who, not having strength or courage suilieierit for the general
voyage, take up from necessity their habitation here.

In general, during the summer, this whole class either choose
the coldest countries to retire to, or the coldest and the moistest
part of ours to breed in. The curlew, the woodcock, the snipe,
the godwit, the gray plover, the green and the long-legged j>lovcr,
I lie knot, and the turnstone, are rather the guests than the natives

2g 3

3oi' HISTOUY OF

ot this island. They visit us in the beginning of winter, and
forsake us in the spring. They then retire to the mountains of
Sweden, Poland, Prussia, and Lapland, to breed. Our coun-
try, during the summer season, becomes uninhabitable to them.
The ground parched up by the heat ; the springs dried away ;
and the vermicular insects already upon the wing ; they have no
means of subsisting. Their weak and delicately pointed bills
are unfit to dig into a resisting soil ; and their prey is depart-
ed, though they were able to reach its retreats. Thus, that
season when nature is said to teem with life, and to put on her
gayest liveries, is to them an interval of sterility and famine.
The coldest mountains of the north are then a preferable habita-
tion ; the marshes there are never totally dried up ; and the in-
sects are in such abundance, that both above ground and under-
neath, the country swarms with them. In such retreats, there-
fore, these birds would continue always; but that the frosts,
when they set in, have the same effect upon the face of the land-
scape, as the heats of summer. Every brook is stiffened into
ice ; all the earth is congealed into one solid mass ; and the birds
are obliged to forsake a region where they can no longer find
subsistence.

Such are our visitants. With regard to those which keep
with us continually, and breed here, they are neither so delicate
:a their food, nor perhaps so warm in their constitutions. The
lapwing, the ruff, the redshank, the sandpiper, the sea-pie, the
Norfolk plover, and the sea-lark, breed in this country, and for
the most part reside here. In summer they frequent such
marshes as are not dried up in any part of the year ; the Essex
hundreds, and the fens of Lincolnshire. There, in solitudes
formed by surrounding marshes, they breed and bring up their
young. In winter they come down from their retreats rendered
uninhabitable by the flooding of the waters, and seek their food
about our ditches and marshy meadow-grounds. Yet, even of
this class, all are wanderers upon some occasions ; and take wing
to the northern climates, to breed and find subsistence. This hap-
pens when our summers are peculiarly dry ; and when the fenny
countries are not sufficiently watered to defend their retreats.

But though this be the usual course of nature, with respect to
these birds, they often break th)-ough the general habits of theit
kind ; and as the lapwing, the ruff, and the sandpiper, are some-

BIRDS. 355

times seen to alter their manners, and to migrate from hence,
instead of continuing to breed here ; so we often find the wood-
cock, the snipe, and the curlew, reside with lis during the whole
season, and breed their young in different parts of the country.
In Casewood, about two miles from Tunbridge, as Sir Pennant
assures us, some woodcocks are seen to breed annually. The
young have been shot there in the beginning of August ; and
were as healthy and vigorous as they are with us in winter,
though not so well tasted. On the Alps, and other high moun-
tains, says Willoughby, the woodcock continues all summer ; I
myself have flushed them on the top of Mount Jura, in June
and July. The eggs are long, of a pale red colour, and stained
with deeper spots and clouds. The nests of the curlew and the
snipe are frequently found ; and some of these perhaps never
entirely leave this island.

It is thus that the same habits are, in some measure, common
to all ; but in nestling, and bringing up their young, one method
takes place universally. As they all run and feed upon the
ground, so they are all found to nestle there. The number of
eggs generally to be seen in every nest, is from two to four ;
never under, and very seldom exceeding. The nest is made
without any art ; but the eggs are either laid in some little de-
pression of the earth, or on a few bents and long grass, that scarce-
ly preserve them from the moisture below. Yet such is the
heat of the body of these birds, that the time of incubation is
shorter than with any other of the same size. The magpie, for
instance, takes twenty-one days to hatch its young ; the lapwing
takes but fourteen. Whether the animal oil, with which these
birds abound, gives them this superior warmth, I cannot tell ;
but there is no doubt of their quick incubation.

In their seasons of courtship, they pair as other birds ; but
not without violent contests between the males, for the choice of
the female. The lapwing and the plover are often seen to fight
among themselves ; but there is one little bird of this tribe, called
the ruff, that has got the epithet of the fighter, merely from its
great perseverance and animosity on these occasions. In the
beginning of spring, when these birds arrive among our marshes,
they are observed to engage with desperate fury against each
other : it is then that the fowlers, seeing tbem intent on mutual
dtstruction, spread their nets over them, and take them in great

oj6 history of

numbers. Yet even in captivity their animosity still continues ;
the people that fat them up for sale, are obliged to shut them up
in close dark rooms ; for if they let ever so little light in among
them, the turbulent prisoners instantly fall to fighting with each
other, and never cease till each has killed its antagonist, espe-
cially, says Willoughby, if any body stands by. A similar ani-
mosity, though ill a less degree, prompts all this tribe ; but when
they have paired, and begun to lay, their contentions are then
over.

The place these birds chiefly choose to breed in, is in some
island surrounded with sedgy moors, where men seldom resort ;
and in such situations I have often seen the ground so strewed
with eggs and nests, that one could scarcely take a step, without
treading upon some of them. As soon as a stranger intrudes
upon these retreats, the whole colony is up, and a hundred dif-
ferent screams are heard from every quarter. The arts of the
lapwing, to allure men or dogs from her nest, are perfectly amus-
ing. When she perceives the enemy approaching, she never
waits till they arrive at her nest, but boldly runs to meet them :
when she has come as near them as she dares to venture, she
then rises with a loud screaming before them, seeming as if she
were just flushed from hatching ; while she is then probably a
hundred yards from the nest. Thus she flies with great clamour
and anxiety, whining and screaming around the invaders, strik-
ing at them with her wings, and fluttering as if she were wound-
ed. To add to the deceit, she appears still more clamorous, as
more remote from the nest. If she sees them very near, she
then seems to be quite unconcerned, and her cries cease, while
her terrors are really augmenting. If there be dogs, she flies
heavily at a little distance before them, as if maimed; still voci-
ferous and still bold, but never offering to move towards the
quarter where her treasure is deposited. The dog pursues, in
hopes every moment of seizing the parent, and by this means
actually loses the young ; for the cunning bird, when she has
thus drawn him off to a proper distance, then puts forth her
powers, and leaves her astonished pursuers to gaze at the rapidity
of her flight. The eggs of all these birds are highly valued by
the luxurious ; they are boiled hard, and thus served up without
any further preparation.

As the young of this class are soon hatched, so, when exclud-

BIRDS. 357

ed, they quickly arrive at maturity. They run about after the
mother as soon as they leave the egg ; and being covered with
a thick down, want very little of that clutching which all birds
of the poultry kind, that follow the mother, indispensably require.
They come to their adult state long before winter ; and then
flock together till the breeding season returns, which for a while
dissolves their society.

As the flesh of almost all these birds is in high estimation, so
many methods have been contrived for taking them. That used
in taking the rufl^, seems to be most advantageous ; and it may
not be amiss to describe it. The Rufl", which is the name of
the male, the Reeve that of the female, is taken in nets about
forty yards long, and seven or eight feet high. These birds are
chiefly found in Lincolnshire and the Isle of Ely, where they
come about the latter end of April, and disappear about Mich-
aelmas. The male of this bird, which is known from all others
of the kind by the great length of the feathers round his neck, is
yet so various in his plumage, that it is said, no two rufl^s were
ever seen totally of the same colour. The nets in which these
are taken, are supported by sticks, at an angle of near forty-five
degrees, and placed either on dry ground, or in very shallow
water, not remote from reeds : among these the fowler conceals
himself, till the birds, enticed by a stale or stuffed bird, come
under the nets ; he then, by pulling a string, lets them fall, and
they are taken ; as are god-wits, knots, and gray-plover, also, in
the same manner. When these birds are brought from under
the net, they are not killed immediately, but fattened for the
table, with bread and milk, hemp-seed and sometimes boiled
wheat ; but if expedition be wanted, sugar is added, which will
make them a lump of fat in a fortnight's time. They are kept,
as observed before, in a dark room ; and judgment is required in
taking the proper time for killing them, when they are at the
highest j)itch of fatness : for if that is neglected, the birds are
apt to fall away. They are reckoned a very great delicacy •, they
sell for two shillings, or half-a-crovvn, a-piece ; and are served
up to the table with the train, like woodcocks, where we will
leave them.

338 HISTORY OF

CHAP. XI.

OF THE WATER-HEN, AND THE COOT.*

Before we enter upon water-fowls, properly so called, two
or three birds claim our attention, which seem to form the shade
between the web-footed tribe and those of the crane kind.
These partake rather of the form than the habits of the crane ;
and though furnished with long legs and necks, rather swim than
wade. They cannot properly be called web-footed ; nor yet are
they entirely destitute of membranes, which fringe their toes on
each side, and adapt them for swimming. The birds in question
are, the Water- Hen and the Bald- Coot.

These birds have too near an affinity, not to be ranked in the
same description. They are shaped entirely alike, their legs are
long, and their thighs partly bare ; their necks are proportionable^
their wings short, their bills short and weak, their colour black,

* As bearing some affinity to this germs of birds, we may here notice the
Rails, so called from the rattling sound of their cry. These birds, which re-
main during the day concealed in the grass, seek their food morning and
evening in the reeds and plants of marshes and meadows. They fly very
far, and walk with great agility. They never join in families or flocks.
They raise their neck like hens when they are distiu'bed, and the young
quit the nest immediately after birth, and seize of their own accord the food
which is indicated to them by the mother. To the Land-rail or Corn-crake,
these remarks are not perhaps applicable in all respects.

The Water.rail runs along stagnant waters as fast as the corn-crake does
over the fields. Sometimes, instead of traversing the water by swimming,
it sustains itself on the broad leaves of aquatic plants. Its food consists in
insects, snails, and shrimps. It makes its nest in the midst of plants, by the
side of ponds and streams, and the female lays from six to ten yellowish
eggs, marked with spots of reddish-brown. The flesh of this bird has a
marshy taste, but is, notwithstanding, in some estimation.

The Land-rail, or Corn-crake, is in the genus Galliiiule of Latham. In
the more southern countries this is a bird of passage. It arrives among
us and in France about April or May, and disappears in the commencement
of October. By its short and sharp cry, crik, crik, we recognize its return.
On approaching the quarter whence this cry proceeds, the sound is not dis.
continued, but heard a little farther on, which is occasioned by the bird,
which can fly away but with difliculty, running with extreme swiftness
through the tufted grass. In consequence of the coincidence between the
return and departure of the quails and this bird, the latter has been some,
times deemed the conductor of the former. These birds are insectivorous
when young, but the adult add grains, &e. uf various kinds to this aliment

eiRDS. 3.i>9

their foreheads bald and without feathers, and their habits en-
tirely the same. These, however, naturalists have thought pro-
per to range in different classes, from very slight distinctions in
their figure. The water-hen weighs but fifteen ounces ; the coot
twenty-four. The bald part of the forehead in the coot is black ;
in the water-hen it is of a beautiful pink colour. The toes of
the water-hen are edged with a straight membrane ; those of
the coot have it scolloped and broader.

The differences in the figure are but slight ; and those in theit
manner of living still less. The history of the one will serve
for both. As birds of the crane kind are furnished with long
wings, and easily change place, the water-hen, whose wings are
short, is obliged to reside entirely near those places where her
food lies : she cannot take those long journeys that most of the
crane kind are seen to perform ; compelled by her natural imper
factions, as well perhaps as by inclination, she never leaves the
side of the pond or the river in which she seeks for provision.
Where the stream is selvaged with sedges, or the pond edged
with shrubby trees, the water-hen is generally a resident there :
she seeks her food along the grassy banks, and often along the
surface of the water. With Shakspeare's Edgar, she drinks the
green mantle of the standing pool ; or, at least seems to prefer
those places where it is seen. Whether she makes pond-weed
her food, or hunts among it for water-insects, which are found
there in great abundance, is not certain. I have seen them when
pond-weed was taken out of their stomach. She builds her nest
upon low trees and shrubs, of sticks and fibres, by the water-
side. Her eggs are sharp at one end, white, with a tincture of
green, spotted with red. She lays twice or thrice in a summer ;
her young ones swim the moment they leave the egg, pursue theii
parent, and imitate all her manners. She rears, in this manner,
two or three broods in a season : and when the young are grown
up, she drives them off to shift for themselves.

As the coot is a larger bird, it is always seen in larger streams,
and more remote from mankind. The water-hen seems to pre-
fer inhabited situations : she keeps near ponds, moats, and j)ools
of water near gentlemen's houses ; but the coot keeps in rivers,
and among rushy margined lakes. It there makes a nest of such
weeds as the stream supplies, and lays them among the reeds,
floating on the surface, and rising and falling witii the water , '^

380 HISTORY OF

The reeds among which it is built keep it fast ; so that it is sel-
dom washed into the middle of the stream. But if this happens,
which is sometimes the case, the bird sits in her nest, like a
mariner in his boat, and steers with her legs her cargo into the
nearest harbour : there, having attained her port, she continues
to sit in great tranquillity, regardless of the impetuosity of the
current ; and though the water penetrates her nest, she hatches
her eggs in that wet condition.

The water-hen never wanders ; but the coot sometimes swims
down the current, till it even reaches the sea. In this voyage
these birds encounter a thousand dangers : as they cannot fly
far, they are hunted by dogs and men ; as they never leave the
stream, they are attacked and destroyed by otters ; they are
preyed upon by kites and falcons ; and they are taken in still
greater numbers in weirs made for catching tish ; for these birds
are led into the nets, while pursuing small fish and insects, which
are their principal food. Thus animated nature affords a picture
of universal invasion ! Man destroys the otter, the otter de-
stroys the coot, the coot feeds upon fish, and fish are universally
the tyrants of each other !

To these birds, with long legs and finny toes, I will add one
species more, with short legs and finny toes ; I mean the Grebe.
The entire resemblance of this bird's appetites and manners to
those of the web-footed class, might justly induce me to rank it
among them ; but as it resembles those above described, in the
peculiar form of its toes, and bears some similitude in its man-
ners also, I will for once sacrifice method to brevity. The
grebe is much larger than either of the former, and its plumage
white and black ; it differs also entirely in the shortness of its
legs, which are made for swimming, and not walking : in fact,
they are from the knee upward hid in the belly of the bird, and
have consequently very little motion. By this mark, and by the
scolloped fringe of the toes, may this bird be easily distinguished
from all others.

As they are thus, from the shortness of their wings, ill formed
for flying, and from the uncommon shortness of their legs utterly
unfitted for walking, they seldom leave the water, and chiefly
frequent those broad shallow pools where their faculty of swim-
ming can be turned to the greatest advantage, in fishing and
seeking their prey.

BIRDS. 361

They are cliiefly, in this country, seen to frequent the meres
of Shropshire and Cheshire ; where they breed among reeds and
flags, in a floating nest, kept steady by the weeds of the margin.
The female is said to be a careful nurse of her young, being ob-
served to feed them most assiduously with small eels ; and when
the little brood is tired, the mother will carry them either on her
back or under her wings. This bird preys upon fish, and is al-
most perpetually diving. Jt does not show much more than the
head above water ; and is very difficult to be shot, as it darts
down on the appearance of the least danger. It is never seen on
land ; and, though disturbed ever so often, will not leave that
lake, where alone, by diving and swimming, it can find food and
security. It is chiefly sought for the skin of its breast, the plu-
mage of which is of a most beautiful silvery white, and as glossy
as satin. This part is made into tippets ; but the skins are out
of season about February, losing their bright colour ; and in
breeding.time their breasts are entirely bare.

III. 'J H

BOOK vir.

OF WATER-FOWL.

CHAP. I.

WATER-FOWL IN GENERAL.

In settling the distinctions among the other classes of birds,
there was some difficulty ; one tribe encroached so nearly upon
the nature and habitudes of another, that it was not easy to
draw the line which kept them asundtr: but in waterfowl,
nature has marked them for us by a variety of indelible charac-
ters ; so that it would be almost as unlikely to mistake a land-
fowl for one adapted for living and swimming among the waters,
as a fish for a bird.

The first great distinction in this class appears in the toes,
which are webbed together for swimming. Those who have
remarked the feet or toes of a duck, will easily conceive how
admirably they are formed for making way in the water. When
men swim, they do not open the fingers, so as to let the fluid
pass through them ; but closing them together, present one
broad surface to beat back the water, and thus push their bodies
along. What man performs by art, nature has supplied to water-
fowl ; and, by broad skins, has webbed their toes together, so
that they expand two broad oars to the water ; and thus, moving
them alternately, with the greatest ease paddle along. We must
observe also, that the toes are so contrived, that as they strike
backward, their broadest hollow surface beats the water ; but as
they gather them in again, for a second blow, their front surface
contracts, and does not impede the bird's progressive motion.

As their toes are webbed in the most convenient manner, so
are their legs also made most fitly for swift progression in the

BIRDS. 363

water. The legs of all are short, except the three birds de-
scribed in a former chapter ; namely, the flamingo, the avosetta,
and the corrira ; all which, for that reason, I have thought pro-
per to rank among the crane kind, as they make little use of theii
toes in swimming. Except these, all web-footed birds have very
short legs ; and these strike, while they swim, with great facili-
ty — Were the leg long, it would act like a lever whose prop is
placed to a disadvantage ; its motions would be slow, and the
labour of moving it considerable. For this reason, the very few
birds whose webbed feet are long, never make use of them in
swimming : the web at the bottom seems only of service as a
broad base, to prevent them from sinking while they walk
in the mud ; but it otherwise rather retards than advances their
motion.

The shortness of their legs in the web-footed kinds, renders
them as unfit for walking on land, as it qualifies them for swim-
ming in their natural element. Their stay, therefore, upon land,
is but short and transitory ; and they seldom venture to breed
far from the sides of those waters where they usually remain.
In their breeding seasons, their young are brought up by the
water-side ; and they are covered with a warm down, to fit
them for the coldness of their situation. The old ones, also,
have a closer, warmer plumage, than birds of any other class. It
is of their feathers that our beds are composed ; as they neither
mat, nor imbibe humidity, but are furnished with an animal-oil
that glazes their surface, and keeps each other separate. In
some, however, this animal-oil is in too great abundance, and is
as offensive from its smell, as it is serviceable for the purposes
of household economy. The feathers, therefore, of all the pen-
guin kind are totally useless for domestic purposes ; as neither
boiling nor bleaching can divest them of their oily rancidity
Indeed, the rancidity of all new feathers, of whatever water- fowl
they be, is so disgusting, that our Upholsterers give near double
the price for old feathers that they afford for new : to be free
from smell, they must all be lain upon for some time ; and their
usual method is to mix the new and the old together.

This quantity of oil, with which most water-fowl are supplied,
contributes also to their warmth in the moist element where they
reside. Their skin is generally lined with fat ; so that, with the
warmth of the feathers externally, and this iiatuial lining more

2 i\ l

Se-t HISTOKY OF

internally, they are better defended against the changes or the
inclemencies of the weather, than any other class whatever.

As, among land-birds, there are some found fitted entirely for
depredation, and others for a harmless method of subsisting
upon vegetables, so also, among these birds, there are tribes of
plunderers that prey, not only upon fish, but sometimes upon
water-fowl themselves. There are likewise more inoffensive
tribes, that live upon insects and vegetables only. Some water-
fowls subsist by making sudden stoops from above, to seize
whatever fish come near the surface ; others again, not furnished
with wings long enough to fit them for flight, take their prey by
diving after it to the bottom.

From hence all water-fowl naturally fall into three distinc-
tions. Those of the Gull kind, that, with long legs and round
bills, fly along the surface to seize their prey : those of the Pen-
guin kind, that, with round bills, legs hid in the abdomen, and
short wings, dive after their prey : and, thirdly, those of the
Goose kind, with flat broad bills, that lead harmless lives, and
chiefly subsist upon insects and vegetables.

These are not speculative distinctions, made up for the ar-
rangement of a system ; but they are strongly and evidently
marked by nature. The gull kind are active and rapacious;
constantly, except when they breed, keeping upon the wing;
fitted for a life of rapine, with sharp straight bills for piercing,
or hooked at the end for holding their fishy prey. In this class
we may rank the Albatross, the Cormorant, the Gannet or So-
land Goose, the Shag, the Frigate-bird, the Great Brown Gull,
and all the lesser tribe of gulls and sea-swallows.

The Penguin kind, with appetites as voracious, bills as sharp,
and equally eager for prey, are yet unqualified to obtain it by
flight. Their wings are short, and their bodies large and heavy,
so that they can neither run nor fly. But they are formed foi
diving in a very peculiar manner. Their feet are placed so far
backward, and their legs so hid in the abdomen, that the slight-
est stroke sends them head foremost to the bottom of the water.
To this class we may refer the Penguin, the Auk, the Skout,
the Sea-turtle, the Bottlenose, and the Loon.

The Goose kind are easily distinguishable, by their flat broad
bills covered with a skin, and their manner of feeding, which is
mostly upon vegetables. In this class we may place the Swan,

BIRDS. 365-

the Goose, the Duck, the Teal, the Widgeon, and all their inu
merous varieties.

In describing the birds of these three classes, I will put the
most remarkable of each class at the beginning of their respec-
tive tribes, and give their separate history ; then, after having
described the chiefs of the tribe, the more ordinary sorts will
naturally fall in a body, and come under a general description,
behind their leaders. But before I offer to pursue this methodi-
cal arrangement, I must give the history of a bird, that from the
singularity of its conformation, seems allied to no species ; and
should, therefore, be separately described — I mean the Pelican

CHAP. II.

THE PELICAN.*

The Pelican of Africa is much larger in the body thu^i a
swan, and somewhat of the same shape and colour. Its four

♦ The pelican affords an excellent illustration of the fifth and last Order
of Birds, the Swimmers; the essential character of which consists in the
membranous union of the toes, which renders them what is usually termed
web-footed, and enables them to propel themselves tipon the surface of the
water with g^reater or less rapidity in proportion to the greater or less com.
parative extent of the membrane in which their toes are enveloped. They
are all consequently inhabitants of marsliy situations, of the banks of rivers
and lakes, or of the seacoast ; and most of them seek their subsistence in
their mo>t cong-enial element, the water, notwithstanding that by far the
greater niunber of them are also endowed with very considerable powers of
flight,

I/mnaeus united under the common title of Pelican':, the Cormorants, the
Boobies, and several other bird^, which differ from the typical species of the
genus by many important characters, tin' chief point of a^jreement between
them consisting in the form and extent of the membrane which unites the
toes. The Linnean group hiis subsequently been raised to the rank of a
family, and its component parts form several distinct genera, that which
comprehends the true Pelicans, the genus OnrKTotalus of Brisson, beiuij
cliaracterised as follows. Their bill is of very great length, straight, broad,
flattened above, and terminated by a slight hook ; the lower mandible con.
si.sts of two lateral branches, united at the point, and having interposed be-
tween them a membranous pouch capable of very great dilatation ; their fieir
toes are all enveloped to the very apex in the common membrane ; their legs
are short, atroiii.', and maintain theboiijin astate of efiMint)rium, tlii'ir lower
part beinjf entirely destitute of feather i.

i< II 3

366 HISTORY OF

toes are all webbed together ; and its neck, in some measure,
resembles that of a swan : but that singularity in which it differs
from all other birds, is in the bill and the great pouch underneath,
which are wonderful and demand a distinct description. This
enormous bill is fifteen inches from the point to the opening of
the mouth, which is a good way back behind the eyes. At the
base, the biU is somewhat greenish, but varies towards the end,
being of a reddish-blue. It is very thick in the beginning, but
tapers off to the end, where it hooks downwards. The upper
chap is still more extraordinary ; for to the lower edges of it
hangs a bag, reaching the whole length of the bill to the neck,
which is said to be capable of containing fifteen quarts of water.
This bag the bird has a power of wrinkling up into the hollow of
the under-chap : but by opening the bill, and putting one's hand
down into the bag, it may be distended at pleasure. The skin
of which it is formed will then be seen of a bluish ash -colour,
with many fibres and veins running over its surface. It is not
covered with feathers, but a short downy substance, as smooth
and as soft as satin, and is attached all along the under edges of
the chap, to be fixed backward to the neck of the bird by proper
ligaments, and reaches near half way down. When this bag is
empty it is not seen ; but when the bird has fished with success, it

The Pelican is one of the largest water-birds, considerably exceeding tlie
size of the swan, and frequently measuring from five to six feet between the
extremity of the bill and that of the tail, end from ten to twelve between
the tips of the expanded wings. Its bill is nearly a foot and a half in length,
and from an inch and a half to two inches broad ; and its pouch is capable of
containing, when stretched to its utmost extent, two or three gallons of
water. The quantity of fish which it sometimes accumulates in the same
serviceable repository is spoken of as enormous. Notwithstanding their
great bulk and apparent ckmisiness, the large extent of their wings, and the
extreme lightness of thoir bones, which are so thin as to be almost trans,
parent, enable these birds to rise to a lofty pitch in the air, to hover at a
moderate elevation, or to skim rapidly along the surface of the water with
as much facility as they dive into its depths in pursuit of their prey. They
sometimes assemble iu large numbers, and in this case are said by BuiFon to
act in concert, and to show no little skill in manoeuvring with the view of
securing a plentiful quarry, forming themselves into a circular line, and
gradually narrowing the extent of the space enclosed, until they have
driven the fishes into so small a compass as to render them a certain prey ;
when at a given signal they all at once plunge into the water and seize
upon their terrified victims, filling their pouches with the spoU, and flying
to the land, there to devour it at their leisure. This fishery is carried on
both at sea and in fresh water.

BIRDS. 367

is then incredible to what an extent it is often seen dilated.
For the first thing the pelican does in fishing is to fill up the
bag ; and then it returns to digest its burden at leisure. When
the bill is open to its widest extent, a person may run his head
into the bird's mouth, and conceal it in this monstrous pouch,
thus adapted for very singular purposes. Yet this is nothing to
what Ruysch assures us, who avers, that a man has been seen to
hide his whole leg, boot and all, in the monstrous jaws of one
of these animals. At first appearance this would seem impos-
sible, as the sides of the under chap, from which the bag de-
pends, are not above an inch asunder when the bird's bill is first
opened ; but then they are capable of great separation ; and it
nmst necessarily be so, as the bird preys upon the largest fishes,
and hides them by dozens in its pouch. Tertre affirms, that it
will hide as many fish as will serve sixty hungry men for a meal.

Such is the formation of this extraordinary bird, which is a
native of Africa and America. The pelican was once also
known in Europe, particularly in Russia ; but it seems to have
deserted our coasts. This is the bird of which so many fabulous
accounts have been propagated ; such as its feeding its young
with its own blood, and its carrying a provision of water for
them in its great reservoir in the desert. But the absurdity of
the first account answers itself; and as for the latter, the pelican
uses its bag for very different pmposes than that of filling it
with water.

Its amazing pouch may be considered as analogous to the crop
in other birds, with this difl^ercnce, that as theirs lies at the bot-
tom of the gullet, so this is placed at the top Thus, as pigeons

and other birds macerate their food for their young in their crops,
and then supply them, so the pelican supplies its young by a
more ready contrivance, and macerates their food in its bill, or
stores it for its own particular sustenance.

The ancients were particularly fond of giving this bird admi-
rable qualities and psu-ental affections ; struck, perhaps, with its
extraordinary figure, they were willing to supply it with as ex-
traordinary appetites ; and having found It with a large reservoir,
they were pleased with turning it to the most tender and parental
uses. But the truth is, the pelican is a very heavy, sluggish, vora.
cious bird, and very ill fitted to take those flights, or to make those
cautious provisions for a distant tiinp, which we have been told

368 HISTORY or

tlii?y do. Father Labat, who seems to have studied their manncrj
with great exactness, has given us a minute history of this bird,
as found in America ; and from him I will borrow mine.

The pelican, says Labat, has strong wings, furnished vvitJ.i
thick plumage of an ash-colour, as are the rest of the feather.s
over the whole body. Its eyes are very small when compared
to the size of its head ; there is a sadness in its countenance,
and its whole air is melancholy. It is as dull and reluctant in
its motions, as the flamingo is sprightly and active. It is slow
of flight; and when it rises to fly, performs it with difficulty and
labour. Nothing, as it would seem, but the spur of necessity
could make these birds change their situation, or induce them to
ascend into the air ; but they must either starve or fly.

They are torpid and inactive to the last degree, so that no-
thing can exceed their indolence but their gluttony ; it is only
from the stimulations of hunger that they are excited to labour •,
for otherwise they would continue always in fixed repose. When
they have raised themselves about thirty or forty feet above the
surface of the sea, they turn their head with one eye downwards,
and continue to fly in that posture. As soon as they perceive a
fish sufficiently near the surface, they dart down upon it with the
swiftness of an arrow, seize it with unerring certainty, and store
it up in their pouch. They then rise again, though not without
great labour, and continue hovering and fishing, with their head
on one side as before.

This work they continue with great effort and industry till
their bag is full, and then they fly to land to devour and digest
at leisure the fruits of their industry. This, however, it would
appear, they are not long in performing ; for towards night they
have another hungry call, and they again reluctantly go to labour.
At night, when their fishing is over, and the toil of the day
crowned with success, these lazy birds retire a little way from the
shore ; and, though with the webbed feet and clumsy figure of a
goose, they will be contented to perch no where but upon trees,
among the light and airy tenants of the forest. There they take
their repose for the night ; and often spend a great part of the
day, except such times as they are fishing, sitting in dismal so-
lemnity, and, as it would seem, half asleep. Their attitude is,
with the head resting upon thtir gi eat bag, and that resting upon
their breast. There thty remain without motion, or once chang

BIRDS. 3G9

ing their situation, till the calls of hunger break their repose,
and till they find it indispensably necessary to fill their magazine
for a fresh meal. Thus their life is spent between sleeping and
eating ; and our author adds, that they are as foul as they are
voracious, as they are every moment voiding excrements in heaps
as large as one's fist.

The same indolent habits seem to attend them even in pre-
paring for incubation, and defending their young when excluded.
The female makes no preparation for her nest, nor seems to
choose any place in preference to lay in ; but drops her eggs on
the bare ground to the immber of five or six, and there continues
to hatch them. Attached to the place, without any desire of
defending her eggs or her young, she tamely sits, and suffers
them to be taken from under her. Now and then she just ven-
tures to peck, or to cry out when a person offers to beat her off.

She feeds her young with fish macerated for some time in her
bag ; and when they cry, flies oft' for a new supply. Labat tells
us, that he took two of these when very young, and tied them by
the leg to a post stuck into the ground, where he had the plea-
sure of seeing the old one for several days come to feed them,
remaining with them the greatest part of the day, and spending
the night on the branch of a tree that hung over them. By these
means they were all three become so familiar, that they suffered
themselves to be handled ; and the young ones very kindly ac-
cepted whatever fish he offered them. These they always put
first into their bag, and then swallowed at their leisure.

It seems, however, that they are but disagreeable and useless
domestics ; their gluttony can scarcely be satisfied ; their flesh
smells very rancid ; and tastes a thousand times worse than it
smells. The native Americans kill vast numbers ; not to eat,
for they are not fit even for the banquet of a savage ; but to con-
vert their large bags into jjurses and tobacco pouches. They
bestow no small pains in dressing the skin with salt and ashes,
rubbing it well with oil, and then forming it to their purpose.
It thus becomes so soft and pliant, that the Spanish women
sometimes adorn it with gold and embroidery to make work-
bags of.

Yet with all the seeming habitudes of this bird, it is not en-
tirely incapable of instruction in a domestic state. Katiier Ilay-
mond assures us, that he lias seen one so tame and well cdu-

370 HWTORY OF

fitted among the native Americans, tbat it would go off in t!ie
morning at the word of command, and return before night to its
master, with its great pouch distended with plunder; a part of
which the savages would make it disgorge, and apart they would
} ermit it to reserve for itself.

" The Pelican," as Faber relates, " is not destitute of othet
qualifications. One of these which was brought alive to the
duke of Bavaria's court, where it lived forty years, seemed to be
possessed of very uncommon sensations. It was much delighted
in the company and conversation of men, and in music both vo-
cal and instrumental : for it would willingly stand," says he,
" by those that sung, or sounded the trumpet; and stretching
out its head, and turning its ear to the music, listened very atten-
tively to its harmony; though its own voice was little pleasanter
than the braying of an ass." Gesner tells us, that the emperor
Maximilian had a tame pelican, which lived for above eighty
years, and that always attended his army on their march. It
was one of the largest of the kind, and had a daily allowance by
the emperor's orders. As another proof of the great age to
which the pelican lives, Aldrovandus makes mention of one of
these birds that was kept several years at Mechlin, was verily
believed to be fifty years old. — We often see these birds at our
shows about town.

CHAP. III.

of THE ALBATROSS, THE FIRST OF THE GULL KIND.

Though this is one of the largest and most formidable birds
of Africa and America, yet we have but few accounts to en-
lighten us in its history. The figure of the bird is thus de-
scribed by Edwards ; " The body is rather larger than that of a
pelican ; and its wings, when extended, ten feet from tip to tip.
The bill, which is six inches long, is yellowish, and terminates
in a crooked point. The top of the head is of a bright brown;
the back is of a dirty deep spotted brown ; and the belly and
under the wings is white ; the toes, which are webbed, are of a
flesh colour.**

BIRDS. 371

Such are the principal traits in this bird's figure : but these
lead us a very sliort way in its liistory; and our naturalists have
thought fit to say nothing more. However, I am apt to believe
this bird to be the same with that described by Wicquefort, under
tiie title of the Alcatraz ; its size, its colours, and its prey, incline
me to think so. He describes it as a kind of great gull, as large
in the body as a goose, of a brown colour, with a long bill, and
living upon fish, of which they kill great numbers.

This bird is an inhabitant of the tropical climates, and also
beyond them as far as the Straits of Magellan in the South
Seas. It is one of the most fierce and formidable of the aqua-
cic tribe, not only living upon fish, but also such small water-
fowl as it can take by surprise. It preys, as all the gull kind
do, upon the wing ; and chiefly pursues the flying-fish, thu-t are
forced from the sea by the dolphins. The ocean in that part of
the world presents a very different appearance from the seas
with which we are surrounded. In our seas we see nothing but
a dreary expanse, ruffled by winds, and seeming forsaken by
every class of animated nature. But the tropical seas, and the
distant southern latitudes beyond them, are all alive with birds
and fishes, pursuing and pursued. Every various species of the
gull-kind are there seen hovering on the wing, at a thousand
miles distance from the shore. The flying fish are every mo-
ment rising to escape from their pursuers of the deep, only to
encounter equal dangers in the air. Just as they rise the dol-
phin is seen to dart after them, but generally in vain ; the gull
has more frequent success, and often takes them at their rise ;
while the albatross pursues the gull, and obliges it to relincpiish
its prey; so that the whole horizon presents but one living pic-
ture of rapacity and evasion.

So much is certain ; but how far we are to credit Wicquefort,
in what he adds concerning this bird, the reader is left to deter-
mine. " As these birds, except when they breed, live entirely
remote from land, so they are often seen, as it should seem,
sleeping in the air. At night, when they are pressed by sliun-
ber, they rise into the clouds as high as they can; there, putting
their head under one wing, they beat the air with the other, and
seem to take their ease. After a time, however, the weight of
their bodies, only thus half supported, brings them down ; and
they are seen descending, with a inttty rapid motion, to the bur-

372 HISTORY or

face of the sea. Upon this they again put forth their effoits to
rise ; and thus alternately ascend and descend at their ease. But
it sometimes happens," says my author, " that in these slumber-
ing flights, they are oflf their guard, and fall upon deck, where
they are taken."

What truth there may be in this account I will not take upon
me to determine : but certain it is, that few birds float upon the
air with more ease than the albatross, or support themselves a
longer time in that element. They seem never to feel the ac-
cesses of fatigue ; but night and day upon the wing, are always
prowling, yet always emaciated and hungry.

But though this bird be one of the most formidable tyrants of
the deep, there are some associations which even tyrants them-
selves form, to which they are induced either by caprice or ne-
cessity. The albatross seems to have a peculiar affection for the
penguin, and a pleasure in its society. They are always seen to
choose the same places for breeding ; some distant uninhabited
island, where the ground slants to the sea, as the penguin is not
formed either for flying or climbing. In such places their nests
are seen together, as if they stood in need of mutual assistance
and protection. Captain Hunt, who for some time commanded
at our settlement upon Falkland Islands, assures me, that he
was often amazed at the union preserved between these birds,
and the regularity with which they built together. In that bleak
and desolate spot, where the birds had long continued undis-
turbed possessors, and no way dreaded the encroachment of men,
they seemed to make their abode as comfortable as they expected
it to be lasting. They were seen to build with an amazing de-
gree of uniformity ; their nests covering fields by thousands, and
resembling a regular plantation. In the middle, o.. high, the
albatross raised its nest, on heath, sticks, and long grass, about
two feet above the surface : round this the penguins made their
lower settlements, rather in holes in the ground, and most usually
eight penguins to one albatross. Nothing is a stronger proof of
Mr Buffon's fine observation, that the presence of man not only
destroys the society of meaner animals, but their instincts also.
These nests are now, I am told, totally destroyed ; the society
is broke up ; and the albatross and penguin have gone to breed
upon m ore desert shores, in greater security. *
* The Albatross, is also called the man-of-war bird. In the West Indies

BIRDS. 373

CHAP. V.

THE CORMORANT.

The Cormorant is about the size of a large Muscovy duck,
and may be distinguished from all other birds of this kind, by
its four toes being united by membranes together ; and by the
middle toe being toothed or notched like, a saw, to assist it in
holding its fishy prey. The head and neck of this bird are of a
sooty blackness ; and the body thick and heavy, more inclined in
figure to that of the goose than the gull. The bill is straight,
till near the end, v.here the upper chap bends into a hook.

But notwithstanding the seeming heaviness of its make, there
are few birds more powerfully predaceous. As soon as the
winter approaches, they are seen dispersed along the sea-shore,
and ascending up the mouths of fresh- water rivers, carrying des-
truction to all the fumy tribe. Tliey are most remarkably voraci-
ous, and have a most sudden digestion. Their appetite is for ever
craving, and never satisfied. This gnawing sensation may pre
bably be increased by the great quantity of small worms that fill
their intestines, and which their unceasing gluttony contributes
to engender.

Thus formed with the grossest appetites, this unclean bird
has the most rank and disagreeable smell, and is more fetid
than even carrion, when in its most healthful state. Its form,

tjipso birds are said to foretell the arrival of ships ; which is frequently true,
and may arise from a very natural cause. They always fish in fine weatlu-r ;
Ri) that, when the wind is rouffh at sea, they retire into the harbours, wluTe
they are protected by the land ; and the same wind tliat bhnvs them in,
brings likewise whatever vessels may be exposed to its fury, to seek a
retreat from it. They devour fish with great gluttcmy and are often so
gorged as to be unabh? to fly. Their cry resembU's the braying of an ass.

Tht! Chncohile Albntross. — This bird inhabits the Pacific Ocean, and is three
feet long. Tlie bill is whitish ; the body of a deep chestnut brown colour;
belly pale ; face and wings beneath whitish. The irides are bro«'n ; tli(>
legs bluish white, with white claws.

The Yellow.Nused Albatross.— The, colotir is white ; the bill is black ; keel
of the upper mandible, and base of the lower one, yellow ; the body above
is of a black. blue colour; beneath it is white. It inhabits the Pacific Ocean,
and is about three feet long. 'I he irides are brown ; the nape of the neck
and rump, white ; the legs are pale yellow ; the fore-part and connecting
membrane dusky.

III. 2 I

.■J74- HlftfOilY OF

Says an ingenious inudern, I's disagreeable ; its voice is hoarse
and croaking ; and all its qualities obscene. No wonder then
that Milton should make Satan personate this bird, when he
sent him upon the basest purposes, to survey with pain the
beauties of Paradise, and to sit devising death on the tree of
Hie.' It has been remarked, however, of our poet, that the
making a water-fowl perch upon a tree, implied no great ac-
quaintance with the history of nature. In vindication of MilfoUj
Aristotle expressly says, that the cormorant is the only water-
fowl that sits on trees. We have already seen the pelican of this
number ; and the cormorant's toes seem as fit for perching upon
trees as for swimming ; so that our epic bard seems to have been
as deeply versed in natural history as in criticism.

Indeed this bird seems to be of a multiform nature ; and
wherever fish are to be found, watches their migrations. It is
seen as well by land as sea ; it fishes in fresh-water lakes, as
well as in the depths of the ocean ; it builds in the cliffs of
rocks, as well as on trees-, and preys not only in theday-time,
but by night.

Its indefatigable nature, and its great power in catching fish^
were probably the motives that induced some nations to breed
this bird up tame, for the purpose of fishing ; and Willoughby
assures us, it was once used in England for that purpose. The
description of their manner of fishing is thus delivered by Faber.
" When they carry them out of the rooms w'here they are kept,
to the fish-pools, they hoodwink them, that they may not be
frighted by the way. When they are come to the rivers, they
take off their hoods ; and having tied a leather thong round the
lower part of their necks, that they may not swallow down the
fish they catch, they throw them into the river. They presently
dive under water, and there for a long time, with wonderful
swiftness, pursue the fish ; and when they have caught them,
rise to the top of the water, and pressing the fish lightly with
their bills, swallow them ; till each bird hath, after this manner,
devoured five or six fishes. Then their keepers call them to
the fist, to which they readily fly ; and, one after another, vomit
up all their fish, a little bruised with the first nip, given in catch-
ing them. When they have done fishing, setting their birds on
some high place, they loose the string from their necks, leaving

1 Vide Peimant's Zoology, p. 477.

BIRUS. ."73

the passage to the stomach free and open ; and, for their reward>
they throw them part of their prey ; to each one or two fishes,
which they will catch most dexterously, as they are falling in the
air."»

* The Corvorants are founil in all parts of the globe, and are equally good
divers and swimmers. Wlien they swim, they frequently have the head
alone out of the water ; and in diving, tliey pursue \vith the most aatonish-
ing swTftness tlie prey which they ha^'e perceived, and which seldom suc-
ceeds in escaping them. \Vlien they have talcen it they return to the sur-
face, and to swallow it the more easily, they throw it into the air, and
receive the head, so that the fins may incline in the passage of tlie gullet,
while the membranous skin inclines so as to let pass the entire body of the
fish, which is often very large, in proi)ortiou to the neck of the bird. In
many places, but more especially in China, corvorants have been employed
in fishing, a ring being put on tlie lower part of the neck to prevent them
from swallowing the fish, which they are taught to bring back to tlieir
master.

They usually inhabit the borders of the sea and the mouths of rivers, and
feed on various kinds of fish. When their appetite is sated, they perch on
trees like other birds of similar palmation. They have a double moulting.

The following account of the Chinese Corvorant by Sir George Staunton, is
the most authentic of any that has yet been given to us. " The Embassy," ho
eay.<, " had not proceeded far on the southern branch of the Imperial Canal,
when they arrived in the vicinity of a place where the Leii-tze, or famed
fishing-bird of China, is bred, and instructed in the art of supplying his
owner with fish in great abundance. It is a species of the pelican, rescai.
bling the common corvorant; but on a specimen being submitted to Dr
Sliaw, he has distinguished it in the following terms. Brown pelican, or
corvorant, ^vitll white throat ; the body whitish beneath ; the tail rounded,
■the irides blue ; the bill yellow. On a large lake close to this part of the
canal, and to the eastward of it, are thousands of small boats and rafts built
entirely for this species of fishing. On each boat or raft arc ten or a dozen
liirds, which at a signal from the owner, plunge into the water ; and it is
astonishing to see the enormous size of the fish with which they return
grasped within their bills. They appear to be so well trained, that it did
liiit require either ring or cord about their throats to prevent them from
swallowing any portion of their prey, except what their master was pleased
l<i return to them for encouragement and food. The boat used by these
fishermen is of a remarkably light make, and is often carried to the lake,
together with the fishing birds, by the men who are there to be supported
by it."

Corvorants are common on many of our sea-coasts, building their nest on
the highest trees of the cliffs that hang over the sea ; and laying three or
more pale green eggs, about the sr/.v of those of a goose. In winter tln-y
disperse along the shores, and visit the fresh waters, where they commit
great depredations anioiigst the fish. They are remarkably voracious, hav-
tUg a most sudden digestion, promoti'd, perhaps, by the infinite quantity "f
.mall worms that fill their intestines, 'i'liey are very wary, except when
,liey have filled llioir slinnacli, when they Iiccimmc mi stupid, lliit it is fre.

o7G " HIoTOUTf OF

At present the cormorant is trained in every part of China for
the same purpose, where there are many lakes and canals. " To
this end," says Le Compte, " they are educated as men rear up
spaniels or hawks, and one man can easily manage a hundred.

qiiently an easy matter to catch them in a net, or even by moans of a noose
thrown over their heads. We are informed by the Kev. Mr Bingly, tliat,
in the year 1798, he saw one that had been seized by the hand, when perched
at the top of a rock just behind the town of Caernarvon. And in the year
1793, one of tliera was observed sitting on the vane of St Martin's steeple,
Ludgate Hill, London ; and was shot there in the presence of a great uiiui.
ber of people.

It is no uncommon thing to see twenty of these birds together on the rocks
of the sea-coast, m ith extended wings, drying themselves in the wind. In
this position they remain sometimes neai-ly an hour, without once closing
the wiii^s ; and as soon as these are sufficiently dry to enable the feathers to
imbibe the oil, they press this substance from the receptacle on their rumps,
and dress the feathers with it. It is only in one particular state that the
oily matter can be spread on them ; when they are somewhat damp j and
the instinct of the birds teaches them the proper moment.

The skins of the corvorants are very tough ; and are used by the Green,
landers, when sewed together, and put into proper form for garments.
And the skin of the jaws like that of others of this tribe, serves these peo-
pie for bladders to buoy up their smaller kinds of fishing darts.

Shag, or Lesser Corvorant. — The common shag, which is another of the
corvorant genus, is in length two feet six inches ; and the extent of its
wings eight feet. The general colour of its plumage is black j the belly is
dusky ; and the head and neck glossed with green.

The crested shag is somewhat less than the preceding, a)id is less com
mon. There are two kinds which are natives of Kamtschatka ; these are
distinguished as the violet and the red-faced shags, being so ornamented
with those colours. Besides there are several otliers found in New Zea-
land, and also in Africa ; in the latter of which there are two species not
larger than a teal. The whole of these like the corvorants build in trees.

The Frigates are birds of the corvorant genus, which inhabit the inter-
tropical seas of both worlds. They chiefly pursue the flying fish, darting
upon them with amazing rapidity. They also attack the booby bird, which
they force to disgorge or drop its booty.

The Booby bird is to be met with in every sea, but particularly in South
America and neighbouring isles. It is two feet and a half long ; bill gray,
and brownish at the base ; the irides pale ash-colour ; the skin is bald and
yellowish ; the body whitish beneath ; the tail brownish at the tip, and
wedged ; the legs are yellowish : the primary quill feathers are tipt with
black ; the face is red. From the length of its wings and shortness of its
legs, it experiences a difficulty in rising to flight, and hence is often taken
with the hand. This circumstance has gained it its name, and created a
doubt whether it possessed the common instinct of self-preservation.

The Red. Bucked Pelican. — The colour is reddish ; the head crested; and
the neck is reddish white ; the tail is of a dusky ash-colour ; the gullet is
pouched. It is an inhabitant of Africa, and is five feet long. The bill, and

TflRDS. '•^'''

The fisher curries them out into the lake, perched on the gunnel
of his boat, where they continue tranquil, and expecting- bis
orders with patience. When arrived at the proper place, at the
iirst signal given each flies a different way to fulfil the task as-

nakoa area of the eyos, and poucli, are dirty yellow ; the crest is four inches
lou^j the body beneath is pale ; the quill feathers are black ; and the scapu-
lars of a gray lead colour ; the feathers of the breast are long- and narrow •,
the legs are yellow. This bird, like others of its race, is very voracious.

The Anhingas, Plotus, or Darter of Latham, are birds which inhabit the
most southern and the warmest regions of both continents, where they fre-
quent fresh waters, and inundated savaiuiahs. They perch on trees which
border the shore, pass the night there, and construct their nest on the most
elevated branches. They swim and dive after fish. If the fish which they
catch Is small, they swallow it entire, without leaving the water. If too
large, they carry it on a rock, or the trunk of a tree, and divide it with the
bin anil feet. When the anhingas fly, the neck, stretched out, forms a hori-
zontal line with the tail ; but when they are at rest, its perpetual oscillation
considerably augments its resemblance to a snake. Being extremely wild,
these birds are but seldom seen on land ; and when they swim, their head is
almost the only part which is out of the water, into which they plunge alto-
gether on the slightest appearance of danger, and do not reappear, hut at
considerable distances. Even then, they only show themselves for the time
which is necessary for respiration. Such is their cuiniing, that they having
dived at the distance of a hundred paces beyond the pvn-suer, they emerge
to respire the air at more than a thousand paces behind him, until finding
some reeds, they conceal themselves there, and appear no more. Their i?kin
is very thick, and the flesh oily and ill. flavoured.

The l'li:lu,s A)ihingii, according to liartram, live in small societies, and
assemble on the ilry branches which hang over rivers. When siu-pris(!d,
they drop into the water, as if dead, and after one or two minutes, they
rr-appear, at a great distan(-e, showing nothing but the neck, and sometimes
the end of the tail. During the heat of the day, they fly in great numbers,
to a considerable elevation in the air, over lakes and rivers.

The Phriclon, or Tropic Birds, received from I^inna^us the former ap-
pellation, because, from their habitual residence under the burning iione,
bounded by the tropics, they seem attached to the chariot of the sun. From
this climate they ri'move but little, and are rarely seen beyond the 21st
parallel of south latitude. Their appearance, accordingly, indicates to
mariners their approaihiug passage under this zone, from whatever side
lliey may arrive. Still tliey advance seiuward, many hundreds of leiigues.
'i'hese birds have a mode of flying which is peculiar to themselves. They
appear, Irom a sort of trenibliiig, to be extenuated with fatigue, and on
the point of falling. They drop down from a considerable height, aban-
doning themtelves to their wei)ilit, and seize tin- fish without diving. But
when they pursue th" flying.fiah, which i-onslifute their principal aliment,
they shave the surface of the water. When they perceivi; a vessel, the/-
come to reconnoitre it, hovering above its head. They are particularly at,
trarted by any thing red
The tropic-bird.', like the corvorants perch on the highest trei:. ; audit

■A 13

378 HisTony of

sigTied it. It is very pleasant, on tliis occasion, to behold with
what sagacity they portion out the lake or the canal where they
are upon duty. They hunt about, they plunge, they rise a
hundred times to the surface, until they have at last found their
prey. They then seize it with their beak by the middle, and
carry it without fail to their master. When the fish is too large,
they then give each other mutual assistance : one seizes it by
the head, the other by the tail, and in this manner carry it to the
boat together. There the boatman stretches out one of his long
oars, on which they perch, and being delivered of their burden,
they fly off to pursue their sport. When they are wearied, he
lets them rest for a while :, but they are never fed till their work
is over. In this manner, they supply a very plentiful table ; but
still their natural gluttony carniot be reclaimed even by educa-
tion. They have always while tbey fish the same string fastened
round their throats, to prevent them from devouring their prey,
as otherwise they would at once satiate themselves, and discon-
tinue their pursuit the moment they had filled their bellies."

As for the rest, the cormorant is the best fisher of all bii'ds ;
and though fat and heavy with the quantity it devours, is never-
theless generally upon the wing. The great activity with which
it pursues, and from a vast height drops down to dive after its
prey, offers one of the most amusing spectacles to those who
stand upon a cliff on the shore. This large bird is seldom seen
in the air, but where theie are fish below ; but then they must
be near the surface, before it will venture to souse upon them.
If they are at a depth beyond what the impetus of its flight
makes the cormorant capable of diving to, they certainly escape
him ; for this bird cannot move so fast under water, as the fish
can swim. It seldom, however, makes an unsuccessful dip ; and
is often seen rising heavily, with a fish larger than it can readily
devour. It sometimes also happens, that the cormorant has

is supposed that when they are at a very considerable distance from all land,
they are enabled, by means of their completely palmated feet, to repose upon
the sea. They make their nests in the holes of precipitous rocks, or in the
hollows of trees. The young-, yet in the nest, gatheied up in a ball, and
covered with a down of the most brilliant white, have a resemblance to
powder puifs. Of the long- tail feathers, (sometimes twenty-four inches,)
the Otaheitans make plumes for their warriors ; and the Caribs used to pass
tiiem through the cartilage of the nose, to render themselves more hand,
some, or more terrible.

BIRDS. 379

caught the fish by the tail ; and consequently the fins prevent its
being easily swallowed in that position. In this case, the bird
is seen to toss its prey above its head, and very dexterously to
catch it, when descending, by the proper end, and so swallow it
with ease.

CHAP. V.

OF THE GANiXET, OR SOLAND GOOSE.

The Gannet is of the size of" a tame goose, but its winga
much longer, being six feet over. The bill is six inches long,
straight almost to the point, where it inclines down, and the
sides are irregularly jagged, that it may hold its prey with greater
security. It differs from the cormorant in size, being larger;
and its colour, which is chiefly white ; and by its having no
nostrils, but in their place a long furrow that reaches almost to
the end of the bill. From the corner of the mouth is a nar
row slip of black bare skin, that extends to the hind part of the
head j beneath the skin is another that, like the pouch of the
pelican, is dilatable, and of size sufficient to contain five or six
entire herrings, which in the breeding season it carries at once
to its mate or its young.

These birds, which subsist entirely upon fish, chiefly resort to
those uninhabited islands where their food is found in plenty,
and men seldom come to disturb them. The islands to the
north of Scotland, the Skelig islands off the coasts of Kerry in
Ireland, and those that lie in the north sea off Norway, abound
with them- But it is on the Bass island, in the Frith of Kdin-
burgli, where they are seen in the greatest abundance. " There
is a small island," says the celebrated Harvey, " called the Bass,
not more than a mile in circumference. The surface is almost
wholly covered during the months of May and June with their
nests, their eggs, and young. It is scarcely possible to walk
without treading on them : the flocks of birds upon the wing,
are so numerous, as to darken the air like a cloud ; and their
noise is such, that one cannot without diihculty be heard by the
person next to iiiui. When one looks douii upon the sea from

•"SO lusrouY *'i

tlie precipice, its whole surface seems covered with iiifiuite
numbers of birds of different kinds, swimming and pursuing their
prey. If, in sailing round the island, one surveys its banging
cliffs, in every crag, or fissure of the broken rocks, may be seen
itininneruble birds, of various sorts and sizes, more than the stars
of heaven, when viewed in a serene night. If they are viewed
at a distance, either receding, or in their approach to the island,
they seem like one vast swarm of bees."

They are not less frequent upon the rocks of St Kilda. IMar-
tin assures us, that the inhabitants of that small island consume
annually near twenty-three thousand yoinig birds of this species,
besides an amazing quantity of their eggs. On these they prin-
cipally subsist throughout the year; and from the number of
these visitants, make an estimate of their plenty for the season.
They preserve both the eggs and fowls in small pyramidal stone
buildings, covering them with turf ashes, to prevent the evapora-
tion of their moisture.

The gannet is a bird of passage. In winter it seeks the more
southern coasts of Cornwall, hovering over the shoals of herrings
and pilchards that then come down from the northern seas ; its
first appearance in the northern islands is in the beginning of
spring ; and it continues to breed till the end of summer. But,
in general, its motions are determined by the migrations of the
immense shoals of herrings that come pouring down at that sea-
son through the British Channel, and supply all Europe, as well
as this bird, with their spoil. The gannet assiduously attends
the shoal in their passage, keeps with them in their whole cir-
cuit round our island, arrd shares with our fishermen this ex-
haustless banquet. As it is strong of wing, it never comes neai
the land ; but is constant to its prey. Wherever the gannet is
seen, it is sure to announce to the fishermen the arrival of the
finny tribe ; they then prepare their iiets, and take the herrings
by millions at a draught; while the gannet, who came to give
the first information, comes, though an unbidden guest, and often
snatches its prey from the fisherman even in his boat. AVhile
the fishing season continues, the gannets are busily employed ;
but when the pilchards disappear from our coasts, the gannet
takes its leave to keep them company.

The cormorant has been remarked for the quickness of hia
gght ; yet in this the gannet seems to exceed him. It is pos«

BIRDS. '"^^^

sessed of a transparent membrane under the eye-lid, with which
it covers the whole eye at pleasure, without obscuring the sight
m the smallest degree. This seems a necessary provision for
the security of the eyes of so weighty a creature, whose method
of taking its prey, like that of the cormorant, is by darting head-
long down from a height of a hundred feet or more into the wa-
ter to seize it. — These birds are sometimes taken at sea, by
fastening a pilchard to a board, which they leave floating. The
gannet instantly pounces down from above upon the board, and
is killed or maimed by the shock of a body where it expected no
resistance. '

These birds breed but once a year, and lay but one egg, which
being taken away, they lay another ; if that is also taken, then
a third ; but never more for that season. Their egg is white,
and rather less than that of the common goose; and their nest
large, composed of such substances as are found floating on the
surface of the sea. The young birds, during the first year, dif-
fer greatly in colour from the old ones ; being of a dusky hue,
speckled with numerous triangular white spots ; and at that time
resembling the colours of the speckled diver.

The Bass island, where they chiefly breed, belongs to one pro-
prietor; so that care is taken never to fright away the birds
when laying, or to shoot them upon the wing. By that means,
they are so confident as to alight and feed their young ones close
beside you. They feed only upon fish, as was observed ; yet the
young gannet is counted a great dainty by the Scots, and is sold
very dear ; so that the lord of the islet makes a considerable an-
nual jirofit by the sale.

CHAP. VI.

OV THE SMALLER GULLS ANU PETRELS.

