THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

LOS ANGELES

BOOKS BY HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS

THE STORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY SCIENCE.
Harper & Bros., 1900.

"He must have a dull mind indeed who can read this book
without fascination." — Christian Register.

THE HISTORY OP THE ART OF WRITING. (Four massive
portfolios with 200 fac-similes in tone and color.) Merrill &
Baker, 1902-1903.

"One of the most superb examples of book-making in America
since Audubon's masterpiece." — Rupert Hughes in the Marconi-
gram.

THE HISTORIANS' HISTORY OF THE WORLD: A Compre-
hensive Narrative of the Rise and Development of Nations. (25
vols. with about 3,000 illustrations.) Edited with the collab-
oration of many specialists, European and American The Out-
look Company, 1904-1905.

"A work of epoch-making importance comparable in scholar-
ship and authority to La Grand Encyclopedic, the Dictionary of
National Biography, the New English Dictionary, and the En-
cyclopaedia Britannica." — The Times, London.

A HISTORY OF SCIENCE. (5 vols., fully illustrated.) Harper
& Bros., 1904.

"At once a source of information and an inspiration." — Prof.
Louis G. Nolte.

ALCOHOL: How it Affects the Individual, the Community, and
the Race. The Century Co., 1909.

"By your clear and dispassionate presentation of this subject
you have earned the respect and gratitude of a generation, and
have done the good of an average lifetime." — Letter to the Author.

RACE CONQUEST; OR THE LESSON OF HEREDITY: A
Study in Eugenics. The Goodhue Co. In press. Based on a
series of lectures delivered at the Hartford School of Sociology.
"I am glad to learn that Dr. Williams' highly important theories
of racial development are at last to be given to the world in
permanent form." — J. M. Keyes, M.D.

THE SCIENCE OF HAPPINESS : An Optimistic Study of the
Art of Living. Harper & Brotners, 1910.

"B3tter than medicine for patients of a certain class." — Dr.
Walter M. Seward.

EVERY-DAY SCIENCE: A Record of the Evolution of Ideas,
the Development of Ideals, and the Application of Organized
Knowledge to the Needs of Practical Life, n vols., profusely
illustrated. The Goodhue Co., 1910.

"I have examined advance sheets of Dr. Williams' new book
with great interest. There is certainly no work closely com-
parable to it in any language with which I am familiar. It will
surely have enormous influence for the advancement of scientific
education and of general culture." — Geo. H. Casamajor, C.E.

A

HISTORY OF SCIENCE

BY

HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS, M.D., LL.D.

ASSISTED BY

EDWARD H. WILLIAMS. M.D.

KEY AND INDEX

NEW YORK AND LONDON
HARPER & BROTHERS

PUBLISHERS v MDCCOCX

Copyright, 1910, by THE GOODHOK Co.

AU rights reserved

DEDICATION

To the boys and girls of to-day, who hold all the pos-
sibilities of the future in their keeping.

To mothers and fathers, upon whom rests the vast
responsibility of directing the minds and moulding the
characters of the coming generation;

To educators by profession in every rank from kinder-
garten to university;

To members of the traditional "learned" professions,
who are of necessity leaders of thought and f ormulators
of ideals in the community; and

To intelligent men and women in any walk of life who
aspire to keep abreast of their times and to broaden their
horizons:

The books of this series, designed to contribute to the
progress of civilization through the dissemination of
useful knowledge, are dedicated.

772301

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION AND KEY, outlining the general schemeof the
entire work and giving complete tables of contents by chapters.

II. TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY, in which the tech-
nical terms of every department of Science are defined, with
illustrative comment.

III. BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, comprising a full list of the dis-

coveries in every department of Science, theoretical and practical,
with brief sketches of their work.

IV. ENCYCLOPEDIC GENERAL INDEX, covering fully all the

topics treated, with abundant cross-references.

KEY AND INDEX VOLUME

A KEY TO THE TEXT

THE present volume is devoted to Indexes which
analyze the text of the preceding volumes from various
standpoints.

Two of these indexes are of somewhat novel char-
acter, inasmuch as they introduce specific explanatory
matter concerning technicalities of science, or biograph-
ical data regarding important scientific workers, in
addition to guiding the reader to the pages of the pre-
ceding volumes.

The third Index is of more conventional character,
and is designed solely as an analysis of the text; yet
its references are always so phrased as to convey a
clear idea of the exact subject to which the reader is
guided.

AN ANALYSIS OF THE TEXT

As preliminary to these Indexes it will, perhaps, oe
a convenience to the reader to have presented here a
very brief analysis of the varied contents of the pre-
ceding volumes from two different standpoints: First,
a very general survey of the subjects treated; secondly,
a more detailed presentation of these subjects as re-
vealed by the titles of the successive chapters, volume
by volume.

Perhaps the most general analysis that could be
made of the text as a whole would characterize it as a
comprehensive presentation of the growth of scientific

KEY AND INDEX

knowledge in all its departments, and the application
of that knowledge to the affairs of e very-day life.

So general a characterization, of course, can convey
but a vague impression to the mind. To make this
impression somewhat specific, let us say that there
are six or seven large groups of subjects that form the
theme of our successive chapters. These might be
summarized in various ways, but perhaps the follow-
ing somewhat arbitrary classification will serve as well
as another:

1. Cosmical Sciences, as specifically represented by
the science of astronomy, with its practical applications
to the art of navigation. Here we have to do with the
ferreting-out of the secrets of the starry universe and
the planetary systems, from the visionary interpreta-
tions of the ancient Egyptian and Babylonian star-
gazers to the accurately measured records of the
modern observer, equipped with telescope, spectro-
scope, and photographic plate, or with sextant and
compass.

2. Telluric Sciences; specifically, geography, geology,
paleontology, and meteorology. Here we deal with
those studies through which a knowledge of the earth's
geographic masses and of its rocky structure has been
gained; with interpretations of the method of world-
building that have been made possible by the study
of fossil remains; and with the investigations of at-
mospheric phenomena to which the modern practical
science of weather prediction owes its origin and its
success.

3. Physical Sciences, or what the students of the
elder day termed natural philosophy, including the
phenomena of gravitation, heat, light, sound, and
electricity and magnetism. This is a field at once of
the most obvious interest and the utmost practical
importance. Not only do its studies have to do with

A KEY TO THE TEXT

the most familiar yet baffling and inscrutable of pheno-
mena, but they deal also with the applications and
transmutations of energy upon which practically
all the mechanisms that perform the world's work
depend — from water wheels and windmills to steam
engines, gasoline motors, and electric dynamos.

4. Chemical Science, and the Chemical Industries.
Here we have virtually an extension of the physical
field to the world of the atom. We deal with inscrutable
forces which have, nevertheless, the most tangible
manifestations. Our studies range from the visionary
dreams of the ancient alchemist, and the scarcely less
mystical calculations of the modern student of atoms,
valences, and periodic functions, to such highly prac-
tical fields as the work of electro-plating metals, com-
pounding dye-stuffs, and manufacturing artificial gems
in the laboratory.

5. Biological Sciences, including botany, zoology,
biology proper, anatomy and physiology, medicine,
experimental psychology, and anthropology. Here the
very list of subjects is sufficiently explicative of the
wide range of interests involved. We deal with the
origins of life itself; with the evolution of species;
with the applications of scientific knowledge to the con-
quest of disease ; and with those subtle studies that are
concerned with the brain itself and with the disembod-
ied evidence of its functionings which we term the mind.

6. The Applied Sciences, or Mechanical Arts.
Much that is implied by this title might properly be
included, also, in the preceding ones. There are,
however, a good many of the mechanical arts — for
example, paper-making, printing, book-binding, the
manufacture of cloth, the development of the flying-
machine, and the like — that have depended for their
development upon the ingenious application of familiar
principles rather than upon any novel discovery. Yet

[3]

KEY AND INDEX

the story of the application of these principles is full
of interest, and in many cases the ingenuity displayed
in the application of old principles to new purposes is
fully entitled to be described as the work of genius.
Indeed such application of theoretical principles to the
development of the practical mechanisms through
which the entire structure of civilization has been
developed constitutes the crowning achievement of
scientific investigation.

CONTENTS BY CHAPTERS

The summary just presented will serve, perhaps, to
give at least a general notion of the scope of our text.
A notion still more precise may be gained from a sur-
vey of the contents of the successive volumes by chap-
ters. Such a Table of Contents is here presented.
By glancing at it the reader will be enabled to locate
any specific subject as regards its main treatment.
The list may, therefore, serve as an index of the most
general character, preparatory for the detailed analyses
made by the Indexes that follow, which are, as already
noted, of three types:

I. Technical Index and Glossary, in which the
technical terms of every department of science are de-
fined, with illustrative comment.

II. Biographical Index: Comprising a full list of
the discoverers in every department of science, theoret-
ical and practical, with brief sketches of their work.

III. Encyclopaedic General Index for the text vol-
umes, covering fully all the topics treated, with abun-
dant cross references.

It is unnecessary to characterize these indexes in
detail, as their titles are in the main self-explanatory,
and as the indexes themselves occupy the succeeding
pages, making up the bulk of the present volume.

[4]

CONTENTS BY CHAPTERS

VOLUME I

THE BEGINNINGS OF SCIENCE

CHAPTER PAGB

I. PREHISTORIC SCIENCE ....... 3

II. EGYPTIAN SCIENCE .» .- f'< . '/ - . >V «' • 25

III. SCIENCE OP BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA . , , • » . 56

IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OP THE ALPHABET « ',. .86
V. THE BEGINNINGS OP GREEK SCIENCE .. . . . 103

VI. THE EARLY GREEK PHILOSOPHERS IN ITALY . . 112

VII. GREEK SCIENCE IN THE EARLY ATTIC PERIOD . . 139

VIII. POST-SOCRATIC SCIENCE AT ATHENS . . . . 178

IX. GREEK SCIENCE OF THE ALEXANDRIAN OR HELLENISTIC

PERIOD . . -. . . . . . 189

X. SCIENCE OF THE ROMAN PERIOD . . ... 253

XI. A RETROSPECTIVE GLANCE AT CLASSICAL SCIENCE . 285

APPENDIX, NOTES, AND BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 301

VOLUME II

THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN SCIENCE

I. SCIENCE IN THE DARK AGE . . . . . 3

II. MEDIEVAL SCIENCE AMONG THE ARABIANS . . 13

III. MEDIEVAL SCIENCE IN THE WEST . . . . 31

IV. THE NEW COSMOLOGY COPERNICUS TO KEPLER AND

GALILEO . . . . . . . . . 52

V. GALILEO AND THE NEW PHYSICS 93

VI. TWO PSEUDO-SCIENCES ALCHEMY AND ASTROLOGY . 124

VII. FROM PARACELSUS TO HARVEY . . . . .156

VIII. MEDICINE IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CEN-
TURIES ......... l8l

IX. PHILOSOPHER-SCIENTISTS AND NEW INSTITUTIONS OP

LEARNING • , • -•• '• > ' • ' .- • • • • I9I

X. THE SUCCESSORS OP GALILEO IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE . 204
XI. NEWTON AND THE COMPOSITION OF LIGHT . . .225

XII. NEWTON AND THE LAW OF GRAVITATION . . . 236

XIII. INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION IN THE AGE OF NEWTON . 252

XIV. PROGRESS IN ELECTRICITY FROM GILBERT AND VON

GUERICKE TO FRANKLIN . . f . , . 259

XV. NATURAL HISTORY TO THE TIME OF LINNAEUS . . 297

APPENDIX, NOTES, AND BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . 305

VOLUME III

MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES

I. THE SUCCESSORS OF NEWTON IN ASTRONOMY . . 3

II. THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ASTRONOMY ... 19

III. THE NEW SCIENCE OF PALEONTOLOGY , . . 74

5]

CONTENTS BY CHAPTERS

CHAPTER PAGE

IV. THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN GEOLOGY . Il6

V. THE NEW SCIENCE OF METEOROLOGY . . . 168

VI. MODERN THEORIES OF HEAT AND LIGHT ... . 206

VII. THE MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRICITY AND MAG-
NETISM . ..... . . . 229

VIII. THE CONSERVATION OP ENERGY r 253

IX. THE ETHER AND PONDERABLE MATTER . . . 283

APPENDIX, NOTES, AND BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . 307

VOLUME IV

MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEMICAL AND
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

I. THE PHLOGISTON THEORY IN CHEMISTRY ... 3
II. THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY . . .II

III. CHEMISTRY SINCE THE TIME§OF DALTON ... 38

IV. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CEN-

TURY 73

V. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN THE NINETEENTH CEN-
TURY 102

VI. THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION .... 140

VII. EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY MEDICINE .... 182

VIII. NINETEENTH-CENTURY MEDICINE .... 199

IX. THE NEW SCIENCE OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY . 245

X. THE NEW SCIENCE OF ORIENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY . . 287

APPENDIX, NOTES, AND BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . 303

VOLUME V

ASPECTS OF RECENT SCIENCE

I. THE BRITISH MUSEUM ....... 3

II. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON FOR IMPROVING

NATURAL KNOWLEDGE ...... 14

III. THE ROYAL INSTITUTION AND THE LOW-TEMPERATURE

RESEARCHES 29

IV. SOME PHYSICAL LABORATORIES AND PHYSICAL PROB-

LEMS 73

V. THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY AT NAPLES . 113

VI. ERNST HAECKEL AND THE NEW ZOOLOGY . . . 144
VII. SOME MEDICAL LABORATORIES AND MEDICAL PROB-
LEMS . . . . . . . . .178

VIII. SOME UNSOLVED SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS . . . 203

IX. RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT ..... 230

REFERENCE LIST AND LIST OF SOURCES . . . 243

[6]

CONTENTS BY CHAPTERS

VOLUME VI

THE CONQUEST OP NATURE

CHAPTER PAGB

I. MAN AND NATURE ....... 3

II. HOW WORK IS DONE . ..;»,.» . . 29

III. THE ANIMAL MACHINE . . . , « f . . . 43

IV. THE WORK OP AIR AND WATER . . . :. . 62

v. CAPTIVE MOLECULES: THE STORY OP THE STEAM EN-
GINE ..... . . . . 79

VI. THE MASTER WORKER . . . . . . . IIO

VII. GAS AND OIL ENGINES ... . . . .132

VIII. THE SMALLEST WORKERS . ". '.'•*• • 148

IX. MAN'S NEWEST CO-LABORER THE DYNAMO . . 171

X. NIAGARA IN HARNESS . . . . . ; ' . 183

XI. THE BANISHMENT OP NIGHT . . . . . 2OI

XII. THE MINERAL DEPTHS ....... 242

XIII. THE AGE OP STEEL 271

XIV. SOME RECENT TRIUMPHS OP APPLIED SCIENCE . . 298
APPENDIX '•:"':• 321

VOLUME VII

THE CONQUEST OF TIME AND SPACE

I. THE CONQUEST OP THE ZONES . . . . . 5

II. THE HIGHWAY OP THE WATERS 56

III. SUBMARINE VESSELS ....... 93

IV. THE STEAM LOCOMOTIVE 1 19

V. FROM CART TO AUTOMOBILE 152

VI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC RAILWAYS . -175

VII. THE GYROCAR ........ 195

VIII. THE GYROSCOPE AND OCEAN TRAVEL . . . .217

IX. NAVIGATING THE AIR . . . ; . i . . 226

X. THE TRIUMPH OP THE AEROPLANE .... 272

APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . 303

VOLUME VIII

SCIENCE IN THE INDUSTRIAL WORLD

I. THE DEVELOPMENT OP THE TELEGRAPH ... 3

II. THE SUBMARINE CABLE ...... 30

III. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY . .... . . 47

IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TELEPHONE ... 66
V. THE EDISON PHONOGRAPH . . . . . -93

VI. PRIMITIVE BOOKS ' . '[ . . . . . -99

VII. THE PRINTING AND MAKING OF MODERN BOOKS . .119

VIII. THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER . . . . 159

[7]

CONTENTS BY CHAPTERS

CHAPTER PAGE

IX. THE REPRODUCTION OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . 184

X. PHOTOGRAPHY IN ITS SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS . . . 33O

XI. PAINTS, DYES, AND VARNISHES . . . . . 358

APPENDIX . , ; . . 323

VOLUME IX

INGENUITY AND LUXURY

I. AN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ..... 5

II. THE MANUFACTURE OF TEXTILES .... 38

III. THE STORY OF COSTUMES 58

IV. THE SKWING-MACHINE . . . . . . . 87

V. CLOTHING THE EXTREMITIES 103

VI. THE EVOLUTION OP THE DWELLING HOUSE . . . 133

VII. THE MODERN SKYSCRAPER ...... 162

VIII. ARTIFICIAL STONE, OR CONCRETE .... 182

IX. FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS . . . . .213

X. THE PRODUCTS OF CLAY AND FIRE . . . .227

XI. GLASS AND GLASS-MAKING ...... 277

XII. GEMS, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL .... 295

APPENDIX 333

VOLUME X

THE SCIENCE OF HAPPINESS

PART I. THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS AND ITS PHYSICAL

ASPECTS

I. THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS . .5

II. PHYSICAL NEEDS 21

III. SOUND BODIES 41

IV. HOW TO SLEEP 6l

PART II. MENTAL ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS

V. HOW TO SEE AND REMEMBER 85

VI. HOW TO THINK 103

VII. THE WIL.. AND THE WAY 123

VIII. SELF KNOWLEDGE 135

PART III. SOCIAL ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS

IX. HOW TO WORK ........ 149

X. YOUTH VERSUS AGE 167

XI. GOLD VERSUS IDEALS 185

XII. VOCATION VERSUS AVOCATION 195

PART IV. MORAL ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS

XIII. LIFE COMPANIONSHIP . . . . . . .213

XIV. THE COMING GENERATION 231

XV. HOW TO INVITE HAPPINESS 243

XVI. HOW TO DIE 257

APPENDIX AND INDEX 273 to 350

[8]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

(Under this alphabet, technical and semitechnical
terms are defined, with illustrative comment, and often
with the addition of historical data. The references to
the text, by volume and page, though specific, are in-
tended rather as general guides to the reader than as
offering a complete or detailed analysis of the subject.

For a more detailed analysis see the Encyclopaedic
General Index in this volume. For biographical data
see the Biographical Index.)

Aberration, (i) In physics, that property of a lens in virtue
of which it forms an image with color fringes, due to the fact
that different rays of light are not brought precisely to the
same focus. This difficulty is never entirely overcome even
with the finest astronomical lenses. (2) In astronomy, the dis-
placement of the apparent position of a celestial body due to
the fact that the velocity of light is not infinite. See "Bradley
and the Aberration of Light," Vol. Ill, p. II.

Abrasives. Those substances used in grinding and polishing.
See "Gems, Natural and Artificial," Vol. IX, p. 295; in particular
p. 306; also "Glass and Glass Making," Vol. IX, p. 293.

Absolute Zero. The hypothetical condition of matter at which
its molecules or atoms are in such a state of quiescence that
they give out no heat. Theoretically this point lies 272° below
the Centigrade zero; practically it has not been demonstrated
iit the laboratory. See "The Royal Institution and the Low
Temperature Researches," Vol. V, Chapter 3; in particular p. 69.

Acetylene. A hydrocarbon gas, made commercially by adding
water to calcium carbide; it has the chemical formula CSH2. See
"The Introduction of Acetylene Gas," Vol. VI, p. 212.

Actinium. An element occurring in nature associated with
zinc. Discovered in 1881 by Dr. T. L. Phipson. See "Element"
and "Periodic Law," under present alphabet.

Aeroplane. The apparatus, consisting originally of a canvas
plane or planes supported by poles and wires and actuated by
motor-driven propellers, which constituted the first heavier-
than-air machine in which human flight was accomplished. The

9]

KEY AND INDEX

first successful aeroplane, that of the Wright Brothers (operated
at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in December, 1903), had two
chief planes, one above the other, and hence is called a biplane.
The imitative machines of Farman, Curtiss, and Cody are also
biplanes. The apparatus perfected by Bleriot has a single chief
plane, and is called a monoplane. The machine used by Hubert
Latham is also a monoplane. The prototype of these machines
is the original aerodrome of Langley, which was essentially a
monoplane inasmuch as its two chief portions were arranged in
the same horizontal plane. The box kite may be taken as the
prototype of the biplane. See "The Triumph of the Aeroplane,"
Vol. VII, p. 272.

Air-pump. A machine by means of which air or other gases
may be removed from an enclosed space. It was invented by
Otto von Guericke about 1650. See "Mariotte and von Guericke,"
Vol. II, p. 210.

Air-thermometer. An instrument for measuring temperature,
in which the change of volume of air under a constant pressure
is made to indicate changes in temperature. The discovery that
a gas expands at a uniform rate under increasing temperatures,
and correspondingly contracts as temperatures decrease (con-
stant pressure being maintained) was made independently by
Boyle and Mariotte in the eighteenth century. See "The Suc-
cessors of Galileo in Physical Science," Vol. II, p. 204 and p. 210.

Albinism. A condition in which there is a congenital absence
of pigment in the hair, iris, and skin. It occurs in plants as
well as animals, and in all races of men. Individuals so affected
are called albinos. See the reference to the collection of spec-
imens illustrating albinism (and the opposite state of melanism)
in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington, London,
Vol. V, p. 10.

Alchemy. The pseudo-science which sought to find a magic
"elixir" or "philosophers stone" that would give its possessor the
secret of eternal youth, and would also enable him to transmute
silver and perhaps the baser metals into gold. For full treat-
ment of the subject, see the chapter "Two Pseudo-Sciences —
Alchemy and Astrology," Vol. II, p. 124.

Alcohol. The commercial name for ethyl alcohol, having the
chemical formula C3H5O H. Alcohol results from the fermen-
tation of sugars and starches, and is the intoxicating principle
of wine and other beverages that were familiar from the earliest
times; but the distilled spirit as such seems to have been dis-

[10]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

covered, or at all events introduced to the Western world and
named by mediaeval Arabian physicians. See "Mediaeval Science
Among the Arabians," Vol. II, p. 22.

Alizarine. A substance formerly obtained from the root of the
madder plant, Rubia tinctorum, but now chiefly produced from
coal-tar. It has great commercial importance as a dye, produc-
ing the color known as "turkey red." The growth of the madder
plant was formerly an important industry, but like the cultivation
of the indigo plant, this pursuit has been made superfluous by
the cheapness of the coal-tar colors. See "Pigments from Vege-
table and Animal Sources," Vol. VIII, p. 302; in particular pp.
307-309.

Alloy. An intimate homogeneous mixture of different metals,
usually produced by fusion. Thus brass is an alloy of copper
and zinc; pewter, an alloy of tin and lead; steel, an alloy of iron
and various other elements, chief among which are carbon,
nickel, manganese, and tungsten. See chapter "The Age of
Steel," Vol. VI, p. 271; in particular "The Conversion of Iron
Ore into Iron and Steel," p. 283, and "Alloy Steels," p. 295.

Alternating current. The electrical current produced by a
dynamo not provided with a commutator. See "The Mechanism
of the Dynamo," Vol. VI, p. 173.

Aluminum. A nearly white metal, about as hard as silver,
and having a tensile strength about equal to that of copper, but
many times lighter in weight than either. It alloys with almost
all the metals, and for this reason, and because of its lightness, is
of great commercial importance. Aluminum oxides are the base
of the important corundum group of gems, including true rubies,
sapphires, and emeralds. See "The Ruby and Its Allies," Vol.
IX, p. 319; also "Artificial Gems," Vol. IX, p. 331. Though
aluminum is a chief constituent of clayey soils, its isolation has
been difficult. For the electrolytic method of its production, see
"Some Recent Triumphs of Applied Science," Vol. VI, p. 300.

Amethyst. A variety of corundum (a crystalline oxide of
aluminum), its violet or purple color being due probably to
traces of manganese or of iron. See "The Ruby and its Allies,"
Vol. IX, p. 319.

Ammonia. A gaseous compound of hydrogen and nitrogen,
having the formula N H3. It is supposed to derive its name from
the fact that it was originally prepared near the temple of
Ammon, in Egypt. Its composition was, of course, unknown
until the time of the "pneumatic chemists" (including Black,

KEY AND INDEX

Cavendish, Priestley, Scheele, and Lavoisier), whose efforts laid
the foundation for all modern knowledge of the gases about the
close of the eighteenth century. For an account of their work,
see "The Beginnings of Modern Chemistry," Vol. IV, p. n.

Amoeba. A protozoan, which is present almost everywhere
in fresh water, and in moist earth, and is usually taken as a
type of unicellular animals. Certain forms of the Amoeba pro-
duce diseases, such as dysentery and abscess of the liver.
Microscopic organisms were studied by such early microscopists
as Leeuwenhoek (see Vol. II, p. 179) and Robert Hooke (see
Vol. II, p. 217), but it remained for investigators of the nine-
teenth century to demonstrate their importance. See "Parasitic
Diseases," Vol. IV, p. 204.

Anaesthetic. An agent used to produce loss or impairment
of sensibility. The word was coined by Dr. Oliver Wendell
Holmes. The use of ether, the most important general anaes-
thetic known, was discovered by Dr. W. T. G. Morton, a dentist,
in 1842. The anaesthetic property of chloroform was discovered
by Sir. J. Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, in 1843. See "Painless
Surgery," Vol. IV, p. 208.

Anastomosis. In anatomy, the joining of branches of a vessel
with other vessels or branches. Hunter's discovery of the func-
tion of this anastomosis in arteries and veins marked an epoch
in surgery. See Vol. IV, p. 82.

Aneurism. A disease (or injury) of the walls of an artery re-
sulting in the formation of a pulsating tumor or sac. The Eng-
lish surgeon, John Hunter, about 1770, devised an operation for
the cure of this condition, his discovery being the direct result
of an operation performed on a deer in Richmond Park. See
"Hunter's Operation for the Cure of Aneurism," Vol. IV, p. 81.

Aniline. An organic substance, with the formula C«H5N Ha.
It was discovered in 1826, but was of no commercial importance
until 1856, when W. H. Perkin prepared a purple dye from it.
See "Coal-tar Colors," Vol. VIII, p. 311.

Animism. A system of philosophy introduced by Stahl, based
on the idea that the soul is the seat of life. See "Eighteenth
Century Medicine," Vol. IV, p. 185.

Annealing. A process for increasing the ductility of metals
and glass. The usual method of annealing is by heating and then
cooling slowly.

Anode. The electrode at which a current of positive electricity
enters a battery. The other electrode is called the "cathode."

[12]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Anthrax. A disease affecting cattle, sheep, and men, known
as malignant pustule, splenic fever, wool-sorter's disease, etc.
It is very fatal, and caused by the bacillus anthracis. Protection
by preventive inoculation was discovered by Pasteur. See Vol.
IV, p. 232.

Anthropology. The branch of knowledge that deals with the
characteristics of mankind as forming an organic whole. It
considers the question of man's first appearance on earth, and
the influences that have resulted in existing civilization. Scien-
tific anthropology is a development of the late nineteenth cen-
tury, the discoveries that proved man's antiquity preparing the
way. See "Fossil Man," Vol. Ill, p. 98; also "The New Science
of Anthropology," Vol. V, p. 228.

Antipyritics. The name given to those remedies used for re-
ducing temperature in diseased conditions.

Antiseptic. A term meaning that which arrests decay. In
modern medicine a substance which destroys disease-producing
micro-organisms, or germs. The discovery of the use of anti-
septics in surgery was made by Lord Lister, this discovery and
its application bringing about a revolution in surgical methods.
See "Lister and Antiseptic Surgery," Vol. IV, p. 229.

Antitoxins. Substances developed in the human body, or the
body of an animal, antagonistic to the poisons (toxins) of dis-
ease. See "Serum Therapy," Vol. IV, p. 240; "Aims and Ob-
jects of the Pasteur Institute," Vol. V, p. 182.

Archaeology. The science that deals with the history of human
progress in ancient times, as judged by relics of man's work,
apart from written records. See "The New Science of Oriental
Archaeology," Vol. IV, p. 287.

Argon. An element discovered in the earth's atmosphere by
Sir William Ramsay and Lord Rayleigh. Named from the
Greek word meaning "inactive," because of its lack of chemical
affinity. See "Sir William Ramsay and the New Gases," Vol. V,
p. 82; in particular pp. 85-86.

Armature. The name given originally to a piece of soft iron
placed across the poles of permanent or electro-magnets to
receive and concentrate the attractive force. In the modern
dynamo, the armature consists of coils of wire which convey
an electric current. The mutual relations of armature and
electro-magnet (either of which may revolve, but one or the
other being stationary) give rise to the accentuated electrical

[13]

KEY AND INDEX

current which it is the function of the dynamo to develop. See
"The Mechanism of the Dynamo," Vol. VI, p. 173; also "Niagara
in Harness," Vol. VI, p. 190.

Artificial Gems. See "Gems," in present glossary.

Artificial Stone, or Concrete. A stone-like substance made by
mixing cement with sand and pebbles or broken stone. Cement
itself is a mixture of powdered burnt clay, and powdered
hydrates of lime. It was extensively used by the Romans, but
little used by their successors until toward the close of the
nineteenth century. Modern cements differ somewhat from the
ancient and from one another, but all have as a base a mixture
of argillaceous and calcareous minerals (clays and lime com-
pounds). See chapter on "Artificial Stone, or Cement," Vol.
IX, p. 182.

Astrolabe. An obsolete instrument for measuring the apparent
angle between two visual (usually astronomical) bodies. The
astrolabe, introduced about the middle of the fifteenth century,
superseded the cross-staff as an aid to the navigator, and was
in due course supplanted by the sextant. See "The Development
of the Sextant," Vol. VII, p. 18.

Astrology. The pseudo-science that purports to study the
stars and planets with the intent to forecast or interpret terres-
trial events. Astrology flourished in Egypt and Babylonia and
in the Western world throughout the Middle Ages. It num-
bered among its practitioners some astronomers of note, after
the revival of learning, even including Kepler, who, however,
was probably skeptical as to the validity of its claims. It grad-
ually fell into disrepute with the advance of scientific knowledge.
See "Two Pseudo-Sciences," Vol. II, p. 141.

Astronomy. The science that deals with the sidereal and
planetary bodies. Observational astronomy reached a relatively
high development in Egypt and Babylonia and was cultivated
with great success by the Greeks of the Alexandrian epoch.
The Arabs were adept star-gazers. But modern astronomy
dates from Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Tycho Brahe. The
vast generalization of Newton gave it fresh impetus. Herschel's
perfected telescope opened up new fields, with particular refer-
ence to nebulae and double stars. Spectroscopy and photography
in the nineteenth century still further widened the scope of the
science. See "Egyptian Astronomy," Vol. I, p. 33; "Babylonian
Astronomy," Vol. I, p. 61; for Greek Astronomy, Vol. I, p. 212;
"Ptolemy, the Last Great Astronomer of Antiquity," Vol. I,

[14]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

p. 267; Arabian Astronomy, Vol. II, p. 14; "Copernicus to Kepler
and Galileo," Vol. II, p. 52; "Newton and the Law of Gravita-
tion," Vol. II, p. 236; "The Successors of Newton in Astronomy,"
Vol. Ill, p. 3; "The Progress of Modern Astronomy," Vol. Ill,
p. 19; "Solar and Telluric Problems," Vol. V, p. 205. Numerous
minor references might be added, but the above outline the main
story of astronomical progress.

Atlantic Cable. The first cable across the Atlantic was pro-
jected by Cyrus W. Field in 1856. After unsuccessful efforts,
the first electric message was sent across the ocean in August,
1858. This cable soon parted, however, and a permanent con-
nection was not established till 1866. See "The Submarine
Cable," Vol. VIII, p. 30.

Atmosphere. The "ocean of air in which we live" has been
investigated scientifically chiefly within the past century. Its
composition, as regards the chief constituents, oxygen and
nitrogen, was determined toward the close of the eighteenth
century; but the minor gases, argon, neon, crypton, and xenon,
escaped detection for about a hundred years, when they were
discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay. See
Vol. V, p. 82. For meteorological aspects of the atmosphere,
see Vol. Ill, p. 168.

Atom. The unit structure of matter as viewed by the chemist.
The atomic theory of matter in its modern scientific develop-
ment dates from the time of John Dalton, who propounded the
theory in 1803. See "John Dalton and the Atomic Theory,"
Vol. IV, p. 38.

Atomic weights. Each specific atom has a definite weight,
which chemists have been at great pains to discover. For table
of atomic weights, see "Element," in the present glossary.

Aurora Borealis. A manifestation of lights seen at irregular
intervals toward the polar regions; believed to be of electrical
origin. The most recent explanation of the phenomenon is that
of Arrhenius, who thinks the light due to electrons thrown out
from the sun and accumulated in the upper atmosphere, where,
under magnetic influence, they tend to move toward the poles.
See "The Aurora Borealis," Vol. Ill, p. 172.

Automatic Coupling. A life and limb saving device for coupling
freight cars without the direct intervention of human hands.
An effective coupler was introduced by Eli Janney in 1879. See
"Automatic Couplings," Vol. VII, p. 147.

Automobile. The familiar self-propelled vehicle, actuated

[15]

KEY AND INDEX

usually by a gasoline engine, but sometimes by steam or by
electricity, sprang into popularity in the last decade of the nine-
teenth century, but its prototypes (propelled by steam) were
made more than a hundred years earlier. See "The Coming of
the Automobile," Vol. VII, p. 156.

Axe. This familiar implement is essentially a sharp wedge
operated at the end of a lever. Its use dates from the Rough
Stone Age. See "Applications of Muscular Energy," Vol. VI,
P- 52.

Babylonian Medicine. The practice of medicine in Babylonia-
Assyria was closely bound up with astrology and magic; yet it
had certain more scientific aspects. See "Chaldean Magic," Vol.
I. p. 69, and "Babylonian Medicine," Vol. I, p. 75.

Babylonian Science. The science of the Chaldeans, Babylo-
nians, and Assyrians is usually somewhat vaguely included under
this title. Our knowledge of the subject depends partly upon
Greek traditions (Herodotus, Diodorus), and partly upon re-
cently exhumed archaeological remains. See "Science of
Babylonia and Assyria," Vol. I, p. 56.

Bacteria. Microscopic vegetable organisms, which play an
all-important part in the economy of nature, causing putrefactive
changes, contagious diseases, etc. Discovered by Leeuwenhoek
in 1683. Their real importance was unsuspected until late in the
nineteenth century. For the importance of the part played by
bacteria in surgery, and the discovery of a method of com-
batting their effect, see "Lister and Antiseptic Surgery," Vol.
IV, p. 229. For recent studies in pathogenic bacteria, see "Some
Medical Laboratories and Medical Problems," Vol. V, p. 182.

Barometer. An instrument for measuring the weight of the
atmosphere; in its simplest form, a vacuum tube closed at one
end and inverted over a dish of mercury; the height to which
the mercury rises in the tube demonstrates the atmospheric
pressure, which varies with the altitude and with the amount
of moisture in the air. Invented by Torricelli in 1643. See
"Torricelli," Vol. II, p. 120; also Pascal's test of the barometer
by ascending a mountain and noting the lowering of the column
of mercury, see Vol. II, p. 122.

Bicycle. A familiar two-wheeled vehicle, the most primitive
form of which (termed the hobby horse) was introduced by
Baron Von Drais in France about the year 1818. The halting
stages by which the machine was perfected illustrate the rarity

[16]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

of creative imagination. See "From Cart to Automobile," Vol.
VII, p. 152.

Biograph. An apparatus for producing "moving pictures,"
familiar under various names. The germ of the instrument was
invented as long ago as 1833, but the developed apparatus came
into being late in the nineteenth century. For the story of its
development, see "Chrono-photography," Vol. VIII, p. 248.

Biology. A generic name for the sciences that deal with
living things, including botany, zoology, physiology, in their
various departments, and in the widest interpretation, medicine,
anthropology, and ethnology. The word biology was introduced
independently by Lamarck and Trevirans early in the nineteenth
century, but did not come at once into general use. See "Schlei-
den and Schwann and the Cell Theory," Vol. IV, p. 118. For the
work of Lamarck, Goethe, Darwin, and others, see "Theories of
Organic Evolution," Vol. IV, p. 140.

Blast Furnace. A furnace for smelting ores, so called because
of the blast of air forced through the furnace to promote com-
bustion by bringing oxygen in contact with the fuel; or through
the molten metal itself, as in the manufacture of steel. See
"The Conversion of Iron Ore into Iron and Steel," Vol. VI,
p. 283.

Blood Corpuscles. Microscopic cells that float in the blood
and perform functions absolutely essential to the life of the
organism. The red blood corpuscles are the carriers of oxygen;
the white corpuscles, of several types, are scavengers, attacking
and consuming noxious bacteria. For a description of the dis-
covery of the course of circulation of the blood, and the final
demonstration of the corpuscles passing through the capillaries, see
"The Coming of Harvey," Vol. II, p. 169. For an explanation of
the function of blood corpuscles, see "Blood Corpuscles, Muscles,
and Glands," Vol. IV, p. 135.

Brain. In general terms, that part of the cerebrospinal axis
which is contained in the cranium. For functions of, see "The
New Science of Experimental Psychology," Vol. IV, p. 245.

Bronze. A compound of metals, having copper for its base,
the other ingredient being usually tin. The proportion of copper
in various bronzes is usually between 80 and 90 per cent. Copper
melts at a temperature a little below that of gold, and the ease
with which it is smelted led (as is believed) to its use long before
the art of smelting iron had been acquired.

[17]

KEY AND INDEX

Calcium Carbide. A compound of calcium and carbon (Ca C2),
produced in the electric furnace by heating a mixture of lime and
coke. When brought in contact with water, a chemical recom-
bination is effected whereby acetylene gas (C2 H2) is produced.
The change is chemically expressed thus: Ca C2+H2 O=C2 H2+
Ca O. See "The Introduction of Acetylene Gas," Vol. VI, p. 212.

Calotype Process. A photographic process invented by Fox
Talbot (q. v.); the prototype of modern paper-printed photo-
graphs, as distinguished from the metallic-surface process of
Daguerre. See "Talbot's Calotype Process," Vol. VIII, p. 227.

Camera Lucida. An instrument in which, through the use of
prisms, light is refracted and reflected in such a way as to throw
the image of a landscape or other view on a ground-glass plate,
where its outlines may be readily sketched.

