EX LIBRIS

Wilham Healey Dall

Division of Mollusks
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Moll = A HISTORY

THE OYSTER

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THE OYSTER FISHERIES.

BY

TC. BYTION, F.LS; F.Z8;

ETC, ETC,

LONDON:
JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

MDCCCLVIII. —+-

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

—_pa :
ee OTT Oy

Piel PAGE.

In presenting the followmg remarks to the public, I
by no means intend to affirm that more information
on many points may not be obtained than is con-
tained in the present work: as far as these go, they
are generally the results of my own observations
on the coasts of England, Ireland, Scotland, Isle of
Man, and Wales ; I wish I could also say, that I had
had more experience on the Channel beds. I have
also received information from numerous friends
regarding other localities, verifying, or otherwise, my
own observations. The Chapter on Reproduction is

entirely from my own observations, obtained with
a 2

ly PREFACE.

much trouble and some cost. The last, consisting of
suggestions, may be regarded as a sort of summary,
or an attempt to adapt what I have learnt of the
habits and natural history of the Oyster to the British
Fisheries, thereby showing the manner in which their

productiveness may be increased.

T.-C..EYTON;

Eyton, Wellington, Shropshire,
July 16, 1858.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.
Page
History and Antiquity of the Oyster as an article of food.. 1

CHAPTER II.

Laws relating to Oyster Fisheries ..................-.. 7

CHAPTER ITI.

Natural History and Anatomy of the Oyster............ 12
CHAPTER IV.

Baproguetion and: Growth "i272 256 87) tac, oe et
CHAPTER V.

euiies Of EG OV aber a's. a4 ke node so ee als alte oy ae

CHAPTER VI.
List, and Account, of the principal Oyster-beds ........ 30

CHAPTER VII.

Suggestions for the Formation of new Oyster-beds and the
Preseevahioncol O1G-ONEW <9... S80 fav. oye. ne sees a OO

ESPACE eee a eee ae Pa ew rdie ed wage OE

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Prats I. Large Oyster from Llandudno, opened on the upper
shell, and showing the mantle, o, the adductor muscle, a,

the edges of the bronchiz, p, and the ovaries, B B.

Prats IT. Dissection of an Oyster: A, ovaries; B, the situa-
tion of the mouth; c, the labial palpi; D, D,p, liver;
B, the stomach; F, the heart; a, the intestinal canal ;
H, the vent.

Prate III. Fig. 1. Dissection of an Oyster, showing the prin-
cipal nerves—a, that communicating with the adductor
muscle; B, that communicating with the mouth.

Fig. 2. Outline of a Cockle-shell, showing the siphons,

B, and the foot, a.

Pirate IV. Figs. 1 & 2. Spawn from the ovary.
Fig. 8. Spawn from between the folds of the beard.
Some of the spawn is of the same form before it is exuded.
Fig. 4. Spat on the Oyster after it has been detached
from the parent and adhered to some foreign substance.

Prate V. Fig. 1. Oyster opened to show the spawn, B, between
the folds of the mantle.

Fig. 2. The hinge and ligament in a large Oyster.

Pirate VI. Oysters from one year old to five.

HISTORY-OF THE OYSTER.

CHAPTER I.

HISTORY AND ANTIQUITY OF THE OYSTER AS
AN ARTICLE OF FOOD.

Tart the Oyster has been used by man, not only as
an article of necessary food, but as one of luxury, from
great antiquity, appears by the following quotations.
Plmy, who died in the year 29, says of oysters :—
“Nec potest videri satis dictum esse de his, cum
palmas mensarum divitum attribuantur ills.”
Juvenal would appear to have had a delicate palate,
and to have been as experienced in the taste of oysters
as the fishmongers of the present day :—
“ Cireceis nata forent, an

Lucrinum ad saxum, Rutupinove edita fundo
Ostrea, callebat primo deprendere morsu.”’

The above quotation shows that the British oyster,
even at the early period when Juvenal wrote, about
B

2 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

4.D. 60, was in high repute among the luxurious
Romans.

Dr. Baster, as quoted by Dr. Johnston, appears to
have been of opinion that the Roman predilection for
oysters was a sanitary one. “Living oysters,” he
says, “are endowed with the proper medicinal
virtues ; they nourish wonderfully, and solicit rest ;
for he who sups on oysters is wont on that night to
sleep placidly ; and to the valetudinary afflicted with
a weak stomach oppressed with phlegm or bile, eight,
ten, or twelve raw oysters in a morning, or one hour
before dimner, is more healing than any drug or mix-
ture that the apothecary can compound.” This mode
of acquiring an appetite for diner appears to be con-
tinued to the present time, as it is not by any means
uncommon, in a hospitable friend’s house, to be asked
to take a few oysters before dinner to give you an
appetite.

Sallust, B.c. 50, appears to have had a very low
estimate of our ancestors, or else a very high one of
the oyster, when he says, “ The poor Britons—there is
some good in them after all—they produce an oyster.”

One Sergius Orata is the first person of whom we
have an authentic account as a cultivator of oysters ;
for, says Pliny, he did not make them for the sake of
indulging his appetite, but through avarice ; and made
great profits of them. Orata got great credit for his

Lucrine oysters, for the British were not then known.

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 3

“The ancients,” mentions Pennant, quoting Athenzus,
“eat them raw, and sometimes roasted ; they had also
a custom of stewing them with mallows and docks,
or with fish (cod’s-head and oyster-sauce),and esteemed
them very nourishing.”

Among the authors who have written upon the
natural history of the Oyster since printing was in-
vented, I believe Gesner is the first. The title-page
of his work, liber iv. ‘Qui est de Piscium et Aqua-
tiltum Animantium Natura,’ bears the following letters
as a date, cro 10 cir, and was printed at Frankfort ;
the other volume, ‘De Avibus,’ is dated 1535.
Rondeletius and Belon, both of whom are quoted,
bear dates, the former 1558, and the latter 1555,
supposing my copies to be the first editions.