Having described the manners of the great ones of this tribe,
those of the smaller kinds may be easily inferred. They resem-

) Mr IViinant says, that one of those birds flyiriff over IVn/.iiiioe in Corn,
wall, saw sonic pilcliards lying on a fir pliinit, where tliey had been pliiced
for cnrintr ; and dartiiiff itself down with great violence, it struck its biU
quite tlirougli an inch and (iiuirter plank : it was Killi'd on the spot

oS2 >lISTOUY OF

ble the more powerful in their appetites tor prey, but have not
such certain methods of obtaining it. In general, therefore, the
industry of this tribe, and their audacity, increase in proportion
to their imbecility; the great gulls live at the most remote dis-
tance from man ; the smaller are obliged to reside wherever they
can take their prey ; and to come into the most populous places,
>vhen solitude can no longer grant them a supply. In this class
we may place the Gull, properly so called, of which there are
above twenty different kinds ; the Petrel, of which there are
three ; and the Sea-svvallovv, of which there are as many. The
gulls may be distinguished by an angular knob on the lower
chap ; the petrels by their wanting this knob ; and the sea-swal-
low by their bills, which are straight, slender, and sharp-pointed.
They all, however, agree in their appetites, and their places of
abode.*

* The Petrels have received this denomination wliimsically enongh. Be-
sides tlie faculty of swimming, they possess that of supporting themselves
on tlie water, by striking very rapidly ivitli their feet, whicli lias caused
them to be compared to St Peter Avalking upon the water. The petrels are
to be seen in all seas of the globe from one pole to the other. They are the
inseparable companions of mariners, duiiug their long navigations. The
flight of these birds is almost always performed by hovering, and without
presenting apparent vibrations. They rise with facility, and can fly against
the strongest winds, which never slacken their movements. The tempest
not only does not affright tliem, but they are almost necessitated to seek
those seas where the agitation of the waves brings to the surface those marine
animals which constitute their food. In consequence of this, they are fre-
quently seen in all weathers, in the vortices which are formed by the track
of vessels. " It is indeed an interesting sight," says Wilson, " to observe
tliese little birds, in a gale, coursing over the waves, down tlie declivities,
and up the ascents of the foaming surf that threatens to burst over their
heads, sweeping along the hollow troughs of the sea as in a sheltered valley,
and again mounting with the rising billow, and just abo\e its surface, occa-
sionally dropping their feet, which, striking the water, throw them up
again Avith additional force, sometimes leaping, with both legs parallel, on
the surface of the roughest waves for several yards at a time. Meanwhile
they continue coursing from side to side of the ship's wake, making excur-
sions far and wide to the right and to the left, now a great way ahead, aiid
now shooting astern for several hundred yards, returning again to the ship
as if she were all the while stationary, though perliaps running at the rate
of ten knots an hour. But the most singular peculiarity of this bird is its
faculty of standing, and even running on the surface of the water, which it
jierforms with apparent facility. When any greasy matter is thrown over,
board, these birds instantly collect around it, facing to windward, with their
long wings expanded and their webbed feet patting the water. The liglit-
ness of their bodies, and the action of the wind on their wings, enable them

BIRDS. 383

The giiil, and all its varieties, is very well known in every part
of the kingdom. It is seen with a slow-sailing flight, hover-
ing over rivers to prey upon the smaller kinds of fish ; it is seen
following the ploughman in fallow fields to pick up insects ; and

with ease to assume this position. In calm weather thoy perform the same
manoeuvre by keeping- their wings just so mucli in action as to prevent theii
feet from sinkin;^ below the surface."

" There are," says the same writer la anotlier place, " few persons who
have crossed the Atlantic that have not observed these solitary wanderers
of the deep, skimming- along the surface of the wild and wasteful ocean;
flitting past the vessel like swallows, or following in her wake, gleaning
their scanty pittance of food from the rough and whirling surges. Habited
in mourning, and making their appearance generally in greater numbers
previous to or during a storm, they have long been fearfully regarded by the
ignorant and super.stitious, not only as the foreboding messengers of tem-
pests and dangers to the hapless mariner, but as wicked agents, connected
some how or other in creating them. ' Nobody,' say they, ' can tell any thing
of where they come from, or how they breed, though (as sailors sometimes
say) it is supposed that they hatch their eggs under their wings as they sit
on the water.' This mysterious uncertainty of their origin, and the circum-
stances above recited, have doubtless given rise to the opinion, .so prevalent
araun;; this class of men, that they are in some way or other connected with
the prince of the power of the air. In every country where they are known,
their names have borne some affinity to this belief. They have been called
witches, stormy petrels, tlie Devil's birds, and Mother Gary's chickens, pro-
bably from some celebrated ideal hag of that name ; and their unexpected
and numerous appearance has frequently thrown a momentary damp over
the mind of the hardiest seaman. It is the business of tlie naturalist, and the
glory of philosophy, to examine into the reality of these things ; to dissipate
the clouds of error and superstition wherever they darken and bewilder the
human understanding, and to illustrate nature with the radiance of truth."

When we inquire, accordingly, into the unvarnished history of this omi-
nous bird, we find that it is by no means peculiar in pre.«aging storms, for
many others of very diftercnt famili<is are evidently endowed with an equally
nice perception of a change in the atmosphere. Hence it is that, befon;
rain, swallows are seen more eaf,'erly hawking for flies, and ducks carefully
trimming their feathers, and tossiuff up water over their backs, to try
whether it will run off again without wetting them. But it would be as
absurd to accuse the swallows and ducks on that account of being the cause
of rain, as to impute a tempest to the spiteful malice of the poor petrels.
Seamen ought rather to be thankful to them for the warning which their
delicate feelings of aerial change enable them to give of an approaching hur.
ricanc. " As well," says Wilson, " might they curse the midnight light.
house that, star-like, guides them on their watery way ; or the buoy that
warns them of the sunken rocks below, as this harmless wanderer, uliose
manner informs them of the approach of the storm, and thereby enables
them to prepare for it." The petrels are nocturnal birds. When, therefore,
they are seen Hying about and feeding by day, the fact appears to indicate
that they have been drivou from their ^suol qu;irters by a stovm j and henctj

SSI HISTOUY OF

when living aiiiniul food does not offer, it has even been known
to eat carrion, and whatever else of the kind that offers. Gulls
are found in great plenty iji every place ; but it is chiefly round
our boldest rockiest shores that they are seen in the greatest

porhaps, arose the association of the bird with the tempest. Though the
petrels venture to wing- their way over the wide; ocean, as fearlessly ;is our
Bwullows do over a mill-pond, they are not, therefore, the less sensible to
danger ; and, as if feelingly aware of their own weakness, they make all
lijiste to the nearest shelter. When they cannot then find an island or a
rock to shield them from the blast, they fly towards the first ship they can'
descry, crowd into her wake, and even close under the stern, heedless, it
would appear, of the rushing surge, so that they can keep the vessel be-
tween them and the unbroken sweep of the wind. It is not to be wondered
at, in such cases, that their low wailing note of weet, weet, should add some,
thing supernatural to the roar of waves and whistling of the wind, and in.
fuse an ominous dread into minds prone to superstition.

The popular opinion among saUors, that the petrels carry their eggs under
their wings iu order to hatch them, is no less unfounded than the fancy of
their causing storms : it is, indeed, physically impossible. On the contrary,
the petrels have been ascertained to breed on rocky shores, in numerous
communities, like the bank-swallow, making their nests in the holes and
cavities of the rocks above the sea, returning to feed their young only dur-
ing the night, with the superabundant oily food from tlieir stomachs. The
quantity of this oily matter is so (Considerable, that, in tlie Faro Isles, they
use petrels for candles, with no other preparation than drawing a wick
tlirougli the body of the birds from the mouth to the rump. Wliile nest-
ling, they make a cluttering or croaking noise, simihir to frogs,«wliich may
be heard during the whole night on the shores of the Bahama and Bermuda
Islands, and the coasts of Cuba and Florida, where they abound. Forster
says they bury themselves by thousands in holes under ground, where they
roar tlieir young and lodge at night ; and at New Zealand, the shores re-
sound with the noise, similar to the clucking of hens, or the croaking of
frogs (Poutoppidan, speaking of those of Norway, says like the neigliing of
a horse), which they send forth from their concealment.

The Gulls, Buffon terms the vultures of the sea, for they feed upon car-
casses of every description, which are either floatiug ou its surface, or
cast upon its shores. They swarm upon the borders of the sea, where they
seek fish, either fresh or corrupted, flesh in tlie same states, worms, or mol.
lusca, all of whic^h their stomach is capable of digesting. Spread through.
out the entire globe, they cover ^vith their multitudes the shores, rocks,
and cliffs, causing thera to re-echo with their clamours. There are even
some species which frequent the fresh waters, and some are to be met with
at sea, at more than a hundred leiigues distant from land. D'Azara, who
has seen them, in innumerable quantities, near the slaughter houses of Monte
Video, Buenos Aj-res, and even in the squares, where tliey pick up the offal
of the shambles, &c., and sometimes perch on the roofs, tells us that they
proc(>ed considerably to inland, whither they are attracted by dead animals.

They dart with such violence on their prey, that they will swallow both
bait and hook, and st>it themselves on the point placed by the fisher under

BIRDS. S85

nbundance ; it is there that the gull breeds and brings up its
young; it is there that millions of them are htiard screaming
with discordant notes for months together.

Those who have been much upon our coasts know that there
are two different kinds of shores ; that which slants down to the
water \rith a gentle declivity, and that which rises with a preci-
pitate boldness, and seems set as a bulwark to repel the force of
the invading deeps. It is to such shores as these that the whole
tribe of the gull-kind resort, as the rocks offer them a retreat for
their young, and the sea a sufficient supply. It is in the cavities
of these rocks, of which the shore is composed, that the vast
rariety of sea-fowls retire to breed in safety. The waves be-
neath, that continually beat at the base, often wear the shore into
an impending boldness ; so that it seems to jut out over the

the fish which he presents to them. It is, therefore, very nattiral that tliey
should pursue individuals of their own species, in whose possession they see
any food, a fact, moreover, of wliich we are constant eye-witnesses in other
species, such as sparrows, hens, &c.

Gulls have been found by navig-ators in all latitudes; they are, however,
both more numerous <uid larger in the northern regions, where tlie carcasses
of large fishes and cetacea present them with more abundant food, and it is on
the desert islands of the two polar zones, where tliey are undisturbed, that
they preffer to nestle. They deposit their eggs either in a hole upon the
Band, or in the crevices of rocks ; but in less deserted countries the smaller
species seek the borders of waters, or of the sea, which are covered with
plants. The Sea-mew is a species of gull, 'distinguished from the rest by its
black and white pie-bald appearance, although the individuals vary from each
other in the colour of their plumage.

The Term have been also called Sen Sjcal/oirs, from the resemblance of
their forked tail, long wings, and tlieir constant habit of shanng the surfaie
of the water in all directions, in pursuit of small fish. Hut the term is ex-
ceedingly objectionable, as tending to the inter-confusitm of birds of such
different orders, and such essential differences of confonnation and habits.
'I'he tcnis are continually on tlie u-iiig, and, though web-footed, are not seen
to swim ; they rest but seldom, and only on the land ; their food consists,
fur the most part, in small fish and mollusca, which they seize upon the sur.
face of the watiT ; but they also catch aerial insects. In flying they send
forth sharp and piercing cries, especially during nestling time. In calm
weather they sometimes rise very high, and are often seen to come plump
down. The young dift'er from the adult and aged, only before the moulting,
which is d()ul)le in the known species, and there is no external dift'eronco
between the two sexes. Tlie females deposit their eggs, usually two or
three in number, in a cavity, jmd tliese nests ju-e sometimes so close, that lbs
fitting birds touch each other. Terns are found in both continents, fr< lu
the sea."!, lakes, and rivers of the north, as far as the vast coasts of the Auo-
tral Ocean, and in almost all the intermediate climates..
III. 2k

36C

HISTORY OF

water, while the lagiiig of the sea makes the place inaccessible
from below. These are the situations to which sea-fowl chietly
resort, and bring up their young in undisturbed security.

Those who have never observed our boldest coasts, have no idea
of their tremendous sublimity. The boasted works of art, the
highest towers, and the noblest domes, are but ant-hills when put
in comparison : the single cavity of a rock often exhibits a coping
higher than the ceiling of a Gothic Cathedral. The face of the
shore offers to the view a wall of massive stone, ten times higher
than our tallest steeples. What should we think of a precipice
three quarters of a mile in height ? and yet the rocks of St Kilda
are still higher! What must be our awe to approach the edge
of that impending height, and to look down on the unfathomable
vacuity below ; to ponder on the terrors of falling to the bottom,
where the waves that swell like mountains are scarcely seen to
curl on the surface, and the roar of an ocean a thousand leagues
broad appears softer than the murmur of a brook ! it is in these
formidable mansions that myriads of sea-fowls are for ever seen
sporting, flying in security down the depth, half a mile beneath
the feet of the spectator. The crow and the chough avoid those
frightful precipices ; they choose smaller heights, where they are
less exposed to the tempest ; it is the cormorant, the gannet, the
tarrock, and the terne, that venture to these dreadful retreats,
and claim an undisturbed possession. To the spectator from
above, those birds, though some of them are above the size of an
eagle, seem scarcely as larye as a swallow; and their loudest
screaming is scarcely perceptible.

But the generality of our shores are not so formidable.
Though they may rise two hundred fathoms above the surface,
yet it often happens that the water forsakes the shore at the de-
parture of the tide, and leaves a noble and delightful walk for
curiosity on the beach. Not to mention the variety of shells
with which the sand is strewed, the lofty rocks that hang ovei
the spectator's head, and that seem but just kept from falling,
produce in him no unpleasing gloom. If to this be added the
fluttering, the screaming, and the pursuits of myriads of water,
birds, all either intent on the duties of incubation, or roused at
the presence of a stranger, nothing can compose a scene of more
peculiar solemnity. To walk along the shore when the tide is
departed, or to sit in the hollow of a rock when it is come in,

BIROS. 3S7

attentive to the various sounds that gather on every side, above
and below, may raise the mind to its highest and noblest exer-
tions. The solemn roar of the waves swelling into and subsid-
ing from the vast caverns beneath, the piercing note of the gull,
the frequent chatter of the guillemot, the loud note of the hawk,
the scream of the heron, and the hoarse deep periodical croaking
of the cormorant, all unite to furnish out the grandeur of the
scene, and turn the mind to him who is the essence of all sub-
limity.

Yet it often happens that the contemplation of a seashore
produces ideas of an humbler kind, yet still not unpleasing.
The various arts of these birds to seize their prey, and sometimes
to elude their pursuers, their society among each other, and their
tenderness and care of their young, produce gentler sensations.
It is ridiculous also now and then to see their various ways of
imposing upon each other. It is common enough, for instance,
with the arctic gull, to pursue the lesser gulls so long, that they
drop their excrements through fear, which the hungry hunter
quickly gobbles up before it ever reaches the water. In breeding
too they have frequent contests ; one bird who has no nest of
her own, attempts to dispossess another, and puts herself in the
jilace. This often happens among all the gull-kind: and I have
seen the poor bird, thus displaced by her more powerful invader,
sit near the nest in pensive discontent, while the other seemed
quite comfortable in her new habitation. Yet this place of pre-
eminence is not easily obtained ; for the instant the invader goes
to snatch a momentary sustenance, the other enters upon her
own, and always ventures another battle before she relinquishes
the justness of her claim. The contemplation of a cliff thus
covered with hatching birds, affords a very agreeable entertain-
ment; and as they sit upon the ledges of the rocks, one above
another, with their white breasts forward, the whole group has
not unaptly been compared to an apothecary's shop.

These birds, like all others of the rapacious kind, lay but few
eggs; and hence, in many places, their immber is daily seen to
diminish. The lessening of so many rapacious birds may, at
first sight, appear a benefit to mankind ; but when we consider
liow many of the natives of our islands arc sustained by their
flesh, either fresh or salted, we shall find no satisfaction in think-
ing that these poor people may in time lose their chief suiiport.

2 k2

38S HISTORY OF

The gull, in general, as was said, builds on the ledges of rocks,
and lays fron; one egg to three, in a nest formed of long grass
and sea-weed. Most of the kind are fishy tasted, with black
stringy flesh ; yet the young ones are better food : and of these,
with several other birds of the penguin kind, the poor inhabi-
tants of our northern islands make their wretched banquets.
They have been long used to no other food ; and even salted
gull can be relished by those who know no better. Almost ak
delicacy is a relative thing ; and the man who repines at the
luxuries of a well-served table, starves not for want, but from
comparison. The luxuries of the poor are indeed coarse to us,
yet still they are luxuries to those ignorant of better; and it
is probable enough that a Kilda or a Feroe man may be found
to exist, outdoing Apicius himself in consulting the pleasures
of the table. Indeed, if it be true that such meat as is the most
dangerously earned is the sweetest, no men can dine so luxu-
riously as these, as none venture so hardily in the pursuit of a
dinner. In Jacobson's History of the Feroe islands, we have
an account of the method in which those birds are taken •, and
I will deliver it in his own simple manner.

" It cannot be expressed with what pains and danger they
take these birds in those high steep cliffs, whereof many are tvi^o
hundred fathoms high. But there are men apt by nature, and
fit for the work, who take them usually in two manners ; they
either climb from below into these high promontories, that are
as steep as a wall ; or they let themselves down with a rope from
above. When they climb from below, they have a pole five or
six ells long with an iron hook at the end, which they that are
below in the boat, or on the cliff, fasten unto the man's girdle,
helping him up thus to the highest place where he can get foot-
ing; afterwards they also help up another man; and thus seve-
ral climb up as high as they possibly can ; and, where they find
difficulty, they help each other up, by thrusting one another up
with their poles. When the first hath taken footing, he draws
the other up to him, by the rope fastened to his waist ; and so
they proceed, till they come to the place where the birds build.
They there go about as well as they can in those dangerous
places ; the one holding the rope at one end, and fixing himself
to the rock; the other going at the other end from place to
place. If it should happen that he chiinccth to fall, the other

BIRDS. 389

thilt stands firm keeps him up, and helps hnn up again. But if
he jiasseth safe, he iiicewise fastens himself till the other has
passed the same dangerous place also. Thus they go about the
cliffs after birds as they please. It often happeneth, however,
(the more is the pity) that when one doth not stand fast enough,
or is not sufficiently strong to hold up the other in his fall, that
they both fall dowri, and are killed. In this manner some do
perish every year."

Mr Peter Clanson, in his description of Norway, writes, that
there was anciently a law in that country, that whosoever climb-
ed so on the cliffs that he fell down and died, if the body was
found before burial, his next kinsman should go the same way ;
but if he durst not, or could not do it, the dead body was not
then to be buried in sanctified earth, as the person was too full
of temerity, and his own destroyer.

" When the fowlers are come, in the manner aforesaid, to
the birds within the cliffs, where people seldom come, the birds
are so tame, that they take them with their hands ; for they
will not readily leave their young. But when they are wild,
they cast a net, with which they are provided, over them, and
entangle them therein. In the meantime, there lieth a boat
beneath in the sea, wherein they cast the birds killed ; and, .in
this manner, they can in a short time fill a boat with fowl.
When it is pretty fair weather, and there is good fowling, the
fowlers stay in the cliff seven or eight days together ; for there
are here and there holes in the rocks, where they can safely
rest ; and they have meat let down to them with a line from the
top of the mountain. In the meantime some go every day to
them, to fetch home what they have taken.

" Some rocks are so difficult, that they can in no manner get
unto them from below ; wherefore they seek to come down
thereunto from above. For this purpose they have a rope eighty
or a hundred fathoms long, made of hemp, and three fingers
thick. The fowler maketh the end of this fast about his waist,
and between his legs, so that he can sit thereon ; and is thus let
down, with the fowling-staff in his hand. Six men hold by the
rope, and let him easily down, laying a large piece of wood on
the brink of the rock, u])oti which the rope glideth, that it ni^y
not be worn to pieces by the bard and rough edge of the stone.
They have, besides, another small line, that is fastened to the

2K3

S90 HISTORY OK

fowler's body ; on which he pulleth, to give them notice how
they should let down the great rope, either lower or higher; or
to hold still, that he may stay in the place whereunto he is
come. Here the man is in great danger, because of the stones
that are loosened from the cliff, by the swinging of the rope, and
he cannot avoid them. To remedy this, in some measure, he
hath usually on his head a seaman's thick and shaggy cap, which
defends him from the blows of the stones, if they be not too big ;
and then it costeth him his life : nevertheless, they continually
put themselves in that danger, for the wretched body's food sake,
hoping in God's mercy and protection, unto which the greatest
part of them do devoutly recommend themselves when they go
to work : otherwise, they say, there is no other great danger in
it, except that it is a toilsome and artificial labour ; for he that
hath not learned to be so let down, and is not used thereto, is
turned about with the rope, so that he soon groweth giddy, and
can do nothing ; but he that hath learned the art, considers it
as a sport, swings himself on the rope, sets his feet against the
rock, casts himself some fathoms from thence, and shoots him-
self to what place he will ; he knows where the birds are, he
understands how to sit on the line in the air, and how to hold
the fowling-staff in his hand ; striking therewith the birds that
come or fly away : and when there are holes in the rocks, and it
stretches itself out, making underneath as a ceiling under which
the birds are, he knoweth how to shoot himself in among them,
and there take firm footing. There, when he is in these holes,
he maketh himself loose of the rope, which he fastens to a
crag of the rock, that it may not slip from him to the outside of
the cliff. He then goes about in the rock, taking the fowl
either with liis hands or the fowling-staff. Thus, when he hath
killed as many birds as he thinks tit, he ties them in a bundle,
and fastens them to a little rope, giving a sign, by pulling, that
they should draw them up. When he has vvrought thus the
whole day, and desires to get up again, he sitteth once more upon
the great rope, giving a new sign that they should pull him up ;
or else he worketh himself up, climbing along the rope, with his
girdle full of birds. It is also usual, where there are not folks
enough to hold the great rope, for the fowler to drive a post
sloping into the eaith, and to make a rope fast therefrom, by
which he lets himself down without anybody's help, to work in

BIRDS.

391

the manner aforesaid. Some rocks are so formed that tlie per-
son can go into their cavities by land.

" These manners are more terrible and dangerous to see than
to describe ; especially if one considers the steepness and height
of the rocks, it seeming impossible for a man to approach them,
much less to climb or descend. In some places, the fowlers are
seen climbing where they can only fasten the ends of their toes
and fingers ; not shunning such places, though there be a hun-
dred fathom between them and the sea. It is a dear meat for
these poor people, for which they must venture their lives ; and
many, after long venturing, do at last perish therein.

" When the fowl is brought home, a part thereof is eaten
fresh ; another part, when there is much taken, being hung up
for winter provision. The feathers are gathered to make mer-
chandise of, for other expenses. The inhabitants get a great
many of these fowls, as God giveth his blessing and fit weather.
When it is dark and hazy, they take most ; for then the birds
stay in the rocks : but in clear weather, and hot sun-shine, they
seek the sea. When they prepare to dejjart for the season, they
keep themselves most there, sitting on the cliffs towards the
sea-side, where people get at them sometimes with boats, and
take them with fowling-staves."

Such is the account of this historian ; but we are not to sup-
pose that all the birds caught in this manner are of the gull-kind :
on the contrary, numbers of them are of the penguin kind ;
auks, puffins, and guillemots. These ail come, once a season,
to breed in tliese recesses ; and retire in winter to fish in more
southern climates.

CHAP. VII.

OF THE PENGUIN KIND : AND FIRST, OF THE GREAT
MAGELLANIC PENGUIN.

The gulls arc long-winged, swift flyers, that hover over the
most extensive seas, and dart down upon such fish as approacli
too near the surface. The penguin kind are but ill fitted for
flight, and still less for walkiwjj. Every body nnist have seen

392

HISTORY OF

the awkward manner in which a duck, either wild or tame, at-
tempts to change place . they must recollect with what sol'tness
and ease a gull or a kite waves its pinions, and with what a coil
and flutter the duck attempts to move them ; how many strokes
it is obliged to give, in ordei- to gather a little air ; and even when
it is thus raised,, how soon it is fatigued with the force of its
exertions, and obliged to take rest again. But the duck is not,
in its natural state, half so unwieldy an animal as the whole tribe
of the penguin kind. Their wings are much shorter, more
scantily furnished with quills, and the whole pinion placed too
forward to be usefully employed. For this reason, the largest
of the penguin kind, that have a thick heavy body to raise, can-
not fly at all. Their wings serve them rather as paddles to
help them forward, svhen they attempt to move swiftly, and in a
maimer walk along the surface of the water. Even the smallest
kinds seldom fly by choice ; they flutter their wings with the
swiftest efforts without making way ; and though they have but
a small weight of body to sustain, yet they seldom venture to
quit the water, where they are provided with food and protec-
tion.

As the wings of the penguin tribe are unfitted for flight, their
legs are still more awkwardly adapted for walking. This whole
tribe have all above the knee hid within the belly : and nothing
appears but two short legs, or feet, as some would call them,
that seem stuck under the nimp, and upon which the animal is
very awkwardly supported. They seem, when sitting, or at-
tempting to walk, like a dog that has been taught to sit up, or to
move a minuet. Their short legs drive the body in progression
from side to side ; and were they not assisted by their wings,
they could scarcely move faster than a tortoise.

This awkward position of the legs, which so unqualifies them
for living upon land, adapts them admirably for a residence in
Water. In that, the legs placed behind the moving body, pushes
it forward with the greater velocity j and these birds, like In-
dian canoes, are the swiftest in the water, by having their paddles
in the rear. Our sailors, for this reason, give these birds the
very homely, but expressive, name of arse-feet.

Nor are they less qualified for diving than swimming. By
ever so little inclining their bodies forward, they lose their cen-
Ue of gravity ; and every stroke from their feet oidy tends to

BIRDS. 393

sink them the faster. In this manner they can either dive at
once to the bottom, or swim between two waters ; where they
continue fishing for some minutes, and then ascending, catch an
instantaneous breath, to descend once more to renew their opera-
tions. Hence it is, that these birds, which are so defenceless,
and so easily taken by land, are impregnable by water. If they
perceive themselves pursued in the least, they instantly sink, and
show nothing more than their bills, till the enemy is withdrawn.
Their very internal conformation assists their power of keeping
long under water. Their lungs are fitted with numerous vacui-
ties, by which they can take in a very large inspiration ; and this
probably serves them for a length of time.

As they never visit land, except when they come to breed,
their feathers take a colour from their situation. That part of
them which has been continually bathed in the water, is white ;
while their backs and wings are of different colours, according to
the different species. They are also covered more warmly all
over the body with feathers, than any other birds whatever ; so
that the sea seems entirely their element : and but for tlie
necessary duties of propagating their species, we should scarcely
have the smallest opportunity of seeing them, and should be ut-
terly unacquainted with their history.*

» The Cretted Penguin, which is the most beautiful of the penguin tribe
5r nearly two feet in length. 'Jhe bill is red, and three inches long ; the up-
per mandible curved at the end, and the lower obtuse. The head, neck-
back, and sides, are lilack. Over each eye there is a stripe of pale yellow
feathers, which lengthens into a crest about four inches long ; tliis is decum.
bent, but can be erected at pleasure : tlio feathers of the liead above this aro
longer than the rest, and stand upward. The wings are black on the out.
Kide, but the edges and the inside are white. The legs are orange-coloured
and the claws dusky. The femiUe is destitute of the cri^st. These birds
have also the names of hopping penguins, and jumping jack, from their ac.
tion of leaping quite out of the water, sometimes three or four feet, on meet-
ing with any olittacic in their course ; and, indeed, they frequently do thi.l
>vithout any otiii'r apparent cause than the desire of advancing by that
means. They are inbabitants of several of the South Sea islands.

This species seems to have a greater air of liveline.'ss in itji countenance
than almo.st any of the others ; yet it is a very stupid liird, and so regardless
of its own safety as even to sutler any person to lay hold <if it. When pro.
voked it erects its crest in a very beautiful manner ; .and when attacked by
our voyagers, we are told it ran at them in Hocks, jiecked their legs, and
spoiled their clothes. Mr I'orster, in his accoutit of one of the South Sea
islands, says, " When the whole herd was beset, they all became very bold
at once, and ran violently at us, biting our lej{S, or any part of our dollies."

394 HISTORY or

Of all this tribe, the Magellanic Penguin is the largest, and
the most remarkable. In size it approaches near that of a tame
goose. It never flies, as its wings are very short, and covered
with stiflF hard feathers, and are always seen expanded, and hang-
ing uselessly down by the bird's sides. The upper part of the
head, back, and rump, are covered with stiff black feathers ;
while the belly and breast, as is common with all of this kind,
are of a snowy whiteness, except a line of black that is seen to
cross the crop. The bill, which from the base to about half
way is covered with wrinkles, is black, but marked crosswise
with a stripe of yellow. They walk erect, with their h'eads on
high, their fin-like wings hanging down like arms ; so that to see

Tliey are very tenacious of life. Mr Forster left a great number of them
apparently lifeless, from tlie blows they had received, while he went in pur.
suit of others ; but they all afterwards got up, and marched off with the ut-
most gravity. Their sleep is extremely sound ; for Dr Sparrman, acciden.
tally stumbling over one of them, kicked it several yards, without disturbing
its rest ; nor was it till after being repeatedly shaken that the bird awoke.

The crested penguins form their nests among those of the birds of the
pelican tribe, and live in tolerable harmony with them. The female gene-
rally lays only a single egg. Their nests are holes in the earth, which they
easily form with their bills, throwing back the dirt with their feet. They
are often found in great numbers on the shores where they have been bred.

Perriu, in liis " Account of an expedition to the Falkland islands in 1772,"
mentions a species of penguin that resorts to certain places of these islands
in incredible numbers, and lays its eggs. These places, he says, had become,
by its long residence, entirely freed from grass ; and has given to them tho
name of towns. These nests were composed of mud, raised into hillocks
about a foot high, and placed close to each other. " Here," he adds, " dur.
ing the breeding season, we were presented with a sight that conveyed a
most dreary, and I may say awful idea of the desertion of the islands by the
human species : general stillness prevailed in these towns ; and \Ahenever
we took our walks among them, in order to provide ourselves with eggs, we
were regarded indeed with side-long glances, but we carried no terror with
us. The eggs are rather larger than those of a goose, and are laid in pairs.
WTien we took them once, and sometimes twice in a season, they were as
often replaced by the birds ; but prudence would not permit us to plunder
too far, lest a future supply, in the next year's brood, might be prevented.'

The Patugonian Penguin inhabits the Falkland islands and >?e\v Guinea ;
is four feet three inches long. The bill and legs are black ; and the ears
have a golden spot : lower mandible tawny at the base ; irides hazel ; the
head and hind part of the neck is brown ; the back is of a black-blue colour ;
the breast, belly, and vent, are white.

The Manchots bear a close relation to the Penguins, but are found only
in the Antartic seas and islands, while the Penguins inhabit the northern
seas. Instead of wings, thoy have simple wiuglets, which perform the office
of oars or fins.

BIllDS. SO")

tliem at a distance, tliey look like so many children with white
aprons. From hence they are said to unite in themselves th«
qualities of men, fowls, and fishes. Like men, they are upright ;
like fowls, they are feathered ; and like fishes, they have fin-like
instruments, that beat the water before, and serve for all the pur-
poses of swimming-, rather than flying.

They feed upon fish ; and seldom come ashore, except in the
breeding season. As the seas in that part of the world abound
with a variety, they seldom want food ; and their extreme fatness
seems a proof of the plenty in which they live. They dive with
great rapidity, and are voracious to a great degree. One of them,
described by Clusius, though but very young, would swallow an
entire herring at a mouthful, and often three successively before
it was appeased. In consequence of this gluttonous appetite,
their flesh is rank and fi.shy; though our sailors say, that it is
pretty good eating. In some the flesh is so tough, and the
feathers so thick, that they stand the blow of a scimitar without
injury.

They are a bird of society; and, especially when they come on
shore, they are seen drawn up in rank and file, upon the ledge ot
a rock, standing together with the albatross, as if in consultation.
This is previous to their laying, which generally begins, in that
part of the world, in the month of November. Their prepara-
tions for laying are attended with no great trouble, as a small
depression in the earth, without any other nest, serves for this
purpose. The warmth of their feathers and the heat of their
bodies is such, that the progress of incubation is carried on very
rapidly.

But there is a difference in the manner of this bird's nestling
in other countries, which I can only ascribe to the frequent dis-
turbances it has received from man or quadrupeds in its recesses.
In some places, instead of contenting itself with a superficial de-
pression in the earth, the penguin is found to burrow two or
three yards deep : in other places it is seen to forsake the level,
and to clamber up the ledge of a rock, where it lays its egg, and
hatches it in tiiat bleak exposed situation. These precautions
may probably have been taken, in consequence of dear-bought
experience. In those places where the bird fears for her own
safety, or that of her young, she may providently provide against
danger, by digging, or even by climbing ; for both which she is

396 HISTORY OF

litit ill adapted by nature. In those places, however, where the
penguin has had but few visits from man, her nest is made, with the
most confident security, in the middle of some large plain, where
they are seen by thousands. In that unguarded situation, neither
exjjecting nor fearing a powerful enemy, they continue to sit
brooding ; and even when man comes among them, have at first
no apprehension of their danger. Some of this tribe have been
called by our seamen, the Boohy,* from the total insensibility
which they show when they are sought to their destruction.
But it is not considered that these birds have never been taught
to know the dangers of a human enemy : it is against the fox or
the vulture that they have learned to defend themselves ; but
they have no idea of injury from a being so very unlike their na-
tural opposers. The penguins, therefore, when our seamen first
came among them, tamely suffered themselves to he knocked on
the head, without even attempting an escape. They have stood
to be shot at in fiocks, without offering to move, in silent won-
der, till every one of their number has been destroyed. Their
attachment to their nests was still more powerful ; for the fe-
males tamely suflfered the men to approach and take their eggs
without any resistance. But the experience of a few of those
unfriendly visits, has long shice taught them to be more upon
their guard in choosing their situations ; or to leave those retreats
where they were so little able to oppose their invaders.

The penguin lays but one egg ; and, in frequented shores, is
found to burrow like a rabbit : sometimes three or four take
possession of one hole, and hatch their young together. In the
holes of the rocks, where nature has made them a retreat, seve-
ral of this tribe, as Linnaeus assures us, are seen together.
There the females lay their single egg, in a common nest, and
git upon this, their general possession, by turns ; while one is
placed as a sentinel, to give warning of approaching danger.
The egg of the penguin, as well as of all this tribe, is very large
for the size of the bird, being generally found bigger than that of
K goose. But as there are many varieties of the penguin, and as
they differ in size, from that of a Muscovy duck to a swan, the
eggs differ in the same proportion.

* The Booby will be fuuud described in ?. note to a former pag-e. It l)e.
longs to the pelican tribe, iiud not to the periguiDS.

BIRDS.

397

CHAP. VIII.

OF THE AUK, PUFFIN, AND OTHER BIRDS OF THE PENGUIN KIND.

Of a size far inferior to the penguin, but with nearly the same
form, and exactly of the same appetites and manners, there is a
very numerous tribe. These frequent our shores, and, like the
penguin, have their legs placed behind. They have short wings,
which are not totally incapable of flight; with round bills for seiz-
ing their jirey, which is fish. They live upon the water, in which
they are continually seen diving ; and seldom venture upon land,
except lor the purposes of continuing their kind.

The first of this smaller tribe is the Great Northern Diver,
which is nearly the size of a goose : it is beautifully variegated
all over with many strips, and differs from the penguin, in being
much slenderer, and more elegantly formed. The Gray Speckled
Diver does not exceed the size of a Muscovy duck ; and, except
in size, greatly resembles the former. The Auk, which breeds
on the islands of St Kilda, chiefly differs from the penguin in size
and colour : it is smaller than a duck ; and the whole of the breast
and belly, as far as the middle of the throat, is white. The Guille-
mot is about the same size ; it differs from the auk, in having a
longer, a slenderer, and a straighter bill. The Scarlet- Throated
Diver may be distinguished by its name ; and the Puffin, or
Coulterneb, is one of the most remarkable birds we know. *

» The Great Northern Direr, which is the principal of the auk tribe, is
nearly three feet and a half in lenjfth. T\\t'. bill is black, and i3 four inches
and a half long. The head and neck arc of a deep velvet black. Under the
chin is a patch of white, marked with several parallel lines othlack ; and on
each side of the neck, and on the breast, is .ilso a hirpe portion of whit<!
marked in a similar manner. 'I he upper parts arc black, marked with white
spots ; and the under parts are white ; the wings are short ; and the quilW,
tail, and legs, are black. The female is less than the male. It inhabits
chiefly the northern sea-s, and is common on some of the coar.ts of Scotland.
Kvery part and proportion of this bird is most admirably adapted to its mode
D» life. The bead is sharp, and smaller than the pjirt of the neck ad.joininp,
tn order that it may pierci- the water ; the wiiig^ are plai'cd forward, and
out of the centre of gravity, for a purpose which will be noticed hereafter ;
the thighs quite at the pnidix, in order to facilitate diving ; and the legs are
flit, and a-s sharp backwards almost as the edge of a knife, that, in striking
they may ea--ily cut the water ; while the feet are broiul for swimming, yet
fo folded up, when sdvaucvd forwaid to take a Ircsh stroke, as to be full ii«
III 2 I.

398 HISTORY OF

Words cannot easily describe the form of the bill of the puffin,
tvhich differs so greatly from that of any other bird. Those who
have seen the coulter of a plough, may form some idea of the
beak of this odd-looking animal. The bill is liat ; but, very

narro\v as the shank. The two exterior toes of the feet are longest ; and
the nails are flat and broad, resembling' the liuman, which give strength,
iind increase the power of swimming. The foot, when expanded, is not at
right angles with the leg ; but tlie exterior part inclining towards the head,
forms an acute angle with the body, the intention being, not to give motion
in the line of the legs themselves, but, by the combined impulse of both in
Bn intermediate line, the line of the body.

Most people, who have exercised any degree of observation, know that
the swimming of birds is nothing more than a walking in the water, where
one foot succeeds the other, as on the land. " But no one, as far as I am
aware," says the Rev. Mr White, "has remarked, that diving fowls, while
under water, impel and row themselves forward by a motion of their wings,
as well as by the impulse of their feet; yet such is really the case, as any
one may easily be convinced who will observe ducks when hunted by dogs
in a clear pond. Nor do I know that any one has given a reason why the
wings of diving fowls are placed so forward ; doubtless not for the purpose
of promoting their speed in flying, since that position certainly impedes it ;
but probably for the increase of their motion under water, by the use of four
oars instead of two : and were the wings and feet nearer together, as in land
birds, they would, when in action, rather hinder than assist one another."

The Speck/ed Diver is not quite so large as the other.

The Great Auk. — This bird inhabits Europe and America ; is three feet in
length; is very timid; it has not the power of flying; its food is chiefly
fishes. The bill is black, compressed, and edged ; and has eight or ten
grooves : there is an oval spot on each side before the eyes. The wings are
so short as to appear as only rudiments ; secondary quill feathers tipt with
\A'hite ; the legs are black. Its Q^g is six inches long, and white, with pur.
plish lines and spots.

The Little Auk also inhabits Europe and America, and measures nine
inches in length. The bill is short, black, smooth, and conic; the back is
black, with a few dusky lines ; the secondary quill feathers are tipt with
white. It has a white dot above the eyes ; the tips of the hind quill fea-
thers are white ; the legs are black.

The Guillemot is about the size of a common duck. The upper parts of
the body are of a dark brown colour, inclining to a black, except the tips of
some of the wing feathers, which are M'hite ; all the under parts of the body
are also white. The tail is about two inches long These are simple birds,
and easily taken. They generally join company with other birds, and breed
on the inaccessible rocks and steep cliflfs in the Isle of Man ; and likewise in
Cornwall ; on Priesholm Island, near Beaumaris, in the isle of Anglesey ]
also on the Fern Inland, ne.ir Northumberland: and the cliff's about Scar-
borough, in Yorkshire ; and several other places in England. They lay ex-
ceeding large eggs, being full three inches long, blunt at the one end, sharp
at tiie other, of a sort of bluish colour, spotted generally with some bl.tr'k
spots or strokes.

BIRDS. 399

(liffere!il i'roni tiiat of a duck, its edge is upwards : it is of a trian-
gular figure, and ending in a sharp point, the upper chap bent a
little downward, where it is joined to the head ; and a certain
callous substance encompassing its base, as in parrots. It is of
two colours J ash-coloured near the base, and red towards the
point. It has three furrows or grooves impressed in it ; one in
the livid part, two in the red. The eyes are fenced with a pro-
tuberant skin, of a livid colour ; and they are gray or ash-col-
oured. These are marks sufficient to distinguish this bird by ;
but its value to those in whose vicinity it breeds, renders it still
more an object of curiosity.

The puffin, like all the rest of this kind, has its legs thrown so
far back, that ii can hardly move without tumbling. This makes
it rise with difficulty, and subject to many falls before it gets upon
the wing : but as it is a small bird, not much bigger than a pigeon,
when it once rises, it can continue its flight with great celerity.

Both this and all the former build no nest ; but lay their eggs
either in the crevices of rocks, or in holes under ground near the
shore. They chiefly choose the latter situation ; for the puffin,
the auk, the guillemot, and the rest, cannot easily rise to the nest
when in a lofty situation. Many are the attempts these birds
are seen to make to fly up to those nests which are so high above
the surface. In rendering them inaccessible to mankind, they
often render them almost inaccessible to themselves. They

T/ie Slack Guillemot.— The length of the Hack giiillpinot is about fourteen
indies, liivadth twi'iity-two, and its weight fourteen ounces. In some of
tills species the whole plumage is black ; in others the lesser quills are tipt
M'itli white ; ami all those that remain in the northern climates are said to
turn white in winter. These birds are found in great numbers in the norti.
Bea, in Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, and the Feroe isles ; and when the
winter sets in, they migrate .southward along the shores of Scotland and
Etigland, where some of them remain and breed. The nest is made in thu
deep crevices of rocks which overhang the sea ; the eggs are of a gray col.
our. Some ornithologists assert, that the female lays only one : others, that
she lay.s two. 1 hey fly commonly in pairs, and so low that they raise the
surface of the sea by the Happing of their narrow wings. 'I'he fireenJanders
eat the flesh of this bird, and use its skin for clothing, and the legs us a bail
for their fishing-lines. Ray, Albin, Willoiighby, and Kdwards have named
it the Greenland dove, or sea-turtle. In the Orkneys it is called the tyste.

The Gifilitit belong to this family of birds. They are not web-footed, but
the toes are enlarged as in the coots. They live lui lakes and poi»^, iind
build in tlie rushes. Their pluraiige, which changes much with age, is used
frequently by furriers.

2 L 2

wo

HISTORY OF

are frequently obliged to make three or fojr efforts, before tliey
Clin come at the place of incubation. For this reason, the auk
and guillemot, when they have once laid their single egg, which
is extremely large for the size, seldom forsake it until it is ex-
cluded. The male, who is better furnished for flight, feeds tlie
ftmale during this interval ; and so bare is the place where she
sits, that the egg would often roll down from the rock, did not
the body of the bird support it.

But the puffin seldom chooses these inaccessible and trouble-
some heights for its situation. Relying on its courage and the
strength of its bill, with which it bites most terribly, it either
makes or finds a hole in the ground, where to lay and bring forth
its young. All the winter these birds, like the rest, are absent ;
visiting regions too remote for discovery. At the latter end of
March, or the beginning of April, come over a troop of their
spies or harbingers, that stay two or three days, as it were to
view and search out for their former situations, and see whether
all be well. This done, they once more depart ; and about the
beginning of May, return again with the whole army of their
companions. But if the season happens to be stormy and tem-
pestuous, and the sea troubled, the unfortunate voyagers undergo
incredible hardships ; and they are found, by hundreds, cast
away upon the shores, lean and perished with famine." It is
most probable, therefore, that this voyage is performed more on
the water than in the air ; and as they cannot fish in stormy
weather, their strength is exhausted before they can arrive at
their wished-for harbour.

The puffin, when it prepares for breeding, which always hap-
pens a few days after its arrival, begins to scrape up a hole ii»
the ground not far from the shore ; and when it has some way
penetrated the earth, it then throws itself upon its back, and
with bill and claws thus burrows inward, till it has dug a hole
with several windings and turnings, from eight to ten feet deej).
It particularly seeks to dig under a stone, where it expects the
greatest security. In this fortified retreat it lays one egg ; whicli,
though the bird be not much bigger than a pigeon, is of the size
of a hen's.

When the young one is excluded, the parent's industry and
courage is incredible. Few birds or beasts will venture to at-

1 Willdiigliby's Oinjtli. p. 3.'6.

BIKDS. 4(J!

tack them in their retreats. When the great sea-raven, as
Jacobson informs us, comes to take away their young;, the puiiina
boldly oppose him. Their meeting affords a most singular com
bat. As soon as the raven approaches, the puffin catches him
under the throat with its beak, and sticks its claws into its breast,
which makes the raven, with a loud screaming, attempt to get
away; but the little bird still holds fast to the invader, nor lets
him go till they both come to the sea, where they drop do'*'n
together, and the raven is drowned ; yet the raven is but too
often successful ; and, invading the puffin at the bottom of its
hole, devours both the parent and its family.

But were a punishment to be inflicted for immorality in ir-
rational animals, the puffin is justly a sufferer from invasion, as it
is often itself one of the most terrible invaders. Near the isle
of Anglesey, in an islet called Prienholm, their flocks may be
compared, for multitude, to swarms of bees. In another islet,
called the CJf of Man, a bird of this kind, but of a different
species, is seen in great abundance. In both places, numbers of
rabbits are found to breed; but the puffin, unwilling to be at the
trouble of niakinga hole, when there is one ready made, dispossess-
es the rabbits, and it is not unlikely destroys their young. It is in
these unjustly acquired retreats that the young puffins ai'e found
in great numbers, and become a very valuable acquisition to tiie
natives of the place. The old ones (I am now speakiiig of the
Manks puffin) early in the momiiig, at brealc of day, leave their
nests and young, and even the island, nor do they return till
night-fiill. All this time they are diligently employed in fishing
for their young ; so that their retreats on land, which in the
morning were loud and clamorous, are now still and quiet, with
not a wing stirring till the approach of dusk, when their screams
once more announce their return. Wliatever fish, or other food,
they have procured in the day, by night begins to suffer a kind of
h.df digestion, and is reduced to an oily matter, which is ejected
from the stomach of the old ones into the mouth of the young.
By this they are nourished, and become fat to an amazing degree.
When they are arrived to their full grov\'th, they who are in
trusted by the lord of the island, draw them from their holes ;
and, that they may more readily keej) an account of the number
they take, cut off one foot as a token. Their flesh is said to be
cxcessivclv rank, as they feed upon lish, especially sprats, and

2l3

402 HisroiiY or

siiii weed ; liowever, when tliey are pickled and preserved with
spices, they are admired by those who are fond of high eating.
We are told, that formerly their flesh was allowed by the church
on Lenten days. They were, at that time, also taken by ferrets,
as we do rabbits. At present, they are either dug out, or draw j.
out, from their burrows, with a hooked stick. They bite ex
tremely hard, and keep such fast hold of whatsoever they sei/,-
upon, as not to be easily disengaged. Their noise, when take:i.
is very disagreeable, being like the efforts of a dumb person at-
tempting to speak.

The constant depredation which these birds annually suffer,
does not in the least seem to intimidate them, or drive them
away ; on the contrary, as the people say, the nest must be
robbed or the old ones will breed there no longer. All birds of
this kind lay but one egg; yet if that be taken away, they will
lay another, and so on to a third ; which seems to imply, that
robbing their nests does not much intimidate them from laying
again. Those, however, whose nests have been thus destroyed,
are often too late in bringing up their young ; who, if they be not
fledged and prepared for migration when all the rest depart, are
left at land to shift for themselves. In August the whole tribe
is seen to take leave of their summer residence ; nor are they
observed any more till the return of the ensuing spring. It is
probable that they sail away to more southern regions, as our
mariners frequently see myriads of water-fowl upon their re-
turn, and steering usually to the north. Indeed the coldest
countries seem to be their most favoured retreats ; and the num-
ber of water-fowl is much greater in those colder climates than
in the warmer regions near the line. The quantity of oil which
abounds in their bodies, serves as a defence against cold, and
preserves them in vigour against its severity ; but the same pro-
vision of oil is rather detrimental in warm countries, as it turns
rancid, and many of them die of disorders which arise from its
putrefaction. In general, however, water-fowl can be properly
said to be of no climate ; the element upon which they live be-
ing their proper residence. They necessarily spend a few months
of summer upon land, to bring up their young ; but the rest of
their time is probably consumed in their migrations, or near
some unknown coasts, where their provision of fish is lound
in greatest abundance.

BIRDS. 403

Beiore I go to tlie third general division of water-fowls, it
may not be improper to observe, tliat there is one species of
round-billed water-fowl that does not properly lie within any of
tlie former distributions. This is the Gooseander ;* a bird with
the body and wings shaped like those of the penguin kind, but
with legs not hid in the belly. It may be distinguished from all
others by its bill, which is round, hooked at the point, and
toothed, both upper and under chap, like a saw. Its colours are
various and beautiful ; however, its manners and appetites en-
tirely resemble those of the diver. It feeds upon fish, for which
it dives ; and is said to build its nest upon trees, like the heron
and the cormorant. It seems to form the shade between the
penguin and the goose kind ; having a round bill like the one;
and unembarrassed legs, like the other. In the shape of the
head, neck, and body, it resembles them both.

CHAP. IX.

OF mUDS OF THE GOOSE KIND, PUOPEllLY SO CALLKU.

fiiK Swan, the Goose, and the Duck, are leaders of a num-
frous, useful, and beautiful tribe of birds, that we have reclaimed
from a state of nature, and have taught to live in dependence
about us. To describe any of these, would be as superfluous as
delinitions usually are when given of things with which we are
already well acquainted. There are few that have not had op-
portunities of seeing them, and whose ideas would not anticipate
our description. J3ut, though nothing be so easy as to distin-
guisli these in general from e;ich other, yet the largest of the
duck kind approach the goose so nearly, tliat it may be proper
to mark the distinctions.

'i'hc marks of the goose are, a bigger body, large wings, a
longer neck, a white ring above the rump, a bill thicker at the
base, slenderer towards the tip, with shorter legs placed more
forward on the body. They both have a waddling waii^ ; but
the duck from the position of its legs, has it in a greater degree.

« Tlii^ is tin- largest of tin- Auk kiml, woighini,' about l pound*.

4.04 HISfOllY OF

By these marks, these simihir tribes may be known asunder ; and
though the duck should be found to equal the goose in size,
which sometimes happens, yet there are still other sufEcient dis-
tinctions.

But they all agree in many particulars; and have a nearer
affinity to each other than the neighbouring kinds in any other
department. Their having been tamed has produced alterations
, in each, by which they differ as much from the wild ones of their
respective kinds, as they do among themselves. There is nearly
as much difference between the wild and the tame duck, as be-
tween some sorts of the duck and the goose ; but still the cha-
racteristics of the kind are strongly mai'ked and obvious ; and
this tribe can never be mistaken.

The bill is the first great obvious distinction of the goose kind
from all of the feathered tribe. In other birds, it is round and
wedge-like, or crooked at the end. In all the goose-kind it is
fiat and broad, made for the purpose of skimming ponds and
lakes of the mantling weeds that stand on the surface. The
bills of other birds are made of a horny substance throughout ;
these have their inoffensive bills sheathed with a skin which covers
them all over. The bill of every other biid seems, in some
measure, formed for piercing or tearing; theirs are only fitted
for shovelling up their food, which is chiefly of the vegetable
kind.

Though these birds do not reject animal food when offered
them, yet they can contentedly subsist upon vegetables, and
seldom seek any other. They are easily provided for ; wher-
ever there is water, there seems to be plenty. All the other
web-footed tribes are continually voracious, continually preying.
These lead more harmless lives : the weeds on the surface of
the water, or the insects iit the bottom, the grass by the bank,
or the fruits and corn in cultivated grounds, are sufficient to
satisfy their easy appetites ; yet these, like every other animal,
will not reject flesh, if properly prepared for them ; it is suffi-
cient praise to them that they do not eagerly pursue it.

As their food is chiefly vegetables, so their fecundity is in
proportion. We have had frequent opportunities to obsei've,
that all the predatory tribes, whether of birds or quadrupeds,
are barren and unfruitful. We have seen the lion with its two
tubs ; the eagle w ith the same number ; and the penguin with

BiUDS. 4'O.i

even but otic. Nature that has supplied them with powers of
destruction, lias denied them fertility. But it i.s otherwise with
these harmless animals I am describing. They seem formed to
fill up the chasms in animated nature, caused by the voracious-
ness of others. They breed in great abundance, and lead their
young to the pool the instant they are excluded.

As their food is simple, so their flesh is nourishing and whole-
some. The swan was considered as a high delicacy among
the ancients ; the goose was abstained from as totally indigesti-
ble. Modern manners have inverted tastes ; the goose is now
become the favourite ; and the swan is seldom brought to table,
unless for the purposes of ostentation. But at all times the
flesh of the duck was in high esteem ; the ancients thought even
more highly of it than we do. We are contented to eat it as a
delicacy j they also considered it as a medicine ; and Plutarch
assures us, that Cato kept his whole family in health, by feeding
them with duck whenever they threatened to be out of order.

These qualities, of great fecundity, easy sustenance, and whole-
some nourishment, have been found so considerable as to induce
man to take these birds from a state of nature, and render tlieni
domestic. How long they have been thus dependents upon his
pleasures is not known ; for, from the earliest accounts, they ■
were considered as familiars about him. The time must have
been very remote ; for there have been many changes wrought
in their colours, their figures, and even their internal parts, by
human cultivation. The different kinds of these birds, in a wild
state, are simple in their colourings ; when one has seen a wild
goose or a wild duck, a description of its plumage will, to a fea-
ther, exactly correspond with that of any other. But in the
tame kinds, no two of any species are exactly alike. Different
in their size, tlicir colours, and frequently in their general form,
they seem the mere creatures of art ; and having been so long
dependent upcti man for support, they seem to assume lorm;!
entirely suited to his pleasures or necessities.

W/fi HISTORY OF

CHAP. X.

OF THE SWAN, TAME AND WILD. •

No bird makes a more indifferent figure upon land, or a
more beautiful one in the water, than the swan. When it

* Of the characters by which the swans are distingfuished from tlie rest of
the famil)-, the mo5t remarkable are the extreme length of their necks ; the
oval shape of their nostrils, which are placed about the middle of their bill ;
the nakedness of their cheeks; the equal breadth of their bills throughout ;
the great depth of that organ at the base, whore the vertical considerably
exceeds the transverse diameter; and the position of their legs behind tlie
centre of gi'avity. They are by far the largest species of the family; and
there are very few birds that exceed them in magnitude. They live almost
cdi'stanlly upon the water, preferring the larger streams and open lakes ;
siiid feed chiefly uptm aquatic plants, the roots of which they are enabled to
reach by means of their long necks, for they rarely if ever plunge the whole
of their bodies beneath the surface. They also devour frogs and insects,
and occasionally, it is said, even fishes ; hut this last assertion is contra,
dieted by almost every observer who has attended particularly to their ha-
bits, and seems quite at variance with the fact that the fish-ponds to which
they are sometimes confined do not appear to suBer the smallest diminution
in the number of their inhabitants from the presence of these inoffensive
birds. In their habits they are as peaceable as they are majestic in form,
elegant in attitude, graceful in their motions, and, in the two species that
are most commonly known to us, unsiUlied in the purity of their white and
glossy plumage.

Of these species that which is known, improperly with reference to a large
proportion of the individuals that compose it, as the tame swan, is probably
the most common, being found in a state of domestication throughout tlio
greater part of the northern hemisphere. In a wild state it is met with in
almost every country of Europe, especially towards the east, and is parti-
cularly abundant in Siberia. Its distinguishing characters are found chiefly
in its bill, which is throughout of an orange red, with the exception of the
edges of the mandibles, the slight hook at the extremity, the nostrils, and
the naked spaces extending from the base towards the eyes, all of which are
black. A large protuberance, also of a deep black, surmounts the base of
the bill ; the iris is brown ; and the legs black, with a tinge of red. All the
plumage, without exception, in the adult bird, is of the purest white. I7i
length the full grown male measures upwards of five feet, and more thau
eight in the expanse of its wings, which reach, when closed, along two
ihirds of the tail. Its weight is usually about twenty pounds, but it some-
times attains five and twenty or even thirty ; and those which inhabit tht
southern coast of the Caspian are said to reach, a still more enormous size.
The female is rather smaller than the male ; her bill is surmounted by a
smaller protuberance ; and her neck is somewhat more slender. When first
hatched the young arc of a duskv gray, with lead coloured bill and legs j is

irnns. 407

ascends from its favourite element, its motions are awkward, and
its neck is stretched forward with an air of stupidity ; but when
it is seen smoothly sailing along the water, commanding a thou-
sand graceful attitudes, moving at pleasure without the smalles*

the second year their plumage becomes lighter, and their bill and legs as-
sume a yellowish tinge ; in the third ye;ir they put on the adult plumage
and colouring of the naked parts.

The wild birds of this species, like most of the waterfowl, are migratory
in their habits. In the temperate regions of Europe they begin to absent
themselves in October, and return towards the end of March to the quaiter?
which they occupied in th.e preceding year. But when the winter is not
particularly severe, they frequently remain through it, seeking for shelter
among the dams and sluices of the rivers, and returning to their former
quarters at the breaking of the frost. The females choose for their nestling-
place the least frequented situations on the banks of the rivers or lakes
which they inhabit, and build their nests in the rudest manner of twigs and
reeds, lined with a comfortable coating of their breast feathers. They lay
six or eight grayish eggs, and sit for five we«;ks, generally in April and
May.

Although naturally one of the most gentle and inoffensive of birds, the
large size and great muscular power of the swan render it a formidable ene-
my when driven to extremity, and compelled to act on the defensive. In
such a case it is said to give battle to the eagle, and frequently even to re-
pel his attack, forcing him to seek his safety in flight. It never attempts to
molest any of the smaller waterfowl that inhabit its domains ; but in the
season of its amours it will not sufi'er a rival to approach its retreat without
n sanguinary struggle, in which one or other is generally destroyed. It is
said to attain a very great age, thirty years being cimimonly spoken of a.s
the term of its existence. It is even asserted that in Alkmar, a town in the
north of Holland, there died, in the year 1072, a swan belonging to the mu-
nicipality, which bore on its collar the date 157:3, and must consequently
Iiave been a century old ; and several other instances of a similar nature
have been related by authors. We must confess, however, that we enter-
tain strong doubts of the authenticity of such statements, founded merely or
popular trfidilion and unsupported by atiy positive evidence.

ITie JVild Swan, or, as it is not unfrequently termed, the Hooper, is a na.
tive of nearly the whole northern hemisphere. In the Old World it passes
northwards as far as Iceland and Kamschatka, skirting the borders of tins
Arctic Circle, but rarely entering within its limits. Those which inhabit
Europe generally pass the winter in its more southern regions, and even
extend their flight to Egypt and IJarbary ; while tlie Asiatic birds seem
rarely to pjuss much farther south than tlie shores of the Caspian and Black
Sejus. In America the range of their migrations is bounded by Hudsou's
Bay on the iiortli, and Louisiana and the Carolinas on the south. They are
«xtremely abundant in the northern parts of the New Continent and in Si-
beria ; and in many districts of Russia they take the place of that Wniih i3
Improperly termed the Tame .specieH, submitting themselves with equal
readiness to the process of domestication.