Camera Obscura. Essentially, as its name implies, a dark
chamber, into which a single ray of light is admitted through a
pinhole aperture. The small aperture has the effect of a lens,
and an image of the scene outside is thrown on the wall of the
chamber opposite the aperture. The photographic camera is a
modified camera obscura, in which the light is focused by a
lens. It is possible to take a photograph, of rather vague out-
line, by using a very small aperture, without a lens.

Candle. This familiar modified form of lamp, consisting es-
sentially of a wick embedded in a solid cylinder of wax, tallow,
or other easily liquefied, inflammable fat, was invented late in
the twelfth century. For centuries it was the best of lighting
apparatuses, and it has by no means been supplanted altogether
even in our day. For the general description of methods of
illumination, past and present, see "The Banishment of Night,"
Vol. VI, p. 201.

Carbonic Acid Gas. A compound of carbon and oxygen,
having the formula C O2. It is given off through the lungs by
animal organisms, and is absorbed by plants, which thus secure
the carbon that enters so importantly into the vegetable
structure. Another and still more poisonous compound of
carbon oxygen is known as carbonic oxide (C O). Both these
gases are sometimes present in mines. See "Conditions to be
Considered in Mining," Vol. VI, p. 247, and "The Function of
Respiration," Vol. IV, p. 92.

Cathode Rays. A peculiar manifestation of energy due to
passing an electrical current through a vacuum tube. These
rays cast a shadow and are deflected by a magnet; and, by im-

[18]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

pinging on the glass receptacles, they generate X-rays. See
"Professor J. J. Thomson and the Nature of Electricity," Vol. V,
p. 92, for the investigations of Crookes, Leonard, Roentgen,
Becquerel, Thompson, and others.

Cell, (i) The unit structure of living tissues. See Vol. IV,
p. 115, for the investigations of Brown, Schleiden, Schwann,
Von Mohl, and Virchow; also "The Mechanism oi the Cell,"
Vol. V, p. 225. (2) The unit structure of a galvanic battery as
devised originally by Galvani and Volta. See "Electricity," of
the present index.

Centrosome. A minute structure (discovered by Van Beneden)
within the organic cell, the precise function of which is in doubt.

Chemical Affinity. A term designating the attractive and
selective influence that operates between chemical substances.
The preference of the various chemical atoms are perfectly
definite and unvarying, under given conditions, and the entire
science of chemistry is built upon the knowledge of such inter-
relations between the different elementary atoms; but this knowl-
edge is, in each case, matter of experimental observation. See
"Chemical Affinity," Vol. IV, p. 57.

Chemistry. The science that deals with the interrelations of
the different kinds of matter, as regards their elementary or
atomic structure. The border-line between chemistry and
physics is not always quite sharply defined (as, for example, in
the matter of radio-activity, which encroaches upon both do-
mains), but in general chemistry deals with atoms themselves;
physics with the aggregations of atoms which we call molecules.
Thus it was the province of the chemist to determine that water
is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and that air is a mixture
of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases; while the study of such
things as hydrostatic pressure, the expansion of gases, etc., be-
longs to the physicist. See "The Beginnings of Modern Chemis-
try," Vol. IV, p. II, and "Chemistry Since the Time of Dalton,"
Vol. IV, p. 38.

Chimney. This seemingly essential architectural element of
the dwelling-house was not known in antiquity, but was de-
veloped in the Middle Ages, or at the beginning of the modern
period. See Vol. IX, p. 150.

China. A name applied to various kinds of glazed pottery, the
exact implications of the word not being very closely defined.
See "The Products of Clay and Fire," Vol. IX, p. 227.

Chisel. This familiar implement for gouging and cutting wood,

[19]

KEY AND INDEX

indispensable to the carpenter, is really a sharp-edged wedge,
and operates on the principle of the inclined plane. It has been
used, practically unmodified, from a very early period.

Chloroform. A compound prepared by cautiously distilling
together a mixture of alcohol, water, and chloride of lime.
Chemical symbol C H C13. The use of chloroform as an anaesthetic
was introduced by the Scottish surgeon, Sir J. Y. Simpson; not,
however, until the anaesthetic power of ether had been clearly
demonstrated by Morton in America. See "Painless Surgery,"
Vol. IV, p. 208.

Choke-damp. A colloquial name for carbonic acid gas (C O2)
when found in mines. The name is used (in contradistinction to
the explosive "fire-damps") because this gas is non-explosive,
but may cause death by asphyxiation — literally choking the
miner to death. See "Conditions to be Considered in Mining,"
Vol. VI, p. 247.

Chromosomes. Minute, usually thread-like structures within
the organic cell nucleus, which have peculiar interest because
their number varies in different animals, but is always the same
for each cell of any given species. The chromosomes are
bisected when the cell divides. See pp. 131-134 of Vol. V for
recent researches in this field.

Chronometer. Generically, any time-measurer; but specifically
a name for the nautical watch or clock carried in duplicate or
triplicate by navigators and explorers, which records the time
at a given meridian (usually that of Greenwich), thus supplying
information with the aid of which the navigator may compute
his longitude from sidereal observations. See "Perfecting the
Chronometer," Vol. VII, p. 23.

Chrono-photography. Generic name applied to the method of
taking series of photographs at brief intervals, to the end that
"moving pictures" may be produced. The apparatuses with which
these pictures are reproduced are familiar under the trade names
of kinetoscope, biograph, vitascope, etc. Names of Muybridge,
Marey, Anschiitz, and Edison are associated with the invention.
See "Chrono-photography — Moving Pictures," Vol. VIII, p. 248.

Circuit. The medium or mediums connecting the poles of a
battery or other generator of electricity. The ground, or a body
of water, may serve as the medium of the so-called "return
circuit"; but some conducting medium must give unbroken com-
munication (however circuitous the route) or the current will

[20]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

not "flow." See "The Experiments of Stephen Gray," Vol. II,
p. 262; "The Transmission of Power," Vol. VI, p. 194.

Civilization. Name somewhat loosely applied to the most re-
cent stage of ethnical development, in contradistinction to
"savagery" and "barbarism." In the terminology of some ethnol-
ogists, the word "civilized" is reserved for peoples that have
acquired the art of writing.

Clock. The modern apparatus bearing this name is usually
actuated either by weight and pulley, by pendulum, or by coiled
springs. The most familiar type, the pendulum clock, was in-
vented by Huyghens in 1656. The clypsedra, or water clock, was
the most usual time-measurer throughout antiquity. See "In-
struments of Precision in the Age of Newton," Vol. II, p. 256.

Coal-tar Colors. Pigments of an almost infinite variety of
colors and shades of color produced from the distillation
products of coal-tar, the basal form of which is known as aniline.
The first commercially important aniline color was produced
by Perkin in 1856. In recent years, coal-tar colors have revolu-
tionized the indigo and alizarine industries. See "The Coal-tar
Colors," Vol. VIII, p. 311.

Coherer. A very delicate instrument, in the original Marconi
system, consisting essentially of brass filings in a vacuum tube,
with the aid of which the Hertzian waves used in wireless
telegraphy are detected. Coherers were invented independently
by Prof. D. E. Hughes (1880) and Dr. Branly (1890-91). See
"Wireless Telegraphy," Vol. VIII, p. 52.

Cohesion. The property in virtue of which bodies tend to
hold together. The precise nature of this inter-molecular force
is not clearly established; it may be identical with gravitation.

Collodion-emulsion Process. A photographic process de-
pendent upon the use of sensitized emulsion, the basis of which
is collodion. The process was introduced by Bolton and Sayce
in 1864, and gave a new impetus to photography. Subsequently,
gelatine was very generally substituted for collodion in making
the emulsion. See "Photography in its Scientific Aspects,"
Vol. VIII, p. 231.

Color-photography. The attempt to reproduce the natural
colors photographically has enlisted the efforts of a large num-
ber of experimenters, but as yet has met with only partial suc-
cess, although very beautiful glass "positives" may now be made
with comparative ease by the Lumiere "autochrome" process.
See "Photographing in Natural Colors," Vol. VIII, p. 234.

[2!]

KEY AND INDEX

Comet. See "The Progress of Modern Astronomy," Vol. Ill,
p. 19; in particular p. 38.

Compound Engine. A steam engine in which the steam, after
acting on a piston in one cylinder, escapes, not into the air, but
into another cylinder, where it acts on a second piston. A third
and fourth cylinder may be added (triple and quadruple expan-
sion). The compound engine was invented by Hornblower in
1784. See "Compound Engines," Vol. VI, p. 117.

Conservation of Energy. See "Energy."

Cordite. A compound having great explosive energy. It is
composed of 58 parts of nitroglycerine, 37 parts of guncotton, and
5 parts vaseline. It was patented by Sir F. A. Abel and Professor
(now Sir James) Dewar, of England.

Cosmology. The system of the universe or cosmos, as
variously interpreted by successive generations of astronomers
and philosophers. The cosmological system of the Egyptians
and Babylonians were fantastic; those of the later Greeks and
Romans (see Ptolemy) conceived the earth as the central body;
the true (helio-centric) theory dates from Copernicus. For
the cosmological system of the Egyptians, see "Ideas of Cos-
mology," Vol. I, p. 41. For that of the Babylonians, see "Baby-
lonian Astronomy," Vol. I, p. 61. For the true theory, see "The
New Cosmology," Vol. II, p. 52.

Cotton Fabrics. Fabrics made of threads spun from fibers of
the seed-pod of the cotton plant. Cotton fabrics of great
delicacy of texture have been made in India from the earliest
times. A revolution in the cotton spinning and weaving indus-
tries was brought about, toward the close of the eighteenth
century, through the inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright,
Crompton, the Kays, Cartwright, and Jacquard. See "An In-
dustrial Revolution," Vol. IX, p. 6; and "The Manufacture of
Textiles," Vol. IX, p. 38.

Cotton-gin. An apparatus for separating the seeds from the
cotton fiber, invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney; it effected a
virtual revolution in the cotton-raising industry. See "Eli
Whitney and the Cotton-gin," Vol. IX, p. 8.

Crane. An apparatus (otherwise known as a derrick) for
hoisting heavy bodies with the aid of ropes and pulleys, actuated
sometimes by hand, sometimes by horse power, or steam, or
electricity. In its primitive form it has been used from the
earliest historical period. See "Archimedes of Syracuse and the

[22]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Foundation of Mechanics," Vol. I, p. 196; and "Inclined Planes
and Derricks," Vol. IX, p. 37.

Cross-staff. A primitive apparatus for measuring the angle
between two visual objects, such as two stars, or a star and the
horizon-line. It was used by navigators from an early period,
but was ultimately superseded by astrolabe (fifteenth century)
and quadrant (eighteenth century). See "The Development of
the Sextant," Vol. VII, p. 18.

Crowbar. A simple lever, which, now made of iron or steel
instead of wood, performs the same service for the modern
workman that it did for his prehistoric ancestor.

Cupping-glass. A glass cup, which becomes a suction appa-
r£tus through the exhaustion of air within it; much used by-
physicians in the days when venesection was in vogue, but now
practically obsolete.

Cyclone. A revolving atmospheric current, describing a circle
that may be a few feet or many miles in diameter. The uni-
versality of cyclonic air currents was first prominently taught
by H. W. Dove, about 1827. See "Cyclones and Anti-cyclones,"
Vol. Ill, p. 199-

Daguerreotype. The form of photograph (using a metal sur-
face, and giving a reversed image) invented by Louis J. M.
Daguerre about 1839. The process is still much employed for
the cheap photographs called tin-types. See "Photography in
its Scientific Aspects," Vol. VIII, p. 224.

Darwinian Theory. The theory of evolution (which owed its
development to Charles Darwin, though independently con-
ceived by Alfred Russell Wallace), which explains organic evo-
lution as due in a large measure to the preservation of favorable
varieties or stocks through "natural selection." The essentials
of the theory, stated in a phrase, are spontaneous (i.e., unex-
plained) variation, and (in Herbert Spencer's phrase) the "sur-
vival of the fittest." Perhaps no other theory in the entire his-
tory of thought ever had so important an influence on the ideas
of a generation as this theory exercised. See "Theories of
Organic Evolution," Vol. IV, p. 140.

Derrick. See Crane.

Diamond Drill. A drill for boring through rock, the cutting
edge being made of a ring of black diamonds. See "The Mineral
Depths," Vol. VI, p. 247, and "Other Sources of Diamonds;
Practical Uses," Vol. IX, p. 317.

[23]

KEY AND INDEX

Direct Current. A current of electricity generated by a
dynamo provided with a system of commutators through which
the electric impulses are made to flow in one direction, instead
of oscillating as they do in the so-called alternating current.
For fuller information see the subject "Electricity," and its
various departments.

Dissipation of Energy. See Energy.

Dissociation. A hypothetical chemical process (so named by
Ste. Claire Deville), according to which the chemical atoms in
any compound are constantly separating and reuniting. See
"Chemical Affinity," Vol. IV, p. 57.

Ductless Glands. Certain glands in the animal body that have
no excretory ducts, their functions being performed through the
channels of the vascular and lymphatic vessels. The spleen, the
thyroid gland, and the supra-renal capsules are important ex-
amples of this type of gland. See "Blood Corpuscles, Muscles,
and Glands," Vol. IV, p. 135.

Dye. The generic name given to coloring matters in trans-
parent mediums; suitable therefore for coloring fabrics or stain-
ing surfaces without providing a protective covering such as is
given by paints proper. The distinction between dyes and paints
is, however, not always very clearly adhered to. See "Paints,
Dyes, and Varnishes," Vol. VIII, p. 314.

Dynamics. The science that deals with the motions of bodies,
and with the forces that actuate these motions; in contradistinc-
tion to "statics," which deals with stationary bodies.

Dynamo. The apparatus, consisting essentially of a coil of
wire conveying a current of electricity and made to revolve in
a magnetic field, which transforms molar energy (usually sup-
plied by a steam engine or by a water-wheel) into electrical
energy. The multitudinous practical applications of electricity
to the supplying and transmitting of power (trolleys, elevators,
etc.) are dependent upon the dynamo, the perfecting of which
took place late in the nineteenth century. See "Man's Newest
Co-laborer: The Dynamo," Vol. VI, p. 171. For Faraday's ex-
periments leading up to the development of the dynamo, see
"Faraday and Electro-magnetic Induction," Vol. Ill, p. 240.

Dynamo-electric Machines. Name originally applied to all
machines intended to perform work with the aid of electricity,
subsequently contracted to "dynamo."

[24]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Electric Light The light engendered by rendering a badly-
conducting material incandescent by passing a current of elec-
tricity through it. The possibility of producing light in this way
was discovered by Davy early in the nineteenth century; but
no commercial use was made of the discovery till the middle of
the century; and the first important commercial light (the
Jablochkoff "candle") was not invented till 1876. Brush's arc
light followed; and Edison's incandescent light is still more
recent. See "The Banishment of Night," Vol. VT, p. 218.

Electricity. A familiar but inscrutable manifestation of
energy, having for its unit structure, according to the most
recent theory (J. J. Thomson), an infinitesimal corpuscle, or
electron. Frictional electricity (e.g., due to rubbing amber)
was known to the ancients; galvanic electricity was discovered
by Galvani and Volta; dynamic electricity has been placed at
the service of man in our own generation. For the earliest ex-
periments in electricity, see "William Gilbert and the Study of
Magnetism," Vol. II, p. in; also, "Progress in Electricity from
Gilbert and Von Guericke to Franklin," Vol. II, p. 259; "The
Modern Development of Electricity and Magnetism," Vol. Ill,
p. 229; "Prof. J. J. Thomson and the Nature of Electricity,"
Vol. V, p. 92. For such subjects as "The Electric Telegraph,"
"Electric Railways," "Electric Lighting," the reader is referred
to chapters under these headings in this index and the general
index.

Electric Railways. Electricity as a traction power owes its
popularity simply to the fact that it can be transmitted con-
veniently to a distance over a wire (trolley) or third rail, or
(less importantly) in a so-called storage battery. The initial ex-
periments in this line were made as early as 1835 (Thomas
Davenport); a little later (1847-1857), Thomas Hall, Dr. Colton,
and Prof. C. C. Page continued the work, followed by a
host of others. Galvanic cells and storage batteries were first
used with some success, but the dynamo presently superseded
other generators, although the storage battery, as perfected by
Edison, again entered the field prominently in 1910. See "The
Development of Electric Railways," Vol. VII, p. 175.

Electro-chemistry. An important branch of practical chemis-
try, that finds application in a multitude of commercial indus-
tries. The activities involved are chiefly either (i) the prin-
ciple of electrolysis, whereby chemicals are dissociated (as, for

[25]

KEY AND INDEX

example, in copper-plating, silver-plating, etc.) in solution; or
(2) the agency of high temperatures, as developed in the elec-
tric furnace, whereby substances are decomposed and purified
or allowed to reunite in new compounds. See "Humphry Davy
and Electro-chemistry," Vol. IV, p. 46. The use of electro-
chemistry is the development of the first telegraphs. See
"Galvanism Gives a New Stimulus to Inventors," Vol. VIII,
p. ii. In connection with the reproduction of illustrations, see
"The Introduction of Process Work," Vol. VIII, p. 202.

Electrolysis. The dissociation or decompounding of sub-
stances in solution through the passage of electric currents. In
a solution of silver salts, for example, the silver (being
"electro-positive") passes to the negative pole (cathode) and is
there deposited. This is the action in the practical process of
electro-plating. Similarly, solutions of copper compounds are
used to plate surfaces with copper, as in making the plates from
which books, half-tone pictures, etc., are printed. See "The
Introduction of Process Work," Vol. VIII, p. 202. Cavendish's
decomposition of the water atom by the use of electricity, Vol.
IV, p. 14. See also "Electro-chemistry" of this index.

Electro-magnetism. A manifestation of energy due to the
curious relations that exist between magnetism and electricity,
whereby, under certain circumstances, one may be induced by
the other. See "Faraday and Electro-magnetic Induction," Vol.
Ill, p. 240. See also in the present index, "Dynamo," "Elec-
tricity," "Electron," "Hertzian Waves."

Electron. The hypothetical unit structure of electricity, the
theory of which has been chiefly developed by Prof. J. J. Thom-
son. The negative electron is believed to have about one one-
thousandth the mass of the hydrogen atom. It may be the
basis of all matter. Professor Thomson made tentative an-
nouncement of the probable discovery of the positive electron
in 1910. See "Professor J. J. Thomson and the Nature of Elec-
tricity," Vol. V, p. 92.

Electro-plating. See Electrolysis.

Element. The final chemical analysis, so far as at present
achieved, resolves all known forms of matter into seventy-odd
so-called elements, each having an atomic structure, which re-
sists further dissociation, and which presents definite and charac-
teristic properties of size and chemical valency. Their names
and atomic weights are:

[26

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Aluminum

....Al

27.1

Molybdenum . .

...Mo

96.

Antimony

....Sb

120.2

Neodymium . . .

...Nd

143-6

Argon

A

39-9

Neon

...Ne

20.

Arsenic

....As

75-

Nickel

...Ni

58-7

Bromine

Br

79.96

Niobium

...Nb

94-

Barium

. . . . Ba

137-4

Nitrogen

....N

14.04

Beryllium

....Be

9.1

Osmium

...Os

191.

Bidymium

. . . . Di

142.

Oxygen

....0

16.

Bismuth

....Bi

208.5

Palladium

...Pd

106.5

Boron

B

n.

Phosphorus

....P

31.

Cadmium

. . . . Cd

112.4

Platinum

...Pt

194.8

Caesium

. . . . Cs

133-

Potassium

....K

39-15

Calcium

. . . . Ca

40.1

Praseodymium .

...Pr

140.5

Carbon

C

12.

Radium

. ..Ra

225.

Cerium

....Ce

140.

Rhodium

...Rh

103.

Chlorine

. . . . Cl

35-45

Rubidium

. ..Rb

85.4

Chromium

. . . . Cr

52.1

Ruthenium ....

. ..Ru

101.7

Cobalt

....Co

59-

Samarium

..Sm

150-

Columbium . . .

....Cb

93-5

Scandium

...Sc

44.1

Copper

....Cu

63.6

Selenium

...Se

79.2

Dysprosium . .

....Dy

162.5

Silicon

....Si

28.4

Erbium , .

. . . . Er

1 66.

Silver

...Ag

107.93

Europium ....

. . . . Eu

152.

Sodium

. ..Na

23-05

Fluorine

F

19.

Strontium

...Sr

87.62

Gadolinium ...

....Gd

156.

Sulphur

....S

32.06

Gallium

. . . . Ga

70-

Tantalum

. ..Ta

183-

Germanium . . .

. ...Ge

72.5

Tellurium

...Te

127.6

Gold

....Au

197.2

Terbium

...Tb

1 60.

Helium

....He

4-

Thallium

...Tl

204.1

Hydrogen

H

1.008

Thorium

. ..Th

232-5

Indium

....In

114.

Thulium

...Ta

171.

Iodine

I

126.85

Tin

...Sn

119.

Iridium ,

Ir

193-

Titanium

...Ti

48.1

Iron

....Fe

55-9

Tungsten

...W

184-

Krypton

....Kr

87.8

Uranium

....U

238.5

Lanthanum . . .

....La

138.9

Vanadium

....V

51-2

Lead

....Pb

206.9

Xenon

....X

128.

....Li

7-03

Ytterbium

...Yb

173-

Lutecium

....Lu

174-

(Neoytterbium)

Magnesium

...MR

24.36

Yttrium

....Y

89-

Manganese . . .

...Mn

55-

Zinc

...Zn

654

Mercury

...-Hff

200.

Zirconium

...Zr

90.6

[27]

KEY AND INDEX

Elevator. The contrivance (in England called a "lift") for
conveying passengers and freight to the upper stories of build-
ings, through which the modern skyscraper has been made
tenantable. The earlier forms were operated by a piston-rod
resting on a water cushion, but for very high buildings the elec-
tric elevator has practical monopoly. See "Elevator or 'Lift,' "
Vol. IX, p. 169.

Embryology. The science that deals with the development of
the embryo while in the egg or womb. The study is highly
important in its bearing on physiological and evolutionary
problems. See "The Cell Theory Elaborated," Vol. IV, p. 122,
for the studies of Schwann, von Baer, Miiller, and Carpenter.

Energy. The capacity to do work. Energy may be potential,
as represented by a stone held in the hand; or kinetic (operative),
as when the stone is dropped. Various manifestations of energy
(as molar motion, molecular activity, heat, electricity) may be
transmuted one into another; but energy can be neither created
nor destroyed (doctrine of the conservation of energy; see
Mayer, Joule, Helmholtz). There is, however, a seeming loss
of energy from the solar system, through the constant sending
out of radiant heat. See "The Conservation of Energy," Vol.
Ill, p. 253; "Lord Kelvin and the Dissipation of Energy," Vol.
Ill, p. 274; "How Work is Done," Vol. VI, p. 29.

Engines. See Atmospheric e., Electric e., Gas e., Hot-air e.,
Piston e., Steam e., and Water e., and "Captive Molecules: The
Story of the Steam Engline," Vol. VI, p. 79; "The Master
Worker," Vol. VI, p. no; "Gas and Oil Engines," Vol. VI,
P- 133-

Epicycles, Theory of. A theory invented or elaborated by
Hipparchus (second century B.C.) to explain the observed fact
that the sun spends more time on one side of the equator than
on the other, and that the moon and planets show similar irreg-
ularities of action. The theory supposes that the circling
bodies describe minor circles about invisible centers. These
fictitious epicycles continued to be evoked by astronomers until
Kepler discovered that the true explanation of the observed
anomalies is, not that the bodies describe minor circles
(epicycles), but that their orbit is elliptical. The theory of
epicycles was thus shown to be utterly untenable; yet it had
seemed to offer a valid explanation of observed phenomena.
See "Hipparchus, 'The Lover of Truth,'" Vol. I, p. 233; "The
New Cosmology," Vol. II, p. 74-

[28]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Etching. A process of engraving, in which the artist scratches
the waxed surface of the metallic plate with a pointed instru-
ment, the mechanical process being completed by the action of
acids, which "bite" the plate only in places thus exposed. See
-Etching," Vol. VIII, p. 195.

Ether. The hypothetical substance filling all space, "pene-
trating between the molecules of matter as air between the
leaves of trees." One theory of matter supposes all material
substances to be composed of vortex rings of ether. Undula-
tions in the ethereal medium are supposed to constitute the
manifestations which our senses interpret as light and radiant
heat. For the investigation of the early workers, such as
Young and Clerk-Maxwell, to the most recent, see "The Ether
and Ponderable Matter," Vol. Ill, p. 283.

Evolution, The Theory of Organic. The doctrine which
teaches that higher organic forms have developed sequentially
from lower ones, through various channels, all of which lead
back to a primordial form of proto-plasmic being. See Darwin,
Erasmus Darwin, Lamarck, Haeckel, and "Theories of Organic
Evolution," Vol. IV, p. 140.

Faraday Tubes. Lines of magnetic force, as observed by
Faraday, and theoretically explained by him. These "tubes"
radiate in all directions into space, in loops of all sizes, which
connect the poles of a magnet. They have been invoked to
explain many phenomena of nature, including "action at a dis-
tance." See "Modern Views," Vol. VI, p. 153.

Fire-damp. Name given by miners to the explosive or in-
flammable gases that sometimes develop in mines, in contradis-
tinction to the non-explosive carbonic acid gas, which they term
"choke damp." See "Carbon Dioxide Gas," of the present index.

Fossil Beds. Strata containing large numbers of fossils;
usually from remains originally deposited in an ancient lake
bed. Some of the most important fossil beds are found in the
Rocky Mountain region. See "The New Science of Paleon-
tology," Vol. Ill, p. 74.

Fossil Horse. Remains of this animal, as found in the fossil
beds of western America, had peculiar interest, as they gave
tangible evidence of the truth of the evolution of hypothesis.
See "The New Science of Paleontology," Vol. Ill, p. 105.

Fossil Man. Remains of prehistoric man, study of which has
demonstrated the great antiquity of the human race. Finds of

[29]

KEY AND INDEX

this character are always of interest, but are no longer startling
as they were at the middle of the nineteenth century, when the
"age of man" was supposed to compass a mere six thousand
years. See "The New Science of Paleontology," Vol. Ill, p. 98.
Friction. The motion-retarding influence exerted by one sur-
face against another, or by a gas or liquid acting on another gas
or liquid or on a solid. Friction is responsible for enormous loss
of power in the operation of all working mechanisms; but, on
the other hand, were it not for friction man would not be able
to handle tools, or even to walk. See "Other Means of Trans-
mitting Power," Vol. VI, p. 35.

Ganglion Cells. Central nerve cells, located in the brain, the
spinal cord, or in the outlying plexuses, which serve as store-
houses of nervous energy. See "Functions of the Nerves," Vol.
IV, p. 259-

Gas. Matter in the state of tennosity in which its component
molecules, instead of being relatively close together and more
or less subject to the influence of cohesive forces (solids,
liquids), are widely separated, and in rapid linear motion, dart-
ing hither and thither, and rebounding on contact. (See Max-
well; Kinetic theory.) All kinds of matter assume the gaseous
state under proper conditions of pressure and temperature.
Substances that are gaseous at ordinary terrestrial temperatures
are spoken of as "permanent gases," but the term is a mis-
nomer. For Clerk-Maxwell's kinetic theory of gases, see Vol.
Ill, p. 295. For the "Law of Avogadro," see Vol. IV, p. 57.
For recent experiments in liquifying gases, see Vol. V, p. 53.
For some recent discoveries of new gases, see Vol. V, p. 84.

Gas Engine. An engine actuated by some gas other than
steam. Gas engines are of recent development; the best-known
form being the explosion engine generally used for automobiles
and motor boats. See "Gas and Oil Engines," Vol. VI, p. 132.

Gas Mantle. A mantle, of which that of Herr Welsbach is
the type, composed of an earth (e.g., a compound of thorium
and cerium) which becomes incandescent when heated in a gas
flame; giving far more light than would be produced by the gas
flame itself. See "The Incandescent Gas Mantle," Vol. VI, p. 208.

Gastric Juice. The digestive juice secreted by the stomach.
It is acidulous (hydrochloric acid) and its most characteristic
and important constituent is the ferment pepsin. See "The
Chemical Theory of Digestion," Vol. IV, p. 88.

[30]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Gears. Mechanisms for transmitting power, or for changing
the direction of its action. The toothed wheel and the bitted
wheel are typical examples. See "Other Means of Transmitting
Power," Vol. VI, p. 35.

Gems. Minerals, usually in crystalline form, the combined
beauty and rarity of which gives them great commercial value,
usually quite without regard to any question of practical utility.
The diamond (a crystal of pure carbon) owes its popularity to its
hardness, combined with its high index of refraction; the true
ruby, sapphire, and emerald are crystallized oxides of aluminum
(corundum) with traces of different coloring matters. Stones
of the corundum order are now duplicated in the laboratory on
a commercial scale; but laboratory diamonds are as yet of in-
finitesimal size. See "Gems, Natural and Artificial," Vol. IX,
P- 295-

Geocentric Theory. The theory according to which the earth
is the center of the solar system. This theory has universal
vogue (notwithstanding the protest of Aristarchus) throughout
antiquity; the true heliocentric theory was put forward by
Copernicus. See "Aristarchus of Samos, the Copernicus of
Antiquity," Vol. I, p. 212.

Geology. The science that deals with the origin, structure,
and metamorphoses of the earth's crust. It is, in any compre-
hensive sense, a modern science, its correct theories dating from
the close of the eighteenth century. See "The Origin and De-
velopment of Modern Geology," Vol. Ill, p. 116.

Geometry. Literally, and in its earliest applications, the
science of earth measurement. As such its elements were un-
derstood by the ancient Egyptians. Expanded and its chief
propositions formulated by the Alexandrian, Euclid (300 B.C),
whose exposition is still used in modern text-books. See
"Euclid," Vol. I, p. 192.

Germanium. See "Elements" in the present index.

Glands. Secretory organs, of which there are many types, as,
for example, the salivary glands, the peptic glands of the
stomach, the pancreatic glands, and sundry intestinal glands.
See also "Ductless Glands" of the present index.

Glass. A crystalline substance, the chief constituent of which
is silica (sand), with which varying proportions of potash, soda,
and lime are combined. See "Glass and Glass-Making," Vol. IX,
P- 277.

Glass Negatives. See "Photography" in the present index.

[31]

KEY AND INDEX

Goniometer. An implement for measuring solid angles, or the
inclination of planes, particularly the angles formed by the faces
of crystals.

Gravitation. The universal force of attraction acting between
all masses of matter in the universe; in virtue of which, as
demonstrated by Newton, the power of attraction between any
two bodies is directly as their combined mass and inversely as
the square of their distance. The nature of gravitation remains
a mystery despite various attempts to explain it. See "Newton
and the Law of Gravitation," Vol. II, p. 236. For Le Sage's
theory of, see "Physical Problems," Vol. V, p. 213.

Gyrocar. Name given to Mr. Brennan's monorail vehicle,
which owes its stability to the action of gyroscopic wheels. See
"The Gyrocar," Vol. VII, p. 195.

Gyroscope. A revolving body; for example, a top, a hoop, or
the earth itself. More technically, a wheel adjusted in gimbal
frames to illustrate the principles of gyroscopic action; in par-
ticular, the stability acquired by a rapidly revolving body. See
"Gyrocar," Vol. VII, p. 195, and "The Gyroscope and Ocean
Travel," Vol. VII, p. 217.

Gyroscopic Action. See "Gyroscope" in the present index.

Heat. A manifestation of energy believed to represent active
molecular vibration. These vibrations may set up undulations
in the ether, which are interpreted as radiant heat; these undu-
lations can in turn transmit motion (i.e., "heat") to the molecules
of matter upon which they infringe — as we see illustrated when
anything is warmed by the sun's rays. Heat was long supposed
to be an "imponderable" fluid. The true theory of heat was
developed by Count Rumford, Carnot, Mayer, Joule, and Helm-
holtz. See "Modern Theories of Heat and Light," Vol. Ill, p. 206.

Heliocentric Theory. The true theory that the sun is the
central body of the planetary system was advocated in antiquity
by Aristarchus; but did not gain currency until put forward by
Copernicus in the fifteenth century. See "The New Cosmology —
Copernicus to Kepler and Galileo," Vol. II, p. 52.

Hertzian Waves. The electro-magnetic waves in the ether
that are utilized in wireless telegraphy. Named for Hertz, whose
studies first clearly demonstrated the characteristics of these
high-frequency ethereal waves. See Vol. Ill, p. 247; also "Wire-
less Telegraphy," Vol. VIII, p. 47, and "The Wireless Tele-
phone," Vol. VIII, p. 88.

[32]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Histology. The science that deals with the minute structure
of animal and vegetable tissues. This science depends very
largely upon the microscope, and has developed chiefly since
that instrument was perfected. See "Lister and the Perfected
Microscope," Vol. IV, p. 109.

Horse Power. The unit of work, as applied by Watt to the
steam engine. Watt assumed that a horse could perform an
amount of labor equivalent to the raising of 33,000 pounds to
the height of one foot in one minute; this was doubtless an over-
estimate, but it has remained the standard. See Vol. VI, p. 60.

Hot-air Engine. An engine in which heated air is used instead
of steam or exploded gas to propel the piston. See "Gas and
Oil Engines," Vol. VI, p. 132.

Hydrophobia. See "Rabies" in the present index.

Hydrostatic Press. An apparatus for transmitting power; it
makes use of the principle that pressure applied to a given sur-
face of a liquid is transmitted unmodified to each corresponding
surface of the enclosing well. In practice a small force applied
to a small piston in a cylinder becomes multiplied as transmitted
to the large piston of a connecting cylinder. See "Hydraulic
Power," Vol. VI, p. 74.

Hydrostatics. The science that deals with the properties of
fluids. For Archimedes's solution of some of the most im-
portant problems of hydrostatic equilibrium, see Vol. I, p. 196.
For the experiments of Galileo, see "Galileo and the Equilibrium
of Fluids," Vol. II, p. 105.

Hygiene. The science of health; in particular having to do
with improvements in living, ventilation, sanitation, etc. See
"The Berlin Institute of Hygiene," Vol. V, p. 193.

Hypnotism. Name given by Dr. Braid to the practice of in-
ducing artificial somnambulism in a susceptible subject. The
hypnotic condition is subjective, and is indeed by suggestion, not
by the giving out of any "magnetic" or other occult influence
on the part of the hypnotist. See "Physiological Psychology,"
Vol. IV, p. 266.

Inclined Plane. A familiar mechanism through the use of
which heavy bodies may be raised to a height with a conserva-
tive use of power. Diodorus Siculus records that the Egyptian
utilized the principle of the inclined plane in building the pyra-
mids. See "Inclined Planes and Derricks," Vol. VI, p. 37.

Induction, Electric. A curious phenomenon, in which an elec-

[33]

KEY AND INDEX

trie current is generated in a coil of insulated wire wound about
another coil, through which a current generated in the usual
way is passed. The familiar Faradic current is thus induced.
For a description of the discovery of induction, see "Progress in
Electricity from Gilbert and Von Guericke to Franklin," Vol.
II, p. 259. For Faraday's experiments, see Vol. Ill, p. 240.

Inorganic Matter. Mineral compounds of whatever character
that have been developed or compounded without the aid or
interposition of living organisms, vegetable or animal.

Interference of Light. The collision of one wave of light
(etherial undulation) with another in such a way as to obstruct
the wave, causing darkness. Studies of interference led Young
to the elaboration of the undulatory theory of light. See
"Thomas Young and the Wave Theory of Light," Vol. Ill,
P- 215.

Isomerism. A word coined by the chemist Berzelius to in-
dicate the fact, demonstrated in 1823 by Liebig and Wohlen,
that two substances exhibiting different physical properties
may have precisely the same chemical composition. See "Or-
ganic Chemistry and the Idea of the Molecule," Vol. IV, p. 53.

Julian Calendar. The reformed calendar of Julius Caesar,
which adopted the Alexandrian expedient of introducing an ad-
ditional day every fourth (leap) year. For comparison of this
calendar and with that of the ancient Egyptian calendar, see
"Astronomical Science," Vol. I, p. 33.

Kinematograph. See Chrono-photography, Vol. VIII, p. 248.

Kinetic Theory (of gases). The theory that a gas consists
of molecules in a state of agitation, describing a "free path" of
relatively great length between successive impacts with other
molecules. See Vol. Ill, p. 295.

Knitting Machinery. A machine for knitting stockings was
invented by a Scottish clergyman, William Lee, in 1589; a de-
velopment that permitted the knitting of a ribbed surface was
introduced by Jedediah Strutt in 1758; and the circular knitter
(producing a seamless stocking) was perfected by Peter Claussen
in 1845- See "Lace Making and Knitting Machinery," Vol. IX,
P- 55-

Krupp SteeL An alloy steel, containing nickel, which adds
to its hardness and gives it great value for armoring ships. See
"The Age of Steel," Vol. VI, p. 295.

[34]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Lamp, Safety. A lamp invented by Humphry Davy, for use
in mines, to give protection against danger from explosion due
to "fire-damp." The device consists essentially of enclosing the
lamp in wire gauze. See "Conditions to be Considered in Min-
ing," Vol. VI, p. 247.

Latent Heat. A term introduced by Dr. Joseph Black to apply
to the modicum of heat which seemingly disappears or becomes
latent when a substance changes its physical state, as, for ex-
ample, when water is transformed into steam. The heat reap-
pears when the steam is retransformed into water. Black's
studies in this field were probably a source of inspiration to his
friend Watt, in connection with the perfecting of the steam
engine. See Vol. VI, p. 94.

Latitude. Distance north or south from the equator, measured
in degrees, minutes and seconds of arc. Latitude is determined
with comparative ease by the mariner through observation of
the height of the sun at meridian, as measured with the sextant
See "The Development of the Sextant," Vol. VII, p. 18.

Law, Natural. The expression of an observed sequence of
phenomena in nature, so often repeated that we are justified in
regarding the sequence as inevitable.

Lever. An instrument which, in various modified forms, is
the most universally employed of all instruments with which
work is performed. The principles of the lever were formulated
by Archimedes. See "How Work is Done," Vol. VI, p. 29,

Leyden Jar. Name given a simple apparatus for storing elec-
tricity generated by a friction machine, as discovered inde-
pendently by Dean Von Kleist and Pieter von Musschenbrock in
1745. The original apparatus of Von Kleist consisted simply of
a nail or a piece of brass wire placed in a glass bottle. See
"The Leyden Jar Discovered," Vol. II, p. 280.