Gesner, in his History of the Oyster, ‘ De (Ostreis,
sive) Bivalviis testa duriore contectis, Belonius,’
gives the followmg as the mode in which oysters were
treated by the Romans :—‘ Nam que a Brundusio in
Lucrinum lacum transferebantur (quaum Romana res
magnitudinis atque luxuriz fastigium teneret) ut veluti
dulcium aquarum gaudentes adventu pinguescerent,
integrze cum testis divendebantur.” ‘This practice of
the Romans is precisely what is now done on the
best-managed beds at the present day. Gesner also
states, quotg from Galenus, that they generate
healthy humours, and gives an account of those which
were supposed to be species in that day.

B2

4. HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. .~

Aldrovand, in his voluminous work published in
1606, quotes the account of Sergius Orata from
Pliny, and also an account of the luxury of Aisop’s
son in eating oysters. This author’s account is alto-
gether indeed very amusing.

Jonston, in his ‘ Historia Naturalis de Exsangui-
bus Aquaticis,’ published in 1657, gives a wonder-
ful story of the earth having subsided in the time
of the war with Mithridates, when lakes and rivers
appeared, some fresh and others salt, stocked with
oysters and fish. He also gives an account of the
manner in which the crab enters the shell of the
oyster, by inserting a stone between the valves when
open, and devouring the fish at leisure. The Ponti-
fical suppers in ancient Rome appear to have begun
with echini, or sea-eggs, and oysters.

Dacosta’s work, ‘ Historia Naturalis Testaceorum
Britannize,’ appears to have furnished matter for most
of the modern works on the Oyster. He mentions,
quoting from Jacob’s ‘ History of Faversham,’ that a
company of free dredgers existed there in the time of
Henry Il. (1154), and that they paid for their right
the sum of twenty-three shillings and fourpence
annually to the Crown ;—that two annual Admiralty
or Water Courts were held for the fisheries and of the
oyster-trade, which, he says, received generally about
£3000 from the Dutch. The same author states,

‘‘ that from the mouths or entrances of Sandwich Bay

~

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. v0

and the adjoming coast, or Richborough and Re-
culver, oysters are got in great plenty, and are the
most delicious that can be taken; but as the beds do
not afford native: oysters sufficient for the demand,
large quantities of small ones, called ‘brood,’ are
annually collected from different parts of the sur-
rounding sea, even from the Land’s End in Cornwall,
from Scotland, and from France, in order to increase,
and be ameliorated of their saltness by the constant
flow of fresh water from two great rivers, the ‘Thames
and the Medway. It must therefore be admitted
that, although oysters are found round all the coast,
yet those of the bay of the Roman Rutupiz, or
Richborough, may justly claim the preference of all
others.”

From Bishop Sprat’s account of oysters given in
the ‘ History of the Royal Society,’ republished in
Latin by Dr. Lister in his ‘ Hist. An. Angl.,’ copied
from Dale’s ‘ History of Harwich’ by Pennant in his
‘British Zoology,’ and since by Prof. Forbes, I shall
only quote, to show that, probably from the beds
having been over-fished since the bishop’s time, the
oysters now spawn much later than they did formerly.
This subject will be referred to again in the course of
the work more fully. The bishop states, “ that zm the
mounth of May oysters cast their spawn (which the
dredgers call spat): it is ike to a drop of a candle,

and about the bigness of a halfpenny. . . . "Tis probably

6 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

conjectured that the spat in twenty-four hours begins
to have a shell. In the mounth of May the dredgers
(by law of the Admiralty Court) have liberty to catch
all manner of oysters. . . . The reason of the scarcity
of oysters, and consequently of their dearness, is that
they are bought up by the Dutch.”

“The reason why a penalty is set upon any that
shall destroy the cultch is, because they fear that if
that be taken away the ouse will increase, and then
muscles and cockles will breed there and destroy the
oysters, they not having whereon to stick their spat.
.... The male oyster is black-sick, and the female
white-sick.”’

Barbut, in his ‘ Genera Vermium,’ published 1788,
states that the oyster is a reputed hermaphrodite,
and that the spawn which they cast in May adheres
to rocks and other matters at the bottom.

The ‘Systema Nature’ of Linneus, published
1735, and going through many editions, being merely
an arrangement or classification of the Animal King-
dom, does not give us any information.

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 7

CHAPTER Il.
LAWS RELATING TO OYSTER FISHERIES.

Tne earliest Act of Parliament relating to fisheries,
that | am aware of, was passed in the third year of
the reign of James I. chap. 12. There was also an
Act passed in the 13th and 14th years of the reign
of Charles II. chap. 28. After this, the next Act re-
lating to fisheries appears to be the Ist of George I.
chap. 18; but none of these Acts relate, except in
general terms, to oysters.

An Act of Parliament relating to oyster-fisheries
appears to have been passed in the 31st year of the
reign of George III., chap. 51, which has been re-
pealed by one passed in the 28th year of the reign
of George IV., chap. 29, which enacts, “That if any
person shall steal any oyster or oyster-brood from
any oyster-bed, laying, or fishery, bemg the pro-
perty of any other person, and sufficiently marked
out or known as such, every such offender shall be
deemed guilty of larceny, and being convicted thereof
shall be punished accordingly. And if any person

shall unlawfully and wilfwly use any dredge, or any

8 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

net, instrument, or engine whatsoever within the
limits of any such oyster-fishery, for the purpose of
taking oysters or oyster-brood, although none shall be
actually taken, or shall, with any net, instrument, or
engine whatsoever, drag upon the ground or soil of
any such fishery ; every such person shall be deemed
guilty of a misdemeanor, and being found guilty shall
be punished by fine or imprisonment, or both, as the
court shall award, such fine not exceeding the sum of
twenty pounds, and such imprisonment not to exceed
three calendar months.”

A trial took place at the Sussex Lent assizes, 1814,
Bridger v. Richardson, an action being brought to
recover the penalty of £10 under the above statute,
for wittingly, with a certain engine called a dredge,
taking, in Chichester harbour, three gallons of oyster
fry and spat, the same being sea-fish, and that of a
size unfit for use. There was also a second count for
a similar penalty, for wittingly, with a certain engine
called a drag, taking 100 bushels of the brood. sea-
fish, to wit oysters, the same being sea-fish.