The external difl'ereuces between these two 6vvan<. are not at*fir.st ^i/,'llt

•lOS HISTOiiV OF

effort ; " when it proudly rows in state," as Miltoi) has it,
" with arched neck, between its white wings mantling," there is
not a more beautiful figure in all nature. In the exhibition of
its form, there are no broken or harsh lines, no constrained or

veiy obvious ; but, trivial as thoy appear, tlu'y are uniform and constant.
The Ijili of the present species is entirely destitute of protuberance at its base,
and its colours are in a great degree reversed, the black occupying the point
aud nearly the whole of the bill, its base alone and the spaces extending from
it beneath the eyes being of a bright yellow. The legs are black or dusky ;
the iris brown ; and the entire plumage, as in the other species, pure white,
but with an occasional tinge of yellowish gray. The young pass through
similar gradations of colour with those of the tame swan, and arrive, like
them, at their perfect plumage about the third or fourth year.

Slight as are these outward differences, they are fully sufficient for the
detection of the species ; and the separation founded upon them receives
ample confirmation from anatomical characters of the highest unportance.
Not to speak of the difference in the number of their ribs, whicli are twelve
in the wild Swan, and eleven only in the tame, their tracheae or windpipes
afford unquestionable evidence of their distinctness. Ray \\as the first to
point out this marked distinction between the two birds, which had previ-
ously been regarded as doubtful species. It was neglected, however, by
later naturalists, and even Buffon and Linnaeus were inclined to consider
thera as mere varieties ; but in these days, when the importance of anato.
mical characters is fully recognised, they are universally allowed to be dis-
tinct.

A third species, lately described by Mr Yarrell, is equally distinct from the
hooper and the tamo swan, although inhabiting the same localities as the
former, and apparently by no means of unfrequent occurrence. This bird,
which had been entirely overlooked by all systematic ornithologists, is about
one third less than the common wild swan ; but its trachea, of smaller com.
parative calibre, passes still more deeply into the cavity of the sternum, at
the extremity of which, quitting the keel, it takes a horij.ontal direction,
and occupies the posterior flattened portion of the bone. Ihe bronchi or
subdivisions of the windpipe are less than half the length of the same parts
in the common hooper. Outwardly the differences between the two birds
are even less strongly marked than those which distinguish the wild and
tame swans from each other ; consisting principally in the deep orange
colour of the base of the bill, which is confined to a more limited space than
the yellow on the same part in the hooper, and does not advance upon the
sides ; and in the niunber of the quill-feathers of tiie tail, which are eighteen
in the new species and twenty in the old. To this fine addition to our list of
native birds Mr Varrell has applied the name of Bewick's Swan, in com-
memoration of an artist whose labours have done so much to render the
study of ornithology popular iu this country.

In habits the Wild Swan bears a close resemblance to the Tame. It fiii'S
with so much rapidity, especially when sailing before the wind, that the
difficulty of shooting it is extremely great. Hearne asserts th^it it is " fre-
quently necessary to take a sight ten or twelve feet before their bills ;" aiui
adds that' "in a brisk gale, they cannot fly at a less rate than a hundied

BIRDS. 4fl0

rithing motions ; but the roundest contours, and the easiest
transitions; the eye wanders over every part with insatiable
pleasure, and every part takes a new grace with a new motion.
This fine bird has long been rendered domestic ; and it is

miles an hour, but wlien flying across the wind or against it, they make but
a slow progress, and are then a noble shot." They are much sought after
in those countries where they are abundant, for their flesh, their quill-fea-
thers, and their down. The former according to the author just quoted,
" is excellent eating, and, when roasted, is equal in flavour to young heifer
beef, and the cygnets are very delicate." It is possible that in this instance
the keen appetite of the sportsman may have imparted a relish to his game
which it did not intrinsically possess. In Europe it is little sought after,
and although cygnets are occasionally served upon the tables of the great,
the rarity of the dish may be supposed to add not a little to its actual flavour,
which to tlie taste of beef joins somewhat of that which is coramou to ducks
and most of our waterfowl.

The Wild Swans arrive in Hudson's Bay as early as March, preceding all
the other species of waterfowl. While the rivers remain frozen, they fre-
quent tlie falls and rapids, where they are often shot by the Indiana in large
numbers. They are also pursued by the natives in the moulting time,
which takes place in July and August ; but it is extremely diflicult to catch
them, as they ran with great swiftness on the surface of the water. In Ice-
land and Kamtschatka they are hunted at this time with dogs and horses,
and frequently distance the latter, but are eventually palled down by the
dogs, which seize them by the neck and overbalance them. The female
usually builds her nest on an island in the centre of a lake, and lays from
five to seven eggs, " bo big," says Hearne, " that one of them is sufficient
for a moderate man, without bread or any otl>er addition." They are of a
dirty white with a shade of olive green. As in the Tame species, the bat-
tles between the males are frequent and obstinately contested, sometimes
lasting for a whole day, and not uncommonly terminating in the death of
one or other of the combatants.

The BUick Swan. — When the classical writers of antiquity spoke of the
Black Swan as a proverbial rarity, so improbable as almost to be deemed
impossible, little did they imagine that in these latter days a region would
be discovered, nearly equal in extent to the Roman empire even at the
proudest period of its greatness, in which their "rara avis" would be
found in aa great abundance as the common Wild Swan upon the lakes of
Kurope. Such, however, has been one of the least singular among the many
strange and unexpected results of the discovery of the great southern conti.
nent of New Holland. Scarcely a traveller who has visited its shores omit«
to mention this remarkable bird. An early notice of its transmis.sion to Eu.
rope occurs in a letter from Witsen to Dr Martin Lister, printed in the
twentieth voliune of the Philosophical Transactions ; and V'alentyu pub-
lished in I7il6 !u\ account of two living specimens brought to Batavia.

Since this period many living individuals have been brought to England,

where they thrive equally well with the Emeus, the Kangaroos, and (ithisr

Australian animals, insomuch th.it they can now scarcely be regarded as

rarities even in this country. They an- prei-iscly similar in form, and :>uuie.

111. 2 M

410 HISTORY OF

now a doubt whether there be any of the tame kind in a state of
nature. The wild swan, though so strongly resembling this in
colour and form, is yet a different bird ; for it is very differently
formed within. The wild swan is less than the tame by almost
a fourth ; for as the one weighs twenty pounds, the other only
weighs sixteen pounds and three quarters. The colour of the
tame swan is all over white ; that of the wild bird is, along the
back and the tips of the wings, of an ash-colour. But these are
slight differences compared to what are found upon dissection.
In the tame swan, the windpipe sinks down into the lungs in the
ordinary manner ; but in the wild, after a strange and wonderful
contortion, like what we have seen in the crane, it enters through
a hole formed in the breast-bone ; and being reflected therein, re-
turns by the same aperture ; and being contracted into a narrow
compass by a broad and bony cartilage, it is divided into two
branches, which, before they enter the lungs, are dilated, and, as
it were, swollen out into two cavities.

Such is the extraordinary difference between these two ani-
mals, which extei'nally seem to be of one species. Whether it
is in the power of long-continued captivity and domestication to
produce this strange variety, between birds otherwise the same,
I will not take upon me to determine. But certain it is, that
our tame swan is no where to be found, at least in Europe, in a
state of nature.

As it is not easy to account for this difference of conforma-
tion, so it is still more difficult to reconcile the accounts of the

what inferior in size to the Wild and Tame Swans of the Old World ; but
are perfectly black in every part of their plumage, with the exception of the
primary and a few of the secondary quill-feathers, which are white. Their
bill is of a bright red above, and is surmounted at the base in the male by a
Blight protuberance, which is wanting in the female. Towards its anterior
part it is crossed by a whitish band. The under part of the bill is of a gray-
ish white J and the legs and feet are of a dull ash-colour. In every other
respect, except in the mode of convolution of its trachea, this bird so per-
fectly corresponds with its well known congeners, that it is only necessary
to refer to the articles in wliich we shall hereafter describe those beautiful
species for an account of the characters which are common to tliem all
The Black Swans are found as well in Van Diemen's Land as in New South
Wales and on the western coast of New Holland. They are generally seen
in flocks of eight or nine together, floating on a lake ; and when disturbed,
flying off like wild geese in a direct line one after the other. They are said
to be extremely shy, so as to render it diflicult to approach within giuisliot
of them.

BIRDS. ' 41 1

ancients with the experience of the moderns, concerning the
vocal powers of this bird. The tame swan is one of the most
silent of all birds ; and the wild one has a note extremely loud
and disagreeable. It is probable, the convolutions of the wind-
pipe may contribute to increase the clangour of it; for such is the
harshness of its voice, that the bird from thence has been called
the hooper. In neither is there the smallest degree of melody ;
nor have they, for above this century, been said to give specimens
of the smallest musical abilities ; yet, notwithstanding this, it was
the general opinion of antiquity, that the swan was the most
melodious bird; and that even to its death, its voice went on
improving. It would show no learning to produce what they
have said upon the music of the swan : it has already been col-
lected by Aldrovandus; and still more professedly by the Abbe
Gedoyn, in the Transactions of the Academy of Belles Lettres.
From these accounts, it appears that, while Plato, Aristotle,
and Diodorus Siculus, believed the voeality of the swan, Pliny
and Virgil seem to doubt that received opinion. In this equi-
poise of authority Aldrovandus seems to have determined in fa-
vour of the Greek philosophers ; and the form of tiie windpipe
in the wild swan, so much resembling a musical instrument, in-
clined his belief still more strongly. In aid of this also, came
the testimony of Pendasius, who affirmed, that he had often
heard swans sweetly singing in the lake of Mantua, as he was
rowed up and down in a boat ; as also of Olaus Wormius, who
professed that many of his friends and scholars had heard them
singing. " There was," says he, " in my family, a very honest
young man, John Rostorph, a student in divinity, and a Norwe-
gian by nation. This man did, upon ins credit, and with tlie
interposition of an oath, solemnly affirm, that once in the terri-
tory of Dronten, as he was standing on the sea-shore, early in
the morning, he heard an unusual and sweet murmur, composed
of the most pleasant whistlings and sounds ; he knew not at first
whence they came, or how they were made, for he saw no man
near to produce them; but looking round about him, and climb-
ing to the top of a certain promoiitoiy, he there espied an infin-
ite number of swans gathered together in a bay, and making the
most delightful harmony ; a sweeter in all his life-time he had
never heard." Those were accounts sufficient at least to keep
opinion in suspense, though in contradiction to our own experi-

2 »i -^

412 HiSTOiiY or

ence : but Aldrovandus, to put, as he supposed, the question
past all doubt, gives us the testimony of a countryman of our
own, from whom he had the relation. This honest man's name
was Mr Geo. Braun, who assmed him, that nothing was more
common in England than to hear swans sing ; that they were
bred in great numbers in the sea near London ; and that every
fleet of ships that returned from their voyages from distant coun-
tries, were met by swans, that came joyfully out to welcome their
return, and salute them with a loud and cheerful singing ! It
was in this manner that Aldrovandus, that great and good man,
was frequently imposed upon by the designing and the needy :
his imbounded curiosity drew round him people of every kind,
and his generosity was as ready to reward falsehood as truth. —
Poor Aldrovandus ! after having spent a vast fortune for the
purposes of enlightening mankind ; after having collected more
truth, and more falsehood, than any man ever did before him, he
little thought of being reduced at last to want bread, to feel the
ingratitude of his country, and to die a beggar in a public hos-
pital :

Thus it appears that our modern authorities, in favour of the
singing of swans, are rather suspicious, since they are reduced to
this Mr G. Braun, and John Rostorpb, the native of a country
remarkable for ignorance and credulity. It is probable the an-
cients had some mythological meaning in ascribing melody to the
swan ; and as for the modems, they scarcely deserve our regard.
The swan, therefore, must be content with that share of fame
vv'hich it possesses on the score of its beauty ; since the melody
of its voice, without better testimony, will scarcely be admitted
by even the credulous.

This beautiful bird is as delicate in its appetites, as elegant in
its form. Its chief food is corn, bread, herbs growing in the
water, and roots and seeds, which are found near the margin.
It prepares a nest in some retired part of the bank, and chiefly
where there is an islet in the stream. This is composed of
water-plants, long grass, and sticks ; and the male and female
assist in forming it with great assiduity. The swan lays seven
or eight eggs, white, much larger than those of a goose, with a
hard, and sometimes a tuberous, shell. It sits near two months
before its young are excluded ; which are ash-coloured when they
first leave the shell, and for some months after. It is not a lit-

BIRDS. 413

tie dangerous to approach the old ones when their little family
are feeding round them. Their fears as well as their pride, seeni
to take the alarm ; and they have sometimes been known to give
a blow with their pinion, that has broke a man's leg or arm.

It is not till they are a twelvemonth old that the young swans
change their colour with their plumage. All the stages of this
bird's approach to maturity are slow, and seem to mark its lon-
gevity. It is two months hatching ; a year in growing to its
proper size : and if, according to Pliny's observation, those
animals that are longest in the womb are the longest lived, the
swan is the longest in the shell of any bird we know, and is said
to be remarkable for its longevity. Some say that it lives three
hundred years ; and Willoughby, who is in general diffident
enough, seems to believe the report. A goose, as he justly ob-
serves, has been known to live a hundred ; and the sw'an, frum
its superior size, and from its harder, firmer flesh, may naturally
be supposed to live still longer.

Swans were formerly held in such great esteem, in England,
that by an act of Edward the Fourth, none, except the son of
the king, was permitted to keep a swan, unless possessed of five
marks a year. By a subsequent act, the punishment for taking
their eggs was imprisonment for a year and a day, and a fine at
the king's will. At present, they are but little valued for the
delicacy of their flesh ; but many are still preserved for their
beauty. We see multitudes on the Thames and Trent; but no
where greater numbers than on the salt water inlet of the sea,
near Abbotebury, in Dorsetshire.

CHAP. XL

OF THE GOOSE, AND ITS VARIETIES.

The Goose, in its domestic state, exhibits a variety of col-
ours. The wild goose always retains the same maiks ; the
whole upper part is ash-coloured ; the breast and belly arc of a
dirty white ; the bill is narrow at the base, and at the tip it is
i)iack ; the legs are of a saffron colour, and the claws black.

These marks arc seldom found in the tame j whose bill is eu

2 M 3

414> HISTORY OF

tirely red, and whose legs are entirely brown. The wild goose
is rather less than the tame ; but both invariably retain a white
ring round their tail, which shows that they are both descended
from the same originaL

The wild goose is supposed to breed in the northern parts of
Europe ; and, in the beginning of winter, to descend into more
temperate regions. They are often seen flying at very great
heights, in flocks from fifty to a hundred, and seldom resting by
day. Their cry is frequently heard when they are at an imper-
ceptible distance above us ; and this seems bandied from one to
the other, as among hounds in the pursuit. Whether this be
the note of nmtual encouragement, or the necessary consequence
of respiration, is doubtful ; but they seldom exert it when they
alight in these journeys.*

* The flight of wild geese takes place without noise, and the order in
which it is performed, presupposes no small degree of combination and in.
telligence. It is an arrangement the most favourable for each individual to
follow in its place and preserve its proper rank, and for the entire flock to
cut the air with the smallest degree of fatigue. They place themselves in
two oblique lines, forming an angle, or in a single line when the troop is not
very numerous. He who is at the head of the angle, cuts the air first, re-
tires to the last rank to repose himself when fatigued, and the others take
his place in their turns. There are certain points, so to speak, from which
the grand armies of these birds divide, to spread themselves tlirough dif-
ferent countries ; such are Mount Taurus relatively to Asia Minor, and
Mount Stella, where they repair in the after-season, and from whence they
disperse through Europe. These secondary bands unite again, and fonu
others, which to the number of four or five hundred, come sometimes in
winter, and alight upon our fields, where they feed upon the corn and grass,
scraping away the snow. Every evening after sunset, the wild geese repair
to ponds and rivers, where they pass the night, that they may enjoy security.
Their habits, in this respect, are very different from those of ducks, which
go, during the night, to pasture in the fields, and do not return to the water,
but when the geese quit it. It is only diu-ing not very severe winters, that
the wild geese remain any time in temperate climates ; for when the rivers
are frozen, they advance more southward, whence they retire towards the
end of March, to return to the north, and proceed into the most elevated
latitudes, to Spitzbergen, Greenland, to the shores of the Frozen Ocean, and
to Hudson's Bay, — where their fat and dung constitute a resource fur the
hardy inhabitants.

The geese have good sight, very fine hearing, and their vigilance is so
great that they are never taken at fault. While they are eating, or
sleeping, there is always a sentinel in the troop, who, with his neck
stretched out, and head in the air, is ready to give the signal of danger. U
we add to these signs of intelligence, and to the remarks already made on
the arrangement of their order of flight, the signal proofs of attachment.

BIRDS. 4.15

L'pon their coming to the ground by day, they range them-
selves in a line, like cranes ; and seem rather to have descended
for rest, than for other refreshment. When they have sat in this
manner for an hour or two, I have heard one of them, with a
loud long note, sound a kind of charge, to which the rest punc-
tually attended, and they pursued their journey with renewed
alacrity. Their flight is very regularly arranged ; they either go
in a line abreast, or in two lines, joining in an angle in the mid-
dle. I doubt whether the form of their flight be thus arranged
to cut the air with greater ease, as is commonly believed ; I am
more apt to think it is to present a smaller mark to fowlers from
below. A bullet might easily reach them if huddled together
in a flock, and the same discharge might destroy several at once ;
but, by their manner of flying, no shot from below can afl!ect
above one of them ; and from the height at which they fly this
is not easy to be hit.

The barnacle differs, in some respects, from both these ; be-
ing less than either, with a black bill, much shorter than either
of the preceding. It is scarcely necessary to combat the idle
error of this bird's being bred from a shell sticking to ships'
bottoms ; it is well known to be hatched from an egg in the
ordinary manner, and to differ in very few particulars from all
the rest of its kind.

The Brent Goose is still less than the former, and not bigger
than a Muscovy duck, except that the body is longer. The
head, neck, and upper part of the breast are black ; but about
the middle of the neck, on each side, are two small spots or lines
of white, which together appear like a ring.

These, and many other varieties,* are found in this kind,

which domestic geese have exhibited on many occasions, we shiill pfrceivo
how little foundation there is for the popular opinion respoctinp their -stupi-
dity. This indeed, appears to have been funned merely iin external charac-
ters ; on their walk, their stretched out neck, papiuR' mouth, and the sound
of their voice, especially when they experience any terror. As these birds
Qy remarkably hi»,'h, and do not alight but when they are over waters, there
is considerable difficulty in shooting- them; and their extreme distrust renders
for the most part all the stratiigeras employed by fowlers of no avail. Our
common application of the proverb, "a wild-goose cha.se," sufficiently
proves this, and ought to do away with the vulgar prejudice respecting
tlieir stupidity.

• The Snow Gonan. — This bird is about the size of the common goose.
Tlie upper mandjblc of the bill ij scarlet, and the lower oue whitish. Th«

116 HISTORY OP

which agree in one common character of feeding upon vegeta-
bles, and being remarkable for their fecundity. Of these, how-
ever, the tame goose is the most fruitful. — Having less to fear
from its enemies, leading a securer and a more plentiful life, its

general colour of the plumage is wliite, except the first ten quills of the
wings, wliich are black, with white shafts. The young are of a blue colour,
till they are a year old. The legs are red. These birds are very numerous
about Hudson's Bay, where they are migratory, going further northward to
breed. They are also found in the northern parts of the old continent. TI16
snow geese have so little of the shyness of the other species, that they are
taken in a ludicrous mauner, about Jakut, and the other parts of Siberia
which they frequent. The inhabitants place near the banks of the rivers a
jfreat net in a straight line, or else form a hovel of skins sewed together ; this
done, one of the company dresses himself in the skin of rein-deer, advances
towards the flock of geese, and then turns back towards the net or hovel ;
and his companions go behind the flock, and, by making a noise, drive them
forward. The simple birds mistake the man in white for their leader, and
follow him «-ithin reach of the net, v/hich is suddenly pulled down on them,
and thus captures the whole. When he chooses to conduct them to the
hovel, they follow in the same manner ; he creeps in at the hole left for that
purpose and out at another at the opposite side, which he closes up. The
geese follow liim through the first ; and as soon as they are in, he passes
round and secures every one of them.

The Swan Goose This species is more than a yard in length, and is of a

size between the swan and the common goose. It is distinguished from
others of the goose tribe by its upright and stately deportment, by having a
large knob on the root of the upper mandible, and a skin almost bare of
feathers, hanging down like a pouch, or a wattle under the throat ; a white
line or fillet is extended from the corner of the mouth over the front of the
brow ; the base of the bill is orange ; irides reddish brown ; a dark brou-n
or black stripe runs down the hinder part of the neck, from the head t(. the
back ; the forepart of the neck and the breast are yellowish brown ; the
back and all the upper parts brownish gray, edged with a lighter colour ;
the sides and feathers wliich cover the thighs are clouded nearly of the
same colours as the back, and edged with white ; belly white ; and legs
orange. It is said these birds originally were found iu Guinea only: now they
are become pretty common, in a wild as well as a domesticated state, both
iu warm and in cold climates. They breed with the common goose, and
their offspring are as prolific as those of any other kind. The female is
smaller than the male.

The CaiHidian Goose. — The Canadian Goose is somewhat larger than our
common domesticated breed. It is also slenderer in its make and especially
in its neck, which consequently approaches more nearly to that of the swan.
The entire length of the bird is about three feet, and the expanse of its
wings rather more than five. The back and wing-coverts are of a dull
brown, with a whitish tip to each of the feathers ; the quill-feathers of the
wings and tail black ; the sides pale ashy brown ; and the upper part of the
head and neck black, with a broad patch of white spreading from the throat
on cither side over the Ion er part of the cheeks. Y,y tliis latter character,

BIRDS. 417

prolific powers increase in proportion to its ease ; and thougb
the wild goose seldom lays above eight eggs, the tame goose is
often seen to lay above twenty. The female hatches her eggs
with great assiduity ; while the Gander visits her twice or thrice

which is extremely obvious, this species may at all times be readily distin.
guished. Its bill is black ; its iris dark hazel ; and its legs and feet grayish-
black or lead-coloured. There is little or no distinction in plumage between
tlie two sexes.

Although commonly knoHm by the name of Canada Geese, these birds are
by no means confined to that country, but extend their mi;,Tations from the
(owest latitudes of the United States to the Iiighest parallels that have yet
been visited in the northern regions of America. Throughout the whole of
this vast extent of territory they are familiarly known as the harbingers of
spring when passing to the north, and the presage of approaching winter on
their return. In the United States it is the popular belief that their jour,
neys are bounded by the great chain of lakes, in the islands of which thoy
are supposed to breed ; but even on the shores of Hudson's Bay they are
still found to bo proceeding northwards, and they rarely nest further south
than 60 deg. Captain Phipps mentions having seen wild geese at Spitzber-
gen, in more tlian 80 deg. of latitude ; and Wilson deems it " highly proba-
ble that they extend their migrations under the very pole itself, amid the
silent desolation of unknown countries, shut out since the creation from the
prying eye of man by everlasting and insuperable bars of ice."

The passage of the geese to the north commences with the breaking up of
the ice, their first appearance in Canada and on the shores of Hudson's Bay
varying with the forwardness of the spring, from the middle of April to the
latter end of May. Their flight is heavy and laborious, but moderately swift,
in a straight line when their number is but few, but more frequently in two
lines meeting in a point in front. The van is said to be always led by an
old gander, in whose wake the others instinctively follow. But should his
sagacity fail in discovering the land-marks by which they usually steer, as
sometimes happens in foggy weather, the whob- flock appear in the greatest
distress, and fly about in an irregular manner, making a groat clamour. In
their flights they cross indiscriminately over land or water, differing in this
respect from several other geese, which prefer making a circuit by water to
traversing the land. They also pa.ss far inland, instead of confining their
course to the neighbourhood of the sea.

So important is the arrival of the geese to the inhabitants of these northern
regions that the month in which they first make their appearance is termed
by the Indians, jis we are informed by Pennant, the Goose Moon. In fact
not only the Indians, but the English settlers also, depend greatly upon these
birds for their subsistence, and many thousand.s of them are annually killed,
a large proportion of which are salti'd and barrelled for winter consumption.
Many too that are killed on their return, after the commencement of tli«
frost, are sufl'ered to freeze, and are thus kept as fresh provision for several
months. Others, either taken young or wounded, are frequently detJiineJ
in captivity during the winter. They seldom breed in so low a latitude as
Cliurchhill River ; but Ilcanie states that he has occasionally met with their
tggs in tluit neiglibourhoo<L Tlie females rarely lay more than four eggs.

418

HISTORY OF

a day, and sometimes drives her oiF to take ber place, where he
oits with great state and composure.

But beyond that of all animals is his pride when the young are
excluded : he seems then to consider himself as a champion, not
only obliged to defend his young, but also to keep off the suspi-
cion of danger; he pursues dogs and men that never attempt to
molest him : and, though the most harmless thing alive, is then
the most petulant and provoking. "When, in this manner, he
has pursued the calf or the mastiff, to whose contempt alone he
is indebted for safety, he returns to his female and her brood in
triumph, clapping his wings, screaming, and showing all the
marks of conscious superiority. It is probable, however, these
arts succeed in raising his importance among the tribe where
they are displayed ; and it is probable there is not a more re-
spectable animal on earth to a goose than a gander !

A young goose is generally reckoned very good eating ; yet
the feathers of this bird still farther increase its value. I feel
my obligations to this animal every word I write ; for, however
deficient a man's head may be, his pen is nimble enough upon

but the whole uomber is generally hatched. Tliey are said usually to se.
lect an islaud in preference to the mainland, for the performance of the ma-
ternal office in greater safety.

The Spur-rcinged Goose. — Another species of the same group, is the Gam.
bo or Spur-nanged Goose, a native of northern, and more paiticularly of
western, Africa. This bird agrees with the Canadian Goose in some of those
characters which connect the geese with the swans, but is much more ro-
bust in make and more anserine in general appearance. Its size and pro-
portions are nearly those of the common goose ; its legs long .and placed
beneath the middle of the body ; and its neck of moderate length and pro-
portionate thickness. At the base of the bill, which is broad and flat, it has
a tubercle like tliat of the tame swan, increasing in size with the age of the
individual ; and the bend of its wings is furnished with a large blunt spur,
which appears to be occasionally doubled.

The spur- winged goose was confounded by Willoughby, and afterwards by
Biiffon, with a variety of the Egyptian goose, equally distinguished by the
presence of a spur upon the wing, but difl'eriug considerably in the form of
its bill, and in its colours. In tlie former the entire bill and the tubercle at
its base are of a dull red ; the sides of the head are white ; the upper parts
of the body black, with a metallic brilliancy ; a patch of white, mottled with
black spots, occupies the base of each of the ^vings ; and the under parts are
white, sometimes marked with indistinct zigzag lines of gray. The legs
have an obscure tinge of red ; and the spurs of the wings are horn-coloured ;
but the latter are visible only when the wings are expanded, being concealed
at all other times b«ucath the plumage.

BIRDS. 419

every occasion : it is happy indeed for us that it requires no great
effort to put it in motion. But the feathers of this bird are still
as valuable in another capacity, as they make the softest and the
warmest beds to sleep on.

Of goose-feathers most of our beds in Europe are composed ;
in the countries bordering on the Levant, and in all Asia, the
use of them is utterly unknown. They there use mattresses,
stuffed with wool, or camel's hair, or cotton ; and the warmth of
their climate may perhaps make them dispense with cushions of
a softer kind. But how it happens that the ancients had not
the use of feather-beds is to me surprising : Pliny tells us, in-
deed, that they made bolsters of feathers to lay their heads on ;
and this serves as a proof that they turned feathers to no other
uses.

As feathers are a very valuable commodity, great numbers of
geese are kept tame in the fens in Lincolnshire, which are
plucked once or twice a year. These make a considerable ar-
ticle of commerce. The feathers of Somersetshire are most
in esteem ; those of Ireland are reckoned the worst. Hudson's
Bay also furnishes very fine feathers, supposed to be of the
goose kind. The down of the swan is brought from Dantzic.
The same place also sends us great quantities of the feathers of
the cock and hen ; but Greenland, Iceland, and Norway, furnish
the best feathers of all : and in this number we may reckon the
Eider down, of which we shall take notice in its place. The
best method of curing feathers is to lay them in a room, in
an open exposure to the sun ; and when dried, to put them
into bags, and beat them well with poles to get the dust off.
But, after all, nothing will prevent, for a time, the heavy smell
M'hich arises from the putrefaction of the oil contained in every
feather; no exposure will draw this off, how long so ever it be
continued; they must be lain u])on, which is the only remedy;
and for this reason old featbeis are much more valuable than
new.

420 HISTORY OF

CHAP. XII.

OF THE DUCK, AND ITS VARIETIES.

The Tame Duck is the most easily reared of all our domestic
animals. The very instincts of the young ones direct them to
their favourite element ; and though they are conducted by a hen,
yet they despise the admonitions of their leader.

This serves as an incontestable proof that all birds have their
manners rather from nature than education. A falcon pursues
the partridge, not because it is taught by the old one, but be-
cause its appetites make their importunate call for animal food :
the cuckoo follows a very different trade from that which its
nurse endeavoured to teach it ; and, if we may credit Pliny, in
time destroys its instructor : animals of the duck kind also fol-
low their appetites, not their tutor, and come to all their various
perfections without any guide. All the arts possessed by man
are the result of accumulated experience ; all the arts of inferior
animals are self-taught, and scarcely one acquired by imitation.

It is usual with the good women to lay duck-eggs under a hen,
because she hatches them better than the original parent would
have done. The duck seems to be a heedless inattentive mother;
she frequently leaves her eggs till they spoil, and even seems to
forget that she is intrusted with the charge : she is equally re-
gardless of them when excluded ; she leads them to the pond,
and thinks she has sufficiently provided for her offspring when
she has shown them the water. Whatever advantages may be
procured by coming nearer the house, or attending in the yard,
she declines them all ; and often lets the vermin, who haunt the
waters, destroy them, rather than bring them to take shelter
nearer home. The hen is a nurse of a very opposite character :
she broods with the utmost assiduity, and generally brings forth
a young one from every egg committed to her charge ; she does
not lead her younglings to the water indeed, but she watchfuUj
guards them when there, by standing at the brink. Should the
rat, or the weasel, attempt to seize them, the hen can give them
protection ; she leads them to the house when tired with pad-
dling, and rears up the supposititious brood, without ever sus-
pecting that they belong to another.

BiaDS. ^ 421

The wild duck differs, in many respects, from the tame ; and
in them there is still greater variety than among the domestic
kinds. Of the tame duck there are not less than ten different
sorts J and of the wild, Brisson reckons above twenty. The most
obvious distinction between wild and tame ducks is in the col-
our of their feet : those of the tame duck being yellow, those ol
the wild duck black. The difference between wild ducks among
each other, arises as well from their size as the nature of the
place they feed in.* Sea-ducks, which feed in salt-water, and

* It is towards the middle of October that the wild ducks generally begin
to make their appearance among us, but only in small bands, which are iu a
little time followed by others more numerous. They are recog^nised by their
elevated flight, in inclined lines, or regular triangles. They are observed
on their arrival to fly incessantly from one pond and river to others, 'i'heir
movements are made more by night than by day. They feed, voyage, ar.
rive, and depart principally in the evening, and even at night, during which
the whizzing of their flight discovers their passage ; but the noise of their
wings ig greatest at the moment of their setting out. As long as the rigour
of the season does not deprive them of aquatic insects, of small fish, of frogs,
of the grains of seeds, and other marshy plants, which furnish them with
abundant food, they remain in rivers and large pieces of stagnant water •
but when these are frozen, they retire to the borders of woods to pick up
the acorns, or spread themselves in the fields to feed upon the green corn.
If the cold continues, and becomes too rigorous, they depart altogether, and
transport themselves into more temperate climates, returning only with the
thaw about the month of February. It is usually in the evening that they
are seen to repsiss with the winds from the south ; but the bands are less
numerous, because at this epoch they commence to pair. Each couple set
ofl' separately, remain isolated in the reeds and rushes the greater part of
the day, travel by night, never stop except when impeded by contrary
winds, and proceed to the northern regions to pass the summer. Some few
couples, however, remain with us, and nestle in marshy grounds. The fe-
male usually makes choice of a thick tuft of rushes, of the middle of which
she forms a nest by cutting and bending the stems. Such nests are, how-
ever, sometimes found in the midst of brushwood at some distance from the
water, and these birds have even been known to lay in the nests of others.
The eggs are from ten to fifteen, and sometimes even eighteen in number,
and of a greenish-white. The mother strips her breast to furnish the nest,
and to cover the eggs during her absence. .She never alights .at less than a
hundred paces from the nest, and takes a circuitous route to arrive there,
with her eyes constantly watching to see if there are any enemies in the
neighbourhood. Once fixed, however, on the eggs, even the approach of
man will not oblige her to quit them. The male remains at some distance
from his companion, ready to assist and defend her. The incub.ition liists
thirty days ; and as soon as the yoimg .ire disclosed, the mother conducts
them to the water; it is even said, that if they are at some distance from it,
the parent!) bring them there one by one with their bills. Tlw female ral.
Ues them in the evening, conceals them in reeds, and covers tliem with her

iir. 'i N

422 HISTORY or

dive much, have a broad bill, bending upwards, a large bind toe,
and a long blunt tail. Pond-ducks, which feed in plashes, have
a straight and narrow bill, a small hind toe, and a sharp-pointed
train. The former are called, by our decoy-men, ybre!(/n ducks ;
the latter are supposed to be natives of England. It would be
tedious to enter into the minute varieties of such a number of
birds ; all agreeing in the same general figure, the same habits
and mode of living, and differing in little more than their size
and the colours of their plumage. In this tribe we may rank,
as natives of our own European dominions, the Eider Duck,
which is double the size of a common duck, with a black bill ;
the Velvet Duck, not so large, and with a yellow bill ; the
Scoter, with a knob at the base of a yellow bill ; the Tufted
Duck, adorned with a thick crest ; the Scaup Duck, less than
the common duck, with the bill of a grayish blue colour; the
Golden Eye, with a large white spot at the comers of the mouth,
resembling an eye ; the Sheldrake, with the bill of a bright red,
and swelling into a knob j* the Mallard, which is the stock from

wings during the night. The small insects, &c. which they can catch on
the surface of the water are their first food. They are for some time cover,
ed with a yellowish down, and are unable to fly until they are three months
old.

These birds are exceedingly distrustful, make many circumvolutions be-
fore they alight anywhere, swim always at a distance from the shore ; and
whea they sleep upon the water, wliich they often do, one of them always
watches as a sentiuel. In consequence of this, the pursuit of tliem is ex-
tremely difficult,

The wild ducks in general prefer the northern regions ; but birds of such
powerful flight can easily be supposed to pass from one continent to another.
We find, in fact, this same species in corresponding climates in the New
World ; but the American species seems larger and more robust, though in
all other respects exactly similar.

* We shall here notice more particularly a few of these varieties.

The Velvet Duck. — It is an inhabitant of Europe and South America, and
(s between twenty and twenty-two inches in length. The plumage is black,
ish ; the lower eyelid and spot on the wings white ; the bill is yellow, black
in the middle, gibbous at the base ; the legs are red. The female is without
the gibbosity at the bill ; her body is brown ; and she lays white eggs.

The Scaup Duck. — Inhabits Europe, Northern Asia, and America : it mi.
grates in winter to warmer climates ; its food is shell-fish, and is in length
from eighteen to twenty inches. The back and shoulders are cinereously
waved ; the belly is white ; it has also a white spot on each wing. The bill
is broad, and of a bluish ash-colour ; the irides yellow ; the head and neck
are f)i a greenish black colour ; the back and wing-coverts waved with black
aud cinereous ; the legs and primary q^uiU featliers are dusky ; the secouda

BIRDS.

4.23

whence our tame breed has probably been produced ; the Pintail,
with the two middle feathers of the tail three inches longer than
the rest ; the Pochard, with the head and neck of a bright bay ;
the Widgeon, with a lead-coloured bill, and the plumage of the

ries are wliite, tipped with black ; the tail covert and the vent ai-e black.
The female birds are brown ; the bill black, surrounded with a circle of
white feathers ; the neck rusty ; the belly is white ; and there is a bar of
white on each wing- ; the legs are black.

The Shieldrake.— This has a flat bill, a compressed fore-head, a greenish
black head, and the body variegated \vith white. It is an inhabitant of the
northern world as far as Iceland. They usually breed in deserted rabbit-
boles, and lay tifteen or sixteen roundish white eggs ; and sit about thirty
days. " '1 hey are very careful of their young," says Latham, " and will
carry them from place to place in their bills." They also show much in.
stinctive cunning in preserving them when attempted to be caught; for
they u-ill fly along the ground as if wounded, till the brood are got into a
phu'e of security. Their great beauty has induced many unsuccessful at-
tempts to domesticate them ; but they never thrive, unless in the neigh-
bourhood of salt water. The eggs are thought good ; but the flesh of tliis
bird is rank and unsavoury.

The Mallard— Is about the size of the preceding ; its bill, from the angles
ot the mouth to the tip, is about two inches and a qu;irtcr, and near an inch
broad, with a roundish tip at the end ; the head and upper part of the neck
are of a beautiful shining green ; the under eyelids white, with a sort of half
circle or wliite ring that passes round the fore-part of the neck ; the under
piu-t of the neck below the white ring to the breast, is of a glossy chestnut
colour. The under parts of the breiust and belly are a sort of ash-colour,
pprinkled with a variety of dark specks resembling drops ; the back between
the wings is of a cinereous red, in like manner sprinkled or speckled ; the
lower part towards the rump still diu-ker ; the rump itself of a sort of glossy
purple. The sides of the body and the longer thigh feathers are beautified
with transverse brown lines, with a bluish sort of ml.xture. The scapulai
fcHtliors of the wings are of a fine silver colour, beautifully variegated with
brown transverse lines ; the second row of the quill feathers tipt with white,
with the outward webs of a fine bluish purple, and a border of black running
between the white and the blue ; the rest of the wings variegated with sil-
ver-coloured feathers, with some of their edges black, others of a dark pur.
pie. 'Ihe under parts of thi? tail is black, tlie feathers on the upper end iu
sharp points, the middlemost of which turn up in a circular form towards
the back, and appear of a fine glossy purple colour. They are feathered
down to the knees ; the legs and feet are of a siilfron colour.

I.nnff.Ttiiled Djtc/t— The tail is pointed and long; the body is black ; it
Is whitish beneath. It inhabits Kurope, Asia, and America. The bill ii
black, orange-coloured in the middle ; it is reddish gray on the fore-part ot
the head and sides ; hind-part, breast, and belly, white ; the scapulars are
/oiig and white ; on each side of the neck it has a black spot ; the lower
part of the breast, back, wings, and tail, are of a chocolate colour; the lour
middle tiiil feathers are black ; the two middle ones longer than the reel ;
tlio others are white ; the logs are du.sky red, or blackish. The Icniale has

•Zu2

424 HISTORY OF

back marked with narrow black and white undulated lines, but
best known by its whistling sound ; lastly, the Teal, which is
the smallest of this kind, with the bill black, the head and upper
part of the neck of a bright bay.— These are the most common
birds of the duck kind among ourselves : but who can describe
the amazing variety of this tribe if he extends his view to the
different quarters of the world ? The most noted of the foreign
tribe are the Muscovy Duck, or, more properly speaking, the
Musk Duck, so called from a supposed musky smell, with naked
skin round the eyes, and which is a native of Africa ; the Bra-
zilian Duck, that is of the size of a goose, all over black except
the tips of the wings; the American Wood Duck, with a variety
of beautiful colours, and a plume of feathers that falls from the
back of the head like a friar's cowl — These, and twenty others,
might be added, were increasing the number of names the way
to enlarge the sphere of our comprehension.

All these live in the manner of our domestic ducks, keeping
together in flocks in the winter, and flying in pairs in summer,
bringing up their young by the water-side, and leading them to
their food as soon as out of the shell. Their nests are usually
built among heath or rushes, not far from the water, and they
lay twelve, fourteen, or more eggs, before they sit : yet this is
not always their method ; the dangers they continually encounter
from their ground situation, sometimes obliges them to change
their manner of building ; and their awkward nests are often
seen exalted on the tops of trees. This must be a very great
labour to perform, as the duck's bill is but ill formed for build-
ing a nest, and giving the materials of which it is composed a
sufficient stability to stand the weather. The nest, whethei

a shorter tail, and wedged ; the body is varied with blackish, raffous and
gray ; the back is black ; collar and lower part of the belly white.

The Golden Et/e—Chie&y breeds in Italy : it has a large head and thick
body ; the neck short ; and the bill broad, elevated towards the point, of a
black colour, and is, if measured from the angles of the mouth, about an
Inch and three quarters long; the head, when variously exposed to the
light, appears black, purple, and green, with a fine shining silky gloss ; it
has a white spot on each side of the mouth ; the eyes are of a fine gold col-
our ; the neck, breast, and belly, white ; the space between the shoulders
and the back is black ; the wings of a fine beautiful mixture of black and
white ; the tail near three inches long ; the legs short, of a, yellowish col.
our ; the toes pretty long, and more dusky. It has a disagreeable fishy
taste ; they are sometimes, but very rarely, taken upon the English coast.

BIRDS. 425

high or low, is generally composed of singular materials. The
longest grass mixed with heath, and lined with the bird's own
feathers, usually go to the composition : however, in proportion
as the climate is colder, the nest is more artificially made, and
more warmly lined. In the Arctic regions, nothing can exceed
the great care, all of this kind take, to protect their eggs from
the intenseness of the weather. While the gull and the penguin
kind seem to disregard the severest cold, the duck, in those
regions, forms itself a hole to lay in, shelters the approach, lines
it with a layer of long grass and clay ; within that another of
moss ; and, lastly, a warm coat of feathers, or down. The
eider duck is particularly remarkable for the warmth of its nest.
This bird, which, as was eaid, is above twice as large as the
common duck, and resides in the colder climates, lays from six
to eight eggs, making her nest among the rocks or the plants
along the sea-shore. The external materials of the nest are
such as are in common with the rest of the kind ; but the inside
lining, on which the eggs are immediately deposited, is at once
the softest, warmest, and the lightest substance, with which we
are acquainted. This is no other than the inside down which
covers the breast of the bird in the breeding season. This the
female plucks off with her bill, and furnishes the inside of her
nest with a tapestry more valuable than the most skilful artists can
produce. The natives watch the place where she begins to build,
and, suffering her to lay, take away both the eggs and the nest.
The duck, however, not discouraged by the first disappointment,
builds and lays in the same place a second time ; and this they
in the same manner take away ; the third time she builds, but
the drake must supply the down from his breast to line the nest
with : and if this be robbed, they both forsake the place, and
breed there no more. This down the natives take care to sepa-
rate from the dirt and moss with which it is mixed ; and though
no people stand in more need of a warm covering than them-
selves, yet their necessities compel them to sell it to the more
indolent and luxurious inhabitants of the south for brandy and
tobacco.*

♦ The Kidors have some analogy with the geese, but more with Hii' duck.
They live on fish or shell-fish.

The Kidcr dui'k is priiiciiially fdiiiul in the western Islands of .'x.'otland,
and uu tliu cuubts ul Norway, Icc'laiid, and (ivi'cnhuid. U« bill is black, and

2 N -J

426 HISTORY OF

As tliey possess the faculties of flying and swimming, so they
are in general birds of passage, and, it is most probable, perform
their journeys across the ocean, as well on the water as in the
air. Those that migrate to this country, on the approach of

Its plumage is a varied mixture of black and white ; the female however ia
of a reddish brown colour, marked with black and dusky streaks. They
generally build on small islands, not far from the shore, and the male con.
tinues on the watch near the shore while the female is sitting ; but he leaves
them when the brood is hatched. As soon as they are able to creep from
the shell, the mother entices them to the water side, and taking- them on her
back, she swims a short distance with them ; when she has got them a little
way from laud, she dives suddenly, leaving them floating on the surface of
the water to shift for themselves. After this they are seldom found on land.

But that which renders this bird so highly valued, is the celebrated Eider
down, used for the beds and couches of the luxurious and the effeminate.
This is plucked from the breast by the birds, in order to line their nests ;
and during the time that the female is sitting, those who are concerned in
the traffic, remove her, and take away the down and superfluous eggs, and
then carefully replace her. This is done several times, and the down is
again produced by the birds, and she begins to lay afresh ; and when the
young ones leave the nest, it is completely plundered. One female will
give about half a pound of down, which, when properly cleaned, is reduced
to one half of that quantity. The down, when cleaned, sells at about I2s. per
pound.

The example of the eider-duck, in plucking the down from her body in
order to keep her offspring warm, is not unmatched in the animal world.
The domestic rabbit is a familiar example, preparing for her delicate young
a nest of hay, warmly lined with down plucked from her own fur. It may
not be so generally known, that several moths, such as the gypsey and the
golden tail, are provided with a thick bunch of down on their tails for cov-
ering their eggs at the time of laying, and also with a pair of tweezers, like-
wise situated in the tail, for plucking off this down and spreading it over the
eggs.

It has been remarked by Aristotle, that birds which do not perch build on
the ground : — " Partridges," he says, " and other birds which seldom fly,
nestle on the ground ; of these, also, the skylark, the woodcock, and the
quail never alight on a tree. But the converse of tlus will not hold ; for
many birds which perch nestle on the ground, of which the redbreast, the
buntings, and the pheasants, are familiar examples. A very remarkable
illustration, liowever, of the remark of Aristotle, occurs in the summer,
duck of America, which does not seem out of place to be mentioned here,
as one of the birds which line their nests with their own down. At variance
with the habits of all other ducks, this one perches on trees, for which its
strong sharp claws render it more adapted than its webbed feet. T^e
elegant form and rich colouring of the male (though the female wears a
uniform of dull brown) have excited the admiration of all who have seen it ;
and we think it not unlikely that the Indians took the hint of their plumed
head-dresses from its beautiful crest. With this crest and the skin of the
neck, the calumet, or pipe of peace, is. frei^uently ornamented. Linnaeus,

BIKDS. 427

winter, are seldom found so well-tasted or so lat as the fowls
that continue with us the year round : their flesh is often lean,
and still oftener fishy ; which flavour it has probably contracted
in the journey, as their food in the lakes of Lapland, from
whence they descend, is generally of the insect kind.

As soon as they arrive among us, they are generally seen fly-
ing in flocks to make a survey of those lakes where they intend
to take up their residence for the winter. In the choice of these
they have two objects in view ; to be near their food, and
yet remote from interruption. Their chief end is to choose

whose nomenclature exhibits some sing-ular displays of fanciful allusion,
imafpned that this duck's crest so much resembled the bridal head-dress o(
his country-women, that he named it the bride, though the one is high, stiff,
fantastic, and out of all reasonable proportion, while the other is free,
elegant, and graceful. The beautiful peudcnt crest of the summer.duck
arises from a base of glossy golden green, shading oflf into a rich violet brown,
dashed with interrupted streaks of snow white. The feathers covering the
wings are of the same glossy brown, which melts into black, with rich pur-
ple reflections of burnished steel ; while those on the flanks are delicately
fringed and striped with black and white.

It is stated in the notes to Button, by the English translator, that the
summer-duck nestles in the holes bored by the woodpeckers ; but this, on
considering its size, must appear impossible. That it does, however, make
its nest in the holes of trees has been testified by every observer. Wilson
informs us that instances have boon known in which the nest was con-
structed with a few sticks laid on the fork of the branches, though it is
usually in the inside of a hollow tree, and, as it would appear, very near if
not upon the ground. " On the 18th of May," continues Wilson, " I visited
a tree containing a nest of a summer -duck, on the banks of Tuckahoc river.
New Jersey. It was an old grotesque whit/! oak, whose top had been torn
off by a storm. It stood on the declivity of the bank, about twenty yards
from the watc^r. In this hollow and broken top, and about six feet down,
on the soft decayed wood, lay thirteen eggs, snugly covered with down,
doubtless taken from the breast of the bird. This tree had been occupied,
probably by the same pair, for four successive years, in breeding-time. Tho
person who gave me tho information, and whose house was within twenty
or thirty yards of the tree, said that ho hiid seen the female, the preceding
spring, carry down her young one by one in less than ten minutes. She
caught them in her bill by the wing or back of the neck, and landed them
nafi'ly at the foot of the tree, whence she afterwards led them to the water
Under this same tree, at the time I visited it, a large sloop lay on the stocks
nearly finished ; the deck was not more than twelve feet distant from tho
nest, yet, notwithstanding the presence and noise of the workmen, the
ducks would not abandon their old breeding-pl.ice, but continued to pass out
and in as if no person had l)cen near. The mule usually perched On an ad-
joining limb, and kept watch while the female was laying, and al^o often
while she was sitting. A tamo goose had oI-.osimi a hollow spine at the nmi
of the same tree to lay and hatch hor young in."

*28

HISTORY OF

some lake in the neighbourhood of a marsh, where there is at
the same time a cover of woods, and where insects are found in
great abundance. Lakes, therefore, with a marsh on one side,
and a wood on the other, are seldom without vast quantities of
wild-fowl ; and where a couple are seen at any time, that is a
sufficient inducement to bring hundreds of others. The ducks
flying in the air, are often lured down from their heights by the
loud voice of the mallard from below. Nature seems to have
furnished this bird with very particular faculties for calling. The
windpipe, where it begins to enter the lungs, opens into a kind
of bony cavity, where the sound is reilected as in a musical in-
strument, and is heard a great way off. To this call all the
stragglers resort ; and in a week or a fortnight's time, a lake,
that before was quite naked, is black with waterfowl that have
left their Lapland retreats, to keep company with our ducks who
never stirred from home.

They generally choose that part of the lake where they are
inaccessible to the approach of the fowler, in which they all ap-
pear huddled together, extremely busy, and very loud. What
it is can employ them all the day it is not easy to guess. There
is no food for them at the place where they sit and cabal thus,
as they choose the middle of the lake ; and as for courtship, the
season for that is not yet come ; so that it is wonderful what
can so busily keep them occupied. Not one of them seems a
moment at rest. Now pursuing one another, now screaming,
then all up at once, then down again ; the whole seems one
strange scene of bustle, with nothing to do.

They frequently go off in a more private manner by night to
feed in the adjacent meadows and ditches, which they dare not
venture to approach by day. In these nocturnal adventures they
are often taken ; for though a timorous bird, yet they are easily
deceived, and every spring seems to succeed in taking them.
But the greatest quantities are taken in decoys ; which, though
well known near London, are yet untried in the remoter parts
of the country. The manner of making and managing a decoy
is as follows : —

A place is to be chosen for this purpose far remote irom the
common highway, and all noise of people. A decoy is best
where there is a large pond surrounded by a wood, and beyond
that a marshy and uncultivated country. When the place is

EIRDS.

429

chosen, the pool, if possible, is to be planted round with willows,
unless a wood answers the purpose of shading it on every side.
On the south and north side of this pool are two, three, or four
ditches or channels, made broad towards the pool, and growing
narrower till they end in a point These channels are to be
covered over with nets, supported by hooped sticks bending from
one side to the other; so that they form a vault or aich growing
narrower and narrower to the point, where it is terminated by a
tunnel-net, like that in which fish are caught in weirs. Along
the banks of these channels so netted over, which are called
pipes, many hedges are made of reeds slanting to the edge of the
channel, the acute angles to the side next the pool The whole
apparatus, also, is to be hidden from the pool by a hedge of reeds
along the margin, behind which the fowler manages his opera-
tions. The place being fitted in this manner, the fowler is to
provide himself with a number of wild ducks made tame, which
are called decoys. These are always to be fed at the mouth of
entrance of the pipe, and to be accustomed to come at a whistle.
As soon as the evening is set in, the decoy rises, as they term
it, and the wild- fowl feed during the night. If the evening be
Btill, the noise of their wings, during their flight, is heard at a
very great distance, and produces no unpleasing sensation. The
fowler, when he finds a fit opportunity, and sees his decoy cov-
ered with fowl, walks about the pool, and observes into what
pipe the birds gathered in the pool may be enticed or driven.
Then casting hemp-seed, or some such seed as will float on the
surface of the water, at the entrance, and up along the pipe, lie
whistles to his decoy-ducks, who instantly obey the summons,
and come to the entrance of the pipe, in hopes of being fed as
usual. Thither also they are followed by a whole flock of wild
ones, who little suspect the danger preparing against them.
Their sense of smelling, however, is very exquisite ; and they
would soon discover their enemy, but that the fowler always
keeps a piece of turf burning at his nose, against which he
breathes, and this prevents the effluvia of his person from reach-
ing their exquisite senses. The wild ducks, therefore, pursuing
the decoy-ducks, are led into the broad mouth of the channel or
pipe, nor have the least suspicion of the man, who keeps hidden
behind one of the hedges. When they have got up the pi|>f,
however, finding it grow more and more narrow, they begin lo

430 HISTORY OF

suspect danger, and would return back ; but they are now pre-
vented by the man, who shows himself at the broad end be-
low. Thither, therefore, they dare not return; and rise they
may not, as they are kept by the net above from ascending.
The only way left them, therefore, is the narrow-funnelled net
at the bottom ; into this they fly, and there they are taken.

It often happens, however, that the wild fowl are in such a
state of sleepiness or dozing, that they will not follow the decoy-
ducks. Use is then generally made of a dog, who is taught his
lesson. He passes backward and forward between the reed-
hedges, in which there are little holes, both for the decoy-man
to see, and for the little dog to pass through. This attracts
the eye of the wild-fowl ; who, prompted by curiosity, advance
toward this little animal, while he all the time keeps playing
among the reeds, nearer and nearer the funnel, till they follow
him too far to recede. Sometimes the dog will not attract their
attention till a red handkerchief, or something very singular, be
put about him. The decoy-ducks never enter the funnel-net
with the rest, being taught to dive under water as soon as the
rest are driven in.

The general season for catching fowl in decoys is from the
latter end of October till February. The taking them earlier
is prohibited by an act of George the Second, which imposes a
penalty of five shillings for every bird destroyed at any other
season.

The Lincolnshire decoys are commonly let at a certain annual
rent, from five pounds to twenty pounds a year ; and some even
amount to thirty. These principally contribute to supply the
markets of London with wild- fowl. The number of ducks,
widgeon, and teal, that are sent thither is amazing. Above
thirty thousand have been sent up in one season from ten decoys
m the neighbourhood of Wainfleet. This quantity makes them
so cheap on the spot, that it is asserted, that several decoy-men
would be glad to contract for years to deliver their ducks at the
next town for ten pence the couple.

To this manner of taking the wild-fowl in England, I will
subjoin another, still more extraordinary, frequently practised in
China. Whenever the fowler sees a number of ducks settled in
any particular plash of water, he sends off two or three gourds
to float among them. These gourds resemble our pompions j

BIRDS. iSl

bat, being made hollow, they swim on the surface of the water ;
and on one pool tnere may sometimes be seen twenty or thirty
of these gourds floating together. The fowl at first are a little
shy of coming near them ; but by degrees they come nearer ;
and as all birds at last grow familiar with a scare- crow, the ducks
gather about these, and amuse themselves by whetting their bills
against them. When the birds are as familiar with the gourds
as the fowler could wish, be then prepares to deceive them in
good earnest. He hollows out one of these gourds large enough
to put his head in ; and making holes to breathe and see through,
he claps it on his head. Thus accoutred, he wades slowly into
the water, keeping his body under, and nothing but his head in
the gourd above the surface ; and in that manner moves imper-
ceptibly towards the fowls, who suspect no danger. At last,
however, he fairly gets in among them ; while they, having been
long used to see gourds, take not the least fright while the ene-
my is in the very midst of them : and an insidious enemy he is ;
for ever as he approaches a fowl, he seizes it by the legs, and
draws it in a jerk under water. There he fastens it under his
girdle, and goes to the next, till he has thus loaded himself with
as many as he can cany away. When he has got his quantity,
without ever attempting to disturb the rest of the fowls on the
pool, he slowly moves off again ; and in this manner pays the
flock three or four "visits in a day. Of all the various artifices
for catching fowl, this seems likely to be attended with the great-
est success, as it is the most practised in China.

CHAP. XIII.

OF THE KING-FISHER.*

I WILL conclude this history of, birds with one that seems Jo
unite in itself somewhat of every class preceding. It seems at
once possessed of appetites for prey like the rapacious kuids,
with an attachment to water like the birds of that element. It

♦ There are n<> less than forty-two species of kingfishers, and of some of
these several vuriolies ; aiiJ all of them have tlie most beautiful auii varic
{fated plumage.

432 HISTORY OF

exliibits in its form the beautiful plumage of the peacock, the
shadings of the humming-bird, the bill of the crane, and the short
legs of the swallow. The bird I mean is the King-fisher, of
which many extraordinary falsehoods have been propagated ; and
yet of which many extraordinary things remain to be said that
are actually true.

The King -fisher is not much larger than a swallow; its shape
is clumsy; the legs disproportionably small, and the bill dispro-
portionably long : it is two inches from the base to the tip ; the
upper chap black, and the lower yellow : but the colours of this
bird atone for its inelegant form ; the crown of the head and the
coverts of the wings are of a deep blackish green, spotted with
bright azure ; the back and tail are of the most resplendent azure ;
the whole under-side of the body is orange-coloured ; a broad
mark of the same passes from the bill beyond the eyes ; beyond
that is a large white spot ; the tail is short, and consists of twelve
feathers of a rich deep blue ; the feet are of a reddish yellow, and
the three joints of the outmost toe adhere to the middle toe,
while the inner toe adheres only by one.

From the diminutive size, the slender short legs, and the
beautiful colours of this bird, no person would be led to suppose
it one of the most rapacious little animals that skims the deep.
Yet it is for ever on the wing, and feeds on fish, which it takes
in surprising quantities, when we consider its size and figure. It
chiefly frequents the banks of rivers, and takes its prey after the
manner of the osprey, balancing itself at a certain distance above
the water for a considerable space, then darting into the deep,
and seizing the fish with inevitable certainty. While it remains
suspended in the air, in a bright day, the plumage exhibits a
beautiful variety of the most dazzling and brilliant colours. It
might have been this extraordinary beauty that has given rise to
fable ; for whenever there is any thing uncommon, fancy is al-
ways willing to increase the wonder. *

» Montague, in his Ornithological Dictionary, says, that they never sus-
pend themselves on the wing, and dart on their prey, like the osprey ; but
that they sit patiently on a bough over the water, and when a small fish
comes near the surface, they dart on it, and seize it with their bill. He
never could observe the old birds with any thing in their bills, when they
went in to feed their young : from which he concludes that they eject it
from their stomachs for this purpose.