Light. The phenomena interpreted by the eyes as light and
color consists essentially of undulations in the ether, having
clearly defined upper and lower limits of frequency. This ex-
planation of light was demonstrated by Young and Fresnel;
and their theory supplanted the corpuscular or emanation theory
that had been championed by Newton. The undulations in the
ether that are interpreted as light are induced by vibrations of
molecules of matter ordinarily produced by excessive heat; in
other words, light is a manifestation of energy. See "Modern
Theories of Heat and Light," Vol. Ill, p. 206.

Lightning. A manifestation of atmospheric electricity, as wa§

[55]

KEY AND INDEX

first demonstrated by Benjamin Franklin's classical experiments
with kite and key, made about the middle of the eighteenth
century. See "Benjamin Franklin," Vol. II, p. 286.

Lime-light. A light produced by heating a block of lime to
incandescence with a blast of oxygen or gas.

Liquefaction of Gases. Reducing gases, such as oxygen,
hydrogen, air, etc., to a liquid state. See "Low Temperature
Researches," Vol. V, p. 29.

Liquefied Air. See "Liquefaction of Gases" of the present
index.

Liquid Fuel. The term given to the various oils, usually crude
petroleum, which have come into use recently as fuel for loco-
motives, steamships, etc. See "Liquid Fuel," Vol. VII, p. 90.

Lithography. The process of reproducing pictures from an
etched surface of stone. The process was invented by Alois
Sanfelder early in the nineteenth century. See "The Reproduc-
tion of Illustrations," Vol. VIII, p. 184.

Locomotive. The traction vehicle perfected, but not invented,
by George Stephenson. The earliest locomotives were those of
Cugnot and Trevithick. Locomotives were used in collieries
for a good many years before Stephenson made his memorable
demonstration with the Rocket in 1829. See "The Steam Loco-
motive," Vol. VII, p. 119.

Log. An apparatus for measuring the speed of ships. Orig-
inally this consisted of a log or block of wood attached to a
knotted rope. This log was dropped into the water astern,
and the speed of the ship was estimated from the number of
knots that ran through the fingers while a half-minute sand-
glass was emptying. The modern log revolves in the water,
and records speed on a clock-like dial. See "Sailing by Dead
Reckoning," Vol. VII, p. 14.

Longitude. Distance east or west of an arbitrarily selected
meridian (as that of Greenwich, or that of Washington), as
measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc. The mariner
determines his longitude by means of observation of sun or
stars, in connection with the time record furnished by chrono-
meter. See "The Development of the Sextant," Vol. VII, p. 18.

Loom. An apparatus for weaving cloth. The primitive hand
loom had been used from remotest antiquity. The power loom
was the invention of the British clergyman, Dr. Edmund Cart-
wright (1784). See "The Manufacture of Textiles," Vol. IX,
P 43-

[36]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Low Temperature Researches. The work of Rumford, Davy,
and Young, and later by Sir James Dewar and his associates in
reducing gases, even hydrogen itself, to a liquid state, is de-
scribed in "The Royal Institution and the Low Temperature
Researches," Vol. V, p. 29.

Magdeburg Hemispheres. The name given two hollow brass
hemispheres with tightly-fitting surfaces which, when approx-
imated, and after the air had been exhausted, could not be pulled
apart by teams of horses. With these Otto von Guericke, in the
seventeenth century, demonstrated atmospheric pressure. See
Vol. II, p. 2ii ; Vol. VI, p. 66.

Magnet. A body which possesses the property of attracting
fragments of iron or steel. The loadstone is a natural magnet.
It is the native magnetic oxide of iron, FesO«. See "Electricity,"
and "Electro-magnetism" of the present index.

Magnetism. The property possessed by certain bodies whereby
they naturally attract or repel one another. See "Faraday ana
Electro-magnetic Induction," Vol. Ill, p. 240. Also "Electricity,"
and "Electro-magnetism" of the present index.

Magnetized Needle. A magnet in the form of a needle sus-
pended at its center of gravity, which places itself naturally in
a position with its long axis nearly north and south, with one
end inclining downward. See "Electricity and Magnetism," Vol.
Ill, p. 236. Also "The Mariner's Compass," Vol. VII, p. 7.

Mammalia (mammiferous animals, mammals). All those ani-
mals which suckle their young, and no others. Thus, whales,
although fish-like in habits, are mammals quite as much as
horses or cattle. For studies of fossil mammals, see "The New
Science of Paleontology," Vol. Ill, p. 74; and "The Origin and
Development of Modern Geology," Vol. Ill, p. 116.

Mantle, Gas. A porous, hollow cone, or bag-shaped structure,
composed of the oxides of thoria, alumina, magnesia, etc., which
when placed so that a mixture of air and illuminating gas passes
through it, and is ignited, becomes brilliantly luminous. See
"Gas Lighting," Vol. VI, p. 207.

Mariner's Compass. An instrument, apparently invented and
used by the Chinese before the Christian era, in which a mag-
netized needle suspended at its center of gravity above a disk,
is used for determining directions at sea. The short-needle
compass, now used universally, was invented by Lord Kelvin
about 1875. See "The Mariner's Compass," Vol. VII. p. 7-

[37]

KEY AND INDEX

Marine Galvanometer. An instrument consisting of a tiny
magnet and a reflector with which telegraphic messages are
magnified by reflected light. With this instrument, the inven-
tion of Lord Kelvin, very weak currents of electricity can be
utilized for signaling. See "Instrumental Aids," Vol. VIII, p. 45.

Medicine. For the story of the development of the science of
medicine, from the earliest time until the present, see "Scientific
Knowledge of the Egyptian Physician," Vol. I, p. 49; "Babylon-
ian Medicine," Vol. I, p. 75; "Empedocles, Physician, Observer,
and Dreamer," Vol. I, p. 132; "Hippocrates and Greek Medicine,"
Vol. I, p. 170; "Galen, the Last Great Alexandrian," Vol. I,
p 278; "Arabian Medicine," Vol. II, p. 21; "Byzantine, and
Thirteenth Century Medicine," Vol. II, p. 31; "From Paracelsus
to Harvey," Vol. II, p. 156; "Medicine in the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries," Vol. II, p. 181; "Eighteenth Century
Medicine," Vol. IV, p. 182; "Nineteenth Century Medicine," Vol.
IV, p. 200. Also see chapters on Anatomy and Physiology of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Mercury-vapor Light. An electric light, invented by Mr. Peter
Cooper Hewitt, in which mercury vapor enclosed in a glass tube
is made incandescent by the passage of an electric current.
This type of lamp produces eight times as much light as the
ordinary carbon filament lamp with the same amount of power.
See "The Mercury-vapor Light of Peter Cooper Hewitt," Vol.
VI, p. 236.

Meteorites, or Shooting Stars. Mineral or metallic masses, of
extraterrestrial origin, which fall upon the earth, or are con-
sumed while passing through the atmosphere toward the earth.
See "The New Science of Meteorology," Vol. Ill, p. 168.

Meteorology. The science which treats of the motions and
phenomena of the earth's atmosphere, the study of climate and
weather, their causes, changes, and effects. See "The New
Science of Meteorology," Vol. Ill, p. 168.

Mezzotint. A method of engraving on copper or steel, the
surface of which has been uniformly roughened by an instru-
ment called a "cradle" or "rocker." For dark tones the surface
is left undisturbed, the lighter effects being produced by scraping
away the surface. See "Mezzotint," Vol. VIII, p. 196.

Micrometer. An instrument, used in connection with the
microscope, for measuring lengths and angles.

Microscope. An optical instrument for magnifying minute
objects. Invented in 1590 by the Dutch optician Jensen. Im-

[38]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

proved by Robert Hooks, and finally brought to its present state
of perfection by the efforts of Sir David Brewster, Dr. Wollas-
ton, Coddington, and Joseph Jackson Lister. See "Lister and
the Perfected Microscope," Vol. IV, p. 109.

Milky Way. A luminous band in the heavens, composed of
stars and nebulae. This fact was discovered by Galileo with the
telescope which he invented. See Vol. II, p. 79; and the general
treatment of modern astronomy, "The Progress of Modern
Astronomy," Vol. Ill, p. 19.

Molecule. The smallest mass of any substance that can exist
in a separate form. The atom is, of course, smaller, but single
atoms cannot exist alone. See "The Ether and Ponderable
Matter," Vol. Ill, p. 283.

Monorail Systems. Railways having a single rail, on which
cars with double-flanged wheels are kept in a state of equilibrium
either by overhead supports, or by means of a gyroscope. The
Gyrocar (q.v.) of Louis Brennan is an example of this latter
type. See "The Gyrocar," Vol. VII, p. 195; and "Monorail Sys-
tems," Vol. VII, p. 191.

Moon's Variation, which was discovered by an Arabian astron-
omer about 975, is the inequality of motion of the moon, in
virtue of which it moves quickest when new or full, and slowest
at first and third quarter. Later (about 1750) this fact was re-
discovered by Tycho Brahe. For modern studies of the moon,
see "Studies of the Moon," Vol. Ill, p. 48.

"Mule." A spinning machine invented by Samuel Crompton
about 1779. As it was a combination of the spinning-jenny and
Arkwright's drawing-rollers — a hybrid machine — it was dubbed
"mule," after that hybrid animal. See "The Invention of the
'Mule,' " Vol. IX, p. 32.

Multiple Messages. In telegraphy it is possible to send
several messages at the same time in opposite directions over
a single wire. The first machine for doing this was invented
by an Austrian, Dr. Gintl, in 1853. See "Multiple Messages,"
Vol. VIII, p. 25.

Muscles. A kind of animal tissue capable of contracting in
length and dilating in breadth. The voluntary muscles, as the
biceps of the arm, are under control of the will, while the in-
voluntary muscles, such as those of the heart, intestines, etc.,
are not. All muscles respond to electrical stimuli. See "The
Animal Machine," Vol. VI, p. 43.

[39]

KEY AND INDEX

Muscular System. The term applied to all muscles of the body
as distinguished from the nervous system, osseous system, etc.

Nautical Almanac. An almanac published by the United
States and other maritime powers, for the use of astronomers
and navigators, in which is given the angular distances of the
moon from the sun, planets, and fixed stars, etc., and other in-
formation that enables the navigator to determine exact posi-
tions of latitude and longitude. See "The Conquest of the
Zones," Vol. VII, p. 37.

Neolithic Civilization. A term applied especially to the civiliza-
tion of northwestern Europe during the epoch of highly finished
and polished stone implements. It was the later period of the
"stone age," the earlier period being the Paleolithic age.

Neon. A gaseous element discovered in the earth's atmos-
phere by Ramsay and Travers in 1808. See "Some Physical
Laboratories and Physical Problems," Vol. V, p. 84.

Neptune, (i) In Roman mythology the god of the sea;
(2) in astronomy the most distant of the known planets. It is
peculiar in revolving from east to west, and revolves around
the sun in 164.6 years. See "The Discovery of Neptune," Vol.

III, p. 42-

Neptunists. The name given to the followers of Werner of
Saxony, who believed that "in the beginning all the solids of the
earth's crust were dissolved in the heated waters of a universal
sea." The opponents of this theory, who followed James Hut-
ton's teachings, were called "Plutonists." See "Neptunists
versus Plutonists," Vol. Ill, p. 131.

Nerve Cells. Structures in the brain from which the nerve-
filaments originate. They may be likened to "a central tele-
phone office of a telephone system." See "The New Science
of Experimental Psychology," Vol. IV, p. 249.

Nerves. Filaments leading from the nerve cells of the brain
to various structures of the body, such as muscles, glands, etc.,
which serve as conductors of impulses, to and from the brain.
Sir Charles Bell, in 1811, discovered that there are two distinct
sets of nerves, one for carrying motor and the other for carry-
ing sensory impulses. See "Experimental Psychology," Vol.

IV, p. 249-

Nitrate Beds. Large areas in northern Chili, Peru, and Bo-
livia, containing sodium nitrate (Na N O,) in a native state.
This substance is valuable as a fertilizer, and as a source of

[40]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

nitric tcid and of nitre. See "Nitrogen from the Air," Vol. VI.
p. 303-

Nitrogen. A gaseous, non-metallic element, constituting 77
per cent by weight, or four-fifths by bulk, of the earth's atmos-
phere. Discovered by Henry Cavendish about 1809. See "Henry
Cavendish," Vol. IV, p. 13; and "Nitrogen from the Air," Vol.
VI, p. 303.

Nuclei of Plant Cells. The component part of the vegetable
cell, first recognized by Robert Brown in 1833. See "Robert
Brown and the Cell Nucleus," Vol. IV, p. 115.

Oil Engines. See "Gas and Oil Engines," Vol. VI, p. 132.

Organic Evolution. The chalTges in living organisms, the out-
growth of which is their present forms. See "Theories of
Organic Evolution," Vol. IV, p. 140.

Organic Matter. The term applied to animal and vegetable
matter as distinguishing it from mineral, or inorganic, matter.

Organicists' System. A system of medicine in vogue during
the eighteenth century, the followers of which did not believe
that life was due to some spiritual entity, but rather to the
structure of the body itself. See "Animists, Vitalists, and
Organicists," Vol. IV, p. 184.

Oxygen. A non-metallic gaseous element, discovered in 1774
by Joseph Priestley, and called by him "dephlogisticated air."
Later Lavoisier gave it the name oxygen (chemical symbol O).
See "Joseph Priestley," Vol. IV, p. 18.

Paint. Colors or dyes mixed with some vehicle, such as oil,
turpentine, water, etc., so as to spread over a surface and retain
their brilliancy after drying. See "Paints, Dyes, and Varnishes,"
Vol. VIII, p. 258.

Paleontology. The science of ancient life that inhabited the
earth during the ages previous to historic times. The science
originated early in the nineteenth century and was named by
de Blainville and Fischer von Waldheim in 1834- See "The
New Science of Paleontology," Vol. Ill, p. 74-

Palladium. A metal resembling platinum, used in the manu-
facture of certain scientific instruments. It was discovered by
Wollaston in 1803. See "Element" of the present index.

Paper. A material composed of vegetable fibers formed
artificially into thin sheets. It came into use about the twelfth
century in Europe, but was probably known and used long

[41]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

before that in the Orient. See "The Manufacture of Paper,"
VoL VIII, p. 159.

Parasitic Diseases. Diseases caused by animal or vegetable
parasites, such as the itch, caused by the burrowing under the
skin of the itch mite, or the disease trichinosis, due to the pres-
ence of trichinae burrowing in the tissues. See "Parasitic Dis-
eases," VoL IV, p. 204.

Pepsin. A ferment secreted by the mucous lining of the
stomach, discovered by Schwann and Wasmann, 1836-1840.
When combined with an acid solution it has the power of trans-
forming coagulated albuminous substances into soluble pep-
tones. See "Animal Chemistry,"' Vol. IV, p. 128.

Percussion. In medicine, the method of investigation which
consists in striking the surface of the body to ascertain from
the sounds produced the condition of the parts beneath. In-
troduced in modern times by Avenbrugger, and afterward
adopted by Laennec and Corvissart. See "Nineteenth Century
Medicine," Vol. IV, p. 199.

Periodic Law. A term expressive of the observed fact that
the chemical elements when listed serially in the numerical order
of their atomic weights show a curious recurrence of similar
properties at intervals of eight elements. See "Periodicity of
Atomic Weights," Vol. IV, p. 64.

Periscope. An optical instrument used for making observa-
sions from a submarine boat when submerged. See "Submarine
Vessels," Vol. VII, p. 93; in particular p. in.

Phantoscope. A form of moving-picture machine. See
"Chrono-photography — Moving Pictures," Vol. VIII, p. 248.

Phlogiston. A hypothetical substance, at one time supposed
to be part of all bodies capable of being burned. The Phlogiston
theory was developed by George Ernst Stahl (1660-1734), fol-
lowing the experiments of Becker (1635-1682). See "The
Phlogiston Theory in Chemistry," Vol. IV, p. 3.

Phonautograph. An instrument invented by Leo Scott in
1856, with which vibrations made by sounds were recorded on
smoked glass by means of a needle attached to a diaphragm.
See "The Edison Phonograph," Vol. VIII, p. 93.

Phonograph. A device for recording and reproducing sounds,
invented by Thomas A. Edison in 1877. See "The Edison
Phonograph." Vol. VIII, p. 93.

Photography. The art of producing pictures by the action of
light on chemically prepared surfaces. The first camera image

[42]

KEY AND INDEX

was produced by Niepcc in 1827; but the honor of bringing
photography to a practical stage of development belongs to
Daguerre, dating from January, 1839. See "Photography in its
Scientific Aspects," Vol. VIII, p. 220.

Photogravure. A process of engraving, done partly by pho-
tography, and by mechanical and chemical action on copper
plates, from which prints can be made in a copper-plate press.
See "The Reproduction of Illustrations," Vol. VIII, p. 184; in
particular p. 217.

Phrenology. A doctrine, advanced by Dr. Franz Joseph Gall,
which maintains that the external configurations of the skull
are indicative of certain mental characteristics. See "The New
Science of Experimental Psychology," Vol. IV, p. 247.

Physical Diagnosis. A method of external examination, in-
troduced by Corvissart, the physician to Napoleon, whereby
diseased conditions are detected by certain mechanical methods
of examination, such as "chest-tapping/* etc. See "Nineteenth
Century Medicine," Vol. IV, p. 199.

Physics. The science that deals with matter and its properties
and with the transformations of energy. From this it will be
seen that its scope is very wide and far-reaching. See "Galileo
and the New Physics," Vol. II, p. 93; "Modern Theories of
Heat and Light," Vol. Ill, p. 206; "The Conservation of
Energy," Vol. Ill, p. 253; "The Ether and Ponderable Matter,"
Vol. Ill, p. 283; "The Royal Institution and Low-temperature
Researches," Vol. V, p. 29; "Some Physical Laboratories and
Physical Problems," Vol. V, p. 73; "Some Unsolved Scientific
Problems," Vol. V, p. 203. Electricity (q.v.) is a department of
Physics, and nearly all the appliances of the mechanical world
fall within the scope of Applied Physics. See, for example, the
chapter "How Work is Done," Vol. VI, p. 29.

Physiology. In a restricted sense it is applied to that de-
partment of inquiry which investigates the functions of living
organisms, such as the functions of the brain, liver, etc. In a
broader sense it covers the sum of all knowledge concerning
living organisms. See "Anatomy and Physiology in the
Eighteenth Century," Vol. IV, p. 73; and "Anatomy and
Physiology in the Nineteenth Century," Vol. IV, p. 102.

Pigments. The name given to paints, or any preparations used
by painters and dyers. Also, the coloring matter found in the
tissues of most animals and plants. See "Paints, Dyes, and
Varnishes," Vol. VIII, p. 258.

[43]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Piston Engine. A form of engine invented by Denis Papin
about 1688. The name is still used to distinguish certain types
of engines (such as the locomotive) from rotary engines, turbine
engines, etc. See "Captive Molecules: The Story of the Steam
Engine," Vol. VI, p. 79.

Pitch-blende. A heavy, black, pitchy-looking mineral, found
principally in Saxony, Bohemia, Cornwall, and Colorado. It
was while experimenting with this substance that M. Henri
Becquerel discovered the so-called "Becquerel rays" in 1896.
See "Radio-activity," Vol. V, p. 97.

Plagues. The name given to epidemics of various diseases
which caused great loss of life during the middle ages and until
quite recent times.

Polonium. An element discovered by Mme. Skoldowska Curie
in 1898. Mme. Curie discovered it while examining the mineral
pitch-blende (q.v.) and named it in honor of her native country,
Poland. For chemical symbol and atomic weight, see "Element,"
in the present index.

Ponderable Matter. See "The Ether and Ponderable Mat-
ter," Vol. Ill, p. 283.

Power. In mechanics and physics, the application of energy
through which work is performed; also, the rate at which work
is performed — that is, the amount of work performed per unit
of time. See "How Work is Done," Vol. VI, p. 29. The subject
of power as generated by muscles, wind, water, steam, and
electricity will be found in the chapters dealing especially with
these subjects. See general index.

Predynastic Period. The period in Egyptian history antedat-
ing the historic period.

Printing. For the full account of the development of printing,
see "The Printing and Making of Modern Books," Vol. VIII,
p. 119. In the same volume are the chapters dealing with the
closely allied subjects, "The Manufacture of Paper," p. 159; and
"The Reproduction of Illustrations," p. 184.

Protoplasm. An albuminous elementary organic compound
which enters into the composition of organized tissues of all
kinds. See "The Cell Theory Elaborated," Vol. IV, p. 122.

Psychology. That branch of knowledge which deals with
the mind. See "The New Science of Experimental Psychology,"
Vol. IV, p. 245.

Pulley. A wheel turning on a pin, having a groove on its cir-
cumference in which runs a rope for turning it. It is a form

[44]

KEY AND INDEX

of lever that was well known to the ancients, but Archimedes
brought it to its highest state of perfection. See "Wheels and
Pulleys," Vol. VI, p. 32.

Pump. A machine for raising liquids or extracting gases.
The common form is the piston pump, but there are also centri-
fugal, rotary, electric pumps. For the invention of the air-
pump, see "Mariotte and Von Guericke," Vol. II, p. 210. For the
development of steam pumps, see "The Story of the Steam
Engine," Vol. VI, p. 79. For pumps run by hot-air engines, see
"Gas and Oil Engines," Vol. VI, p. 132. For electric pumps,
see "Electric Mining Pumps," Vol. VI, p. 263.

Quadrant. An old form of sextant (q.v.).

Quinine. An alkaline substance obtained from the bark of
trees of the cinchona genus. The bark of these trees was in-
troduced as a medicine in 1640.

Rabies. A germ-produced disease affecting certain animals,
especially dogs, from which hydrophobia is communicated.
Pasteur discovered a preventive inoculation for this disease.
See "Aims and Objects of the Pasteur Institute," Vol. V, p. 182.

Radio-activity. The property possessed by certain substances
of spontaneously and continuously emitting penetrating rays
capable of passing through bodies opaque to ordinary light.
It was discovered by M. Henri Becquerel in 1806. See "Radio-
activity," Vol. V, p. 97.

Radiolarians. Creatures of microscopic size found in the mud
of the ocean bottom, etc. Prof. Ernst Haeckel discovered, named,
and described more than 4,000 new species, obtained from a
few ounces of mud. See "Ernst Haeckel and the New Zoology,"
Vol. V, p. 153-

Radium. A new element discovered by Professor and Mme.
Curie in 1898, which possesses remarkable powers of radiation.
See "Radio-activity," Vol. V, p. 97.

Refrigerator Machines. Mechanisms for producing very low
temperatures, used for liquefying gases, such as hydrogen, air,
etc. See "The Royal Institution and Low Temperature Re-
searches," Vol. V, p. 38.

Respiration. The process of taking in oxygen and giving off
carbon dioxide by the respiratory organs of animals. In man
and the higher animals this function is performed by the lungs.

[45]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

This fact was not established until late in the eighteenth cen-
tury. See "The Function of Respiration," Vol. IV, p. 92.

Rhodium. A metal belonging to the platinum group, dis-
covered by Wollaston in 1804. See "Element" in the present
index for chemical symbol and atomic weight.

Rosetta Stone. A slab of black rock found in Egypt, the in-
scriptions on which furnished the key for the decipherment of
the Egyptian hieroglyphics. It was discovered in Egypt in 1799,
and is now in the British Museum. See "The New Science of
Oriental Archaeology," Vol. IV, p. 287.

Rotary Engine. A type of engine in which rotary motion is
obtained direct, without change of direction as in the case of
reciprocating engines. The turbine engine is an example of a
rotary steam engine. See "Rotary Engines," Vol. VI, p. 119.

Ruby. A precious stone, rich red in color, a transparent
variety of corundum. It can be produced artificially of con-
siderable size. See "Gems, Natural and Artificial," Vol. IX,
p. 319.

Saliva. A liquid secreted by the salivary glands of the mouth,
containing a digestive ferment. See "Animal Chemistry," Vol.
IV, p. 128.

Sarcode. The name given by Dujardin to the viscid, slimy
fluid, capable of motion, found within the cell wall. See "The
Cell Theory Elaborated," Vol. IV, p. 122.

Scandium. One of three then unknown elements, the existence
of which were predicted by Mendeleeff on formulating his
periodic law. See "Periodicity of Atomic Weights," Vol. IV,
p. 64.

Serum-therapy. A method of treating certain diseases by
means of the modified blood serum of man or the lower ani-
mals. Behring's diphtheria antitoxine serum, discovered in 1892,
is an example. See "Preventive Inoculation," Vol. IV, p. 231,
and "Serum-therapy," Vol. IV, p. 240; also, "Aims and Objects
of the Pasteur Institute," Vol. V, p. 182.

Sextant. A portable instrument for measuring the altitudes
of heavenly bodies above the horizon, or their angular distance
as seen in the sky; hence its use with the chronometer in de-
termining exact latitude and longitude. See "The Development
of the Sextant," Vol. VII, p. 18.

Shooting-stars. See Meteorites.

Signatures, Doctrine of. A mediaeval theory, which in effect

[46]

KEY AND INDEX

was that every organ or part of the body had a corresponding
form in nature, whose function was to heal diseases of the
organ it resembled. See "Paracelsus," Vol. II, p. 156.

Siphon Recorder. An instrument for reading cable messages
invented by Lord Kelvin in 1867, in the form of a tube of ink
so arranged that as the message comes over the wire fine drops
of ink are projected upon a piece of paper in lines whose deflec-
tions can be made to represent the Morse code. See "The Sub-
marine Cable," Vol. VIII, p. 45.

Sliding Rule. An instrument, used in measuring surfaces and
solids, etc., which consists of two graduated and numbered
pieces of wood or other material, one of which slides in the
groove of the other.

Solar and Telluric Problems. Problems pertaining to the
solar system and to the earth. See "Some Unsolved Scientific
Problems," Vol. V, p. 203.

Sothic Cycle. A period of the Egyptian calendar measured
by the heliacal rising of Sothis. See "Astronomical Science"
(Egyptian), Vol. I, p. 33.

Spark Recorder. An instrument used in receiving submarine
cable messages, in which a spark is projected against some
sensitized surface in an undulating line, which can be read by the
operator. See "The Submarine Cable," Vol. VIII, p. 45.

Spectroscope. An instrument employed in spectrum analysis,
perfected by Kirchhoff and Bunsen in 1859. This instrument
"discloses the chemical nature and physical condition of any
substance whose light is submitted to it." See "Revelations of
the Spectroscope," Vol. Ill, p. 62; also, for star-spectra, Vol.
V, p. 77-

Spinning. The process of making thread of uniform size from
the fibers of cotton, flax, wool, silk, etc., for weaving purposes.
See "An Industrial Revolution," Vol. IX, p. 5.

Spinning-frame. See Water-frame.

Spinning-jenny. A machine for spinning invented by James
Hargreaves in 1767. See "Hargreaves and the Spinning-jenny,"
Vol. IX, p. 21.

Spinthariscope. An instrument devised by Sir William
Crookes for examining certain radio-active substances. See
"The Nature of Emanations from Radio-active Bodies," Vol. V,
p. 102.

Spontaneous Generation, Theory of. The obsolete doctrine that
living matter may originate spontaneously out of non-living

[47]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

matter. See Vol. IV, p. 180; also, "Pasteur and the Germ
Theory of Disease," Vol. IV, p. 217; also, "Life Problems," Vol.
V, p. 220.

Static Machine. A machine for generating static, or frictional,
electricity. It consists of a large circle of glass so arranged that
its surface can be revolved rapidly against a suitable friction
producer. Until the beginning of the nineteenth century static
machines were the only kind of apparatus known for generating
electricity. See "Progress in Electricity from Gilbert and Von
Guericke to Franklin," Vol. II, p. 259.

Statics. The science that deals with stationary bodies in
equilibrium or under conditions of stress or strain.

Steam. Water in a gaseous state. Water becomes gaseous at
sea-level at a temperature of 2I2°F., or ioo°C.

Steamboat. See "Steam Engine" of the present index, and in
particular "The Highway of the Waters," Vol. VII, p. 56.

Steam Engine. For the story of the development of the
steam engine, see "Ctesibus and Hero: Magicians of Alexandria,"
Vol. I, p. 242; "Captive Molecules: The Story of the Steam
Engine," Vol. VI, p. 79; "The Master Worker," Vol. VI, p. no.
For the application of steam in various fields, see "The High-
way of the Waters," Vol. VII, p. 56; "The Steam Locomotive,"
Vol. VII, p. 119; "From Cart to Automobile," Vol. VII, p. 152.

Steam Locomotive. See "Locomotive" of the present index.

Steel. Is an alloy of iron and carbon; or a modified form of
iron containing more carbon than wrought-iron and not as much
as cast-iron, as a rule, although some mild steels contain as little
carbon as wrought-iron. See "The Age of Steel," Vol. VI,
P- 27i.

Steelyard. An old-fashioned and primitive form of balance
for weighing objects. The principle upon which the steelyard
works is that of a lever of the first class.

Stethoscope. An instrument for listening to the sounds of
the internal organs, particularly the lungs and heart. It con-
sists essentially of a hollow tube, funnel-haped, which collects
and concentrates the sound waves, just reversing the action of
the megaphone. It was invented by Laennec, a French physician,
in 1815. See Vol. IV, p. 201.

Storage Battery. An electric battery for collecting and storing
electricity. For the recent improvement in storage batteries,
including the invention of Thomas A. Edison, see "Storage
Battery Systems," Vol. VII, p. 188.

[48]

KEY AND INDEX

Storm Center. An area of low barometric pressure — an area
where the air has become lighter than the air of surrounding
regions. See "The New Science of Meteorology," Vol. Ill,
p. 202.

Submarine Cable. The name given to submerged telegraph
wires which are insulated and made waterproof. The first suc-
cessful telegraphic cable seems to have been laid across the
Hugli River, India, in 1838. See "The Submarine Cable," Vol.
VIII, p. 30.

Submarine Signaling. A recent innovation in the field of nav-
igation, by which the position of ships and other objects may
be determined approximately by the use of a telephone receiver
and the ringing of a submerged bell. See "Submarine Signaling,"
Vol. VII, p. 83.

Submarine Vessels. Vessels which run beneath the surface of
the water, now very generally referred to as "submersibles."
See "Submarine Vessels," Vol. VII, p. 93.

Suction. The phenomenon produced in any enclosed space in
which the air is partially or completely exhausted. The word,
as commonly applied, has no proper application, as the apparent
"suction" from within is really a manifestation of the air-pressure
from without. See "Suction and Pressure," Vol. VI, p. 64.

Sulphuric Ether. A light, inflammable fluid obtained from
alcohol, which, when mixed with air and inhaled, produces in-
sensibility. See "Painless Surgery," Vol. IV, p. 208.

Sun-spots. Changes on the surface of the sun, which were
first recognized as such by Galileo, and enabled him to demon-
strate that the sun itself revolves on its axis. For the dis-
coveries of Galileo, see Vol. II, p. 77.

Telautograph. An instrument for the instantaneous transmis-
sion of a facsimile copy of writing or pen drawing. The ap-
paratus was invented by Elisha Gray, who also named it.

Telegraph. At the present time the name is applied to the
instrument for sending messages by means of electric signals.
For the description of the development of modern telegraph
systems, see "The Development of the Telegraph," Vol. VIII,

P- 3-

Telephone. For the story of the development of the tele-
phone, and telephone systems, see "The Development of the
Telephone," Vol. VIII, p. 66.

Telescope. An optical instrument by the use of which dis-

[49]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

tant objects appear near, the invention of the Dutch optician
Lippershey in the seventeenth century. In 1609 Galileo invented
another type of telescope for astronomical observations. See
Vol. II, p. 77. For later improvements in telescopes, see "In-
struments of Precision in the Age of Newton," Vol. II, p. 252.

Telluric Structure. Pertaining to the structure of the earth.
See "Solar and Telluric Problems," Vol. V, p. 205.

Telpherage Systems. The invention of Fleeming Jenkin, which
consists of overhead cables hung on poles along which carriers
of small capacity are hauled by electric motors. See "Traction
in Mining," Vol. VI, p. 256.

Tetanus. The disease commonly known as lockjaw, is
characterized by spasm of the voluntary muscles. It is caused
by the tetanus bacillus, which was discovered by Nicolaier in
1884. Behring discovered an antitoxic serum which averts the
attack of the disease when administered in time. See "Serum-
therapy," Vol. IV, p. 240.

Textiles. Materials made by weaving together of threads to
form a nearly solid surface, such as cloth, rugs, etc. The term
does not apply to substances woven of wood, such as baskets.
See "The Manufacture of Textiles," Vol. IX, p. 38.

Thermometer. A familiar instrument for determining the
temperature. The most common form is that of an exhausted
closed glass tube in which a column of mercury expands and
contracts. The two kinds in more common use are the Centi-
grade, the freezing point of which is o, and the boiling point
100; and the Farenheit, the freezing point of which is 32°, the
boiling point 212°.

Thorium. An element discovered by the Swedish chemist
Berzelius, and named by him after the ancient Scandinavian god
Thor. It is one of the most valuable of the rare elements. The
oxide of thorium is used in the preparation of gas mantles. See
"The Incandescent Gas Mantle," Vol. VI, p. 208.

Toxine. Substances, generally of bacterial origin, which, when
brought into the circulation, produce diseases of a distinct nature
according to the nature of toxine. See "Serum-therapy," Vol.
IV, p. 240.

Transformers. In electricity, are mechanisms for transform-
ing a current of a certain voltage into one of higher or lower
voltage. A "step-up" transformer changes a current of low
voltage to one of higher voltage; a "step-down" transformer acts

[50]

KEY AND INDEX

in just the reverse manner from the "step-up" transformer. See
"Step-up" and "Step-down" Transformers, Vol. VI, p. 198.

Transmutation of Species. The change of species in the
process of evolution. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (see Vol. IV,
p. 150), early in the nineteenth century, called attention to this
fact, and thus laid one of the foundation-stones to Darwin's
theory of evolution. For a full treatment of the subject, see
"Theories of Organic Evolution," Vol. IV, p. 140.

Treadmill. An implement for producing power, in which an
animal or man by walking up a movable inclined plane trans-
mits power. The animal, although continually walking, remains
in the same spot, the platform receding at a rate corresponding
to the walking rate of the animal. See Vol. VI, p. 60.

Trichina Spiralis. A parasite found in pork (and several of
the lower animals), which may be transferred to the human
system through the channel of the alimentary canal, and set up
a severe and often fatal disease known as trichinosis. The
parasite was discovered by James Paget, then a medical student,
in 1833. See Vol. IV, p. 207.

Trichinosis. See "Trichina Spiralis."

Trophic Centers. Waller discovered that every nerve fiber,
sensory or motor, has a nerve cell to or from which it leads,
which dominates its nutrition, so that it can only retain its
vitality while its connection with that cell is intact. Such cells
he named trophic centers. See "Functions of the Nerves," Vol.
IV, p. 249-

Tungsten Lamp. An incandescent electric lamp in which the
filament is made of the metal tungsten (or some alloy) in place
of the usual carbon filament. See "The Tungsten Lamp," Vol.
VI, p. 234-

Turbine Engine. A steam engine in which the action of steam
upon a shaft causes it to revolve, thus producing directly rotary
motion. In the ordinary reciprocating engine the power has to
be transformed into rotary motion by the intervention of a
crank. See "Turbine Engines," Vol. VI, p. 124.

Turbine Water-wheels. A horizontal water-wheel made to
revolve by the escape of water through orifices, under pressure
derived from a waterfall. Probably the most powerful water
turbines are those at Niagara Falls. See "Niagara in Harness,"
Vol. VI, p. 183; and "Running Water," Vol. VI, p. 70.

[51]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Undulatory Theory of Light. According to this theory light
is a kind of undulatory motion produced by the luminous body in
the particles of an elastic, imponderable medium called the
luminiferous ether, which is supposed to fill all space, and also
the interstices of all bodies. See "Thomas Young and the Wave
Theory of Light," Vol. Ill, p. 215.

Uranium. A metallic chemical element discovered by Klap-
roth in 1789, and first isolated by Peligot in 1842. Its atomic
weight is 238.5, specific gravity 18.6, symbol U.

Valence (valency). The combination value or capacity of a
chemical atom, in virtue of which it can unite with one only or
with more than one atom equivalent to the hydrogen atom.
See "Chemical Affinity," Vol. IV, p. 57.

Valves of the Veins. Structures in the lumen of veins which
prevent the flow of blood backward away from the heart. They
were discovered and described by the French anatomist, Charles
Etienne (1503-1564). See Vol. II, p. 166.

Varnish. A solution of certain resins, such as mastic, lac,
copel, asphalt, amber, benzoin, etc., capable of hardening with-
out losing its transparency. Ordinary commercial varnish is a
solution of resin in oil of turpentine. See "Varnishes," Vol.
VIII, p. 316.

Vitagraph. A moving-picture machine similar to the kinet-
oscope, patented by Thos. A. Edison in 1891. See "Chrono-
photography — Moving Pictures," Vol. VIII, p. 248.

Vitalists. Followers of a system of medicine championed by
Paul Joseph Barthez in the eighteenth century. They assumed
that there was a "vital principle," of unknown nature, but differ-
ing from the thinking mind, or the soul, which was the cause of
all the phenomena of life. See "Animists, Vitalists, and Or-
ganicists," Vol. IV, p. 184.

Vitascope. See "Vitagraph" of the present index.

Volt. The unit of electro-motive force. See "Electricity" of
the present index.

Vortex Atom. See "Vortex Theory."

Vortex Theory. A conception that the atoms and molecules
of physical science may be vortex rings or filaments, or com-
binations of these, in the universal ether. See "Physical Prob-
lems," Vol. V, p. 213.

[52]

KEY AND INDEX

Walking Beam. A beam, or bar, used on a certain type of
steam engine to convert the reciprocal motion of the piston into
rotary motion. At the present time the walking beam is little
used except on side-wheel river steamers. See "Final Improve-
ments and Missed Opportunities," Vol. VI, p. 102.

Water. A universally diffused liquid, with the formula HZO
(two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen). The chemical com-
position of water was discovered in 1781 by Henry Cavendish.
James Watt is also credited with priority of this discovery, but
Cavendish's claim is fully established. See Vol. IV, p. 14.

Water Engines. See "The Work of Air and Water," Vol.
VI, p. 70.

Water-frame. The name given Arkwright's spinning-frame.
See Vol. IX, p. 25.