On the trial it was proved that the defendant, who
was a Colchester fisherman, took the brood in question
for the purpose of carrying them to Colchester, to be
Jaid down there on private lands for further growth
and maturity, and to make them marketable.

Defendant’s counsel objected, Ist, that the taking
must be with the imtent to destroy, the contrary of

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 7)

which was proved; 2ndly, that the Act applied only
to floating fish. A verdict was, however, taken for
the plaintiff for £10, with liberty to defendant to
move for a nonsuit. Accordingly a rule was obtained
in the Queen’s Bench for that purpose, and, after
long arguments on both sides, the court held the case
not to fall within the meaning of the statute, for that
the taking could not be penal, when the object of such
taking was not to destroy, but to preserve.

In 1833 a select committee of the House of Com-
mons, appointed to inquire into the present state of
the British Channel fisheries and laws affecting the
fishing-trade of England, and to which committee
petitions from Emsworth, Brixham, Havant, Lang-
stone, Bedhampton, Farlingdon, Plymouth and Rosham,
complaining of distress, were referred, report, in refer-
ence to the petitions (see Report, p. 13), that not only
in these harbours, but in others, a practice generally
prevails, and which appears to be of recent introduc-
tion, of persons coming in fishing-smacks to dredge
for, and carry away, the young brood of oysters and
other shell-fish, to the great damage and destruction
of the oyster-beds and the brood of other fish there ;
and it appearing to your committee that such a prac-
tice is also unjust, inasmuch as the oyster-beds in
those situations are generally known to have been
formed by the labour and industry of the fishermen
and inhabitants of the neighbourhood, or their an-

10 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

cestors, thus affording to them a beneficial source of
employment, upon which they have been accustomed
to rely, and in which therefore they ought to be pro-
tected.

The committee then go on to report, that, having
examined the Acts of Parhament, they do not find
any sufficiently strimgent to prevent the grievance
complained of, and that it should be made unlawful
to take or carry away any oysters from such beds of
a less size than are fit for food, that is to say, of less
size than 25 inches m width; or to fish for oysters
at any time between the first day of May and the last
day of August in every year, or such other time as
should be fixed in reference to any particular harbour,
according to the season in which the oysters there
become fit for food; such seasons, and all necessary
regulations for those fisheries, bemg determined or
approved by the magistrates of the county or district
im which they are situate, and enforced by conserva-
tors and officers locally appointed for that purpose.

No Act appears, however, to have been passed,
putting these recommendations in force.

In consequence of the French fishermen exercising
their callimg on the English shore, a convention was
entered into in 1839 between Her Majesty and the
King of the French, fixing certain boundaries, and to
which a chart was appended.

The 27th of Victoria, chap. 79, entitled “An Act to

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 14

carry into effect a Convention between Her Majesty

and the King of the French, concerning the Fisheries

in the Seas between the British Islands and France,”
which also applies to the whole coast, enacts :—

Sect. 9 empowers officers of the Coast-guard or
Customs to seize dredges.

Sect. 45 provides that the oyster-fisheries shall open
on the lst of September, and shall close on the
30th of April.

Sect. 46 prohibits boats from having dredges or
other implements for catching oysters on board.
Sect. 47 prohibits dredgmg between sunset and

sunrise.

Sect. 48. Oysters less than 23 inches in the greatest
diameter of the shell to be thrown overboard.

Sect. 49 prohibits ballast bemg thrown overboard on
oyster-beds.

18 & 19 Vic. chap. 101, entitled “An Act for the
effectual execution of the Convention,’ enacts :—
Sect. 1 authorizes officers of the Coast-guard or

Customs to seize dredges and oysters found on

board fishing-vessels between the lst of May and

the 31st of August.

Sect. 2. Oysters landed between the above dates may

be seized.

12 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

CHAPTER III.

NATURAL HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF
THE OYSTER.

Tnx Oyster belongs to that division of Mollusca called
Conchifera, or bivalve shells, having two separate
shells jomed together by a ligament, and forming a
hinge. When the shells are shut, they enclose the
animal. The shells are made to shut by means of a
very strong adductor muscle (Pl. I. a), attached to
both upper and lower valve by the elasticity of the
hinge-hgament (Pl. V. fig. 2). Thus, if the adductor
be divided by a thin knife mtroduced between the
valves, they immediately open. Oysters are acepha-
lous, or without any distinct head, although they
have a mouth (PI. II. 8); but are completely deprived
of eyes. In their adult state they are devoid of all
locomotion, bemg found, when undisturbed from their
nativity, always attached to other shells, rocks, or
other hard substances. It is not, like the Cockle and
many other Conchifera, furnished with a foot (PI. III.
fig. 2, 4), which enables the latter to travel slowly
on a soft bottom; neither has it those curious ap-

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 13

pendages called siphons (PI. IIT. fig. 2, 8), with which
the Cockle is also provided.

The mantle (Pl. I. c) is free, and encloses the
bronchiz (Pl. I. p), or breathing apparatus. The
Cockle progresses by means of extending its foot
forward, and dragging the shell edgeways after it.
On the opposite extremity to the foot project two
tubes, scarcely beyond the shell; one of these is the
entrance to the respiratory organs, the other the vent.
The same functions that are carried on by these
tubes in the Oyster have considerable modifications.
While the bronchiz in the Cockle are internal, those
in the Oyster are external, being situated between
the folds of the mantle; and freely admit the access
of water when the shell is open-

The mantle, which I have just mentioned (PI. I. c),
is an organ of great importance to the animal, as it is
by its means that the shell is enlarged: it lines the
edge of the internal surface of both shells, and is fur-
nished with glands, which deposit carbonate of lime
with a glutinous secretion when the shell requires
increasing on the edge, and also on the internal
surface. ‘The edges of these repeated deposits, slightly
projecting one over the other, form the ridges and
carinations observable in most bivalve shells.