BIRDS. 433

Of this bird it lias been said, that she built her nest on the
water, and thus, in a few days, hatched and produced her young.
But, to be uninterrupted in this task, she was said to be pos-
sessed of a charm to allay the fury of the waves ; and during this
period the mariner might sail with the greatest security. The
ancient poets are full of these fables ; their historians are not
exempt from them. Cicero has written a long poem in praise
of the halcyon, of which there remain but two lines. Even the
emperor Gordian has written a poem on this subject, of which
we have nothing remaining. These fables have been adopted
each by one of the earliest fathers of the church. " Behold," says
St Ambrose, " the little bird, which in the midst of winter lays
her eggs on the sand by the shore. From that moment the
winds are hushed ; the sea becomes smooth ; and the calm con-
tinues for fourteen days. This is the time she requires ; seven
days to hatch, and seven days to foster her young. Their Crea-
tor has taught these little animals to make their nest in the
midst of the most stormy season, only to manifest his kindness
by granting them a lasting calm. The seamen are not ignorant
of this blessing ; they call this interval of fair weather their hal-
cyon days ; and they are particularly careful to seize the oppor-
tunity, as they then need fear no interruption." This, and a
hundred other instances, might be given of the credulity of man-
kind with respect to this bird ; they entered into speculations
concerning the manner of her calming the deep, the formation of
her nest, and her peculiar sagacity ; at present we do not specu-
late because we know, with respect to our king-fisher, that most
of the facts are false. It may be alleged, indeed, with some
show of reason, that the halcyon of the ancients was a different
bird from our king-fisher ; it may be urged, that many birds,
especially on the Indian ocean, build a floating nest upon the
sea ; but still the history of the ancient halcyon is clogged with
endless fable ; and it is but an indifitrent method to vindicate
falsehood, by showing that a part of the story is true.*

* Every schoolboy is acquainted with the story in Ovid's Metamorphoses,
fif Ccyx, kin^of Magnesia, lining shipwrpckod, and of his queen, Ali-yoiie
(fabled to be the daughter of the wind,) who flung herself from a cliff over,
hanging the sea, that she might be drowned :i3 well as her hiisbiuid ;— hut,
instead of perishing, both were changed into kingfishers : as Drydeu (fives it,
" The gods their shape to winter birds translate.
But both obnoxious to their former fate.
III. 2 O

434 HISTORY Of

The kingfisher with which we are acquainted at present, has
>>one of those powers of allaying the storm, or building upon the
waves ; it is contented to make its nest on the banks of rivers
in such situations as not to be affected by the rising of the

Tlieir conjugal affei-tiou first is tried,
And still the mournful race is multiplied."

'riie description of this bird by Aristotle is both luminous and accurate.
" The halcyon," says he, " is not much larger than a spsirrow ; its plumiige
is painted with azure and green, slightly tinged with purple,— these colours
not being distinct, but blending into one another; and shining in an iride.
scent manner over the whole body, the wings, and the neck ; the bill is
greenish yellow (irro;tAa/«o5), long and slender." Pliny has in part followed
Aristotle, but has introduced more details of tlie notions prevalent respect-
ing the bird among the ancients.

With re.-ipect to the vocal powers of any species of halcyon, it is probable
that Pliny, and those he copied from, confounded it with the sedge bird,
with the dipper, or some other water songster, whose manner it is to sing
concealed ; while the halcyon, perched on some leafless twig overhanging
the water, being easily perceived, acquired credit for what she was inca-
pable of performing. It was supposed, by Belon, and perhaps correctly,
that the musical halcyon was the river nightingale, or reed thrush, which
is reported to be a pertinaceous songster, and creeps about amongst water-
plants in pursuit of insects ; but Belon is wrong in supposing it the only
river bird which sings.

Wilson's description of the belted kingfisher, though differing in a
few points from the common halcyon of Eui'ope, comes much nearer the
reality than the fables of the old poets and naturalists. " Like the love-lorn
Bwains," says he, " of whom poets tell us, he delights in murmuring streams
and falling waters ; not, however, merely that they may soothe his ear, but
for a gratification somewhat more substantial. Amidst the roar of the
cataract or over the foam of a torrent, he sits perched upon an overhanging
bough, glancing his piercing eye ip every direction below for his scaly prey,
whi.'h with a sudden circular plunge he sweeps »ip from their native ele.
ment and swhUows in an instant. His voice, which is not unlike the twirl,
ing of a watchman's rattle, is naturally loud, harsh, and sudden ; but is
softened by the sound of the brawling streams and cascades among which he
generally rambles. He courses along the windings of the brook or river, al
.1 small height above the surface, sometimes suspending himself by the rapid
action of his wings like certain species of hawks, ready to pounce on the fry
below ; now and then settling on an old dead over-hanging limb to recon-
noitre. Mill-dams are particularly visited by this feathered fisher ; and the
Bound of his pipe is as well known to the miller, as the rattling of his owu
hopper."

It is easy to be perceived how the kingfisher might be mistaken for a bird
of song. But the fancy of the halcyon's ruling the weather after the man-
ner assumed by the philosoiiher in the tale of Rasselas is so extravagant,
tiiat we cannot but smile at Montaigne, who seriously believes that " na-
ture has honoured no other animal so much during its sitting and disdoa.

ilRDS.

435

Btream. Whe-ri it lias found a place for its purpose, it hollows
out vvi'li its bill a hole about a yard deep ; or if it finds the dc
serted hole of a rat, or one caused by the root of a tree decay-
ing, it takes quiet possession. This hole it enlarges at the

\i\g, for that the whole ocean is stayed, made stable and smoothed ^vithout
waves, without winds or rain, whilst the halcyon broods upon her young^,
which is just about the winter solstice,— so that, by her privilege, we have
seven days and seven nights, in the very heart of winter, wherein we may
sail without danger."

Montaigne is equally undoubting in his faith as to the wonderful con-
struction of the halcyon's nest. " The most inquisitive into the secrets of
nature could nevor yet arrive at the knowledge of the wonderful fabric aJid
architecture wfaprewith the halcyon builds her nest for her little ones, nor
guess at the matter. Plutarch, who has seen and handled many of them,
thinks ' it is the bones of some fish, which with her beak and no other in-
strument she joins and binds together, interlacing them some lengthwise,
and others across, and adding ribs and hoops in such manner, that she forms
at last a round vessel fit to launch, which being done, and the building
finished, she carries it to the edge of the sea beach, where the waves beat-
ing gently against it shows her where to mend what is not well joined and
knit, and where better to fortify the seams that are leaky and open at the
beating of the waves, and on the contrary, what is well built and has had
due finishing, the beating of the waves does so close and bind together, that
it is not to be broken or cracked, by blows eitlicr of stone or iron, without a
great deal of trouble. What is still more to be admired is the proportion
and figure of the cavity within, which is composed and propnrtioned after
Sdch a manner that it is not possible to receive or admit any other thing
save the bird which built it, for to every thing else it is so impenetrable,
dose and shut, that nothing can enter, not even the water of the sea.' See
here," adds Montaigne, " a very clear description of this building, and bor.
rowed from a very good hand, and yet methinks it does not give a sufficient
light into the difficulty of this ;u-chitecture."

To lis, sAys Mr Ueniiie in his Architecture of Birds, it appears that what
Plutarch took for the nest of the halcyon was simply the crustaceous covering
of some of the sea urchins [EcMnida), which agree in most particulars with
his description. Tlu' most common of the shells, perhap:!, is the edible one
iEcliinuf escuh'tittis) found on sea rocks neiir low-water mark, and varying
in fi/e from that of a small orange to nearly tluit of a cocoa-nut, ami in
colour from r>lmost white to reddish orange. When alive, or recent and
uninjured, it is covered with numerous blunt spines disposed in rows, but
frequently crossing each other at various angles, so as to give some colour
to Plutarch's notion of interlacing, and the comparison of ..Elian to basket-
making, while the whole crust, reiulily separating into five triangular sec.
tions, doubtless gave rise to the notion of " ribs and hoops," particularly as
these sections are themselves marked with ribs. The peculiar closure of the
mouth also appears to have suggested tlie wonders respecting the exclusion
of sea water, and the mouth (ahvays <in the under part) is funrishi'd with
five teeth, uol pla'cd in line nor in jaws, but disposed circularly, in a frami>

2 o 2

436 HisToiiY or

bottom to a good size ; and lining it with the down ot the wil-
low, lay its eggs there without any further preparation.

Its nest, or rather hole, is very different from that described
by the ancients, by whom it is said to be made in the shape of

which has been denominated Diogenes' lantern, and meeting in a central
point.

Belon, who found the kingfisher plentiful on the banks of the Hebrus, in
Thrace, appears to have been the tirst author wlio correctly stated that it
makes its nest by raining into the sand, and was somewhat fearful that ho
should not be credited because he contradicted the ancients. Up to the
present time, however, more or less misrepresentation has been introduced
into the descriptions of its burrow. Gesner furnishes it with a soft bed of
reed flowers ; Goldsmith says it lines its hole with the down of the willow ;
and colonel Montagu, half reverting to the ball of tish bones described by
Aristotle, tells us that at the end of the hole there is a kind of bedding
formed of the bones of small fish and some other substances, evidently the
castings of the parent birds, generally about half an inch thick, and mixed in
«ith the earth. He farther thinks there is every reason to suppose that both
the male and the female come to tliis spot to eject the refuse of their food
for some time before the latter begins to lay, and that they dry it by the
heat of their bodies, as they are frequently known to continue in the hole
for hours long before laying ; and on this disgorged matter tlie female de-
posits and hatches her eggs. Belon's account is very similar.

From the high authority of Montagu, the latter description is now copied
as authentic by every modern author, with the exception of Temminck,
who says nothing on the subject, and Wilson, who says of his belted king-
fisher, that " its nest is neither constructed of glue nor fish-bones." We are
certain, says Mr Rennie, that this contradiction of the general belief will
apply equally to the kingfisher of England. In the barJi of a stream at Lee,
in Kent, we have been acquainted with one of these nests in the same hole
for several successive summers, but so far from the pellets of fish-bones,
ejected as is done by all birds of prey, being dried on purpose to form the
nest, they are scattered about the floor of the hole in all directions, from its
entrance to its termination, without the least order or working up with the
earth, and are all moist and fetid. That the eggs may by accident be hiid
upon portions of these fish-bones, is highly probable, for the floor is so thickly
strewed «ith them, that no vacant spot might be found ; but they assuredly
ai-e not by design built into a nest. The hole is from two to four feet long,
sloping upv^ards, and narrow at the entrance, but widening in the interior,
in order, perhaps, to give the birds room to turn ; and for the same appiu-ent
reason the eggs are not placed at the extremity. We ;ire somewhat doubt-
ful whether it selects, as is said, the old hole of a water-rat to save itself
trouble, the water-rat being the deadly enemy of its eggs and young j but
it seems to indicate a dislike to the laboiu- of digging, that it frequents the
same hole for a series of years, and will not abandon it, though the nest be
repeatedly plundered. The accumulation of cast bones in one of these old
holes has perhaps given origin to the notion of the neat being formed of
them.

Our own opportunities, continues Mr Rennie, of carefully studying the

BIRDS. i'i^

a long-necked gourd of the bones of the sea-needle. The bones,
indeed, are found there in great quantities, as well as the scales
of fishes ; but these are the remains of the bird's food, and by no
means brought there for the purposes of warmth or convenience.

habits of this bird, lead us to remark, that it is not so rery shy and solitary
as it has been represented, for it has more than once allowed us to approach
within a few yards of the bough on wliich it was perched. Mr Jennings says
that it is " rarely if ever found near the habitations of man." On the con.
trary, we are iu the habit of seeing Icingfishers very often on the bank? of a
brook wliich runs past our garden, not a hundred yards from the house. A
kingfisher's nest was found with young last summer on ilie bank of the same
brook, and within gim-shot of a whole row of houses. This fact was stated
iu the Magazine of Natural History. Another correspondent of Mr Lou-
don's says, " that for the last nine years, and perhaps more, 1 have observed
that a pair of kingfishers have uniformly constructed their uests in a hole of
a bank which projects over a piece of water, on my premises, not one hun-
dred yards from the house." In the summer of 1828, a single kingfisher took
up his abode at Stamford Hill, in the immediate neighbourhood of London,
in a narrow garden, much frequented, and close to several houses, on occa-
sion of a small pond being stocked with gold-fish. The bird was frequently
seen perched upon an ornament in the middle of the pond watching the fish,
and was at last shot by the gardener from an apprehension that he would
destroy the young fry. The necessity for obtaining its food from streams
and shallow ponds causes this bird, however, to frequent secluded places.
The belted kingfisher of America, as we have already seen, is partial to mill,
dams, in defiance of the clack of the hopper, because there he finds facilitiea
iu watching for fish.

It may be interesting, as a sequel to the fancies of the ancients which we
have noticed, to mention one or two modern superstitions respecting the
kingfisher. " I have once or twice," says Mrs Charlotte Smith, " seen a
stuffed bird of this species hung up to the beam of a cottage ceiling, and
imagined that the beauty of the feathers had roconmicnded it to tins sad
pre-eminence, till, on inquiry, I was assured that it served the purpose of a
weather vane ; and though sheltered from the iuunediat(! inlluence of the
wind, never failed to show every change by turning its beak to the quiu-ter
ivhence the wind blew." This was an old superstition, for Shakspearu,
speaking of sycophants, says, they

" Turn their haU-yon beaks
With every gale and vary of their masters."

The le.-»rned but somewhat credulous author of the ' niysicte Curiosu',' a»-
sert.s the same upon the testimony of his own observation. " Father Atlni-
niu-ius Kircher," he says, "had one of those biids sent him in a present by
a friend, and being disembowelled and dried, it was suspended from the ceil-
ing of hLs celebrated museum from KUO to l(iJ5, when 1 left Home, and
though all the doors and windows were shut, it constanlly turned its bill
towards the wind ; and this I myself observed with admiration and pleasure
almost evrry day f'lr the spa<-e of three years." It would Ik; usclcs.s to fol-
low the author in the fanciful philiii>phy by which he pretends, aft*.'r Kic>

2 0.S

4.38

HISTORY OF

Tlie king-fisher, as Bellonius says, feeds upon fish, but is inca-
pable of digesting the bones and scales, which he tlirows up
again, as eagles and owls are seen to do a part of their prey.
These fill the bird's nest of course ; and although they seem as
if designedly placed there, are only a kind of nuisance.

In these holes, which, from the remains of fish brought there,
are very foetid, the king-fisher is often found with from five eggs
to nine. There the female continues to hatch, even though dis-
turbed ; and though the nest be robbed, she will again return and
lay there. " I have had one of those females brought me," says
Reaumur, " which was taken from her nest about three leagues
from my house. After admiring the beauty of her colours, I let
her fly again, when the fond creature was instantly seen to return
back to the nest where she had just before been made a captive.
There, joining the male, she again began to lay, though it was
for the third time, and though the season was very far advanced.
At each time she had seven eggs. The older the nest is, the
greater quantity of fish-bones and scales does it contain : these
are disposed without any order ; and sometimes take up a good
deal of room."

The female begins to lay early in the season ; and excludes
her first brood about the beginning of April. The male, whose
fidelity exceeds even that of the turtle, brings her large provisions
of fish while she is thus employed ; and she, contrary to most
other birds, is found plump and fat at that season. The male,

chpr, the possessor of the bird, to account for the pheiiumenon ; for, not.
withstanding his personal testimony, the whole story is evidently no lesa
fabulous than the tradition of the dried body of the same bird having^ the
property of preserving- cloth and woollen stutfs from the moth, which once
induced drapers to liaug it up in their shops. But this is nothing to the pre-
tended power of the lifeless skin of averting thunder, augmenting hidden
treasure, bestowing grace and beauty on the person who carries it, aud re-
uewing its plumage each season of moulting.

(imelin tells us that the Tartars pluck the feathers from h kingfisher,
" cast them into the water, and carefully preserve such as float, pretending
that, if with one of these feathers they touch a woman, or even her clothes,
the must fall in love with Ihem. The Ostiacs take the skin, the bill, and the
claws of this bird, shutting them up in a purse, and so long as tliey preserve
this sort of amulet they believe they have no ill to fear. The person who
taught me this means of living happy could not forbear shedding tears while
he told me that the loss of a kingtislier's skin had caused him to lose both his
wife and his goods." Forster oiu' uaviyalur, records a similar superstition
in tlie jX'ople of Ulietea.

BIRDS. 'i3y

tbat used to twitter before this, now enters the nest as quietly
and as privately as possible. The young ones are hatched at the
expiration of twenty days ; but are seen to differ as well in their
size as in their beauty.

As the ancients have had their fables concerning this bird, so
have the modern vulgar. It is an opinion generally received
among them, that the flesh of the king- fisher will not corrupt,
and that it will even banish all vermin. This has no better
foundation than that which is said of its always pointing, when
hung up dead with its breast to the north. The only truth
which can be affirmed of this bird, when killed, is, that its flesh
is utterfly unfit to be eaten ; while its beautiful plumage pre-
serves its lustre longer than that of any other bird we know.
■ Having thus given a short history of birds, I own I cannot
take leave of this most beautiful part of the creation without reluc-
tance. These splendid inhabitants of the air possess all those
qualities than can soothe the heart, and cheer the fancy. The
brightest colours, the routidest forms, the most active manners,
and the sweetest music. In sending the imagination in pursuit
of these, in following them to the chirping grove, the screaming
precipice, or the glassy deep, the mind naturally lost the sense
of its own situation, and attentive to their little sports, almost for-
got the TASK of describing them. Innocently to amuse the imagi-
nation in this dream of life is wisdom ; and nothing is useless that,
by furnishing mental employment, keeps us for a while in obli-
vion of those stronger appetites that lead to evil. But every
rank and state of mankind may find something to imitate in those
delightful songsters, and we may not only employ the time, but
mend our lives, by the contemplation. From their courage in
defence of their young, and their assiduity in incubation, the
coward may learn to be brave, and the rash to be patient. The
inviolable attachment of some to their companions may give les-
sons of fidelity ; and the connubial tenderness of others be a
monitor to the incontinent. Even those that are tyrants by
nature never spread capricious destruction ; and, unlike man,
never inflict a pain but when urged by necessity.

HISTORY OF FISHES.

BOOK I.
OF FISHES IN GENERAL.

CHAP. I.

INTRODUCTION.

The ocean is the great receptacle of fishes. It has been thought,
by some, that all fish are naturally of that salt element ; and that
they have mounted up into fresh water by some accidental migra-
tion. A few still swim up rivers to deposit their spawn ; but
of the great body of fishes, of which the size is enormous, and
the shoals are endless, those all keep to the sea, and would quickly
expire in fresh water. In that extensive and undiscovered abode,
millions reside, whose manners are a secret to us, and whose
very form is unknown. The curiosity of mankind, indeed, has
drawn some from their depths, and his wants many more : with
the figure of these at least he is acquainted ; but for their pur-
suits, migrations, societies, antipathies, pleasures, times of gesta-
tion, and manner of bringing forth, these are all hidden in the
turbulent element that protects them.

The number of fish to which we have given names, and of the
figure, at least, of which we know something, according to Lin •
nsEus, are above four hundred.* Thus to appearance, indeed,
the history of fish is tolerably copious ; but when we come to ex-
amine, it will be found that of the greatest part of these we know
very little. Those qualities, singularities, or advantages, that
render animals worth naming, still remain to be discovered.
The history of fishes, therefore, has little in it entertaining : for
9ur philosophers hitherto, instead of studying their nature, have

* About 1500 species of fish are now known, and of this number about
8(X' are found on the coaot or in the inland waters of Brila'ii.

FISHES. 44.1

been employed in increasing their catalogues ; and the reader,
instead of observations or facts, is presented with a long list of
names, that disgust him with their barren superfluity. It must
displease him to see the language of science increasing, while
the science itself has nothing to repay the increasing tax laid
upon his memory.

Most fish offer us the same external form ; sharp at either
end, and swelling in the middle ; by which they are enabled to
traverse the fluid which they inhabit, with greater celerity and
ease. That peculiar shape which Nature has granted to most
fishes, we endeavour to imitate in such vessels as are designed
to sail with the greatest swiftness ; however, the progress of a
machine moved forward in the water by human contrivance, is
nothing to the rapidity of an animal destined by nature to reside
there. Any of the large fish overtake a ship in full sail with
great ease, play round it without eifort, and outstrip it at pleasure.
Every part of the body seems exerted in this despatch ; the fins,
the tail, and the motion of the whole back-bene, assist progres-
sion ; and it is to that flexibility of body at which art cannot
arrive, that fishes owe their great velocity.

The chief instrument in a fish's motion, are the fins, which,
in some fish, are much more numerous than in others. A fish
completely fitted for sailing, is furnished with not less than two
pair ; also three single fins, two above and one below. Thus
equipped, it migrates with the utmost rapidity, and takes voy-
ages of a thousand leagues in a season. But it does not alvvava
happen that such fish as have the greatest number of fins have
the swiftest motion ; the shark is thought to be one of the
swiftest swimmers, yet it wants the ventral or belly fins ; the
haddock does not move so swift, yet it is completely fitted for
motion.

But the fins serve not only to assist the animal in progression,
but in rising or sinking, in turning, or even leaping out of the
Witter. To answer these purposes, the pectoral fins serve, like
oars, to push the animal forward ; they are placed at some little
distance behind the opening of the gills ; they are generally large
and strong, and answer the same purposes to the fish in the
water, as wings do to a bird in the air. With the help of these,
and by their continued motion, the flying fish is sometimes seen
to rise out of the water, and to fly above a hundred yards ; till,

41-3 HIS roil V or

fatigued with its exertions, it is obliged to sink down agaiii.
These also serve to balance the fish's head, when it is too large
for the body, and keep it from tumbling down to the bottom, as
is seen in large-headed fishes, when the pectoral fins are cut off.
Next these are seen the ventral fins, placed towards the lower
part of the body, under the belly ; these are always seen to lie
fiat on the water, in whatever situation the fish may be ; and
they serve rather to raise or depress the fish in its element, than
to assist progressive motion. The dorsal fin is situated along
the ridge of the back; and serves to keep it in equilibrio, as also
to assist its progressive motion. In many fishes this is wanting;
but in all flat fishes it is very large, as the pectoral fins are pro-
portionably small. The anal fin occupies that part of the fish
which lies between the anus and the tail ; and this serves to
keep the fish in its upright or vertical situation. Lastly, the
tail, which in some fishes is flat, and upright in others, seems
the grand instrument of motion ; the fins are but all subservient
to it, and give direction to its great impetus, by which the fish
seems to dart forward with so much velocity. To explain all
this by experiment ; a carp is taken, and put into a large vessel.
The fish, in a state of repose, spreads all its fins, and seems to
rest upon its pectoral and ventral fins near the bottom ; if the
fish folds up (for it has the power of folding) either of its pec-
toral fins, it inclines to the same side ; folding the right pectoral
fin, the fish inclines to the right side; folding the left fin, it in-
clines to that side in turn. When the fish desires to have a re-
trograde motion, striking with the pectoral fins, in a contrary
•lirection, eflfectually produces it. If the fish desires to turn, a
blow from the tail sends it about ; but if the tail strikes both
ways, then the motion is progressive. In pursuance of these
observations, if the dorsal and ventral fins be cut off, the fish
reels to the right and left, and endeavours to supply its loss by
keeping the rest of its fins in constant employment. If the right
pectoral fin be cut off, the fish leans to that side ; if the ventral
fin on the same side be cut away, then it loses its equilibrium
entirely. When the tail is cut off, the fish loses all motion, and
gives itself up to where the water impels it.

From hence it appears, that each of these instruments has a
peculiar use assigned it ; but, at the same time, that they all
conspire to assist each other's motions. Some fisii are possess-

FISHES.

413

ed of all, whose motions are yet not the swiftest; others have
but a part, and yet dart in the water with great rapidity. The
number, the size, and the situation of the fins, therefore, seem
rather calculated to correspond with the animal's figure, than
solely to answer the purposes of promoting its speed. Where
the head is large and heavy, there the pectoral tins are large, and
placed forward, to keep it from oversetting. Where the head
is small, or produced out into a long beak, and therefore not too
heavy for the tail, the pectoral fins are small, and the ventral fuis
totally wanting.

As most animals that live upon land are furnished with a
covering to keep off the injuries of the weather, so all that live
ill the water are covered with a slimy glutinous matter, that, like
a sheath, defends their bodies from the immediate contact of the
surrounding fluid. This substance may be considered as a se-
cretion from the pores of the animal's body; and serving not
only to defend, but to assist the fish's easy progress through the
water. Beneath this, in many kinds, is found a strong covering
of scales, that, like a coat of mail, defend it still more powerful-
ly ; and under that, before we come to the muscular parts of the
body, an oily substance, which supplies the requisite warmth and
vigour.

The fish thus protected and fitted for motion in its natural
element, seems as well furnished with the means of happiness
as quadrupeds or birds ; but if we come to examine its faculties
•nore nearly, we shall find it very much their inferior. The
sense of touching, which beasts and birds have in a small degree,
the fish, covered up in its own coat of mail, can have but little
acquaintance with.

The sense of smelling, which in beasts is so exquisite, and
among birds is not wholly unknown, seems given to fishes in a
very moderate proportion. • It is true, that all fishes have one or
more nostrils ; and even those that have not the holes percepti-
ble without, yet have the proj)er formation of the bones iur
smelling within. But as air is the only medium we know for
the distribution of odours, it cannot be supposed that these ani-
mals, residing in water, can be possessed of any power of being
affected by them. If they have any jjirception of smells, it

• Thprp Is now no doiiht but that fishes possess the sense of smelling. Iiu
H<-t'<l, it sfciiia t>> III- mostly liy tlicir smell tlKit they discover tlieir food.

441 HISTORY OF

must be the same manner as we distinguish by our taste ; and,
it is probable, the olfactory membrane in iish serves them
instead of a distinguishing palate ; and by this they judge of sub-
stances, that, first tincturing the water with their vapours, are
thus sent to the nostrils of the fish, and no doubt produce some
kind of sensation. This most probably must be the use of that
organ in those animals, as otherwise there would be the instru
ments of a sense provided for them, without any power in them
of enjoyment.

As to tasting, they seem to make very little distinction ; the
palate of most fish is hard and bony, and consequently incapable
of the powers of relishing different substances. This sense
among quadrupeds, who possess it in some degree, arises from
the soft pliancy of the organ, and the delicacy of the skin which
covers the instruments of tasting ; it may be considered, in them,
as a more perfect and delicate kind of feeling : in the bony palate
of fish, therefore, all powers of distinguishing are utterly taken
away ; and we have accordingly often seen these voracious ani-
mals swallow the fisherman's plummet instead of the bait.

Hearing in fishes is found still more imperfect, if it be found
at all. Certain it is, that anatomists have not been able to dis-
cover, except in the whale kind, the smallest traces of an organ,
either within or without the head of fishes. It is true, that in
the centre of the brain of some fishes are found now and then
some little bones, the number and situation of which are entirely
accidental. These bones, Mr Klein has supposed to constitute
the organ of hearing ; but if we consider their entire dissimili-
tude to the bones tliat serve for hearing in other animals, we shall
be of another opinion. The greatest number of fishes are depriv-
ed of these bones entirely : some fish have them in small numbers,
and others in abundance ; yet neither testify any excellence or
defect in hearing. Indeed, of what advantage would this sense
be to animals that are incapable of making themselves heard?
They have no voice to communicate to each other, and conse-
quently have no need of an organ for hearing. Mr Gouan, who
kept some gold fishes in a vase, informs us, that whatever noise
he made, he could neither disturb nor terrify them ; he halloed
as loud as he could, putting a piece of paper between his mouth
and the water, to prevent the vibrations from affecting the sur-
face, and the fishes still seemed insensible ; but when the paper

FISHES. 44^

was lemoved, and the sound had its full play upon the water,
the fishes seemed instantly to feel the change, and shrunk to the
bottom. From this we may learn, that fishes are as deaf as they
ore mute ; and that when they seem to hear the call of a whistle
or a bell at the edge of a pond, it is rather the vibrations of the
Bound that affect the water, by which they are excited, than any
sounds that they hear.*

Seeing seems to be the sense fishes are possessed of in the
greatest degree ; and yet even this seems obscure, if we compare
it to that of other animals. The eye, in almost all fish, is
covered with the same transparent skin that covers the rest of
the head ; and which, probably, serves to defend it in the water,
as they are without eyelids. The globe is more depressed ante-
riorly, and is furnished behind with a muscle, which serves to
lengthen or flatten it, according to the necessities of the animal.
The crystalline humour, which in quadrupeds is flat, and of the
shape of a button-mould, in fishes is round as a pea ; or some-
times oblong, like an egg. From all this it appears that fish are
extremely near-sighted ; and that even in the water they can
see objects at a very small distance. This distance might very
easily be ascertained, by comparing the refraction of bodies in
the water with that formed by a lens that is spherical. Those
unskilled in mathematical calculations, will have a general idea
of this, from the glasses used by near-sighted people. Those
whose crystalline humour is too convex, or, in other words, too
round, are always very near-sighted ; and obliged to use concave
glasses, to correct the imperfections of nature. The crystalline
humour of fish is so round, that it is not in the power of any
glasses, much less of water, to correct their vision. This crys-
talline humour in fishes all must have seen ; being that little

• It was well ascertained by Dr John Hunter that fishes possess the sen«o
of hi'siring, and that water is an excellent medium for the couveyauce of
8onnd. Their organ of hearing is placed on the sides of the skull, or the
cavity that contains the brain ; but, differing in this respect from that in
quadrupeds and birds, it is entirely distinct and detached from the skull. In
some fishes, as those of the ray kind, the organ of hearing is wholly s nr-
rounded by the parts containing the cavity of tlie skull ; in others, as the
salmon and cod, it is in part within the skull. In structure it is by no meaai
«o complicated as in the quadrupeds and other animals who live in the air.
Some genera, as the rays, have the external orifice very small, and placed
on the upper surface of the head ; but in others there is no external opening
whatever.
m. 2p

446 MJSTORY OF

fcard [lea-like substance which is found in their eyes after boil,
ing. In the natural state it is transparent, and not much harder
than a jelly.

From all this it appears hou' far fish fall behind terrestrial
animals in their sensations, and consequently in their enjoy-
ments.* Even their brain, which is by some supposed to be of
a size with every animal's understanding, shows that fish are
inferior even to birds in this particular. It is divided into three
parts, surrounded with a whitish froth, and gives off nerves as
well to the sense of sight as of smelling. In some fish it is
gray, in others white ; in some it is flatted, in others round ; but
in all extremely small, compared to the bulk of the animal.

• The fdllowing fine comparison is made by Baron Cuvier between fishes
and birds. " The aerial being discovers with facility an immense liorizon :
its subtile ear appreciates every sound, every intonation, which it re-pro-
duces with its voice. If its beak is hard, if its body is covered with a kind of
down, to preserve it from the intense cold of the high regions wliich it
visits, it finds in its legs all the perfection of the most delicate touch. It enjoys
all the sweets of conjugal and paternal love, and it fulfils all its duties with
courage. The parents defend each other, and also their oflipring,— a most
surprising art presides in the construction of their habitations. When the
season is come they work together and without remission ; while the mo.
ther hatches the eggs with an e.'itraordinary patience, the father from an
impetuous lover, becomes the most tender husband, and delights with his
Bongs the melancholy of his mate. Tlie bird even in confinement attaches
itself to its master ; it submits to him, and executes, by his order, the most
neat and delicate actions ; it hunts for him like the dog, and retiunis At his
voice from the greatest height in the air; it imitates even his language, and
it is with some degree of difficulty that we are compelled to refuse it a kind
of rea.son.

" The inhabitant of the water does not attach itself. It has no language,
no affection; it does not know what it is to be husband and lather, or to
make an abode for itself In time of danger it hides itself under the rocks of
the ocean, or rushes down into the depths of the sea ; its life is monotonous ;
its voracity leads to its sole employment, and it is only thereby that we are
able to direct its motions by certain signs from above. Yet these beings
who possess so few enjoyments, have been adorned by nature ^vith all kinds
of beauty, variety in their forms, elegance in their proportions, diversity of
colour : they have every thing adapted to attract the attention of man, and
it seems that it was this attention that nature was desirous to excite. Re-
flecting the lustre of every metal and precious stone, refracting the coloure
of the rainbow, in bands, in spots, in undulating, angular, but always re.
pular and symmetrical lines, and always in shades admirably arranged and
contrasted ; for what purpose have they received these gifts— they «\ho
hardly see one another in depths \\ here light can scarcely penetrate, and
who, coiild they gaze on one another, can scarcely be supposed to feel any
kind of pleasure by relations thus established ?"

FISHES.

41.7

Thus Nature seems to have fitted these animals with appe-
tites and powers of an inferior kind ; and formed tliem tor a
sort of passive existence in the obscure and heavy element to
which they are consigned. To preserve their own existence,
and to continue it to their posterity, fill up the whole circle of
their pursuits and enjoyments ; to these they are impelled rather
by necessity than choice, and seem mechanically excited to every
fruition. Their senses are incapable of making any distinc-
tions ; but they drive forward in pursuit of whatever they can
swallow, conquer, or enjoy.

A ceaseless desire of food seems to give the ruling impulse
to all their motions. This appetite impels them to encounter
every danger ; and indeed their rapacity seems insatiable. Even
when taken out of the water, and almost expiring, they greedily
swallow the very bait by which they were allured to destruction.

The maw is, in general, placed next the mouth, and though
possessed of no sensible heat, is, however, endued with a sur-
prising facility of digestion. Its digestive power seems, in some
measure, to increase with the quantity of food it is supplied
with ; a single pike having been known to devour a hundred
roaches in three days. Its faculties also are as extraordinary ; for it
digests not only fish, but much harder substances ; prawns, crabs,
and lobsters, shells and all. These the cod or the sturgeon will
not only devour, but dissolve down, though their shells are so
much harder than the sides of the stomach which contains them.
This amazing faculty in the cold maw of fishes, has justly ex-
cited the curiosity of philosophers ; and has effectually over-
turned the system of those who supposed that the heat of the
stomach was alone a sufficient instrument for digestion. Tiie
truth seems to be, and some experiments of the skilful Dr
Hunter seem to evince, that there is a power of animal assimi-
lation lodged in the stomach of all creatures, which we can
neither describe nor define, converting the substances they swal-
low into a fluid fitted for their own peculiar support. This
is done neither by trituration, nor by warmth, nor by motion,
nor by a dissolving tluid, nor by their united efforts; but by
some principle in the stomach yet unknown, which acts in a
different maimer from all kinds of artificial maceration. Tiie
meat taken into the stomach or maw is ol'tcn seen, though very
near being digested, still to retain its original form, and ready

2 p 2

448 HISTORY OF

for a total dissolution, while it api)eais to the eye as yet untouched
by the force of the stomach. This animal power is lodged in
the maw of fishes, in a greater degree than in any other crea-
tures ; their digestive powers are quick, and their appetites are
ever craving.

Yet though fish are thus hungry, and for ever prowling, no
animals can suffer the want of food for so long a time. The
gold and silver fish we keep in vases seem never to want any
nourishment at all : whether it be that they feed on the water-
insects, too minute for our observation, or that water alone is a
sufficient supply, is not evident ; but they are often seen for
months without apparent sustenance. Even the pike, the most
voracious of fishes, will live in a pond where there is none but
himself; and, what is more extraordinary, will be often found
to thrive there.

Still, however, fishes are of all other animals the most vo-
racious and insatiable. Whatever any of them is able to swal-
low, possessed of life, seems to be considered as the most de-
sirable food. Some that have very small mouths feed upon
worms and the spawn of other fish ; others, whose mouths are
larger, seek larger prey ; it matters not of what kind, whether
of another or their own. Those with the largest mouths pur-
sue almost every thing that has life ; and often meet each other
in fierce opposition, when the fish with the largest swallow
comes off with the victory and devours its antagonist.

Thus are they irritated by the continual desire of satisfying
their hunger ; and the life of a fish, from the smallest to the
greatest, is but one scene of hostility, violence, and evasion.
But the smaller fry stand no chance in the unequal com.bat ;
and their usual way of escaping is by swimming into those shal-
lows where the greater are unable, or too heavy, to pursue.
There they become invaders in turn, and live upon the spawn' of
larger fish, v/hich they find floating upon the surface of the
vvater ; yet there are dangers attending them in every place.
Even in the shallows, the mussel, the oyster, and the scallop, lie
in ambush at the bottom, with their shells open, and whatever
little fish inadvertently approaches into contact, they at once
close their shells upon him, and devour the imprisoned prey at
their leisure.

Nor is the pursuit of fishes, like that of terrestrial animals,

FISHKS. 419

confined to a single region, or to one effort : slioals ot one spe-
cies follow those of another through vast tracks of ocean, from
the vicinity of the pole, even down to the equator. Thus the
cod, from the banks of Newfoundland, pursues the whiting,
which llies before it even to the southern shores of Spain. The
cachelot is said, in the same manner, to pursue a shoal of her-
rings, and to swallow thousands at a gulp.

This may be one cause of the annual migration of fishes from
one part of the ocean to the other; but there are other motives
which come in aid of this also. Fishes may be induced to change
the place of their residence, for one more suited to their consti-
tutions, or more adapted to depositing their spawn. It is re-
markable that no fish are fond of very cold waters, and generally
frequent those places where it is warmest. Thus, in summer,
they are seen in great numbers in the shallows near the shore,
where the sun has power to warm the water to the bottom ; on
the contrary, in winter, they are found towards the bottom in the
deep sea ; for the cold of the atmosphere is not suiTiciently pene-
trating to reach them at those great depths. Cold produces the
same effect upon fresh-water fishes ; and when they are often
seen dead after severe frosts, it is most probable that they have
been killed by the severity of the cold, as well as by their being
excluded by the ice from air.

All fish live in the water ; yet they all stand in need of air for
tbcir support. Those of the whale kind, indeed, breathe air in
the same manner as we do, and come to the surface every two
or three minutes to take a fresh inspiration ; but those which
continue entirely under water arc yet under a necessity of being
supplied with air, or tiiey will exjjirc in a very few mirmtes. We
sometimes see all the fish of a pond killed, when the ice every
where covers the surface of the water, and thus keeps off the air
from the sub-adjacent fluid. If a hole be made in tiic ice, the
fish will be seen to come all to that part, in order to take the
benefit of a fresh supply. Should a carp, in a large vase of watci,
be placed under an air-])iimp, and then be de))rived of its air,
during the oj)eration a number of bubbles will be seen standing
on the surface of the fish's body ; soon after the animal will ap-
pear to breathe swifter, and with greater difficulty ; it will then
be seen to rise towards the surface, to get more air-, tiie bubbles
on its surface begin to disappear; the l)clly, that was before swollen,

2p3

ioO HISTOKY OF

will then fall of a sudden ; and the animal sinks expiring and
convulsed at the bottom.

So very necessary is air to all animals, but particularly to fish,
that, as was said, they can live but a few minutes without it ;
yet nothing is more difficult to be accounted for than the manne.
in which they obtain this necessary supply. Those who have
seen a fish in the water must remember the motion of its lijis
and its gills, or at least of the bones on each side that cover
them. This motion in the animal is, without doubt, analogous
to our breathing ; but it is not air, but water, that the fish ac-
tually sucks in and spouts out through the gills at every motion.
The maimer of its breathing is thus : the fish first takes in a
quantity of water by the mouth, which is driven to the gills ;
these close and keep the water so swallowed from returning by
the mouth; while the bony covering of the gills prevents it
from going through them, until the animal has drawn the pro-
per quantity of air from the body of water thus imprisoned :
then the bony-covers open, and give it a free passage : by which
means also the gills again are opened, and admit a fresh quantity
of water. Should the fish be prevented from the free play of
its gills, or should the bony-covers be kept from moving, by a
string tied round them, the animal would soon fall into convul-
sions, and die in a few minutes.

But though this be the general method of explaining respira-
tion in fishes, the difficulty remains to know what is done with
this air, which the fish in this manner separates from the water.
There seems to be no receptacle for containing it ; the stomach
being the chief cavity within the body, is too much filled with
aliment for that purpose. There is indeed a cavity, and that a
pretty large one, I mean the air-bladder or swim, which may
serve to contain it for vital purposes ; but that our philosophers
have long destined to a very different use. The use universally
assigned to the air-bladder, is the enabling the fish to rise or
sink ui the water at pleasure, as that is dilated or compressed.
The use assigned by the ancients for it was to come in aid of
the lungs, and to remain as a kind of store-house of air to sup-
ply the animal in its necessities. I own my attachment to this
last opinion ; but let ns exhibit both with their proper share of
evidence, and the reader must be left to determine.

Tlie air-bladder is described as a bag filled with air, sometimes

FISHES. 4(31

composed of one, sometimes of two, and sometimes of three
divisions, situated towards the back of the fish, and opening inti?
the maw or gullet. Those who contend that this bag is designed
for raising or depressing the fish in the water, build upon the
following experiment. A carp being put into the air-pump, and
the air exhausted, the bladder is said to expand itself to such a
degree, that the fish swells in an extraordinary manner, till the
l)]adder bursts, and then the fish sinks, and ever after continues
to crawl at the bottom. On another occasion, the air-bladder
was pricked and wounded, which let out its air; upon which the
fish sunk to the bottom, and was not seen to rise after. From
thence it is inferred, that the use of the air-bladder must be by
swelling, at the will of the animal, thus to increase the surface
of the fish's body, and thence diminishing its specific gravity, to
enable it to rise to the top of the water, and keep there at plea-
sure. On the contrary, when the fish wants to descend, it is,
say they, but to exhaust this bladder of its air ; and the fisb be-
ing thus rendered slimmer and heavier, consequently sinks to
the bottom.

Such is the account given of the use of the air-bladder ; no
part of which seems to me well siipported. In the first place,
though nothing is more certain than that a carp put into the air-
pump will swell, yet so will a mouse or a frog; and these we
know to have no air-bladders. A carp will rise to the surface ;
but so will all fish that want air, whether they have an air-blad-
der or not. The air-bladder is said to burst in the experiment ;
but that I deny. The air-blarider is indeed found empty, but it
has suffered no laceration, and may be distended by being blown
into like any oil'.er bladder that is sound. The fish after the
experiment, I grant, continues to creep at the bottom ; and so
will all fish that are sick and wounded, which must be the case
with this after such an operation. Thus these facts prove no-
thing, but that when the fish is killed in an air-pump the air-blad-
der is found exhausted, and that it will naturally and necessarily
be ; for the driiiii of air by which th:^ fish is supjjlied in the na-
tural way will necessarily oblige it to make use of all its hidden
stores ; and, as there is a communication between the gullet and
the air bladder, the air which the latter contains will thus be oli-
viously drawn away. But still farther, how comes the air-i)lad-
der, according to their hypothesis, to swell under the ex|)criment

1..j2 histokv of

ot liie air-pump ? V.'hat is it that closes the apti tuie ol' that
organ in such a manner as at last to burst it? or what necessity
has the lish for dilating it to that violent degree? At most, it
only wants to rise to the surface ; and that the fish can easily do
without so great a distention of the air-bladder. Indeed it should
rather seem that the more the air was wanted without, the less
necessity there was for its being uselessly accumulated within ;
and, to make the modern system consistent, the fish under .the
air-pump, instead of permitting its bladder to burst, would
readily give up its contents ; which, upon their supposition, all
can do at pleasure.

But the truth is, the fish can neither increase nor diminish the
quantity of air in its air-bladder at will, no more than we can
that which is contained in our stomachs. The animal has no
one muscle, much less a pair of muscles, for contracting or di-
lating this organ ; its aperture is from the gullet ; and what aii
is put into it must remain there till the necessities, and not the
will of the animal call it forth as a supply.

But, to put the matter past a doubt, many fish are furnished
with an air-bladder, that continually crawl at the bottom ; such
as the eel and the flounder ; and many more are entirely without
any bladder, that swim at ease in every depth ; such as the an-
chovy and fresh-water gudgeon. ' Indeed, the number of fish
that want this organ is alone a sufficient proof that it is not so
necessary for the purposes of swimming ; and as the ventral fins,
which in all fish lie fiat upon the water, seem fully sufficient to
keep them at all depths, I see no great occasion for this internal
philosophical apparatus for raising and depressing them. Upon
the whole, the air-bladder seems adapted for different purposes
than that of keeping the fis^h at different depths in the water ;
but whether it be to supply them with water when it is wanted
from without, oi for what other purpose, I will not take upon me
to determine.

Hitherto we have seen fish in every respect inferior to land
animals ; in the simplicity of their conformation, in their senses,
and their enjoyments ; but of that humble existence which they
have been granted by nature, they have a longer term than any
other class of animated nature. " Most of the disorders incident

1 Redi.

FISHES. 453

to mankind," says Bacon, " arise from tlie changes and altera-
tions of the atmosphere ; but fishes reside in an element little
subject to change ; theirs is a uniform existence ; their move-
ments are without effort, and their life without labour. Their
bones also, which are united by cartilages, admit of indefinite
extension ; and the different sizes of animals of the same kind,
among fishes, is very various. They still keep growing ; their
bodies, instead of suffering the rigidity of age, which is the cause
of natural decay in land animals, still continue increasing with
fresh supplies; and as the body grows, the conduits of life furnish
their stores in greater abundance. How long a fish, that seems to
have scarcely any bounds put to its growth, continues to live, is
not ascertained; perhaps the life of a man would not be long
e;iough to measure that cf the smallest."

There have been two methods devised for determining the age
of fishes which are more ingenious than certain ; the one is by the
<;irclesof the scales, the other by the transverse section of the back-
bone. The first method is this : When a fish's scale is examined
through a microscope, it will be found to consist of a number of
circles, one circle witliin another, in some measure resembling
those which appear upon the transverse section of a tree, and
supposed to ofl'er the same information. For as in trees we can
tell their age by the number of their circles, so in fishes we can
tell theirs by the number of circles in every scale, reckoning one
ring for every year of the animal's existence. By this method,
Mr Buffon found a carp, whose scales he examined, to be not
less than a hundred years old ; a thing almost incredible, had we
not several accounts in other authors which tend to confirm the
discovery. Gesner brings us an instance of one of the same age •,
and Albertus of one more than double that period.

Tlie age of the skate and the ray, that want scales, may be
known by the other method ; which is, by separating the joints
of the back-bone, and then minutely observing the number of
rings, which the surface where it has joined exhibits. By this
the fish's age is said to be known ; and perhaps with as much
certainty as in the former instance.

But how unsatisfactory soever these marks may be, we hi:vo
no reason to donht the great age of some fishes. Thos-e that
have ponds, often know the oldest by tlieir superior size. But
the longevity of these Kulmals is nothing when compared to thcii

454. H?sTORY or

lecuiidity. All sorts, a fe«*- of the larger ones excepted, iiuilfi-
ply their kind, some by luim?veds, and some by millions. Tbere
are some that bring forth their young alive, and some that only
produce eggs : the former are rather the least fruitful ; yet even
these are seen to produce in great abundance. The viviparous
blenny, for instance, brings forth two or three hundred at a time,
all alive, and playing round the parent together. Those who
exclude their progeny in a more imperfect state, and produce
eggs, which they are obliged to leave to chance, either on the
bottom, at the edge of the water, or floating on the surface where
it is deeper, are all much more prolific ; and seem to proportion
their stock to the danger there is of its consumption. Of these
eggs thus deposited, scarcely one in a hundred brings forth an
animal j they are devoured by all the lesser fry that frequent the
shores ; by aquatic birds near the margin ; and by the larger fish
in deep water. Still, however, there are enough for supplying
the deep with inhabitants ; and, notwithstanding their own ra-
pacity, and that of the fowls of various tribes, the numbers that
escape are sufficient to relieve the wants of a very considerable
part of mankind. Indeed, when we consider the numbers that
a single fish is capable of producing, the amount will seem
astonishing. If, for instance, we should be told of a being so
very prolific, that in a single season it could bring forth as many
of its kind as there are inhabitants in England, it would strike
us with surprise ; yet a single cod produces full that number.
The cod spawns in one season, as Lewenhoeck assures us, above
nine million of eggs or peas, contained in one single roe. The
flounder is commonly known to produce above one million ; and
the mackarel above five hundred thousand. Such an amazing
increase, if permitted to come to maturity, would overstock na-
ture, and even the ocean itself would not be able to contain,
much less to provide for, the half of its inhabitants. But two
wise purposes are answered by this amazing increase ; it pre-
serves the species in the midst of numberless enemies, and
serves to furnish the rest with a sustenance adapted to their
nature.

Fishes seem, all except the whale kind, entirely divested of
those parental solicitudes which so strongly mark the manners
of the more perfect terrestrial animals. How far they copulate
remains as yet a doubt ; for though they seem to join, yet the

risHKS. io5

male ia not furnislied with any external instrument of generation.
It isi said, liy some, that his only end in that action is to emit his
rmpregnating milt upon the eggs that at that time fall from the
female. He is said to be seen pursuing them as they float down
the stream, and carefully impregnating them one after another.
On some occasions also the females dig holes in the bottom of
rivers and ponds, and there deposit their spawn, which is im-
pregnated by the male in the same manner. All this, however,
is very doubtful; what we know with certainty of the matter,
and that not discovered till very lately, is, that the male has two
organs of generation, that open into the bladder of urine, and that
these organs do not open into the rectum as in birds, but have a
particular aperture of their own.' These organs of generation
in the male are empty at some seasons of the year ; but before
the time of spawning they are turgid with what is called the
milt, and emit the fluid proper for impregnation.

Fish have different seasons for depositing their spawn : some,
that live in the depths of the ocean, are said to choose the win-
ter months : but, in general, those with which we are acquainted,
choose the hottest months in summer, and ])refer such water as
is somewhat tepitied by the beams of the sun. They then leave
the deepest parts of the ocean, which are the coldest, and shoal
round the coasts, or swim up the fresh-water rivers, which are
warm as they are comparatively shallow. When they have de-
posited their burdens they then return to their old stations, and
leave their nascent progeny to shift for themselves.

The spawn continues in its egg- state in some fish longer than
in others, and this in proportion to the animal's size. In the
salmon, for instance, the young animal continues in the egg from
the beginning of December till the beginning of April ; ihe cin-p
continues in the egg not above three weeks ; the little gold fish
from China is produced still quicker. These all, when excluded,
at first escape by their minuteness and agility. They rise, sink,
and turn, much readier than grown fish ; and they can escape
into very shallow waters when pursued. But, with all their
advantages, scarcely one in a thousand survives the numerous
perils of its youth. The very male and female that have given
them birth are equally dangerous and formidable with the rest,
forgetting all relation at their departure.

1 Vide Gaman de Geiier.itiouo Pisciiiin.

4-.'v!') nisroay of

Such is the general picture of these heedless and hungry crea-
tui'es : but there are some in this class, living in the waters, that
are possessed of finer organs and higher sensations ; that have
all the tenderness of birds or quadrupeds for their youns;, thai
nurse them with constant care, and protect them from every in-
jury. Of this class are the Cetaceous tribe, or the fishes of the
whale kind. There are others, though not capable of nursing
their young, yet that bring them alive into the world, and defend
them with courage and activity. These are the Cartilaginous
kinds, or those who have gristles instead of bones. But the
fierce unmindful tribe we have been describing, that leave their
spawn without any protection, are called the Spi7ious, or bony
kinds, from their bones resembling the sharpness of thorns.

Thus there are three grand divisions in the fish kind ; the
cetaceous, the cartilaginous, and the spinous : all differing from
eacli other in their conformation, th?ir appetites, in their bring-
ing forth, and in the education of their young. These three
great distinctions are not the capricious differences formed by a
maker of systems, but are strongly and firmly marked in Nature.
These are the distinctions of Aristotle ; and they have been
adopted by mankind ever since his time. It vrill be necessary,
therefore, to give the history of each of these in particular ; and
then to arrange, under each head, those fishes whose history is
the most remarkable ; or, more properly speaking, those of which
we have any history. For we shall find, when we come to any
of the species in particular, howlittle can be said of their habits,
their stations, or method of propagation.

Much, indeed, can be said of them if considered relatively to
man ; and large books have been wTitten of the manner of taking
fish, or of dressing them. Apicius is noted for first hanng
taught mankind to suffocate fish in Carthaginian pickle ; and
Quin, for giving a sauce to the Johndory : Mrs Glasse is famous
for her eel-pie, and Mr TuU for his invention of spaying carp,
to give it a finer flavour. In this manner our cooks handle the
subject. On the other hand, our physicians assure us that the
flesh of fishes yields little nourishment, and soon corrupts ; that
it abounds in a gross sort of oil and water, and hath but a few
volatile particles, which render it less fit to be converted into the
substance of our bodies. They are cold and moist, and must
needs, say they, produce juices of the same kind, and conse-

FISHES. 4-07

quently are improper to strengthen the body. In this diversity
of opinion, it is the wisest way to eat our fish in the ordinary
manner, and pay no great attention to cooks or doctors.

I cannot conclude this chapter without putting a question to
the learned, which I confess I am not able to resolve. How
comes it that fish, which are bred in a salt element, have yet no
salt to the taste, or that is capable of being extracted from them "'^

CHAP. II.

or CETACEOUS FISHES IN GENERAL.

As on land there are some orders of animals that seem form-
ed to command the rest, with greater powers and more various
instincts, so in the ocean there are fishes which seem formed
upon a nobler plan than others, and that, to their fishy form,
join the appetites and the conformation of quadrupeds. These
are all of the cetaceous kind ; and so much raised above their fel-
lows of the deep, in their appetites and instincts, that almost all
our modern naturalists have fairly excluded them from the finny
tribes, and will have them called, not fishes, but great beasts of
the ocean. With them it would be as improper t^j^ay men go
to Greenland fishing for whale, as it would be To say that a
sportsman goes to Blackwall a fowling formackarel.

Yet, notwithstanding philosophers, mankind will always have
their own way of talking ; and, for my own part, I think them
here in the right. A different formation of the lungs, stomach,
and intestines ; a different manner of breathing or propagating ;

I Tliouffli fishes live in a salt element they do not subsist on it. All the
water they take into their mouths is again disrharged throuph the gills,
after retaining the air contained in it for the purposes of life. The medium
of water answers the precise purpose to fishes, that the medium of air docs
to man and other land animals. In inspiration, the element is received into
the lungs or gills, and in expiration is returned deprived of its purer parts,
which are retained for the purpose of animal economy. And wh.itever salt
may be taken into the stomachs of fishes with their food, is decomposed and
separated Into its component parts of acid and soda. The sailor th.it feeds
for twelve months together on salted meats, has not his own flesh made salt ;
but a decomposition taking place during the process nf digestion, he becomes
corrupted and scorbutic by the excess of soda and magnesia.
III. 2 Q

4^8 lUSToiiy OF

are not siifllpient to counterbalance the great obvious analogy
which these animals bear to the whole finny tribe. They are
shaped as other fishes ; they swim with fins ; they are entirely
naked, without hair ; they live in the water, though they come
up to breathe ; they are only seen in the depths of the ocean,
and never come upon shore but when forced thither. These,
sure, are sufficient to plead in favour of the general denomina-
tion, and acquit mankind of error in ranking them with their
lower companions of the deep.

But still they are many degrees raised above other fishes in
their nature, as they are in general in their size. This tribe is
composed of the AVhale and its varieties, of the Cachalot, the
Dolphin, the Grampus, and the Porpoise. All these resemble
quadrupeds in their internal structure, and in some of their ap-
petites and affections. Like quadrupeds, they have lungs, a
midriff, a stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, bladder, and parts of
generation ; their heart also resembles that of quadrupeds, with
its partitions closed up as in them, and driving red and warm
blood in circulation through the body. In short, every internal
part bears a most striking similitude ; and to keep these parts
warm, the whole kind are also covered, between the skin and the
muscles, with a thick coat of fat or blubber, which, like the ba-
con fat of a hog, keeps out the cold, renders their muscles glib
and pliant, agd probably makes them lighter in swimming.

As these^nimals breathe the air, it is obvious that they can-
not bear to be any long time under water. They are constrained,
therefore, every two or three minutes, to come up to the surface
to take breath, as well as to spout out through their nostril (for
they have but one) that water which they sucked in while
gaping for their prey. This conduit by which they breathe,
and also throw out the water, is placed in the head, a little be-
fore the brain. Though externally the hole is but single, it is
internally divided by a bony partition, which is closed by a
sphincter muscle on the inside, that, like the mouth of a purse,
shuts it up at the pleasure of the animal. There is also another
muscle or valve, which prevents the water from going down the
gullet. When therefore, the animal takes in a certain quantity
of water, which is necessary to be discharged and separated from
its food, it shuts the mouth, closes the valve of the stomach,
opens the sphincter that kept the nostril closed, and then breath-

FISHES. 459

iiig strongly from the lungs, pushes the water out by effort, as
we see it rise by the pressure of air in a tire-engiiie.

The senses of these animals seem also superior to those of
other fishes. The eyes of other fishes, we have observed, are
covered only with transparent skin that covers the rest of the
head ; but in all the cetaceous kinds, it is covered by eye-lids, as
in man. This, no doubt, keeps that organ in a more perfect
state, by giving it intervals of relaxation, in which all vision is
suspended. The other fishes, that are for ever staring, must
see, if for no other reason, more feebly, as their organs of sight
are always exerted.

As for hearing, these also are furnished with the internal in-
struments of the ear, although the external orifice no where ap-
pears. It is most probable that this orifice may open by some
canal, resembling the Eustachian tube, into the mouth ; but this
has not as yet been discovered.

Yet Nature sure has not thus formed a complete apparatus
for hearing, and denied the animal the use of it when formed.
It is most likely that all animals of the cetaceous kind can hear,
as they certainly utter sounds, and bellow to each other. This
vocal power would be as needless to animals naturally deaf, as
glasses to a man that was blind.

But it is in the circumstances in which they continue their
kind, that these animals show an eminent superiority. Other
fish deposit their spawn, and leave the success to accident ; these
never produce above one young, or two at the most ; and this
the female suckles entirely in the manner of quadrupeds, her
breasts being placed, as in the human kind, above the navel.
We have read many fabulous accounts of the imrsiiig of the de-
migods of antiquity, of their feeding on the marrow of lions,
and their being suckled by wolves : one might imagine a still
more heroic system of nutrition, if we supposed that the young
hero was suckled and grew strong ujion the breast-milk of a she-
whale !

The whale or the grampus are terrible at any time ; but are
fierce and desperate in the defence of their young. In AV'aller's
beautiful poem of the Summer Islands, we have a story, founded
upon fact, which shows the maternal tenderness of these animals
for their offspring. A whale and her cub had got in an arm of
the sea, where, by the desertion of the tide, they were iiidosecl

■^ (J 2

iGO HISTORY OF

on every side. The ])eople from shore soon saw tlieir situation,
and drove down npon them in boats, with such weapons as the
urgent occasion offered. The two animals were soon wounded
in several places, and the whole sea round was tinctured with
their blood. The whales made several attempts to escape ; and
at last the old one, by its superior strength, forced over the shal-
low into the depths of the ocean. But though in safety herself,
she could not bear the danger that awaited her young one ; she
therefore rushed in once more where the smaller animal was im-
prisoned, and resolved, when she could not protect, at least to
share its danger. — Tlie story ends with poetical justice ; for the
tide coming in, brought off both in safety from their enemies,
though not without sustaining an infinite number of wounds in
every part.