Watermills. Mills driven by water-power appear to have
been introduced in the time of Mithridates, Julius Caesar, and
Cicero. When the Goths besieged Rome in 536 and cut off the
water supply for running the mills the Romans constructed
floating mills on the Tiber. Mills driven by the tide existed in
Venice as early as 1078. See "The Work of Air and Water,"
Vol. VI, p. 70.

Water-motor. Any water-wheel or turbine run by water. In
1838 Lord Armstrong had a water-motor constructed along lines
similar to the modern steam turbine engine. Its efficiency was
ninety-five per cent, and it developed five horse-power at thirty
revolutions per minute. See Vol. VI, p. 70.

Water-wheels. See "Watermills" of the present index.

Weaving. The art of producing textile fabrics, such as cloth,
network, lace, etc., from a combination of threads on a loom.
Hand weaving was known in prehistoric times, but the modern
art of weaving dates from John Kay's invention of the flying
shuttle (Vol. IX, p. 42), in 1738, and Dr. Cartwright's invention
of the power loom about 1784 (Vol. IX, p. 43). See "An Indus-
trial Revolution," Vol. IX, p. 5; and "The Manufacture of Tex-
tiles," Vol. IX, p. 38.

Wedge. A special application of the inclined plane, con-
sisting of a very acute-angled triangular prism of hard material
driven between objects to separate them. The screw is also an
example of the use of the inclined plane, but is used for an en-
tirely different purpose from the wedge, the object of its use
being to hold objects together.

Wheel. A circular disk or frame turning on an axis. The

[53]

TECHNICAL INDEX AND GLOSSARY

wheel is a lever of the first class, of which the axle constitutes
the fulcrum. See "Wheels and Pulleys," Vol. VI, p. 32.

Windlass. A modification of the wheel and axle, consisting
of a cylinder rotating on an axis propelled by a long handle, or
handles, a rope or chain being wound about the cylinder. It
is a lever of the second class, the axle representing the fulcrum.

Windmills. Machines utilizing the pressure of the wind as a
motive power. The usual type of windmill consists of a series
of inclined planes, each of which forms one of the radii of a
circle, or spokes of a wheel, to the axle of which a gearing is
adjusted by which the power generated is utilized. Windmills
seem to be of comparatively recent origin, as there is no authen-
tic record of their use prior to about uoo A.D. See "The Work
of Air and Water," Vol. VI, p. 62.

Wind, Air naturally in motion at the earth's surface. All
winds come under the influence of the earth's rotation in such
a way as to be deflected from their course, and hence take on
a gyratory motion. See Vol. Ill, p. 200.

Wireless Telegraph. In the modern sense, an electric tele-
graph which utilizes electro-magnetic waves ("Hertzian waves")
in the ether in place of wire, or other conductors, for sending
and receiving messages. There are several other methods of
using the electric current besides this, but none that are effective
for long distances. See "Wireless Telegraphy," Vol. VIII, p. 47.

Wireless Telephone. A telephone which utilizes Hertzian
waves in the ether in place of wire conductors of the electric
current. The first practical wireless telephone system was the
invention of Dr. Lee DeForest, an American, which was ex-
hibited publicly in 1907. See "The Wireless Telephone," Vol.
VIII, p. 88.

154]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

(The matter under this alphabet constitutes at once a
Biographical Reference Index and a condensed Bio-
graphical Dictionary of the Important names in every
department of science. The figures following the names
refer to the text by volume and page. The reading mat-
ter is complementary to the matter of the Technical
Index and Glossary, and of the General Index, and to
some extent supplementary of the text itself.)

Abd-el-Letif, or Abd-ul-Latif, ii, 21. Born at
Bagdad, 1162; died at Bagdad, 1231. Arabian
scholar and author of multifarious acquirements.
He labored unceasingly in his early years to
acquire all the knowledge of his age.
Lived at Damascus and spent many years in
Egypt, of which country he has left an excellent
and accurate account. Devoted much time to
study of medicine.

Adams, John Couch, iii, 42, 48. Born at Corn-
wall, England, 1819; died at Cambridge, 1892.
At an early age he displayed a great aptitude
for mathematics and became a mathematical
tutor at Cambridge. In 1841 he set himself to
the task of discovering the cause of the irregu-
larities in the motion of the planet Uranus, and
in October, 1844, wrote an account of the exist-
ence of a new planet and gave its location. This,
unfortunately, he did not publish. Leverrier, in
France, took up the same subject in 1845, anc^
announced the existence of Neptune in Novem-
ber of that year. Hence he obtained the whole
honor of the discovery, which Adams should
have shared. In 1858 Adams was appointed pro-
fessor of mathematics at St. Andrews, Cam-

[551

KEY AND INDEX

bridge, and shortly afterward became Lowndean
professor of astronomy at the same university.

Aetius, ii, 31. ("The Atheist.") Born at An-
tioch; died at Constantinople, 367. He was born a
slave. Studied medicine and theology, became a
deacon, and developed the doctrine known as
Aethian heresy, which carried the ideas of Arius
to their logical issue. Constantine banished him
from Antioch for his Arian tendencies. The
Emperor Julian made him a bishop, but he died
in disgrace owing to his profligate habits.

Agassiz, Jean Louis Randolphe, iii, 147. Born
in Switzerland, 1807; died at Cambridge, Mass.,
1873. One of the most distinguished of modern
naturalists. While at the universities of Heidel-
berg and Munich comparative anatomy was
the special subject of his study, but he became
more interested in ichthyology, when the Spix
collection of fish was left in his care (1826).
Studied and wrote much on fish and their fossil
remains. 1847 published "The System of Gla-
ciers," which advanced some new and original
views in geology. • Came to United States in
1846, and afterward became professor at Har-
vard. In "Outlines of Comparative Physiology"
he holds to the belief in the special creation of
species, and opposed the Darwinian theory.

Airy, Sir, G. B., vii, n. Born at Alnwick,
Northumberland, July 27, 1801 ; died at Green-
wich, Jan. 2, 1892. Director of the Greenwich
Observatory and Astronomer Royal, 1836-1881.
First to suggest the use of permanent magnets
on ships for compensating the influence of iron
structures upon the compass.

Albategnius, Mohammed ben Jabir, ii, 15.

[56]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

Born at Mesopotamia cir. 850; died, 929. The
greatest of Arabian astronomers, who discov-
ered the motion of the sun. Made observations
steadily for over 60 years at the Euphrates and
at Antioch in Syria. Wrote "The Science of
the Stars." Improved Ptolemy's table and came
very close to ascertaining the obliquity of the
ecliptic. His observations were the foundations
of the Alphonsine table of the Moon's motion.

Albertus Magnus (Albert Count of Bollstadt),
ii, 127. Born at Swabia, 1193 or 1205 (accounts
vary) ; died at Cologne, 1280. Became Domini-
can friar after studying at Padua, and taught in
many places. Went to Paris 1230, and devoted
himself to spreading the doctrine of Aristotle in
spite of the prohibition of the Church. In 1260
was made Bishop of Ratisbon. 1262 retired to
a convent at Cologne and devoted rest of life
to literary pursuits.

Albucasis (or Albucasim), ii, 25. Born near
Cordova, Spain; died, 1106. Famous Arabic
physician and author of "Al-Tasrif," a medical
encyclopaedia, containing the best treatise on
surgery that has come to us from antiquity.

Alcmaeon, i, 126. Born at Crotona, Italy, sec-
ond half of Sixth Century B.C. Greek physician
and naturalist. Was the first man to practice
dissection, by which he made many valuable
discoveries in anatomy. Author of "On Na-
ture."

Alfonso X, ii, 17. Born in 1221 ; died in 1284.
King of Leon and Castile. Most learned prince
of his time. The chief debt of science to him
is the Alfonsine Tables, which he had compiled
by fifty of the most celebrated astronomers of

[57]

KEY AND INDEX

the age. Their purpose was to correct and
replace the Ptolemaic planetary tables, which
were full of errors.

Alhazen (full name, Abu AH Al-Hasan Ibn
Alhasan), ii, 18. Born at Bassora cir. 965; died
at Cairo cir. 1039. Arabian physicist and natu-
ralist. Wrote important work on Optics. Fa-
mous for the geometrical problem bearing his
name.

Amici, Giovanni Battista, iv, 112. Born at
Modena, 1786; died at Florence, 1864. Italian
astronomer, director of the Florence Observa-
tory. He designed and constructed many valu-
able astronomical and physical instruments.
Was also interested in botany.

Ampere, Andre, iii, 239, iv, 43. Born at Lyons,
1775; died at Marseilles, 1836. French mathe-
matician, physicist and naturalist. Taught in
several places, and finally with great distinction
at the fecole Polytechnique, Paris. Science is
most indebted to him for his researches in elec-
tricity and magnetism. Invented the astatic
needle. Showed identity between magnetism
and electricity. Showed attraction and repul-
sion in parallel conductors of electricity, with
currents flowing in same or opposite direction.
The unit of strength in electric current is named
after him.

Anaxagoras, i, 240. Born in Ionia cir. 500
B.C.; died at Lampsacus, 428. Taught at
Athens. The last Greek philosopher of the
Ionian school. His great service to the world
was that he turned philosophy from thought
about things to thought in itself. He defined a
new principle, Mind as acting on matter, which

[58]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

dualistic theory was further developed by Plato
and Aristotle. He was banished from Athens
for the impiety of his explanation of natural
phenomena. He may have been guilty of disre-
spect for the gods, but he came very near to
being right in his explanation of the causes of
the rainbow, the Moon's light, the winds, and
the origin of sound. He died a wanderer in
exile.

Anaximander, i, 109. Born at Miletus, 610
B.C.; died in 546 B.C. Successor of Thales as
head of the Ionian School; was a great mathe-
matician and astronomer, as well as philosopher.
Taught the obliquity of the ecliptic, and intro-
duced the sun-dial into Greece. It is believed
that he invented geographical maps. Conceived
the universe as a series of concentric cylinders.
As a philosopher he believed the phenomenal
world to proceed from some indefinite or inde-
terminate principle, similar, perhaps, to the
chaos of other philosophers. There was no such
thing as creation out of nothing, but the atoms
of primary matter change their relative posi-
tions through some innate power and become
the contents of the phenomenal world.

Anaximenes, i, 109. Born at Miletus, flour-
ished Sixth Century, B.C. He taught that air
was the primary form of matter, and that all
things were formed from it by compression.

Arago, Dominique Francois, iii, 67. Born at
Estagel, France, 1786; died at Paris, 1853.
French physicist and astronomer. Became pro-
fessor of analytical geometry and geodesy at the
ficole Polytechnique, Paris, but afterward de-
voted more attention to astronomy, electricity,

[59]

KEY AND INDEX

galvanism and the polarization of light. He
proved the value of the undulatory theory of
light. He continued Oersted's discoveries in
electromagnetism, by showing that an unmag-
netized bar of steel or iron could be magnetized
by a voltaic current. He also showed the fact
of magnetization by rotation.

Archimedes, i, 196. Born cir. 287 B.C. ; killed
at capture of Syracuse, 212 B.C. Syracusan
mathematician, the most famous of all antiquity.
Developed pure geometry, and applied mathe-
matical theories to mechanics. Invented hy-
draulic screw, and is given credit for explaining
principle of lever. Constructed catapults and
other engines which delayed the fall of Syracuse
(212 B.C.).

Aristarchus of Samos, i, 212. Lived first half
Third Century, B.C. Alexandrian astronomer.
Made many observations of which we know only
a few. He calculated the relative distances of
sun and moon from earth. His theory of calcu-
lation was correct, but inaccurate in practice.
It is said that with the Pythagoreans he be-
lieved the earth to revolve around the sun.

Aristotle, i, 82. Born at Stagira, 384 B.C.;
died at Chalcis, 322 B.C. Greek philosopher
and scientist. After living in various places
and teaching, he settled at Athens and opened
the so-called peripatetic school. As a scientist
he treated of astronomy, zoology, mechanics
and physics at considerable length. His two
chief mental faculties were great aptitude for
observation, and a logical method, which lay in
the assiduous collection of facts, and the draw-
ing of inductions from them. In this he com-

[60]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

pletely discarded the pre-existing "ideas" or
"forms" of Plato. His "System of Logic" is the
basis of that used at the present day. He was
for three years the tutor of Alexander the Great.

Arkwright, Sir Richard, ix, 17. Born at
Preston, England, Dec. 23, 1732; died at Crom-
ford, Derbyshire, England, Aug. 3, 1792. In-
vented the cotton-spinning frame, or "water-
frame," a device that revolutionized spinning.
He began life as a barber, and his early inven-
tions were made in leisure hours when not work-
ing at his trade. He amassed an enormous for-
tune as a result of his invention, and in 1786 was
knighted by George III.

Arnold of Villanova, ii, 34. Born cir. 1240;
died in 1313. Nationality unknown. A physi-
cian, alchemist, and astrologer, who taught at
Paris, Barcelona, and Montpellier. He has been
incorrectly credited with the discovery of hydro-
chloric, nitric, and sulphuric acids. These were
certainly known before his time.

Arrhenius, Svante. Born at Upsala, 1859.
Swedish physical chemist, professor in the Uni-
versity of Stockholm. His theory of electrolytic
dissociation, which he has established, is one of
the most important of recent contributions to
science. It is that if a current is passed through
a substance whose aqueous solution is capable of
conducting electricity, it is broken up in solu-
tion into parts of the composing elements
charged, some with positive and others with
negative electricity. The existence of positive
and negative "ions" has explained a number of
chemical phenomena hitherto incomprehensible.

Arzachel, ii, 16. Born in Spain, cir. 1050.
[61]

KEY AND INDEX

Arabian astronomer. Discovered the obliquity
of the ecliptic and compiled the "Toledo" astro-
nomical tables.

Avenbrugger, Leopold, iv, 200. Born at Gratz,
1722; died at Vienna, 1809. Viennese physician
who introduced the method of percussion diag-
nosis, by applying ear to the chest and noting
the result of hand taps on the patient. Also an
insanity expert.

Avenzoar (Abu Merwan Abelmalec ibu Zohr),
ii, 26. Born at Seville, 1072; died at Seville,
1162. A Spanish-Arabian physician who labored
hard to have the experimental method applied
to study of medicine.

Averrhoes, ii, 10. Born at Cordova, cir. 1126;
died at Morocco, 1198. Spanish-Arabian philos-
opher and jurist. Was physician to Caliph of
Morocco. He was an ardent advocate of the
Aristotlean method, as applied to medical and
other sciences.

Avicenna, Arabian "Prince of Physicians," ii,
24. Born near Bokhara, 980; died at Ispahan
cir. 1037. Arabic physician and philosopher.
After an adventurous existence, he finally set-
tled as court physician to Ala Adda-ula at Ispa-
han. His great work "Kanun fi'l Tibb," is a sys-
tem of medicine still highly regarded in the
Orient. Was a disciple of Aristotle.

Avogadro, Amadeo, iv, 43. Born at Turin,
1776; died at Turin, 1856. Italian physicist.
Professor at Turin. Formulated the famous rule
known by his name. It is one of the funda-
mental principles of chemistry — equal volumes
of gas contain equal number of molecules under
same conditions of pressure and temperature.

[62]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

Bacon, Francis, ii, 192. Born at London,
1561; died at Highgate, 1626. English philoso-
pher and statesman. Educated at Cambridge,
was attached to Embassy in France, 1576. En-
tered Parliament, 1584. Knighted, 1603; held
many political offices up to Lord Chancellor,
1618, and tried for bribery, removed and fined,
1621. He was a great reformer of methods of
scientific investigation, and one of the chief
founders of modern inductive science. Chief
works, "Novum Organum" and "Advancement
of Learning."

Bacon, Roger, ii, 44. Born at Ilchester, cir.
1214; died at Oxford (probably) 1294. English
monk and philosopher. Studied at Oxford,
Paris, returned to England and entered Fran-
ciscan order at Oxford, where he carried on re-
searches in alchemy and optics. Was removed
to Paris, 1257, after having been accused of un-
orthodoxy and dealing with the black art. All
writing materials and instruments were taken
from him. Despite the Franciscan prohibition,
he prepared his "Opus Majus" at the request of
Pope Clement IV. This was an encyclopaedia of
all the science and knowledge of the time. Ten
years after Clement's death he was free
to do as he liked, but was imprisoned again by
Pope Nicholas III, and his books forbidden to
be read. He had found out much in the way of
chemistry and by some is credited with knowing
of the existence of gunpowder. He studied
much in optics and corrected many errors in the
calendar.

Baglivi, Giorgio, iv, 182. Born at Ragusa, Sic-
ily, 1669; died at Rome, 1707. Italian physician

[63]

KEY AND INDEX

of Armenian extraction. Went to Rome and
was appointed Professor of Anatomy at the Col-
lege di Sapienza. He was the first to propound
the medical doctrine of "solidism," according to
which the primary seat of disease is in the solid
parts of the organism, and not in the fluid, as
was believed up to that time.

Bastian, Henry Charlton, iv, 180. Born at
Cornwall, 1837. English physician and biolo-
gist. Professor in University College, Lon-
don. Noted nerve specialist. Strong defender
of the doctrine of spontaneous generation.

Becquerel, Alexandra Edmond, viii, 235. Born
at Paris, 1820; died at Paris, 1891. French phys-
icist, son of Antoine Cesar. Member of Academy
of Science, 1863. In 1878 succeeded his father as
Professor of Physics at the Conservatoire des
Arts et Metiers. Researches in electricity, op-
tics and photography. Well known for his work
on the Solar spectrum.

Becquerel, Antoine Henri, v, 98. Born at
Paris, 1852; died at Paris, 1908. French physi-
cist, Professor of Physics in the ficole Polytech-
nique, Paris. His researches have been mainly
concerned with optics, chiefly the invisible radia-
tion from uranium, known as the Becquerel rays.

Behring, Emil Adolf, iv, 242. Born at Hans-
dorf, Prussia, 1854. German physician who in
1895 became director of the Hygienic Institute
at Marburg. Most noted for his discovery of
diphtheria serum. He made a special study of
the question of immunity from disease.

Barthez, Paul Joseph, iv, 185. Born at Mont-
pellier, 1734; died at Paris, 1806. French physi-
cian. Became Professor of Medicine Montpel-

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

Her University, 1761. He formulated a new the-
ory of life — that of a vital principle in the living
organism, which is different from both the think-
ing mind and the physical forces of the body.
The life of each separate organ is a particular
manifestation of the vital principle. He made
no experiments to substantiate his views.

Bell, Alexander Graham, viii, 73. Born at
Edinburgh, 1847. American inventor and scien-
tist. Educated in Great Britain, came to Can-
ada, 1870. He became greatly interested in his
father's system of instruction for the deaf and
dumb, and after his appointment as Professor of
Vocal Physiology at Boston University, 1872,
began the experiments which led to the inven-
tion of the telephone. Has also invented the
photophone, which transmits sounds by waves
of light; also the graphophone.

Bell, Alexander Melville, viii, 78. Born at
Edinburgh, 1819. Scottish-American educator.
After teaching at Edinburgh and London Uni-
versities came to Queen's College, Kingston,
Canada, and later, 1881, removed to Washing-
ton, D. C. Inventor of the visible-speech system
for teaching deaf-mutes to speak.

Bell, Sir Charles, iv, 249. Born at Edinburgh,
1-774; died in 1842. Scottish surgeon, anatomist
and physiologist. In early life practiced and
lectured Edinburgh and London. Made a spe-
cial study of gunshot wounds during the Napo-
leonic wars. 1826 became head of medical de-
partment, London University. His principal
work and practice was in connection with nerv-
ous diseases, upon which he was a great au-
thority.

[65]

KEY AND INDEX

Bernard, Claude, iv, 137. Born at St. Julien,
1813; died at Paris, 1878. French physiologist.
Educated in Paris, he succeeded Magendie as
Professor of Experimental Physiology at the
College de France, 1855, having been chosen for
the Academy of Science the previous year.
Founded the Societe de Biologic, and was its
president from 1867. His most distinguished
work was in connection with the secretions of
the alimentary canal, and the action of the nerv-
ous system on them. He was the first to show
that the pancreatic juice was the true agent of
the digestion of fatty substances. When he
died his funeral was conducted at the public
expense, an honor never before given to a man
of science.

Berosus, i, 58. Lived and wrote first half of
Third Century, B.C. Greek historian, a priest
of Belus at Babylon. Wrote three books on
Babylonian history, which are of interest for
their agreement with the early Hebrew records.

Berthelot, Pierre Eugene Marcellin. Born at
Paris, 1827; died at Paris, 1907. French chem-
ist, educated in Paris, and devoted his life to
research in organic chemistry. His first achieve-
ments attained in 1854, when he gave his account
of the artificial reproduction of natural fats, a
matter which has since been of great importance
to industry. In 1865 a chair was created for him
at the College de France. In later years he ma-
terially increased our knowledge of every class
of carbon compound, and made important ex-
periments with explosives and aniline dye-stuffs.
In 1889 was perpetual secretary of the Academy
of Science. Has also taken an interest in politics.

[66]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

1881 created lifelong member of Senate. 1886-
1887, Minister Public Affairs. 1895-1896, Min-
ister Foreign Affairs.

Berthollet, Count Claude Louis, iv, 41. Born
at Savoy, 1748; died at Paris, 1822. French
theoretical chemist. After graduation from Tu-
rin University went to Paris as physician to
Duke of Orleans. Applied himself to chemistry,
working out the theories of Lavoisier and Priest-
ly. Was the first to discover the composition of
ammonia. In 1794 was made professor at the
ficole Normale. His visit to Egypt with Na-
poleon's expedition led to the foundation of the
Institute of Cairo. With Lavoisier, he devised
the system of chemical nomenclature still in the
main employed.

Berzelius, Johan Jakob, iv, 41. Born at Wes-
terlosa, Sweden, 1779; died at Stockholm, 1848.
Swedish chemist. After graduation at Upsala,
devoted himself to chemistry. 1807 became Pro-
fessor of Medicine and Pharmacy at Stockholm.
Accomplished a prodigious amount of work in
chemistry. His discoveries and views gave a
firm foundation to inorganic chemistry. He
established the laws of combination. Famous
for his analyses and discoveries (including sev-
eral elements) with the blow-pipe. Interest in
his theory, that chemical combination was the
result of electrical attraction, although aban-
doned for many years, has recently been revived
owing to the researches of his famous fellow-
countryman, Arrhenius, although considerable
modification of it is necessary.

Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, iii, 42. Born at
Minden, 1784; died at Konigsberg, 1846. Ger-

KEY AND INDEX

man astronomer; has been called with some rea-
son the father of modern observational astron-
omy. Became astronomer in opposition to his
parents' wishes, and in 1810 was Professor of
Astronomy and Observatory Director at Konigs-
berg. He determined the parallax of 61 Cyngi,
and made the first measurement of distance of
a star from the solar system. He was one of
the first to consider the personal equation of
astronomers.

Bessemer, Sir Henry, vi, 291. Born at Charl-
ton, England, 1813; died in 1898. English in-
ventor. He turned his attention at an early
age to mechanical inventions. Devised a method
of impressing stamp of internal revenue office
in order to prevent forgeries. Made a gold paint
which was very successful commercially. Dur-
ing Crimean War turned his attention to ma-
king stronger cannon. He first produced an
improved form of cast-iron, and finally steel by
bringing air into contact with molten iron. The
Bessemer process had a marked effect in cheap-
ening cost of steel, and making it available for
all 'kinds of engineering work. Invented also a
method of compounding graphite into a solid
block for pencil making, a method of type-cast-
ing, and several other processes.

Bichat, Marie Francois, iv, 107. Born at Thoi-
rette, 1771 ; died at Paris, 1802. French anato-
mist and physiologist. Ended his brilliant career
at an early age through overwork. He lectured
on anatomy and was physician in the Hotel
Dieu, Paris. He was the founder of the science
of pathological anatomy, and was the first to
[68]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

show that the different organisms have mem-
branes and tissues in common.

Biot, Jean Baptiste, iii, 168. Born at Paris,
1774; died at Paris, 1862. French physician and
astronomer. Forsook the army for science.
1880 became Professor of Physics in the Col-
lege de France. Assisted in measuring the arc
of the meridian as the basis for the metric sys-
tem. Associated with Arago in many of his
experiments, and with Gay-Lussac made the
first balloon ascension for scientific purposes.
Made valuable contributions with regard to po-
larization of light.

Birch, Samuel, i, 27. Born at London, 1813;
died at London, 1885. English archaeologist.
Keeper of Oriental antiquities in the British
Museum. Made a special study of the Egyptian
hieroglyphics.

Black, Joseph, iv, 12. Born at Bordeaux,
France, 1728; died at Edinburgh, 1799. Scot-
tish chemist. In 1754 took his degree in medi-
cine at Edinburgh. Was professor of anatomy
and Lecturer on Chemistry at Glasgow. 1766
was made Professor of Chemistry at Edinburgh.
He first clearly established the existence of
carbonic acid gas, and evolved the theory of lat-
ent heat, which opened the way for Watt's im-
provements in the steam-engine.

Bond, William Cranch, iii, 44. Born at Port-
land, Me., 1789; died at Cambridge, Mass., 1859.
A self-educated American astronomer who at-
tracted much attention by his discoveries at his
private observatory, Dorchester, Mass. Super-
vised the construction of Harvard Observatory
and became its director. Invented a method of

[69]

KEY AND INDEX

measuring time to the very small fraction of a
second. Noted for his work in stellar photog-
raphy.

Boerhaave, Hermann, iv, 182. Born near Ley-
den, 1668; died at Leyden, 1738. Dutch physi-
cian. Educated for the ministry. He began in
1690 to study medicine, in which he was largely
self-educated. Rose in the profession until he
became Professor of Medicine at Leyden (1709).
He devised a new system of medicine, which he
explained in two great works. Also an investi-
gator in botany and chemistry. His fame as a
physician was world-wide.

Borelli, Giovanni Alphonse, ii, 188. Born near
Naples, 1608; died at Rome, 1679. Italian physi-
cian and mathematician. Founder of the iatro-
physical school. Educated in Florence, pro-
fessor in Pisa and Messina. Driven from latter
place for participation in political revolt, he
spent remaining years in Rome. Seems to have
been first to discover parabolic paths of comets.
Wrote book on animal motion, attempting to
apply principles of mechanisms to movements
of animals.

Boscovich, Roger Joseph, iii, 293. Born at
Ragusa, Dalmatia, 1711; died at Milan, 1787.
Italian astronomer and mathematician. Joined
Jesuit order. Taught in Rome and afterward in
Paris. In 1758 advanced a molecular theory of
matter. Wrote on many subjects in physical
science, and was first to introduce Newton's
theories into Italy. Died insane.

Bose, George Matthias, ii, 274. Born at Leip-
sic, 1710; died at Magdeburg, 1761. German
physicist and physician. Taught in Leipsic, and

[70]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

after 1738 Professor of Physics in the Univer-
sity of Wittenberg. At the bombardment of
that city, 1760, he was taken as hostage by the
Prussians to Magdeburg, where he died the fol-
lowing year. Made researches and wrote on
astronomy, physics, and electricity.

Boyle, Robert, ii, 205. Born at Waterford,
Ireland, 1627; died at London, 1691. Irish physi-
cist and chemist. Studied at Eton and on the
Continent. Devoted himself to science. One of
the originators of the Royal Society. In 1654
settled at Oxford and experimented in pneu-
matics, improving the air-pump. Was very
active in religion. Formulated independently
of Mariotte the law of gases known by his name.
Succeeded Bacon in the reputation of being the
greatest English scientist of his time.

Bradley, James, iii, 13. Born at Sherborne,
England, 1693; died at Chalford, 1762. English
astronomer. Educated at Oxford. 1721 ap-
pointed to Savilian Chair of Astronomy, Oxford.
1729 announced discovery of aberration of light.
1742 appointed Astronomer Royal and made
many important discoveries at Greenwich,
among them nutation of the earth's axis. By
procuring new instruments, he made the Royal
Observatory the first of the great modern ob-
servatories. Newton called him "the best as-
tronomer in Europe."

Brahe, Tycho, i, 217. Born at Knudstrup,
Sweden, 1546; died at Prague, 1601. Danish
astronomer, educated at Copenhagen. Destined
for law, but persisted in studying astronomy, in
which he made many discoveries. 1572 discov-
ered a new and brilliant star in Cassiopeia.

[71]

KEY AND INDEX

Frederick II of Denmark took him under his
protection, and built the famous Uranienborg
Observatory for him, where he worked assidu-
ously for over twenty years. After Frederick's
death he went to Prague on invitation of Em-
peror Rudolph II, but died soon after. He re-
jected the Copernican system.

Braid, Dr. James, iv, 269. Born at Fife, Scot-
land, cir. 1796; died at Manchester, England,
1860. English physician. Educated at Edin-
burgh, settled in Manchester. Noted for his re-
searches on the subject of animal magnetism.
Invented the term "neurohypnotism," which
was shortened into hypnotism.

Brennan, Louis, vii, 195. Born at Castlebar,
Ireland, Jan. 28, 1852. Engineer and inventor.
First came into prominence as the inventor of
a torpedo for the British Government. Later
invented the practical mono-rail gyro car, pub-
lic exhibitions of a full-sized model of which
were given in 1909.

Brewster, Sir David, iv, no. Born at Jed-
burgh, Scotland, 1781 ; died at Montrose, 1868.
Scottish physicist. Educated for Church of
Scotland at Edinburgh, but turned his attention
to science — especially optics. Invented the ka-
leidoscope, 1816. Edited "Edinburgh Encyclo-
paedia," and assisted in establishing the "Edin-
burgh Philosophical Journal"; one of the chief
originators of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science. Discoverer of the po-
larization of light. 1819 chosen principal of
Edinburgh University.

Broca, Dr. Paul, iv, 272. Born at Sainte Foy,
1824; died at Paris, 1880. French physician and

[72]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

anthropologist. Studied in Paris, and taught
there in several places. In 1847 began a thorough
study of anthropology. 1859 founded the An-
thropological Society of Paris. 1876 founded
the Ecole d'Anthropologie, now the Anthropo-
logical Institute. Made many valuable contri-
butions to anthropology. In 1861 he discov-
ered the location of the seat of articulate speech
in the brain.

Brown, Robert, iv, 115. Born at Montrose,
Scotland, 1773; died at London, 1858. Scotch
botanist. Educated Aberdeen and Edinburgh.
Entered British Army as assistant-surgeon. Re-
signed commission, 1800, to study botany. Went
to Australia and brought back over 4,000 speci-
mens of plants, most of them new to science.
Adopted the Jussien natural system and helped
in its general substitution for that of Linnaeus.
In 1810 took charge of the Bank's collection,
which was afterward transferred to British Mu-
seum, where he became keeper of the botanical
department.

Brush, Charles Francis, vi, 226. Born at Eu-
clid, Ohio, March 17, 1849. His inventions are
largely responsible for modern arc-lighting sys-
tems. In 1881 the French Government deco-
rated him for his work in electricity, and in 1900
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
awarded him the Rumford medal.

Brugsch, Hermann Karl, i, 28, iv, 187. Born
at Berlin, 1827; died at Berlin, 1894. German
Egyptologist. Visited Egypt several times for
archaeological purposes. Professor at Gottingen
University. Director of the Egyptological
School at Cairo. 1881, succeeded Mariette as

[73]

KEY AND INDEX

keeper of the Bulak collection. Director of the
Egyptian Museum, Berlin. Wrote valuable His-
tory of Egypt.

Brunei, Isambard K., vii, 77. Born at Ports-
mouth, 1806; died at London, 1859. English en-
gineer, son of Sir M. I. Designer of the "Great
Western," first steamer built to cross Atlantic,
and "Great Britain" (first iron ocean steam-
ship). Also "Great Eastern." 1833, appointed
chief engineer Great Western Railway, and de-
signed a large part of the road. Engineer of
many famous constructions.

Budge, Dr. Ernest A. Wallis, i, 28. Contempo-
rary English archaeologist. Keeper of the Egyp-
tian and Assyrian antiquities, British Museum.
Educated at Cambridge, gave special attention to
Semitic languages. Has conducted excavations
in Egypt and Mesopotamia, and has written a
great deal on the history and inscriptions of
those countries.

Buffon, George Louis Leclerc, Comte de, iv,
149. Born at Montbard, Burgundy, 1707; died
at Paris, 1788. Studied law at Dijon, but gave
it up for science. Interested at first in astron-
omy and mathematics, but finally his talents
turned definitely toward zoology, and he set to
work at a collection and systematization of all
the facts of physical nature. He was not quite
equal to the task, but his "Natural History"
marks an epoch in the study of natural science,
although it has no scientific value, as most of his
views and theories have been shown to be false.

Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, iv, 69. Born at Got-
tingen, 1811; died at Heidelberg, 1899. German
chemist. Educated Gottingen, where he devoted

[74]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

himself especially to zoology and chemistry.
Studied also at Paris, Berlin, and Vienna.
Taught various places, and finally appointed,
1852, Professor of Chemistry, at Heidelberg. In-
vented the magnesium light, 1860. He and
Kirchoff discovered spectrum analysis, which
have been the means of great advances in as-
tronomy and chemistry.

Burnham, S. W., iii, 59. Born at Thetford,
Vermont, 1838. American astronomer. A stenog-
rapher by profession, he became interested in
astronomy and made a special study of double
stars, of which he has recorded over twelve
hundred, his powers of observation being very
extraordinary. Professor of Practical Astron-
omy, University of Chicago.

Calmette, Leon Charles, v, 184. Born at Nice,
1863. French bacteriologist. Has made many
investigations especially relating to serum poi-
soning at the Pasteur Institute, Paris. Also in-
vestigations in tuberculosis. Has established
Pasteur and anti-tuberculosis institutions in va-
rious parts of the world.

Calvin, John, ii, 168. Born at Noyon, Picardy,
1509; died at Geneva, 1564. French religious re-
former. Studied at Paris, Orleans, and Bourges.
Joined the Reformation about 1528. After va-
rious vicissitudes, settled at Geneva, when he
finally assisted in establishing a theocratic gov-
ernment and preached religious doctrine, which,
while severe, had great influence in the history
of the Protestant religion.

Canton, John, ii, 295. Born at Stroud, Eng-
land, 1/18; died at London, 1772. English physi-
cist. He made the discovery almost simut-

[75]

KEY AND INDEX

taneously with Franklin that some clouds were
charged with positive and others with negative
electricity. He first showed the compressibility
of water, and measured the quantity of electric-
ity stored in Leyden jars.

Carnot, Sadi, iii, 255. Born at Paris, 1796;
died at Paris, 1832. French physicist. Served
until 1828 in the Corps of Engineers, where he
found time for research, and worked over the
general theory of the heat engine. His works
mark the beginnings of the science of thermo-
dynamics.

Carpenter, William B., iv, 122. Born at Exe-
ter, England, 1813; died at London, 1885. Eng-
lish physiologist. Graduate, Edinburgh, 1839,
wrote many books on physiology. Registrar,
London University, 1856-1879. Made valuable
contributions to the subject of ocean circulation.

Cartwright, Dr. Edmund, ix, 44. Born at
Marnham, Nottingham, England, April 24, 1743;
died at Hastings, England, Oct. 30, 1823. An
English clergyman who devoted much time to
mechanical inventions. His greatest invention,
the power loom, revolutionized weaving.

Cassini, Dominic, iii, 13. Born near Nice,
1625; died at Paris, 1712. Italian-French as-
tronomer. Professor of Astronomy at Bologna,
and afterward director Paris Observatory, which
post was held by the family for four generations.
His work was principally connected with obser-
vations on the planetary system, orbits, etc. He
assisted in showing the earth to be a spheroid.

Caus, or Caulx, Salomon de, vi, 83. Born at
Dieppe, 1576; died at Paris, June 6, 1626. French
engineer. In 1615 he published a work entitled

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

"Causes of Kinetic Energy," in which He de-
scribed an apparatus for forcing up water by a
steam fountain. For this Arago claimed for
de Caus the invention of the steam-engine.

Cavendish, Henry, iv, 15. Born at Nice, 1731 ;
died at London, 1810. English physicist and
chemist. Educated at Cambridge, devoted his
entire life to science, and having inherited con-
siderable means, remained unmarried and lived
the life of a recluse. Discovered composition of
water and devised a method for determining
density of earth. Made many investigations of
properties of carbonic acid gas.

Celsius, Anders, vi, 14. Born at Upsala,
1701 ; died at Upsala, 1744. Swedish astronomer.
Professor at Upsala. Took part in the French
expedition, 1737, to measure a degree of the
meridian in the polar regions. Presented the
first idea of the centigrade thermometer.

Celsus, Aulus Cornelius, ii, 40. Probably lived
in the reign of Tiberius. Latin physician. In-
troduced the Hippocratic systems among the
Romans. Wrote on other subjects besides med-
icine. His writings on surgery are especially
valuable, and contain much about the work and
opinions of the Alexandrian School.

Chabas, Francois Joseph, i, 28. Born at Brian-
c,on, 1817; died at Versailles, 1882. French
Egyptologist, although engaged throughout life
in business as a wine merchant. Declined a
chair in the College de France. Became a lead-
ing authority on the ancient Egyptian language
and translated many of the hieroglyphic and
hieratic writings.

Chambers, Robert, iv, 162. Born at Peebles,

[771

KEY AND INDEX

Scotland, 1802; died at St. Andrews, 1871.
Scotch publisher and writer. Set up as a book-
seller in Edinburgh, 1818, and in 1832 started
the famous publishing house of W. & R. Cham-
bers, with his brother. Wrote "Vestiges of the
Natural History of Creation" (1844), which pre-
pared the way for the acceptance of Darwin's
theories.

Champollion, Jean Frangois, i, 27, iv, 290.
Born at Figeac, France, 1790; died at Paris,
1832. French Egyptologist. 1807, went to Paris
to pursue Oriental studies. 1814, appointed
Professor of History at Lyceum of Grenoble.
Succeeded in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyph-
ics, which achievement involved him in a con-
troversy with Thomas Young on the question
of priority of discovery, although it is now gen-
erally conceded that Champollion worked inde-
pendently of Young.

Charcot, Jean Martin, iv, 269. Born at Paris,
1825; died at Paris, 1893. French physician and
neurologist. Was Professor Pathological Anat-
omy, and afterward of Nervous Diseases in the
Faculty of Medicine. He made extensive inves-
tigations in hypnotism and hypnotic suggestion
for the treatment of hysteria and kindred dis-
ease.