Having now explamed, I hope intelligibly, the
organs of the Oyster as seen externally, I shall en-
deavour to point out the internal ones, which can of

14 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

course be only observed by dissection. It will be
necessary to understand, however, in the first place,
what relations two of the organs bear to one another,
namely the bronchiz and mouth. The latter is fur-
nished on each side with two lobes, called the labial
palpi (PI. II. c) : the former, in the process of respira-
tion, collects on its delicate surface numerous animal-
cule, upon which the animal feeds: these are col-
lected by the palpi, and transferred to the mouth.
These palpi also serve another purpose at the time of
reproduction.

We will suppose the Oyster to be deprived of its
lower shell, as in Plate I.: we observe the adductor
muscle (A) severed, the ovaries (BB) extending over
the liver and stomach, and the upper lobe of the
mantle (c), all visible. Upon turning back the edge
of the mantle, we shal] discover the four lobes of the
bronchi (p), and below them, again, the lower folds
of the mantle lining the opposite shell. On returning
two of the bronchial lobes back, so as again to cover
the lower fold of the mantle, we shall find, situated at
the end towards the hinge, between the four lobes, the
mouth, having a pair of somewhat ovate labial palpi
(PI. IL. c), situated one on each side, and extending
downwards. We shall also observe, unless the ani-
mal is very full of spawn, some dark olive marks
appearing through the cuticle of the ovaries: these

are the stomach and liver.

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. bs)

On proceeding further, and dissecting away the
upper lobe of the mantle, the two upper bronchi,
and the upper portion of the ovaries carefully, the
liver (Pl. Il. ppp), stomach (PI. Il. £), imtestine
(Pl. Il. a), and heart (PI. IL ¥) become apparent.
Some difficulty will be found in dissecting away the
ovaries, as they are diffused throughout almost every
portion of the interior organs. The convolutions that
the imtestme makes are apparent, with the vent
(Pl. IT. w) situated near the right side of the adductor
muscle, the liver surrounding the whole of the sto-
mach and the principal portion of the central convo-
lution of the intestine. Immediately above the ad-
ductor (Pl. I. a), the heart (PI. Il. r) may be observed,
by means of which the blood is forced into the fila-
ments of the bronchie, to be impregnated with
oxygen.

This organ has a very different mode of action
from our own: it consists of two distinct cavities,
one auricle and one ventricle. The latter expels the
blood from the heart through the body and the gills
or bronchi, from which organs it is received into the
auricle and expelled agam into the ventricle, thus
completing the circwit of the arteries and veins.

The nervous system in the Oyster is of course low :
there being no distinct brain, the principal nervous
centre or ganglion is situated on the inner side of
the adductor muscle (PI. III. fig.1,4), which com-

16 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

municates with it, and also with the bronchie, mantle,
and sides of the mouth (Pl. III. fig. 1, 8), where two
small ganglia or nervous centres are situated. The
accompanying drawing (PI. III.) will show the course
of the principal nerves.

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 17

CHAPTER IV.
REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH.

‘THE opinions of authors as to the mode of reproduc-
tion in the Oyster may be divided into three: the first
and oldest is that of Ulysses Aldrovand, who, under
the head Generation, wrote as follows :—‘‘ Ostreorum
ortus causa putredo quedam esse videtur.” With
this quotation I thnk we may at once dismiss the
theory of putridity, from which our old author sup-
poses the oyster to be born, merely mentioning that
several others of the old writers were of the same
opinion.

That mollusca are produced from ova appears to
have been the discovery of an anonymous writer in
the Philosophical Magazine, 1603, who states that he
saw the young snails issue from their eggs, and that
he was afraid to give publicity to his discovery with-
out the testimony of other witnesses. This position,
however, namely that mollusca are produced from
eggs, is not likely to be disputed in the present day.
The form which the young assume before quitting the
ovary is a question to which I shall have to refer
again ; upon this state depends whether the animal is

C

18 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

viviparous, ovoviviparous, or oviparous. The first of
these terms refers to animals which bring forth their
young alive, derived from two Latin words, vivus,
alive, and pario, to bring forth. The second has the
addition of ovo to it, from ovwm, an egg, and applies
to animals in which the young are hatched from eggs
in the interior of the parent, without having any con-
nexion with a uterus or womb. The third, oviparous,
to animals which bring forth eggs which are after-
wards hatched. Of the first mode of reproduction
we have examples i man and other mammalia; of
the second, among infusoria and some other ani-
malcules, numbers of which may be observed in any
puddle ; and of the third, birds form a good example.
All animals are either moncecious or dicecious : these
terms were originally applied by Linneus to two
orders of plants, the former having the male and
female organs on the same plant, or being unisexual ;
the latter having the sexual organs distinct on sepa-
rate plants, or beg bisexual: these terms are now
applied also to animals. ‘The first pomt to be con-
sidered is, to which of the first-named divisions the
Oyster belongs, viz. viviparous, ovoviviparous, or OVI-
parous. My own observations tend to establish the
fact that they are ovoviviparous, in support of which
view I shall now give a few extracts from my note-
book, referring to numerous examinations of the ovaries
previous to the expulsion of the young.

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 19

“« May 19.—Dissected and examined a large number
of oysters sent here (Kyton) from Burnham, through
the kindness of Mr. Sweeting, of Cheapside, London.
The ovaries of all were slightly distended, and full of
spawn of various sizes, as represented in the plate
(Pl. IV.), when seen in the microscope under a 4-inch
power. In the smallest 1 could not perceive any
motion ; but in the larger could distinctly detect the
vibratile cilia or feelers, as they would probably be
termed by the fishermen, in active motion. The smaller
ones were round, with a dark marginal rim (PI. IV.
fig. 1), and some had indistinct lines radiating from
the centre towards the margm (PI. IV. fig. 2): the
larger ones (Pl. IV. fig. 3) were similar in shape to
those obtained from Loch Ryan on the 10th of July,
1856, and exhibited to the British Association at
Cheltenham: the interstices between the bronchi
and mautle were closely exammed, but not a vestige
of an ovum was to be seen*. The oysters opened were
from 24 to 3 inches in diameter, and had the smooth
shell of ‘natives’; those most advanced towards

* The spermatozoa with cilia are, I should suppose, un-
doubtedly the perfect young; but what are the other rounded
bodies? A few having been found with radiating lines, it
appears likely that a subdivision takes place in an early stage,
probably after fecundation. I did not see any spermatozoa
that I could construe into male spermatozoa; but I think it
probable that they might be visible in the early part of the
year, before the ovary begins to swell much.