As to the rest, the distinctive marks of this tribe are, that the
number of their fins never exceed three ; namely, two pectoral
fins, and one back fin ; but in some sorts the last is wanting.
These fins differ very much from those of other fishes, which
are formed of straight spines : the fins of the cetaceous tribe are
made up of bones and muscles ; and the skeleton of one of their
fins, very much resembles the skeleton of a man's hand. Their
tails also are different from those of all other fish ; they are
placed so as to lie flat on the surface of the water ; while the
other kinds have them, as we every day see, upright or edge-
ways. This flat position of the tail in cetaceous animals, enables
them to force themselves suddenly to the surface of the water to
breathe, which they are continually constrained to do.

Of these enormous animals some are without teeth, and pro-
perly called whales : others have the teeth only in the lower
jaw, and are called, by the French, cachalots : the narwhal has
teeth only in the upper jaw : the dolphin's teeth as well as those
of the porpoise and grampus, are both above and below. These
are the marks that serve to distinguish the kinds of this enor-
nious tribe from each other; and these shall serve to guide us
HI giving their history.

f;shl3. 4.fil

CHAP. III.

OF THE WHALE PROPKULY SO CALLED, AND ITS VARIETIES.

If we compare land animals, in respect to magnitude, with
those of the deep, they will appear contemptible in the compe-
tition. It is probable, indeed, that quadrupeds once existed
much larger than we find them at present. From the skeletons
of some that have been dug up at different times, it is evident
that there must have been terrestrial animals twice as large as
the elephant ; but creatures of such an immense bulk required a
pioportionable extent of ground for subsistence, and, by being
rivals with men for large territory, they must have been destroy-
ed in the contest.

But it is not only upon land that man has exerted his power
of destroying the larger tribes of animated nature, he has extend-
ed his efforts even into the midst of the ocean, and has cut off
numbers of those enormous animals, that had perhaps existed for
ages. We now no longer hear of whales two hundred, and two
hundred and fifty feet long, which we are certain were often seen
about two centuries ago. They have all been destroyed by the
skill of mankind, and the species is now dwindled into a race of
dimiimtive animals, from thirty to about eighty feet long.

The northern seas were once the region to which the greatest
of these animals resorted ; but so great has been the slaughter
of whales for more than two ages, that they begin to grow thin-
ner every day ; and those that are now found there, seem, from
their size, not to come to their full dimensions. The grcatert
whales resort to places where they have the least disturbance ;
to those seas that are on the opposite side of the globe, near the
south pole. In that part of the world there are still to be seen
whales that are above a hundred and sixty feet long ; and per-
liaps even longer might be found in those latitudes near the soulli
pole, to which we have not as yet ventured.

Taking the whale, however, at the ordinary size of eighty feet
long and twenty feet high, what an enormous animated mass
must ic appear to the spectator ! With what amazement must
it strike him, to behold so great a creature gamboling in tlic deep,
with the case and agility of the smallest animal, and making its

2 43

■H}2 Hisroiiv OF

way with incredible swiftness ! This is a sight \vhi(;h is very
common to those who frequent the northern or southern ocean.
Yet though this be wonderful, perhaps still greater wonders are
concealed in the deep, which we have not had opportunities of
exploring. These large animals are obliged to show themselves
in order to take breath ; but who knows the size of those that
are fitted to remain for ever under water, and that have been in-
creasing in magnitude for centuries ! To believe all that has
been said of the Sea- Serpent, or the Kraken, would be credu-
lity ; to reject the possibility of their existence, would be pre-
sumption.

The Whale is the largest animal of which we have any certain
information ; and the various purposes to which, when taken,
its different parts are converted, have brought us tolerably ac-
quainted with its history. Of the whale, properly so called,
there are no less than seven different kinds ; all distinguished
from each other by their external figure, or internal conformation.
The Great Greenland Whale, without a back-fin, and black on
the back ; the Iceland Whale, without a back fin, and whitish
on the back ; the New-England Whale, with a hump on the
back ; the Whale with six humps on the back ; the Fin-fish,
with a fin on the back near the tail; the Pike-headed Whale,
and the Round-lipped Whale. All these differ from each other
in figure, as their names obviously imply. They differ also
somewhat in their manner of living ; the fin-fish having a larger
swallow than the rest, being more active, slender, and fierce, and
living chiefly upon herrings. However, there are none of them
very voracious ; and, if compared to the cachalot, that enormous
tyrant of the deep, they appear harmless and gentle. The his-
tory of the rest, therefore, may be comprised under that of the
Great Common Greenland Whale, with which we are best ac-
quainted.

The Great Greenland Whale is the fish, for taking which
there are such preparations made in different parts of Europe.
It is a large heavy animal, and the head alone makes a third of
its bulk. It is usually found from sixty to seventy feet long.
The fins on each side are from five to eight feet, composed of
bones and muscles, and sufficiently strong to give the great mass
of body which they move, speed and activity. The tail, which
lies fiat on the water, is about twenty-four feet broad; and, when

risiiES. 463

the fish lies on one side, its blows are tremendous. The skin
is smooth and black, and, in some places, marbled with white
and yellow j which, running over the surface, has a very beauti-
ful effect. This marbling is particularly observable in the fins
and the tail. In the figures which are thus drawn by nature,
fancy often forms the pictures of trees, landscapes, and houses.
In the tail of one that was thus marbled, Ray tells us, that the
number 122 was figured very evenly and exact, as if done with a
pencil.

The whale makes use only of the tail to advance itself for-
ward in the water. This serves as a great oar to push its mass
along ; and it is surprising to see with what force and celerity its
enormous bulk cuts through the ocean. The fins are only made
use of for turning in the water, and giving a direction to the ve-
locity impressed by the tail. The female also makes use of them
when pursued, to bear off her young, clapping them on her back,
and supporting them by the fins on each side from falling.

The outward or scarfskin of the v.'hale is no thicker than
parchment ; but this removed, the real skin appears, of about an
inch thick, and covering the fat or blubber that lies beneath ;
this is from eight to twelve inches in thickness ; and is, when
the fish is in health, of a beautiful yellow. The muscles lie
beneath ; and these, like the flesh of quadrupeds, are very red
and tough.

The cleft of the mouth is above twenty feet along, which is near
one-third of the animal's whole length ; and the upper jaw is fur-
nislied with barbs, that lie like the pipes of an organ, the great-
est in the middle, and the smallest to the sides. These compose
the whalebone ; the longest spars of which are found to be not
less than eighteen feet ; the shortest, being of no value, are
thrown away. The tongue is almost immoveably fixed to the
lower jaw, seeming one great lump of fat ; and, in fact, it filU
several hogsheads with blubber. The eyes are not larger than
those of an ox ; and when the crystalline humour is dried, it
does not appear larger than a pea. They are placed towards the
hack of the head, being the most convenient situation for ena-
bling them to see both before and behind ; as also to see over
them, where their food is principally found. They are guarded
by eye-lids and cyc-lashes, as,iri quadrupeds ; and they seem to
be very ^harp-sighted.

404 HiSTOUV OF

Nor is tlicir sense of hearing in less perfection ; for they are
warned at great distances, of any danger preparing against them.
It would seem as if nature had designedly given them these ad-
vantages, as they maltiply little, in order to continue their kind,
it is true, indeed, that the external organ of hearing is not per-
ceptible, for this might only embarrass them in their natural ele-
ment : but as soon as the thin scarf-skin above mentioned is
removed, a black spot is discovered behind the eye, and under
that is the auditory canal, that leads to a regular apparatus for
hearing. In short, the animal hears the smallest sounds at veiy
great distances, and at all times, except when it is spouting wa-
ter ; which is the time that the fishers approach to strike it.

These spout holes or nostrils, in all the cetaceous tribe, have
been already described : in this whale there are two, one on each
side the head before the eyes, and crooked, somewhat like the
holes on the belly of a violin. From these holes this animal
blows the water very fiercely, and with such a noise, that it roars
like a hollow wind, and may be heard at three miles distance.
When wounded, it then blows more fiercely than ever, so that it
sounds like the roaring of the sea in a great storm.

We have already obseiTed, that the substance called whale-
bone, is taken from the upper jaw of the animal, and is very dif-
ferent from the real bones of the whale. The real bones are
hard, like those of great land animpls, are very porous, and filled
with marrow. Two great strong bones sustain the upper lip,
lying against each other in the shape of a half-moon : some of
these are twenty feet long; they are seen in several gardens set
up against each other, and are usually mistaken for the ribs of
this animal.

Such is the general conformation and figure of this great in-
habitant of the deep, the precise anatomy of which has not been
yet ascertained. In those places where they are caught in great-
est abundance, the sailors are not very curious as to the struc-
ture of the viscera ; and few anatomists care to undertake a task
where the operator, instead of separating with a lancet, must cut
his way with an axe. It is as yet doubted, therefore, whether
the whale, that in most points internally resembles a quadruped,
may not have one great bowel fitted entirely for the reception of
air, to supply it, when constrained to keep longer than usual at
the bottom. The sailors universally affirm that it has ; and

FISHES, 4-Gj

pliilosophers have nothing but the analogy of its parts to oppose
to their general assertions.

As these animals resemble quadrupeds in conformation, so
they bear a strong resemblance in some of their appetites and
manners. The female joins with the male, as is asserted, more
hiimano, and once in two years feels the accesses of desire.

Their fidelity to each other exceeds whatever we are told of
even the constancy of birds. Some fishers, as Anderson informs
us, having struck one of two whales, a male and a female, that
were in company together, the wounded fish made a long and
terrible resistance : it struck down a boat witli three men in it,
with a single blow of the tail, by which all went to the bottom.
The other still attended its companion, and lent it every assis-
tance ; till, at last, the fish that was struck sunk under the num-
ber of its wounds ; while its faithful associate, disdaining to
nurvive the loss, with great bellowing stretched itself upon the
dead fish, and shared its fate.

The whale goes with young nine or ten months, and is then
fatter then usual, particularly when near the time of bringing
forth. It is said that the embryo, when first perceptible, is
about seventeen inches long, and w*<ite ; but the cub, when ex-
cluded, is black, and about ten feet long. She generally pro-
duces one young one, and never above two. When she suckles
her young, she throws herself on one side on the surface of the
sea, and the young one attaches itself to the teat. The breasts
ar/i two, generally hid within the belly ; but she can produce
them at j)leasure, so as to stand forward a foot and a half, or two
feet ; and the teats are like those of a cow. In some, the breasts
are white ; in others speckled ; in all, filled with a large quantity
of milk, resembling that of land animals.

Nothing can exceed the tenderness of the female for her off-
spring ; she carries it with her wherever slie goes, and, when
hardest pursued, keeps it supported between her fins. Even
when wounded, she still dasjjs her young one ; and when she
plunges to avoid danger, takes it to the bottom ; but rises sooner
than usual, to give it breath again.

The young ones continue at the breast for a year, during
which time they are called by the sailors, short-heads. They
are then extremely fat, and yield above fifty barrels of blubber.
The mother, at the .same time, is equally lean ;uid cinaeiated.

4G6 HISTORY OF

At the age of two jears tliey are called stunts, as tliey do not
thrive much immediately after quitting the breast ; they then
scarcely yield above twenty, or tvi'enty-four, barrels of blubber :
from that forward, they are called skull-fish, and their age is
wholly unknown.

Every species of whale propagates only with those of its own
kind, and does not at all mingle with the rest ; however, they
»re generally seen in shoals, of different kinds together, and make
their migrations in large companies, from one ocean to another.
They are a gregarious animal, which implies their want of mu-
tual defence against the invasions of smaller, but more powerful,
lishes. It seems astonishing, therefore, how a shoal of these
enormous animals find subsistence together, when it would seem
that the supplying even one with food would require greater
jjlenty than the ocean could furnish. To increase our wonder,
we not only see them herding together, but usually find them
fitter than any other animals of whatsoever element. We like-
wise know that they cannot swallow large fishes, as their throat
is so narrow, that an animal larger than a herring could not en-
ter. How then do they subsist and grow so fat? — A small
insect, which is seen floating in those seas, and which Linnzeus
terras the Medusa, is sufficisnt for this supply. These insects
are black, and of the size of a small bean, and are sometimes
seen floating in clusters on the surface of the water. They are
of a round form, like snails in a box, but they have wings, which
are so tender, that it is scarcely possible to touch them without
breaking. These serve rather for swimming than flying ; and
the little animal is called by the Icelanders, the Walfischoas,
which signifies the whale's provender. They have the taste of
raw mussels, and have the smell of burnt sugar. These are the
food of the whale, which it is seen to draw up in great numbers
with its huge jaws, and to bruise between its barbs, which are
always found with several of these sticking among them.*

» The food of the whale is g-encrally supposed to consist of different kinds
of sepije, medusne, or the clio limacina of Linnaeus ; but there is great rea.
son to suppose, that it is diiefly, if not altogether, of the squillse or shrimp
tribe ; for in examining the stomach of one of a large size, nothing else was
found in it : they were about half an inch long, semi-transparent, and of a
pale red colour. AVlien the whale feeds, it swims with considerable velocity
under water, with its mouth wide open ; the water enters by the fore.part,
bur is poured out again at the sides, and the food is entangled and sifted, aj
it were, bv the whalebone, which does not »Uow any tiling to esciipe.

FISHES. 40V

This is the simple food of the great Greenland whale ; it pur-
sues no other animal, leads an inoffensive life in its element, and
is harmless in proportion to its strength to do mischief. There
seems to be an analogy between its manners and those of the
elephant. They are both the strongest and the largest animals
in their respective elements ; neither offer injury, but are terrible
when provoked to resentment. The fin-lish indeed, in some
measure, differs from the great whale in this particular, as it
subsists chiefly upon herrings, great shoals of which it is often
seen driving before it. Yet even the swallow of this fish is not
very large, if compared to the cachalot tribe ; and its ravages
are but sports in comparison. The stomach and intestines of
all these animals, when opened, seldom have any thing in them,
except a soft unctuous substance of a brownish colour; and their
excrements are of a shining red.

As the whale is an inoffensive animal, it is not to be wondered
that it has many enemies willing to take advantage of its dis-
position, and inaptitude for combat. There is a small animal,
of the shell-fish kind, called the Whale-louse, that sticks to its
body, as we see shells sticking to the foul bottom of a ship.*
This insinuates itself chiefly under the fins ; and whatever efforts
the great animal makes, it still keeps its hold, and lives upon the
fat, which it is provided with instruments to arrive at.

The sword-fish, however, is the whale's most terrible enemy.
*' At the sight of this little animal," says Anderson, " the whale
seems agitated in an extraordinary manner; leaping from the
water as if with affright : wherever it appears, the whale per-
ceives it at a distance, and flies from it in the opposite direction.
I have been myself," continues he, " a spectator of their terrible
encounter. The whale has no instrument of defence except the
tail ; with that it endeavours to strike the enemy ; and a single
blow taking place, would effectually destroy its adversary : but
the sword-fish is as active as the other is strong, and easily avoids
the stroke ; then bounding into the air, it falls upon its great
subjacent enemy, and endeavours not to pierce with its pointed
beak, but to cut it with its toothed edges. The sea all about is
Been dyed with blood, proceeding from the wounds of the whale;
while the enormous animal vainly endeavours to reacli its in-
vader, and strikes with its tail against the surface of tiie

* Tills ia the Lcpus Diaduina, or crown- shaped acorn :ihcll of Linnaeus.

4G8 HISTORY OF

water, making a report at each blow louder tlian tiie noise of a
cannon."

There is still another and more powerful enemy, called by the
fishermen of New- England, the Killer. This is itself a cetace-
ous animal, armed with strong and powerful teeth. A number
of these are said to surround the whale, in the same manner as
dogs get round a bull. Some attack it with their teeth behind ;
others attempt it before, until at last the great animal is torn
down, and its tongue is said to be the only part they devour
when they have made it their prey. They are said to be of such
great strength, that one of them alone was known to stop a dead
whale that several boats were towing along, and drag it from
among them to the bottom.

But of all the enemies of these enormous fishes, man is the
greatest : he alone destroys more in a year than the rest in an
age, and actually has thinned their numbers in that part of the
world where they are chiefly sought. The great resort of these
animals was found to be on the inhospitable shores of Spitzber-
gen ; where the distance of the voyage, the coldness of the cli-
mate, the terrors of the icy sea, and, still more, their own for-
midable bulk, might have been expected to protect them from hu-
man injury. But all these were but slight barriers against man's
arts, his courage, and his necessities. The European ships, soon
after the improvement of navigation, found the way into those
seas ; and as early as the beginning of the fourteenth century,
the Biscayneers were in possession of a very considerable trade
to the coast of Greenland. The Dutch and the English fol-
lowed them thither, and soon took that branch of commerce out
of their hands. The English commenced the business about
the beginning of the seventeenth century; and the town of Hull
had the honour of first attempting that profitable branch of
trade.* But, at present, it seems upon the decline, as the quan-

• The following' account of the Irish Whale Fishery daring the last cen.
tiu'y may be acceptable. The Fishery eventually failed, but it Is worthy of
consideration whether a revival of it, under an improved state of Irish trade
and commerce, might not be beneficial. In the year 1736, a certain lieute-
nant of the name of Chaplin, quartered at Gibraltar, and who had been for.
inerly employed in the Greenland fishery, was informed by Captain Neshit,
who was also quartered in that garrison, that in the spring of the year many
whales frequented the north-west coast of Ireland, from Tyland-head, lu
the county of Donegal, to the bay of Sligo. Chaplin, being an enterprising

usHKs. 469

tity of iisli is so greatly reduced, by the constant capture for
such a vast length of time. It is now said that the fishers, from
a defect of whales, apply themselves to the seal-fishery ; yet, as
these animals are extremely timorous, they will soon be induced

rnan, sold his commission soon after he had received this information, and
came to Ireland with a view to fish for these whales. He according^ly pro-
cured two boats to be made, upon the model of those used in the Greenland
seas, and furnished himself with harpoons and otiier instruments ; but lie
was able to kill only two whales in eight years. As then whales were in
great plenty on the coast, he imputed his bad success to the want of a better
apparatus, which not being able to purchase, he applied to parliament for
aid, and obtained a grant of 500/. ; but dying before he received it, it was
never issued. After his death, his brother pursued his project, with no
better success, fur eight years more, during which time he also killed two
whales, and then died.

In the year 1759, Messrs Thomas and Andrew Nesbit, who lived near
Killibegs, on the sea-coast of the county of Donegal, and who were very
skilful in the herring and whale fisheries carried on there, seeing whales in
great numbe.'s, revived Chaplin's undertaking, and took for granted that he
miscarried either for want of money, or perseverance. In this project they
engaged Messrs Benson and Irwin, gentlemen of credit and property, and
procured a ship to be fitted up in the Greenland fashion, with live boats of a
new construction : tlu-y also procured harpooners, and other persons ex-
perienced in the Greenland fishery, and in the year 17(>0 they began to fish ;
but though tbey saw many whales, they were able to kill none. Mr 'J'homas
Nesbit afterwards killed one large whale with his own hand ; and as there
was no manufactory for the bone or blubber in Ireland, he sent it to London.
After procuring some alterations and improvements to be made in his ship,
he made another attempt, Avilh five of the ablcsc and most skilful liarpooners
he could get, and eight boats, extremely well provided: yet not a single
whale was killed that season, though great plenty were seen, and oppor.
tunities of striking them often offered.

At length the company having expended 3000/. in the u.idertaking, it was
discovered that the method of fishing and harpooning in Greenland would
not answer in tliese seas, because that in Greenland, the waters being al-
ways calm, the boats are not agitated, so that the harpooner is more sure of
hi.* stroke, and the whale frequently bends his head downwards, in order to
plunge under water, which the fishers ci.ll backing, and which straining
or tightening the skin, the harpooner seizes that instant to strike, and thu
harpoon enters deeply, which it would not do if the skin hung loose over
the blubber.— In the Irish .seaf, on the contrary, or at least oft' Donegal, the
water is always ronxh, either by a wind or a swell, so that tlie harpooner
can take no aim, and the whale seldom backing (bending his back), lint lying
extended on tlie water, witli the skin loose and flaccid over the fat, the har-
poon, tli'ingh it may reach him with considerable force, does not enter. Mr
Nesbit, therefore, in order to give force to the harpoon, and also to the Ian.
ces, which are discharged at the fish every time he rises after the harpoon
has entered, contrived to discharge both the harpoon and the lance from a
ewivel-gini, which aucceeded so well, that in the year r.d^ tlie company
111. ii U

470 HISTORY OF

to quit those shores, where they meet such frequent disturbance
and danger. The poor natives of Greenland themselves, who
used to feed upon the whale, are diminishing, in proportion as
their sustenance is removed ; and it is probable that the revolu-
tion of a few years will see that extensive coast totally deserted
by its inhabitants, as it is already nearly deserted by the whales.
The art of taking whales, like most others, is much improved
by time, and differs in many respects from that practised by the
Biscayneers, when they first frequented the icy sea. But as the
description of their method is the least complicated, and conse-
quently the easiest understood, it will be best suited to our pur-
pose.*

killed three whales, two of which were between sixty and seventy feet long,
and the other above fifty ; and iu 17G3, they have killed two whales of a large
size, which is more than many have done that have been fitted out for
Greenland, at a vast expense.

It is to be observed, that in the sea off the coast of Donegal, there are, be.
sides the whales that yield only bone and blubber, the train-fish, the por.
poise, the sun-fish, and the spermaceti-whale, besides seals in abundanc».
The teeth of the spermaceti-whale are shaped like a cucumber, and are
about eighteen inches long ; they are as white as ivory, take a fine polish,
and make very beautiful and durable handles for knives, &c. The sini-fisli
is valuable for the oil that is extracted from the liver, each fish yielding
about a ton : they are found all the year, and are taken with great ease :
the other fish and the seals are of little value.

• We here extract from the first No. of the Edinburgh Cabinet Library
the following account of the Northern Whale Fishery. " The first object is
to fit out a ship suited to the trade. While the fishery was carried on in
bays, or on the exterior margin of icy fields, very slight fabrics were suffi-
cient; but now that the vessels depart early in the season, and push into
the very heart of the northern ices, they are liable every moment to the
most severe shocks and concussions. The ship, therefore, must be con.
structed in such a manner as to possess a peculiar degree of strength. Its
exposed parts are secured with double or even treble timbers, while it is
fortified, as the expression is, externally with iron plates, and internally
with stanchions and cross-bars, so disposed as to cause the pressure on any
one part to bear upon and be supported by the whole fabric. Mr Scoresby
recommends the dimension of 350 tons as the most eligible. A ship of this
size is sometimes filled ; and the number of men required for its navigation,
being also necessary for manning the boats employed in the fishery, could
not be reduced even in a much smaller vessel. A larger tonnage than 350,
being scarcely ever filled, involves the proprietor iu useless extra expense.
The Dutch are of opinion, that the vessels destined for this fishery should bo
112 feet long, 29 broad, and 12 deep, carrying seven boats, and from 40 to 50
feamen. One of the most essential particulars is the crow's nest, a spe.
cies of sentry-bos made of canvass or light wood, pitched on the main. top-
mast, or top-gallant-m;iat head. This is the post of honour, and also of

FISHES 471

For tliis navigation, the Biscayneers, in favourable seasons,
fitted out thirty ships, of two hundred and fifty tons each, with
(if'ty choice men apiece, and a few boys. These were stored
with six months' provision ; and each ship had its boats, which

severe cold, where the master often sits for hours in a temperature thirty
or forty degrees below the freczing^-point, and whence he can descry all the
movements of the surrounding' seas and ice, and give directions accordingly.
He is provided «ith a telescope, a speakiug'-trumpet, and a rifle, ^^^th which
he can sometimes strike a uarwal, as it floats around the ship.

The whaling vessels usually take their departure in such time as to leave
the Shetland Isles aoout the beginning of Ajiril ; and before the end of tho
month arrive within the polar seas. It was long customary to spend a few
weeks at what is calh'd the Seal-fishers' Bight, extending along the coast of
Greenl.ind, ere they pui.ned into those more northern waters, where, amid
fields and mountains of ice, the powerful and precious mysticetus is tossing ;
but in later times it has become usual to sail at once into that centre of
danger and enterprise.

As soon as they Iiavc arrived in those seas \A'hich are the haunt of tho
whale, the crew must be every moment on the alert, keeping watch day and
night. The seven boats are kept hanging by the sides of the ship, ready to
be launched in a few minutes ; and, where the state of the sea admits, one
of them is usuallymanned and afloat. These boats are from 25 to 28 feet long,
about 5j feet broad, and constructed with a special view to lightness, buoy-
ancy, and easy steerage. The captain or .some principal oflicer, seated in
the crow's nest, surveys the waters to a great distance, and the instant he
sees the back of the huge animal, which they seek to attack, emerging from
the waves, gives notice to the watch wlio are stationed on deck ; part of
whom leap into a boat, which is instantly lowered down, and followed by a
Bccond, if the fish be a large one. Each of the boats has a harpooner, and
one or two subordinate officers, and is provided with an immense quantity
of rope Coiled together, and stowed in different quarters of it, the several
parts being spliced together, so as to form a continued line, usually e.xceed-
ing 4000 feet in length. To the end is attached the harpoon, an instrument
formed, not to pierce and kill the animal, but, by entering and remaining
fixed in the body, to prevent its escape. One of the boats is now rowed
towards the whale in the deepest silence, cautiously avoiding to give an
alarm, of which he is very susceptible. Sometimes a circuitous route is
adopted, in order to attack him from behind. Having approached as near
as is consistent with safety ; the harpooner darts his instrument into tho
back of the monster. This is a critical moment; for when this mighty ani.
mal feels himself struck, be often throws himself into violent convulsive
movements, vibrating in the air his tremendous tail, one hish of which is
sufficient to dash a boat in pieces. More commonly, however, ho plunges
with rapiii flight into the depths of the sea, or beneath the thickest fields
and mountains of ice. While he is thus moving at the rate usually of eight
or ten miles an hour, the utmost diligence must be used that the line ti>
which the harpoon i« attached may run ofl' smoothly and readily along with
him. Should it lie ent;uigli'd for a moment, the strength of the whale i.s
such, that he would ilraw tin- boat and crew after him under the wavea.

2 K 2

4-72 Hisxonv of

were to be serviceable when come to the place of duty. When
arrived at the part where the whales are expected to pass to the
southward, they always keep their sails set, and a sailor is placed
at the mast-head, to give information when he spies a whale. As

Tlie first boat ouo^lit to be quickly followed up by a second, to supply more
line when tlie first is run out, which often takes place in eight or ten
minutes. When the crew of a boat see the line in danger of being- all run
off, they hold up one, two, or three oars, to intimate their pressing need of
sui)ply. At the same time they turn the rope once or twice round a kind
of post called the bollard, by which the motion of the line and the career of
the animal are somewhat retarded. This, however, is a delicate operation,
which brings tlie side of the boat doHTi to the very edge of the water, and
if the rope is drawn at all too tight, may sink it altogether. While the lino
is whirling round tlie bollard, the friction is so violent, that the harpooner
is enveloped in smoke, and water must be constantly poured on to prevent
it from catching fire. When, after all, no aid arrives, and the crew find that
the line must run out, they have only one resource, — they cut it, losing
thereby not only the whale, but the harpoon and all the ropes of the boat.

When the whale is first struck and plunges into the waves, the boat's
crew elevate a flag as a signal to the watch on deck, who give the alarm to
tliose asleep below, by stamping violently on the deck, and crying aloud —
" A fall, a /a?/.'" (Dutch, vol, expressing the precipitate haste with which
the sailors throw themselves into the boats.) On this notice, they do not
allow themselves time to dress, but rush out in their sleeping.shirts or
draAvers into an atmosphere, the temperature of which is often below zero,
carrying along with them their clothing in a bundle, and tru.sting to make
their toilette in the interval of manning and pushing ofli" the boats. Such is
the tumult at this moment, that young mariners have been known to raise
cries of fear, thinking the ship was going down.

The period during which a wounded whale remains under water is vari.
ous, but is averaged by Mr Scoresby at about half an hour. Then, pressed
iiy the necessity of respiration, he appears above, often considerably distant
from the spot where he was harpooned, and in a state of great exhaustion,
\vhich the same ingenious writer ascribes to the severe pressure that he has
endured when placed beneath a column of water 700 or 800 fathoms deep.
All the boats have meantime been spreading themselves in various direr,
tions, that one at least may be within a start, as it is caiUed, or about iiOO
yards of the point of his rising, at which distance they c.in easily reach and
pierce him with one or two more harpoons before he again descends, as he
iisually does for a few minutes. On his reappearance a general attack is
made ivith lances, which are struck as deep as possible, to reach and pene.
trate the vital parts. Blood mixed with oil streams copiously from his
wounds and from the blow-holes, dyeing the sea to a great distance, and
sprinkling and sometimes drenching the boats and crews. The animal now
Becomes more and more exhausted ; but at the approach of his dissolution,
he often makes a convulsive and energetic struggle, rearing his tail high in
the air, and whirling it with a noise «'hich is heard at the distance of several
miles. At length, quite overpowered and exhausted, he lays himself on hia
tide or back, and expires. The flag is then taken down, and three loud

FISHES.

413

soon as he discovers one, the whole crew are instantly in em-
ployment ; they fit ont their boats and row away to where the
whale was seen. The harpooner, who is to strike the fish,
stands at the prow of the boat, with a harpoon or javelin in his
hand, five or six feet long, pointed with steel like the barb of an
arrow, of a triangular shape. As this person's place is that of
the greatest dexterity, so also it is of the greatest danger : the
whale sometimes overturns the boat with a blow of its tail ; or
drives against it with fury. In general, however, the animal seems
to bleep on the surface of the water : while the boat is approach-
ing, the harpooner stands aloft, and with his harpoon tied to a
cord of several hundred fathom length, darts it into the animal,
and then rows as fast as possible away. It is some time before
the whale seems to feel the blow ; the instrument has usually
pierced no deeper than the fat, and that being insensible, the
animal continues for a while motionless ; but soon roused from
its seeming lethargy, as the shaft continues to pierce deeper and
deeper into the muscular flesh, it flies ofl!'with amazing rapidity.
In the meantime, the harpoon sticks in its side, while the rope,
which is coiled up in the boat, and runs upon a swivel, lengthens
as ihe whale recedes, but still shows the part of the deep to
which it has retreated. The cord is coiled up with great care i
for such is the rapidity with which it runs off, that if it was but
the least checked, as it yields with the animal's retreat, it would
infallibly overset the boat, and the crew would go to the bottom.
It sometimes happens also, that the rapidity with which it runs
over the swivel at the edge of the boat, heats it, and it would in-
fallibly take fire, did not a man stand continually with a wet mop
in his hand, to cool the swivel as the cord runs.* The whale
having dived to a considerable depth, remains at the bottom,
sometimes for near half an hour, with the harpoon in its body,
and then rises to take breath, expecting the danger over ; but thtj
instant it appears, they are all with their boats ready to receive
it, and fling the harpoons into its body ; the animal again dives
and again rises, while they repeat their blows. The ship fol-

hii77.as raised from tho siirronnrlinp boats. No time islost.in picninpr tlio
tail with two liolos, tliroiijfh whioh mpps arc passod, which boiiig fastened
i<> the boats, drag the fish to the vessel amid shoiitii of joy.

* It is also cuRtoinary to have a man Rtatioiied with an a.xe, ready to cut
the rope asunder should it become entauKled.

2 K 3

471 HISTORY OF

lows in lull sail, like all the rest, never losing siglit of the boats,
and ready to lend them assistance ; the whole ocean seems dyed
in blood. Thus they renew their attacks, till the whale begins
to be (jnite enfeebled and spent, when they plunge their longer
s|)ears into various parts of its body, and the enormous animal
expires.* When it is dead, to prevent it from sinking, they tie
it with a strong iron chain to the side of the boat, and either
cut it up in pieces, and carry it home in that manner, or extract
the oil from the blubber on ship-board.

Such is the mannei in which these fish were taken in the be-
ginning ; but succeeding arts have improved the method, and the
harpoon is now thrown by ; a machine being used which inflicts
a deeper wound, and strikes the animal with much greater cer-

* The extreme fidelity of these wonderful animals towards each otlier,
and their atfection for thtir offsprings, is ahnost incredible. So fondly at.
taclied are they to the society of tlicir brethren, that many instances are re-
ciiided of their assuming a passive floating position, on the surface, after
offering much resistance ; as though disdaining to survive the loss of their
companions. Thus, when the Cyrus had captured six, out of a herd of seven
whales, and they were supported around the vessel on the water, the sur-
viving one rose, and thrust its head amongst its dead brethren, and remained
immoveable, close to the vessel, while it was killed. In general, the female
is accompanied in her progress by her young one, though, on tlie contrary,
she sometimes wanders very far from it ; and yet, by some unknown im-
pulse, higlily calculated to excite our amazement, she has no difficulty in
finding it, though perfectly silent, in the vast and trackless ocean, as often
as she requires ; and the same may be said of all the cetacea. But further,
when her young one is hardest pursued and harpooned, she sjipports it
under her fin, while she plunges with it for safety into unfathomable depths.
A young whale, liaving been struck by a harpoon from a Hull vessel, being
at the time at some distance from its mother, had run out some length
of line, when the latter appeared in sight, and rapidly bent her course to-
wards it. In vain did she use every usual means to induce it to leave the
place of danger, while swimming by its side, as far as the line would allow,
in circles around the boats, diu-ing the space of four hours ; and within this
time, on four separate occasions, the parent was observed, when on the
surface, to throw one of her fins over the body of the young whale, and to
endeavour to drag it away by all the force she possessed ; she, lastly, in this
way set off with it in a straight direction, carrying away additional line, to
tlie extent of seven hundred and twenty fathoms ; but by that time, the
young one became so much exhaiisted from loss of blood, that she neces.
parily abandoned it to its fate, and herself escaped, by pursuing her progress
towards the ice, roaring and spouting with great vehemence ; for when a
whale is struck with a harpoon, or is enraged by the loss of its young. It
ejects the water through its spiracles witli great force, producing a stridu-
lous kind of roaring, which may be heard the distance of a mile.

FisiiKs. 475

taiiity : there are better methods for extracting oil, and jiroper
machines for cutting the animal up, tlian were used in the early
fisheries. But as an account of this belongs to the history of
art, and not of nature, we must be contented with observing, that
several parts of this animal, and all but the intestines and the
bones, are turned to a very good account; not only the oil, but
the greaves from which it is separated. The barbs also were an
article of great profit ; but have sunk in their price, since women
no longer use them to swell out their petticoats with whale-
bone.* The flesh of this animal is also a dainty to some nations,

* The Grpenland whale affords to us a sublime instance of contrivance,
oompeusating' its total want of teeth, in the hundreds of plates of whalebone,
which cover the roof of its mouth ; and which, by their growth, iiicreasinfj
in length and in breadth, often acquire twelve feet in length, and fifteen
inches broad. There have, indeed, been some instances in which whale-
bone has attained fifteen feet in length ; since those whales, which afford
whalebone of twelve feet, are themselves often more than sixty feet in
length. The upper surface of the skull of a whale of this size, measured
twenty feet eight inches long; and the creature itself weighed upwards of
H hundred tons. The roots of the two sides of the arch of whalebone, in the
miiiith of this animal, nearly meet at the top of the roof whence they grow,
at the anterior part of the mouth ; but they gradually recede from each
other, as they are continued baiUvvards, till they approach th(" throat, when
lliey again approximate. This substance, called whalebone, which thus
supplies the place of teeth, consists of a peculiar kind of horn. Its plates
ditfer in their lingth and strength, in different parts of the mouth, but the
outer row of plates are by far the strongest and the longest, especially those
which are mid-way between the throat and the snout. As the fibres of every
plate are loose and separate at its inferior edge, forming a deep pendent
fringe, by the gradual splitting away of its substance in proportion as it is
used, the entire vaulted sides of the roof of the mouth, in fact, by these
means, is deeply lined with a clothing of thick and coarse hair, whence the
ancients gave to this species of whale the name of mysticetus. Beneath this
vault of hair, lies the enormous tongue of the whale, and exterior to it, is
the immensely high lower lip, which, when the jaws are closed, shuts up
over all externally to the very origin of the whalebone above, so as to en.
tirely conceal it from view. Hy means also of this formation of the lip, and
the circumstance of the upper .jaw shutting into a cartilaginous grove at the
eNfremity of the lower one, the most perfect valve is formed, which any
pressure from without, only tends to render more secure from (he ingress
of the water. The fringe produced by the whalebone (as it is constinitly and
gradually extending itself in length, by the growth of the whalebone behnid
it, in proportion as it is worn away), is thus always in a proper state of
ndaptaticm to the marvellous economy of the creature ; for the must curious
part of this beautiful mechanism is the net or sieve which it thus forms ; an
instrument which has been granted to this largest of i-reatures, for the pur-
pose of Btraininff or separating its minute prey from the water nerrssarlly

476 HISTORY OF

;.]id even tlie Freiifh seamen are now and then found to dress and
use it as tlieir ordinary diet at sea. It is said, by the English
and Dutch sailors, to be hard and ill-tasted ; but the French
assert the contrary ; and the savages of (Jreenhirid, as well as
those near the south pole, are fond of it to distracti'on. They
eat the flesh, and drink the oil, which is a first-rate delicacy.
The finding a dead whale is an adventure considered among the
fortunate circumstances of their wretched lives. They make
their abode beside it ; and seldom remove till they have left no-
thing but the bones.

Jacobson, whom we quoted before in the History of Birds,
vi'here he described his countrymen of the island of Feroe as
living a part of the year upon salted gulls, tells us also, that they
are very fond of salted whale's flesh. The fat of the head they
season with bay salt, and then hang it up to dry in the chimney.
He thinks it tastes as well as fat bacon ; and the lean, which
they boil, is, in his opinion, not inferior to beef I fancy poor
Jacobson would make but an indifferent taster at one of our city
feasts !

CHAP. IV.

OF THE NARWHAL.

From whales that entirely want teeth, we come to such as
have them in the upper jaw only; and in this class is found but
one, the Narwhal, or Sea-unicorn. This fish is not so large as
the whale, not being above sixty feet long. Its body is slenderer
than that of the whale, and its fat not in so great abundance.
But this great animal is sufficiently distinguished from all others
of the deep by its tooth or teeth, which stand pointing directly
forward from the upper jaw, and are from nine to fourteen feet

taken into tlie mouth with it, in feeding-. For, in tliis whale, the raoutli is
of such enormous proportions, as to receive at once even tons of water, and
yet of such wonderful perfection is its filtering- mechanism through these
hair-like filaments, that it rarely allows the escape of the nourishing parti-
cles diffused therein, although they be no larger than peas ; its food consist,
iug chiefly of small medusae, Crustacea, and zoophytes.

T/siiES. 477 •

long. In all the variety of weapons with which Nature has
armed her various tribes, there is not one so large or so formi-
dable as this. This terrible weapon is generally found single,
and some are of opinion that the animal is furnished but with
one by nature ; but there is at present the skull of a narwhal at
the ytadthouse at Amsterdam, with two teeth ; which plainly
jjroves that in some animals, at least, this instrument is double.
It is even a doubt whether it may not be so in all ; and that the
narwhal's wanting a tooth is only an accident which it has met
with in the encounters it is obliged daily to be engaged in. Yet
it must be owned, of those that are taken only with one tooth,
there seems no socket, nor no remains of any other upon the op-
posite side of the jaw, but all is plain and even. Hosvcver this
be, the tooth, or, as some are pleased to call it, the horn of the
narwhal, is the most terrible of all natural instruments of destruc-
tion. It is as straight as an arrow, about the thickness of the
small of a man's leg, wreathed in the manner we sometimes see
twisted bars of iron ; it tapers to a sharp point ; and is whiter,
heavier and harder, than ivory. It is generally seen to spring from
the left side of the head directly forward in a straight line with
the body ; and its root enters into the socket above a foot and
a half. In a skull to be seen at Hamburgh there are two teeth,
which are each above seven feet long, and are eight inches in
circumference. When the animal, possessed of these formidable
weapons, is urged to employ them, it drives directly forward
against the enemy with its teeth, that, like protended spears,
pierce whatever stands before them.

The extreme length of these instruments has induced some
to consider them rather as horns than teeth ; but they in every
respect resemble the tusks of the boar and the elephant. They
grow, as in them, from sockets in the upper jaw ; they have the
solidity of the hardest bone, and far surpass ivory in all its
qualities. The same error has led others to suppose, that as
among quadrupeds the female was often found without horns, so
these instruments of defence were only to be found in the male:
but this has been more than once refuted by actual experience ;
both sexes are found armed in this manner ; the horn is some-
times found wreathed, and sometimes smooth ; somctin)es a little
bent, and sometimes straight ; but always strong, dccjily fixed,
tttid sharply pointed.

4-78 HISTOKY OF

Yet, notwitbstanding all these ajjpointments for combat, these
long and pointed tusks, amazing strength, and iinmatchable cele-
rity, the narwhal is one of the most harmless and peaceful inha«
bitants of the ocean. It is seen constantly and inolfensively
sporting among the other great monsters of the deep, no way
attempting to injure them, but pleased in their company. The
Greenlanders call the narwhal the foreruimer of the whale ; for
wherever it is seen, the whale is shortly after sure to follow.
This may arise as well from the natural passion for society in
these animals, as from both living upon the same food, which
are the insects described in the preceding chapter. These power-
ful fishes make war upon no other living creature ; and though
furnished with instruments to spread general destruction, are as
innocent and as peaceful as a drove of oxen. Nay, so regardless
are they of their own weapons, and so utterly unmindful to
keep them in repair for engagement, that they are constantly
seen covered over with weeds, slough, and all the filth of the
sea ; they seem rather considered as an impediment than a de--
fence.

The manners and appetites both of the narwhal and the great
whale are entirely similar ; they both alike want teeth for chew-
ing, and are obliged to live upon insects ; they both are peacea-
ble and harmless, and always rather fly than seek the combat.
The narwhal, however, has a much narrower gape than the great
whale, and, therefore, does not want the use of barbs to keep in
its food when once sucked into the mouth. It is also much
swifter, and would never be taken by the fishermen but for those
very tusks which at first appear to be its principal defence.
These animals, as was said, being fond of living together, are
always seen in herds of several at a time ; and whenever they
are attacked they crowd together in such a n-.anner, that they
are mutually embarrassed by their tusks. By these they are
often locked together, and are prevented from sinking to the
bottom. It seldom happens, therefore, but the fishermen make
sure of one or two of the hindmost, which very well reward their
trouble. *

* The blubbor of the narw'ial prodiicps A'ory tine oil ; but it is chiefly
hunted fur its tusk, which fuiuis ivury of a quality superior to that ol' the
elophaiu.

FISHES. 479

It is from the extraordinary circumstance of the teeth, there-
fore, that this tish demands a distinct history ; and such has been
the curiosity of mankind, and their desire to procure them, that
a century ago they were considered as the greatest rarity in the
world. At that time the art of catching whales was not known ;
and mankind saw few, except such as were stranded on the
coasts by accident. The tooth of the narwhal, therefore, was
ascribed to a very different animal from that which really bore
it. Among other fossil substances, they were sometimes dug
up ; and the narwhal being utterly unknown, naturalists soon
found a terrestrial owner. They were thought to be the horns
of unicorns, an animal described by Pliny as resembling a horse,
and with one straight horn darting forward from the middle of
its forehead. These teeth were, therefore, considered as a strong
testimony in favour of that historian's veracity, and were shown
among the most precious remains of antiquity. Even for some
time after the narwhal was known, the deceit was continued, as
those who were possessed of a tooth sold it to great advantage.
But at present they are too well known to deceive any, and are
only shown for what they really are ; their curiosity increasing
in proportion to their weight and size.*

CHAP. V.

OI' THE CACHALOT, AND ITS VARIETIES.

The Cachalot which has generally gone under the name of the
spermaceti-whale, till Mr Pennant very properly made the dis-
tinction, by borrowing its name from the French, has several
teeth in the under jaw, but none in the upper. As there are no
less than seven distinctions among whales, so also there are the
.same number of distinctions in the tribe we are describing. The
cachalot with two fins and a black back ; the cacholet with two

• A 8|)ecipa is mentioned by Fabricius, as beinfj: found on the shorp> of
Greenland, much smaller, of a black colour, with two obtuse teeth from
the upper jaw, a little curved at the tips, very weak, and raeasurinfj not
above an incli in length: it has likewise a small fin on the back, which it
wanting in the common Narwhal.

■^80 HISTORY OF

(ins and a vvliitisli buck ; that with a spout in the iie<'k ; that
with a spout in the snout ; that with three fins and sharp-pointed
teeth ; that with three fins and sharp -edged teeth ; and, lastly, the
cachalot, with three fins and flatted teeth.

Tliis tribe is not of such enormous size as the whale, properly
so called, not being above sixty feet long, and sixteen feet high.
In consequence of their being more slender, they are much more
active than the common whale ; they remain a longer time at the
bottom ; and afford a smaller quantity of oil. As in the com-
mon whale the head was seen to make a third part of its bulk,
so in this species the head is so large as to make one half of the
whole. The tongue of this animal is small, but the throat is
very I'ormidable ; and with very great ease it could swallow an
ox. In the stomach of the whale scarcely any thing is to be
found; but in that of the cachalot there are loads of fish of dif-
ferent kinds ; some whole, some half digested, some small, and
others eight or nine feet long. The cachalot is, therefore, as
destructive among lesser fishes, as the whale is harmless ; and
can at one gulp swallow a shoal of fishes down its enormous
gullet. — LinniEus tells us that this fish pursues and terrifies the
dolphins and porpoises so much, as often to drive them on shore.

But, how formidable soever this fish may be to its fellows of
the deep, it is by far the most valuable, and the most sought
after by man, as it contains two very precious drugs, spermaceti
and ambergris. The use of these, either for the purposes of
luxury or medicine, is so universal, that the capture of this ani
mal, that alone supplies them, turns out to very great advantage,
particularly since the art has been found out of converting all the
oil of this animal, as well as the brain, into that substance called
spermaceti.

This substance, as it is naturally formed, is found in the head
of the animal, and is no other than the brain. The outward
skin ot the head being taken off, a covering of fat offers ibout
three inches thick ; and under that, instead of a bony skull, the
animal has only another thick skin that serves for a covering and
defence of the brain. The first cavity or chamber of the brain,
is filled with that spermaceti which is supposed of the greatest
purity and highest value. From this cavity there is generally
drawn about seven barrels of the clearest spermaceti, that thrown
upon water coagulates like cheese. Below this there is another

FISHES. 481

oiiamber just over the gullet, which is about seven feet high ;
and this also contains the drug, but of less value. It is distri-
buted in this cavity like honey in a hive, in small cells, separated
from each other by a membrane like the inner skin of an egg.
In proportion as the oily substance is drawn away from this part,
it fills anew from every part of the body ; and from this is gene-
rally obtained about nine barrels of oil. Besides this, the spinal-
marrow, which is as thick as a man's thigh, and reaches all along
the back-bone to the tail, where it is not thicker than one's fin.
ger, affords no inconsiderable quantity.*

This substance, which is used in the composition of many
medicines, rather to give them consistence than efficacy, was at
first sold at a very high price, both from the many virtues
ascribed to it, and the small quantity that the cachalot was capa-
ble of supplying : at present, the price is greatly fallen ; first,
because its efficacy in medicine is found to be very small : and
again, because the whole oil of the fish is easily convertible into
spermaceti. This is performed by boiling it with a ley of pot-
ash, and hardening it in the manner of soap. Candles are now
made of it, which are substituted for wax, and sold mucii
cheaper ; so that we need not fear having our spermaceti adul-
terated in the manner some medical books caution us to beware
of ; for they carefully guard us against having our spermaceti
adulterated with virgin wax.

As to the ambergris, which is sometimes found in this whale,
it was long considered as a substance found floating on the sur-
face of the sea ; but time, that reveals the secrets of the mer-
cenary, has discovered that it chiefly belongs to this animal.
The name, which has been improperly given to the former sub-
stance, seems more justly to belong to this ; forth(! ambergris is
(bund in the place where the seminal vessels are usually situated
in other animals. It is found in a bag of three or four feet long,
HI round lumps from one to twenty pounds weiglit, floating in a

* Thp pprfumc called Amberffria, is found in large masses in the intestines,
and i'; now knomi to be nothing more tlian the oxrrpnienlBS of the animal.'
Spernmceti is found in a vast cavity in thi^ upper part of the head : while
(Vesh, and in its natural receptacle, it is nearly fluid ; but it roncrete<! into
opake masses Koon after it is exposed to the air. Spermaceti whale;-, are
found mo.st abundantly in the Southern Atlantic and Pariflc Oceans, on tha
roasts of New Holland, and in the Antartic regions. They have also bcea
observed in the Mediterranean and British Seas.

III. 2 9

482 HisTOKY or

fluid rather tliiimer than oil, and of a yellowish colour. There
are never seen more than four at a time in one of these bags ;
and that which weighed twenty pounds, and which was the larg-
est ever seen, was found single. These balls of ambergris are
not found in all fishes of this kind, but chiefly in the oldest and
strongest. The uses of this medicine for the purposes of luxury,
and as a perfume, are well known ; though upon some subjects
ignorance is preferable to information.

CHAP. VI.

OF THE DOLPHIN, THE GRAMPUS, AND THE PORPOISE, WITH
THEIR VARIETIES.

Alt, these fish have teeth both in the upper and the lower jaw,
and are much less than the whale. The Grampus, which is the
largest, never exceeds twenty feet.* It may also be distinguished
by the flatness of its head, which resembles a boat turned upside
down. The Porpoise resembles the grampus in most things ex-
cept the snout, which is not above eight feet long ; its snout also
more resembles that of a hog. The Dolphin has a strong re-
semblance to the porpoise, except that its snout is longer, and
more pointed. They have all fins on the back ; they all have
heads very large, like the rest of the whale-kind ; and resemble
each other in their appetites, their manners, and conformations ;
being equally voracious, active, and roving, f

• The Gladiator or Sea-sword, a formidable enemy to the Greenland
whale, has often been confounded with Uie GrampiiB. The grampus haa
the top of the head rather flat, the enout less obtuse, the upper jaw longer
than the lower, while in the gladiator both are of equal length. The teeth
of the grampus are blunt, and the dorsal fin placed about the middle of the
back, and proportionally not so long a.s in the gladiator. Indeed it is from
the remarkable length and firmness of this fin in the gladiator, that it has
received the name of sea-sword.

+ The Dolphin tribe of cetaceous fishes cximprehends about 13 species, )1
with the dorsal fin, and the others without. Soosoo is the name which the
Bengalose about Calcutta give tx) a species of dolphin found in the Ganges,
especially in the slow-moving labyrinth of rivers and creeks which intiTso«t
the Delta of that river to the .south, S E. and E. of Calcutta. 'i"he descrip-
tion of this new species we owe to Dr Roxburgh, who distinguishes it by

FISHES. 483

The great agility of these animals prevents their often being
taken. Tliey sehiom remain a moment above water ; some-
times, indeed, their too eager pursuits expose them to danger ;
and a shoal of herrings often allures them out of their depth. In
such a case, the hungry animal continues to flounder in the shal-
lows till knocked on the head, or till the returning tide seasona-
bly comes to its relief. But all this tribe, and the dolphin in
particular, are not less swift than destructive. No fish could
escape them, but from the awkward position of the mouth, vvhicii
is placed in a manner under the bead : yet, even with these dis-
advantages, their depredations are so great, that they have been
justly styled the plunderers of the deep.

What could induce the ancients to a predilection in favour
of these animals, particularly the dolphin, it is not easy to ac-
count for. Historians and philosophers seem to have contended
who should invent the greatest number of fables concerning
them. The dolphin was celebrated in the earliest time for its
fondness to the human race, and was distinguished by the epi-
thets of the boy-loving and philanthropist. Scarcely an accident
could happen at sea, but the dolphin offered himself to convey
the unfortunate to shore. The musician flung into the sea by
pirates, the boy taking an airing in the midst of the sea, and re-
turning again in safety, were obliged to the dolphin for its ser-
vices. It is not easy, I say, to assign a cause why the ancients
should thus have invented so many fables in their favour. The
figure of these animals is far from prejudicing us in their in-
terest ; their extreme rapacity tends still less to endear them ; I
know nothing that can reconcile them to man and excite his pre-
judices, except that when taken they sometimes have a plaintive
moan, with which they continue to express their pain till they
expire. This, at first, might have excited human pity ; and that

tlifi naiue of Delphinus Gangeticus. Its body (including the licad) is loiijf
and sifnder, tliickest about the fore-part, and from tlienco tapering to tho
tail ; from the anus forward nearly round. The skin is soft, smooth, and of
k bliining pcarl.gray when dry, with here and there light-coloured spots or
clouds, particularly when old. When the animal is alive, and seen in the
art of rising to breathe, it appears much darker. Tho length of the indivi.
dual which Dr Uo.Kburgh examined (and whiili was young, little more than
half grown,) was six and a half li'et, and at the thickest part, which is
rather behind the pectoral fins, three feet in circumference. The weight 120
pounds.

2s2

4.84 HISTORY OF

might have produced affection. At present, these fislies are re-
garded even by the vulgar in a very different light ; their appear-
ance is far from being esteemed a favourable omen by the sea-
men ; and from their bouiidings, springs, and frolics in the
water, experience has taught the mariners to prepare for a
rtorm.

But it is not to one circumstance only that the ancients have
confined their fabulous reports concerning these animals ; as
from their leaps out of their element, they assume a temporary
curvature, which is by no means their natural figure in the water,
the old painters and sculptors have universally drawn them wrong.
A dolphin is scarcely ever exhibited by the ancients in a straight
shape, but curved, in the position which they sometimes appear
as when exerting their force ; and the poets too have adopted the
general error. Even Pliny, the best naturalist, has asserted,
that they instantly die when taken out of the water ; but Ron-
delet, on the contrary, assures us that he has seen a dolphin
carried alive from Montpelier to Lyons.

The moderns have more just notions of these animals ; and
have got over the many fables, which every day's experience con-
tradicts. Indeed their numbers are so great, and, though shy,
they are so often taken, that such peculiarities, if they were pos-
sessed of any, would have been long since ascertained. They are
found, the porpoise especially, in such vast numbers, in all parts
of the sea that surrounds this kingdom, that they are sometimes
noxious to seamen, when they sail in small vessels. In some
places they almost darken the water as they rise to take breath,
and particularly before bad weather, are much agitated, swim-
ming against the wind, and tumbling about with unusual vio-
lence.

Whether these motions be the gambols of pleasure or the agi-
tations of terror, is not well known. It is most probable that
they dread those seasons of turbulence, when the lesser fishes
shrink to the bottom, and their prey no longer offers in such
abundance. In times of fairer weather they are seen herding to-
gether, and pursuing shoals of various fish with great impetuosity.
Their method of hunting their game, if it may be so called, is
to follow in a pack, and thus give each other mutual assistance.
At that season, when tlie mackarel, the herring, the salmon, and
Other fish of passage, begin to make their appearance, the ceta-

FISHES. 485

ceous tribes are seen fierce in the ])ui'suit ; urging their prey from
one creek or bay to another, deterring them from the shallows,
driving them towards each other's ambush, and using a greater
variety of arts than hounds are seen to exert in pursuing the hare.
However, the porpoise not only seeks for prey near the surface,
but often descends to the bottom in search of sand-eels, and sea-
worms, which it roots out of the sand with its nose, in the man-
ner hogs harrow up the fields for food. For this purpose, the
nose projects a little, is shorter and stronger than that of the
dolphin ; and the neck is furnished with very strong muscles,
which enable it the readier to turn up the sand.

But it sometimes happens, that the impetuosity, or the hun-
ger, of these animals, in their usual pursuits, urges them beyond
the limits of safety. The fishermen, who extend their long nets
for pilchards, on the coasts of Cornwall, have sometimes an un-
welcome capture in one of these. — Their feeble nets, which are
calculated only for taking smaller prey, sufier a universal lacera-
tion from the efforts of this strong animal to escape ; and if it
be not knocked on the head, before it has had time to flounder,
the nets are destroyed, and the fishery interrupted. There is
nothing, therefore, they so much dread, as the entangling a por-
poise ; and they do every thing to intimidate the animal from
a})proacliing.*

Indeed, these creatures are so violent in the pursuit of their
prey, that they sometimes follow a shoal of small fishes up a
fresh-water river, from when(-e they find no small difficulty to
return. We have often seen them taken in the Thames at
London, both above the bridges and below them. It is curious
enough to observe with what activity they avoid their pursuers,
and what little time they require to fetch breath above the wa-
ter. The manner of killing them is for four or five boats to
spread over the part of the river in which they are seen, and
with fire-arms to shoot at them the instant they rise above the
water. The fish being thus for some time kept in agitation, re-
quires to come to the surface at quicker intervals, and tluid
afifords the marksmen more frequent ojjportunities.

» Durinc; a scarcity of fish, porpoises are said to dive to the bo ttoin, ni.'d
root, like liogs, among the sand, for sand-eels and sea-worms. Hence ia
most lanifunges they receive the name of sea-hogs. Porpoise has thatsigiii.
fication in thp Italian.

2s3

486 HISTORY Of FISHES.

When the porpoise is taken, it becomes no inconsiderable
capture, as it yields a very large quantity of oil ; and the lean of
some, particularly if the animal be young, is said to be as well
tasted as veal. The inhabitants of Norway prepare, from the
eggs found in the body of this fish, a kind of cavier, which is
said to be a very delicate sauce, or good when even eaten with
bread. There is a fishery for porpoise along the western isles
of Scotland during the summer season, when they abound on
that shore ; and this branch of industry turns to good advantage.

As for the rest, we are told, that these animals go with young
ten months ; that, like the whale, they seldom bring forth above
one at a time, and that in the midst of summer : that they live
to a considerable age ; though some say not above twenty-five
or thirty years ; and they sleep with the snout above water
They seem to possess, in a degree proportioned to their bulk,
the manners of whales ; and the history of one species of ceta-
ceous animals, will, in a great measure, serve for all the rest.

BOOK II.

OF CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.

CHAP. I.

OF CARTILAGINOUS FISHES IN GENERAL.

We have seen that fishes of the cetaceous kind bear a strong re-
semblance to quadrupeds in their conformation ; those of the
cartilaginous kinds are one remove separated from them ; they
form the shade that completes the imperceptible gradations of
nature.

The first great distinction they exhibit is, in having cartilages
or gristles instead of bones. The cetaceous tribes have their
bones entirely resembling those of quadrupeds, thick, white, and
filled with marrow ; those of the spinous kind, on the contrary,
have small slender bones, with points resembling thorns, and
generally solid throughout. Fishes of the cartilaginous kinds
have their bones always soft and yielding ; and age, that hardens
the bones of other animals, rather contributes still more to soften
theirs. The size of all fishes increases with age ; but from the
pliancy of the bones in this tribe, they seem to have no bounds
placed to their dimensions ; and it is supposed that they grow
larger every day till they die.