Christy, Henry, iii, 104. Born at Kingston,
England, 1810; died at La Palisse, France, 1865,
English ethnologist. Made special study of the
fossils discovered in the valley of the Vezere,
France, and made valuable contributions to our
knowledge of primitive man.

Clark, Alvan, iii, 66. Born at Ashfield, Mass.,
1808; died at Cambridge, 1887. American opti-

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

cian. Son of a farmer, he taught himself engra-
ving. Began to manufacture telescopes in 1844.
Was the first to make achromatic lenses in the
United States. The lenses of most of the great
telescopes of recent times were ground at the
establishment he founded for such purposes at
Cambridge, Mass.

Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emanuel, vi, 115.
Born at Koslin, Prussia, 1822; died at Bonn,
1888. German physicist who made a special
study of thermo-dynamics.

Colding, Ludwig August, iii, 257. Born at
Arnakke, Denmark, 1815. Danish engineer and
meteorologist. Studied at Copenhagen and be-
came professor there. Made special investiga-
tions of tropical cyclones.

Columbus, Christopher, ii, 50. Born near
Genoa, Italy, cir. 1446; died at Valladolid, Spain,
1506. Italian explorer. Started his career in
the wool-trade. Probably first went to sea about
1473, and lived in Lisbon until 1485, engaged in
map-making, and seafaring, one voyage, 1477,
taking him to Iceland. Convinced of the feasi-
bility of reaching the spice-countries of Asia by
a westward route, he sought financial assistance
from Venice and Portugal without avail. Finally
Queen Isabella became interested. An expedi-
tion was fitted out, and Columbus reached the
West Indies (probably Watlings Island), Octo-
ber 12, 1492.

Cope, Professor Edward Drinker, iii, 113.
Born at Philadelphia, 1840; died at Philadelphia,
1897. American naturalist. Studied medicine.
Was Professor of Natural Science, Haverford
College, afterward Professor of Geology, Uni-

[79]

KEY AND INDEX

versity of Pennsylvania. Made a special study
of extincc vertebrates. He belonged to that
school of evolutionists who believed that the
variations caused by environment are inherited
by offspring, and upholding these views, became
involved in much controversy.

Copernicus, Nicolaus, ii, 54. Born at Thorn,
Prussia, 1473; died at Frauenburg, 1543. Ger-
man astronomer. Studied mathematics and
other sciences at Cracow, afterward in Italy.
Appointed Professor of Mathematics at Rome,
1500. 1505, returned to Germany, took holy
orders and obtained canonry at Frauenburg.
1530, completed his great work "De Revolution-
ibus Orbium," which described the true system
of the sun, stars and planets. This he did not
publish until twelve years later, probably
through fear of ecclesiastical censure.

Corvisart, Jean Nicolas de, iv, 199. Born at
Drecourt, France, 1755; died at Paris, 1821.
French physician. His father destined him for
the law, but he ran away to Paris, and concealed
himself in order to study medicine. 1786, be-
came professor at La Charite Hospital, Paris.
Later on College de France. Member Academy
of Sciences. Was first physician to Napoleon I.
Made valuable contributions to pathological
anatomy regarding diseases of the heart.

Croll, Dr. James, iii, 197. Born at Whitefield,
1821 ; died in 1890. Scottish geologist. Had but
little schooling, but made many valuable contri-
butions of geological science, especially in re-
gard to climatic changes during the glacial
period, and their origin. Published theories as
to origin of sun's heat and formation of stars

[80]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

and nebulae, which, though widely accepted,
aroused much discussion. Was an officer of the
Geological Survey of Scotland.

Crompton, Samuel, ix, 32. Born at Firwood,
near Bolton, England, Dec. 3, 1753; died at Hall-
in-the-Wood, near Bolton, June 26, 1827. An
English mechanic and inventor. In 1779 he in-
vented the "Mule," a spinning machine vastly
superior to any machine then in use.

Crookes, Sir William, iii, 249, v, 103. Born
at London, 1832. English physicist and chemist.
Studied and taught at Royal College of Chemis-
try, Oxford, and Chester. Famous sanitary ex-
pert. His experiments with high vacua
made the incandescent light possible. Discov-
erer of the element thallium, also the sodium
amalgamation process for separating gold and
silver from their ores. Devised new method of
spectrum analysis for which the radiometer and
otheoscope were invented.

Ctesbius, i, 243. Born at Alexandria; lived
Third Century B.C. Greek mathematician, and
tutor of Hero. Probably inventor of the force
pump, and discoverer of the elastic force of air,
with its possible application as motive power, all
of which has been described by Hero.

Cunard, Sir Samuel, vii, 74. Born at Halifax,
Nova Scotia, 1787; died at London, April 28,
1865. A civil engineer, founder of the Cunard
Steamship Line. The first ship of this line, the
"Britannia," crossed the ocean in 1840.

Curie, Professor Pierre, v, 100. Born at Paris,
1859; died at Paris, 1906. French physicist.
Educated at Paris, became Professor of Physics
at the Sorbonne, 1895. Noted for his researches

[81]

KEY AND INDEX

in radio-activity. In conjunction with his wife
he discovered radium. The discovery was sug
gested by the fact that the Becquerel rays were
analogous to the Rontgen rays, and that pitch-
blende possessed a high degree of radio-activity.
By careful analysis M. and Mme. Curie extracted
minute quantities of radium bromide in 1903,
which feat seems likely to lead to extraordinary
results in physics.

Curie, Madame Skaldowska, v, 100. Born at
Warsaw, 1867. French scientist. Professor in
the Faculty of Sciences, Paris. Wife of Prof.
Pierre Curie, and associated with him in his re-
searches.

Cuvier, Georges Baron de, iv, 159. Born at
Montbeliard, France, 1769; died at Paris, 1832.
French naturalist. Educated at Stuttgart for
the Calvinistic ministry, in which faith he was
strictly brought up. His great bent for natural
history caused his father to abandon the plans
for his future. Went to Paris and became Pro-
fessor of Natural History successively at the
Museum of Natural History, Ecole Centrale des
Pantheon and College de France. 1802, suc-
ceeded Mertrud at the Jardin des Plantes. De-
voted his life to paleontology, systematic zo-
ology, and comparative anatomy, of which last
science he was the founder.

Daguerre, Louis J. M., iv, 70. Born at Cor-
meilles, France, 1789; died near Paris, 1851.
French physicist and painter. Began life as
scene painter and evolved the Diorama. To-
gether with Nicephore de Niepce in 1829, he
began investigations in photography, and de-
vised the means of photographing on a metallic
[82]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

plate, from which all modern photography has
developed. The daguerreotype was announced
in 1839.

D'Alembert, Jean le Rond, iii, 15. Born at
Paris, 1717; died at Paris, 1783. French mathe-
matician and philosopher. Educated at the Col-
lege Mazarin, and after trying law and medicine,
devoted himself to mathematical science. An-
nounced his famous principle of the equality of
impressed and effective forces, 1743. Made many
astronomical and mathematical solutions. 1751,
with Diderot undertook editorship of the Ency-
clopedic. Withdrew in 1758. Had offers from
foreign rulers which he did not accept.

Daniell, John Frederick, iii, 236. Born at Lon-
don, 1790; died at London, 1845. English physi-
cist who gave special attention to chemistry and
meteorology. Professor of Chemistry, Kings
College, London, 1831. Established, with Pro-
fessor Brande, the "Quarterly Journal of Science
and Art," 1816. Invented the hygrometer about
1820.

Dalton, John, iv, 40.- Born at Eaglesfield,
England, 1766; died at Manchester, 1844. Eng-
lish chemist. 1793 was made Professor of
Mathematics and Physical Science at Manches-
ter. He developed the atomic theory in chemis-
try, which revolutionized the science. In phys-
ics he experimented with the force of steam
and electricity and expansive force of gases.
Was held in the highest distinction and was the
recipient of many honors. Was color-blind, and
gave scientific description of this malady, which
is often called Daltonism.

Dana, James Dwight, iii, 162. Born at Utica,

[83]

KEY AND INDEX

New York; died at New Haven, 1895. Ameri-
can geologist. Educated at Yale College. Ap-
pointed instructor U. S. Navy, afterward Pro-
fessor Natural History at Yale (1855-1890).
Member Wilkes exploring expedition (1838-
1842), when he collected an immense amount of
zoological material, on which he worked for
thirteen years. Made valuable contributions to
geology and mineralogy, and was honored by
many scientific societies in Europe and America.

Darwin, Charles Robert, iii, 95, iv, 173. Born
at Shrewsbury, England, Feb. 12, 1809; died at
Down, Kent, April 19, 1882. English naturalist,
the greatest of the Nineteenth Century. Edu-
cated Edinburgh and Cambridge, destined for
the church, but his tendencies were strongly to-
ward natural history. Went as naturalist on
the "Beagle" expedition, 1831-36, and made
many important contributions to zoology and
geology. Announced his theory of natural se-
fection with A. R. Wallace, who had arrived at
the same idea independently, in 1858. Published
"Origin of Species" in 1859. This revolutionized
the whole study of zoology, from the standpoint
of evolution. Darwin extended his general the-
ory to man, and continued his studies tending
to the demonstration and confirmation of his
views.

Darwin, Erasmus, iv, 94. Born at Elston, Eng-
land, 1731; died at Derby, 1802. English physi-
cian and naturalist, grandfather of Charles R.
In his writings there is much that his grandson
afterward confirmed. Lamarck and others who
helped develop the theory of evolution owe much
to Erasmus Darwin. He wrote in prose and in

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

didactic verse. His "Zoonomia" was so revolu-
tionary in its ideas, that it is said that Paley
wrote his "Natural Theology" to counteract its
influence.

Davy, Sir Humphry, iv, 48. Born at Pen-
zance, 1778; died at Geneva, 1829. English
physicist. Was apprenticed to a surgeon, 1795,
and began to study a wide range of subjects.
At the age of nineteen he settled upon chemis-
try. Dr. Beddoes took him as his assistant at
Bristol, and he soon discovered nitrous oxide
(laughing gas). Was now appointed lecturer at
the Royal Institution, London, and attracted
brilliant audiences. 1802, made professor of
chemistry there. Made extensive researches in
agricultural chemistry. Most famous of all were
his his electrolytic experiments, which estab-
lished Lavoisier's theories of the composition of
bases. Davy decomposed potash and similar
substances, and demonstrated the nature of
chlorine and hydrochloric acid. In 1815 he in-
vestigated the nature of fire-damp, and invented
the safety lamp. 1820, was elected President of
the Royal Society. Later devised a method of
preventing corrosion of copper bottoms of sea-
going vessels. He died a member of nearly all
the scientific institutions in the world.

Dawes, Rev. W. R., iii, 44. Born at London,
1799; died at Haddenham, 1868. English astron-
omer, practised medicine; also officiated for a
time as minister. Had charge of several observ-
atores in England. Discovered one of the rings
of Saturn and many double stars.

De Bary, Heinrich Anton, iv, 125. Born at
Frankfort-on-Main, 1831 ; died at Strasburg,

[85]

KEY AND INDEX

1888. German botanist. Studied at Heidelberg,
Marburg, and Berlin. Professor at Freiburg,
Halle, and Strasburg. He made a special study
of fungi and was editor of the "Botanische Zei-
tung" from 1866 until his death.

De Forest, Lee, viii, 65. Born at Council
Bluffs, Iowa, August 26, 1873. One °f tne pi°-
neers of the development of wireless telegraphy
and telephony in America. His system of wire-
less telegraphy was used extensively in the Rus-
sian-Japanese War.

Delambre, Jean Baptiste Joseph, iii, 16. Born
at Amiens, 1749; died at Paris, 1822. French
astronomer. Studied under Delisle and Lalande.
Worked out tables of motion by Uranus after
its discovery by Herschel (1781). He and Me-
chain superintended the measurement of the arc
of the meridian (1792-99), for the base of the
metric system. 1807, was made Professor of
Astronomy in the College de France. Left nu-
merous writings on astronomical subjects.

Delitzsch, Frederick, i, 96. Born at Erlangen,
1850; German assyriologist. Professor at Leip-
sic (1877), Breslau (1893), and Berlin (1899).
Has written much on Assyriology and his works
have attained a high degree of popularity.

Democedes, i, 172. Born at Crotona, Italy,
middle Sixth Century B.C. Greek physician.
Went to Greece, where he was taken prisoner by
the Persians and carried to court, when he be-
came physician to Darius I. Afterward he re-
turned to Greece and to Crotona.

Democritus, i, 161. Born at Abdera, Thrace,
cir. 470-460 B.C. Lived to a great age. Greek
philosopher. Traveled extensively and was the
[86]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

learned thinker of his age. Originated the
atomic system, which assumed matter to be com-
posed of indivisible atoms whose motion is de-
rived entirely from themselves. From the com-
bination made by the motion the whole of Na-
ture is created. There is law in Nature, but no
design. Upon his philosophy epicureanism was
founded.

Descartes, Rene, ii, 193. Born at La Haye,
1596; died at Stockholm, 1650. French philoso-
pher, the "father of modern philosophy." Edu-
cated by the Jesuits, he became dissatisfied with
scholasticism, and resolved to free his mind from
all he had learned in order to get at truth. Be-
came a soldier and finally settled in Holland,
where he wrote his books, taught, and became
involved in many disputes with theologians. The
principles of his systems were published in his
"Discourse de la Methode," 1637, in which he
finds absolute truth only in those thoughts and
ideas which are as distinct and clear as is his
self-consciousness. With this system he revolu-
tionized all methods of thought and logic. He
also wrote a geometry which puts him among
the leading mathematicians of his age. In 1649
he was called to Stockholm by Queen Christina
and shortly after died there.

Desmoulins, Louis Antoine, iv, 249. Born at
Rouen, 1794; died at Rouen, 1828. French nat-
uralist and anatomist. Studied and practiced in
Paris, where he made a special study of anatomy
and the physiology of the nerve centers. He was
a severe critic of Cuvier.

Dewar, Sir James, v, 39. Born at Kincardine-
on-Forth, Scotland, 1842. Scottish chemist.

[87]

KEY AND INDEX

Educated Edinburgh, where for some years he
was assistant to Lord Playfair, Professor of
Chemistry. Afterward professor at Cambridge,
and at Royal Institution. Made special studies
of physiological action of light and liquefaction
of gases.

Diodorus Siculus, i, 77. Born at Agyrium,
Sicily, latter half First Century B.C. Greek his-
torian. Set himself the task of writing a great
history of the world, in preparing for which he
traveled extensively in Europe and Asia, settling
finally in Rome, where he lived many years.
The preparation and writing of the work took
not less than thirty years. It covers about 1,100
years down to the Conquest of Gaul by Caesar.

Diogenes Laertius, i, 121. Born at Laerte,
Cilicia, about beginning Third Century A.D.
Greek writer, whose principal work, "Lives of
the Philosophers," in ten books, has preserved
to us much knowledge of the history of Greek
philosophy, although it is largely biographical,
and gives little attention to the evolution of
philosophic thought.

Dohrn, Dr. Anton, v, 121. Born at Stettin,
1840; died in 1908. German zoologist. Studied
under Haeckel at Jena. Made special study of
marine animals. 1870, founded the zoological
station at Naples, the first and still the most im-
portant in existence.

Dove, Heinrich W., iii, 199. Born at Liegnitz,
1803; died at Berlin, 1879. German physicist and
meteorologist. Educated Breslau and Berlin.
Became professor University of Berlin, 1829.
Director of the Royal Observatory. Made spe-

[88]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

cial researches in climatology, meteorology, elec-
tricity, and polarized light.

Draper, Daniel, iii, 67. Born at New York,
1841. American meteorologist. Assisted his
brother Henry in equipping his observatories,
1869. Made director New York Meteorological
Observatory, and designed many self-recording
instruments.

Draper, Dr. Henry, iii, 67. Born in Virginia,
1837; died in New York, 1882. American physi-
cian and scientist. Educated New York, Pro-
fessor of Medicine, and afterward of Chemistry
in New York University. Also interested in
astronomy, built large telescope at Hastings-on-
Hudson, and took up celestial photography with
valuable results.

Draper, Dr. John W., iv, 70. Born near Liver-
pool, England, 1811; died at Hastings-on-Hud-
son, 1882. American chemist, physiologist, and
writer. Educated London University. Came
to America 1831. Studied University of Penn-
sylvania. Professor in Hampden Sidney Coll,
Va., 1836. 1839, came to New York and helped
found Medical School, New York University,
where he was Professor of Chemistry, afterward
(1850), of Physiology. Made valuable contri-
butions to physical chemistry, especially in
chemical action of light, and spectrum analysis,
and he greatly improved the daguerreotype pro-
cess.

Dubois-Reymond, Emil, iv, 262. Born at Berlin,
1818; died at Berlin, 1896. German physiologist.
Educated at Berlin for the ministry; finally
turned to chemistry and physics; later to medi-
cine. 1858, became Professor of Physiology,

[89]

KEY AND INDEX

University of Berlin; 1867, perpetual secretary
Berlin Academy of Sciences. He made a special
study of animal electricity, and laid the founda-
tion for all our knowledge of this subject. In-
vented the method for reading table messages
by light deflected from a mirror attached to the
needle of a galvanometer.

Dufay, Charles Francois de Cisternay, ii, 267.
Born at Paris, 1698; died at Paris, 1739. French
chemist. Destined for the army, he paid more
attention to science, and soon abandoned mili-
tary service to devote himself to chemistry.
1733, was made member of the Academy of
Sciences, and pursued anatomy, botany, astron-
omy, mathematics, and mechanics as well as
chemistry. Noted for his researches in the phe-
nomena of phosphorescence and the properties
of caustic soda. Made many surprising discov-
eries in electricity. Made many experiments in
the double refraction of crystals. Through his
efforts the Jardin des Plantes was greatly im-
proved and developed.

Dujardin, Felix, iv, 124. Born at Tours, 1801 ;
died at Rennes, 1860. French zoologist. Studied
Tours and Paris. Became Professor of Zoology
in the Faculte de Rennes. Made a special study
of worms and insects.

Dumas, Jean Baptiste, iv, 128. Born at Alais,
1800; died at Cannes, 1884. French chemist.
Was apprenticed to an apothecary in Geneva.
Went to Paris and studied chemistry. Professor
of Chemistry in the Athenaeum, later at the Sor-
bonne. Made a specialty of organic chemistry;
and made many valuable researches for the de-
termination of atomic weights. Also occupied

[90]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

several political positions, Was Minister of
Agriculture and Commerce, 1840-1851.

Edison, Thomas A., vi, 228; vii, 182. Born at
Milan, Ohio, Feb. n, 1847. Inventor of the
phonograph, the incandescent lamp and light
system, a system of wireless telegraphy, and
more than seven hundred other inventions, or
improvements on mechanical devices.

Empedocles, i, 1 14. Born at Agrigentum, Sic-
ily, cir. 490 B.C.; died cir. 430 B.C. Greek
philosopher and physician. In his philosophical
teachings he assumed four elements, earth, air,
fire, and water, which existed together immov-
able in the perfect primitive world by means of
an uniting cause "Friendship," until the external
separating cause "Strife" entered into the world
and acting on the elements gave rise to all indi-
vidual and contrary phenomena.

Erasistratus, i, 194. Born at Julis, Ceos, cir.
330 B.C. Greek physician. Became body physi-
cian at Court of King Selectus Nicator of Syria.
Went to live in Pamos and gave himself up to
study of anatomy. He was the first to perceive
the difference between the sensory and motor
nerves, and traced both to the brain. He seemed
to have some idea of the circulation of the
blood, and of the functions of the veins and
arteries.

Eratosthenes, i, 225. Born at Cyrene, cir. 275
B.C.; died at Alexandria, 195 B.C. Greek as-
tronomer and geometer, pupil of Lysanias and
Callimachus. Went to Athens. 240, succeeded
Callimachus as head of the Alexandrian Library.
Became blind and voluntarily starved himself
to death. Attempted to measure the obliquity

KEY AND INDEX

of ecliptic and came within 23° of being correct.
Computed the circumference of the earth to be
250,000 stadia. His geography in three books
is the first scientific treatise on the subject ever
attempted.

Ericsson, John, vi, 134. Born at Wermland,
Sweden; died at New York, March 8, 1889. Fa-
mous Swedish-American engineer and inventor.
He is best known as the inventor of the caloric
engine (1833) and the turreted iron-clad Moni-
tor (1862). He applied the screw to steam-
ships, invented the torpedo-boat destroyer, and
a type of solar engine.

Erman, Professor Adolf, i, 28. Born at Ber-
lin, 1854. German Egyptologist. Educated
Berlin and Leipsic. 1885, director of Egyptian
Department, Royal Museum, Berlin. 1892, Pro-
fessor of Egyptology, University of Berlin. He
has put the study of the ancient Egyptian
languages upon a scientific basis through a
thorough study of its grammar.

Euclid, i, 193. Lived at Alexandria in Third
and Fourth Centuries B.C. Greek geometer,
the most famous of antiquity. He worked out a
large number of the problems of elementary
geometry.

Euler, Leonhard, iii, 17. Born at Basel, 1707;
died at St. Petersburg, 1783. Swiss mathemati-
cian. Educated at Basel, receiving master's de-
gree at age of sixteen. Studied mathematics,
theology, Oriental languages, and medicine.
1727, went to St. Petersburg on invitation of
Catherine I. Became Professor Higher Mathe-
matics, 1733. 1740, called by Frederick the
Great to Berlin to take Chair of Mathematics

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

in Academy of Science. 1766, recalled to St.
Petersburg and died there. Contributed volu-
minously to the science of mathematics.

Eustachio, Bartolommeo, ii, 165. Born at
San Severino, early in Sixteenth Century; died
in 1574. Italian anatomist. 1562, became Pro-
fessor of Medicine in the Collegio della Sapi-
enza, Rome. Discoverer of the eustachian tube
in the ear, and the rudimentary valve of the
heart. He first described the thoracic duct, and
perhaps also first noticed the stapes. He ma-
terially increased knowledge in regard to the
teeth and the kidneys. He was one of the
founders of modern anatomy.

Evans, Oliver, vi, 113. Born at Newport, Del.,
1755; died at New York, 1819. American mech-
anician and inventor. Made valuable improve-
ments in mill machinery. Said to have designed
(1795) first high-pressure engine.

Falconer, Hugh, iii, 99. Born at Forres, Scot-
land, 1808; died at London, 1865. Scottish bot-
anist and paleontologist. Educated at Aberdeen
and studied medicine at Edinburgh. Spent most
of his life in India, where he went in 1829. On
his recommendation tea culture was introduced
into India. Discovered the asafcetida plant.
Found many important vertebrate fossils in
Northern India. Was superintendent of the
botanical garden at Saharanpur, and in 1847
was made superintendent of Calcutta Botanical
Garden, and professor of botany in the medical
college there.

Fallopius, Gabriello, ii, 166. Born at Moderna,
Italy, 1523; died at Padua, Oct. 9, 1562. Cele-
brated Italian anatomist. Professor of anatomy

[93]

KEY AND INDEX

at Ferrara, Pisa and Padua. Made several im-
portant discoveries in the anatomy of the ear,
the fallopian tube being named for him. In
the controversy over the question as to whether
there are valves in the veins, Fallopius declared
that he was unable to find such valves. The
fact of their existence was established by his
contemporaries.

Faraday, Michael, iii, 241. Born near Lon-
don, 1791 ; died at Hampton Court, 1867. Eng-
lish chemist and physicist. Apprenticed to a
bookbinder, he gave all his spare time to
science, especially experiments in electricity.
Davy became interested in him and took him as
assistant. He became one of the most brilliant
experimentalists science has ever known. Liqui-
fied certain gases by pressure. Discovered the
revolution of a magnetic needle due to an elec-
tric current. Discovered action of currents on
each other and laid the foundation of magneto
electricity. Valuable researches in electrolysis.
Discovered benzol, the basis of aniline dyes.

Fechner, Gustav, iv, 263. Born at Gross-Sahr-
chen, 1801; died at Leipsic, 1887. German physi-
cist and philosopher. He founded modern psy-
chology, and psycho-physics. Educated, Leip-
sic for a physician, but turned to physics. Re-
searches in electricity and physiological optics.
After 1845 devoted himself to^philosophy. Ad-
vocated mentality of a low order in the plant
world. Worked out a comprehensive system of
metaphysics. In his most famous work, "Psy-
chophysik," he developed the psychophysical
measurement methods which are still in use
to-day.

[94]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

Ferrel, Professor William, iii, 200. Born in
Pennsylvania, 1817; died at Maywood, Kansas,
1891. American meteorologist. Made impor-
tant contributions to the science. Invented the
maxima- and minima-tide-predicting machine,
which has been in use for many years in the
Government Coast Surveys.

Ferrier, Dr. David, iv, 273. Born at Aberdeen,
1843. Scottish neurologist. Educated, Scotland
and at Heidelberg. 1872, Professor of Neuro-
pathology, Kings College, London. Has great-
ly increased our knowledge of the functions and
diseases of the brain.

Field, Cyrus W., viii, 30. Born at Stock-
bridge, Mass., Nov. 30, 1819; died at New York,
July 12, 1892. He founded the Atlantic Tele-
graph Company which laid the first successful
Transatlantic cable.

Fitch, John, vii, 63. Born at Windsor, Conn.,
Jan. 21, 1743; died (committed suicide), Bards-
town, Ky., July 2, 1798. American inventor. He
built various types of steamboats of his own
inventing, the first in 1787. These boats were
of no practical value, but marked steps in the
advancement toward Fulton's crowning achieve-
ment.

Fizeau, Hippolyto Louis, viii, 228. Born at
Paris, 1819; died at Nanteuil, 1896. French
physicist. 1839, began researches to make
daguerreotypes permanent. Devised apparatus
for measuring velocity of light (1856), and won
prize of 10,000 francs.

Flourens, Marie Jean Pierre, iv, 270. Born at
Maureilhan, Herault, 1794; died at Montgeron,
1867. French physiologist. Educated at Mont-

[951

KEY AND INDEX

pellier. Assistant and successor to Cuvier, as
Professor of Natural History in the Jardin du
Roi. 1835, became professor in the College de
France. A voluminous writer on comparative
anatomy and physiology, natural history, etc.
Wrote a famous work on the formation of the
bones. Made a peer by Louis Philippe, 1846.

Forbes, James David, iii, 275. Born at Edin-
burgh, 1809; died at Clifton, England, 1868.
Scottish physicist and geologist. Educated,
Edinburgh, for the law, but his natural bent led
him to physics. 1833, became Professor of
Physics, Edinburgh University. Made special
study of thermal radiations which resulted in
the discovery of the polarization of heat. Made
important contributions to our knowledge of the
origin and movement of glaciers.

Foster, Sir Michael, v, 17. Born at Hunting-
ton, Eng., 1836. English physiologist. Educated
University College, London. Taught there and
at Cambridge. Became Professor of Physiol-
ogy, Cambridge University, 1883. 1900, mem-
ber of Parliament for London University.

Foucault, Jean Bernard. Born at Paris, 1819;
died at Paris, 1868. French physicist. Edu-
cated for the medical profession. 1854, ap-
pointed Physicist, Paris Observatory. First
direct measurements of velocity of light were
due to him and Fizeau. Showed that velocity of
light in air was greater than in water. Invented
polarizing prism, and an apparatus for regula-
ting electric light. Made many researches in elec-
tricity. The Foucault currents were named
after him.

Fourneyron, Benoit, vi, 72. Born at St.

[96]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

Etienne, France, Oct. 31, 1802; died at Paris,
July, 1867. French engineer who improved the
construction of turbine water-wheels.

Franklin, Benjamin, ii, 286. Born at Boston,
1706; died at Philadelphia, 1790. American
scientist and statesman. Apprenticed to a printer
he soon went to Philadelphia and began a life
of great public activity, rendering great service
to his country in many ways. He held political
offices, spent much time in Europe on behalf of
the colonies, and later as an emissary of the
new American nation to obtain help from
France. In 1731 he started the Philidelphia Li-
brary. In 1744, founded the American Philo-
sophic Society. Invented the Franklin stove,
made many civic improvements, and made valu-
.able investigations in electricity, demonstrating
the electrical nature of lightning (1752).

Frauenhofer, Joseph von, iii, 60.. Born at
Straubing, 1787; died at Munich, 1826. German
physicist. Began life as a working optician and
became head of a firm of opticians. Invented
means of obtaining large piece of optical glass
free from imperfections for lenses and prisms.
Many inventions to perfect making of lenses,
prisms, etc. Discovered the dark lines in the
spectrum called by his name. Measured the
wave lengths of sodium light by means of dif-
fraction grating.

Fresnel, Augustin Jean, iii, 226. Born at Brog-
lie, 1788; died near Paris, 1827. French physi-
cist. Educated Caen and Paris. Became Gov-
ernment engineer. Independently of Young he
demonstrated the falsity of the Newtonian the-
ory of light, and advocated the undulatory the-

[97]

KEY AND INDEX

ory, which with Arago's assistance he afterward
proved. Made investigations in polarized light,
and applied improved and scientific methods to
the making of lighthouse lenses.

Fulton, Robert, vii, 70; vii, 98. Born at Little
Britain, Pa., 1765; died at New York, Feb. 24,
1815. American inventor, whose invention of
the steamer "Clermont" opened the era of steam
navigation. He began life as a portrait- and
landscape-painter, but soon abandoned art to de-
vote his time to engineering. While residing in
France in the closing years of the Eighteenth
Century, he invented torpedo boats and subma-
rine boats. There, also, he built a steamboat
which made a successful trip on the Seine in
1803.

Galen (Claudius Galenus), i, 272. Born in
Pergamum, 130; died in Sicily, 201. Greek phys-
ician. Studied in Pergamum, Smyrna, Corinth
and Alexandria. Went to Rome, where he at-
tended the Emperor. Wrote many treatises on
all branches of medicine, of which those on anat-
omy and physiology are most valuable. He
bases his practice on two principles: First, that
disease must be overcome by something contrary
to disease itself. Second, that nature is preserved
by that which has relation to nature.

Galilei, Galileo, ii, 76. Born at Pisa, Feb. 14,
1564; died at Arcetri, Jan. 8, 1642. Famous Ital-
ian physicist and astronomer. Discovered the
ischronism of the pendulum in 1583, and the
hydrostatic balance in 1586. Constructed a ther-
mometer in 1597. Professor of mathematics at
Padua5> 1592 to 1610. While at Padua he made
many inventions, the most important being the

[98]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

refracting telescope, with which he discovered
the satellites of Jupiter (1610), phases of Venus,
sun-spots, etc. In his work on the sun-spots he
advocated the Copernican theory, and was de-
nounced as a heretic. Was tried and compelled
to recant his views. Imprisoned, but soon re-
leased and retired to Florence.

Gall, Franz Joseph, iv, 248. Born at Tiefen-
bronn, 1758; died at Montrouge, 1828. German
physician and phrenologist. Studied Strasburg
and Vienna, practiced in latter city. 1796, began
to lecture on structure and function of brain,
and for his views the Austrian Government
compelled him to leave Vienna, 1802. Settled
finally in Paris, practiced and lectured. Here
he continued to lay the foundations of phrenol-
ogy, in spite of charges of materialism and fa-
talism constantly brought against his system.

Galton, Francis. Born at Birmingham, 1822.
English anthropologist and meteorologist. Ed-
ucated Birmingham, London, and Cambridge.
1850, started to explore in Africa and discovered
the Orampo race. Promulgated the theory of
anti-cyclones (1863), which is the foundation of
weather forecasts. Of late years his studies
have been mostly in anthropology and biology.
His views on heredity have been widely dis-
cussed. He was the first to apply statistics to
anthropology and invented the means of taking
composite photographs. Has devised various
measuring apparatuses for purposes of psychol-
ogy-

Galvani, Luigi, iii, 229. Born at Bologna,
1737; died at Bologna, 1798. Italian physician
and anatomist. Educated for the priesthood but

[99]

KEY AND INDEX

turned to medicine. Was Professor of Anatomy
at Bologna. By an accident he discovered the
existence of the galvanic current, which led to
the invention of the voltaic cell and all that has
developed from it.

Gauss, Karl Friedrich. Born at Brunswick,
1777; died at Gottingen, 1855. German mathe-
matician, one of the most brilliant of modern
times. Born in poverty, but was educated at
Gottingen. Invented a method of calculating
positions of heavenly bodies in order to redis-
cover the lost planet Ceres. Devoted latter part
of life to geodesy and the mathematical theory
of electricity. Developed the theory of least
squares.

Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, iv, 41. Born at
Saint-Leonard le Noblat, 1778; died at Paris,
1850. French chemist and physicist. Studied at
Paris. Became assistant to Berthollet at the
Government chemical works. Made balloon as-
cent to ascertain whether magnetic force existed
above the earth. With Humboldt he announced
the exact composition of water (1804), which
led to the discovery by Gay-Lussac in 1808 of
the important law of volumes. 1809, became
Professor of Chemistry at £cole Polytechnique.
Discovered a better way than electrolysis for
producing potassium.

Geber, ii, 20. Died about 1776. An Arabian
chemist. He discovered sulphuric, nitric, and ni-
tromuriatic acids, thus greatly increasing the
possibilities of chemical experiment. He is cred-
ited with writing about five hundred works. Of
these "Testamentum," "De Inventions Vintatis,"
"Liber Fornacum," "Summa Perfectionis," "De
[TOO]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

Investigatione Perfectionis," and "Liber Investi-
gationis," have appeared in print. 7

Gilbert, William, ii, in. Born at Colchester,
England, 1540; died Nov. 30, 1603. English
physician and natural philosopher. Physician in
ordinary to Queen Elizabeth and James I.
President of the College of Physicians in 1600.
With the doubtful exception of Bacon, Gilbert
was the most distinguished man of science dur-
ing the reign of Queen Elizabeth. His studies of
electricity and magnetism led Priestly to call
him "the father of modern electricity." He was
the first to discover that the earth is a magnet,
and explained the dipping of the needle by the
magnetic poles. He also gave the name of
"pole" to the extremities of the magnetic nee-
dle, and was first to make use of -the terms "elec-
tric force" and "electric attractions." He was
first to distinguish between magnetism and elec-
tricity, and made the first electrical instrument
ever constructed. He made also the first elec-
trical indicating device. The method of magne-
tising iron first introduced by him is in common
use to-day.

Gill, Sir David, iii, 67. Born at Aberdeen,
Scotland, June 12, 1843. Scottish astronomer
and Astronomer Royal at the Cape of Good
Hope from 1879. He made five photographs of
a comet, and the flecks of starlight on his plates
first suggested the possibilities of this method
in charting the heavens. His observations of
the transit of Venus in 1882 were invaluable in
the determination of the distance of the sun
from the earth.

Gladstone, Professor J. H., iv, 68. Born at

KEY AND INDEX

London, 1827; died October, 1902. English
scientist. Professor of Chemistry at the Royal
Institution, 1874-77. Published "Life of Michael
Faraday," and "Chemistry of Secondary Bat-
teries."

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, iv, 140. Born
at Frankfort-on-the-Main, Aug. 28, 1749; died
at Weimar, March 22, 1832. German poet, dra-
matist, and scientist. In 1790 published the
"Metamorphoses of Plants," in which he ad-
vanced the novel doctrine that all parts of the
flower are modified or metamorphosed leaves. A
little later he advanced the doctrine that the ver-
tebrate skull is essentially a modified and de-
veloped vertebra. This doctrine of metamorpho-
sis of parts soon came to be regarded as of
fundamental importance.

Goodyear, Charles, ix, 113. Born at New
Haven, Conn., Dec. 29, 1800; died at New York,
July i, 1860. American manufacturer. He dis-
covered the process of treating india-rubber
known as "vulcanization," a process upon which
the usefulness of rubber is largely dependent.
He also invented a machine for the sewing of
soles, known as a "turn-sole machine," which
was of great commercial importance.

Gordon, Andrew, ii, 279. Born at Coforach,
Forfarshire, June 15, 1712; died Aug. 22, 1751.
A Scotch Benedictine monk and physicist, noted
for his experiments in frictional electricity. He
was first to invent an electric bell which would
ring automatically, and a "motor," in the form
of a wheel which was revolved by the action of
electricity. He demonstrated the force of the
electric current by killing birds and small ani-

[102]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

mals at a distance of two hundred ells, the cur-
rent being conveyed by small wires.

Gray, Asa, iv, 175. Born at Paris, New York,
Nov. 18, 1810; died at Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 30,
1888. American botanist. Professor of Natural
History at Harvard, 1842-88. Championed Dar-
win's theory of evolution, and wrote "Darwin-
iana" in 1876. Some of his best-known works
are, "Elements of Botany," "Flora of North
America," "How Plants Grow," "Field, Forest
and Garden Botany," and "Manual of Botany of
the United States."

Gray, Prof. Elisha, vii, 85; viii, 26. Born at
Barnesville, Ohio, Aug. 3, 1835 ; died at Newton-
ville, Mass., Jan. 20, 1901. American inventor.
Remembered particularly for his inventions rela-
ting to telegraphy and the telephone. He filed
specifications of a telephone in the United States
Patent Office only a few hours later than Dr.
Graham Bell, whose invention opened the era of
telephonic communication.

Gray, Stephen, ii, 262. Died February 25,
1736. A pensioner of the Charter House in Lon-
don. In his experiments with electricity he dis-
covered two of the most important properties of
electricity — that it can be conducted and insu-
lated.

Guericke, Otto von, ii, 213. Born at Magde-
burg, Prussia, Nov. 20, 1602; died at Hamburg,
May n, 1686. German natural philosopher. He
invented the first electrical machine, and dis-
covered electrical attraction and repulsion. He
invented the air pump and the air balance, and
demonstrated the pressure of the atmosphere

KEY AND INDEX

with the "Magdeburg hemispheres," see Vol. ii,

211.

Guy of Chaulic, ii, 38. Born about 1300. Fa-
mous French surgeon. Introduced the treat-
ment for broken limbs by suspension in a cradle,
and the method of making "traction" to prevent
deformity by shortening of the member — a
method still in use. He was one of the first
physicians to advocate the use of glasses in cer-
tain eye disorders.

Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich, v, 144. Born at
Potsdam, Prussia, Feb. 16, 1834. Distinguished
German naturalist. One of the leading advo-
cates of the biological theory of evolution. For
a time he practiced medicine in Berlin, but in
1861 he left the field of medicine to become a
privat-docent in Jena. In 1865 he was appointed
to a chair of zoology which was specially estab-
lished for him. He has written many mono-
graphs of systematic and descriptive nature,
these works alone "constituting a good life's
work." In addition he has written several other
works, some of them of a popular nature. In
1866 he published his "General Morphology,"
and about two years later he rewrote the same
work in a more popular style, published as the
"Natural History of Creation/' In his book
"Die Welt-rathsel," published in English as
"The Riddle of the Universe," he applies the
doctrine of evolution to the problems of philoso-
phy and religion carried to its logical conclusion.