G2

~

20 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

spawning had the margins of the bronchiz and mantle
blackish, the others were of the usual colour of oysters
in season. I placed some of the spawn freshly taken
from the ovary in salt water, made after Gosse’s receipt,
in a glass-tube; they gradually sank to the bottom,
but at first appeared lively.

“ May 23.—Received some oysters from Llandudno
in Caernarvonshire; they were of very large size,
measuring 43 inches by 5 inches. On placmg some of
the contents of the ovary on a piece of glass, and mixing
a little sea-water with it, a most extraordinary scene
presented itself under a }-ich power magnifying 500
times. The ova were not nearly so large as those from
the Burnham oysters mentioned before ; they were of
two distinct sizes, and very slightly oval, the larger
being about four times the size of the smaller; the
smaller were moving about by means of their cilia
very actively, while the larger ones were stationary
and round, ‘with a slightly darkened margin, as in
those from Burnham. The smaller ones came into
frequent contact, and adhered to the larger ones,
sometimes singly, and at other times in groups; when
such was the case, they moved, as if tugging at the
larger, and in the apparent effort occasionally let go
their hold, and, as it were, sprang from the larger ;
sometimes a small one would come in contact with
a large one without attaching itself. After observing
them for about ten minutes, the whole became

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 21

quiescent. I placed some more of the contents of the
ovary under the microscope ; but it was far less lively
than the first portion observed, probably in conse-
quence of exposure to the air. I have only observed
oysters precisely in this state five or six times, as it is
scarcely possible out of a large number, even if ob-
tained from the same locality, to find two in similar
stages. I did not either observe the rounded bodies
with radiating lines in those last mentioned.

“ July 7.—Examined a large number of oysters in
a fishmonger’s shop in London ; they were said to
come from Jersey, and had all spawned, the ovaries
being flat and flabby. Obtained a small quantity of
whitish liquid from the ovary. ‘The ova were very
minute, but some in motion; probably more would
have been so, but the oysters had evidently been taken
some time, and were exposed in a basket to the light
in a shop window. These oysters had all the appear-
ance of being what are technically termed sea-oysters,
or such as had not been moved, the shell bemg covered
with weed, stones, and other rubbish.

“ July 9th.—Examined a large number of oysters
at another fishmonger’s shop, from Jersey, some of
which had spawned ; these oysters appeared to have
been moved, as they were much cleaner than the last :
this may be explained by the Jerseymen taking oysters
at the latter end of the season, laying them down in

shore, and sending them to the London market during

22 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

the illegal months, which I am informed is the case.
About three in 1000 had the spawn (Pl. V. 8) exuded
between the bronchiz ; some of this spawn was placed
in a tube bottle with salt water, and lived forty-eight
hours, although part of the time in my pocket.

“ July 11.—Went on board the fishing-smack ‘ Iris,’
the property of Mr. Laban Sweeting, who accompanied
me, dredging in the river Crouch with the light dredges,
for the purpose of collecting oysters to lay down for
the London market in September. Examined an
immense number of oysters of all sizes, but found no
small ones in spawn, or presenting the appearance of
having spawned. Mr. Sweeting is of opinion that they
do not spawn until they are three or four years old ;
they are considered fit for the London market at four,
five, and six years old, according to their growth,
which depends upon the feeding. Very few (three)
were found which had not parted with their spawn,
out of many basketfuls looked over: there was no
appearance of white spawn, as it is called, in any.
Among the shells were dredged up quantities of old
shells, stones, and other substances, completely
sprinkled over with spat (Pl. IV. fig. 4), as the spawn
is called by the fishermen : the rubbish called ‘ cultch,’
consisting of dead shells, unsizeable oysters, &c., was
returned to the river.

“The spat resembles the adult oyster in shape, but
is very minute: see Pl. IV. fig. 4, magnified 500 times.”

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 23

The above extracts will be all that is necessary
to introduce here, the remaining notes being merely
accounts of adventures, and repetitions of what has
been stated above. From them I think that it is
perfectly evident that the oyster is ovoviviparous and
moncecious. I am aware that it is even now the
opinion of some fishermen, as well as of Bishop Sprat,
that they are dicecious ; but although I have examined
hundreds of both those which are, as it is termed, black-
sick and white-sick, I have never been able to distin-
guish any difference in the form of the spawn,—the
fact being that the spawn is always white until it quits
the ovary, and then becomes black. The cause of the
exudation of the white is easily accounted for by the
ovary being heavily loaded, and the oyster, when dis-
turbed, closing its shell. I have seen both white and
black spawn escape into the same basket, from the
same causes. The Burnham dredging also tends
strongly to corroborate this opinion, being quite the
end of the spawning season, and there being no white
spawn observed, although some were black-sick. I
have endeavoured to compute the number of young
oysters between the bronchiz of a single old one in
the following manner :—having collected them all with
a camel-hair brush, and placed them in strong spirits
for twenty-four hours, I dried them on blotting-paper
—the spirits having removed the glutinous matter,
—then weighed a tenth part of a grain, and counted

24. HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

the number of young in it (2500). The total weight of
the whole was 72 gr., which, multiplied by 10, and
again by 2500, gives 1,800,000 as the total number
of young oysters in one old one. I do not mean to
say that this calculation is precisely correct, there pro-
bably having been some loss; but, at all events, it is
a pretty near approximation.

The growth of the oyster depends very much upon
the locality, and some grounds feed much faster than
others, particularly where there is an admixture of
fresh water. As the animal increases, the functions
of the mantle are called into operation for the purpose
of adding a fresh layer to the shell. Some have
imagined that the age of the oyster can be computed
by the rings of growth on the shell; but that such is
not the case, a very short examination will suffice to
show. ‘The immense oysters that are dredged at
Llandudno and other places are from beds that have
not been much broken up, and from water where
there is often a strong current: no doubt, if dredged,
and deposited in a proper situation, the spat, with
care, would produce good oysters.