They have other differences, more obviously discernible. We
have observed, that the cetaceous tribes had lungs like quadru-
peds, a heart with its partition in the same manner, and an ap-
paratus for hearing ; on the other hand, we mentioned that the
spinous kinds had no organs of hearing, no lungs to breathe
through, and no partition in the heart ; but that their cold red
blood was circulated by the means of the impulse made upon
their gills by the water. Cartilaginous lihlics unite both these

488

HISTORY OF

systems in their oonfoimation : like the cetaceous tribes, they
have organs of hearing, and lungs ; like the spinous kinds, they
have gills, and a heart without a partition. Thus possessed ot
a twofold power of breathing, sometimes by means of their lungs,
sometimes by that of their gills they seem to unite all the advan-
tages of which their situation is capable, and drawing from both
elements every aid to their necessities or their enjoyments.

This double capacity of breathing in these animals, is one of
the most remarkable features in the history of Nature. The
apertures by which they breathe, are somewhere placed about
the head ; either beneath, as in flat fish ; on the sides, as in
sharks ; or the top of the head, as in pipe-fish. To these aper-
tures are the gills affixed, but without any bone to open and shut
them, as in spinous fishes ; from which, by this mark, they may
he easily distinguished, though otherwise very much alike in
appearance. From these are bending cylindrical ducts, that
run to the lungs, and are supposed to convey the air, that gives
the organs their proper play. The heart, however, has but one
valve ; so that their blood wants that double circulation which
obtains in the cetaceous kinds ; and the lungs seem to be rather
as an internal assistant to the gills, than fitted for supplying the
same offices as in quadrupeds, for they want the pulmonary vein
and artery.

From this structure, however, the animal is enabled to live a
longer time out of water than those whose gills are more simple.
The cartilaginous shark, or ray, live some hours after they are
taken ; while the spinous herring or mackarel expire a few
minutes after they are brought on shore. From hence this tribe
seems possessed of powers that other fishes are wholly deprived
of; they can remain continually under water, without ever taking
breath ; while they can venture their heads above the deep, and
continue for hours out of their native element.

We observed, in a former chapter, that spinous fishes have
not, or at least appear not to have, externally any instruments
of generation. It is very difl^erent with those of the cartilagin-
ous kind, for the male always has these instruments double.
The fish of this tribe are not unfrequently seen to copulate ; and
their manner is belly to belly, such as may naturally be expected
from animals whose parts of generation are placed forward.
They in general choose colder seasons and situations than other

FISHES.

■489

fish for propagating their kind ; and many of them bring forth
in the midst of winter.

The same duplicity of character which marks their general
conformation, obtains also with regard to their manner of bring-
ing forth. Some bring forth their young alive ; and some bring
forth eggs, which are afterwards brought to maturity. In all,
however, the manner of gestation is nearly the same ; for upon
dissection, it is ever found, that the young, while in the body,
continue in the egg till a very little time before they are ex.
eluded : these eggs they may properly be said to hatch within
their body ; and as soon as their young quit the shell, they begin
to quit the womb also. Unlike to quadrupeds, or the cetaceous
tribes, that quit the egg state in a few days after their first con-
ception, and continue in the womb several months after, these
continue in the body of the female, in their egg state, for weeks
together ; and the eggs are found linked together by a membrane,
from which, when the foetus gets free, it continues but a very
short time till it delivers itself from its confinement in the
womb. The eggs themselves consist of a white and a yolk,
and have a substance instead of shell, that aptly may be com-
pared to softened horn. These, as I observed, are sometimes
hatched in the womb, as in the shark and ray kinds ; and they
are sometimes excluded, as in the sturgeon, before the animal
comes to its time of disengaging. Thus we see that there seems
very little difference between the viviparous and the oviparous
kinds, in this class of fishes : the one hatch their eggs in the
womb, and the young continue no long time there ; the others
exclude their eggs before hatching, and leave it to time and
accident to bring their young to maturity.

Such are the peculiar marks of the cartilaginous class of fishes,
of which there are many kinds. To give a distinct description
of every fish is as little my intention, as perhaps it is the wish
of the reader ; but the peculiarities of each kind deserve notice,
and the most striking of these it would be unpardonable to omit.

Cartilaginous fish may be divided first into those of the shark
kind, with a body growing less towards the tail, a rough skin,
with the mouth placed far beneath the end of the nose, five
apertures on the sides of the neck for breathing, and the uj)per
part of the tail longer then the lower. This class chiefly com-
prehends the Great White Shark, the Balance Fish, the Hound

490 HISTORY OF

Fish, the Monk Fish, the Dog Fish, the Basking Shark, the
Zygajna, the Tope, the Cat Fish, the Blue Shark, the Sea Fox,
the Smooth Hound Fish, and the Porbeagle. These are all of
the same nature, and differ more in size, than in figure or eon-
formation.

The next division is that of flat fish ; and these their broad,
flat, thin shape, is sufficiently capable of distinguishing from all
others of this kind. They may be easily distinguished also from
spinous flat fish, by the holes through which they breathe, which
ai"e uncovered by a bone ; and which, in this kind, are five on
each side. In this tribe we may place the Torpedo, the Skate,
the Sharp-nosed Ray, the Rough Ray, the Thornback, and tlie
Fire Flare.

The third division is that of the slender snake-shaped kind ;
such as the Lamprey, the Pride, and the Pipe-fish.

The fourth division is that of the Sturgeon atid its variety,
the Ising-glass Fish.

The last division may comprise fish of different figures and
natures, that do not rank under the former divisions. These
are the Sun Fish, the Tetrodon, the Lump Fish, the Sea Snail,
the Chimiera, and the Fishing Frog. Each of these has some-
what peculiar in its powers or its forms, that deserves to be re-
marked. The description of the figures of these at least may
compensate for our general ignorance of the rest of their history.

CHAP. II.

OF CARTILAGINOUS FISHES OF THE SHARK KIND.*

Of all the inhabitants of the deep, those of the shark Kind
are the fiercest and the most voracious. The smallest of this

* About thirty species of sharks have been distinguished, of wliicti twelve
have been seen on the British coasts. Some, from pursuing their prey in
concert, are called sea-dog-s, hounds, and beagles. We may here particu.
larize the Blue Shark, the Basking Shark, and the Angel Shark.

The Blue Shark. — The back of this shark is blue; the belly white. Ni»
orifices are to be seen behind the eye, as is usual with fish of tbis genus.
Two white membranes, one to each eye, perform the olhce of eye-liiis
When the head vviis placed downu ards, a pretty large white pouch cam

FISHES. 491

tribe is not less dreaded by greater fish, than many that to ap-
pearaiice seem more powerful ; nor do any of them seem fearful
ot attacking animals far above their size : but the Great White
Shark, which is the largest of the kind, joins to the most amaz

cut of its mouth. jElian supposed this to serve as an asylum for the young
in time of danger ; and Mr Pennant, who gives credit to the story, thinks
tliat this fish, like the opossum, may have a place fitted by nature for the
reception of her young. This, however, has been denied by some writers.

The Basking Shark.— This, though a very large fish, possesses none of the
voracity and ferociousness that mark the generality of the shark tribe. It
will frequently lie motionless on the surface of the water, generally on its
belly, but sometimes on its back ; and it seems so little afraid of mankind as
often to suffer itself to be patted and stroked. Its body is slender, and from
three to twelve yards in length ; of a deep lead colour above, and white
below. The upper jaw is blunt at the end, and much longer than the lower.
'I'he mouth is placed beneath, and furnished with small teeth ; these before
much bent, and the remote ones conical and sharp-pointed. On each side
of the neck are five breathing apertures. There are two dorsal, two pec-
toral, two ventral fins, and one small anal fin. Within the mouth, near the
throat, is a short kind of whale-bone. Tlie liver is of such an immense size
as frequently to weigh near a thousand pounds. From this a great quantity
of good oil is extracted, which renders this shark an animal of considerable
importance to the Scotch fishermen ; for according to Anderson, the oil of a
single fish will sometimes sell for twenty or thirty pounds sterling.

The basking shark (which derives its name from its propensity to lie on
tlie surface of the water, as if to bask itself in the sun) frequents our seas
during the warm summer months, and is not uncommon on the Welch and
Scottish coasts, where they come in shoals, usually after intervals of a cer-
tain number of years. In the intervening summers, those that are seen
upon the Welch coast are generally single fish, that have probably strayed
from the rest. They appear in the frith of Clyde, and among the Hebrides,
about midsummer, in small droves of seven or eight, or more commonly in
pairs. Here they continue till the latter end of July, when they disappear.

The food of these sharks seems to consist entirely of marine plants, and
Bome of the species of medusae. They swim very deliberately, and generally
with their upper fins above water. Sometimes they may be seen sporting
about amongst the waves, and leaping several feet above the surface.

The natives of our northern coasts are very alert in the pursuit, and very
dexterous in the killing of those fish. When pursued, they do not accele-
rate their motion till the boat comes almost in contact with them, when the
liarpooner strikes his weapon into the body as near the gills as he can.
They eeera not very susceptible of pain ; for they often remain In the same
place till the vmited strength of two men is exerted to force the harpwon
deeper. As soon as they perceive themselves wounded, they plunge head,
long to the bottom, and frequently coil the rope round their bodies in agony
attempting to disengage themselves from the fatal instrument by rolling on
the ground. Discovering that these efforts are in vain, they swim off with
«or!i ama/ing rapidity, that one instance has occurred of a basking shark
ullin^^lo some distance a vessel of seventy tons burden against afresh gale.

•i92 HISTORY OF

iiig rapidity, tlie strongest appetites for mischief: as he ap.
preaches nearly in size to the whale, he far surpasses him in
strength and celerity, in the formidable arrangement of his teeth,
9nd his insatiable desire of plunder.

The White Shark is sometimes seen to rank even among
whales for magnitude ; and is found from twenty to thirty feet
long. Some assert that they have seen them of four thousand
pound weight ; and we are told particularly of one, that had a
human corpse in his belly. The head is large and somewhat
flatted; the snout long, and the eyes large. The mouth is
enormously wide, as is the throat, and capable of swallowing a
man with great ease. But its furniture of teeth is still more
terrible; of these there are six row^s, extremely hard, sharp -
pointed, and of a wedge-like figure. It is asserted that there are

Tliey soraptimes run off with two hundred fathoms of line, and two liar-
poons in them ; and ^ill employ the men from twelve to twenty-four hours
before they are subdued. As soon as they are killed, the fishermen haul
them on shore ; or, if at a distance from land, to the vessel's side, to out
them up and take out the liver, which is the only useful part of their bodies.
This is melted into oil in kettles provided for the purpose ; and if the fish be
a large one, it yields eight barrels or upwards.

The Angel-shark. — This is very uulike the common sharks, being distin-
guished by its flat body, which forms the connecting link, as it were, between
the genus of rays and that of sharks, as it partakes of the figure of both.
The head is of a circular form, and rather broader than the body. The
mouth is wide, and is situated at the extremity of the head. Like the sharks,
the old fish of this species have more teeth than the young ones. Thus two
angel-sharks, only a foot long, in the possession of Dr Block, had only two
rows of teeth in the upper jaw, and three in the lower; wliile Willoughby
and Uondelet assert, that there are three in the former, and five in the latter.
The fins are large and wide, and their resemblance to wings has probably
procured tliis fish the denomination of angel. Of a certain portion of the
skin the Turks make the most beautiful shagreen for watch cases. The
^ngel-shark is found in the Mediterranean and German Ocean.

The Spotted Dog-fish is an inhabitant of most seas, and measures four feet,
long ; it is very voracious, and feeds chiefly upon fish. The body is reddisli
brown, with large distinct black spots ; it is white beneath, and a little com-
pressed at each end : the skin, when dried, is used for various purposes.
The head is small, and the snout short ; the eyes are oblong, and the pupil
is of a sea-gi-een colour; the iris of the eye is white ; the mouth is oblong,
and wide, armed with three rows of teeth ; the tongue is cartilaginous, and
with the palate is rough ; the nostrils are surrounded with a lube and ver.
miform appendage ; the vent is placed before the middle of the body, the
ventral fins distinct ; the first dorsal fin is placed behind the ventral ; the
second dorsal fin is less, and nearly opposite the anal ; the tail is narrow,
ending below in a sharp angle.

FISHES. 4.93

seventy-two in each jaw, which make a hundred and forty-four
in the whole ; yet others think that their number is uncertain;
and that in proportion as the animal grows older, these terrible
instruments of destruction are found to increase. With these
the jaws, both above and below, appear planted all over ; but the
animal has a power of erecting or depressing them at pleasure.
When the shark is at rest, they lie quite flat in his mouth ; but
when he prepares to seize his prey, he erects all this dreadful
apparatus, by the help of a set of muscles that join them to the
jaw ; and the animal he seizes, dies, pierced with a hundred
wounds, in a moment.

Nor is this fish less terrible to behold as to the rest of his
form : his fins are larger in proportion ; he is furnished with
great goggle eyes, that he turns with ease on every side, so as to
see his prey behind him as well as before ; and his whole aspect
is marked with a character of malignity : his skin also is rougii,
hard, and prickly ; being that substance which covers instrument
cases, called shagreen.

As the shark is thus formidable in his appearance, so is he
also dreadful from his courage and activity. No fish can swim
so fast as he ; none so constantly employed in swimming : he out-
strips the swiftest ships, plays round them, darts out before them,
returns, seems to gaze at the passengers, and all the while does not
seem to exhibit the smallest symptom of an effort to proceed.
Such amazing powers, with such great appetites for destruction,
would quickly unpeople even the ocean, but providentially, the
shark's upper jaw projects so far above the lower, that he is ob-
liged to turn on one side, (not on his back, as is generally sup-
posed,) to seize his prey. As this takes some small time to
perform, the animal pursued seizes that opportunity to make its
escape.

Still, however, the depredations he commits are frequent and
formidable. The shark is the dread of sailors in all hot climates ;
where, like a greedy robber, he attends the ships, in expectation
of what may drop over-board. A man who unfortunately falls
into the sea at such a time, is sure to perish^ without mercy. A
sailor that was bathing in the Mediterranean, near Antibes, in
the year llVi, while he was swimming about fifty yards from
the ship, perceived a monstrous fish making towards him, and
Burvcyifig him on every side, as fish are often seen to look round

III. 2 X

4.94. HISTORY or

:i bait. The poor man, struck with terror at its approacli, cued
out to liis companions in the vessel to take him on board. 'I'hey
rccordingly threw him a rope with the utmost expedition, and
were drawing him up by the ship's side, when the shark darted
af^ter him from the deep, and snapped off his leg.

Mr Pennant tells us, that the master of a Guinea-ship, find-
ing a rage for suicide prevail among his slaves, from a notion the
unhappy creatures had, that after death they should be restored
again to their families, friends, and country ; to convince them
at least that some disgrace should attend them here, he ordered
one of their dead bodies to be tied by the heels to a rope, and so
let down into the sea ; and, though it was drawn up again with
great swiftness, yet in that short space, the sharks had bit off all
but the feet. Whether this story is prior to an accident of the
same kind, which happened at Belfast in Ireland, about twenty
years ago, I will not take upon me to determine ; but certain it
is, there are some circumstances alike in both, though more ter-
rible in that I am going to relate. A Guinea captain was, by
stress of weather, driven into the harbour of Belfast, with a lad-
ing of vei-y sickly slaves, who, in the manner above-mentioned, took
every opportunity to throw themselves overboard when brought
up upon the deck, as usual, for the benefit of the fresh air. The
captain perceiving, among others, a woman slave attempting to
drown herself, pitched upon her as a proper example to the rest.
As he supposed that they did not know the terrors attending
death, he ordered the woman to be tied with a rope under the
arm-pits, and so let her down into the water. When the poor
creature was thus plunged in, and about half way down, she was
heard to give a terrible shriek, which at first was ascribed to her
fears of drowning ; but soon after, the water appearing red all
round her, she was drawn up, and it was found that a shaik,
which had followed the ship, had bit her oflf from the middle. *

* A singular circumstance occurred in February 1814, at St Vincent, in
Jamaica. A gentleman, named Whitlow, sailing in a boat at night from the
leeward port of Kingston, and sitting in the stern sheets, a large shark that
had foUoAved made at length a spring at his intended victim, knocked off his
hat, but at the same time fell into the boat. The gentleman, with great
presence of mind, immediately jumped up and secured the voracious mon
ster with a cloak and some bandages. It measured twelve feet, and was of
enormous weight.

A Calcutta paper contains the following extract of a letter from Kidge.

FISHES. 4)93

Such is the frightful rapacity of this animal ; nothing that ha<
life is rejected. But it seems to have a peculiar enmity to man ;
when once it has tasted human flesh, it never desists from haunt
ing those places where it expects the return of its prey. It is
even asserted, that along the coasts of Africa, where these ani-
mals are found in great abundance, numbers of the negroes, who
are obliged to frequent the waters, a«-e seized and devoured by
them every year. The people of these coasts are firmly of
opinion, that the shark loves the black man's flesh in preference
to the white, and that when men of difl!'erent colours are in the
water together, it always makes choice of the former.

However this be, men of all colours are equally afraid ol
this animal, and have contrived difl^erent methods to destroy him.
In general, they derive their success from the shark's own rapa
city. The usual method of our sailors to take him, is by baiting
a great hook %vith s>»piece of beef or pork, which is thrown out
into the sea by a strong cord, strengthened near the hook with an
iron chain. Without this precaution, the shark would quickly
bite the cord in two, and thus set himself free. It is no un-
pleasant amusement to observe this voracious animal coming up
to survey the bait, particularly when not pressed by hunger.
He approaches it, examines it, swims round it, seems for a
while to neglect it, perhaps apprehensive of the cord and chain ;
he quits it for a little ; but his appetite pressing, he returns
again ; appears preparing to devour it, but quits it once more.
When the sailors have sufficiently diverted themselves with his
dilferent evolutions, they then make a pretence, by drawing the
rope, as if intending to take the bait away : it is then that the

ree, dated June 8t1i, ISli. " A boat belonging to tlic Ingles came up here thai
morning for water, and anchored in about one and a half fathom : a pool
fi'llow belonging to her, attempted to swim on shore ; but, horrid to relate,
scarcely had he plunged into the water, when he was attacked by two larj>o
voracious sharks, who stripped the flesh from his legs and thighs. We
nastened to his relief, and dragged the unhappy man to the shore, when he
instantly expired. 1 never before beheld such a spectacle."

We happen to know an old sailor in the suburbs of Ghisgow, who lost one
of his legs by the bite of a shark. He had been bathing (in what sea we for-
l^et) when suddenly he felt a numbness in his limb, and would have sunk
hut for the a.ssistance of his comrades. On being lilted aboard, his limb was
found to be gone, and so sudden and dexterous had the amputation Ium-u,
that it wa> unaccompanied by any innnediate pain, lioyoud the nunitmeag
adverted to.

9i».

496 HISTORY OF

glutton's hunger excites him ; he darts at the bait, and swallows it,
hook and all. Sometimes, however, he does not so entirely gorge
the whole, but that he once more gets free ; yet even then, though
wounded and bleeding with the hook, he will again pursue the
bait until he is taken. When he finds the hook lodged in his
maw, bis utmost efforts are then excited, but in vain, to get
free ; be tries with his teeth to cut the chain ; he pulls with all
his force to break the line ; he almost seems to turn his stomach
inside out, to disgorge the hook : in this manner he continues
bis formidable though fruitless efforts ; till, quite spent, he suf-
fers his head to be drawn above water, and the sailors, confining
bis tail by a noose, in this manner draw him on ship-board, and
despatch him. This is done by beating him on the head till
he dies ; yet even that is not effected without difficulty and dan-
ger; the enormous creature, terrible even in the agonies of
death, still struggles with his destroyers ; nor is there an ani-
mal in the world that is harder to be killed. Even when cut
in pieces, the muscles still preserve their motion, and vibrate
for some minutes after being separated from the body. An-
other method of taking them, is by striking a barbed instru-
ment, called a fizgig, into his body, as he brushes along by the
side of the ship. As soon as he is taken up, to prevent his
flouncing, they cut off the tail with an axe, with the utmost
expedition.

This is the manner in which Europeans destroy the shark ;
but some of the Negroes along the African coast, take a bolder
and more dangerous method to combat their terrible enemy.
Armed with nothing more than a knife, the Negro plunges into
the water, where he sees the shark watching for his prey, and
boldly swims forward to meet him : though the great animal does
not come to provoke the combat, he does not avoid it, and suffers
the man to approach him ; but just as he turns upon his side to
seize the aggressor, the Negro watches the opportunity, plunges
his knife into the fish's belly, and pursues his blows with such
success, that he lays the ravenous tyrant dead at the bottom : he
soon however returns, fixes the fish's head in a noose, and drags
him to shore, where he makes a noble feast for the adjacent
villages.

Nor is man alone the only enemy this fish has to fear : the
Kemora, or Sucking-fish, is probably a still greater, and follows

FISHES.

497

the shark every where. This fish has got a power of adhering
to whatever it sticks against, in the same manner as a cupping-
glass sticks to the human body. It is by such an apparatus that
tliis animal sticks to the shark, and drains away its moisture.
The seamen, however, are of opinion, that it is seen to attend
on the shark for more friendly purposes, to point him to his prey,
and to apprise him of his danger. For this reason it has been
called the Shark's Pilot. *

The shark so much resembles the whale in size, that some
have injudiciously ranked it in the class of cetaceous fishes ; but
its real rank is in the place here assigned it, among those of the
cartilaginous kind. It breathes with gills and lungs, its bones are
gristly, and it brings forth several living young : Belonius assures
us, that he saw a female shark produce eleven live young ones at
a time. But I will not take upon me to vouch for the veracity
of Ilondeletius, who, when talking of the blue shark, says, that
the female will permit her small brood, when in danger, to swim
down her mouth, and take shelter in her belly. Mr Pennant,
indeed, seems to give credit to the story, and thinks that this
fish, like theoppossum, may have a place fitted by nature for the

* In the month of May, 1793, Citizen Geoffrey found himself between
Cape Bon and the island of Malta, where, much fatigued with the long con-
tinuance of a calm, the attention of all the passengers was excited by a shark
advancing^ tfjwards the vessel. The two pilots which preceded him, were
eenn Ut direct their coiu-se towards the poop of the vessel, which they in-
kjected twice, from one end to the other ; but tinding that there was no.
thing which they n)ight turn to their lulvantage, they resumed their former
rout* : the shark never lost sight of his friends, but followed, as if he had
been dragged by tlunn. As soon as he was descried, one of the sailors threw
a large hook into the sea, baited with lard. The three travellers, though
Jhey hiul airejuly priiceedcd to the distance of 20 or 25 millemetres, hearing
the noise occasioned by the fiUlof the bait, stopped short, and the two pilots
detached themselves toe.xamine the vessel ; the shark, during their absence,
sported on the surfax'e of the water, turned himself on his back and dived,
but always re-appeare<i at the same place. 'Jhe pilots had no sooner dis-
covered the lard, than they returned to their master with great velocity,
made every effort to got before him, ami then suddenly returned in the di-
rection towards the vessel. They were followed by the shark, who appear.
ed not to discover the lard, till the moment it was pointed out to him by his
guides ; it was then only that he began to swim with greater velocity, or
rather uuide a .jump to seize it, when the hook penetrated his lip, and he
wa.s immediately hoisted on board. It would be interesting to inquire into
the causes of such a9in«ular iwssociation, and to find out whether, according
to the opiiiiou of Cit. liosc, it is the dung ol the ;.hark that allurc^s the pilot.
fish.

2 T 3

"tOS HISTORY OF

reception of her young. To his opinion much deference is due,
and is sufficient, at least, to make us suspend our dissent ; for
nothing is so contemptible as that affectation of wisdom which
some display, by universal incredulity.'

Upon the whole, a shark, when living, is a very formidable
animal ; and, when dead, is of very little value. The flesh is
hardly digestible by any but the Negi'oes, who are fond of it to
disti'action : the liver affords three or four quarts of oil ; some
imaginary virtues have been ascribed to the brain ; and its skin
is, by great labour, polished into that substance called shagreen.
Mr Pennant is of opinion, that the female is larger than the male
in all this tribe ; which would, if confirmed by experience, make
a striking agreement between them and birds of prey. It were
to be wished that succeeding historians would examine into this
observation, which is offered only as a conjecture !

CHAP. III.

OF CARTILAGINOUS FLAT-FISH, OR THE RAY KIND.

The same rapacity which impels the shark along the surface
of the water, actuates the flat fish at the bottom. Less active,
and less formidable, they creep in security along the bottom, seize
every thing that comes in their way ; neither the hardest shells
nor the sharpest spines give protection to the animals that bear
them ; their insatiable hunger is such, that they devour all ; and
the force of their stomach is so great, that it easily digests them.

The whole of this kind resemble each other very strongly in
their figure ; nor is it easy, without experience, to distinguish
one from another. The stranger to this dangerous tribe may

1 Sharks, as well as the Ray tribe, bring- forth their young alive, moro
than one at a time, and each inclosed in a square horny case, terminated at
the four corners by slender filaments. After being in the water some time_
these natural pouches open at one end, and the young fish escapes from his
confinement, lliese receptacles are, in the shark, of a peUucid horn-colour,
terminated at the corners by very long slender filaments, wluch are gener-
ally foiuid tmsted round coral, sea-weeds, and other substances, to prevent
their being driven on shore before the young is excluded : those of the Ray
tribe are black, with the filaments hardly longer than the case, and arc fre-
(jueutly ca;>t on our shores in groat abundance.

FISHES, 4'99

imafi^iiie he is only handling a skate, when he is instantly struck
nvimb by the torpedo ; he may suppose he has caught a thorn-
back, till he is stung by the tire-flare. It will be proper, there-
fore, after describing the general figure of these animals to mark
their differences.

All fish of the ray kind are broad, cartilaginous, swimming
flat on the water, and having spines on diff'erent parts of their
body, or at the tail. They all have their eyes and mouth placed
quite under the body, with apertures for breathing either about or
near them. They all have teeth, or a rough bone, which ansvvei s
the same purpose. Their bowels are very wide towards the
mouth, and go on diminishing to the tail. The tail is very difl^er.
ently shaped from that of other fishes ; and at first sight more re-
sembling that of a quadruped, being narrow, and ending either in
a bunch or a point. But what they aie chiefly distinguished by,
is, their spines or prickles, which the difiTerent species have on
diflferent parts of their body. Some are armed with spines both
above and below ; others have them on the upper part only ;
some have their spines at the tail ; some have three rows of them,
and others but one. These prickles in some are comparatively
soft and feeble j those of others, strong and piercing. The
smallest of these spines are usually inclining towards the tail ;
the larger towards the head.

It is by the spines that these animals are distinguished from
each other. The skate has the middle of the back rough, and a
single row of spines on the tail.* The sharp-nosed ray has ten
spines that are situated towards the middle of the back. The

* Tlie skate is a well known fish, long and flat, if not caupht before his
full (frowtli, when he is from five to six feet in length. His skin is black,
and so very hiird and rough, that it is often employed in polishing wood and
ivory like the skin of a sea dog. This fish is extremely voracious, and arm.
ed with terrible teeth ; nevertheless he has recourse to stratagem, catrhintf
his living food by concealing himself under the sands. The French make of
its ashes an excellent soap for a certain cutaneous disorder, which is g<"ne-
rally cured by sulphur, and by tliem called savon d'atige. Pliny attributed
to the flesh of this fish a singular virtue when applied fresh to the necks of
women, — that of preventing thera from growing too largo : it is ccrtiiin it
was very much used by tl.e Romans ; and Uondelet, one of the first na-
turalists of the sixteenth century, assures us that he tried the experiment ,
with success. Skate are found in abundance on the coasts of Britain, and
arc in season from November to May, although the voung ones are ({uoJ
throughout the year.

500 HlSTOllY OF

rough ray lias its spines spread indiscriminately over the whole
back. The thorn-back has its spines disposed in three rows
upon the back. The fire-flare has but one spine, but that indeed
a terrible one. — This dangerous weapon is placed on the tail,
about four inches from the body, and is not less than five inches
long It is of a flinty hardness, the sides thin, sharp-pointed,
and closely and sharply bearded the whole way. The last of
this tribe that I shall mention is the torpedo •, and this animal
has no spines that can wound ; but in the place of them it is pos-
sessed of one of the most potent and extraordinary faculties in
nature.

Such are the principal differences that may enable us to dis-
tinguish animals, some of which are of very great use to man-
kind, from others that are terrible and noxious. With respect
to their uses, indeed, as we shall soon see, they differ much ; but
the similitude among them, as to their nature, appetites, and
conformation, is perfect and entire. They are all as voracious
as they are plenty ; and as dangerous to a stranger, as useful to
him who can distinguish their diff"erences.

Of all the larger fish of the sea, these are the most numerous ;
and they owe their numbers to their size. Except the white
shark and cachalot alone, there is no other fish that has a swal-
low large enough to take them in ; and their spines make them
a still more dangerous morsel. Yet the size of some is such,
that even the shark himself is unable to devour them ; we have
seen some of them in England weigh above two hundred pounds ;
but that is nothing to their enormous bulk in other parts of the
world. Labat tells us of a prodigious ray that was speared by
the Negroes at Guadaloupe, which was thirteen feet eight inches
oroad, and above ten feet from the snout to the insertion of the
tail. The tail itself was in proportion, for it was no less than
fifteen feet long, twenty inches broad at its insertion, and taper-
ing to a point. The body was two feet in depth ; the skin as
ick as leather, and marked with spots ; which spots, in all of
this kind, are only glands, that supply a mucus to lubricate and
soften the skin. This enormous fish was utterly unfit to be
eaten by Europeans ; but the Negroes chose out some of the
nicest bits, and carefully salted them up as a most I'avourite pro-
vision.

Yet, large as this may stem, it i:^ vciy probable that wc hyve

FISHES. OOI

seen only the smallest of the kind ; as they generally keep at the
bottom, the largest of the kind are seldom seen ; and as they
may probably have been growing for ages, the extent of their
magnitude is unknown. It is generally supposed, however, that
they are. the largest inhabitants of the deep ; and, were we to
credit the Norway bishop, there are some above a mile over
But to suppose an animal of such a magnitude is absurd ; yet the
overstretching the supposition does not destroy the probability
that animals of this tribe grow to an enormous size.

The ray generally chooses for its retreat such parts of the sea
as have a black muddy bottom j the large ones keep at greater
depths; but the smaller approach the shores, and feed upon
whatever living animals they can surprise, or whatever putrid
substances they meet with. As they are ravenous, they easily
take the bait, yet will not touch it if it be taken up and kept a
day or two out of water. Almost all fish appear much more
delicate with regard to a baited hook than their ordinary food.
They appear by their manner to perceive the line, and to dread
it ; but the impulse of their hunger is too great for their cau-
tion ; and, even though they perceive the danger, if thoroughly
hungry they devour the destruction.

These fish generate in March and April ; at which time only
they are seen swimming near the surface of the water, several
of the males pursuing one female. They adhere so fast together
in coition, that the fishermen frequently draw up both together,
though only one has been hooked. The females are prolific to
an extreme degree ; there having been no less than three hundi'ed
eggs taken out of the body of a single ray. These eggs are
covered with a tough horny substance, which they acquire in the
womb ; for before they descend into that, they are attached to
the ovary pretty much in the same manner as in the body of a
pullet. From this ovary, or egg-bag, as it is vulgarly called,
the fish's eggs drop one by one into the womb, and there receive
a shell by the concretion of the fluids of that organ. When
come to proper maturity, they are excluded, but never above one
or two at a time, and often at intervals of three or four hours.
These eggs, or purses, as the fishermen call them, are usually
cast about the beginning of May, and they continue Casting dur-
ing the whole summer. In October, wlien tlicir breeding ceases,
they are exceedingly poor and thin ; but in November they be-

502 HISTOHY OF

};iii to improve, and grow gradually bitter till May, when tlify
are in the highest perfection.

It is chiefly during the winter season that our fishermen take
them ; but the Dutch, who are indefatigable, begin their opera-
tions earlier, and fish with better success than we. The method
practised by the fishermen of Scarborough is thought to be the
best among the English ; and, as Mr Pennant has given a very
succinct account of it, I will take leave to present it to thu
reader.

" When they go out to fish, each person is provided with three;
lines : each man's lines are fairly coiled upon a flat oblong piece
of wicker-work ; the hooks being baited and placed very regularly
in the centre of the coil. Each line is furnished with two hun-
dred and eighty hooks, at the distance of six feet two inches froir
each other. The hooks are fastened to lines of twisted horse
hair, twenty-seven inches in length.

" When fishing, there are always three men in each coble ; and
consequently nine of these lines are fastened together, and used
as one line, extending in length near three miles, and furnished
with above two thousand five hundred hooks. An anchor and
a buoy are fixed at the first end of the line, and one more at each
end of each man's lines ; in all, four anchors, and four buoys
made of leather or cork. The line is always laid across the cur-
rent. The tides of flood and ebb continue an equal time upon
our coast; and, when undisturbed by winds, run each way about
six hours. They are so rapid that the fishermen can only shoot
and haul their lines at the turn of the tide ; and therefore the
lines always remain upon the ground about six hours. The same
rapidity of tide prevents their using hand lines ; and, therefore, two
of the people commonly wrap themselves in the sail and sleep,
while the other keeps a strict look-out, for fear of being rup
•'own by ships, and to observe the weather ; for storms often
ise so suddenly, that it is sometimes with extreme difficulty
they escape to the shore, though they leave their lines behind
them.

" The coble is twenty feet six inches long, and five feet ex-
treme breadth. It is about one ton burden, rowed with three
pair of oars, and admirably constructed for the purpose of en-
countering a mountainous sea. They hoist sail when the wind
suits.

FISHES. 503

" The five men-boat is forty feet long, fifteen broad, and
twenty-five tons burden. It is so called, though navigated by
six men and a boy ; because one of the men is hired to cook, and

does not share in the profits with the other five All our able

fishermen go in these boats to the herring fisliery at Yarmouth,
the latter end of September, and return about the middle of
November. The boats are then laid up until the beginning of
Lent, at which time they go off in them to the edge of the Dog-
ger, and otlier places, to fish for turbot, cod, ling, skate, &c.
They always take two cobles on board, and when they come upon
their ground, anchor the boat, throw out the cobles, and fish in
the same manner as those do who go from the shore in a coble ;
with this difl!erence only, that here each man is provided with
double the quantity of lines, and, instead of waiting the return
of the tide in the coble, return to the boat, and bait their other
lines J thus hauling one set, and shooting another, every turn of
tide. They commonly run into the harbour twice a-week, to
deliver their fish. The five-men-boat is decked at each end,
but open in the middle, and has two long sails.

" The best bait for all kinds of fish, is fresh herring cut in
pieces of a proper size ; and, notwithstanding what has been
said to the contrary, they are taken there at any time in the
winter, and all the spring, whenever the fishermen put down
some nets for that purpose : the five-men-boats always take some
nets for that end. Next to herrings are the lesser lampreys,
which come all winter by land-carriage from Tadcaster. The
next baits in esteem are small haddocks cut in pieces, s.ind-
worrns, muscles, and limpets ; and, lastly, when none of these
can be found, they use bullock's liver. The hooks used there
are much smaller than those employed at Iceland and New-
foundland. Experience has shown that the larger fish will take
a living small one upon the hook, sooner than any bait that can
be put on ; therefore they use such as the fish can swallow. The
hooks are two inches and a half long in the shank ; and near an
inch wide between the shank and the point. The line is made
of small cording, and is always tanned before it is used. All
the rays and turbots are extremely delicate in their choice of
baits : if a piece of herring or haddock has been twelve hours out
of the sea, and then used as a bait, they will not touch it."

Such is the manner of fishing for those fish that usually keep

504 HISTORY OF

near the bottom on the coasts of England ; and Uuhamel ob-
serves, that the best weather for succeeding, is a half-calm,
when the waves are just curled with a silent breeze.

But this extent of line, which runs, as we have seen, three
miles along the bottom, is nothing to what the Italians throw out
ill the Mediterranean. Their fishing is carried on in a tartan,
which is a vessel much larger than ours ; and they bait a line of
no less than twenty miles long, with above ten or twelve thou-
sand hooks. This line is called the parasina : and the fishing
goes by that of the pielago. This line is not regularly drawn
every six hours, as with us, but remains for some time in the
sea, and it requires the space of twenty-four hours to take it up.
By this apparatus they take rays, sharks, and other fish ; some
of which are above a thousand pounds weight. When they
have caught any of this magnitude, they strike them through
with a harpoon to bring them on board, and kill them as fast as
they can.

This method of catching fish is obviously fatiguing, and
dangerous ; but the value of the capture generally repays the
pains. The skate and the thornback are very good food, and
their size, which is from ten pounds to two hundred weight,
very well rewards the trouble of fishing for them. But it some-
times happens that the lines are visited by very unwelcome in-
truders ; by the rough ray, the fire-flare, or the torpedo. To
all these the fishermen have the most mortal antipathy; and,
when discovered, shudder at the sight : however, they are not
always so much upon their guard, but that they sometimes feel
the different resentments of this angry tribe ; and, instead of a
prize, find they have caught a vindictive enemy. When such is
the case, they take care to throw them back into the sea with
the swiftest expedition.

The rough ray inflicts but slight wounds with the prickles
with which its whole body is furnished. To the ignorant it
seems harmless, and a man would at first sight venture to take
it in his hand, without any apprehension ; but he soon finds,
that there is not a single part of its body that is not armed with
spines ; and that there is no way of seizing the animal but by
the little fin at the end of the tail.

But this animal is harmless, when compared to the fire-flare,
wliiith seems to be the dread of even the boldest and most ex-

KISHF.S. 505

perienced fishermen. Tlie weapon with wliich nature has armed
this animal, which grows from the tail, and which we described
as barbed, and five inches long, hath been an instrument of ter-
ror to the ancient fishermen as well as the modem : and they
have delivered many tremendous fables of its astonishing effects.
Pliny, ^lian, and Oppian, have supplied it with a venom that
affects even the inanimate creation : trees that are struck by it
instantly lose their verdure, and rocks themselves are incapable
of resisting the potent poison. The enchantress Circe armed
her son with a spear headed with the spine of the trygon, as the
most irresistible weapon she could furnish him with ; a weapon
that soon after was to be the death of his own father.

" That spears and darts," says Mr Pennant, " might in very
early times have been headed with this bone instead of iron, we
have no doubt. The Americans head their arrows with the
bones of fishes to this day ; and, from their hardness and sharp-
ness, they are no contemptible weapons. But that this spine is
possessed of those venomous qualities ascribed to it, we have
every reason to doubt ; though some men of high reputation,
and the whole body of fishermen, contend for its venomous
effects. It is, in fact, a weapon of offence belonging to this
animal, and capable, from its barbs, of inflicting a very terrible
wound, attended with dangerous symptoms ; but it cannot be
possessed of any poison, as the spine has no sheath to preserve
the supposed venom on its surface ; and the animal has no gland
that separates the noxious fluid : besides, all those animals that
are furnished with envenomed fangs or stings, seem to have
them strongly connected with their safety and existence ; they
never part with them ; there is an apparatus of poison prepared
in the body to accompany their exertions ; and when the fangs
or stings are taken away, the animal languishes and dies. Lut
it is otherwise with the spine of the fire flare ; it is fixed to the
tail, as a quill is into the tail of a fowl, and is annually shed in
the same manner : it may be necessary for the creature's defence,
but it is no way necessary for its existence. The wound in-
flicted by an animal's tail, has something terrible in the idea, and
may from thence alone be supposed to be fatal. From hence
terror might have added poison to the pain, and called uj)
imagined dangers : the Negroes universally believe that the
sting is poisonous ; but they never die of the wound ; for by

in. 2 u

50G HISTOKY OF

opening tlie fish, and laying it on the part injured, it effects a
speedy cure. The slightiiess of the remedy proves the innocence
of the wound. '

The Torpedo is an animal of this kind, equally formidable
and well known with the former ; but the manner of its operat-
ing is to this hour a mystery to mankind. The body of this fish
is almost circular, and thicker than others of the ray kind ; the
skin is soft, smooth, and of a yellowish colour, marked, as all the
kind, with large annular spots ; the eyes very small ; the tail
tapering to a point ; and the weight of the fish from a quarter to
fifteen pounds. Redi found one twenty-four pounds weight.
To all outward appearance, it is furnished with no extraordinary
powers ; it has no muscles formed for particularly great exer-
tions ; no internal conformation perceptibly difltring from the
rest of its kind ; yet such is that unaccountable power it pos-
sesses, that, the instant it is touched, it numbs not only the hand
and arm, but sometimes also the whole body. The shock re-
ceived, by all accounts, most resembles the stroke of an electrical
-nachine ; sudden, tingling, and painful. " The instant," says
Kempfer, " I touched it with my hand, I felt a terrible numb-
ness in my arm, and as far up as the shoulder. Even if one
treads upon it with the shoe on, it affects not only the leg, but
the whole thigh upwards. Those who touch it with the foot,
are seized with a stronger palpitation than even those who touch
it with the hand. — This numbness bears no resemblance to that
which we feel when a nerve is a long time pressed, and the foot
is said to be asleep ; it rather appears like a sudden vapour,
which passing through the pores in an instant, penetrates to the
very springs of life, from whence it diffuses itself over the whole
body, and gives real pain. The nerves are so affected, that the
person struck imagines all the bones of his body, and particularly
those of the limb that received the blow, are driven out of joint.
All this is accompanied with a universal tremor, a sickness of
the stomach, a general convulsion, and a total suspension of tin
faculties of the mind. In short," continues Kempfer, "such i*^
the pain, that all the force of our promises and authority could
not prevail upon a seaman to undergo the shock a second time.

1 The account of the venomous properties of this spine, as well a^ that it
is shed annually, appears to be altog^ether fabulous. It is probable that, by
its great strength, it may be able to inflict a painfully lacerated wound.

FISHES. 507

A negro, indeed, that was standing by, readily undertook to

touch the torpedo, and was seen to handle it without feeling any

')f its effects. He informed us, that his whole secret consisted

n keeping in his breath ; and we found, upon trial, that this

nethod answered with ourselves. When we held in our breath,

he torpedo was harmless ; but when we breathed ever so little,

its efficacy took place."

Kempfer has very v.'ell described the effects of this animal's
cshock ; but succeeding experience has abundantly convinced us,
that holding in the breath no way guards against its violence.
Those, therefore, who depending on that receipt, should play
with a torpedo, would soon find themselves painfully undeceived i
not but that this fish may be many times touched with perfect
security ; for it is not upon every occasion that it exerts its po-
tency. Reaumur, who made several trials upon this animal, has
at least convinced the world that it is not necessarily, but by an
effort, that the torpedo immbs the hand of him that touches it.
He tried several times, and could easily tell when the fish in-
tended the stroke, and when it was about to continue harmless.
7\lways before the fish intended the stroke, it flattened the
back, raised the head and the tail, and then, by a violent con-
traction in the opposite direction, struck with its back against
the pressing finger ; and the body, which before was flat, became
humped and round.

But we must not infer, as he has done, that the whole effect
of this animal's exertions arises from the greatness of the blow
which the fingers receive at the instant they are struck. We
will, with him, allow the stroke is very powerful, equal to that
of a musquet-ball, since he will have it so ; but it is very well
known, that a blow, though never so great, on the points of the
fingers, diffuses no numbness over the whole body : such a blow
might break the ends of the fingers indeed, but would hardly
numb the shoulder. Those blows that innnb, must be applied
immediately to some great and leading nerve, or to a large sm--
face of the body ; a powerful stroke applied to the points of the
fingers will be excessively painful indeed, but the numbness will
not reach i)eyond the fingers themselves. We mu.st, tliercfore,
look for another cause producing the powerful effects wrought
by the torpedo.

Others have ascribed it to a trcMiulotis motion which tliis

■-• ,• •>

.508

msrouv of

animal is found to possess, somewhat resembling that of a horse's
skin, when stung by a fly. This operating under the toueh with
an amazing quickness of vibration, they suppose produces the
uneasy sensation described above; something similar to what we
feel when we rub plush cloth against the grain. But the cause
is quite disproportioned to the effect ; and so much beyond our
experience, that this solution is as difficult as the wonder we
want to explain.

The most probable solution seems to be, that the shock pro-
ceeds from an animal electricity, which this fish has some
hidden power of storing up, and producing on its most urgent
occasions. The shocks are entirely similar ; the duration of the
pain is the same; but how the animal contrives to renew the
charge, how it is prevented from evaporating on contiguous ob-
jects, how it is originally procured, these are difficulties that
time alone can elucidate.

But to know even the effects is wisdom. Certain it is, that
the powers of this animal seem to decline with its vigour; for
as its strength ceases, the force of the shock seems to diminish ;
till, at last, when the fish is dead, the whole power is destroyed,
and it may be handled or eaten with perfect security : on the
contrary, when immediately taken out of the sea, its force is
very great, and not only affects the hand, but if even touched
with a stick, the person finds himself sometimes affected. This
power, however, is not to be extended to the degree that some
would have us believe ; as reaching the fisherman at the end of
the line, or numbing fishes in the same pond. Godignus, in his
History of Abyssinia, carries this quality to a most ridiculous
excess ; he tells us of one of these that was put into a basket
among a number of dead fishes, and that the next morning the
people, to their utter astonishment, perceived that the torpedo
had actually numbed the dead fishes into life again.

To conclude, it is generally supposed that the female torpedo
is much more powerful than the male. Lorenzini, who has
made several experiments upon this animal, seems convinced
that its power wholly resides in two thin muscles that cover a
part of the back. These he calls the trembling fibres ; and
he asserts that the animal may be touched with safety in any
other part. It is now known also that there are more fish, than
this of the ray kind, possessed of the numbing quality, which has

FISHES. 509

Hcquired them the name of the torpedo. These are described by
Atkins and Moore, and found in great abundance along the coast
of Africa. They are shaped like a mackarel, except that tlie
liead is much larger ; the effects of these seem also to differ in
some respects. Moore talks of keeping his hand upon the
animal ; which in the ray torpedo it is actually impossible to do.
" There was no man in the company," says he, " that could bear
to keep his hand on this animal the twentieth part of a minute,
it gave him so great pain ; but upon taking the hand away, the
numbness went off, and all was well again. This numbing
quality continued in this torpedo even after it was dead ; and the
veiy skin was still possessed of its extraordinary power till it
T)ecame dry." Condamine informs us of a fibh possessed of the
powers of the torpedo, of a shape very different from the former,
and every way resembling a lamprey. This animal, if touched
by the band, or even with a stick, instantly benumbs the hand
and arm to the very shoulder ; and sometimes the man falls down
under the blow. These animals, therefore, must affect the
nervous system in a different manner from the former, both with
respect to the manner and the intention ; but how this effect is
wrought, we must be content to dismiss in obscurity.'

1 From a number of experiments made by Mr Walsh, and communirated
to the Royal Society, it appears that the powers of this animal are purely
electric ; though no spark could ever be discovered to proceed from it, nor
WQve pith-balls ever affected by it. "A live Torpedo," says he, "was
placed on a table; round another table stood five persons insulated; two
brass wires, ea<-h thirteen feet htng, were suspended from the ceiliiif^ by
silken strings ; one of these wires rested by one end on the wet napkin on
which the fish lay ; the other end was immersed in a basin full of water,
placed on a second table, on which stood four other basins likewise full of
water ; the first person put a fin^'er of one hand in the basin in which the
wire was imraeised, and a fini,'er of the other hand in a second basin, the
second person put a fiuffer of one hand in this last basin, and a fiufjer of the
other hi.nd in the third; and so on successively, till the five persons com.
municated with one another by the water in the basins. In the last basin,
one end of thesecimd wire was immersed, and with the other end Mr Walsh
touched the torpedo ; when five persons felt a commotion, which differed in
nothing from that of the Leyden experiment, except in tlio deg-ree of force.
Mr Walsh, who was not in the circle of conduction, received no shock.
The action of the torpedo is communicated by the same mediums as that of
the electric fluid; and the bodies which intercept the action of the one, in.
tercept likewise the action of the other. The effect produced by the tor.
pedo, when in air, appeared, on many repeated experiments, to be .iboiit
four times as string as. when in water. '1 ho nuitibness produced by the

"^10 lllSroRY OK

CHAP. IV.

OF THE LAMPREY, AND ITS AFIJNITIES.

Tjiebb is a species of tlie Lamprey served up as a great rieli-
«';icy iimong the modern Romans, very different from ours.
Whether theirs be the maraena of the ancients, I w ill not pre-
tend to say ; but there is nothiig more certain than that our
lamprey is not. The Roman lamprey agrees with the ancient
fish in being kept in ponds, and considered by the luxurious as a
very great delicacy.

The lamprey, known among us, is differently estimated, ac-
cording to the season in which it is caught, or the place where it
has been fed. Those that leave the sea to deposit their spawn
in fresh waters are the best : those that are entirely bred in our
rivers, and that have never been at sea, are considered as much
inferior to the former. Those that are taken in the months of
March, April, or May, just upon their leaving the sea, are
reckoned very good ; those that are caught after they have cast
their spawn, are found to be flabby, and of little value. Those
caught in several of the rivers in Ireland, the people will not
venture to touch ; those of the English Severn, are considered
as the most delicate of all other tish whatever. *

eliook of the torpedo was imitated by artificial electricity, and sliowii to be
producible by a quick coucussion of minute shocks. This, in the torpedo,
may be effected by the successive discharges of his numerous cylinders,
the organs of its power, in the nature of a running tire of musquetry ; the
strong single shock may be his general volley. In the continued eflect, as
well as the instantaneous, his eyes, which are usually prominent, are with-
drawn into their sockets. A coated vial was applied to it, but could not be
charged. — Two other fishes are known to possess this extraordinary power :
the electrical Eel, which is able to give a shock even greater than the tor.
pedo; and the electric Silurus, whose shock is much less vigoroius than
either of the others.

* There are about 9 species of lampreys known. — Tlie Lesser Lampret/.
This fish inhabits Europe, Japan, and the lakes of South America ; it mea-
sures from twelve to fifteen inches long : it ascends fresh water rivers in the
spring, and after a few months returns again to the sea. Its body is varied
with transverse waved lines, above it is blackish, yellowish at the sides, and
whitish beneath ; its head is of a greenish colour ; behind the row of lesser
teeth there are larger ones, of which there are seven coiuiected above, be-
noatli there are two distant ; the eyes arc small ; the iris it. of a gold colou i

IIIJULS. 611

The lamprey much resembles an eel in its general a|)pearance,
but is of a lighter colour, and rather a clumsier make. It differs
however in the mouth, which is round, and placed rather ob-
liquely below the end of the nose. It more resembles the moutli
of a leech than an eel ; and the animal has a hole on the top of
the head through which it spouts water, as in the cetaceous kind.
There are seven holes on each side for respiration ; aiul the fins
are formed rather by a lengthening out of the skin, than any set
of bones or spines for that purpose. As the mouth is formed
resembling that of a leech, so it has a property resembling that
animal, of sticking close to and sucking any body it is applied to.
It is extraordinary the power they have of adhering to stones ;
which they do so firmly, as not to be drawn off without some
difficulty. We are told of one that weighed but three pounds,
and yet it stuck so firmly to a stone of twelve pounds, that it
remained suspended at its mouth, from which it was separated
with no small difficulty. This amazing power of suction is sup-
posed to arise from the animal's exhausting the air within its
body by the hole over the nose, while the mouth is closely fixed
to the object, and permits no air to enter. It would be easy to
determine the weight this animal is thus able to sustain ; which
will be equal to the weight of a column of air of equal diametei
withthe fish's mouth.

From some peculiarity of formation, this animal swims gene-
rally with its body as near as possible to the surface ; and it
might easily be drowned by being kept by force for any time
under water. Muralto has given us the anatomy of this animal ;
but, in a very minute description, makes no mention of lungs.
Yet I am very apt to suspect, that two red glands tissued with
nerves, which he describes as lying towards the back of the head,
are no other than the lungs of this animal. The absolute ne-
cessity it is under of breathing in the air, convinces me that it

towards the head there is the appearance of a lateral line, tlie fins arc of a
violet colrmr ; and the second dorsal fin aiiffulatc.

The I.dtnpern is also an inhabitant of the Enropoan rivers, particularly
the Isis, near Oxford ; is from six to seven inches long. It conceals itself
under stones, or in the mud, an<l does not adhere to stones like the others ;
the body is round, and tapering at each end, and luuiulate ; it is of a ffreen-
ish colour ahove, yellowish at the sides, and white hencalh ; the mouth i«
lohate, and without teeth ; the flns are hardly a line broad ; the second dor
6al fill i. liiicar; the tail lanceolate, and iiliaip at the end.

O'. '- HtSrOKY OK

mufct have lungs, though I do not know of any anatomist that
has described tliem.

The adhesive quality in the lamprey may be, in some measure,
increased by that sbmy substance with which its body is all over
smeared ; a substance that serves at once to keep it warm in its
cold element, and also to keep its skin soft and pliant. This
mucus is separated by two long lymphatic canals, that extend on
each side from the head to the tail, and that furnish it in great
abundance. As to its intestines, it seems to have but one great
bowel, running from the mouth to the vent, narrow at both ends,
and wide in the middle.

So simple a conformation seems to imply an equal simplicity
of appetite. In fact, the lamprey's food is either slime and
water, or such small water-insects as are scarcely perceivable.
Perhaps its appetite may be more active at sea, of which it is
properly a native ; but when it comes up into our rivers, it is
hardly perceived to devour any thing.

Its usual time of leaving the sea, which it is annually seen to
do in order to spawn, is about the beginning of spring ; and after
a stay of a few months it returns again to the sea. Their pre-
paration for spawniing is peculiar ; their manner is to make holes
in the gravelly bottom of rivers ; and on this occasion their suck-
ing power is particularly sernceable ; for if they meet with a
stone of a considerable size they will remove it, and throw it
out. Their young are produced from eggs in the manner of flat
fish ; the female remains near the place where they are excluded,
and continues with them till they come forth. She is sometimes
seen with her whole family playing about her ; and after some
time she conducts them in triumph back to the ocean.

But some have not sufficient strength to return ; and these
continue in the fresh water till they die. Indeed the life of this
fish, according to Rondeletius, who has given its history, is but
f very short continuance ; and a single brood is the extent of
the female's fertility. As soon as she has returned after cast-
ing her eggs, she seems exhausted and flabby. She becomes
old before her time ; and two years is generally the limit of her
existence.

However this may be, they are very indifTerent eating after
they have cast their eggs, and particularly at the approach of hot
weather. The best season for them is the months of March,

FISHES. 313

April, and May ; and they are usually taken in nets with sal.
inon, and sonnetimes in baskets at the bottom of the river. It
has been an old custom for the city of Gloucester aimually to
present the king with a lamprey-pie ; and as the gift is made at
Christmas, it is not without great difficulty the corporation can
procure the proper quantity, though they give a guinea a-piece
for taking them.*

How much they were valued among the ancients, or a fish
bearing some resemblance to them, a|)pears from all the classics
that have praised good living, or ridiculed gluttony. One story
we are told of this fish, witli which I will conclude its history.
A senator of Rome, whose name does not deserve being trans-
mitted to posterity, was famous for the delicacy of his lampreys.
Tigelinus Manucius, and all the celebrated epicures of Rome,
were loud in his praises : no man's fish had such a flavour, was
so nicely fed, or so exactly pickled. Augustus, hearing so much
of this man's entertainments, desired to be his guest ; and soon
found that fame had been just to his merits ; the man had in-
deed very fine lampreys, and of an exquisite flavour. The em-
peror was desirous of knowing the method by which he fed his
fish to so fine a relish ; and the glutton, making no secret of his
art, informed him, that bis way was to throw into his ponds such
of his slaves as had at any time displeased him. Augustus, we
are told, was not much pleased with his receipt, and instantly
ordered all his ponds to be filled up. The story would have
ended better if he had ordered the owner to be flung in also.

CHAP. V.

OF Tilt; STUKGEON, AND ITS VARIETIES.

ThK Sturgeon, with a form as terrible, and a body as large,
as the shark, is yet as liarinlcss as tiie fish we have been just
describing ; incapable and unwilling to injure others, it flies
from the smallest fishes, and generally falls a victim to its own
timidity.

• Henry I. eif England died nf n siiid-if from raliii),' lainprcyj.

51 I HISTOUY OF

The sturgeon, in its general form, resembles a freshwater
pike. The nose is longj the mouth is situated beneath, beiiii,'
small, and without jaw-bones or teeth. But though it is so
harmless and ill provided for war, the body is formidable enough
to appearance. It is long, pentagonal, and covered with live
rows of large bony knobs, one row on the back and two on each
side, and a number of fins to give it greater expedition. Of this
fish there are three kinds ; the Common Sturgeon, the Caviai
Sturgeon, and the Huso or Isinglass Fish.* The first has
eleven knobs or scales on the back ; the second has fifteen ; and
the latter thirteen on the back, and forty-three on the tail.
These differences seem light to us who only consider the ani-
mal's form ; but those who consider its uses find the distinction
of considerable importance. The first is the sturgeon, the flesh
of which is sent pickled into all parts of Europe. The second,
is the fish from the roe of which that noted delicacy called Ca-
viar is made ; and the third, besides supplying the caviar, fur-
nishes also the valuable commodity of isinglass. They all grow
to a very great size ; and some of them have been found above
eighteen feet long.

There is not a country in Europe but what this fish visits at
different seasons ; it annually ascends the largest rivers to spawn,
and propagates in an amazing number. The inhabitants along
the banks of the Po, the Danube, and the Wolga, make great
profit yearly of its incursions up the stream, and have their nets
prepared for its reception. The sturgeon also is brought daily
to the markets of Rome and Venice, and they are known to
abound in the Mediterranean sea. Yet those fish that keep en-
tirely either in salt or fresh water are but comparatively small.
When the sturgeon enjoys the vicissitude of fresh and salt wa-
ter, it is then that it grows to an enormous size, so as almost to
rival even the whale in magnitude.

Nor are we without frequent visits from this much esteemed
fish in England. It is often accidentally taken in our rivers iK
salmon-nets, and particularly in those parts that are not far re-
mote from the sea. The largest we have heard of, caught in
Great Britain, was a fish taken in the Eske, where they are

• Fivp species of sturjjoon -mo now known. The new arc the Riitliinns
uud tilt! StcUutus, both cit w Inch iuhahit the Ca.spiaii .Sea.

FISHES. 515

most frequently (otiiifi, which weighed four hundred and sixty
pounds. An enormous size to those who have only seen our
tresh-water fishes !

North America also furnishes the sturgeon : their rivers in
May, June, and July, supply them in very great abundance. At
that time they are seen sporting in the water, and leaping from
its surface several yards into the air. When they fall again on
their sides, the concussion is so violent, that the noise is heard,
in still weather, at some miles distance.