Hahnemann, Christian Samuel Friedrich von,
iv, 189. Born at Meissen, Saxony, April 10,
1755; died at Paris, July 2, 1843. German physi-
cian, founder of homeopathy. His new system
[104]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

of medicine was expounded about 1796, and later
elaborated in his work "Organon der Rationellen
Heilkunde."

Hales, Stephen, ii, 298. Born at Bekes-
bourne, Kent, Sept. 7, 1677; died at Tel-
dington, near London, Jan. 4, 1761. English
clergyman, inventor, and physiologist. His most
important invention was a "ventilator" for in-
troducing fresh air into jails, mines, ships' holds,
etc. Only four deaths in four years occurred in
the Savoy Prison after this ventilator was intro-
duced there, whereas the mortality previous to
that time had been from 50 to 100 per annum.
Hales' work, "Vegetable Statics" (1727), on the
subject of vegetable physiology was the first im-
portant publication on the subject.

Hall, Marshall, M.D., F.R.S.L., iv, 251. Born
at Basford, Notts, Feb. 18, 1790; died at
Brighton, England, Aug. n, 1857. English
physician, the discoverer of the phenomena
known as reflex action. This discovery marked
an epoch in physiology. The most popular of
Hall's discoveries was his "ready method" for
resuscitating in drowning, by which innumera-
ble lives have been saved.

Haller, Albrecht von, iv, 73. Born at Bern,
Switzerland, Oct. 16, 1708; died at Bern, Dec.
X7» T777- Anatomist, physiologist, botanist, and
poet. A sickly, but precocious child, he read
and expounded the Bible at the age of four; and
before ten years of age had "sketched a Chaldee
grammar, prepared a Greek and a Hebrew vo-
cabulary, and compiled a collection of two thou-
sand biographies of famous men and women."
His greatest contribution to medicine was his

KEY AND INDEX

"doctrine of irritability," for which he has been
called "the father of modern nervous physiol-
ogy-"

Halley, Edmund, iii, 7. Born at Haggerston,
England, Oct. 29, 1659; died at Greenwich,
Kent, 1742. English astronomer and mathema-
tician. Before he was nineteen he had published
a work which supplied a defect in Kepler's the-
ory of planetary motion. At the age of twenty
he established the certainty of the motion of the
sun round its own axis by his observation of a
sun spot. In 1720 he was appointed Astronomer
Royal at Greenwich. His popular fame rests on
his observation of the comet named for him, and
whose orbit is of such size that the comet makes
its appearance only once in every 76 or 77 years.
In all this comet has appeared 26 times during
the historic period of which we have any record.
Its first appearance was in the year n B.C., its
last in 1910.

Hargreaves, James, ix, 16. Born at Black-
burn, Lancashire, England; died at Nottingham,
April, 1778. English mechanic and inventor.
His invention of the spinning-jenny, patented in
1770, revolutionized the spinning industry.

Harrison, John, vii, 25. Born at Yorkshire,
England, March 31, 1698; died at London,
March 24, 1776. English mechanician and in-
ventor. He invented the compensating pendu-
lum, by the use of which clocks could be made
accurate time-keepers regardless of surrounding
temperature. He also invented the chronome-
ter, and was finally awarded the prize of twenty
thousand pounds offered by the British Govern-
ment for such a timepiece.

[106]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

Harvey, William, ii, 169. Born at Folkestone,
England, April, 1578; died at Hempstead, Essex,
June 3, 1657. An English physician, famous as
the discoverer of the circulation of the blood.
His experiments to demonstrate his theory were
made upon serpents, and his demonstrations
were such that his conclusions were accepted al-
most immediately by scientists all over the civil-
ized world.

Hauksbee, Francis, ii, 259. English physicist,
one of the early experimenters with electricity.
Through experiments with a whirling globe
from which the air had been exhausted, and
with a barometer and rubbed glass rods he
produced a glow which he found to be electrical.
He also discovered the important property of
electricity known as "induction" by revolving
two cylinders placed about an inch apart.

Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von,
iii, 280. Born at Potsdam, Aug. 31, 1821; died
at Berlin, Sept. 8, 1894. German physiologist
and physicist. At the age of twenty-two he was
military physician at Potsdam. Later was Pro-
fessor of Anatomy and Physiology at Bonn,
Professor of Physiology at Heidelberg, and Pro-
fessor of Physics at Berlin. In 1851 he invented
the ophthalmoscope — an instrument invaluable
to oculists for examining the internal structures
of the eye. He formulated an electro-magnetic
theory of light, which was shown to be correct
by the experiments and discoveries of his pupil,
Heinrich Hertz.

Henderson, Thomas, iii, 61. Astronomer
Royal of Scotland. He was one of the first as-
tronomers to detect and measure the parallax of

KEY AND INDEX

a star, in point of time his observations prece-
ding Bessel's, although Bessel's were much more
numerous. These observations solved the prob-
lem of star distance.

Henry, Joseph, iii, 239; vi, 175. Born at Al-
bany, N. Y., Dec. 17, 1797; died at Washington,
D.C., May 13, 1878. An American physicist,
and secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Noted for his experiments in electro-magnetism.
He constructed electro-magnets of greater power
than any hitherto known, and was the first to
adopt insulated or silk-covered wire for the mag-
netic coil. He invented a magnetic bell for sig-
naling, which is considered the first example of
a true magnetic telegraph. Foreign estimates
place him in the foremost rank of American
physicists of the Nineteenth Century.

Heraclides, i, 196. A Greek physician, who
decried the study of anatomy, depending en-
tirely upon the use of drugs for curing diseases.
He is said to be the first physician to use opium
in painful affections.

Hero, i, 242. Alexandrian mathematician of
the Third Century, B.C. He wrote several
works, only one of which, "Pneumatics," has
been preserved. In his studies of gas, liquids
and solids, he shows a fairly clear conception of
the "atomic" nature of matter. He describes
also the mechanism of various mechanical toys
and devices, among them a ball rotated by the
action of steam.

Herodotus, i, 103. Born at Halicarnassus,
Asia Minor, about 484 B.C.; died at Thurii,
Italy, about 424 B.C. Celebrated Greek histo-
rian, called "the Father of History." In his

[108]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

writings he tells of an eclipse which occurred
in 585 B.C. (modern astronomers reckon the
exact date to be May 25th), which had been
foretold by Thales. This is the first recorded in-
stance of a predicted eclipse.

Herophilus, i, 194. Lived about 300 B.C.
Greek anatomist and physician. With Erasis-
tratus, the earliest scientific investigator of the
mechanism of the human body. Discovered that
the nerve trunks have their origin in the brain
and spinal cord, and are of two different kinds,
motor and sensory. Also made fairly accurate
study of the anatomy of the eye.

Herschel, Sir John, iii, 58; iv, in. Born near
Windsor, March 7, 1792; died at Collingwood,
Kent, May II, 1871. English astronomer; son
of Sir William Herschel. Made important ob-
servations of double stars. In 2,299 telescopic
fields he counted 68,948 stars. In his studies of
the milky way he estimated that the stars visible
in a reflecting telescope of 18 inches aperture
amounted to over five million.

Herschel, Sir William, iii, 20. Born at Han-
over, Prussia, Nov. 15, 1738; died at Slough,
England, Aug. 25, 1822. Celebrated English as-
tronomer of German birth. Deserted from Ger-
man army and went to England in 1757. Gained
considerable success as violinist, organist, and
teacher of music. Was self-instructed in mathe-
matics and astronomy, and constructed his own
telescopes. He discovered the planet Uranus in
1781, and the following year was made Court
astronomer. With his forty-foot reflecting
telescope he determined definitely that the stars
are suns, not merely "points of light" as had

[109]

KEY AND INDEX

been believed by many, even in the Eighteenth
Century, and made pioneer observations in near-
ly every branch of astronomy.

Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf, iii, 247. Born at Ham-
burg, Germany, Feb. 22, 1857; died at Bonn,
Jan. i, 1894. German physicist. In 1883 ne be-
gan studies in Maxwell's electro-magnetic the-
ory, and finally established the fact that "ordi-
nary light consists of electrical vibrations in an
all-pervading ether, which possesses the proper-
ties of an insulator and of a magnetic medium.''
The results of his observations have been turned
to practical account in the wireless telegraph and
telephone systems of the present time.

Hevelius, Johannes, iii, 3. Born at Dantzic,
Prussia, Jan. 28, 1611; died at Dantzic, Jan. 28,
1687. A Polish astronomer. His fame as an
astronomer rests largely on his accurate descrip-
tion of the face and the spots of the moon. He
was a friend and coworker of Edmund Halley,
the English astronomer.

Hewitt, Peter Cooper, vi, 236. Born at New
York. American electrician. Inventor of the
mercury-vapor electric light, in which mercury
vapor takes the place of the carbon or metal fila-
ment of the incandescent lamp.

Hildanes, Fabricius, ii, 183. Born in 1560;
died in 1639. A German physician and surgeon.
He invented many useful surgical instruments,
several of them for locating and removing bul-
lets. Contrary to the teachings of his time he
was an ardent advocate of the study of anato-
my. He was first to use a magnet for removing
particles of metal from the eye.

Hinrichs, Professor Gustav, iv, 67. An Amer-
[no]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

ican chemist. One of the first to conceive the
so-called "law of octaves," which later was ex-
plicated fully by Mendeleeff under the title of
"the periodic law."

Hipparchus, i, 233. Born at Nicaea, in Bithy-
nia, 160 B.C. A Greek astronomer called "the
lover of truth," one of the founders of scientific
astronomy. He discovered the precession of the
equinoxes, some of the inequalities of the moon's
motion, and the eccentricity of the solar orbit.

Hippocrates, i, 170. Born at Island of Cos,
about 460 B.C. ; died at Larissa, Thessaly, about
377 B.C. A Greek physician, termed the "Father
of Medicine." His most revolutionary step was
divorcing the supernatural from the natural, and
establishing the fact that disease is due to nat-
ural causes. This led to closer and systematic
observation of cases, and written observations —
"clinical histories" as they are called. Some of
the surgical procedures described by him are
followed, with slight modifications, by modern
surgeons.

Hoffman, Friedrich, iv, 184. Born at Halle,
Prussia, Feb. 19, 1660; died at Halle, Nov. 12,
1742. A celebrated German physician. He ar-
ranged the doctrines of Boerhaave into a "sys-
tem" which considered force inherent in matter,
expressed as mechanical movements, and de-
termined by mass, number, and weight. He in-
troduced several new remedies, one of them
"Hoffman's anodyne" (spirits of ether), which
is still in use.

Holland, John P., vii, 105. Born in 1841.
American inventor. Began building submarine
boats in 1875, and in 1900 had so perfected them

KEY AND INDEX

that one was accepted by the United States
Government. Since that time he has added im-
provements to his boats, a fleet of which are
now in commission in the United States service.

Holland, Philemon, i, 77. Born at Chelms-
ford, England, 1552; died at Coventry, Feb. 9,
1637. English writer and translator. He trans-
lated Pliny's "Natural History" in 1601.

Honain ben Isaac, ii, 24. Lived about 809-
873, A.D. An Arabian physician. He was a
Christian Arab, who followed the medical teach-
ings of Galen. He was a great translator, and
one of the greatest philosophers of the Ninth
Century.

Hooke, Robert, ii, 215. Born at Isle of Wight,
England, July 18, 1635; died at London, March
3, 1703. English mathematician and natural
philosopher. Inventor of many ingenious and
useful devices, among them the balance-spring
for regulating watches. He originated the idea
of making use of the pendulum in measuring
gravity, and first proposed the wave theory of
light.

Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, iv, 171. Born at
Halesworth, Suffolk, June 30, 1817. English
botanist. With Lyell he first induced Darwin to
make public his work on the theory of evolu-
tion. He was director of the Kew Gardens for
twenty years, president of the Royal Society in
1873, and president of the British Association
in 1868.

Howard, Luke, iii, 182. British scientist. Died
early in the Nineteenth Century. In 1803 ne
published in the "Philosophical Magazine," a
paper on clouds in which he gave names that

[112]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

were afterward universally adopted. He held
that clouds are composed of vapor that has
previously risen from the earth.

Howe, Elias, ix, 93. Born at Spencer, Mass.,
July 9, 1819; died at Brooklyn, N. Y., Oct. 3,
1867. American inventor. He invented a sew-
ing-machine in 1845, which is considered the
direct ancestor of all modern sewing-machines.
It used an eye-pointed needle, and a shuttle, such
as sewing-machines use at present.

Huggins, Sir William. Born at London, Feb.
17, 1824; died in May, 1910. English astrono-
mer. He was a pioneer in utilizing spectroscopy
and photography together. In 1864 he discov-
ered that the planetary nebula in Draco consists
of luminous gas. In 1868, through use of the
spectroscope, he proved the existence of carbon
in comets. His name is closely associated with
most recent advances in spectrum analysis.

Humboldt, Alexander von, iii, 192. Born at
Berlin, Sept. 14, 1769; died at Berlin, May 6,
1859. Celebrated German scientist and author.
In a paper on isothermal lines and the distri-
bution of heat on the earth he laid the founda-
tion for a science of comparative climatology.
He made extensive journeys in South America,
Mexico, Siberia and the Caspian Sea region for
scientific observation. His "Kosmos" published
in 1845-58 is perhaps the greatest of his books.

Hunter, John, iv, 78. Born at Long Calder-
wood, Scotland, Feb. 13, 1728; died at London,
Oct. 1 6, 1793. British surgeon, anatomist and
physiologist. First to discover the system of
vessels known as lymphatics, although the func-
tion of these vessels was suggested by his

KEY AND INDEX

brother, William Hunter. His studies of ten-
dons laid the foundation for the operation for
the cure of club feet. His experiments to de-
termine the blood-supply for the growing antler
of a deer led to the discovery of the "collateral
circulation of the blood" — one of the most im-
portant discoveries in surgery. This led directly
to his invention of the "Hunterian" operation
for aneurism, an operation still in use, and which
has made the name of Hunter immortal in the
annals of surgery.

Hunter, William, iv, 76. Born at Long Cal-
derwood, Scotland, May 23, 1718; died at Lon-
don, March 30, 1783. British physician, anato-
mist and physiologist. The first great teacher
of anatomy in England. He discovered the
function of the lymphatics, and his writings on
the structure of the synovial membranes, in
1743, anticipated Bichat's writing on the same
theme by sixty years. He established a museum
which is now the property of the University of
Glasgow.

Hutton, James, iii, 178. Born at Edinburgh,
June 3, 1726; died March 26, 1797. Scottish
geologist. One of the founders of geological
science. In his "Theory of the Earth," he ex-
pounded the doctrine that the present rocks of
the earth's surface have been formed out of the
waste of older rocks; that these materials have
been laid down under the sea and consolidated
by great pressure; that the expansive power of
subterranean heat afterward upheaved them, and
that masses of molten rock were injected into
the gaps of the disrupted strata.

Huxley, Thomas Henry, iii, 112; iv, 174. Born

[114]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

at Baling, England, May 4, 1825; died at East-
bourne, June 29, 1895. English biologist. Fore-
most English champion of Darwin's theory of
evolution, his active interest in the subject be-
ing largely responsible for the early acceptance
of Darwin's conception.

Huygens, Christian, ii, 218. Born at The
Hague, April 14, 1629; died there June 8, 1695.
A celebrated mathematician, physicist, and as-
tronomer. He was the inventor of the pendu-
lum clock. With his brothers he constructed a
telescope with which he discovered a hitherto
unknown satellite of Saturn. Later he adapted
the micrometer to the telescope, this being a me-
chanical device upon which the nice determina-
tion of minutes depends. One of his many
interesting papers sent to the Royal Society was
his "Rules Concerning the Motion of Bodies
after Mutual Impulse," in which the laws of
motion are stated in remarkably clear and con-
cise terms.

Jackson, Dr. Charles Thomas, iv, 215. Born
at Plymouth, Mass., June 21, 1805; died at
Somerville, Mass., Aug. 29, 1880. American
physician and geologist. One of the claimants
to the discovery of etherization. Also claimant
to the invention of a telegraph similar to
Morse's.

Jacquard, Joseph Marie, ix, 49. Born at Lyons,
France, July 7, 1752; died near Lyons, Aug. 7,
1834. French mechanic and inventor. He in-
vented the Jacquard loom about 1801. Modifica-
tions of this loom are still used extensively for
weaving designs and patterns.

Jansen (or Zanss) Zacharias, ii, 77. A Dutch

KEY AND INDEX

optician. About 1590 placed a concave and a
convex lens respectively at the end of a tube,
and used this device for magnifying small ob-
jects. This is the first recorded instance of the
use of a compound microscope.

Jenner, Edward, iv, 190. Born at Berkeley,
England, May 17, 1749; died there Jan. 26, 1823.
English physician, the discoverer of vaccination.
In investigating the disease known as cowpox,
he discovered that after inoculation by this dis-
ease the patient was immune from smallpox.
This was the basis of his discovery — probably
the greatest in medicine previous to his time,
and for about two generations following.

Joule, James Prescott, iii, 269. Born at Sal-
ford, England, Dec. 24, 1818; died at Sale, Oct.
n, 1889. English physicist. One of the first
to expound the doctrine of the conservation of
energy. His paper "On the Calorfic Effects of
Magneto-electricity, and the Mechanical Value
of Heat" was published in 1843. Tyndall be-
lieved that Joule and Mayer were equally en-
titled to the credit of this revolutionary dis-
covery.

Jussieu, Antoine and Bernard, de, ii, 303. An-
toine, born at Lyons, France, April 12, 1748;
died at Paris, Sept. 17, 1836. Bernard, born at
Lyons, France, Aug. 17, 1699; died at Paris,
Nov. 6, 1776. Two celebrated French botanists,
who founded the natural system of the classifica-
tion of plants. By some authorities the credit
of this classification is given to Bernard.

Kadmus (or Cadmus), i, 86. In Greek legend
he is reported to have introduced the letters of

[116]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

the alphabet. According to the legend, he was
the son of a Phoenician king.

Kant, Immanuel, iii, 26. Born at Konigsberg,
Prussia, April 22, 1724; died there Feb. 12, 1804.
Celebrated German philosopher. He conceived
the nebular hypothesis which attempted to ex-
plain world formation along rational lines. The
puzzling questions left unanswered by Kant
were answered by Laplace's nebular hypothesis
(see Vol. iii, 31).

Kay, John, ix, 22. Born near Bury, Lan-
cashire, July 1 6, 1704; died in France about
1764-5. English mechanic and inventor. He in-
vented the "flying shuttle," a power loom, and
several other aids to weaving. On account of
these inventions mobs of workmen wrecked his
house, stole his machines, and drove him from
the country.

Kay, Robert, ix, 43. Son of John Kay. In
1760 he invented the "drop-box," a device which
enabled the weaver to insert several colors as
strips across the length of his loom with great
facility.

Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson), iii, 165; v,
1 06. Born at Belfast, Ireland, June 1829; died
at London, Dec. 17, 1907. Celebrated British
physicist. Active in almost every field of natu-
ral philosophy. Took an active part in laying
the Atlantic cable, and invented the mirror-gal-
vanometer and siphon-recorder in connection
with that work. Was first to maintain that the
earth is practically solid to the center and has
the rigidity of steel. Invented the short-needle
compass now in universal use by mariners. Was

KEY AND INDEX

knighted in 1866, and created Baron Kelvin in
1892.

Kepler, Johann, ii, 70. Born at Weil der Stadt,
Wiirtemberg, Dec. 27, 1571; died at Ratisbon,
Bavaria, Nov. 15, 1630. One of the founders
of modern astronomy. His name is associated
with three laws of planetary motion, which are
as follows: (i) The orbits of the planets are
ellipses having the sun at one focus; (2) The
areas described by their radii vectores in equal
times are equal; (3) The squares of their peri-
odic times are proportional to the cubes of their
mean distances from the sun.

Khamurabi, (Hammurabi), Code of i, 76.
King of Babylon about 2000 B.C. He instituted
a code of laws older than the laws of either
Manu or Moses.

Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert, iv, 69. Born at
Konigsberg, Prussia, Mar. 12, 1824; died at Ber-
lin, Oct. 17, 1887. German physicist. With
Bunsen he discovered the method of spectrum
analysis in 1860.

Kleist, Dean von. (See Von Kleist.)

Koch, Dr. Robert, iv, 228. Born at Klansthal,
Hanover, Dec. u, 1843; died May 27, 1910. Ger-
man bacteriologist. In his study of bacteriol-
ogy he isolated the anthrax bacillus, and in 1883
announced a method of preventive inoculation
against the disease. The year before (1882) he
discovered the bacillus of tuberculosis, and eight
years later announced the discovery of tubercu-
lin, which he hoped would prove to be a cure
for consumption. In 1883 he identified the
comma bacillus as the organism responsible for
Asiatic cholera.

[118]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

Kunz, Dr. George F., v, 101. Born at New
York, Sept. 20, 1856. American gem expert.
Special agent of the United States Geological
Survey in 1883. Had charge of the department of
mines, World's Columbian, and Paris Exposi-
tions. Has written extensively on gems and
minerals. Author of "Gems and Precious
Stones of North America," "Mineral Resources
of the United States," etc. The recently discov-
ered precious stone kunzite was named in his
honor.

Lacaille, Nicolas Louis de, iii, 13. Born at
Rumigny, France, March 15, 1713; died at Paris,
March 21, 1762. Noted French astronomer.
Measured the French arc of the meridian in
1739-41. In 1751 he went to the Cape of Good
Hope and made many important observations
on the stars of the southern hemisphere. While
on this expedition he determined the sun's par-
allax by observing the parallaxes of Mars and
Venus.

Laennec, Rene Theophile Hyacinthe, iv, 201.
Born at Quimper, France, Feb. 17, 1781; died
Aug. 13, 1826. French physician. He was the
inventor of the stethoscope, an instrument which
is of great aid in diagnosis of diseases of the
heart and lungs.

Lamarck, Jean Baptiste De, iv, 151. Born at
Bazentin, France, Aug. i, 1744; died at Paris,
Dec. 1 8, 1829. French naturalist. His work
helped directly to lay the foundation for Dar-
win's doctrine of evolution. His views differed
from Darwin's about the part played by the
active exertion of the organism and by "ap-
petency."

KEY AND INDEX

Langley, S. P., vii, 275. Born at Roxbury,
Boston, Mass., Aug. 22, 1834; died at Aiken,
S.C., Feb. 27, 1906. American astronomer. In
1887 was appointed secretary of the Smithso-
nian Institution. Became interested in the prob-
lem of aerial flight, and invented the- first
heavier-than-air machine of any considerable
size which could fly by means of self-contained
power.

Laplace, Marquis Pierre Simon de, iii, 32.
Born at Beaumont-en-Auge, Calvados, France,
March 28, 1749; died at Paris, March 5, 1827.
Celebrated French astronomer and mathemati-
cian. He made important discoveries concern-
ing the inequality of the motions of Jupiter and
Saturn, of the moon, and the tides. He devel-
oped the nebular hypothesis of cosmogony with
such thoroughness that "posterity will always
link it with his name."

Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent, iv, 33. Born at
Paris, Aug. 16, 1743; died (guillotined) at Paris,
May 8, 1794. French chemist, the founder of
modern chemistry. He overthrew the "phlogis-
tic" chemistry of the Eighteenth Century. He
introduced a new chemical nomenclature which
has remained practically unchanged except in
the matter of additions, to the present time.

Layard, Sir Henry Austen, viii, 103. Born at
Paris, March 5, 1817; died at London, July 5,
1894. English archaeologist. He is noted for his
archaeological discoveries about Nineveh, and
his decipherment of the cuneiform characters
on the Assyrian monuments.

Lee, Rev. William, ix, 56. Born at Notting-
ham (date unknown); died at Paris about 1610.

[120]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

English clergyman and inventor. About 1589
he invented a knitting machine which would
knit at a rate more than ten times faster than
could be done by hand. The English hand-
knitters opposed the use of this invention, and
it was not until after the death of the inventor
that his machine was put to practical use.

Leeuwenhoek, Anthony van, ii, 179. Born at
Delft, Netherlands, Oct. 24, 1632; died at Delft,
Aug. 26, 1723. Dutch microscopist and natural-
ist. Discovered microbes in the secretions of the
mouth in 1683. He also discovered red blood-
corpuscles, spermatozoa, and the capillary cir-
culation of the blood.

Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, ii, 197. Born
at Leipsic, July 6, 1646; died at Hanover, Nov.
14, 1716. German philosopher and mathemati-
cian. Called, with reason, "a universal genius."
He was the inventor of the differential and in-
tegral calculus. He conceived the theory that
the entire universe is composed of individual
centers, or monads, and deduced the doctrine
of pre-established harmony. His influence on
the scientific thought of his time was very
marked.

Leidy, Joseph, iv, 207. Born at Philadelphia,
Sept. 9, 1823; died April 30, 1891. American
naturalist. In 1827 he discovered the cyst of
"Trichina spiralis" in pork. He made impor-
tant discoveries and wrote extensively on the
subject of extinct vertebrate fauna.

Leonardo, Vinci, da, i, 129; ii, 47. Born at
Vinci, Italy, 1452; died near Ambrosie, France,
May 2, 1519. Famous Italian artist, architect,
musician, and scientist. Perhaps the most uni-

[121]

KEY AND INDEX

versal genius that ever lived. As a scientist he
anticipated Copernicus in determining the move-
ment of the earth, and made elaborate calcula-
tions to prove that the earth moves. He in-
vented a dynamometer for determining the
traction power of machines and animals, and
invented a "steam engine" which "drove a ball
weighing one talent over a distance of six
stadia.7' He is credited with the discovery of
the camera obscura. He observed the deposit
of fossil shells in rocks, and drew the correct
conclusion that these had been deposited at the
bottom of the sea, even though now resting on
the tops of mountains. He drew designs for
flying machines of the aeroplane type, with bird-
like wings. He was so far in advance of the
scientific knowledge of his time that his efforts
produced few immediate results.

Lepsius, Karl Richard, i, 27. Born at Naum-
berg, Prussia, Dec. 23, 1810; died at Berlin, July
10, 1884. German Egyptologist and philologist.
His work helped in clearing the field for our
present knowledge of ancient Egypt.

Leucippus, i, 161 ; lived about 500 B.C. Greek
philosopher. Originated (with Democritus) the
atomic theory of matter.

Lewes, George Henry, i, 131. Born at Lon-
don, April 18, 1817; died Nov. 30, 1878. English
philosophical writer. Wrote extensively in many
fields of scientific thought, throwing much light
on the Greek philosophers, and, in modern times,
such scientists as Comte and Goethe.

Liebig, Baron Justin von, iv, 131. Born at
Darmstadt, May 12, 1803; died at Munich, April
18, 1873. German chemist. Celebrated for his
[122]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

researches in organic chemistry, and the appli-
cation of chemistry to food and agriculture. He
demonstrated that the source of animal heat is
really the consumption of the fuel taken in
through the stomach and lungs.

Lilienthal, Otto, vii, 278. Born at Anklam,
Germany, May 23, 1848; died Aug. 9, 1896. Ger-
man engineer and pioneer in aviation. His ex-
periments with gliding machines and his suc-
cessful flights with various types of gliders gave
the impetus to invention that culminated in the
invention of the. Wright Brothers' aeroplane. He
was killed by a fall from one of his gliders.

Linnaeus,' Carolus, ii, 299. Born at Rashult,
Sweden, May 13, 1707; died at Upsala, Sweden,
Jan. 10, 1778. Swedish naturalist and botanist.
Founder of the "Linnaeus system" in botany,
which has since been supplanted.

Lippershey, Johannes, ii, 78. Died 1619. One
of the first to experiment with combinations of
lenses to form a telescope. The instrument as
constructed by him is still known as the "Dutch
Telescope."

Lister, Dr. Joseph (Lord Lister), iv, 229; v,
19. Born April 5, 1827. Noted English sur-
geon, the father of antiseptic surgery. He be-
gan publishing the results of his researches in
1867, but it was not until about ten years later
that their full significance had been demon-
strated in practical surgery. The rapid advan-
ces in surgery made during the past quarter of
a century are due largely to Lister's revolution-
ary discovery.

Lister, Joseph Jackson, iv, 113. Born at Lon-
don, Jan. n, 1786; died Oct. 24, 1869. English

[123!

KEY AND INDEX

physician. He discovered the principle of apla-
natic foci, and as a result he greatly improved
the construction of object glasses of micro-
scopes.

Lockyer, Sir Norman, v, 73. Born at Rugby,
England, May 17, 1836. A noted English as-
tronomer. He is noted for much original work
in the field of astronomy, and is an ardent ad-
vocate among other things of the theory of the
meteoric origin of all members of the sidereal
family; and the dissociation theory of the ele-
ments, according to which our so-called elements
are really compounds, capable of being disso-
ciated into simpler forms when subjected to
extreme temperatures, such as pertain in many
stars.

Lodge, Sir Oliver, v, 109. Born at Stafford-
shire, England, June 12, 1851. English physi-
cist. His name is closely associated with the
advances in our knowledge of radio activity and
the structure of the atom. He has suggested
that the instability of the atom may be the re-
sult of the atom's radiation of energies.

Long, Dr. Crawford W., iv, 215. An Ameri-
can physician whose name is closely associated
with the discovery of etherization. He actually
performed painless surgical operations of a
minor nature with the use of ether some little
time before Morton's demonstration. But he
was not sure that the effects produced were not
due to hypnotism quite as much as to the drug.

Lotze, Rudolf Hermann, iv, 263. Born at
Bautzen, Saxony, May 21, 1817; died at Berlin,
July i, 1881. German physiologist, psycholo-
gist, and philosopher. He is remembered as a

[124]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

physiologist for his opposition to the theory of
a "vital force." His famous paper opposing this
doctrine appeared in 1852.

Lubbock, Sir John, iv, 175. Born at London,
March 26, 1803; died near Farnborough, Kent,
June 20, 1865. Celebrated English mathemati-
cian and astronomer. He was one of the first
to champion Darwin's theory of evolution. His
best known work is "On the Theory of the
Moon and on the Perturbations of the Planets."

Ludolff , Christian Friedrich, ii, 276. German
scientist, particularly remembered for his dem-
onstration that electric sparks are actual fire.
This demonstration was made before the Acad-
emy of Science at Berlin in 1744, and consisted
of touching the surface of a spoonful of sul-
phuric ether with a charged glass rod, causing it
to burst into flame.

Lyell, Sir Charles, iii, 84. Born at Kinnorby,
Forfar shire, Scotland, Nov. 14, 1797; died at
London, Feb. 22, 1875. Celebrated British geol-
ogist. He is especially famous as an opponent
of the old catastrophism in geology, and it was
largely through his efforts that this doctrine was
finally overthrown. His views were bitterly
opposed and were not accepted universally for
something like a quarter of a century after he
had propounded them.

Magendie, Francois, iv, 203. Born at Bor-
deaux, France, Oct. 15, 1783; died at Paris, Oct.
7, 1855. A noted French physician, anatomist
and physiologist. He was one of the experi-
mental physiologists of the early Nineteenth
Century who laid the foundation for modern
scientific medicine. He is especially remem-

KEY AND INDEX

bered for his experiments on the physiology of
the nerves.

Malpighi, Marcello, ii, 179. Born near Bo-
logna, Italy, March 10, 1628; died at Rome,
Nov. 29, 1694. An Italian anatomist and physi-
ologist. He is remembered as the father of
microscopic anatomy. As early as the year 1661
he discovered the capillary vessels connecting
the veins and arteries by the aid of the micro-
scope. A little later he observed the passage of
the blood corpuscles through these minute ves-
sels, making his observations on the lung of a
turtle. His work completed the last link of the
chain which Harvey had all but established in
proving the course of the circulation of the
blood.

Marchettis, Peter, ii, 185. (1589-1675.) An
Italian physician, one of the leading surgeons
of the Seventeenth Century.

Marconi, Guglielmo, viii, 14. Born at Bo-
logna, Italy, April 25, 1874. Italian inventor.
Noted for perfecting a system of wireless teleg-
raphy. In 1899 he began sending messages
across the English Channel, and this date may
be considered as opening the era of wireless
telegraphy.

Mariotte, Edme, ii, 210. Born at Burgundy
about 1620; died at Paris, May 12, 1684. French
physicist. He demonstrated that but for the
resistance of the atmosphere, all bodies, whether
light or heavy, dense or thin, would fall with
equal rapidity. He proved this by the well-
known "Guinea-and-feather" experiment — pla-
cing a coin and a feather in a tube from which
the air had been exhausted, and showing that

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

the rate of falling in a vacuum was the same.
The name "Mariotte's law" is given to the prin-
ciple discovered by Boyle that the volume of a
given mass of gas varies inversely as the pres-
sure which it bears at any given temperature.

Marsh, Othniel Charles, iii, 107. Born at
Lockport, New York, Oct. 29, 1831; died at
New Haven, Conn., March 18, 1899. American
paleontologist. He is especially remembered for
his work in collecting and classifying the fossils
found in the Rocky Mountain region. It was
he who discovered the earliest progenitors of
the horse, the fossil remains of which were
found during this extensive work in the West.

Maspero, Gaston Camilla Charles, i, 28. Born
at Paris, June 24, 1846. French Egyptologist.
His best known work is "History of the Ancient
People of the Orient."

Maupertius, Pierre Louis Moreau de, iv, 149.
Born at St. Malo, France, July 17, 1698; died at
Basel, Switzerland, July 27, 1759. French as-
tronomer, mathematician, and philosopher. In
1 736-37 he went to Lapland and measured ac-
curately a degree of longitude. He supported
the Newtonian theory against the Cartesians,
and had conceived vaguely the idea of transmu-
tation of species.

Maury, Matthew Fontaine, iii, 196. Born at
Spottsylvania County, Va., Jan. 14, 1806; died
at Lexington, Va., Feb. I, 1873. Ameri-
can naval officer, hydrographer and meteorolo-
gist. Advocated a theory of gravitation as the
chief cause of ocean currents. He gave the
first complete description of the Gulf Stream.

Maxim, Sir Hiram Stevens, vi, 228; vii, 283.

[127]

KEY AND INDEX

Born at Sangerville, Me., Feb. 1840. American-
English inventor. He is noted for his inven-
tion of automatic firearms, and for his studies
of aerial navigation. In 1894 he demonstrated
that a heavy machine properly equipped with
plane-surface could be made to rise from the
ground and be sustained by the air.

Maxwell, James Clerk, iii, 44. Born at Edin-
burgh, Nov. 13, 1831 ; died Nov. 5, 1879. Scotch
physicist. Especially remembered for his studies
of the motion of Saturn's rings, and his investi-
gation's as to the nature of electricity and mag-
netism. In 1871 he published his "Theory of
Heat," and in 1876, "Matter and Motion."

Mayer, Dr. Julius Robert von, iii, 258. Born
at Heilbronn, Wurtemberg, Nov. 25, 1814; died
at Heilbronn, March 20, 1878. German physi-
cian and physicist. In 1842 he originated the
mechanical theory of heat, and propounded the
entire doctrine of the conservation of energy.
He was led to his conclusions by the observa-
tions made on patients while acting as surgeon
on a Dutch India vessel cruising in the tropics.

Mendeleeff, Dmitri Ivanovitch, iv, 68. Born
at Tobolsk, Siberia, Feb. vii, 1834. Celebrated
Russian chemist. He was the discoverer of the
periodic system of the chemical elements. This
discovery had enabled Mendeleeff to predicate
the existence of new elements years before they
were discovered.

Mercator (right name Gerhard Kremer), vii,
30. Born at Rupelmondo, Belgium, March 5,
1512; died at Dinsburg, Prussia, Dec. 2, 1594.
Flemish geographer. Remembered particularly

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

for his invention of the Mercator system of pro-
jection of maps.

Meyer, Lothar, iv, 68. He conceived the so-
called "Law of Octaves" afterward fully expli-
cated by Mendeleeff (q.v.) under the title of
"The Periodic Law."

Mohl, Hugo von, iv, 125. (See von Mohl.)

Mohr, Karl Friedrich, iii, 257. Born at Co-
blenz, Germany, Nov. 4, 1806; died at Bonn,
Sept. 27, 1879. German chemist and physicist.
He was first to state the doctrine of the con-
servation of energy which he had independently
conceived. He did not demonstrate the valid-
ity of his conception as clearly as Mayer did
five years later, but his conception is apparently
the first ever recorded.

Moissan, Prof. Henri, ix, 328. Born at Paris.
Sept. 28, 1852; died Feb. 20, 1907. French chem-
ist. Noted for his accomplishments with the
electric furnace. In 1892 discovered a method
of manufacturing acetylene at a cost that
is commercially profitable. In 1893 formed
diamonds from iron melted in an electric fur-
nace and cooled suddenly.

Mondino of Bologna, ii, 37. Born in 1276;
died in 1326. An Italian physician known as
the "restorer of anatomy." He is known to
have made careful dissections of the human
body, and his writings on anatomy based on his
observations were a step in advance over the
generally accepted writings of Galen.

Montgolfier, Joseph Michel, vii, 230. Born at
Ardeche, France, 1740; died at Balarnc, France,
June 26, 1810. French mechanician and in-

KEY AND INDEX

ventor. With his brother invented the hot-air
balloon, a public exhibition being given in 1782.

Montgolfier, Stephen, vii, 230. Born at Ar-
deche, France, Jan. 7, 1745; died in Servieres,
Aug. 2, 1799. French mechanician and inventor
(with his brother Joseph, q.v.) of the hot-air bal-
loon.

Morgagni, Giovanni Battista, iv, 76. Born at
Forli, Italy, Feb. 25, 1682; died at Padua, Italy,
Nov. 5, 1771. An Italian physician and anato-
mist. He made exhaustive studies of the struc-
ture of diseased tissue both during life and post-
mortem, and as he was one of the first to inves-
tigate this subject he is one of the founders
of pathological anatomy. From the time of the
publication of Morgagni's researches morbid
anatomy became a recognized branch of medical
science.

Morgan, Lewis Henry, vi, 25. Born at Aurora,
N. Y., Nov. 21, 1818; died at Rochester, N. Y.,
Dec. 17, 1881. American archaeologist and an-
thropologist. He was first to give a scientific
account of the organization and government of
the Indian tribe.