Plate VI. represents the oysters from one year old
to five, fig. 1 having been deposited as spat the year
before. Oysters are found in almost all countries ;
but not always of the same species as the British one,
Ostrea edulis.

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 25

The following is a list of the Oysters belonging to
the genus Ostrea, given in Hanley’s ‘Illustrated Cata-
logue of Recent Bivalve Shells’ :—

Ostrea edulis. British Isles; France.
hippopus. Boulogne.

adriatica. Adriatic ; Black Sea.
cochlear. Mediterranean.

—— cristata. Mediterranean.
—— gallina. Atlantic.
—— lingua. Timor.

tulipa. Hab. unknown.
scabra. America.

rostralis. America.

parasitica. West Indies.

—— denticulata. China.

spathulata. On mangrove trees.

—— virginica. Virginia; Mexico.
— canadensis. North America.
—— excavata. New Holland.

—— mytiloides. Zebu; Philippines.
—— sinuata. Australia.

—— trapezina. New Holland.

— rufa. America.

—— margaritacea. South America.

gibbosa. Hab. unknown.

elliptica. Hab. unknown.
angulata. Tagus. (Gryphea.)

echinata. Philippines ; Amboyna.

stellata. Guinea.
prismatica. Guacomayo, Central America.

lamellosa. Mediterranean.

uncinata. Greece ; Smyrna.

—— raricosta. Hab. unknown.
- senegalensis, Senegal.

26 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

Ostrea orientalis. East Indies.

rosacea. China; Senegal.
—— Chemnitzii. China.
columbiensis. West Columbia.
lacerans. Senegal.

bicolor. Senegal.

— multistriata. On ships’ bottoms, from Africa.
— eallichroa. China.

— glaucina. Hab. unknown.

—— sinensis. China.

turbinata. Indian Ocean.

erista gal. Indian Ocean.
— hyotis. Indian Seas.
radiata. Indian Ocean.

— megadon. Peru.

pes tigris. Java.
— Lincoln. Australia.
—— pyxidata. Philippines.

Mr. Woodward, in his ‘ Manual of Mollusca,’ gives
the number of recent species as 60, and of fossil as
200, and mentions the followmg subgenera: Gry-
phea, Lamarck; LHvogyra, Sowerby. Some of the
species are said to be poisonous. ‘The Rock Oyster,
Anomia, is not bad eating. I was particularly struck
with the size of those I found in Glengariff Bay, on
the west of Ireland.

I believe that Delle Chiaje is right, when he says
that the Mussel and Oyster are poisonous in summer ;
and probably this is the case more or less with all
shell-fish that have spawned, or are just about to
spawn, and that those which, when out of season, are

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 27

sold in the London market, are not fit for food. I
have seen the effects of eating out of season mussels,
which cause great derangement in the system ; but I
have not seen any one made ill by oysters, although
the same effects might be expected, and occurred at
Havre. The ‘Green Oyster,’ formerly in such high
repute, is now gone out of fashion, and those with
white beards are esteemed the most. The green colour
at Burnham, Mr. Sweeting informs me, is imparted by
a species of weed, growing on the beds ; this is pro-
bably not unwholesome : but there is another green
oyster, found on some portions of the Welsh coast,
which I should most decidedly think was; it is said
to be coloured with copper from the mines.

ws
@

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

CHAPTER V.
ENEMIES OF THE OYSTER.

Oysters have many enemies under water as well as
above. The Purpura lapillus, on some beds, is very
destructive, and has at Burnham the local name of
‘Whelk-tingle.’ By means of an apparatus attached
to its tongue, and armed with small siliceous spicula
at. the point, it gradually bores a hole through the
shell, and sucks out the inhabitant. This animal
exudes, when irritated, a purple dye, which was in
such great repute among the Romans, that none but
those of the highest rank were allowed to wear it ;
it was called by the ancients the Tyrian dye. The
star-fish are enemies to the oyster, and are generally
destroyed by the fishermen when taken on the beds.
A boring sponge (C/iona) completely riddles the
shells of oysters, particularly the large and deep-sea
varieties. Numbers of dead shells may occasionally
be picked up on the beach, bored by it. A species
of Annelid, called //ermel/a, which forms tubes of
sand and comminuted shells, completely smothers the
oysters in some localities, agglutinating them into

one mass.

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 29

The common Barnacle, called ‘ Nuns,’ is also much
detested by the fishermen, as, by attaching itself to
the outside of the shell, it destroys its smooth appear-
ance, so much prized by the proprietors of native
oysters and their customers. There are others, and
their name is Legion, that feed upon the young fish.
The common Mussel, when it establishes a colony
upon an oyster-bed, does much harm indirectly ; not
so much by adhering to the shells, as by the mud
collecting about them formmg an uneven bottom.
The Nullipore, called by the fishermen ‘Coral,’ is
also very injurious to the beds off some parts of the

Isle of Man.

30 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

CHAPTER VI.

LIST, AND ACCOUNT, OF THE PRINCIPAL
OYSTER BEDS.

On the shores of England the principal nurseries of
oysters, not only for the English markets, but also
for the foreign, are those on the coast of Essex and
the estuaries adjoming: those taken there are called
‘Natives.’ Mr. Sweeting claims the name as pecu-
larly applicable to his fishery, as within his memory
no strange oysters have ever been introduced. Good
oysters are also found at Whitstable, Colchester,
Rochester, Milton, Faversham, Queenborough, Mal-
den, Bricklesea, Strood, and probably some other
places. Those of Whitstable differ from those of
the other localities, the water bemg deeper: it is
stated that they are earlier m season. ‘The western
coast of England is not remarkable for any great
oyster-fishery, that I am aware of.

The Jersey beds also supply immense numbers of
oysters to the English market, and also those of
Guernsey and Sark. The beds, as known at the
time, are marked in the Government chart attached
to the Convention with France ; but there have been

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 31

others discovered since. If a fisherman happen to
meet with a bed that has not been found before, he
generally keeps it a secret as long as he can; but,
when others find it out, the bed is so overworked,
that it is quite or nearly ruined for many years, which
probably is one of the causes of the decrease in the
supply.