But of all places where this animal is to be found, it appears
no where in such numbers as in the lakes of Frischehaff and
Curischaff, near the city of Pillau. In the rivers also that
empty themselves into the Euxine sea, this fish is caught in
great numbers, particularly at the mouth of the river Don. In
all these places the fishermen regularly expect their arrival from
the sea, and have their nets and salt ready prepared for their re-
ception.

As the sturgeon is a harmless fish, and no way voracious, it
is never caught by a bait in the ordinary manner of fishing, but
always in nets. From the description given above of its mouth,
it is not to be supposed that the sturgeon would swallow any
hook capable of holding so large a bulk and so strong a swimmer.
In fact, it never attempts to seize any of the finny tribe, but lives
by rooting at the bottom of the sea, where it makes insects and
sea-plants its whole subsistence. From this qudity of fiounder-
iiig at the bottom it has received its name ; which comes from
the German verb Jloeren, signifying to wallow in the mud. That
it lives upon no large animals is obvious to all those who cut it
open, where nothing is found in its stomach but a kind of slimy
substance, which has induced some to think it lives only upon
water and air. From hence there is a German proverb, which
is applied to a man extremely temperate, when they say, he is
as moderate as a sturgeon.

As the sturgeon is so temperate in its appetites, so is it also
equally timid in its nature. There would be scarcely any method
of taking it, did not its natural desire of propagation induce it to
incur so great a variety of dangers. The smallest fish is alone
sufficient to terrify a shoal of sturgeons ; for, being unfurnished
with any weapon of defence, they are obliged to trust to their
swiftness and their caution for fccurity. Like all animals that

516 HisTOKY or

do not make war upon others, sturgeons live in society amonj^
themselves ; rather for the purposes of pleasure than from any
power of mutual protection. Gesner even asserts, that they are
delighted with sounds of various kinds ; and that he has seen
them shoal together at the notes of a trumpet.

The usual time, as was said before, for the sturgeon to come
up rivers to deposit its spawn, is about the beginning of summer,
when the fishermen of all great rivers make a regular preparation
for its reception. At Pillau, particularly, the shores are formed
into districts, and allotted to companies of fishermen, some of
which are rented for about three hundred pounds a-year. The
nets in which the sturgeon is caught are made of small cord, and
placed across the mouth of the river ; but in such a manner that,
whether the tide ebbs or flows, the pouch of the net goes with
the stream. — The sturgeon thus caught, while in the water, is
one of the strongest fishes that swims, and often breaks the net
to pieces that incloses it ; but the instant it is raised, with its
head above water, all its activity ceases ; it is then a lifeless,
spiritless lump, and suffers itself to be tamely dragged on shore.
It has been found prudent, however, to draw it to shore gently;
for if excited by any unnecessary violence, it has been found to
break the fisherman's legs with a blow of its tail. The most
experienced fishers, therefore, when they have drawn it to the
brink, keep the head still elevated, which prevents its doing any
mischief with the hinder part of the body : others, by a noose,
fasten the head and the tail together ; and thus without imme-
diately despatching it, bring it to the market, if there be one
near, or keep it till their number is completed for exportation.

The flesh of this animal, pickled, is very well known at all
the tables of Europe •, and is even more prized in England than
in any of the countries where it is usually caught. The fisher-
men have two different methods of preparing it. The one is h^
cutting it in long pieces lengthwise, and, having salted them, by
hanging them up in the sun to dry : the fish thus prepared is
sold in all the countries of the Levant, and supplies the want
of better provision. The other method, which is usually prac-
tised in Holland, and along the shores of the Baltic, is to cut
the sturgeon crosswise, into short pieces, and put it in small bar-
rels, witli a pickle made of salt and saumure. This is the stur-
geon which is sold in England ; and of which great quantities

FISHES. 517

came from the North, until we gave encouragement to the im-
portation of it from North America. From thence we are very
well supplied J but it is said, not with such good fish as those
imported from the North of Europe.

A very great trade is also carried on with the roe of the stur-
geon, preserved in a particular manner, and called Caviar : it is
made from the roe of all kinds of sturgeon, but particularly the
second. This is much more in request in other countries of
Europe than with us. To all these high-relished meats, the
appetite must be formed by degrees ; and though formerly, even
in England, it was very much in request at the politest tables, it
is at present sunk entirely into disuse. It is still, however, a
considerable merchandise among the Turks, Greeks, and Vene-
tians. Caviar somewhat resembles soft soap in consistence ;
but it is of a brown, uniform colour, and is eaten as cheese with
bread. The manner of making it is this : they take the spawn
from the body of the sturgeon — for it is to be observed, the stur-
geon differs from other cartilaginous lish, in that it has spawn
like a cod, and not eggs like a ray. They take the spawn, I
say, and freeing it from the small membranes that connect it to-
gether, they wash it witli vinegar, and afterwards spread it to dry
upon a table ; they then put them into a vessel with salt, break-
ing the spawn with their hands, and not with a pestle ; this done,
tliey put it into a canvass bag, letting the liquor drain from it ;
lastly, they put it into a tub, with holes in the bottom, so that,
if there be any moisture still remaining, it may run out ; then it
is pressed down, and covered up close for use.

But the Huso or Isinglass fish furnishes a still more valuable
commodity. This fish is caught in great quantities in the Da-
nube, from tlie month of October to January : it is seldom under
fifty pounds weight, and often alxjve four hundred : its flesh is
soft, glutinous, and flabby ; but it is sometimes salted, which
makes it better tasted, and then it turns red like siUmon. It is
for the conmiodity it furnishes that it is cliiefly taken. Isinglass
is of a whitish substance, inclining to a yellow, done up into
rolls, and so exported for use. It is very well known as ser-
viceable, not only in medicine, but many arts. Tlie varnisher,
the wine-merchant, and even the clothier, know its uses ; and
very great sums are yearly expended upon this single article of
commerce. Tlie manner of making it is this : they take the

HI. 2 X.

518 HISTORY OF

skin, the entrails, the fins, and the tail of this fish, and cut them
into small pieces ; these are left to macerate in a sufficient quan-
tity of warm water, and they are all boiled shortly after with a
slow tire, until they are dissolved and reduced to a jelly ; this
ielly is spread upon instruments made for the purpose, so, tha'
drying, it assumes the form of parchment, and, when quite dry
it is then rolled into the form which we see in the shops.*

This valuable commodity is principally furnished from Russia
where they prepare great quantities surprisingly cheap. Mi
Jackson, an ingenious countryman of our own, found out an ob-
vious method of making a glue at home that answered all the
purposes of isinglass ; but what with the trouble of making it,
and perhaps the arts put in practice to undersell him, he was, as
I am told, obliged to discontinue the improvement of his dis-
covery. Indeed, it is a vain attempt to manufacture among our-
selves those things which may be more naturally and cheaply
supplied elsewhere. We have many trades that are unnaturally,
if I may so express it, employed among us ; who furnish more
laboriously those necessaries with which other countries could
easily and cheaply supply us. It would be wiser to take what
they can thus produce ; and to turn our artizans to the increase
and manufacture of such productions as thrive more readily
among us. Were, for instance, the number of hands that we
have now employed in the manufacture of silk, turned to the in-
crease of agriculture, it is probable that the increased quantity
of corn thus produced, would be more than an equivalent for the
diminution of national wealth in purchasing wrought silk from
other countries.

CHAP. VI.

or ANOMALOUS CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.

Of all others, the Cartilaginous class seems to abound with
the greatest variety of ill-formed ajiimals; and, if philosophy

* Isingflass is prepai'od from various othor fishes, but principally from tlip
WliitP Holphin, or Belluga of North Araorica. This well-knowu substauc*
is made from the sound, or ;ur-b)addei'.

FISHK3. 510

could allow the expression, we might say, that the cartilaginous
class was the class of monsters ; in fact, it exhibits a variety of
shapeless beings, the deviations of which from the usual form of
fishes are beyond the power of words to describe, and scarcely of
the pencil to draw. In this class we have the Pipe Fish, that
almost tapers to a thread, and the Sun Fish, that has the ap--
pearance of a bulky head, but the body cut off in the middle ;
the Hippocampus, with a head somewhat like that of a horse,
and the Water Bat, whose head can scarcely be distinguished
from the body. In this class we find the Fishing Frog, which
from its deformity some have called the Sea Devil ; the Chi-
msera, the Lump Fish, the Sea Porcupine, and the Sea Snail.
Of all these the history is but little known ; and naturalists
supply the place with description.

The Sun Fish sometimes grows to a very large size ; one
taken near Plymouth was live hundred weight. In form it re-
sembles a bream, or some deep fish cut off in the middle : the
mouth is very small, and contains in eac-h jaw two broad teeth,
with sharp edges : the colour of the back is dusky and dappled,
and the belly is a silvery white. When boiled, it has been ob-
served to turn to a glutinous jelly, and would most probably
serve for all the purposes of isinglass, were it found in sufficient
l)lenty.

The Fishing I'rog in shape very much resembles a tadpole or
young frog ; but then a tadpole of enormous size, for it grows to
above five feet long, and its mouth is sometimes a yard wide.
Nothing can exceed its deformity. The head is much bigger
than the whole body ; the under jaw projects beyond the upper,
and both are armed with rows of slender sharp teeth : the palate
and the tongue are furnished with teeth in like manner : the
eyes are placed on the top of the head, and are encompassed
with prickles : immediately above the nose, are two long beards
or filaments, small in the beginning, but thicker at the end, and
round : these, as it is said, answer a very singular purpose ; for be-
ing made somewhat resembling a fishing-line, it is asserted, that
the animal converts them to the purposes of fishing. With these
extended, as Pliny asserts, the fishing frog hides in muddy wa-
ters, and leaves nothing but the beards to be seen : the curiosity
of the smaller fish brings them to view these filaments, and their
hunger induces them to seize the bait ; upon which the animal

2x2

520 HISTORY OF

in ambush instantly draws in its filaments, with the little fish
that had taken the bait, and devours it without mercy. This
story, though apparently improbable, has found credit among
some of our best naturalists ; but what induces me to doubt the
fact is, that there is another species of this animal, that has no
beards, which it would not want if they were necessary to the
existence of the kind. Rondeletius informs us, that if we take
out the bowels, the body will appear with a kind of transparence ;
and that if a lighted candle be placed within the body, as in a
lantern, the whole has a very formidable appearance. The
fishermen, however, have in general a great regard for this ugly
fish, as it is an enemy to dog-fish, the bodies of those fierce and
voracious animals being often found in its stomach : whenever
they take it, therefore, they always set it at liberty.

The Lump Fish is trifling in size, compared to the former :
its length is but sixteen inches, and its weight about four pounds ;
the shape of the body is like that of a bream, deep, and it swims
edgeways ; the back is sharp and elevated, and the belly flat ;
the lips, mouth, and tongue of this animal, are of a deep red ;
the whole skin is rough, with bony knobs ; the largest row is
along the ridge of the back ; the belly is of a bright crimson
colour: but what makes the chief singularity in this fish, is an
oval aperture in the belly, surrounded with a fleshy soft sub-
stance that seems bearded all round ; by means of this part it
adheres with vast force to any thing it pleases. If flung into a
pail of water, it will stick so close to the bottom, that on taking
the fish by the tail, one may lift up pail and all, though it holds
several gallons of water. Great numbers of these fish are found
along the coasts of Greenland in the beginning of summer,
where they resort to spawn. Their roe is remarkably large,
and the Greenlanders boil it to a pulp for eating. They are ex-
tremely fat, but not admired in England, being both flabby and
insipid.

The Sea Snail takes its name from the soft and unctuous
text>ire of its body, resembling the snail upon land. It is al-
most transparent, and soon dissolves and melts away. It is but
a little animal, being not above five inches long. The colour,
when fresh taken, is of a pale brown, the shape of the body round,
and the back fin reaches all the way from the head to the tail,
Beneath the throat is a round depression, of a whitish colour

FISHES. 521

Burrouiided by twelve brown spots, placed ia a circle. It is
taken in England at the mouth of rivers, four or five miles dis-
tant from the sea.

The body of the Pipe Fish, in the thickest part, is not thicker
than a swan-quill, while it is above sixteen inches long. This
IS angular, but the angles being not very sharp, they are not dis-
cernible until the fish is dried. Its general colour is an olive-
brown, marked with numbers of bluish lines, pointing from the
back to the belly. It is viviparous ; for on crushing one that
was just taken, hundreds of very minute young ones were ob-
served to crawl about.*

» Tlie following is a description of a tobacco pipe fish taken at Salcomb in
1807.— Length twenty inches and a half, viz. ten to the vent, and ten and a.
half to the end of the tail : the snout similar to that of acics ; its length to
the eye three quarters of an inch ; from thence to the end of the gill, in-
cluding the eye, one inch : the form of the body rather compressed, and
angular, with an acute dorsal and abdominal ridge, which, together with
three slight angles on each side, gave it an octangular appearance ; it was
of equal size from the gills to the vent, which part contains about thirty
plates ; from the vent to the extremity of the tail it was almost round, and
extremely taper, containing about sixty-six plates j immediately behind^the
vent, the body suddenly decreased to one-third less in diameter ; but this
may have been a sexual distinction.

Tlie Gar Fith.— The Gar Fish belongs to the class of needle fish, which
denomination they have received from the extreme length of their bodies in
proportion to their thickness. They have no scales, but scuta or bucklers,
with several angles. The hexagonal form of the body and the anal fin, are
the distinguishing characters of the gar fish. Hie body is composed of
eighteen scuta, and the tail of thirty-six, which form as many joints; the
tail is square. It is found in the North and Baltic seas ; it scarcely exceeds
the length of a foot, and the thickness of a finger. Besides the appellation
of needle tish and gar fish, it is sometimes called by that of a shorter pipe
and horn fish.

The Needle Fish are natives of the ocean, and the North and Baltic seas.
They are usually found in deep places near the coasts, where they are
caught with other fish. Thoy produce their joung in a perfect state, one
after the other, from eggs hatched in their bodies, like the sharks and rays.
Having but little flesh they are fit only for baiting lines ; and they are the
more proper for this purpose as they are tenacious of life ; and it is well
known that fish bite more eagerly at a living bait than a dead one.

The Sea Adder, or little pipe, is noiu-ly,rouud, having only some very small
and scarcely perceptible aiiguUu- projections on the sides. It has but one fin ;
and the body is divided into joints, like that of the common worm. It grows
to the length of two feet, and is not thicker than a swan's quill. It in-
habits the North and Baltic seas, and it of the same nature aa the two for.
mer fish.

The Long File Fisfi.—7he body of the long flle fish is not very deep ; th»

2x3

322 HISTORY OF

The Hippocampus, which, from the form of its head, some
call the Seahorse, never exceeds nine inches in length. It is
about as thick as a man's thumb, and the body is said, while
alive, to have hair on the fore-part, which falls off when it is
dead. The snout is a sort of a tube with a hole at the bottom,
to which there is a cover, which the animal can open and shut at
pleasure. Behind the eyes there are two fins which look like
ears ; and above them are two holes which serve for respiration.
The whole body seems to be composed of cartilaginous rings,
on the intermediate membranes of which several small prickles
are placed. It is found in the Mediterranean, and also in the
Western Ocean ; and, upon the whole, more resembles a great
caterpillar than a fish. The ancients considered it as extremely
venomous ; probably induced by its peculiar figure.

From these harmless animals, covered with a slight coat of
mail, we may proceed to others, more thickly defended, and
more formidably armed, whose exact station in the scale of fishes
is not yet ascertained. While Linnaeus ranks them among the
cartilaginous kinds, a later naturalist places them among the
spinous class With which tribe they most agree, succeeding

skin is divided by smooth furrows, with small rough scale-like spaces • each
of these, on the sides, have a small spine pointing towards the tail ; the first
dorsal fin has three spines, the first of which is very large, and rough in
front like a file, and hence the English name ; the third very short, and si-
tuated at a considerable distance from the other two ; the skin at the back
and belly, at the base of the dorsal and anal fins drawn out and compressed ;
pectoral fins small ; dorsal and anal fins triangular, and situate nearly op-
posite each other ; the tail even at the end. A singular property is possessed
by the first dorsal fin of this fish, which is, that no force can depress the first
Bpine ; but if the last be depressed in ever so gentle a manner, the other two
mmediately fall down upon it, and as instantaneously as when a cross-bow
is let off by pulling the trigger. One sort found in the Mediterranean, near
Rome, is on that account called pisce balestra, the cross-bow fish.

There is another species, mentioned by Walcott, the body of which is
much compressed and deep ; the rays of the first dorsal fin, spiny ; the first
ray very long and rough ; first dorsal fin, and the back from its base, black ;
skin rough ; tail rough ; and in the place of each ventral fin a long rough
spine. Also another species, (named hispidus by naturalists,) is found in
Carolina; the head fin of which is not radiated, and there is a round black
spot in the tail fin. The body is rough, and bristly towiu-ds the tail. The
spine, or horn, is situated between the eyes; and instead of a belly fin it
lias a jagged sharp spine. Several more species, or varieties, are found in
the Indian ocean, and at Ascension island, all which, together with the uui-
torn, go by the general name of the bclestes.

FISHES. 523

observations must determine. At present \vt seem better ac-
quainted with their figure than their history : their deformity is
obvious ; and the venomous nature of the greatest number, has
been confirmed by fatal experience — This circumstance, as well
as the happy distance at which they are placed from us, being all
found in the Oriental or American seas, may have prevented a
more critical inquiry ; so that we know but little of the nature
of their malignity, and still less of their pursuits and enmities in
tlie deep.

In the first of this tribe we may place the Sea Orb, which is
almost round, has a mouth like a frog, and is from seven inches
to two feet long. Like the porcupine, from whence it some-
times takes its name, being also called the Sea Porcupine, it is
covered over with long thorns or prickles, which point on every
side ; and, when the animal is enraged, it can blow up its body
as round as a bladder. Of this extraordinary creature there are
many kinds ; some threatening only with spines, as the Sea
Hedgehog ; others defended with a bony helmet that covers the
head, as the Ostracion ; others with a coat of mail from the head
to the tail, where it terminates in a point, as the Centriscus ;
and others still armed offensively and defensively with bones and
spines, as the Shield Orb.*

• The Eared Ottracioru— Thin fish has a brown spine over each eye, two
«n each side of the back, tlie same on each side of the abdomen, and one on
each side of the body. Its teeth are cylindrical, blunt, and pointing for.
wards. The whole body is mailed with a complete bony covering. This
species is found about the islands of the Pacific ocean, and is readily distin-
guished from the rest of its cogeners. Its length is about four inches ani^
B half.

The I.ineated Te^rorfon.— The jaws are bony, and divided at the tip ; th«
body is roughened beneath, and the ventral fins wanting ; the abdomen is
variegated by longitudinal brown bands. This singular fish, which is a na-
tive of the Mediterranean sea, is also said to bo sometimes found in the river
Nile. Like many others of its genus, it has a power of inflating at plea.sure
the skin of its body ; and being covered on the abdomen with numerous
draall spines, is said to inflict considerable pain on the hands of those who
incautiou-sly touch it. It grows to the length of from eight to ten inches.

The Orbicular Diarfon.— This remarkable fish grows about a foot in length,
and is a native of the tropical seas. It is of a rounder shape than the Wa-
don llystria', or Porcupine Diadon: its jaws are bony, and undivided ; and
the body beset with moveable spines. The spines are much shorter than the
porcupine diadon, with broader bases, forming a kind of curved reticuliir
pattern on the skin.

The SaOj Cenlritcus.—'IXxc head of this fish is oroduicd iutci a very uiir-

524 HISTORY OF

Of these scarcely one is without its peculiar weapon of of-
fence. The ceiitriscus wounds with its spine ; the ostracion
poisons with its venom ; the orb is impregnable, and is absolute-
ly poisonous if eaten. Indeed, their figure is not such as would
tempt one to make the experiment ; and the natives of those
countries where they are found, are careful to inform foreigners
of their danger : yet a certain sailor at the Cape of Good Hope,
not believing what the Dutch told him concerning their venom,
was resolved to make the experiment, and break through a pre-
judice, which, he supposed, was founded on the animal's deform-
ity. He tried, and ate one ; but his rashness cost him his life ;
he instantly fell sick, and died a few days after.

These frightful animals are of different sizes; some not bigger
than a foot-ball, and others as large as a bushel. They almost
all flatten and erect their spines at pleasure, and increase the
terrors of their appearance in proportion to the approach of dan-
ger. At first they seem more inoffensive ; their body oblong,
with all their weapons pointing towards the tail ; buc, upon be-
ing provoked or alarmed, the body, that before seemed small,
swells to the view ; the animal visibly grows rounder and larger,
and all its prickles stand upright, and threaten the invader on
every side. The Americans often amuse themselves with the
barren pleasure of catching these frightful creatures by a line
and hook, baited with a piece of sea- crab. The animal ap-
proaches the bait with its spines flattened ; but when hooked
and stopped by the line, straight all its spines are erected ; the
whole body being armed in such a manner at all points, that it is

row snout ; Us mouth is toothless, with the lower jaw longer than the up-
per one. The gill -openings are wide ; its body is compressed, with the ab-
domen carinated; and the ventral fins united.

The Scaly Centriseus or Bellows Fish is a native of the Mediterranean sea,
and grows to the length of five or six inches : it feeds ou worms, and the
smaller kinds of marine insects.

The Telescope Fish.— The whole body of this fish, and the ground colour
of the fins, is of a beautiful red, darlier towards the baik, and lighter towards
the belly : the membranes of the fins are almost white; and the red rays
shining through them have a very fine effect ; the three white points of the
tail give you an idea of a trident or tulip. The head is short, but large ;
the month is small ; the nostrils single. The pupil of the eye is black, the
iris yellow ; the back is round ; the lateral line nearer the back than the
head. The scales on the belly are large ; the rays of the fins are ramified.
This beautiful fish is found in the fresh M-aters of China, and is supposed
be a variety of the gold fish.

FisHiis. 525

impossible to lay hold of it on any purt. For this reason it is
dragged to some distance from the water, and there it quickly
expires. In the middle of the belly of all these there is a sort
of bag or bladder filled with air, and by the inflation of which the
animal swells itself in the manner already mentioned.

In describing the deformed animals of this class, one is some-
limes at a loss whether it be a fish or an insect that lies before
him. Thus the hippocampus and the pipe-fish bear a strong
resemblance to the caterpillar and the worm ; while the lesser
orb bears some likeness to the class of sea-eggs to be described
after. I will conclude this account of cartilaginous fishes with
the description of an animal which I would scarcely call a fish,
but that Father Labat dignifies it with the name. Indeed, this
class teems with such a number of odd-shaped animals, that one
is prompted to rank every thing extraordinary of the finny spe-
cies among the number : but besides, Labat says, its bones are
cartilaginous, and that may entitle it to a place here.

The animal I mean is the Galley Fish, which Linnaeus de-
grades into the insect tribe, under the title of the Medusa, but
which I choose to place in this tribe, from its habits, that are
somewhat similar. To the eye of an unmindful spectator, this
fish seems a transparent bubble swimming on the surface of the
sea, or like a bladder variously and beautifully painted with
vivid colours, where red and violet predominate, as variously op-
posed to the beams of the sun. It is, however, an actual fish ;
the body of which is composed of cartilages, and a very thin skin
filled with air, which thus keeps the animal floating on the sur-
face, as the waves and the winds happen to drive. Sometimes
it is seen thrown on the shore by one wave, and again washed
back into the sea by another. Persons who happen to be walk-
ing along the shore often happen to tread upon these ani-
mals ; and the bursting of their body yields a report like that
when one treads upon the swim of a fish. It has eight broad
feet, with which it swims, or which it expands to catch the air
as with a sail. It fastens itself to whatever it meets by means
of its legs, which have an adhesive quality. Whether they move
when on shore, Labat could never perceive, though he did eviMy
thing to make them stir; he only saw that it strongly adhered
to whatever substances he applied it. It is very common in
America, and grows to the size of a goose-egg, or somewhat

526 HiSTORy OF fishes.

more. It is perpetually seen floating ; and no efforts that are
used to hurt it can sink it to the bottom. All that appears above
water is a bladder clear and transparent as glass, and shining
with the most beautiful colours of the rainbow. Beneath, in
the water, are four of the feet already mentioned, that serve as
oars, while the other four are expanded above to sail with. But
what is most remarkable in this extraordinary creature, is the
violent pungency of the slimy substance with which its legs are
smeared. If the smallest quantity but touch the skin, so caustic
is its quality, that it burns it like hot oil dropped on the part
affected. The pain is worst in the heat of the day, but ceases
in the cool of the evening. It is from feeding on these that he
thinks the poisonous quality contracted by some West Indian
fish may be accounted for. It is certain these animals are ex-
tremely common along all the coasts in the Gulf of Mexico ; and
whenever the shore is covered with them in an unusual manner,
it is considered as a certain forerunner of a storm.

BOOK III.

OF SPINOUS FISHES.

CHAP. I.

THE DIVISION OF SPINOUS FISHES.

The third general division of fishes is into that of the spinous
or bony kind. These are obviously distinguished from the rest
by having a complete bony covering to their j^ills ; by their being
furnished with no other method of breathing but gills only ; by
their bones, which are sharp and thorny ; and their tails, which
are placed in a situation perpendicular to the body. This is that
class which alone our later naturalists are willing to admit as
fishes. The cetaceous class with them are but beasts that have
taken up their abode in the ocean ; the cartilaginous class are
an amphibious band, that are but half denizens of that element :
it is fishes of the spinous kind that really deserve the appella-
tion.

This distinction the generality of mankind will hardly allow ;
but whatever be the justice of this preference in favour of the
spinous class, it is certain that the cetaceous and cartilaginous
classes bear no proportion to them in number. Of the spinous
classes are already known above four hundred species ; so that
the numbers of the former are trifling in comparison, and make
not above a fifth part of the finny creation.

From the great variety in this class, it is obvious how difficult
a task it must have been to describe or remember even a part of
what it contains. When six hundred different sorts of animals
offer themselves to consideration, the mind is bewildered in the
multiplicity of objects that all lay some claim to its attention.
To obviate this confusion, systems have been devised, which

528 HISTORY OF

(hrovving several lislies that agree in many particulars into one
group, and thus uniting all into so many particular bodies, the
mind that was incapable of separately considering each, is ena-
bled to comprehend all, when thus offered in larger masses to its
consideration.

Indeed, of all the beings in animated nature, fishes most de-
mand a systematical arrangement. Quadrupeds are but few, and
can be all known ; birds, from their seldom varying in their size,
can be very tolerably distinguished without system ; but among
fishes, which no size can discriminate, where the animal ten
inches, and the animal ten feet long, is entirely the same, there
must be some other criterion by which they are to be distin-
guished; something that gives precision to our ideas of the ani-
mal whose history we desire to know.

Of the real history of iishes, very little is yet known ; but of
very many we have full and sufficient accounts, as to their ex-
ternal form. It would be unpardonable, therefore, in a history
of these animals, not to give the little we do know ; and, at least,
arrange our forces, though we cannot tell their destination. In
this art of arrangement, Artedi and Linnaeus have long been
conspicuous : they have both taken a view of the animal's form
in different lights ; and, from the ])arts which most struck them,
have founded their respective systems.

Artedi, who was foremost, perceiving that some fishes had
prickly fins, as the pike; that others had soft pliant ones, as the
herring; and that others still wanted that particular fin by which
the gills are opened and shut, as the eel, made out a system from
these varieties. Linnaeus, on the other hand, rejecting this sys-
tem, which he found liable to too many exceptions, considered
the fins not with regard to their substance, but their position.
The ventral fins seem to be the great object of his system ; he
considers them in fishes sup])lying the same offices as feet i/i
quadrupeds; and from their total absence, or from their being
situated nearer the head or the tail, in diflferent fishes, he takes
the differences of his sj'stem.

These arrangemeiits, which are totally arbitrary, and which
are rather a method than a science, are always fluctuating ; and
the last is generally preferred to that which went before. There
hiis lately appeared, however, a system composed by Mr Gouan,
of Montpellier, that deserves applause for more than its novelty.

FISHES. 529

It appears to me the best arrangement of this kind that ever was
made; and in it the divisions are not only precisely systematica!,
but, in some measure, adopted by Nature itself. This learned
Frenchman has imited the systems of Artedi and Linnseus to-
gether ; and, by bringing one to correct the other, has made out
a number of tribes that are marked with the utmost precision,
A part of this system, however,, we have already gone through
in the cartilaginous, or, as he calls a part of them, the branchios-
tegous tribe of fishes. In the arrangement of these, I have fol-
lowed Linnaeus, as the number of them was but small, and his
method simple. But in that which is more properly called the
spinous class of Jishes, I will follow Mr Gouan's system •, the
terms of which, as well as of all the former systems, require some
explanation. I do not love to multiply the technical terms of a
science ; but it often happens that names, by being long used,
are as necessary to be known as the science itself.

If we consider the substance of the fin of a fish, we shall find
it composed, besides the skin, either of straight, hard, pointed,
bony prickles or spines, as in the pike ; or of soft, crooked, or
forked bones, or cartilages, as in the herring. — The fish that
have bony prickly fins, are called prickly-finned fish ; the latter,
that have soft, or cartilaginous fins, are called soft finned fish.
The prickly-finned fish have received the Greek new-formed
name oi Acanthopterigii ; the soft-finned fish have likewise their
barbarous Greek name of Malacopterigii. Thus far Artedi has
supplied Mr Gouan with names and divisions. All spinous
fish are divided into jirickly-finned fish and soft-finned fish.

Again, Litmaeus has taught him to remark the situation of
the fins ; for the ventral, or belly-fins, which are those particu-
larly to be remarked, are either wholly wanting, as in the eel, and
then the fish is called Apodal (a Greek word, signifying with-
out feet) ; or the ventral-fins are placed more forward than the
pectoral-fins, us in the haddock, and then the animal is a Jugu-
lar-fish ; or the ventral-fins are placed directly under the pectoral-
fins, as in the father-lasher, and then it is called a Thoracic-fish ;
or, lastly, the ventral-fins arc placed nearer the tail than the
pectoral-fins, as in the minnow, and then it is an Abdominal-fish.
Possessed of these distributions, the French naturalist mixes
and unites them into two grand divisions. All the prickly-finned
fish make one general division ; all the soft-iinned fish another.
III. 2 V

530 HISTORY OF

These first are distinguished from each other, as being either
apodal, jugular, thoracic, or abdominal. Thus there are prickly-
finned o;;o</a/ fishes ; prickly-finnedya^!/?«r fishes ; prickly- finned
thoracic fishes ; and prickly-finned abdominal fishes. On the
other hand, the soft-finned fishes fall under a similar distribution,
and make the other general division. Thus there are soft-finned
a/jorfa/ fishes, soft-finned Ji/^^ufer fishes, soft-finned thoracic fishes,
and soft-finned abdominal fishes. These general characters are
strongly marked, and easily remembered. It only remains, there-
fore, to divide these into such tribes as are most strongly marked
by nature ; and to give the distinct characters of each to form a
complete system with great simplicity. This Mr Gouan has
done ; and the tribes into which he has distributed each of these
divisions, exactly amount to fifty. Thus the reader, who can
contain in his memory the characteristic marks of fifty kinds
will have a tolerable idea of the form of every kind of spinous
fish. I say, of the form •, for as to the history and nature of the
animal itself, that can only be obtained by experience and infor-
mation.

SECT. L

PRICKLY-FINNED FISHES.

Prickly -finned Apodal Fish.

1. The Trichurus. The body of a sword- form ; the head
oblong ; the teeth sword-like, bearded near the points j the fore-
teeth largest ; the fin that covers the gills with seven spines ;
tlie tail ending in a point without fins ; an inhabitant near the
Oriental and American shores ; of a silvery white ; frequently
leaping into the fishermen's boats in China.

2. The Xiphias, or Sword-fish. The body round ; the head
long ; the upper-jaw terminating by a long beak, in form of a
sword ; the fin that covers the gills with eight spines ; an in-
habitant of Europe j an enemy to the whale.*

♦ Sword-fish are very large and powerful animals, often growing to ilio
length of twenty feet and upwards. Their voracity is unbounded, fur tb.y

ushils. 531

3. The Ophidium or Gilthead. The body sword.like ; the
head blunt J the fin covering the gills with seven spines; the
opening of the mouth side-ways ; the fins of the back, the anus,
and the tail, all joining together; the most beautiful of all fishes,
covered over with green, gold, and silver; it is by sailors called
the dolphin, and gives chase to the flying-fish.

attack and destroy almost every thing living that comes in their way. The
larger fish they penetrate with their long snout, few of whirh, when within
eight of them, can either withstand or avoid ils shock. There are but two
species, one of which is only found in the European seas ; the other, called
the Indian, or broad-fiuned sword-fish, inhabits the Brasilian and East
Indian seas, and also the Northern ocean. The body of a silvery bluish
white, except the upper parts of the back, and the head and tail, which are
of a deep brown. The skin is smooth, and without any appearance of scales.
From the long sharp-pointed process in front of the head, it would seem, on
a cursory view, to be allied to the European species ; but it differs trom this
ill having an extremely broad back fin, and two long sharp-pointed appen.
dagcs proceeding from the thorax.

In 1725, when his Majesty's ship Leopard, after her return from the coast
of Guinea and the West Indies, was ordered to be cleaned and re-fitted for
the channel Eervice, in stripping off her sheathing the sliipwrights found in
her bottom, pointing in a direction from the stern towards the head, part
of the sword or snout of one of these fish. On the outside this was rough,
not unlike seal-skin ; and the end, where it was broken off, appeared like a
coarse kind of ivory. The fis^h, from the direction in which the sword lay,
is supposed to have followed the ship when under sail. It had penetrated
through her sheathing, wliich was an inch thick ; passed through three
inches of plank, and beyond that four inches into the timber. The force
requisite to effect this (since the vessed sailed in a direction from the fish,)
must have been excessively great, especially as no shock was felt by the
persons on board. The workmen on the spot, declared it impossible, with
a hammer of a quarter of a hundred weight, to drive an iron pin of the same
form atid size into that wood, and to the same depth, in less than nine
strokes, whilst this had been effected by only one.

A letter « iis written to Sir Joseph Banks, as president of the Royal
Society, from tlie captain of an East India. man, about thirty years ago, ac-
companied witli an account of another instance of the amazing strength
which this fish occasionally exerts ; the bottom of this ship having been
pierced through iu such a manner, that the sword was completely embed-
ded or driven through its whole length, and the fish killed by the violence
of the effort. A part of the bottom of the vessel, with the sword embedded
in it, is noiv lodged in the British Museum.

The sword-fish and the whale are said never to meet without coming to
battle ; and the former has the repute of being always the aggressor. .'lomc-
finies two of them join sgainst one whale, in which the combat is by no
me.ins equal. When the whale discovers the sword-fish darting upon hiiti,
he dives to the bottom, but is closely pursued by his antagonist, who com-
pels him again to rise to the aurfaci.-.

2 y 2

532

uisroaY OF

Prickly -finned Jugular Fish.

4. The Trachinus or Weever. The body oblong ; the head
obtuse ; the bones covering the gills jagged at the bottom ; the
/ins covering the gills with six spines ; the anus near the breast ;
buries itself in the sands, leaving only its nose out ; and if trod
upon, immediately strikes with the spines that form its dorsal
fins, which are venomous and dangerous.

5. The Uranoscopus. The body wedge-like; the head almost
round, and larger than the body j the mouth flat ; the eyes on the
top of the head ; the fin covering the gills with six spines ; the
anus in the middle of the body; an inhabitant of the Mediter-
ranean Sea.

6. The Callyonymus or Dragonet. The body almost wedge-
like ; the head broad, and larger than the body ; the mouth even
with the body ; the bony covering of the gills close shut ; the
opening to the gills behind the head ; the fin covering the gills
with six spines ; an inhabitant of the Atlantic Ocean.

7. The Blennius or Blenny. The body oblong; the head
obtusely bevel ;' the teeth a single range ; the fin covering the
gills with six spines ; the ventral-fins have two small blunt bones
in each ; a species of this animal is viviparous.

Prickly-finned Thoracic Fish.

8. The Gobius or Gudgeon. The body round and oblong ;
the head with two little holes between the eyes, one before the
other ; the fin covering the gills with four spines ; the ventral-
fins joined together.*

9. The Cepola. The body sword-like ; the head blunt ; the
mouth flat ; the fin covering the gills with six spines ; the fins
distinct ; an inhabitant of the Mediterranean Sea.

♦ There is another species, called the Scorpio or Father.Iasher, which is
not uncommon on the rocky coasts of this island ; it lurks under stones, and
will take a bait. It seldom exceeds eight or nine inches in length. The
head is large, and has a most formidable appearance, being armed with vast
spines, which it can oppose to an enemy that attacks it, by swelling out its
cheeks and gill.covers to a large size. The nose and space contiguous to the
eyes are furnished with sharp spines ; the covers of the gills are terminated
by exceeding long ones, which are strong, and very sharp-pointed, llie
mouth is large : the jaws covered with very small teeth : the roof of the
mouth is furnished with a triangular spot of very minute teeth.

FISHES. 533

10. The Coryphcena or Razor-fish. The body wedge-like;
the head very bevel ; the fin covering the gills with five spines.

1 1. The Skomber or Mackarel. The body oblong ; the line
running down the side zigzagged towards the tail ; the head
sharp and small ; the tins covering the gills with seven spines ;
several false fins towards the tail. *

12. The Labrus or Wrasse. The body oval •, the head mid-
dling ; the lips doubled inward ; both cutting and grinding teeth ;
the covers of the gills scaly ; the fin covering the gills with five
spines ; the pectoral fins pointed.

13. The Spanis or Sea-bream. The body oblong; the head
middling; the lips not inverted; the teeth cutting and grinding ;
the cover of the gills scaly ; the fins covering the gills with five
rays ; the pectoral fins pointed.

14-. The Chatodon or Cat-fish. The body oblong ; the head

* The Thunny. — These fish are from two to ten feet in length. The body
is round and thick, and tapers nearly to a point both at the head and tail.
The skin of the back is very thick and black, and that of the sides and belly
silvery, tinned with light blue and pale purple. The tail is crescent-shaped,
with the tips far asunder; and the spurious fins between the dorsal fin and
the tail (which mark the species) are from eight to eleven in number. On
the coasts of Sicily, as well as in several other parts of the Mediterranean,
there are very considerable thunny fisheries. The nets are spread over a
large space of sea by means of cables fa-stened to anchors, and arc divided
into several compartments. \ man placed upon the summit of a rock high
above the water, gives the signal of the fish being arrived ; for he can dis-
cern from that elevation what passes under the water, much better than any
person near the surface. As soon as notice is given that a shoal of fish has
penetrated as far as the inner compartment of the net, the passage is drawn
close, and the slaughter begins. The thunnies enter the Mediterranean
about the vernal equinox, travelling in a triangular phalanx, so as to cut
the water with its point, and to present an extensive base for the tides and
currents to act ;igainst, and iinp(^l forwards. They repair to the warm seas
of Greece to spawn, steering their course thither along the Knmpean shores ;
but a^ they return they approach the African coiist : the young fry is placed
in the van of the squadron as they travel. They come back from the cast in
May, and abound at that time on the coast of Sicily and Calabria. In
autunui they steer northward, and frequent the neighbourhood of Amalphi
and Naples. Thoy are not uncommon on the western coasts of Scotland,
where they come iu pursuit of the liiTrings, and often during the night
strike into the nets, and do considerable damage. When the fishermen
draw up these in the morning, the thunny rises at the same tinu> towanls
the surface, ready to catch the fith that drop out. On its being oliM-rved, a
line is thrown into the water, having a strong hook baited with a herring,
which it seldom fails to seize. As soon as the fish finds itself ensnared, it
lobC'j all itf active powers, and after very little rebistaucc tubinlts to its fat«

2 K 3

iiSi HlSrOKY OF

small ; the teeth slender and bending ; the fin covering the gills
with three to six spines ; the fins of the back and anus scaly.

15. The Scicena. The body nearly elliptical; the head bevel,
the covers of the fins scaly ; the fin covering the gills with six
rays ; the fins of the back jagged, and hidden in a furrow in the
back.

16. The Perck. The body oblong ; the head bevel ; the covers
of the gills scaly and toothed •, the fin covering the gills with
seven spines ; the fins in some jagged.

17. The Scorpcena or Father-lasher. The body oblong ; the
head great, with beards ; the covers of the gills armed with
prickles ; the fin covering the gills with seven spines.

18. The Mulhs oi Surmulct. The body slender; the head
almost four-cornered ; the fin covering the gills with three spines ;
some of these have beards ; a fish highly prized by the Romans,
and still considered as a very great delicacy.

19. The Trigla or the Gurnard. The body slender; the
head nearly four-cornered, and covered with a bony coat, the fin
covering the gills with seven spines ; the pectoral and ventral
fins, strengthened with additional muscles and bones, and very
large for the animal's size.

20. The Cottus or Bull-head. The body wedge-like ; the
head flat and broader than the body ; the fin covering the gills with
six spines ; the head furnished with prickles, knobs, and beards.

21. The Zeus or Doree. The body oblong ; the head
large, bevel ; the fin covering the gills with seven rays ; the fins
jagged ; the upper-jaw with a loose floating skin depending into
the mouth.

22. The Trachipterus or Sabra. The body sword-like ;
the head bevel ; the tin covering the gills with six spines ; the
lateral line straight ; the scales in a single order ; a loose skin
in both the jaws.

23. The Gasterosteus or Stickleback. The body broadest to-
wards the tail ; the head oblong ; the fin covering the gills with
three, six, or seven spines ; prickles starting backward before
the back fins and the fins of the anus.*

* The fifteen-spined Stickleback or Great Stickleback. — This fish, which is
the largest species of the sticlilebacks, is slender, being only au inch thick,
Mnrt nine in lenglh : tlic snont is long ; and the body of a pentagonal figure
towards the tail, «li'.ch is flat. The mouth is small, and the npper jaw pro-

FIbHiiS. 535

Prickly-finned Abdominal Fish.

24-. The Silurus or Sheath-fixh. The body oblong ; the head
large ; the fin covering the gills from four to fourteen spines ;
the leading bones or spines in the back and pectoral fins toothed.

25. The Mugul or Mullet. The body oblong ; the head almost
conical; the upper-jaw with a furrow, which receives the pro-
minence of the under ; the fin covering the gills with seven
rays.

26. The Polynemus. The body oblong; the head with a
beak ; the fin covering the gills with from five to seven spines ;
the bones that move the pectoral fins not articulated to those
fins.

27. The Teuthys. The body almost elliptical ; the head
abruptly shortened ; the fin covering the gills with five rays ; the
teeth in a single row, close, strong, and even.

28. The Elops or Sea-Serpent. The body slender ; the head
large ; the fin covering the gills double, with thirty spines, and
armed externally with five bones resembling teeth.

jects beyond the lower. The gills and the bony plate on the belly are brown
upon the upper part, silvery and streaked upon the lower. It has two pec-
toral fins, one dorsal rising in a triangular form from the middle of the back ;
between this and the head are fifteen distinct spines inclined towards the
tail, which, when depressed, are insensible to the touch. The fins of the
belly consist of two spines, the foremost of which is the longest. In the fin
at the anus there is also a covered spine, but the other fins are soft and
ramified. Tin; fifteen-spined sticklebacks, like the last mentioned species,
are found in the Baltic sea and the Ocrman ocean ; they are very common in
Holland, and also near Lubeck in the dutchy of Holstein. M. Bloch says,
that their ordinary size does not exceed seven inches, and that he has found
small crabs in their stomach. The great stickleback does not ascend the
rivers like the other kinds, never leaving the soa, where it is taken among
other fish. Large quantities are sometimes taken by kindling a fire on the
shore, which draws them in shoals to the nets. A kind of lamp oil is ex-
tracted from them, and what remains is used as manure. Tdpy are, how.
ever, frequently oaten by the poor.

i3f> iiisroav OF

SECT. IJ.

so FT- FINNED FISHES.

Sofl-finned Apodal Fish.

29. The Murcena or Eel. The body round and slender ; tlie
head terminating in a beak ; the fin covering the gills with ten
rays ; the opening to the gills pipe-fashion, placed near the pec-
toral fins J the fins of the back, the anus, and the tail, united in
one.

30. The Gymnotus or Carapo. The body roundest on the
back, like the blade of a knife ; the head small ; the fin cover-
ing the gills with five rays ; the back without a fin ; two beards
or filaments from the upper lip ; an inhabitant of Brazil.*

31. The Anarhicas or Wolf-fish. The body roundish and
slender ; the head large and blunt ; the fore-teeth above and

* Electric Eels. — It is not only the crocodile and jaguar which in America
lie in ambush for the horse, but even among fishes this animal has a dange-
rous enemy. The marshy waters of Bera and Rastro are filled with the
electric eel, whose slimy yellow-spotted body sends forth at will terrible
shocks. These gymnotes are from five to six feet long, and sufficiently
strong to kill the most robust animals, when they bring their organs pro-
perly into action. At Uritucu they have been obUged to change the direc-
tion of the road, because the number of these ells had so much increased in a
little river, that annually a number of horses in passing the ford were killed.
All animals of their own element fly from these formidable eels ; even man
is surprised, when angling in the river, and receives the fatal shock by means
of the wetted line. The fishing for the gymnote presents a picturesque
spectacle. The Indians inclose a marshy spot and then drive horses and
mules into the water, until the noise excites these courageous fishes to the
attack. They are seen swiniminp on the surface like snakes, and admitly
insinuating themselves under the belly of the horses, many of which fall
under the violence of these invisible blows, while others, panting with
streaming mane and haggard eyes, expressive of anguish, strive to evade
the storm which threatens them ; but the Indians, armed with long bam-
boos, drive them back again into the middle of the water. The impetuosity
of this unequal combat at length diminishes. The gymnotes, fatigued, dis.
perse, like clouds deprived of the electric fluid, and require long repose and
abundant nourishment to repair the loss of the galvanic force. Their strokes,
getting feebler and feebler, produce a less sensible effect, until frightened at
length by the trampling of the horses, they timidly approach the banks, and
are then struck with harpoons by the Indians, and subsequently pulled on
the steppe with dry sticks, non-conductors of the fluid.

FISHES. 537

below conical ; the grinding teeth and those in the palate round
the fin covering the gill has seven rays.

32. The Stromateus. The body oblong; the head small
the teeth moderately sharp ; the fin covering the gills with five
or six rays.

33. The Ammodytes or Launce. The body slender and round
ish ; the head terminated by a beak ; the teeth of a hair-lik
fineness j the fin covering the gills with seven rays.

Snfl-finned Jugular Fish.

34. The Lepadogaster. The body wedge-like ; the head ob-
long, forwarder than the body, flattish, the beak resembling that
of a duck J the pectoral fins double, two on each side ; the ven-
tral-fins joined together; a kind of bony breast-plate between
the pectoral fins ; the fin covering the gills with five rays ; the
opening to the gills pipe-fashion.

35. The Gadus or Cod-fish. The body oblong ; the head
wedge-like ; the fin covering the gills with seven-rays ; several
back and anal fins.*

Soft-finned Thoracic Fish.

36. The Pleuronectes or Flat-fish. The body elliptical ; the

* The Haddock. — This well-known fish is a species of the cod ; it has a
bearded mouth, and three fins on the back ; the upper jaw longest, and the
tail a little forked. On each side of the body, just beyond the gills, there is
a dark spot, which the superstitious assert is the impression of St Peter's
finger and thumb, when he took the tribute money (at the command of his
Master) out of the mouth of a fish of this species, and which has ever since
been continued to the whole race of haddocks.

Haddocks seldom grow to any great size ; they very rarely become so
largo as to weigh twelve or fourteen pounds : they are esteemed more de-
licate eating when tliey do not exceed three pounds in weight. These fish,
during stormy weather, are s!ud to take shelter in the sand or mud, or
among the sea-weeds. 'ITiey feed on various small marine animals, and fre.
quently become fat on herrings. The females deposit their spawn on the
sea-weeds near the shore. The larger ones begin to be in roe in Novem.
ber, and continue so for somewhat more than two months : from this time
till May they are reckoned out of season, and are not good. They then
begin to recover. The small ones are extremely good from May till Feb.
ruary ; and those that are not nlil enough to breed, for oven two months
longer.

The wluting is another species of the cod, but without a benrd.

538 HISTORY OF

head small ; both eyes on one side of the head ; the fin covering
the gills with from four to seven rays.

37. The Echineis or Sucking-fish. The body almost wedge-
like, moderately round ; the head broader than the body ; the fin

* To this division the Tiirbot, Sole, Flounder, Plaice, Dab, &c. belong.
Turbots liave sometimes been known to weigh from twenty-five to thirty
pounds. Their general form is somewhat square. The upper parts of the
body and fins are cinereous, with dark spots ; and the under parts wliite :
on the upper parts there are numerous short and blunt spines. The eyes
are on the left side of the head.

The northern parts of the English coast, and some places oflf the coast of
Holland, afford turbots in great abundance, and in greater excellence there
than any otlier parts of the world. Lying here, however, in deep w.iters,
they are seldom to be caught but by lines. In fishing for turbot oft' the
Yorkshire coast, three men go out in each of the boats, each man provided
with three line;;, every one of which is furnished with two hundred and
eighty hooks, baited and placed exactly si.K feet two inches asunder. These
are coiled in an oblong piece of wicker-work, with the hooks baited and
placed very regularly in the centre of the coil. When they are used, the
nine are generally fastened together, so as to form one line witli about tu o
thousand hooks, and extending nearly three miles in length. This is al-
ways laid aeross the current. An anchor and a buoy are fixed at the end of
each man's line. The tides run here so rapidly, that the fishermen can only
shoot and haul their lines in the still water, at the turn of the tide ; and
therefore as it is flood and ebb about every alternate six hours, this is the
longest time the lines can remain on the ground. When the lines are laid,
two of the men usually wrap themselves in the sail and sleep, whilst the
tliird is on <.vatch to prevent their being run down by ships. The voracity
of the turbot in pursuit of its prey is oftentimes such, that it carries tliem
into the moutlis of rivers, or the entrance of ponds in salt marshes, which
communicate with the sea. But they are not contented with merely em-
ploying agility and strength in the procuring of their prey, they likewise
have recourse to stratagem. They plunge themselves into tlie mud or sand
at the bottom of the sea, and cover their whole body, except their eyes and
mouth. Thus concealed, they seize upon, and devour all the smaller kinds
of fish which incautiously approach them. It is said they are very particu.
lar in the choice of their food, refusing, invariably, all except living animals,
or such as are not in the least degree putrid. And the fishermen assert,
that they are never to be caught with baits « hich have been bitten by other
fibh. The Holibut has been known to attain so great a weight as between
two and three himdred pounds. Its general shape is long and narrow. 'I'lie
upper parts are dusky ; and the under parts white. The skin is smooth,
and destitute of spines. The eyes on the right side of the head.

The Sole. This wellknown and delicious fish is remarkable for one very

extraordinary circumstance ; among various other marine productions, they
have been known to feed on shell fish, idthough they are furnished wiih no
apparatus whatever in their mouth for reducing them to a state calculated
for digestion. Some that were purchased by Mr CoUinson, (as his letter in-
serted in the philosophical Transactions states,) had their bellies hard and

FISHES. 53!)

covering the gills with ten rays; an oval breast-plate, streaked
in form of a ladder, toothed.*

38. The Lipidopus or Gartar-fish. The body sword-like,
the head lengthened out ; the fins covering the gills with seven
rays ; three scales only on the whole body ; two in the place of
the ventral fins ; and the third from that of the anus.

prominent, appeared to be filled with rows of some hard substance, which,
on being opened, were found to be shell-fish. These, from the bulging ot
the shells and the intervening interstices, gave the intestines somewhat the
appearance of strings of beads. On further examination, some of them
were found nearly dissolved, others partly so, but many of them whole. The
most usual food of soles is, the spawn and young of other fish. These fish
are found on all of the British coasts j but those of the western shores are
much superior in size to what are taken in the north, since they are some-
times found of the weight of six or seven pounds. The principal fishery for
soles is in Torbay.

The Bearded Flounder. — The eyes of this fish are both on the same side
of the head. The body is compressed, one side representing the back, and
the other the abdomen. The whole body is scattered with gray spots ; and
it is bearded all round the fore part of the head. This fish is a native of the
Indian and Red seas, measuring seven or eight inches in length. It seems
to have been first considered a distinct species by Gronovius, but does nol
occur in the .Systema Natura; of Linnjeus.

The Plaice. — Plaice are very flat, and much more square than the gene,
rality of flat-fish. Behind the left eye there is a row of six tubercles, that
reaches to the commencement of the lateral line. The upper part of the
body and fins are of a clear brown, marked with large bright oranged-colour.
ed spots ; the belly is white. These fish are very common on most of our
coasts, and sometimes taken of the weight of fifteen pounds ; but they seldom
reach that size, one of eight or nine pounds being reckoned a large fish.
The best and largest .ire taken ofl'Rye, on the coast of Sussex, and in Ire-
land ; also off the Dutch coasts. They are watery eating; but are, not-
withstanding, admired by some. They spawn in the begiimingof February.

The Dab is found with the preceding species, but is less common. It
is generally of a uniform brown colour on the upper side, though some,
times clouded with a darker. The scales are small and rough, which is a
character of this species. The lateral line is extremely incurvated in the
beginning, then goes quite straight to the tail. The lower part of the body
is white. This tish is in best season during Tebruary, March, and April ;
they spawn in May and June, and become flabby and watery the rest of tli«
summer. They are superior in quality to the plaice and flounder, but rather
inferior in size.

• The Sucking fish was believed by the anrlent.s to have the power of nr.
resting the progress of a vessel by adhering to its bottom. They are found
adhering to the sides of sharks and other fish, and have been employed by
the Indians in catching fish somewhat in the same niumur a^ hawks are in
seizing birds.

540 lllSTOKY OF

Sofl-Jbined Abdominal Fish.

39. The Loricaria. The body crusted over ; the head broad
with a beak ; no teeth ; the fin covering the gills with six rays.

40. The Athenna or Alherine. The body oblong ; the head
of a middling size ; the lips indented ; the fin covering the gills
with six rays ; the line on the sides resembling a silver band.

4j1. The Salmo or Salmon. The body oblong ; tbe head a
little sharp ; the fin covering the gills from four to ten rays; the
last fin on the back, without its correspondent muscles, fat. *

* The Salmon. — The Salmon, which was known to the Romans, but not to
the Greeks, is a soft-finned abdominal fish. It is disting'uished from other
fish by having two dorsal fins, of whirh the hiuderraost is fleshy and with,
out rays : it has teeth both in the jaws and in the tongue ; and the body is
covered with round and minutely striated scales. The colour of the back
and sides is gfray, sometimes spotted with black, and sometimes plain ; the
covers of the gills are subject to the same variety ; and the belly is silvery.
The nose is sharp-pointed : and in the males the under jaw sometimes turns
>ip in the form of a hook. Rapid and stony rivers, where the water is free
from mud, are the favourite places of most of the salmon tribe, the whole of
which is supposed to afiord wholesome food for mankind. This fish seems
confined in a great measure to the northern seas, being unknown in the
Mediterranean, and in the waters of other climates. It lives in fresh, as
well as in salt waters, forcing itself in autumn up the rivers, sometimes for
hundreds of miles, for the purpose of depositing its spawn. It abandons the
seas where it finds an abundant sustenance, ascends the rivers depopulated
by man, endeavours by every kind of artifice to escape the snares of the
fishermen, and all this solely for the purpose of finding a convenient place -for
depositing its eggs. In these peregrinations it is that salmon are caught
in the great numbers that supply our markets and tables. Intent only on
the object of their journey, they spring up cataracts and other obstacles of
a very great height. This extraordinary power seems to be owing to a
sudden jerk that the fish gives to its body from a bent into a straight posi.
tion. When they are unexpectedly obstructed in their progress, it is said
they swim a few paces back, survey the object for some minutes, motion,
.ess, retreat, and return again to the charge; then, collecting all their force,
with one astonishing spring leap over every obstacle. Where the water is
low, or sand-banks intervene, they throw themselves on one side, and in
that position soon work themselves over into the deep water beyond. On
the river Liffy, in Ireland, there is a cataract above nineteen feet high ;
here, in the salmon season, many of the inhabitants amuse themselves in
observing the fish leap up the torrent. They frequently fall back many
times before they surmount it ; and baskets, made of twigs, are placed near
the edge of the stream to catch them in their fall.

The Trout. — The general shape of the trout is rather long than broad : in
several of the Scotch and Irish rivers, they grow so much tliicker than those
in England, that a fish from eighteen to twenty-two inches will often weigh

F.SllES. 541

^■2. The Fistularia. The body angular, in form of a spindle ;
the head pipe-fashion, with a beak; the fin covering the gills
with seven rays ; the under jaw covering the upper.

43. The Esox or Pike. The body round ; the head with t

from three to fiie pounds. Tliis is a fish of prey ; has a short roundish head
blunt nose, wide mouth filled wth teeth, not only in the jaws, but in the
palate and tongue ; the scales are small ; the back of an ash-colour ; the
sides yellow ; and, when in season, is sprinkled all over the body and covers
of the gills with small beautiful red and black spots ; the tail is broad. The
female has a suiiJler head and deeper body than the male, and is of superior
flavour. In fact, the colour of the trout and its spots vary greatly in dififer.
ent waters, and at different seasons.

This fish, although very delicate, and at present well known, was in no
esteem among the ancients. It abounded inmost of the lakes of the Roman
empire, yet is only mentioned by writers on account of its beautiful colours

In some rivers trouts begin to spawn in October, but November is the
chief months of spawmng. About the end of September they quit the deep
water to which they had retired during the hot weather, and make great
efforts to gain the course of the currents, seeking out a proper place for
spawning. This is always on a gravelly bottom, or where gravel and sand
are mixed among stones towards the end and sides of the streams. At this
period they turn black about the head and body, and become soft and un-
wholesome. Tliey are never good when they are big with roe, which is
contrary to the nature of most other fish. They multiply very fast, though
they produce much less spawn than any other fish, which is probably owing
to the voracious fish in these cold streams where they reside ; and they
would be still more numerous, if they were not so greedy as to devour each
other. After spawning they become feeble, their bodies are wasted, and
those beautiful spots, which before adorned them, are imperceptible ; their
heads appear swelled, and their eyes are dull. In this state they seek still
waters, and continue there sick, as is supposed, all the winter. There are
in all trout rivers some barren female fish, which continue good throughout
the winter.

'I'heae fish begin to leave their winter quarters in March, or sometimes
earlier, if the weather be mild, and approach the shallows and tails of
streams, where they cleanse and restore themselves. As they acquire
strength they advance still higher up the rivers, till they fix on their sum.
nier residence ; for which they generally choose an eddy behind a stone, a
log, or bank, that projects into the water, and against which the current
drives.