Morse, Samuel F. B., viii, 17. Born at Charles-
town, Mass., April 27, 1791; died at New York,
April 2, 1872. American artist and inventor of
the electric telegraph. He began life as a por-
trait painter, but turned his attention to inven-
tion, and in 1832 designed an electric telegraph.
He applied for a patent in 1837, and in 1844 a
line of telegraph was completed between Balti-
more and Washington, an appropriation for its
construction having been granted by Congress
the year before.

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

Morton, Dr. William Thomas Greene, iv, 214.
Born at Charlton, Mass., Aug. 9, 1819; died at
New York, July 15, 1868. An American dentist,
the discoverer of etherization. On October 16,
1846, Dr. Morton administered ether to a pa-
tient in the Massachusetts General Hospital, at
Boston, and Dr. Warren performed a difficult
operation, the removal of a tumor from the pa-
tient's neck. This operation inaugurated the
era of painless surgery for which Dr. Morton's
discovery is responsible.

Muller, Johannes, iv, 122. Born at Coblenz,
Germany, July 14, 1801 ; died at Berlin, April
27, 1858. German physiologist and comparative
anatomist. He was one of the founders of mod-
ern physiology.

Murdoch, William, vi, 207; vii, 158. Born at
Auchinleck, Ayrshire, Aug. 21, 1753; died at
Birmingham, Nov. 15, 1839. Scottish inventor.
He was associated with Watt in Birmingham,
and in 1795 first made use of illuminating gas
at that place. He was the inventor of the oscil-
lating steam-engine.

Musschenbroek, Peter van, ii, 280. Born at
Leyden, Netherlands, March 14, 1692; died there
Sept. 19, 1761. Dutch natural philosopher and
mathematician. One of the discoverers of the
Leyden jar. His discovery was made at about
the same time as that of Dean von Kleist, but
independently.

Newcomb, Simon, vii, 39. Born at Wallace,
Nova Scotia, March 12, 1835; died in 1910.
American astronomer. Professor of Mathema-
tics in the United States Navy in 1861 ; in 1884,
Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy at

KEY AND INDEX

Johns Hopkins University. Wrote popularly
on astronomy and political economy.

Newcomen, Thomas, vi, 89. Born in 1663;
died in August, 1729. English inventor. He
invented (with Cawley and Savery) the atmos-
pheric steam-engine, which was patented in 1705.

Newlands, John A. R., iv, 67. Born in Eng-
land, 1838; died at London, July 29, 1898. An
English chemist. He was one of the first to
propound the conception of the periodicity
among the chemical elements. (See Mendeleeff.)

Newton, Sir Isaac, ii, 236. Born at Wools-
thorpe, near Grantham, England, Dec. 25, 1642
(O.S.); died at Kensington, March 20, 1727.
English mathematician and natural philosopher.
Discoverer of the law of universal gravitation.
(See Vol. II, pp. 236-251.)

Nicholson, William, iii, 232. Born at London,
1753; died in 1815. English physicist and chem-
ist. He (with Carlisle) decomposed water into
its elements, hydrogen and oxygen, by galvan-
ism in 1800.

Oersted, Hans Christian, iii, 236. Born at
Rudkjobing, Denmark, Aug. 14, 1777; died
March 9, 1851. A Danish physicist. In 1819 he
discovered electro-magnetism by passing a cur-
rent of electricity through a wire held parallel
with, but not quite touching, a suspended mag-
netic needle.

Oken, Lorenz, iv, 160. Born at Bolsbach,
Swabia, Aug. I, 1779; died at Zurich, Aug. u,
1861. German naturalist and natural philoso-
pher. In a work published during his profes-
sorship in the University of Zurich he outlined

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

a theory of spontaneous generation and of evo-
lution of species.

Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias, iii, 40.
Born near Bremen, Germany, 1758; died at Bre-
men, March 2, 1840. German physician and
astronomer. He discovered several comets and
the planetoids, Pallas and Vesta, and discov-
ered a method of calculating cometary orbits.

Owen, Sir Richard, iv, 207. Born at Lancas-
ter, England, July 20, 1804; died at London,
Dec. 1 8, 1892. English paleontologist and com-
parative anatomist. From 1836-1856, he was
Hunterian Professor of Anatomy and Physiol-
ogy in the London College of Surgeons. He
was conspicuous in the field of microscopy, and
in 1833 discovered the "Trichina spiralis" in the
tissues of the human body.

Paget, Sir James, iv, 207. Born at Yarmouth,
England, Jan. n, 1714; died at London, Dec. 30,
1899. English physician and surgeon. He dis-
covered the presence of "Trichina spiralis" in
human muscular tissue while a student in St.
Bartholomew's Hospital in 1833. At one time
president of the Royal College of Surgeons.

Papin, Denis, vi, 88. Born at Blois, France,
Aug. 22, 1647; died in 1712. French physicist.
As early as 1688 he conceived the idea of ma-
king use of a piston working tightly in a cylin-
der, and a little later added the idea of pro-
ducing a vacuum in a cylinder — steps toward
the invention of the steam-engine.

Paracelsus, Philippus Aureolus, ii, 159. Born
at Switzerland, Dec. 17, 1493; died at Salzburg,
Sept. 23, 1541. German-Swiss physician and
alchemist. He gave a great impetus to the study

fi33l

KEY AND INDEX

of pharmaceutical chemistry and the use of
drugs. It is claimed (upon doubtful authority),
that he introduced the use of opium and mer-
cury in medicine.

Pare, Ambroise, ii, 181. Born at Laval,
Mayenne, France, 1517; died at Paris, Dec. 22,
1590. Celebrated French surgeon. One of the
founders of scientific surgery. Noted for his
discovery of a rational method of treating gun-
shot wounds. He introduced the use of the
ligature for controlling hemorrhage.

Parmenides, i, 114. Lived about the middle
of the Fifth Century, B.C. Greek philosopher.
His writings were held in high esteem by both
Plato and Aristotle.

Parsons, C. A., vi, 124. Born June 13, 1854.
English engineer, inventor of the practical steam
turbine engine. These engines have been found
particularly effective for the generating of elec-
tricity and the propulsion of war and mercantile
vessels.

Pascal, Blaise, ii, 122. Born at Clermont-
Ferrand, Puy-de-D6me, June 19, 1623; died at
Paris, August 19, 1662. Celebrated French phil-
osopher and writer. In 1648 Pascal suggested
that if the theory of the pressure of the air
upon the mercury in a Torricellian barometer
was correct, it could be demonstrated by ascend-
ing a mountain with the mercury tube. As the
air was known to get progressively lighter from
base to summit, the height of the column should
be progressively lessened as the ascent was
made, and increase again on the descent into
the denser air. This experiment was made
shortly after this time, the rising and falling

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

of the mercury proving the correctness of the
theory of atmospheric pressure.

Pasteur, Louis, iv, 217. Born at Dole, Jura,
France, Dec. 27, 1822; died near St. Cloud, Sept.
28, 1895. Celebrated French chemist and micro-
scopist. Noted for his studies on fermentation
and his researches in bacteria. Remembered
particularly for his experiments with anthrax
bacillis and the prevention of the disease in do-
mestic animals caused by this germ. Also for
his experiments and demonstrations in the pre-
vention of hydrophobia by inoculation.

Paul of Aegina, ii, 31. Born about 620; died
about the year 690. A Byzantine physician. He
was one of the Alexandrian school of physicians
who was far ahead of his time in his knowledge
of surgery. He discarded the prevalent idea of
the supernatural cause of disease and practiced
his profession along rational scientific lines. He
performed many modern operations, among
others those within the abdominal cavity.

Perraudin, iii, 145. A chamois hunter, who
in 1815 noted the markings of glaciers on the
rocks in the Alps and reached the correct con-
clusion that these scratches were caused by gla-
ciers in former times. His conception was
laughed at at first by scientists, but later ac-
cepted as a true explanation of what are now
known as glacial scratches.

Peter of Abano, ii, 36. Born in 1250; died in
1315. A celebrated mediaeval physician who ad-
vocated rational methods in the treatment of
diseases, maintaining that such diseases were
of natural rather than of supernatural causation.
He was one of the first great men produced by

[135]

KEY AND INDEX

the University of Padua. He is remembered
particularly for his teachings that the brain is
the source of the nerves, and the heart the
source of the vessels.

Petrie, W. M. Flinders, i, 28. Born June 30,
1853. An English Egyptologist who has made
many important discoveries of Egyptian relics
which give clues to the history of the early
Egyptian civilization.

Piazzi, Giuseppe, iii, 40. Born at Ponte, Val-
tellina, Italy, July 16, 1746; died at Naples, July
22, 1826. Italian astronomer. On January i,
1801, observed an apparent star which he sup-
posed to be a comet. Later it proved to be the
planet Ceres, occupying a position in space be-
tween Mars and Jupiter.

Pickering, Edward Charles, iii, 65. Born at
Boston, July 19, 1846. American astronomer,
Professor of Astronomy and Dir. Harvard
College Observatory since 1876. Made exhaust-
ive study of light and spectra of the stars. Made
over one million measures of the light of stars
with a meridian photometer invented by him.
Author of "Elements of Physical Manipula-
tion," and many papers on scientific subjects.

Pinel, Dr. Philippe, iv, 245. Born at St. Andre,
Tarn, France, April 20, 1745; died at Paris, Oct.
25, 1826. French physician. In 1795, at La
Saltpetriere, an asylum for the care of the in-
sane, he struck off the shackles from the inmates
and took the revolutionary attitude of treating
them as persons afflicted by disease, not "pos-
sessed by demons."

Planche, Gaston, iii, 246. French inventor. In
1859 he invented the first reasonably satisfac-

[136]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

tory storage battery. His battery was con-
structed of sheets of lead immersed in dilute
sulphuric acid.

Plato, i, 1 80. Born at JEg'ma, 429 or 427
B.C.; died at Athens, 347. Greek philosopher.
He was a great ethical teacher, but seems to
have had no clearly defined opinions as to the
mechanism of the universe; no clear conception
as to the origin of development of organic be-
ings; no tangible ideas as to the problems of
physics; no favorite dreams as to the nature of
matter.

Playfair, John, iii, 131. Born at Ben vie, For-
farshire, March 10, 1748; died at Edinburgh,
July 19, 1819. Scottish physicist. One of the
ardent champions of Hutton's theory of con-
stant changes taking place in the earth's crust.
With Lyell, he conceived that the changes on
the surface of the earth have always been the
same in degree as well as in kind. Modern
physicists do not accept this.

Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus), i, 265. Born
at Como, Italy, 23 A.D. ; died in the eruption of
Vesuvius, 79 A.D. Celebrated Roman naturalist.
He wrote his famous work on "Natural His-
tory" while campaigning as a soldier of the
Roman Empire. It is a vast work in which
some four thousand works are either cited or
quoted from. In the history of scientific princi-
ples it may be virtually disregarded, but it is
important in the history of the promulgation of
knowledge.

Polybius, i, 201. Born at Megalopolis, Arca-
dia, Greece, 204 B.C. ; died about 125 B.C. Cele-
brated Greek historian. It is through his wri-

[137]

KEY AND INDEX

tings that much of the life work of Archimedes
is known. Many of the mechanisms invented
by him are also described.

Pouchet, M. F. A., iv, 180. A French scientist
who advocated the theory that organic beings
are generated about us constantly in the familiar
processes of putrefaction which are known to be
due to the agency of microscopic bacteria. In
1862 Louis Pasteur proved that this seeming
spontaneous generation is in reality due to the
existence of germs in the air.

Prestwich, Sir Joseph, iii, 101. Born at Clap-
ham, London, March 12, 1812; died at Shore-
ham, Kent, June 23, 1895. Noted English geol-
ogist. With Mr. (afterward Sir John) Evans he
made important excavations and investigations
of fossil remains and prehistoric implements
found at Abbeville and other places in 1859.
His discoveries helped to establish the correct-
ness of the theory of evolution.

Priestley, Joseph, iv, 20. Born near Leeds,
Yorkshire, March 13, 1733; died at Northumber-
berland, Pa., Feb. 6, 1804. Celebrated English
clergyman and natural philosopher. Noted for
his general experiments with gases, and in par-
ticular for his discovery of oxygen. He wrote
a "History of Electricity" at the suggestion of
Benjamin Franklin.

Proust, Louis Joseph, iv, 41. Born at Angers,
1755; died in 1826. French chemist. His work
led to the establishment of the principle that
chemical compounds are of fixed proportions,
however prepared.

Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), i, 267. Born
at Alexandria; died first half of Second Cen-

[138]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

tury, A.D. Astronomer, geographer, and math-
ematician. The last great astronomer of anti-
quity. His mathematical system of astronomy
was accepted for several centuries until finally
displaced by the system of Copernicus.

Pythagoras, i, 112. Born at Samos, Greece,
about 582 B.C.; died at Metapontum, Magna
Grsecia, about 500 B.C. Famous Greek philoso-
pher and mathematician. He is said to have been
the first to advocate that the earth is a sphere.

Ramon y Cajal, Dr. Santiago, iv, 283. Born
at Petitte de Aragon, Spain, 1852. Spanish phy-
sician and histologist. Professor of Histol-
ogy in Barcelona and Madrid. Received one of
the Nobel prizes, 1906.

Ramsay, Sir William, v, 86. Born at Glas-
gow, Oct. 2, 1852. Scotch chemist. In 1894
(with Lord Rayleigh) he discovered argon. He
isolated helium, krypton, neon, and xenon. In
1896 he published "The Gases of the Atmos-
phere and the History of their Discovery."

Rawlinson, Canon, i, 82. Born at Chadling-
ton, Oxfordshire, Nov. 23, 1812; died at Can-
terbury, Oct. 6, 1902. English theologian, his-
torian, and Orientalist. His histories of the
ancient Oriental peoples have thrown much light
on the scientific knowledge of their time.

Rawlinson, Sir Henry, iv, 229; v, 9. Born at
Chadlington, Oxfordshire, April u, 1810; died
at London, March 5, 1895. English Assyriolo-
gist. He wrote extensively on Assyriology, giv-
ing a clear insight into the status of science
among the Assyrians and Chaldeans.

Rayleigh, Lord, v, 86. Born Nov. 12, 1842.
English physicist For eleven years he was sec-

[139]

KEY AND INDEX

retary of the Royal Society. He was associated
with Prof. William Ramsay in the discovery of
the new gas, argon, which forms approximately
i per cent of the atmosphere.

Reamur, Rene, iv, 88. Born at La Rochelle,
France, Feb. 28, 1683; died at Bermondiere,
Maine, France, Oct. 18, 1757. French naturalist
and physicist. He discovered the method of
making the porcelain named for him and in-
vented the Reamur thermometer. In the scale
of this thermometer there are 80 degrees be-
tween the freezing-point and the boiling-point
of water.

Rhazes, Arabian physician, ii, 24. Born at Raj,
Persia, about 850; died about 932. An Arabian
physician, philosopher and musician. He intro-
duced the use of mercurial ointment, sulphuric
and nitric acid, in therapeutics. He is credited
with being the first physician to describe small-
pox and measles accurately.

Roentgen, Professor Wilhelm Conrad, iii, 248.
Born at Leinnep, Prussia, March 27, 1845. Ger-
man physicist. He has made several important
discoveries, but the importance of these is com-
pletely overshadowed by his discovery, in 1896,
of the Roentgen rays, or X-rays. For this dis-
covery he was awarded the Nobel prize in 1901.

Rouge, Olivier Charles de, i, 27. Born at
Paris, April n, 1811 ; died at Chateau Bois-Dau-
phin, Dec. 31, 1872. Celebrated French Egypt-
ologist. Remembered particularly for his dis-
covery of the prototypes of the Semitic alphabet
in the early Egyptian hieratic.

Rumford, Count, iii, 2o8;v,3O. Born at Woburn,
Mass., March 26, 1753; died at Auteuil, near

[ HO]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

Paris, Aug. 21, 1814. An American scientist.
As aide-de-camp and chamberlain at the court
of the Elector of Bavaria, he reorganized the
Bavarian Army. His greatest discovery, that
heat is a form of motion, was discovered while
boring cannon for the defense of Munich.

Rush, Dr. Benjamin, iv, 245. Born near Phila-
delphia, Dec. 24, 1745; died at Philadelphia,
April 19, 1813. American physician. Remem-
bered in particular for his attitude toward pa-
tients suffering from mental disorders.

Rutherford, Prof. Ernest, v, 105. Born at
Nelson, New Zealand, 1871. In 1898, was ap-
pointed Professor of Physics in McGill Univer-
sity, Montreal. He has written extensively on
the conduction of electricity through gases, and
on radio-activity. In 1904 he published "Radio-
activity."

Saint-Hilaire, Etienne Geoffrey, iv, 160. Born
at fitampes, April 15, 1772; died at Paris, June
19, 1844. Noted French zoologist. He cham-
pioned the theory of the transmutation of spe-
cies against Cuvier, but the truth of his argu-
ments was not fully appreciated until after his
death.

Santos-Dumont, Alberto, vii, 266. Born at San
Paulo, Brazil, July 20, 1873. Brazilian aeronaut.
Experimented with balloons in 1898, and
in that year constructed his first dirigible bal-
loon. After building several balloons and hav-
ing several narrow escapes, he finally, on Octo-
ber 19, 1901, won the Henri Deutsche prize of
100,000 francs by flying from the Aero Club at
Saint Cloud around the Eiffel Tower and back

[Hi]

KEY AND INDEX

to the starting point in a few seconds less than
half an hour.

Savery, Thomas, vi, 85. Born at Shilstone,
near Modbury, Devonshire, about 1650; died at
London, May, 1715. English engineer. He is
remembered particularly for his invention of a
machine for raising water from mines by means
of steam power. This device, patented in 1698,
represented the first application of steam power
for mechanical purposes.

Scheele, Karl William, iv, 23. Born at Shal-
sund, Dec. 2, 1742; died at Koping, Sweden,
May, 1786. A celebrated Swedish chemist. He
discovered oxygen independently, and without
knowing that Priestley had already discovered
it. He also discovered many other important
substances, such as arsenic acid, lactic acid, tar-
taric acid, ammonia, and chlorine, this last be-
ing of great value commercially for bleaching.

Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio, iii, 35. Born
at Savigliano, Italy, March 4, 1835. Italian as-
tronomer. The first to point out that meteor
swarms move in the orbits of pre-existing
comets, and are the debris of comets.

Schleiden, Dr. M. J., iv, 118. Born at Ham-
burg, April 5, 1804; died at Frankfort-on-the-
Main, June 23, 1881. German botanist. The
first to demonstrate the all-importance of cell-
nucleii in the economy of the cell.

Schoenlein, J. L., iv, 208. A German physi-
cian who, in 1839, made the discovery that fa-
vus, a distressing disease of the scalp, is due to
the presence of a microscopic vegetable organ-
ism. This was a step toward the later discovery

[142]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

that many other diseases are caused by bac-
teria.

Schultze, Max Johann Sigismund, iv, 125.
Born at Freiburg, Baden, March 25, 1825; died
at Bonn, Prussia, Jan. 16, 1874. German anat-
omist and biologist. Remembered particularly
for his researches on protoplasm, and his dem-
onstrations that vegetable protoplasm and ani-
mal sarcode are to all intents and purposes iden-
tical.

Schwann, Theodor, iv, 119. Born at Neuss,
Prussia, Dec. 7, 1810; died at Cologne, Jan. 14,
1882. Distinguished physiologist. He is re-
membered particularly as the founder of the
cell-theory. He made important investigations
of muscular and nervous tissues, and was the
discoverer of pepsin.

Scrope, G. Poulett, iii, 132. Born at London,
1797; died Jan. 19, 1876. English geologist.
In 1823 he published a classical work on volca-
noes in which he claimed that volcanic moun-
tains are merely accumulated masses of lava
belched forth from a crevice in the earth's crust.

Servetus, Michael, ii, 168. Born at Tudela,
Spain, 1511; burned at Geneva, Oct. 27, 1553.
Spanish physician and philosopher. He dis-
covered and described the pulmonary circula-
tion, and that the fluids contained in veins and
arteries are the same. He showed that the
blood is purified by respiration in the lungs, and
asserted that there are vessels in the lungs
"formed out of vein and artery."

Siemens, Werner, vi, 178; vii, 181. Born at
Lenthe, near Hanover, Dec. 13, 1816; died at
Berlin, Dec. 6, 1892. German inventor and man-

[143]

KEY AND INDEX

ufactui-er. He is noted for his experiments in
electricity, his work having a direct effect in the
final perfecting of the dynamo.

Siemens, Sir William, vi, 195. Born at Lenthe,
near Hanover, April 4, 1823; died at London,
Nov. 19, 1883. German-English physicist and
inventor; brother of Werner Siemens. In 1859
he became a naturalized British subject. He made
extensive researches in the field of heat and elec-
tricity.

Simpson, Sir J. Y., iv, 217. Born at Bathgate,
Scotland, June 7, 1811; died May 6, 1870. Scot-
tish physician. Noted for his introduction of
chloroform as an anaesthetic about one year after
Morton's demonstration of etherization.

Singer, Isaac M., ix, 97. Born at Oswego,
N. Y., Oct. 27, 1811; died at Torquay, England,
July 23, 1875. American machinist and inventor.
He improved the sewing-machine, bringing it to
a practical stage of perfection.

Sloane, Sir Hans, v, 4. Born at Killyleagh,
County Down, Ireland, April 16, 1660; died at
London, Jan. n, 1753. British physician and
naturalist. Virtually the founder of the British
Museum. His collection of curios, which he
turned over to the British Government for a nom-
inal sum, formed the nucleus for the present
museum.

Smith, William, iii, 74. Born at Churchill, Ox-
fordshire, England, March 23, 1769; died at
Northampton, England, Aug. 28, 1839. An Eng-
lish surveyor who is known as "the Father of
English Geology" through his studies of fossils.
He discovered that fossils in rocks are arranged
in regular systems, and that the order of succes-

[144]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

sion of such groups of fossils is always the same
in any vertical series of strata in which they
occur.

Snell (or Snellius), Willebrord, ii, 119. Born at
Leyden, 1581 ; died Oct. 30, 1626. Dutch mathe-
matician. About the year 1621, while Professor
of Mathematics at Leyden, he discovered the law
of refraction.

Spallanzani, Lazzaro, iv, 86. Born at Scandi-
ano in Modena, 1729; died in 1799. Remembered
chiefly for his discoveries and investigations in
the biological sciences. He refuted the evidence
of Needham that minute organisms form sponta-
neously in solutions of meat in water after boil-
ing, by demonstrating conclusively that if prop-
erly protected from the atmosphere no organism
will form. He discovered the function of the
ovum and spermatozoon, and demonstrated that
digestion is a chemical process by an ingenious
use of tubes filled with food introduced into the
stomach.

Spencer, Herbert, iv, 268. Born at Derby, April
27, 1820; died at Brighton, Dec. 8, 1903. Eng-
lish philosopher, founder of the system known
as synthetic philosophy. He studied engineering
and during 1837-46 was employed as a railway
engineer. From 1846 he devoted himself to lit-
erary work, acting as sub-editor of the "Econo-
mist" from 1848 to 1853. In 1850 he published
"Social Statics"; and in 1855, "Principles of
Psychology." He began his "Synthetic Philoso-
phy" in 1860, completing it in 1896. He was in
sympathy and closely in touch with the work of
Darwin and Huxley, and in his writings he tried
"to express in a sweeping general formula the

[145]

KEY AND INDEX

belief in progress which pervaded his age." He
was essentially a thinker and writer, rather than
an active worker in scientific fields.

Spurzheim, Dr. Kasper, iv, 248. Born at Long-
wich, near Treves, Dec. 31, 1776; died at Boston,
Nov. 10, 1832. A German phrenologist. He was
a disciple of Gall, and wrote a physiognomical
system with him. He wrote also on philosophy
and anatomy.

Stahl, George Ernst, iv, 6, 185. Born at Aus-
pach, 1660; died at Berlin, 1734. German physi-
cian and chemist. Famous as the author of the
phlogiston theory (q.v.). Champion of the
"Animist" theory in medicine.

Stephenson, George, vi, 114; vii, 124. Born at
Wylam, near Newcastle, June 9, 1781 ; died near
Chesterfield, Aug. 12, 1848. English inventor,
the perfecter of the locomotive. As early as 1814
he constructed a locomotive that could propel
itself along the rails, and in 1825 a locomotive
made by him actually hauled a train of cars with
passengers. His locomotive "Rocket," made in
1829, however, is the prototype of modern loco-
motives.

Stevinus, Simon, ii, 102. Born at Bruges, 1548;
died at The Hague (on Leyden), 1620. Cele-
brated Dutch mathematician. About 1600 he in-
vented a carriage propelled by sails, in which he
carried the Prince of Orange and six other pas-
sengers at a speed said to have been much faster
than that of horses. In the history of science he
is remembered as one of the founders of the
science of dynamics and the science of statics.

Strabo, i, 255. Born at Amasia, Pontus, about
63 B.C.; died about 24 A.D. Celebrated Greek

[146]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

geographer. Through his writings a good idea
of the status of the sciences in his day is gained.
He considered the earth a globe, and had a very
definite idea of its size. The habitable portion,
according to him, extended from Ireland to Cey-
lon.

Struve, F. G. W., iii, 58. Born at Altona, Ger-
many, April 15, 1793; died at St. Petersburg,
Nov. 23, 1864. A German Russian astronomer.
He is remembered particularly for his researches
on double stars.

Swammerdam, John, ii, 297. Born at Amster-
dam, Feb. 12, 1637; died there Feb. 15, 1680.
Dutch naturalist. He was educated for the min-
istry, but turned to the profession of medicine.
Later he devoted himself to the study of insects,
and his work laid the foundation of the modern
science of entomology.

Sydenham, Thomas, ii, 189. Born in Dorset-
shire, England, 1624; died at London, Decem-
ber, 1689. Famous English physician. He studied
predisposing causes of diseases, and anticipated
modern practice in his methods of treating them.
In general terms his was what might be termed
"rational" treatment. He is remembered par-
ticularly for his introduction of the use of lauda-
num.

Sylvius, Franz, ii, 186. Born at Hanan, Prus-
sia, 1614; died at Leyden, 1672. Celebrated Ger-
man physician. He founded the "latrochemical"
school of medicine, whose fellows used medicines
and did not accept the "humoral" pathology. One
of the fissures in the brain (fissure of Sylvius) is
named for him.

Symington, William, vii, 67. Born at Lead-

[147]

KEY AND INDEX

hills, Scotland, 1763; died at London, March 22,
1831. British engineer and inventor. Studied
for the ministry, but later became a civil engi-
neer. He improved the steam-engine, and in 1802
he produced the steam tugboat "Charlotte Dun-
das," which was practical commercially.

Tait, Professor P. G., iii, 291; v, 208. Born
April 28, 1831 ; died July 4 ,1901. Scottish physi-
cist and mathematician. Made extensive studies,
with Lord Kelvin, of the vortex theory of mat-
ter. Was an authority on quaternions, and made
many important investigations in heat and elec-
tricity.

Talbot, William Henry Fox, i, 71. Born Feb.
n, 1800; died at Laycock Abbey, Wiltshire, Sept.
17, 1877. English antiquary. He discovered a
process of photography about the same time as
did Daguerre, and in 1841 invented the calotype
process. He was one of the first to decipher the
Assyrian inscriptions found at Nineveh.

Tesla, Nikola. Born at Smiljan, Lika, Aus-
tria-Hungary, 1857. Physicist and electrician.
Came to the United States in 1884, and later be-
came a naturalized citizen. Invented the system
of alternating current power transmission, pr.o-
ularly known as 2-phase, 3-phase, multi-phase,
and poly-phase, in 1888. Has been actively en-
gaged in investigating wireless lighting systems,
and wireless means of communication.

Thales, i, 103. Born at Miletus, Asia Minor,
about 640 B.C. ; died about 546. Greek astrono-
mer, and philosopher. He is said to have pre-
dicted an eclipse of the sun which took place in
the year 585 B.C.

Theophrastus, i, 188. Born at Eresus, Lesbos,
[148]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

about 372 B.C. ; died 288 or 287 B.C. Greek phi-
losopher. He was a disciple of Aristotle. Be-
cause of his work on botany, called "The Natural
History of Development," he is called the "father
of botany."

Thompson, Benjamin. (See Count Rumford.)

Thomson, Prof. J. J., v, 92. Born near Man-
chester, Dec. 1 8, 1856. English physicist. Pro-
fessor of Physics, Royal Institution, London,
since 1905. Especially noted for his researches
in electricity and magnetism, and his exhaustive
writings on these subjects. May be said to be
the discoverer of the negative "electron," or unit
"corpuscle" of electricity.

Thomson, Thomas, iv, 44. Born at Crieff,
April 12, 1773 ; died near Holy Loch, July 2, 1852.
British chemist. He discovered a large number
of chemical compounds, such as chlorochromic
and hyposulphurous acid, and many salts.

Thomson, William. (See Lord Kelvin.)

Torricelli, Evangelista, ii, 120. Born at Pian-
caldoli, Italy, Oct. 15, 1608; died at Florence,
Oct. 25, 1647. Italian mathematician and physi-
cist. He was a friend of Galileo, and his succes-
sor as professor at Florence. He is remembered
particularly for his invention of the barometer
in 1643.

Treviranus, Gottfried Reinhold, iv, 159. Born
at Bremen, Feb. 4, 1776; died Feb. 16, 1837. Ger-
man naturalist. He was one of the early workers
in biological fields, and one of the first to suggest
the name "biology" for that science.

Trevithick, Richard, vi, 103; vii, 75. Born at
Cornwall, England, April 13, 1771 ; died April 22,
1833. Engineer and inventor of the locomotive.

[149]

KEY AND INDEX

Constructed his first locomotive in 1800. Be-
tween 1801 and 1803 he ran road locomotives
about London, carrying passengers. He con-
structed a high-pressure threshing engine in 1812
His plunger pole pump, invented in 1797, super-
seded all others for deep mining, and is still in
use.

Tuke, Dr. William, iv, 245. Born at York, in
1732; died in 1822. English physician and phi-
lanthropist. Remembered particularly for his
revolutionary method of caring for the insane,
freeing them from chains, and allowing them
greater liberty than heretofore.

Tycho, Brahe, ii, 65. Born at Scandia, Sweden,
Dec. 14 (O.S.), 1546; died at Prague, Bohemia,
Oct. 24 (N.S.), IDOL Celebrated Danish astron-
omer; among the most famous of star-gazers. He
did not accept the Copernican doctrine in full,
regarding the earth as an exception to the other
planets which have the sun as their center of
motion.

Tyndall, John, iv, 175. Born at Leighlin
Bridge, Ireland, Aug. 21, 1820; died at Hasle-
mere, Surrey, Dec. 4, 1893. Distinguished Brit-
ish physicist. Especially noted for his popular
exposition of scientific subjects, and for his im-
portant investigations in electricity, heat, light,
and acoustics. He devoted much time to the in-
vestigation and study of glaciers, and wrote ex-
tensively concerning them. He was an ardent
champion of the Darwinian theory from the time
of its promulgation.

Van Helmont, Jean Baptista, ii, 185. Born at
Brussels, 1578; died at Brussels, Dec. 30, 1644.
A Flemish chemist and physician. He con-

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

structed a system of medicine which had quite a
following until after his death. He coined and
first used the word "gas," and is said to have
demonstrated the necessity of using the balance
in chemistry.

Vesalius, Andrew, ii, 164. Born at Brussels,
Dec. 31, 1514; died in the Island of Zante, Oct.
15, 1564. Noted Belgian physician and anato-
mist. He is called the "greatest of anatomists."
His work, "De corporis humani fabrica, libri sep-
tem" was the first comprehensive and systematic
work on humane anatomy.

Virchow, Rudolf, iv, 127; v, 188. Born at
Schivelbein, Pomerania, Oct. 13, 1821; died at
Berlin, Sept. 5, 1902. Celebrated German physi-
cian, anatomist, and anthropologist. He was the
founder of cellular pathology. Throughout his
life he was active as a teacher, in laboratory work
and hospital clinic. During his later years he
was also active as a statesman.

Volta, Alessandro, iii, 230. Born at Como,
Italy, Feb. 18, 1745; died there March 5, 1827.
Celebrated Italian physicist. He is famous for
his invention of the voltaic pile. This invention
furnished a method of generating galvanic elec-
tricity, and is the direct prototype of modern gal-
vanic batteries. It was one of the most revolu-
tionary inventions in the field of electricity.
Volta also invented an electroscope, electrophore
and condenser.

Von Baer, Karl Ernst, iv, 122. Born at Estho-
mia, Russia, Feb. 28, 1792; died at Dorpat, Nov.
28, 1876. Celebrated Russian naturalist and em-
bryologist. Von Baer's- studies in embryology
were the basis of Schwann's discovery that "there

KEY AND INDEX

is one universal principle of development for the
elementary parts of organisms, however differ-
ent, and this principle is the formation of cells."

Von Guericke, Otto, ii, 211. Born at Magde-
burg, Prussia, Nov. 20, 1602; died at Hamburg,
May n, 1686. Celebrated German natural phi-
losopher. He invented the air-pump in 1650. He
constructed the "Magdeburg hemispheres" — two
hollow hemispheres which, when placed together
and exhausted could not be pulled apart by teams
of horses.

Von Kleist, Dean, ii, 280. A physicist of Ca-
min, Pomerania, who in 1745 invented the Ley-
den jar. This discovery is sometimes credited
to Musschenbroek, then one of the foremost
teachers of Europe; but there is no doubt that
von Kleist's discovery antedated Musschen-
broek's by a few months.

Von Mohl, Dr. Hugo, iv, 123. Born at Stutt-
gart, Wurtemberg, April 8, 1805; died Tubingen,
April i, 1872. German botanist. Noted for his
studies on the cell contents, and for his invention
of the word protoplasm, to designate the "phys-
ical basis of life."

Wallace, Alfred Russel, iv, 172. Born at Usk,
Monmouthshire, England, Jan. 8, 122; English
naturalist. On July I, 1858, simultaneously with
Darwin, he announced the theory of natural se-
lection, although Darwin's theory had been an-
nounced privately a year before.

Watson, William, ii, 284. An English physi-
cist. He coined the word "circuit" as used in
electricity. In 1747, in an experiment of conduct-
ing a current of electricity across London Bridge,
using the water of the Thames to complete the

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

circuit, he discovered the superiority of wire over
chain as a conducting medium.

Watt, James, iv, 14. Born at Greenock, Scot-
land, Jan. 19, 1736; died near Birmingham, Aug.
19, 1819. Celebrated English engineer and
mechanician, the perfecter of the practical steam
engine. Among his scientific achievements he
claimed to have first discovered the composition
of water. Englishmen credit Cavendish with this
discovery, but in France Watt's claim is very
generally accepted.

Weber, E. H., iv, 263. Born at Wittenberg,
Prussia, June 24, 1795; died at Leipsic, Jan. 26,
1878. German physiologist. After exhaustive
experiments to test the effects of various nervous
stimuli, he reached conclusions which later Fech-
ner christened "Weber's fundamental law of psy-
cho-physics."

Wedgwood, Josiah, iii, 206. Born at Burslem,
England, July 12, 1730; died near Newcastle-un-
der-Lynne, Jan. 3, 1795. Celebrated English
potter. Inventor of the clay pyrometer, which
first enabled scientists to gauge high tempera-
tures accurately.

Weismann, August, iv, 179. Born at Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, Jan. 17, 1834. Noted German
zoologist. He promulgated a theory (in 1883)
which denies that individual variations are trans-
missible. This view antagonizes the Lamarckian
conception of acquired variations, which was gen-
erally conceded to complement the Darwinian
factor of natural selection in effecting the trans-
mutation of species.

Wells, Dr. Horace, iv, 213. A dentist of Hart-
ford, Connecticut, who in 1844 administered ni-

[153]

KEY AND INDEX

trous oxide gas and performed the operation of
extracting a tooth painlessly. This was two years
before Morton discovered etherization.

Wells, Dr. W. C., iii, 184. Born in America,
but spent his life in Great Britain. In 1816 he
published his "Essay on Dew," in which the ex-
planation of its formation was given, solving a
problem that had long puzzled the philosophers.

Werner, Abraham Gottlob, iii, 131. Born at
Wehrau, Upper Lusatia, Sept. 25, 1750; died at
Dresden, June 30, 1817. German mineralogist
and geologist. He propounded the "Neptunian
theory," that "in the beginning all the solids of
the earth's present crust were dissolved in the
heated waters of a universal sea."

Westinghouse, George, vii, 142. Born at Cen-
tral Bridge, N. Y., Oct. 6, 1846. American in-
ventor. At the age of fifteen he invented an air-
brake, which he continued to improve to meet
changing conditions, a modification of this first
brake being in use almost universally on steam
and electric cars.

Wheatstone, Sir Charles, vi, 178. Born at
Gloucester, England, in February, 1802; died at
Paris, Oct. 19, 1875. English physicist and in-
ventor. In 1837 he patented a telegraph, an in-
strument that was supplanted by the invention of
Morse. He invented the concertina, the stereo-
scope, and many improvements in the field of
electricity.

Whitney, Eli, ix, 9. Born at Westborough,
Mass., Dec. 8, 1765; died at New Haven, Conn.,
Jan. 8, 1825. The inventor of the cotton-gin — the
machine that makes possible the handling and
subsequent manufacturing of the great cotton

[154]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX

crops to-day. Whitney's machines were manu-
factured by others before he could secure a
patent. He made a fortune, however, in manu-
facturing firearms at Whitneyville, Conn.

Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner, i, 27. Born at
Hardendale, Westmoreland, Oct. 5, 1797; died
Oct. 29, 1875. English Egyptologist. His wri-
tings have furnished important information as to
the status of science among the ancient Egyp-
tians.

Wiseman, Richard, ii, 184. Born in 1625; died
in 1686. A celebrated English surgeon. He was
in the service of all the Stuart kings. He was
first to advocate primary amputation in gunshot
wounds, and to introduce the treatment of aneu-
rism by compression.

Wohler, Friedrich. (See Liebig'and Wohler.)

Wollaston, William Hyde, iv, 41. Born at East
Dereham, Norfolk, Aug. 6, 1766; died at London,
Dec. 22, 1828. Noted English physicist and
chemist. He invented the camera lucida and
goniometer, and discovered palladium and rho-
dium. He also discovered the ultra-violet rays in
the solar spectrum.