Ireland is also very fruitful in oysters, beds being
scattered nearly all round the coast: the principal
are, Clew Bay, Mayo; Ballisodare, Sligo; Westport,
Mayo; Mulroy, Donegal; Carlingford, Louth ; Killery,
Mayo ; Ballyconeely, Galway ; Kenmare River, Kerry ;
Blackrod Bay, Mayo; Arklow, Wicklow; Carrick-
fergus in Belfast Lough; Malahide and Poolbay,
near Dublin; Red-bank beds and Lessadil, Clare ;
and Ardbeur Bay, Galway. The public banks, how-
ever, | am informed, are nearly exhausted from over-
dredging.

Scotland also possesses many beds, as Loch Ryan,
a chartered loch, the property of Colonel Wallace,
from whom Hugh Kear rents the Scar bank. There
are a few oysters in Loch Fyne, but they are very
scarce, and of the large sort.

The Frith of Forth beds are very extensive, and
yield large numbers. Natural beds also occur in
many localities among the adjacent islands.

Several beds of small extent occur round the Isle
of Man; one extends from near Douglas Lighthouse

32 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

to Laxey; another is found in Ramsey Bay, also
famous for scollops. A few oysters are also found off
Ballaugh.

Most of these beds have a on them, which
is very injurious.

The chief beds of North Wales are those of Bardsey,
Porth Dyllaen, Rhoscolyn, the Menai Straits, and
Beaumaris; on the latter of which great numbers
of oysters, brought from Ireland, are laid down,
to be ready for the Liverpool market. Caernarvon
Bay contains numerous beds, as those of Llandwyn.
There are also beds in the 'Tudwal roads off Pwyl-
helli: many of them owe thei preservation to the
nature of the coast,—the fishing not being allowed in
the summer, and in winter the westerly gales pre-
vailing, and no safe harbour to run to. Except in
September, there is not much fishing going on.

In South Wales there are many beds. Milford
furnishes a good supply.

It is almost impossible to arrive at an exact estimate
of the annual supply of oysters; but probably the
following is an approximation *, as far as it goes :-—

A OMGONl Gate see Soe 130,000 bushels. Mr. Wickenden.
Channel Islands .. 8,000,000 tubs. Dr. Knap.
Newhaven ...... 1,013,760 oysters. D. Moffat.
Preston Pans .... 1,013,760 oysters. D. Moffat.

Shannon beds yield a revenue of 1400/. per annum.

* See Professor Forbes’s work, ‘The History of the British
Mollusea.’

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 33

‘CHAPTER VII.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FORMATION OF NEW
OYSTER-BEDS AND THE PRESERVATION OF
OLD ONES.

Tue conditions which appear to be necessary for the
establishment of new oyster-beds, or of feeding-beds,
according to my observations, are the following :—

That the bottom should be tolerably level and
hard, either composed of fine gravel or old shells on
the surface,—the depth not more than 15 fathoms for
first-class oysters.

That no dredging should be allowed during the
spawning season, or until the middle of August,
and then only to remove the sizeable oysters to feed-
ing-beds, and from thence to market about the 15th
of September. _ If there is a run of fresh water near
the bed, or over it, all the better. In making a
new bed, if possible, good cultch should be obtained
from a bed of repute in the first stance, to stock it :
this is preferable to old oysters, as they do not spawn
well after moving, and do not attach themselves.

To renovate the old beds that are nearly exhausted,
rest would of course be the most certain method, if

D

34 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

only for one year; or if there are many of the large
sort of oyster, let them be taken up in October, when
all spawning is over.

That fence months, from the middle of April to
the middle of September, be strictly enforced ; any
oysters exposed for sale, or taken during those
months, should be confiscated, and a fine imposed
upon the person in whose custody they are found,
whether the sales take place inland or on the coast ;
and that no difference be made between British
oysters and those coming from abroad.

That a license should be granted for the removal of
cultch and spat, the quantity being stated, to stock
other beds, by some one in authority, the locality to
which it is to be removed being also registered ; that
these conditions being complied with, the person
establishing such new beds should have granted to
himself and his successors the sole right of fishing
during the proper times, and that penalties should
be fixed for transgressing this regulation.

For feeding-beds the same conditions would apply
as to permanent beds, except that the water may be
much shallower, just deep enough to prevent frost
killing the oysters at low water. Tanks might be
established similar to those at Burnham and else-
where, which would fill at high water, and having a
sluice attached for the purpose of keeping them full,
or letting off the water: the oysters in these should

HISTORY OF THE OYSTER, 35

be those fit to send to market, removed into them
from the feeding-beds.

My reasons for lengthening the fence time are that
it would suit all fisheries round the coast ; prevent the
spat bemg injured so much by the dredge, as the
shell would have become harder in the additional
fortnight ; and the fish, just filling for spawning in
April, would not be disturbed and expel their spawn
before it is ripe.

I am aware that: a question will arise, viz. what
are the fishermen to do during the fence months
for employment? Some are necessary as watchers
to keep off trespassers ; the feeding-beds would have
to be levelled and prepared with gravel or old shells
to give them a proper surface; boats’ rigging and
fishing tackle to be made. new, or repaired. In
many localities, trawling, line-fishing, and_herring-
fishing might be carried on, and in others salmon
might be caught; some might be also employed
im conveying the fish to market, in cultivating their
gardens, im dredging shell-sand and collecting sea-
weed for agricultural purposes; others in improving
the harbours, for which Government ought to find
the whole of the necessary funds, or, at all events,
a portion ; and in erecting and improving convenient
buildings for salting: so that altogether I think there
need be no lack of employment ; and [ am quite sure

D2

36 HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

that any loss at first, when the whole system had got
into working, would be amply repaid.

I was for some time of opinion that oysters differed
in their times of spawning in deep and shallow water,
and am still so; but the data I at present possess are
so meagre, that I cannot confidently assert that the
difference is very great. Of one fact I am, however,
pretty certain,—that they do not spawn so freely ;
and in water over 20 fathoms, I believe, not at all.