The varieties of the common trout are almost infinite ; from the great
lake trout, which weighs above 60 or 70 lbs. to the trouts of the little moun.
tain brook, which is scarcely larger than the finger. The gilleroo trout and
par, samlet or brandling may be considered as forming distinct species.

V'/ie Salmon-trout, so called from its resemblance to the two fish whose
name it bears : it attains the size of a small salmon ; is spotted in the same
manner :ls the trout ; and, like it, spawns in winter. Like the salmon it
.•'iimetimes Inhabits tlie sea, and sometimes the rivers ; it likewise ascends
into the latter to deposit Us spawn. The salmon-trouts, however, do not

2z

.5 I'i HISTOKY OF

beak ; the under juw pierced longitudinally with small holes ;
the fill covering the gills with from seven to twelve rays.

44. The Argentina or Argentine. The body a little round
and slender ; the head with a beak, broader than the body ; the
fm covering the gills with eight rays ; a spurious bark-fin.

45. The Clupea or Herring. The body a little oblong ; the
head with a small beak; the fin covering the gills with eight
rays,

46. The Exocetiis or Fhjing-Jish. The body oblong; the
head almost three-cornered ; the fin covering the gills with seven
rays ; the pectoral fins placed high, and as long as the whole
body ; the back-fin at the extremity of the back.

47. The Cgprinus or Carp. The body elongated, almost
round ; the head with a small beak ; the hinder part of the bone
covering the gills, marked with a crescent ; the fin covering the
gills with three rays. •

quit the sea so early as the salmon, being: seldom seen in the rivers before
the montli of May. They spawn in the same manner as salmon, in Novem-
ber or December ; but as the rivers are then frozen, they do not retire to
the sea till after the thaw. Like all other fish of the same g^enus, they live
upon aquatic insects, worms, and small fish, and are fond of rapid streams,
with a bottom of sand and gravel. Their flesh ia red, and well-tasted, par-
ticularly before the spawning season. Its quality depends, iu a great mea-
sure, on the greater or less degree of purity of the streams in which the fish
are taken ; their colour and spots vary extremely from the same cause.
They die soon after they are taken out of the water. Young salmon trout
are known by the name of whitlings ; and many have supposed them to ba
young salmon, which opinion has been proved to be ill-founded.

Salmon-trouts attain a considerable size, weigliing sometimes eight or ten
pounds. Dr Bloch describes one that was twenty inches in length, an inch
and a half thick, and which weighed five pounds and three quarters. Th«s
gentleman discovered, that this fish, like several kinds of sea-fish, possesses
the quality of emitting light in a dark place ; and that the palate, tongue,
gills, and eyes, were endowed with that property in an eminent degree.
When touched with the finger, those parts oast a considerable light ; and
when any other part was rubbed with the same finger, that quality was like-
wise communicated to it The luminous matter, the doctor imagines, is
contained in the slimy substance which covers those parts ; for the flesh
does not afford the smallest appearance of light. He kept fi-sh eight days,
and this luminous property diminished in proportion as the viscous matter
was dried up.

The Grayling is a scarce fish in England, and is not to be I'ouud in Scot,
land or Ireland. They frequent rivers of peculiar temperature or current

• The Common Carp. — In their general habit these fish exhibit so great a
degree of cunning, as to be sometimes called by the country people the
Rivei Fox. When attempted to be taken by a net, they will often leap

FISHES. 345

48. The Cobitis or Loach. The body oblong ; almost equally
broad throughout ; the head small, a little elongated ; the eyes
in the hinder part of the head ; the fin covering the gills from
four to six rays : the covers of the gills closed below.

over it ; or immerse themselves so deep in the mud, as to suffer tlie net to
pass over without touching them. They are also very shy of taking- a bait ;
but, during spawning-tirae, so intent are they on the business of depositing
their ova, that they will suffer themselves to be handled by any one who at-
tempts it. They breed three or four times in the year, but their first spawn,
ing is in the beginning of May. Carp are found in the slow rivers and stag- :
nant waters of Europe and Persia ; and here principally in deep holes, un- ;
der the roots of trees, hollow banks, or great beds of flags, &c. They do not
often exceed four feet in length, and twenty pounds in weight ; but Joviiis
mentions some caught in the Lago de Como, in Italy, that weighed two
hundred pounds each, and others have been taken in the Dneister five feet
iu length.

The Tench. — This, according to Artedi, is a species of the carp, and is
thick and bulky in proportion to its length. The colour of the back is
dusky ; the dorsal .ind ventral fins of the same colour ; the head, sides, and
belly, are of a greenish c.ijt, most beautifully mixed with gold, which is in
its greatest splendour when the fish is in highest season. They love still
waters, and are rarely found in rivers; they are very foolish, and easily
caught.

This is one of those fish that prefer foul and weedy waters ; and its haunts
in rivers are chiefly amongst weeds, and in places well shaded with rushes.
These fish thrive best in standing waters, where they lie under weeds near
sluices and pond-heads. They are miich more numerous in pools and pits
tlian in rivers ; but those taken in the latter are far preferable for the table.
They begin to spawn in June, and may be found spawning in some waters
till September. The best season is from that time till the end of May.

These fish do not often exceed four or five pounds in weight. Mr Pennant,
however, mentions one that weighed ten pounds. Tench are in great reputt.
with us as delicious and wholesome food ; but in Guernsey they are con.
Bidered bad fi.sh, and in contempt called shoemaker. Gessner even say.s,
that it is insipid and unwholesome. Ijke the barbel, it was unnoticed by
early writers ; and Ausonius, by whom it was first mentioned, treats it with
that disrespect which evinces the capriciousness of taste.

These fish are sometimes found in waters where the mud is excessively
fetid, and the weeds so thick that a hand.net can hardly be thrust down.
In these situations they grow to a large size, and their exterior becomes
completely tinged by the mud. Their flavour from this, if cooked iinnie.
diately on being taken out, is often very unplea-sant ; but if they are trans.
ferred into dear water, they soon recover from the obnoxious taint. A
tench was taken at Thornville-Royal in Yorkshire, in 180a, of such enor-
mous size, luid so singular in its shape, as rather to be accounted a histu
naturtr than a regular product. A piece of water which had been ordered
to be filled up, and into which wood and rubbi.-h had been thrown for somim
years, was directed to he cleared out. So little w;iter remuiiied, and m siicli
quantity were the weeds and mud, tliat it was expected no fish would l.o

2i2

'j44 IIISTOUY OF

49. The Amia or Bonito. The body round uiid slender; the
head, forehead, and breast, without skin ; tlie tin covering the
gills with twelve rays ; two beards from the nose.

50. The Mormyrus. The body oblong ; the head elongated ;
the fin covering the gills with a single ray ; the opening to the
gills is linear, and has no bone covering them.

Such is the system of Mr Gouan ; by reducing to which any
fish that offers, we can know its rank, its affinities, and partly its
anatomy, all which make a considerable part in its natural his-
tory. But to show the use of this system still more apparently,
suppose I meet with a fish, the name to me unknown, of which
I desire to know something more. The way is first to see

found, except perliaps a few eels; but, greatly to the surprise of the per.
sons employed, nearly two hundred brace of tencli, and iis many perch, were
discovered. After the pond was supposed to be quite cleared, an animal
was observed to be under some roots, which was conjectured to be an otter.
The place was surrounded ; and on making an opening, a tench was foutid
of a most singular form, having literally taken the shape of the hole in
which he had of course been many years confined. His length was four
feet nine inches, Ids circumference two feet three inches, and his \\'eight
near twelve pounds. The colour was also singular, his belly being tinged
with vermilion like that of a char. This extraordinary animal, after having
been examined by many gentlemen, was carefully put into a pond. At first
it merely floated, and after a while it swam gently away. When Mr Daniel
produced his " Rural Sports" it was alive and well.

The Chub. — This fish, whicli is called cheven, isab, or, botling, very much
resembles the carp, but is of a longer form. The body is oblong, rather
round, and is of an equal thickness in the greater part of the slope ; the
scales are large ; the irides silvery ; the cheeks of the sauie colour ; the head
and back of a deep dusky green ; the sides silvery, but in the summer yel-
low ; the belly white ; tlie pectoral fins of a pale yellow ; the ventral and
anal fins red ; and the tail forked, of a brownish hue, but tinged
with blue at the end. It is altogether a handsome fish, but in no es-
teem for the tabic, being very coarse, and when out of season full of small
hairy bones : the roe however is very good ; and this fish stewed as carp
will, it is said, deceive a connoisseur. Its name is derived from the shape
of the head, cop being an old English word for head ; and the French and
Italians know it by a name synonymous with ours. The haunts of these
fish are rivers whose bottoms are of sand or clay, or which are bounded by
clayey banks, in deep holes, under hollow banks, shaded by trees or weeds.
They are also found in the Esk, a river noted for the crystalline clearness
of its waters, flowing over a rocky bottom. These fish often float on the sur-
face, and are sometimes found in deep waters, where the currents are
strong. In ponds fed by a rivulet they grow to a large size. They seldom,
however, exceed the weight of four or five pounds, though Salvianus speaks
of them as increasing to eight or nine. They deposit their spawn in April ;
sud are in great perfection during the months of Dec:'mber and .Innnary,

FISHES. 545

whether it be a cartilaginous fish, whicl* may be known by its
wanting fins to open and shut the gills, which the cartilaginous
kinds are wholly without. If I find that it has them, then it is
a spinous fish ; and in order to know its kind, I examine its
fins whether they be prickly or soft ; I find them soft ; it is
therefore to be ranked among the soft-finned fishes. I then ex-
amine its ventral or belly fins, and finding that the fish has them,
I look for their situation, and find they lie nearer to the tail than
the pectoral fins. By this I find the animal to be a soft-finned
abdominal fish. Then, to know which of the kinds of these
fishes it is, I examine its figure and the shape of its head : I find
the body rather oblong ; the head with a small beak ; the lower
jaw like a saw ; the fin covering the gills with eight rays. This
animal must, therefore, be the herring, or one of that family,
such as the pilchard, the sprat, the shad, or the anchovy. To
give another instance : upon examining the fins of a fish to me
unknown, I find them prickly ; I then look for the situation of
the ventral fins, I find them entirely wanting ; this then must be
a prickly-finned apodal fish. Of this kind there are but three :
and by comparing the fish with the description, I find it either
of the trichurus kind, the sword-fish, or the gilt-head. Upon
examining also its internal structure, I shall find a very great
similitude between my fish and that placed at the head of the
family.

CHAP. II

or SPINOUS FISHES IN CENIiaAL.

Having given a method by which Spinous Fishes may be
distinguished from each other, the history of each in particuhtr
might naturally be expected to follow ; but such a distinct ac-
count of each would be very disgusting, from the unavoidable
uniformity of every description. The history of any one of this
class very much resembles that of all the rest : they breathe air
and water through the gills : they live by rapine, each devouring
sucli animals as its month is incapable of admitting ; and they
propagate, not by bringing forth their young alive, as in the ce-
taceous tribes, nor by distinct eggs, as in the generality of the

2 z 3

oi-6 HISTORY OF

cartilaginous tribes, but by spawn, or peas, as they are generally
called, which they produce by hundreds of thousands. These
are the leading marks that run through their whole history, and
which have so much swelled books with tiresome repetition.

It will be sufficient therefore to draw this numerous class into
one point of view, and to mark how they differ from the former
classes ; and what they possess peculiarly striking, so as to dis-
tinguish them from each other. The first object that presents
itself, and that by which they differ from all others, are the
bones. These, when examined but slightly, appear to be en-
tirely solid ; yet when viewed more closely, every bone will be
found hollow, and filled with a substance less rancid and oily
than marrow. These bones are very numerous, and pointed ;
and, as in quadrupeds, are the props or stays to which the mus-
cles are fixed which move the different parts of the body.

The number of bones in all spinous fishes of the same kind,
is always the same. It is a vulgar way of speaking to say, that
fishes are at some seasons more bony than at others ; but this
scarcely requires contradiction. It is true indeed, that fish are
at some seasons much fatter than at others : so that the quan-
tity of the flesh being diminished, and that of the bones remain-
ing the same, they appear to increase in number, as they actually
bear a greater proportion.

All fish of the same kind, as was said, have the same number
of bones : the skeleton of a fish, however irregularly the bones
may fall in our way at table, has its members very regularly dis-
posed ; and every bone has its fixed place, with as much preci-
sion as we find in the orders of a regular fabric. But then spi-
nous fish differ in the number of bones according to the species :
for some have a greater number of fins by which they move in
the water. The number in each is always in proportion to the
number and size of these fins : for every fish has a regular ap-
paratus of bones and muscles by which the fins are moved ; and
all those fish, where they are numerous or large, must, of conse-
quence, be considerably bony. Indeed, in the larger fish, the
quantity of flesh is so much, and the bones themselves are so
large, that they are easily seen and separated ; but in the smaller
kinds with many fins, the bones are as numerous as in the great ;
yet being so very minute, they lurk almost in evei'y part of the
flesh, and are dangerous as well as troublesome to be eaten. In

FISHES. 547

a word, those fish which are large, fat, and have few fins, are
found to be the least bony ; those which are small, lean, and have
many fins, are the most bony of all others. Thus, for instance,
a roach appears more bony than a carp, because it is leaner and
smaller ; and it is actually more bony than an eel, because it has
a greater number of fins.

As the spinous fish partake less of the quadruped in their for-
mation than any others, so they can bear to live out of their own
element a shorter time. In general, when taken out of the water
they testify their change by panting more violently and at closer
intervals, the thin air not furnishing their gills the proper play ;
and in a few minutes they expire. Some indeed are more viva-
cious in air than others ; the eel will live several hours out of
water •, and the carp has been known to be fattened in a damp
cellar. The method is by placing it in a net well wrapped up
in wet moss, the mouth only out, and then hung up in a vault.
The fish is fed with white bread and milk ; and the net now
and then i)]iiiiged into the water. The animal, thus managed,
has been known not only to lis'e for a fortnight, but to grow ex-
ceedingly fat, and of a superior flavour. From this it would
seem that the want of a moisture in the gills is the chief cause
of the death of these animals ; and could that be supplied, their
lives might be prolonged in the air, almost as well as in their
own element.

Yet it is impossible to account for the difl!"erent operations of
the same element, upon animals that, to appearance, have the
same conformation. To some fishes, bred in the sea, fresh
water is immediate destruction : on the other hand, some fishes,
that live in our lakes and ponds, cannot bear the salt water.
Whence this difference can arise, is not easily to be accounted
for. The saline quality of the water cannot iM0])prly be given
Hs the cause ; since no fishes imbibe any of the sea's saltness
with their food, or in respiration. The flesh of all fishes is
equally fresh, both in the river, and in the saltest depths of the
ocean ; the salt of the clement in which they live no way mix-
ing with their constitution. Whence then is it that animals
nil! live only there, and will quickly expire when carried into
fresh water ? It may probably arise from the superior weight
of the sea-water ; as from the great quantity of salt dissolved in
its composition, it is much heavier than fresh water, so it is pro-

548 HISTORY OF

bable it lies with greater force upon the organs of respiration,
and gives them their proper and necessary play : on the other
hand, those fish which are used only to fresh water, cannot bear
the weight of the saline fluid, and expire in a manner suffocated
in the grossness of the strange element.

But though there are some tribes that live only in the sea, and
others only in fresh water, yet there are some whose organs are
equally adapted to either element ; and that spend a part of their
season in one, and a part in the other. Thus the salmon, the
shad, the smelt, and the flounder, annually quit their native
ocean, and come up our rivers to deposit their spawn. This
seems the most important business of their lives ; and there is
no danger which they will not encounter, even to the surmount-
ing precipices, to find a proper place for the deposition of their
future offspring. The salmon, upon these occasions, is seen to
ascend rivers five hundred miles from the sea ; and to brave not
only the danger of various enemies, but also to spring up cata-
racts as high as a house. As soon as they come to the bottom
of the torrent, they seem disappointed to meet the obstruction,
and swim some paces back : they then take a view of the dan-
ger that lies before them, survey it motionless for some minutes,
advance, and again retreat ; till at last summoning up all their
force, they take a leap from the bottom, their body straight, and
strongly in motion ; and thus most frequently clear every ob-
struction. It sometimes happens, however, that they want
strength to make the leap ; and then, in our fisheries, they are
taken in their descent. But this is one of the smallest dangers
that attend these adventuring animals in their progress : num-
berless are the methods of taking them ; as well by the hook, as
by nets, baskets, and other inventions, which it is not our busi-
ness here to describe. Their capture makes, in several coun-
tries, a great article of commerce ; and being cured in several
different manners, either by salting, pickling, or drying, they are
sent to all the markets of Europe.

As these mount up the rivers to deposit their spawn, others,
particularly the eel, descend the fresh water stream, as Redi as-
sures us, to bring forth their young in the sea. About the month
of August, annually, these animals take the opportunity of the
most obscure nights, and when the rivers are flooded by acciden-
tal rains seek the ocean. When they have reached the sea, and

FISHES.

54S

produced their young, for they are viviparous, they again ascend
the stream, at different times, as opportunity offers, or as the
season is favourable or tempestuous. Their passage begins
usually about the end of January, and continues till towards the
end of May, when they are taken in the river Arno by millions,
and so small that a thousand of them goes to a pound. There is
nothing more certain than that they descend our own rivers after
floods in great abundance, and are thus caught in nets to very
great advantage. They are possessed also of a power of climb-
ing over any obstacle ; for, by applying their glutinous and slimy
bodies to the surface of the object they desire to surmount, they
can thus creep up locks, weirs, and every thing that would pre-
vent their ascending the current of the stream.

But the length of the voyage performed by these fishes, is
short, if compared to what is annually undertaken by some
tribes, that constantly reside in the ocean. These are known
to take a course of three or four thousand miles in a season,
serving for prey to whales, sharks, and the numerous flocks of
water-fowl, that regularly wait to intercept their progress. These
may be called fish of passage, and bear a strong analogy to birds
of passage, both from their social disposition, and the immensity
of their numbers. Of this kind are the cod, the haddock, the
whiting, the mackarel, the tunny, the herring, and the pilchard.
Other fish live in our vicinity, and reside on our coasts all the
year round j or keep in the depths of the ocean, and are but sel-
dom seen : but these, at stated seasons, visit their accustomed
haunts with regular certainty, generally returning the same week
in the succeeding year, and often the same day.

The stated returns, and the regular progress of these fish of
passage, is one of the most extraordinary circumstances in all the
history of nature. What it is that impels them to such distant
voyages ; what directs their passage ; and what supports them by
the way ; and what sometimes prompts them to quit, for sever il
seasons, one shore for another, and then return to their accus-
tomed harbour ; are questions that curiosity may nsk, but phi-
losophy can hardly resolve. We must dismiss inquiry, satisfied
with the certainty of the facts.

The cod seems to be the foremost of this wandering tribe, and
is only found in our northern part of the world. This anitnal'a
chief place of resort is on the hanks of Newfoundland, and the

55(1 HISTORY OF

Other sand-banks that lie off Cape Breton. That extensive flat
seems to be no other than the broad top of a sea-mountain, ex-
tending for above five hundred miles long, and surrounded witb
a deeper sea. Hither the cod annually repair in numbers be.
yond the power of calculation, to feed on the quantity of \vorni«
that are to be found there in the sandy bottom. Here they are
taken in such quantities, that they supply all Europe with a con-
siderable share of provision. The English have stages erected
all along the shore for salting and drying them ; and the fisher-
men, who take them with the hook and line, which is their
method, draw them in as fast as they can throw out. This
immense capture, however, makes but a very small diminution,
when compared to their numbers ; and when their provision
there is exhausted, or the season for propagation returns, they
go off to the polar seas, where they deposit their roes in full se-
curity. From thence want of food forces them, as soon as the
first more southern seas are open, to repair southward for sub-
sistence. Nor is this fish an unfrequent visitant upon our own
shores : but the returns are not so regular, nor does the captiu'e
bear any proportion to that at Newfoundland.

The haddock, the whiling. and the mackarel,* are thought by

• Nearly all the species of mackarol are gregarious, and unite in immense
shoals. Some of them are migratory, making long voyages at certain sea-
sons of the year. It is believed that they are all eatable ; and some of them
are well known to be exceedingly delicate food. They afford employment
and support to numerous fishermen in various countries of Europe. They
are in the whole about twenty-five species.

The mackarel, when alive, from the elegance of its shape, and the bril.
liancy of its colours, is one of the most beautiful fish that frequents our
coasts. Death, in some measure, impairs the colours, but it by no means
obliterates them.

It visits our shores in vast shoals ; but, from being very tender and unfit
for long carriage, is found less useful than other gregarious fish. In some
places it is taken by lines from boats, as during a fresh gale of wind it readily
seizes a bait. It is necessary that the boat should be in motion, in order to
drag the bait along (a bit of red cloth, or a piece of the tail of a mackarel,)
near the surface of the water. The great fishery for mackarel is on some
parts of the west coast of England. This is of such an extent as to employ,
in the whole, a capital of nearly i200,000. The fishermen go out to the dis-
tance of several leagues from the shore, and stretch their nets, which are
sometimes several miles in extent, across the tide, during the night. ITie
meshes of these nets are just large enough to admit the heads of tolerably
large fish, and catch them by the gills. A single boat has been known to
bring in, after one uighfs fishing, a cargo that has sold for nearly seventy

FISHES. 551

some to be driven upon our coasts rather by their fears than
their appetites ; and it is to the pursuit of the larger fishes we
owe their welcome visits. It is much more probable, that they
come for that food which is found in more plenty near the shore
than farther out at sea. One thing is remarkable, that their
migrations seem to be regularly conducted. The grand shoal
of haddocks that comes periodically on the Yorkshire coasts,
appeared there in a body on the tenth of December, 17G6; and
exactly on the same day in the following year. This shoal ex-
tended from the shore near three miles in breadth, and in length
for more than forty. The limits of a shoal are precisely known ;
for if the fishermen put down their lines at the distance of more
than three miles from shore, they catch nothing but dog-fish ; a
jiroof that the haddock is not three.

But of all migrating fish, the herring and the pilchard take the
most adventurous voyages. Herrings are found in the greatest
abundance in the highest northern latitudes. In those inac-

pourids. Besides these there is another mode of fishing- for mackarel, in the
we&t of England, «ith a ground-ieine . A roll of rope of about two hun.
dred fathoms in leng-th, with the net fastened to the end, is tied at the other
to a post or rock on the shore. The boat is then rowed to the extremity of
this coil, when a pole fixed there, leaded heavily at the bottom, is thrown
overboard. The rowers from hence make, as nearly as possible, a semicircle,
two men continually and regularly putting the net into the water. When
they come to the other end of the net, where there is another leaded pole,
they throw that overboard. Another coil of rope, similar to the first, is by
degrees thrown into the water, as the boatmen make for the shore. The
boat's crew now land, and with the assistance of persons stationed there,
haul in each end of the net till they come to the two poles. The boat is then
again pushed off towards the centre of the net, in order to prevent the mor«
vigorous fish from leaping over the corks. By these means three or four
liUDdred fish are often caught at one haul.

Mackarel are said to be fond of human flesh. Pontoppidon informs ua,
that a sailor, belonging to a ship lying in one of the harbo'irs on the coast
of Norway, went into the water to wash himself, when he waa suddenly
missed by his companion.". In the course of a few minutes, however, ho
was seen on the surface, with vast numbers of these fish fastened on him.
The people went in a boat to his assistance ; and tliotigh, when they got
liiin up, they forced with some difficulty the fishes from him, they found it
was too late ; for the poor fellow shortly afterwards expired.

The roes of the mackarel are used in the Mediterranean for caviiir. Tlio
blood and slime are first wsLshed oft with vinegar, and the sinews and skinny
part-s taken away, lliey are tlien spread out for a short time to dry,
and afterwards salted and hung up in a net, to drain some of the remaininjf
moisture from them. When this is liuishcd tliey are laid in a kind of sieve,
until they are thoroughly dry, and fit fur u.su.

552 iiisrouY OF

cesfiible seas, that are covered with ice for a great part of the
year, the herring and pilchard find a quiet and sure retreat from
all their numerous enemies : thither neither man, nor their still
more destructive enemy, the fin-fish, or the cachalot, dares to
pursue them. The quantity of insect food which those seas
supply, is veiy great ; whence, in that remote situation, defended
by the icy rigour of the climate, they live at ease, and multiply
beyond expression. From this most desirable retreat, Ander-
son supposes they would never depart, but that their numbers
render it necessary for them to migrate ; and, as with bees from
a hive, they are compelled to seek for other retreats.

For this reason, the great colony is seen to set out from the
icy sea about the middle of winter ; composed of numbers, that
if all the men in the world were to be loaded with herrings, they
would not carry the thousandth part away. But they no sooner
leave their retreats, but millions of enemies appear to thin their
squadrons. The fin-fish and the cachalot swallow barrels at a
yawn ; the porpoise, the grampus, the shark, and the whole nu-
merous tribe of dog-fish, find them an easy prey, and desist from
making war upon each other ; but, still more, the unnumbered
flocks of sea-fowl, that chiefly inhabit near the pole, watch the
outset of their dangerous migration, and spread extensive ruin.

In this exigence the defenceless emigrants find no other safety
but by crowding closer together, and leaving to the outmost
bands the danger of being first devoured ; thus, like sheep when
frighted, that always run together in a body, and each finding
some protection in being but one of many that are equally liable
to invasion, they are seen to separate into shoals, one body of
which moves to the west, and pours down along the coasts of
America, as far as south Carolina, and but seldom farther. In
Chesapeak Bay, the annual inundation of these fish is so great,
that they cover the shores in such quantities as to become a
nuisance. Those that hold more to the east, and come down
towards Europe, endeavour to save themselves from their mer-
ciless pursuers, by approaching the first shore they can find ; and
that which first offers in their descent, is the coast of Iceland, in
the beginning of March. Upon their arrival on that coast, their
phalanx, which has already sufiered considerable diminutions, is,
nevertheless, of amazing extent, depth, and closeness, covering
an extent of sliore as large as the island itself. The whole

ifSKKS. 5J'{

water seems alive; and is seen so black with them to a giViU
distance, that the number seems inexhaustible. There the por-
poise and the shark continue their depredations ; and the birds
devour what quantities they please. By these enemies the her
rings are cooped up into so close a body, that a shovel, or any
hollow vessel, put into the water, takes them up without farther
trouble.

That body which comes upon our coasts, begins to appear off
the Shetland Isles in April. These are the forerunners of the
grand shoal which descends in June ; while its arrival is easily
announced, by the number of its greedy attendants, the gannet,
the gull, the shark, and the porpoise. When the main body is
arrived, its breadth and depth is such as to alter the very ap-
pearance of the ocean. It is divided into distinct columns, of five
or six miles in length, and three or four broad ; while the water
before them curls up, as if forced out of its bed. Sometimes
they sink for the space of ten or fifteen minutes, then rise again
to the surface ; and, in bright weather, rellect a variety of splen-
did colours, like a field bespangled with purple, gold, and azure.
The fishermen are ready prepared to give them a proper recep-
tion ; and, by nets made for the occasion, they take sometimes
above two thousand barrels at a single draught.

From the Shetland Isles, another body of this great army,
where it divides, goes off to the western coasts of Ireland, where
tliey meet with a second necessity of dividing. The one takes
to the Atlantic, where it is soon lost in that extensive ocean ;
the other passes into the Irish sea, and furnishes a very consider-
able (capture to the natives.

In this manner the herrings, expelled from their native seas,
seek those bays and shores where they can find food, and the
best defence against their unmerciful pursuers of the deep. In
general, the most inhabited shores are the places where the larger
animals of the deep are least fond of pursuing ; and these are
C'hosen by the herrings as an asylum from great dangers. Thus,
along the coasts of Norway, the (rerman shores, and the northern
shores of Fiance, these animals are found punctual in their visi-
tations. In these dilTerent places they produce their young ;
which, when come to some degree of maturity, attend the gene-
ral motions. After the destruction of such numbers, the quan-

"I. 3 A

5.51 VIISTOKY OF

tity that attempts to return is but small ; and Anderson doubts
whether they ever return.

Such IS the account given of the migration of these fishes, by
one who, of all others, was best acquainted with their history
and yet many doubts arise, in every part of the migration. The
most obvious which has been made is, that though such numbers
perish in their descent from the )iortb, yet, in comparison to
those that survive, the account is trifling : and it is supposed,
that of those taken by man, the proportion is not one to a mil-
lion. Their regularly leaving the shore also at a stated time,
would imply that they are not in these visits under the impulse
of necessity. In fact, there seems one circumstance that shows
these animals governed by a choice with respect to the shores
(.hey pitch upon ; and not blindly drove from one shore to another.
What I mean, is their fijcing upon some shores for several seasons,
or, indeed, for several ages together ; and, after having regularly
visited them every year, then capriciously forsaking them, never
ftiore to return. The first great bank for herrings was along the
shores of Norway. Before the year 158i, the number of ships
from all parts of Europe that resorted to that shore exceeded
some thousands. The quantity of herrings that were then as-
sembled there was such, that a man who should put a spear in
the water, as Olaus Magnus asserts, would see it stand on end,
being prevented from falling. But soon after that period, these
animals were seen to desert the Norway shores, and took up
along the German coast, where the Hanse-Towns drove a very
great trade by their capture and sale ; but, for above a century,
the herrings have, in a great measure forsaken them ; and their
greatest colonies are seen in the British Channel, and upon the
Irish shores. It is not easy to assign a cause for this seemingly
capricious desertion : whether the number of their finny enemies,
increasing along the northern coasts, may have terrified the her-
ring tribe from their former places of resort; or, whether tb
quantity of food being greater in the British Chaanel, may not
allure them thither ; is not easy to determine.*

• Herringrs prefer the deep water, and, generally speaking, avoid the shoal
roasts ; and when they do get entangled upon one, great numbers aie
wrecked. The rocky promontory at the east end of the county of Fife, off
B'hich there lies an extensive reef or rock, sometimes has that effect ; and
there have been seas in which, when the difficulties of the place were ails'.

FISHES. 535

The pilchard, which is a £sh differing little from the herrini?,
makes the coast of Cornwall its place of principal resort. Theii:
arrival on that coast is soon proclaimed by their attendants the
birds and the larger fishes ; and the whole country prepare to

niented by a strong wind at south-east, that carried breakers upon the reel
and a heavy siirf along the shore, the beach for many miles has been covered
with a bank of herrings several feet in deptli, which, if taken and salted
when first left by tlie tide, would have been worth many thousiinds of
pounds ; but which, as there was not a sufficient supply of salt in the neigh-
bourhood, ^vere allowed to remain putrefying upon the beach, until tlic
farmers found leisure to cart them away as manure. The herring is a re-
markably delicate fish, and dies almost the instant that it is out of the
water, or gets the slightest injury in it; and these circumstances, while
tliey render the stranded shoals a mucli more frequent, abundant, and easy
prey, than if they were more tenacious of life, cause tliem to putrefy much
sooner. One of tliose strandings took place in and around the harbour of
the small town of Crail only a few years ago, but before th new regula-
tions were pa-ssed with regard to salt. The water appeared at first so full
of herrings, that half-a-dozen could be taken by one dip of a basket. Niun-
bers of people thronged to the water's edge and fished with great success ;
and the public crier was sent through the town, to proclaim that " callar
herrin'" — that is, herrings fresh out of the soa — might be had at the rate of
forty a penny. As the water rose the fish accumulated, till numbers were
stunned, and the rising tide was bordered with fisli, with which baskets
cotild be filled in an instant. The crier was upon tliis instructed to alter his
note, and the people were invited to repair ti> the shore and get herrings at
one sliilling a cart load. But every successive wave of the flood added to
the mass of fish, and brouglit it nearer to the land, «!iii-h caused a fri-?h in
vitation to wlioever might be inclined to come and take what herrings they
chose gratis. The fish still continued to accumulate till the height of the
flood ; and when the water began to ebb, they remained on the beach. It
was rather early in the season, so that warm weather might be expected ;
an<l the effluvia of so many putrid fish might occasion disease ; therefore the
corporation offered a reward of one shilling to every one who would remove
a full cart load of herrings from that p.art of the shore which was under their
jurisdiction : — the fish being immediately from the deeji water, were in the
highest condition, and barely dead. All the salt from the town and neigh-
bourhood vviis instantly put in requisition ; but it did not suffice for the
thousandth part of the mass — a great proportion of which, notwithstanding
some not very successful attempts to carry off a few sloop loads in bulk, wa£.
lost. Ill the bays or " lochs," on the west coast of Scotland, where the
shoals of herrings are very abundant, and apt to be driven ashore and
Ptraiided liy heavy gales from the iiiirtli-west, these casualties often ocinr.
But tlxmgh these occurrences are a great and obvious loss, they do not ap-
pe.ir to have any effect upon the supply of herrings, whose numbers do not
sei'm capable of apparent diminution, eitlier by the ciusnaltics of nature or
the schemes of art. The habits of this most abundant, and, perhaps, all
tlnngs considered, most valuable fish, are but imperfectly known; and they
have been » i{ood deal misrepresented. 'I'licir apparently capricious visiti

^ -i

5.')G mSTOKY OF

take the advantage of this treasure, providentially thrown
before them. The natives sometimes enclose a bay of several
miles extent with their nets called saines. To direct them in
their operations, there were some years ago (but I believe they

to particular parts of the coast, wliich did not seem to depend »ipon any
known law, naturally enough led the inhabitants of the places which they
thus periodically, but irregularly, visited, to impute to them certain super-
stitious likes and dislikes. The naturalists, too, or those who took upou
themselves that character, publisliing their opinions from little observation
and less reflection, rendered the delusion more extensive and inveterate ;
till those who had never seen a live herring, were able to trace its migra.
tions in the deep with as much certainty as they could the motion of the
hands upon the dial of the village clock.

The herrings do not come in myriads from the Polar Sea, beginning their
progress in January, because there are no means of producing them there.
Spawn has not been found to animate in any place except floating near the
surface, or in shallow water, where both the sun and the air act upon it ;
and while the Polar Seas and shores are open to such action, the herrings
are not there ; they are on our shores, the full-grown and the young. But
setting aside the impossibility, the supposed emigration would be without
an object ; they would not come for food, as they are said to leave the north
just when food would be found there ! and if they are annually produced in
the north, they could not come to our shores for the purpose of spawning,
even though they are all obviously in preparation for such a purpose. Be-
side, there is no animal that migrates southward in the spring, and therefore
the theory would require one law for the rest of creation, and another for
the herring — that the latter should be chilled by the general warmth of the
spring, and warmed by the Polar frost, now, so far is the production of fish
from being independent of the influence of heat, that, just as we would be
led to infer from the slow progress of the solar beams through the element
in which they live, they require the whole, or the greater part of our sum-
mer, to matiu-e the germs of their countless broods. Nay, it appears that
many, if not most of the species, cannot mature their spawn in the depths of
the ocean, to which they retire to recruit their strength ; but that they come
to the shores and shallows, where the heat of the sun can penetrate to the bot-
tom, and be reflected by it, for the purpose of maturing as well as of deposit-
ing their spawn. We know not, and we cannot know, the secrets of those
mighty depths which no plummet can fathom ; but we have every reason to
uelieve that there is a profundity where animals, constructed as the fishes that
we see are, could not by possibility exist. Imagine the pressure of a thousand
atmospheres, or between six and seven tons, upon every square inch of sur.
face, and think of the miracle of muscular power which could give motion
even!to the smallest fish there ; imagine, too, a permanence of state where the
air never moves, and the sun never warms ; and think what a dwelling for
that which must breathe by an apparatus so delicate as the gills of a fish I
It may be said, that God is capable of making creatures adapted for living
tl\ere We do not deny that he is, neither do we deny their existence ;
but we deny that the laws of nature are ever violated, which they would
bi', were the fishes which we know able to move \uider such a pressure, o»

FISHKS.

557'

are discontinued) several men placed on eminences near the
shore, called huers, who, with brooms in their hands, gave sig-
nals where the nets were to be extended, and where the shoals
of fishes lay : this they perceived by the colour of the water,
which assumed a tincture from the shoals beneath. By these

propagate, so completely excluded from the action of the sun and the air.
The herrings come to the shores and estuaries to mature and propagate their
spawn, which they do over a greater range of the year than most other fish,
continuing the operation to the middle of winter, and retiring into deeper
water after that is done. But there is no reason to conclude that they have
much migration in latitude, or that they ever move far from those shores
which they frequent in the season. The fry too are found on the shores and
in the bays and estuaries frequented by their parents ; and they do not go
to the deep water till late in the season. They even appear to go farther
up the rivers than the old fish, for they may be taken in brackish water with
. a common trout-fly. The habits of the herring are thus a go«d deal like
those of the salmon ; and it is probable that there is a great similarity in the
whole oviparous fishes ; that they all frequent the banks and shoals for tho
purpose of spawning, and go to some short distance in deeper water to re-
cover their strength. Those which are viviparous, or bring forth their young
hatched, are under no such necessity ; though they follow the others to feed
upon them and their spawn or fry, and prcbably require the influence of
the air and heat of the shallow water to perfect the internal hatching of
their eggs. It has not been ascertained whether any of tliese fish spawn
every year; but tliere are seme facts which would lead to the couclusiou
that they do not. The white-fishing, on the east coast of Scotland, which is
principally carried on for the common cod [morhua vulgaris), and the had-
. dock (inorliua irgllfinus), used to be in a great measure suspended during
the spring, when the fish had spawned ; but in time, the fisherman found
out, that when the fish wero neither plentiful nor good upon the shallow
banks, they had only to be a little more adventurous, and go into the deep
water, in order to be successful all the year roiuid. Now the fish found in
the deep wat<'r cannot be those which have just spawned, for they are fat
and firm, and have young milts and roes in them ; and hence there is some
probability that thi' cod, and othi'r fish of the same structure, take two years
or more to produce their inimen.sc progeny ; and that thus there is not a
fish in the .sea but which is in season all the year, if its place of residence
and the moJe of taking it were known. It is by these general views that the
piu'ticular facts are ra;ide to connect themselves with the system of nature,
and lead to useful discoveries in thi- arts. When the fish are upon the shores
and in the estuaries, nay, when tliey are upon the wide ocean, they have a
liost of enemies. All fishes seem to be themselves (>;n«i(;o/'OKi — consuming
every thing that they can swallow ; and the number of sea-birds is perfectly
Incredible. The innnbers that are upon the uninhabited islets in Orkney,
Klietland, and the western isles, as well a-s at those inaccessible promontoriefi
«>u other parts of the coast, would exceed the belief of any one who bus not
uctiuilly seen tbcm, and yet they are nolliing to the munber.i found in lonely
places, surroujided by niore extenaive sciis.

^A 3

558 HISTCIY OF

means, they sometimes take twelve or fifteen hundred barrels of
pilchards at a draught ; and they place them in heaps on the
shore. — It often happens that the quantity caught exceeds the
salt or the utensils for curing them ; and they then are carried off
to serve for the purposes of manure. This fishery employs not
only great numbers of men at sea, training them to naval affairs,
but also numbers of women and children at land, in salting and
curing the fish ; in making boats, nets, ropes, and casks, for the
purposes of taking or fitting them for sale. The poor ^re fed
with the superfluity of the capture ; the land is manured with
the offals; the merchant finds the gain of commission, and
honest commerce ; the fisherman a comfortable subsistence from
liis toil. •' Ships," says Dr Borlase, " are often freighted hither
with salt, and into foreign countries with the fish, carrying off
at the same time a part of our tin. The usual produce of the
number of hogsheads exported for ten years, from 1747 to 175(i
inclusive, amounted to nearly thirty thousand hogsheads each
year; every hogshead has amounted, upon an average, to the
price of one pound thirteen shillings and threepence. Thus
the money paid for pilchards exported, has annually amounted
to near fifty thousand pounds."

Whence these infinite numbers are derived, still remains ob-
scure ; but it will increase our wonder to be told, that so small
a fish as the stickleback, which is seldom above two inches long,
and that one vpould think could easily find support in any water,
is yet obliged to colonize, and leave its native fens in search of
new habitations. Once every seventh or eighth year, amazing
shoals of these appear in the river Welland, near Spalding, and
<ome up the stream, forming one great column. There are sup-
j'osed to be multitudes collected in some of the fens, till over-
charged with numbers, they are periodically obliged to migrate.
An idea may be had of their numbers, when we are informed,
that a man, employed by a farmer to take them, for the purpose
of manuring his grounds, has got, for a considerable time, four
i^liillings a day by selling them at a halfpenny a bushel!

Thus we see the amazing propagation of fishes along our own
coasts and rivers ; but their numbers bear no proportion to the
vast quantities found among the islands of the Indian ocean.
The inhabitants of these countries are not under the necessity
even of providing instruments for fishing j it is but going down

FISHES.

559

to the shore, and there the fish are found in great numbers iii
the plashes that still continue to have water in them. In some
of these places the quantity is so great that they are left in shoals
on those swamps, dried up by the sun, and their putrefaction
contributes to render the country unhealthful.

This power of increasing in these animals, exceeds our ideas,
as it would in a very short time outstrip all calculation. A
single herring, if suffered to multiply unmolested and undimin-
ished for twenty years, would show a progeny greater in bulk
than ten such globes as that we live upon. But happily the
balance of Nature is exactly preserved ; and their consumption
is equal to their fecundity. For this reason we are to consider
the porpoise, the shkrk, or the cod-fish, not in the light of plun-
derers and rivals, but of benefactors to mankind. Without their
assistance, the sea would soon become overcharged with the
burden of its own productions ; and that element, which at pre-
sent distributes health and plenty to the shore, would but load
it with putrefaction.

In the propagation of all fish, some degree of warmth seems
absolutely necessary, not only to their preservation, but to the
advancement of their posterity. Their spawn is always deposit-
ed in those places where the sun beams may reach them, cither
at the bottom of shallow shores, or floating on the surface in
deeper waters. A small degree of heat answers all the purposes
of incubation, and the animal issues from the egg in its state of
perfect formation, never to undergo any succeeding change.

Yet, still I have some doubts whether most fish come from
the egg completely formed. AVe know that in all the frog tribe,
and many of the lizard kind, they are produced from the egg in
an im])erfect form. The tadpole, or young frog, with its enor-
mous head and slender tail, are well known ; a species of the lizard
also, which is excluded from the shell without legs, only acquires
them by degrees, and not till after some time does it put off its
serpent form. It is probable that some kinds of fish in like
manner suffer a change ; and though it be too inconsiderable to
strike the fisherman or the inattentive spectator, yet it makes a
very material difrercnce to the naturalist, and would, perhaps,
disarrange his most favourite systems. A slight alteration in the
fins or bones that cover the gills would overturn the whole fabric
ol the most applauded ichthyologist ; and yet, as I observed,

56(» HISIORV OF

it is most probable tliut tbese minute alterations often take
place.

As a proof of this, during the month of July, there appeal
near Greenwich, innumerable shoals of small lishes, which art
known to the Londoners by the name of White bait. It is uni-
versally agreed that they are the young of some fish ; they are
never seen but at this time of the year, and never found to have
any roe, a circumstance that proves their not being come to ma-
turity. The quantity is amazing; and the fish that produces
them in such numbei-s must be in plenty, though it is not yet
known what that fish is, as they correspond with no other spe-
cies whatever. They most resemble the smelt in form ; and yet
they want a fin which that animal is never without. They can-
not be the bleak, as they are never found in other rivers where
the bleak breed in great abundance. It is most probable, there-
fore, that they are the young of some animal not yet come to
their perfect form, and therefore reducible to no present system.

The time that spinous fishes continue in the pea is in propor-
tion to the size of the kind. It is a rule that chiefly holds through
nature, that the larger the animals are, the longer they continue
before exclusion. This I say holds generally through all nature,
though it is not easy to assign a cause for so well known a truth.
It may probably be, that as all large bodies take a longer time to
grow hot than small ones, so the larger the egg, the longer in-
fluence of vital warmth it requires to reach through all its reces-
ses, and to unfold the dormant springs that wait to be put into
motion.

The maimer in which the eggs of fishes are impregnated is
wholly unknown. All that obviously offers is, that in ponds
the sexes are often seen together among the long grass at the
edge of the water ; that there they seem to struggle ; and that
during this time they are in a state of suffering ; they grow thin;
they lose their appetite, and their flesh becomes flabby ; the scales
of some grow rough, and they lose their lustre. On the con-
trary, when the time of coupling is over, their appetite returns ;
they re-assume their natural agility, and their scales become
brilliant and beautiful.

-Although the usual way with sjiinous fishes is to produce by
spawn ; yet there are some, such as the eel and the blenny, that
are known to bring forth their young alive. Bowlker, who hiis

FISHES.

361

«iitten a treatise upon fishing, seems to determine the question
relative to the viviparous production of eels, upon the authority
of one or two credible witnesses. An eel, opened in the pre-
sence of several persons of credit, was found to have an infinite
number of little creatures, closely wrapped up together in a lump,
about the size of a nutmeg, which being put into a basin of
water, soon separated, and swam about : yet still, whether these
may not have been worms generated in the animal's body, re-
mains a doubt ; for there are scarcely any fishes that are not in-
fested with worms in that manner. '

With respect to the growth of fishes, it is observed, that among
carps, particularly the first year, they grow to about the size ot
the leaf of a willow-tree ; at two years, they are about four
inches long. They grow but one inch more the third season,
which is five inches. Those of four years old are about six
inches ; and seven after the fifth. From that to eight years old
they are found to be large in proportion to the goodness of the
pond, from eight to twelve inches. With regard to sea-fish, the
fishermen assure us, that a fish must be six years old before it is
fit to be served up to table. They instance it in the growth of
a mackarel. They assure us that those of a year old are as large
as one's finger ; that those of two years, are about twice that
length ; at three and four years, they are that small kind of
mackarel that have neither milts nor roes ; and between five and
six, they are those full-grown fish that are served up to our
tables. In the same manner, with regard to flat fishes, they tell
us, that the turbot and barbel at one year are about the size of a
crown-piece ; the second year, as large as the palm of one's hand ;
and at the fifth and sixth year, they are large enough to be served
up to table. Thus it appears, that fish are a considerable time
in coming to their full growth, and that they are a long time de-
stroyed before it comes to their turn to be destroyers. *

All fish live upon each other in some state of their existence.
Those with the largest mouths attack and devour the larger

1 The Eol, it is known, is viviparous. It produrps its numerous young
(luring the di-i line of summer : these are very small at their first excIusiiMi
I liis fish often wanders aliuut uu'adows in search of snails and other food ;
and, aeeordiiiff to I)r Aniierson, yonnp eels will often migrate across tli«
land, in ifreat shoals, from one part of a river to another.

2 'Jridto des IVdies, par Jloii.iieur Uuliamel. Sect. 3. p. 100.

5G2 HisToav ot

kinds ; those whose mouths are less, lie in wait for the smaller
fry ; and even these chiefly subsist upon spawn. Of those which
live in the ocean, of the spinous kinds, the dorado is the most
voracious. This is cliietiy found in the tropical climates ; and
s at once the most active and the most beautiful of the finny re-
gion. It is about six feet long ; the back all over enamelled
with spots of a blueish green and silver ; the tail and fins of a
gold colour ; and all have a brilliancy of tint, that nothing but
nature's pencil can attain to : the eyes are placed on each side of
the head, large and beautiful, surrounded with circles of shining
gold. In the seas where they are found, these fish are always
in motion, and play round ships in full sail with ease and secu-
rity : for ever either pursuing or pursued, they are seen con-
■ tinually in a state of warfare ; either defending themselves against
the shark, or darting after the smaller fishes. Of all others, the
Fl3'ing.fish most abounds in these seas ; and as it is a small ani-
mal, seldom growing above the size of a herring, it is chiefly
sought by the dorado. Nature has furnished each respectively
with the powers of pursuit and evasion. The dorado being
above six feet long, yet not thicker than a salmon, and furnished
with a full compliment of fins, cuts its way through the water
with amazing rapidity : on the other hand, the flying-fish is fur-
nished with two pair of fins longer than the body, and these also
moved by a stronger set of muscles than any other. This equa-
lity of power seems to furnish one of the most entertaining
spectacles those seas can exhibit. The efl!'orts to seize on the
one side, and the arts of escaping on the other, are perfectly
amusing. The dorado is seen, upon this occasion, darting after
its prey, which will not leave the water, while it has the advan-
tage of swimming, in the beginning of the chase. But, like a
hunted hare, being tired at last, it then has recourse to another
expedient for safety by flight. The long fins, which began to
grow useless in the water, are now exerted in a different manner,
and different direction, to that in which they were employed in
swimming : by this means, the timid little animal rises from the
water, and flutters over its surface for tv.'o or three hundred
yards, till the muscles employed in moving the wings are en-
leebled by that particular manner of exertion. By this time
however, they have acquired a fresh power of renewing theii
afforts in the water, and the animal is capable of proceeding with

ns;iE3.

563

some velocity by swimming: still, however, the active enemy
keeps it in view, and drives it again from the deep ; till, at
length, the poor little creature is seen to dart to shorter dis-
tances, to flutter with greater effort, and to drop down at last
into the mouth of its fierce pursuer. But not the dorado alone,
all animated nature seems combined against this little fish, which
seems possessed of double powers, only to be subject to greater
dangers. For though it should escape from its enemies of the
deep, yet the tropic bird, and the albatross are for ever upon the
wing to seize it. Thus pursued in either element, it sometimes
seeks refuge from a new enemy ; and it is not unfrequent for
whole shoals of them to fall on shipboard, where they furnish
man with an object of useless curiosity.

The warfare in fresh water is not carried on with such de-
structive activity ; nor are the inhabitants of that element so
numerous. It would seem that there is something more favour-
able to the fecundity of fishes in the ocean than in an element
less impregnated with salt. It has been the opinion of some
philosophers that all fish are natives of that great reservoir ; and
that only colonies have been sent up rivers, either through acci-
dent, or the necessity of procuring subsistence. They have been
led to this opinion by the superior fecundity of sea-fish, which
breed twenty to one ; as well as by their superiority in strength
and size, over those of the same kind found in lakes and rivers.
This is a matter too remotely speculative to be worth pursuing ;
but certain it is that, in fresh water, fishes seem to abate much
of their courage and rapacity ; pursue each other with less vio-
lence, and seem to be less powerfully actuated by all their ap-
petites. The greediness with which sea-fish devour the bait is
prodigious, if compared with the manner they take it in fresh
water. The lines of such fishermen as go off to sea are coarse,
thick, and clumsy, compared to what are used by those who fish
at land. Their baits are seldom more than a piece of a fish, or
the flesh of some quadruped, stuck on the hook in a bungling
manner ; and scarcely any art is employed to conceal the decep-
tion. But it is othervvise in fresh water : the lines must ofnii
be drawn to a hair-like fineness ; they must be tinctured of tlie
peculiar colour of the stream ; the bait must be formed with the
nicest art, and even, if possible, to exceed the perfection of na-
ture : yet still the fishes approach it with dinidence, and often

064 HISTOKY OK

swim round it with disdain. The cod, on the banks of New-
foundland, the instant the hooli:, which is only baited with the
guts of the animal last taken, is dropped into the water, darts to
it at once, and the fishermen have but to pull up as fast as they
throw down. But it is otherwise with those who fish in fresh
waters, they must wait whole hours in fruitless expectation ; and
the jmtience of a fisherman is proverbial among us.

This comparative neglect of food, which is found in all the
tribes of fresh-water lishes, renders them less turbulent and less
destructive among each other. Of all these the pike is the most
active and voracious ; and our poets, whose business it is to
observe the surface of nature, have called it the tyrant of the
watery plain. In fact, in proportion to its strength and celerity,
the pike does some mischief; but what are its effects compared
to those of the cachalot or the shark ! they resemble the petty
depredations of a robber, put in competition with the ravages of
a conqueror ! However, the pike will attack every fish less than
itself; and it is sometimes seen choked, by attempting to swal-
low such as are too large a morsel. It is immaterial of what
species the animal it pursues appears to be, whether of another
or its own, all are indiscriminately devoured ; so that every fish
owes its safety to its minuteness, its celerity, or its courage :
nor does the pike confine itself to feed on fish and frogs ; it will
draw down the water-rat and the young ducks, as they are swim-
ming about. Gesner tells us of a mule that stooped to drink iu
the water, when a famished pike, that was near, seized it by the
nose, nor was it disengaged till the beast flung it on shore. So
great is their rapacity, that they will contend with the otter for
his prey, and even endeavour to force it from him. For this
reason it is dreaded by all other fish : and the small ones show
the same uneasiness and detestation at the presence of their ty-
rant, as the little birds do at the sight of a hawk or an owl.
When the pike lies asleep near the surface, as is frequently the
case, the lesser fish are often observed to swim around it in vast
numbers, with a mixture of caution and terror.

The other tribes of fresh-water fish are much inferior to this
animal in courage and rapacity : they chiefly subsist upon worms
and insects, pursuing them at the bottom, or jumping after them
to the surface of the water. In winter also, their appetite seems
entirely to forsake them ; at least they continue in so torpid a

nsHi:s. 565

state, that few baits will tempt them to their destruction. At
that season, they forsake the shallow waters, and seek those deep
holes to be -found in every river, where they continue for days
together, without ever appearing to move. The cold seems to
atfect them ; for at that time they lie close to the bottom, where
the water is most warm, and seldom venture out, except the day
be peculiarly fine, and the shallows at the edges of the stream
become tepified by the powerful rays of the sun. Indeed, I
have been assured, that some fishes may be rendered so torpid
by the cold, in the northern rivers, as to be frozen up in the great
masses of ice, in which they continue for several months together,
seemingly without life or sensation, the prisoners of congela-
tion, and waiting the approach of a warmer sun to restore them
at once to life and liberty. Thus that cheerful luminary not
only distributes health and vegetation to the productions of the
earth, but is ardently sought even by the gelid inhabitants of the
water.

As fish are enemies one to another, so each species is infested
with worms of different kinds pecdiiar to itself. The great fish
abound with them ; and the little ones are not entirely free.
These troublesome vermin lodge themselves either in the jaws
and the intestines internally, or near the fins without. When
fish are healthy and fat they are not much annoyed by them ;
but in winter, when they are lean or sickly, they then suffer very
much.

Nor does the reputed longevity of this class secure them from
tlii'ir peculiar disorders. They are not only affected by too much
cold, but there are frequently certain dispositions of the element
in which they reside unfavourable to their liealth and propaga-
tion. Some ponds they will not breed in, however artfully dis-
posed for supplying them with fresh recruits of water, as well
!is provision. In some seasons they arc found to feel epidemic
disorders, and are seen dead by the water side, without any ap-
jiiuent cause : yet still they are animals of all others the most
Aivacious, and they often live and subsist upon such substances
as are poisonous to the more perfect classes of animated nature.

It is not easy to (k'termine whether the poisonous fuialities
uhiih many of tiieni are found to possess, cither when tliey
liound our bodies externally with their spines, or when they are
unwarily eaten at our tables, arises from this cause. That num-

IK. 3 i:

61)6 IMSTOiiY OF

bers of fishes inflict poisonous wounds, in the opinion of many,
fiiiniot be doubted. The eoncurvent testimony of mankind they
tliink sufficient to contradict a-iy reasonings upon this head,
taken from anatomical inspection. The great pain that is felt
from the sting given by the back fin of the weaver, bears no pro-
portion to the smallness of the instrument that inflicts the
wound. How the poison is preserved, or how it is conveyed
y the animal, it is not in our power to perceive ; but its actual
existence has been often attested by painful experience. In this
instance we must decline conjecture, satisfied with history.

The fact of their being poisonous when eaten, is equally
notorious ; and the cause equally inscrutable. My poor worthy
fiiend, Dr Grainger, who resided for many years at St Christo-
pher's, assured me, that of the fish caught, of the same kind, at
one end of the island, some were the best and most wholesome
in the world ; while others taken at a different end were always
dangerous, and most commonly fatal. We have a paper in the
Philosophical Transactions, giving an account of the poisonous
qualities of those found at New Providence, one of the Bahama
islands. The author assures us, that the greatest part of the fish
of that dreary coast are all of a deadly nature : their smallest
effects being to bring on a terrible pain in the joints, which, if
terminating favourably, leaves the patient without any appetite
for several days after. It is not those of the most deformed
figure, or the most frightful to look at, that are alone to be
dreaded ; all kinds, at different times, are alike dangerous ; and
the same species which has this day served for nourishment, is
the next, if tried, found to be fatal !

This noxious quality has given rise to much speculation, and
many conjectures. Some have supposed it to arise from the
fishes on these shores eating of the manchineel apple, a deadly
vegetable poison, that sometimes grows pendent over the sea -.
but the quantity of those trees growing in this manner, bears no
proportion to the extensive infection of the fish. Labat has
ascribed it to their eating the galley-fish, which is itself most
potently poisonous : but this only removes our wonder a little
farther back ; for it may be asked, with as just a cause for curio-
sity, how comes the galley-fish itself to procure its noxious
qualities ? Others have ascribed the poison of these fishes to
their feeding upon co]>peras-bcds ; but I do not know cf v.uy

FISHES.

36'!

copper-mines found in America. In ^liort, as we cannot de-
scribe the alembic by which the rattlesnake distils its malignity,
nor the process by which the scorpion, that lives among roses,
converts their sweets to venom, so we cannot discover the man-
ner by which lishes become thus dangerous ; and it is well foi
us of Europe that we can thus wonder in security. It is certain
that with us, if nshes. such as carp or tench, acquire any dis.
agreeable flavour from the lakes in which they have been bred^
this can be removed, by their being kept some time in finer and
better water ; there they soon clear away all those disagreeable
qualities their flesh had contracted, and become as delicate as if
they had been always fed in the most cleanly manner. But this
expedient is with us rather the precaution of luxury than the
effect of fear : we have nothing to dread from the noxious
qualities of our fish ; for all the animals our waters furnish are
wholesome.

Happy England ! where the sea furnishes an abundant and
luxurious repast, and the fresh waters an innocent and harmless
pastime ; where the angler, in cheerful solitude, strolls by the
edge of the stream, and fears neither the coiled snake, nor the
lurking crocodile ; where he can retire at night, with his few
trouts (to borrow the pretty description of old Walton) to some
friendly cottage, where the landlady is good, and the daughter
innocent and beautiful ; where the room is cleaidy, with lavender
in the sheets, and twenty ballads stuck about the wall ! Tliero
he can enjoy the company of a talkative brother sportsman, have
his trouts dressed for supper, tell tales, sing old tunes, or make
a catch ! There he can talk of the wonders of nature with
learned admiration, or find some harmless sport to content liiin,
and pass away a little time, without offence to God, or injuiy tu
man!

END OF VOLUME THIRD.

GLASGOW:

HI. I. .11- lUN AND CO., UllNTEH.'!, VII.L.\riE I.P.

QL

50

C-63

V.3

pt.2

Goldsmith, Oliver

A history of the earth

m

P.T n,l'

ioHed

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

f

.'^v