There is one point which ought invariably to be
imposed on beds which are reduced to proper work-
ing order:—a chain-dredge should never be used
where it can possibly be avoided until after Christmas
in each year, hides and nets being substituted. There
are, however, some beds on which the chain-dredge is

indispensable, where the stones are sharp and angular.

feb. Poy ND LX

Stvce the whole of the foregoing portion of this little work
was written, I have had my attention called to the Report of
Mons. Coste to the Emperor of the French, headed “ L’Em-
pereur a recu de M. Coste, Membre de l’Institut, Professeur
d’Embryogénie comparée au Collége de France, le rapport
suivant,” and published in the Moniteur of the 18th of June
1858.

Mons. Coste does not differ materially, in the mode he
recommends for the renovation of the old beds and repro-
duction of new ones, from my short suggestions given in the
last chapter of this work. This coincidence shows that the
same remedies to preserve the old beds of oysters, and pro-
duce new ones, are judged applicable to both sides of the
Channel and to the neutral ground, and that by an amicable
arrangement a much larger supply might be furnished to the
markets of both England and France. I subjoin, for the
information of those who may not have seen the Report of
Mons. Coste, a few extracts from his recommendations,
merely mentioning that Mons. Coste and myself were both in
ignorance of what the other intended to propose, or even that
either intended to propose anything, until within the last four
days (July 21) I had a copy of the Report of Mons. Coste
placed in my hands. Mons. Coste, after enumerating the
bad state of the French beds, writes :—“To this deplorable
state of matters there is one remedy, of easy application, of

38 APPENDIX.

certain success, and which will give an incalculable supply to
public nourishment : this remedy consists in undertaking, at
the expense of the State, under the care of the Marine
Administration, and by means of its vessels, the sowing
(with oysters) of the shores of France, so as to restock its
ruined beds, to revive those which are extinguished, to
extend those which prosper, to create new ones wherever the
nature of the bottom will permit their establishment ; and
when, through this generous commencement, the product-
ive beds shall have sufficiently developed themselves in all
places, they might then be submitted to a salutary system of
regulated gatherings, allowing some to remain quiet while
others are worked,—an arrangement which for a century has
preserved the beds of Cancale and Granville from destruc-
tion.” Mons. Coste then proposes that oysters should be -
dredged on common ground, and laid down in the bay of
St. Brieux, the bottom being previously cleared ; and goes on
to say, “ that by aid of these very simple means, from the bay
of St. Brieux alone, at an insignificant expense, may be made
a considerable revenue, provided all the necessary means are
taken for the success of the enterprise.”

“ Among the precautions I place in the first rank that of
not allowing the productive shell-fish to remain out of the
water longer than the time necessary for their transport
from the place of their fishing to that of their destination,
or their provisional resting-place. It is through having
neglected to conform to this rule, that previous attempts
have failed ; but every time it has been observed, the experi-
ment has succeeded, as is proved by the trials of Mons.
De Bon in the Rance.”

Mons. Coste proposes to lay down hurdles twisted with
branches with their bark on for the spat to attach itself
to, so as to prevent its being drifted away by the currents ;

APPENDIX. 39

and when the spat is sufficiently large, to remove them for
the stocking of new beds,—a suggestion, which I should
think would certainly answer, if too much weed did not get
entangled in them, the spat attach itself to the half-decayed
weeds instead of to the wood, and they did not smother the
old oysters which happen to be under them. This, however,
I think, like other points, is a matter for experiment. Hampers
or baskets made similarly to lobster-pots, only without bot-
toms, and moored in a similar manner, might answer better,
would not destroy the oysters underneath, and could be more
easily moved. I believe also that sheets of galvanized iron,
bent into the form of a low arch, merely touching at the two
ends, and sunk with a galvanized wire and a piece of wood
attached to find them again, would answer the purpose.
Copper-wire must not be used, or galvanic action will take
place. On beds, however, where mud and sand are liable to
collect, | should be very cautious in sinking anything, as a
mud-bank is soon made, and not so easily got rid of. There is
no doubt, however, that any mode that will collect the spat,
which would otherwise be destroyed by being washed away
with the mud and silt, or deposited on unsuitable ground,
would be most desirable, and a great saving of fish.

Mons. Coste’s plan of dividing the beds into zones, and
only returning to them every two or three years, would be in
many places absolute ruin to the beds, unless the oysters
were cleaned and redeposited: they would, in fact, very soon
take the form of natural beds which had not been worked ; the
oysters would become coarse, covered with barnacles and
other parasites, and adhere together ; and the beds would, in
fact, have to be rebroken up.

The police regulations proposed by Mons. Coste are very
good, except that I thik the present fence-month, as I have

proposed, would be better extended; and I do not consider

AO APPENDIX.

that it is necessary for the police to examine the beds so
minutely as is recommended. There is no doubt, that if the
fisheries were altogether shut, as recommended by Mons.
Coste, until February, the quantity of spat destroyed would
be less; but if the bottom of the bed be composed of old
shells and gravel, the number of spat on the former will be
found many times to outnumber those on the live shells. It
would, I believe, answer to collect old shells from the fish-
mongers, after the fish had been extracted, for the purpose of
returning them to the beds, to make a foundation both for
old and young oysters to rest upon. This proposal would so
much reduce the time for oyster-fishing beyond that which is
in use at present, that there would be only three months left
for fishing, so that it would scarcely be worth while for
persons to follow the oyster-trade at all, although the produce
might be the same, or even greater, which it probably would
be, than at present. This proposal of Mons. Coste would
also have a very great effect upon the market, by forcing into
it the same quantity during three months that previously
supplied it for eight ;—thus mevitably lowering the price, to
the loss of the fishermen and proprietors. Mons. Coste
indeed states that the oysters for market ought to remain on
the feeding-grounds before they are fit for market; but if
they are dredged previously to February, to supply the
feeding-grounds, 1 cannot think that much advantage will

accrue.

FINIS.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

° PLATE 1.

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