Wright, Orville, vii, 288. Born at Dayton,
Ohio, Aug. 19, 1871. Inventor (with his brother
Wilbur), of the aeroplane flying-machine. First
tests of flying machine made in 1903, at Kitty
Hawk, N. C. Successful long distance tests made
near Dayton, Ohio, 1905. With his brother,
first demonstrated that the heavier-than-air fly-
ing-machine is a practical mechanism.

Wright, Wilbur, vii, 288. Born near Millville,
Ind., April 16, 1867. Inventor (with his brother
Orville), of the aeroplane flying-machine. Made

[155]

KEY AND INDEX

successful flights in 1903; and long distance
flights in 1905. In 1908 made numerous flights
in Europe, demonstrating the practicality
of the heavier-than-air flying-machine, while his
brother Orville was making similar demonstra-
tions in the United States.

Wundt, Wilhelm Max, iv, 268. Born at Neck-
arau, Baden, Aug. 16, 1832. Celebrated Ger-
man physiologist and psychologist. In 1878 he
opened his laboratory of physiological psychol-
ogy at the University of Leipsic, and established
the new psychology on a firm scientific basis.

Xenophanes, i, 114. Born at Colophon, Asia
Minor, about 570 B.C.; died about 480 B.C.
Greek philosopher, founder of the Eleatic school.
He opposed the conception of an anthropomor-
phic god.

Young, Thomas, iii, 218. Born at Milverton,
Somerset, England, June 13, 1773; died at Lon-
don, May 10, 1829. Celebrated physicist, and
general scholar. His discovery of the law of the
interference of light was directly responsible for
the establishment of the undulatory theory of
light. His investigations of the Egyptian hiero-
glyphics led to their final decipherment. And his
theory of color-sensation was afterward devel-
oped by Helmholtz.

ENCYCLOP/EDIC GENERAL INDEX

(This Index brings together, under one alphabet, all the impor-
tant technical terms and the most prominent names of men in all
departments of science, theoretical and applied. It does not
ordinarily define terms, nor does it aim to give biographical data
except insofar as these are necessary to make the reference spe-
cific. Its purpose is to analyze the text in a m inner at once detail-
ed and comprehensive, with the sole object cf guiding the reader to
the text itself. Nevertheless, the references are so phrased as
to convey, first and last, an enormous amount of information.

The figures in heavy type refer to volumes; those in ordinary
type to pages.

For concise definition of terms see the Technical Index and
Glossary; for Biographical data see the Biographical Index, both
in the present volume.)

ABD-EL-LETIF, Arabian physi-
cian, 2, 21.

Abel, Sir F., experiments with
cordite for obtaining high
temperature, 6, 315.

Abruzzi, Duke of, his efforts to
find the pole, 7, 48.

Absolute zero, approach to the,
made by liquefying hydrogen,
6, 69; probable form of all
matter at, 6, 70; quest of, 6,
72.

Academia Naturae Curiosorum,
founded in Germany, 2, 201.

Accademia del Cimento, 2, 200.

Acetylene Gas, the introduction
of, 6, 212 (see also Gas,
illuminating) .

Adams, Isaac, a printing press
invented by, 8, 122.

Adams, John Couch, predicted
the discovery of the planet
Neptune, and independently
calculated its position, 3, 42;
discovers an error in Laplace's
calculation about the moon,
3,48.

Aeroplane (see also Navigating
the Air), the triumph of the,

Chapter X, 7, 272; Langley's
early experiments and dis-
coveries, 7, 275; experiments
in soaring, 7, 277; the flying
machine of Lilienthal, 7, 279;
the flying machines of Maxim
and Langley, 7, 283; Lang-
ley's description of his ma-
chine called the " aerodrome,"
7, 284; the practical flying-
machine invented by Wilbur
and Orville Wright, 7. 288;
the successful flight of Henry
Farman, 7, 293; a series of
flights by Wilbur and Orville
Wright, 7, 293; Latham's
attempt to fly across the
English Channel, 7, 294; Ble-
riot's successful flight, 7, 294;
the remarkable flight of
Charles R. Rolls, 7, 294;
flights made by Orville
Wright near Washington, and
at Berlin the same year, 7,
295; Wilbur Wright's flight
up the Hudson, 7, 295;
Paulhan's successful flight
from London to Manchester,
7, 296; Curtiss* flight from

[157]

KEY AND INDEX

Albany to New York, 7, 297;
cross-country flight by of-
ficers of the French Army, 7,
298; Hamilton's flight from
New York to Philadelphia
and return, 7, 298; Brookins'
altitude record, 7, 299; all
honor due the Wright
brothers, 7, 300.

Ae'tius, Byzantine physician, 2,
31.

Agamemnon, detailed by the
English Government to lay
the first Atlantic cable, 8, 34.

Agassiz, Louis, his development
of the glacial theory, 3, 147;
his famous Etudes sur Us
Glaciers, 3, 154.

Age, Rough Stone, 6, 8; Smooth
or Polished, 6,9; Bronze, 6,9;
Iron, 6, 9; of Steam, 6, 15;
of Electricity, 6, 15.

Agriculture, methods at begin-
ning nineteenth century com-
pared with those at end, 6, 19.

Air (see Atmosphere), experi-
ments with, in the seventeenth
century 4, 6; liquefied, 6, 45;
earliest use of as motive
power, 6, 62; properties of,
study by mechanical philoso-
phers, 6, 63.

Air-pump invented by Von
Guericke, 2, 211.

Airy, Sir G. B., his use of per-
manent magnets to effect
compensation for deviation of
the compass, 7, n; scepti-
cism regarding a transatlan-
tic cable, 8, 34.

Albategnius, astronomer, 2, 15.

Albucasis, Arabian writer on
surgery, 2, 25.

Alchemy, 2, 124; the four ele-
ments, 2, 129; "killing" and
"reviving" metals, 2, 130;
Rosicrucians, 2, 136; Aurea-
crucians, 2, 136; tricks of
alchemists, 2, 138; useful
discoveries of alchemists, 2,
140.

Alchemy and Astrology — two
Pseudo Sciences, Chapter VI,
2, 124.

Alcmaeon, the first Greek anat-
omist, 1,171; his explanation
of the sense of hearing, 1, 172;
his theories concerning the
heart and brain, 1, 126.

Alexandre, telegraph of, 8, 9.

Alexandrian or Hellenistic
Period, Greek Science of the,
Chapter IX, 1, 189.

Alexandrian library not burned
by Arabs, 2, n.

Alexandrian science adds a day
to every fourth year, 1, 36.

Alfonso X., Alfonsine tables, 2,

J7-

Alhazen, Arabian scientist, 2,
18; calculates height of at-
mosphere, 2, 19.

Allen, Richard N., credited with
the invention of paper car
wheels, 8, 180.

Almagest translated into Arabic,
2>9.

Alphabet, the development of
the, Chapter IV, 1, 86; in-
troduction of letters, 1, 87;
Egyptian and Assyrian char-
acters, ibid.; first steps in
picture-writing, 1, 89; Egyp-
tian writing, 1, 90; Baby-
lonian writing, 1, 93 ; achieve-
ment of, 1, 98; extension and
perfection of, 1, 101.

Aluminum, method of produc-
ing by the electrolytic process,
6, 300.

Alyattus, king of the Lydians,
1, 103.

Ame'lineau, a student of the
phonetic value of Egyptian
symbols, 1, 28.

Amici, Giovanni, constructs a
reflecting microscope, 4, 112;
introduced the improved
microscope, 4, 113.

Amos (with Bright) devised a
self-releasing brake for use in
cable-laying, 8, 37.

Ampere, Andr6 Marie, dis-
covered the principles of the
science of electro-dynamics,
3, 239; and the law of com-
binations of volumes, 4, 43 ;
paved the way for the study

[158]

GENERAL INDEX

of organic substances, 4, 55;
his experiments in electro-
magnetism, 6, 176.

Anaesthetics, use of, in the dark
age, 2, 35.

Anaesthetic power of chloro-
form and ether, 4, 217.

Anatomy and physiology in the
eighteenth century, Chapter
IV, 4, 73-

Anatomy and physiology in the
nineteenth century V, 4, 102.

Anaxagoras, banished from
Greece, 1, 141; his theories
about the sun and the planets,
1, 143; alleged prediction of
the fall of the famous meteor
at yEgespotomi, 1, 144; his
explanation of the origin of the
heavenly bodies, 1, 145; a
clear conception of the idea of
universal gravitation, 1, 146;
the first to explain the phases
of the moon, 1. 147; his
theory of the Milky Way, 1,
150; "the father of meteor-
ology," 1, 151; his specula-
tions concerning thunder and
lightning, 1, 152; his idea
that fishes respire air through
their gills, "attracting" it
through water, 1, 153; his
speculations as to natural
objects, 1, 154; he claimed
that every unit or atom in
nature was unchangeable and
indestructible, 1, 155; the
distinction between molecu-
lar processes and atomic
processes, 1, 158; nous, the
omnipotent artificer of the
material universe, 1, I«JQ;
the most farseeing scientific
imagination of pre-Socratic
antiquity, 1 , 1 6 1 ; the founder
of the atomic theory, 1, 169;
he took account of the hypo-
thetical counter-earth in his
explanation of the eclipses,
1, 216; conceived the idea of
universal gravitation before
Newton, 2, 236.

Anaximander, inventor of the
sun-dial, 1, 109; his concep-

tion of the form of the earth,

1, up; the first teacher of
organic evolution, 1, in.

Anaximenes, assisted in perfect-
ing the sun-dial, 1, 109.

Animal kingdom, new classifica-
tion of, by Cuvier, 4, 102.

Animals, domestic, man's use
of, in the conquest of nature,
6, 59-

Animists' system, theory of, 4,
185.

Anschutz, his interest in the
development of chrono-pho-
tography, 8, 250.

Anthrax, cause of, 4, 227, 228;
sheep and cattle given im-
munity from, at the Pasteur
Institute, 5, 185.

Anthropology, problems in, 6,
228; its position to-day, 5,
229.

Antipater, his epigram showing
that windmills existed in the
time of Augustus, 6, 71.

Anti-rabic treatment given at
the Pasteur Institute, 5, 183.

Antisepsis, Lister's discovery of,
4, 229.

Arabian hospitals, 2, 26.

Arabian learning, its subjects,

2, 13; mathematics, 2, 14;
astronomy, 2, 14-17; optics,

2, 18; chemistry, 2, 20; medi-
cine, 2, 21.

Arabian method of earth-meas-
urement, 2, 14-

Arabian numerals, period of
their invention, 2, 13-

Arabians, Mediaeval Science
Among the, Chapter II, 2,

Arabic translations, 2, 9.

Arago, Dominique Frangois, a
convert to Fresnel's wave
theory, 3, 226; demonstrated
that electricity not only in-
fluenced a magnet, but ac-
tually produced magnetism,

3, 239; constructed a device
in which a metal disk was
made to revolve in the pres-
ence of a current of electricity,
6, 176.

[159]

KEY AND INDEX

Archir

Arban, M., his record flight in a
balloon, 7, 256.

Arcadius, public windmills ap-
peared in Rome about the
time of this ruler, 6, 71.

Archaeology, The New Science
of Oriental, Chapter X, 4,
287.

Archer, Frederick Scott, in-
vented the collodion plate, 8,
230.

limedes, invented many me-
chanical contrivances, 1, 197;
the Archimedian screw, ibid.;
his devices for the defence
of Syracuse, 1, 198; his com-
bination of multiple pulleys,
1, 200; his invention of the
catapult, 1, 201; his con-
trivance for wrecking galleys,
1, 202; 6, 34; the mythical
legend of the burning-glass,
1, 205; his studies of the
properties of the lever, 1, 206;

his experiment with King Armature, see Dynamo, 6, 173.
Hiero's crown, 1, 207; his Armature, ring, invented by the
demonstrations of the buoy-
ancy of water, 1, 208; the
problem of the triangle and
a circle, 1, 209; his crude
conception of the idea of
logarithms, 1, 210; his as-
sumption about the size of the
sun and earth, ibid., his com-
putation about the number of
grains of sand that would be
required to cover the sphere
of the sun's orbit, 1, 211;
recorded laws of the lever,
realized possibilities of, 6,
30; classical remark regard-
ing moving of world, 6, 31.

Argand, Aim6, his invention of
the oil lamp with a circular

of his spherical figure of the
earth, 1, 183; a pathfinder in
the science of zoology, 1, 185;
his divisions of the verte-
brates and invertebrates are
accepted by every one to-day,
1, 186; his classification of
blood-bearing animals and
fishes not far afield from
modern divisions, 1, 187;
considered manual toil de-
grading, 6, 26.

Arkwright, Sir Richard, his
development of the spinning
frame marked the beginning
of the new era, 6,21; his early
life, 9, 26; aided by a Mr.
Strutt he interests capitalists
in his invention, 9, 27; capi-
talists combine to defraud
him of his patents, 9, 28;
court decision finally rendered
against him, 9, 30; traits in
his character, 9, 31.

wick, 6, 205.

Argon, discovery of, 5, 85, 86.

Argus, the attack on, by Ful-
ton's submarine, 7, 101.

Aristarchus, of antiquity, 1,
218, 220, 221.

Aristotle, his name a synonym
for Greek science a thousand
years after his death, 1, 182;
his acceptance of the doctrine

Italian, Picnotti, 6, i?<
re-invented by Gramme, 6,
179.

Armstrong, Lord, his water
motor, 6, 121.

Arnald of Villanova, physician,
2, 34.

Artificial Gems, 9, 327.

Artificial Stone, or Concrete,
Chapter VIII, 9, 182.

Artificial Stone, or Concrete, the
manufacture of, 9, 182; con-
crete blocks, 9, 184: mixing
the materials, 9, 187; mold-
ing the blocks, 9, 189; utility
and beauty, 9, 193; rein-
forced concrete construction,
9, 195; advantages of rein-
forced concrete, 9, 197;
strength and durability ot
concrete, 9, 201; the rein-
forcing skeleton of metal, 9,
204; a modern building, 9,
205.

Arzachel, "trepidation of the
fixed stars," 2, 16.

Assyria, Science of Babyloma
and, Chapter III, 1, 56.

[160]

GENERAL INDEX

Assyrian month, 1, 64; sab-
batical days, 1, 65.

Assyrian scripture, restoration
of, 4, 293.

Assyrio-Babylonian records, of
greater historical accuracy
than the Egyptian, 1, 59;
the discrepancy between the
Babylonian and Egyptian
years, 1, 65; tablets dealing
with magic make up a large
proportion of, 1, 70.

Astrolabe, invented by Joseph
and Roderick, and Martin de
Bohemia, 7, 19.

Astrologers, in Babylon they
were men of high rank and
their office was hereditary,

1, 67; gave their chief at-
tention to the moon, 1, 68.

Astrology, Two Pseudo Sciences
— Alchemy and, Chapter VI,

2, 124.

Astrology, present-day survival,

memnon and the Niagara un-
dertake to lay the first cable,
8, 34; cable breaks, 8, 36,
second attempt made by the
same ships, 8, 38; cable again
breaks, 8, 39; success at
last, 8, 39; improved methods
and new cables, 8, 40; the
cable of '65, 8, 41; the Great
Eastern pressed into service,
8, 42; cost of gutta-percha
used the most expensive
single item of expense, 8, 43 ,
instrumental aids, 8, 45.
Atmosphere, constituents of,
6, 89; pressure and weight of,
shown by Torricelli and Boyle,
6, 65; Boyle and Mariotte's
law, 6, 66; pressure of, shown
by experiment with Magde-
burg spheres, 6, 66; why
human body can support
pressure of, 6, 67; use of by
windmills, 6, 68.

2,144; predictions of Lilly, 2, Atom, the vortex, speculation
145, George Whartpn, 2, 150; about, 6, 216; proof of the
other alleged predictions, 2,
152, 155; cause of the decline
of astrology, 2, 155.
Astronomer priests, their duty
was to predict the rising of

the Nile, 1, 39.
Astronomy, The Successors of

existence of, 5, 217; its rela-
tion to the electron, 6, 166.
Atomic weights, 4, 64-67; cu-
rious relations between, of
various elements, 4, 66; their
relations with other charac-
teristics, 4, 67.

Newton in, Chapter I, 3, 3. Atoms, affinity of , 6, 218; space
Astronomy, The Progress of relations of, 5, 219.

Modern, Chapter II, 3, 19. Attic Period, Greek Science in

Asurbanipal, king of Assyria, the Early, Chapter VII, 1,
his contribution of tablets, 1, 139.

67 ; the great library of, in the Aurora borealis, the, Franklin's
British Museum, 4, 295. explanation of, 3, 173, Eras-

Athens, Post-Socratic Science mus Darwin's theory of, tbtd.;
at, Chapter VIII, 1, 178. Biot's theory of, 3, 174; sun

Atherstone, Dr., a mineralogist spots linked with, 3, 175.
of Grahamstown who first Automatic Couplings, 7, 147.
suspected that stones found Automatic telephone systems,

in South Africa were dia-
monds, 9, 316.

Atlantic Cable, company formed
for the laying of, 8, 33; suc-
cess in a large measure due to
Lord Kelvin, 8, 33; Sir G.
B. Airy declared that such
means of communication was
impossible, 8, 34; the Aga-

[161]

8, 87.

Automobile, the coming of the,
7, 156; Cugnot's automobile,
"7, 158; the automobile of
William Murdoch, 7, 158;
Trevithick's automobile, 7,
159; the attitude of the public
toward the steam automobile
invented by Mr. Gurney,

KEY AND INDEX

7, 1 60; an extraordinary
piece of legislation, 7, 161;
real progress of the automo-
bile due to the oil engine, 7,
163; scientific aspects of
automobile racing, 7, 164;
some records made at Or-
mond, 7, 165; records made
by Oldfield, 7, 166; com-
parative speeds of various
vehicles and animals, 7, 167;
a miraculous transformation
of energy, 7, 170.

Avenzoar, Arabian physician,
2, 26.

Averrhoes, commentator of Aris-
totle, 2, 10, 26.

Avicenna, Arabian "Prince of
Physicians," 2, 24.

Avogadro, Amadeo, 4, 43 ; law
of, 4, 57.

Axe, modified form of lever, 6,
58.

BABYLON, its fame at its height
in the time of Herodotus, 1,
57; in Babylonian science we
have the Eastern mind at
its best, 1, 61.

Babylonia and Assyria, Scienc
of, Chapter III, I, 56.

Babylonian astronomy, 1, 61,
62; adjustment of the calen-

Bacqueville, Marquis de, his at-
tempt at aerial flight, 7, 229.

Bacteria, discovery of, 2, 179;
their relation to fermentation
and to disease, 4, 218.

Baeyer, produced indigo com-
mercially, 8, 313.

Baglivi, Giorgio, distinguished
in medicine, 4, 182.

Barlow, suggested that compen-
sation for deviation of the
compass be effected by the
adjustment of bodies of iron,
7, ii.

Barnett, William, suggested
compressing explosive mix-
ture in cylinder of gas engine
before exploding it, 6, 138.

Barometer, mercurial, invented
by Torricelli, 2, 122; statical,
invented by Boyle, 2, 205.

Bastian, Professor, revived the
claims of Pouchet, 4, 180.

Bay of Naples, the, fauna of,
5, 124; abundance of mater-
ial for biological study found
in, 6, 125; uses made of speci-
mens found in, in scientific
study, 5, 128.

Bayley, Dr., expert in spectro-

scopy, 5, 83.
rd. The

Beard, Thomas, shoemaker who
came on the Mayflower, 9, 108.

dar, 1, 63. Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond,

Babylonian medicine, the prac- the first to take up specifically

titioner of, occupied a posi- the matter of color-photog-

tion of authority, 1, 75; his raphy, 8, 235.

emoluments and penalties, 1, Becquerel, M. Henri, discovery

76.

Babylonian science, estimates
of, 1. 77; Canon Rawlinson
on, 1. 82; spelled supersti-
tion, 1, 85,

Bachelder, John, improves
Howe's sewing machine, 9,
96.

Bacon, Francis, influence on

of a radio-active substance,
6, 98; "rays," 6, 100; 8, 220.

Beginnings of Greek Science,
The, Chapter V, 1, 103.

Beginnings of Modern Chemis-

try, The, Chapter II, 4, n.
Behring's discovery of tetanus
and diphtheria antitoxine, 4,
242.

science, 2, 192; indirectly a Belisarius, constructed floating
founder of the Royal Society, mills upon the Tiber, 6, 71.

Bell, Prof. Alexander Graham,
made tests of Professor Trow-
bridge's instrument for trans-

2, 201.

Bacon, Roger, 2, 44; his use of
lenses, 2, 45; supposed in-
vention of gunpowder, 2, 46;
estimate of his work, 2, 46.

atlantic communication, 8,
50; invents a practical tele-

[162]

GENERAL INDEX

phone, 8, 73; describes his
invention, 8, 74; contro-
versy with Gray, 8, 81.

Bell, Dr. (Sir Charles) , discovery
of motor and sensory nerves,
4, 249.

Bell, Rev. Patrick, his design for
rotary engine described. 6,121.

Bell, electric, mechanism of
operation, 6, 164.

Belshazzar, mythical king of
Babylon whose name was
probably confounded with
that of the warrior son of
King Nabpnidus, 8, 106.

Bensley, assisted Koenig in the
practical solution of the prob-
lem of the cylinder press, 8,
123.

Berlin Institute of Hygiene, the,
6, 193-202; work of Pro-
fessor Koch in, 5, 194; work
of his successors in, §, 195;
department of bacteriology
in, 5, 196; investigations of
the functions of the human
body in, 6, 197; models in
the Museum of Hygiene, 6,
198, 200; studies in problems
of ventilation, 6, 200.

Berlin Institute of Pathology,
the, 6, 186-193; study of
diseases in, 6, 187; studies of
organic action and cellular
activities in, 6, 188; Vir-
chow's methods of teaching
in, 6, 191, 192.

Berlin system of sewage-dis-
posal, the, 6, 199.

Berliner, Emil, invented what
is known as a microphone
transmitter, 8, 83.

Bernard, Claude, studies of the
ductless glands, 4, 137; dis-
covers that the blood under-
goes a change in passing
through the liver, 4, 138;
discovers that the sympathe-
tic nerves regulate the blood
supply, 4, 259; his discovery
of inhibitory nerves, 4, 261.
Berosus, a Babylonian historian,

1,58.
Berthez, Paul Joseph, champion

of the Vitalists' system, 4

Berthollet, his refusal to accept
the atomic theory, 4, 41.

Berzelius, Johan Jakob, accepts
Daltpn's theory, 4, 41-44;
his binary theory, 4, 53 ; his
dualistic theory, 4, 55; coined
the word "isomerism," 4, 62.

Besnier, the flying machine of,
7, 228.

Bessel, predicted the existence
of the planet Neptune, 3,
42 ; measured the parallax of
a star in 1838, 3, 60.

Bessemer, Sir Henry, 6, 291;
his discovery of the process
of converting cast-iron into
steel, 6, 292; the "Bessemer-
Mushet" process of making
steel, 6, 293; his costly ex-
periments with the gyroscope,
7, 218.

Bianco, Signor Lo, chief of the
collecting department of the
Marine Biological Laboratory,

6, 122.

Bichat, Marie Frangois, studies
of the animal and organic
systems of vertebrates, 4,
107; his division of anatom-
ical structures into sets of
tissues, 4, 108.

Bicycle, application of lever-
principle to, 6,36; the devel-
opment of the, 7, 154; the
earliest bicycle introduced by
Baron von Drais, 7, 154;
the treadle-bicycle invented
by Kirkpatrick MacMillan,

7, 155; the pneumatic tire
introduced, 7, 155; the safety
bicycle 7, 156; its popularity
and its sudden abandonment,
7, 156.

Biological Laboratory at Naples,
The Marine, Chapter ¥,6,113.

"Biology," word coined inde-
pendently by Treviranus and
Lamarck, 4, 160.

Biot, Jean Baptiste, investi-
gated the meteor of 1803, 3,
1 68; accounted for it on
scientific grounds, 3, 169.

KEY AND INDEX

Birch, a student of Egyptian
writing, 1, 27.

Birkeland, Christian, discoverer
of a method for obtaining
nitrogen from, the air, 6,
306.

Black, Dr. Joseph, his latent
heat observations on the sub-
ject of precipitation of vapor,

3, 184; disproved by Dr.
Wells, 3, 185; continues
Male's study of the elasticity
of air, 4, ii ; discovery of
the properties of carbonic-
acid gas, 4, 12; studies con-
tinued by Cavendish, ibid.;
probable participation in the
development of Watt's ideas,

6, 94; his experiments with
balloons, 7, 230.

Blackett, his experiments with
steam locomotives, 7, 123.

Blackwell, F. O., quoted as to
the efficiency of the electric
motor, 6, 262.

Blaew, William, printing press
improved by, 8, 122.

Blake, Dr. Clarence J., sug-
gested the use of the human
ear itself as a phonautograph,
8. 79.

Blake, Francis, inventor of a
telephone transmitter, 8, 84.

Blanchard, Jean-Pierre, his at-
tempt to produce a dirigible
balloon, 7, 238.

Blanquart, glass negatives im-
proved by, 8, 229.

Blast-furnace, 6, 284; old and
new types of, 6, 285.

B16riot, Louis, his successful
flight across the English Chan-
nel, 7, 294.

Blood corpuscles, functions of,

4, 135; important r61e played
by, 4, 136.

Boats, the use of sails for pro-
pelling, 7, 56; steering with
oars, 7, 56; the invention of
the rudder, 7, 56; type of
boats used by the Greeks, 7,
57; vessels of the Romans,

7, 57; boats constructed by
the Norsemen, 7, 58; medi-

aeval ships, 7, 59; modern
sailing ships, 7, 60; early
attempts to invent a steam-
boat, 7, 63; Fulton's Cler-
mont, 7, 64; screw-propeller
boat invented by Stevens, 7,
68; sea-going steamships, 7,
73; ships built of iron and
steel, 7, 74; the use of turbine
engines on boats, 7, 82; the
adoption of liquid fuel on
boats, 7, 90.

Boerhaave, Hermann, fame of,
4, 182; his classification of
the different branches of
medicine, 4, 183; his doc-
trines arranged into a "sys-
tem" by Hoffmann, 4, 184.

Bolton, one of the inventors of
the collodion-emulsion pro-
cess, 8, 231.

Bond, W. C., discoverer of the
inner or crape ring of Saturn,
3,44-

Books, preservation of ancient,
2, 6; comparative number of,
issued in the age of Pericles,

Boo'kbinding, the development
of, 8, 153.

Borelli, "On the Motive of
Animals," 2, 188.

Boscovich, Roger Joseph, the
ultimate constitution of mat-
ter as conceived by, 3, 293.

Bose, George Matthias, inven-
tor of an electric machine, 2,
274; explanation of aurora
borealis, 2, 277.

Botta, his excavations at the
site of old Nineveh first
brought tablet books to the
eye of modern scholarship,
8, 103.

Boulevard Pasteur, the, 6, 179.

Boulton, Matthew, associated
with Watt to found the most
famous of early steam-engine
companies, 6, 100.

Bourseul, Charles, suggests an
electrical telephone, 8, 71.

Bowden, H. L., the automobile
record established by, in
1905, 7, 164.

[i64]

GENERAL INDEX

Boyle, Robert, 2, 204; experi-
ments on air, 2, 205; calcula-
tion of atmospheric pressure,
2, 206; 6, 65; views on
color, 2, 208; work in elec-
tricity, 2, 209; his theories
as to the composition of the
atmosphere, 4, 4-6.

Boyle's law, developed indepen-
dently by Mariotte, 6, 66.

Bradley, Dr. James, discovers
the libratory motion of the
earth's axis, 3, 12.

Bradley, in association with
Lovejoy, conducted experi-
ments at Niagara Falls de-
signed to extract nitrogen
from the air, 6, 306.

Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated
astronomer who declined to
accept the heliocentric idea
concerning the earth, 1, 217.

Braid, Dr. James, investiga-
tion of the phenomena of
hypnotism, 4, 269.

Brain, studies of the, 4, 245-249,
270—286; localization of cen-
tres, 4, 272-274; minute
structures of the, 4, 276-286.

Branca, Giovanni, first to pro-
pose turbine engine, 6, 87.

Branly, Dr., invented a "coher-
er ' ' for detecting the presence
of Hertzian waves, 8, 52.

Brennan, Louis, his invention
of the gyrocar, 7, 195.

Brett, John W., his connection
with the laying of the Atlantic
cable, 8, 30.

Brewster, Dr. David, sugges-
tions to improve the micro-
scope, 4, no.

Bright, Sir Charles, his con-
nection with the laying of
the Atlantic cable, 8, 30.

Britannia, the first steamer of
the Cunard Line, 7, 74.

British Museum, The, Chapter
I- 6, 3.

British museum, the, founding
of, 6, 3; Sloan's collection
purchased for, 6, 4; acquisi-
tion of Hamilton's treasures
for, 6, 5; Egyptian antiqui-

ties for, ibid,; erection of
present building, 6, 6; statue
of Darwin in, 6, 9; arrange-
ment of specimens in, 6, 10,
ii, public interest in, 6, 12.

Broca, Dr. Paul, and localiza-
tion of speech, 4, 272.

Bronze Age, advance of civili-
zation in, 6, 9.

Brookins, W. H., altitude record
made by, 7, 299.

Brown, Robert, discovery of the
nuclei of plant cells, 4, 115.

Brown, Samuel, introduced a
vacuum gas engine for rais-
ing water by atmospheric
pressure, 6, 135.

Bruce, Robert, his traditional
perseverance compared to
that of the heroes who laid
the Atlantic cable, 8, 30.

Brugsch, an Egyptologist, 1, 28.

"Brunonian" system, 4, 187.

Brunton, the remarkable loco-
motive constructed by, 7,
123.

Brush, Charles P., his invention
1 of an arc light, 6, 226.

Buckett, introduced a gas en-
gine based on Cayley's in-
vention, 6, 133.

Buffon and the transmutation
of species, 4, 149.

Bull (in connection with Trevi-
thick) made direct-acting
pumping engines with an
inverted cylinder, fixed in
line with the pump rod, and
actually dispensing with the
beam, 6, 113.

Bunsen, with Kirchhoff, per-
fected the spectroscope, 4, 69.

Burnham, S. W., discovers one
thousand new clusters of stars,
3, 59-

Burrows, Stephen, credited with
the discovery that the mag-
netized needle shifts its direc-
tion, 7, 0-

Bushnell, David, first practical
submarine boat made by, 7,

94-

Butler, quoted as to the strength
of a web of heavy paper

[165]

KEY AND INDEX

when superheated and then
cooled on the dryers, 8, 170.

CABLE Systems, 7, 177-
Calcium carbide, method of its

manufacture at Niagara Falls,

6, 214.
Callixenos describes a ship said

to have been used by Ptolemy

Philopater, 7, 57.
Calmette, discoverer of the

serum treatment for serpent-

poisoning, 6, 184.
Calotype process, invented by

Talbot, 8, 227.
Calvin withholds the document

of Servetus, 2, 168

Candle, tallow, invented in the
twelfth century, 6, 203.

Canton, John, produces both
positive and negative elec-
tricity on the same substance,
2, 295.

Carbonic-acid gas liquefied, 6,40.

Carcel, his improvement of
Quinquet's oil lamp, 6, 205.

Carlisle, discovered that a gal-
vanic current would decom-
pose chemicals in solution,
8, ii.

Carmania, equipped with tur-
bine engines in a test for speed
with the Caronia, equipped
with reciprocating engines,
proved herself the better boat,
7,82.

Carnegie, an American ship
constructed for the purpose
of making accurate charts of
the lines of magnetic declina-
tion in various parts of the
globe, 7, 12.

Carnot, Sadi, demonstrated that
a definite quantity of work
could be transformed into a
definite quantity of heat, 3,
255; worked out general
theory of the heat engine, 6,
IIS-

Caro, associated with Frank in
process for fixation of nitro-
gen, 6, 309.

Caronia, equipped with recipro-
cating engines for a test

against the Carmania
equipped with turbine en-
gines, 7, 82.

Carpenter, William B., studies
in embryology, 4, 122.

Cartwright, Dr. Edmund, clergy-
man of the Church of Eng-
land, and inventor of the
power-loom, 9, 44; as poet
and preacher, 9, 44 ; as inven-
tor of the power-loom, and
other useful devices, 9, 45.

Carre, his invention of carbons
for arc lights, 6, 227.

Cassini, Dominic, a celebrated

French astronomer, 3, 13.

Cataro, Galeazzo, records the
building of the first chimney in
a house in Rome in the four-
teenth century, 9, 150.

Cathode rays, Sir William
Crookes experiments with, 3,
249 ; Professor Roentgen's dis-
covery of the remarkable
effects of, 3, 251-252.

Cattle-raising, methods at be-
ginning nineteenth century
compared with those at end,

6, 20.

Caus, Solomon de, makes prac-
tical application of della
Porta's idea for pumping by
steam, 6, 83.

Cavallo, Tiberius, demonstrated
the possibility of making toy
balloons, 7, 230.

Cave-dwellers, the, 9, 134.

Cavendish, Henry, continued
Black's studies, 4, 13; dis-
covery that water is formed
by the combination of hydro-
gen and oxygen, 4, 14; con-
troversy with Watt, ibid., ex-
periments with air, 4, 16;
discovery of nitrous acid, 4,
17; discovery of hydrogen
gas and its 'effect upon aero-
nautics, 7, 230.

Cawley, John, English plumber
and glazier associated with
Newcomen in patenting at-
mospheric engine, 6, 89.

Cayley, Sir G., gas engine motor
invented by, 6, 132.

[166]

GENERAL INDEX

"Cedar of Lebanon," the, 4,
292.

Ceilings of ancient dwellings, 9,
154-

Celestine III., Pope, decided
that tithes of the mediaeval
wind-mills belonged to the
clergy, 6, 69.

Cell contents, studies in, by Von
Mohl, 4, 123; observed by
Corti in 1774, 4, 124; redis-
covered by Treviranus in 1807,
ibid.; filled with fluid called
"sarcode," 4, 124.

Cell theory, Schwann and Schlei-
den and the, 4, 118-122 ; fore-
shadowed by Wolff and Trev-
iranus, 4, 122; elaborated, 4,
122-128.

Cell, voltaic, 6, 163 ; action of, 6,
163.

Cell walls of vegetables, Payen
and, 4, 124.

Cellini, Benvenuto, records an
attempt to poison him by
diamond dust in his salad, 9,
296.

Cells, essential structure of
living organism, 4, 129; prin-
ciples of mechanical con-
struction of, 5, 225.

Celsus, Cornelius, his manu-
script found in the fifteenth
century, 2, 40.

Centrosome, discovered by Van
Beneden, 6, 226.

Chabas, a student of Egyptology,
1, 28.

Chaldean, a name once synony-
mous with magician, 1, 66.

Chaldean magic, tablets relating
to, 1, 70; symbolism of the
black and white cloth, 1, 71;
song of the seven spirits, 1,
72 ; exorcisms to ward off dis-
ease, 1, 73; birth portents,
ibid.; omens furnished by
dogs, 1, 74.

Chambers, Robert, his Vestiges
of the Natural History of Crea-
tion, 4, 161; quotation from,
4, 162-164.

Champollion, Jean Franqois, a
famous student of the science

of Egyptology, 1, 27; de-
cipherment of the Rosetta
Stone, 4, 290.

Chandler, Professor, his address
before the " Society of Elec-
tro-Chemistry," 6, 298.

Chapman, the cable road of, 7,
123.

Charcot, Dr., on the phenomena
of hypnotism, 4, 269.

Charles II., his attempt to change
the fashion of his time, 9, 62.

Charles V. accepted cotton gar-
ments made by the Aztecs as
gifts suitable for the monarch,
9, 7-

Charlotte Dundas, constructed
by Symington to be used as
a towing vessel, 7, 67.

Charms and incantations, 1, 46-
51; effect of a lock of hair or
nail parings incorporated in
a waxen figure, 1, 46; the
magical spell of enemies the
source of all human ailments,
1,47; efficacy of a beetle as a
medicinal agent, 1, 48.

Charpentier, the secret of his
superior pottery, 9, 232.

Chaucer, Geoffrey, a chance
reference in a poem proves
that the points of the compass
had been established before
his day, 7, 9.

Chemical affinity, 4, 57-64;
theory of digestion, 4, 88.

Chemistry, the phlogiston theory
in, 4, 3-10; at the beginning
of the eighteenth century, 4,
1 1 ; Lavoisier and the found-
ation of modern, 4, 28; since
the time of Dalton, 4, 38-72;
organic, 4, 53-56; foremost
workers in, 4, 55.

Chemistry Since the Time of
Dalton, Chapter III, 4, 38.

Chemistry, The Beginnings of
Modern, Chapter II, 4, n.

Chemistry, The Phlogiston
Theory in, Chapter I, 4, 3.

Charon, M. Andr6, three-lens
camera devised by, 8, 240;
process of color-photography
improved by, 8, 240.

[167]

KEY AND INDEX

Chicken cholera, Pasteur's ex-
periments with, 4, 232.
Chimneys, the first, 9, 151.
China, the making of, 9, 260.
Chisel, modified form of lever,

Chloroform, pain-dispelling
power of, discovered by Simp-
son, 4, 217.

Cholera, researches in the pre-
vention and cure of, 6, 184.

Choke Damp, in mines, 6, 248.

Christian medical science, 2,
29.

Christy, Henry, his discovery in
the caves of Dordogne, 3,
104; presumptive evidence
that man and the mammoth
had been contemporaries, 3,
105.

Chromosomes, the study of, 6,
133; Professor Weismann's
theory of heredity based on,
5, 134.

Chronometer, perfecting the, 7,
23; finding the time without
a chronometer, 7, 28.

Chrono-photography — Moving
Pictures, the development of,
8, 248.

Chrysostom, Saint John, his
silence regarding windmills
makes it doubtful whether
they existed in his day, 6, 68.

"Circuit," electrical term coined
by Watson, 2, 285.

City of Paris (now the Phila-
delphia) one of the first twin-
screw boats, 7, 81.

Civilization, primitive man's
struggles toward, 9, 1-4.

Clamond, his invention of the
gas mantle, 6, 209.

Claremont, Leopold, describes
the process of diamond-cut-
ting, 9, 306.

Clark, Alvan, discovered the
dark companion of Sirius, 3,
66.

Clarke, W. B., his name inti-
mately connected with the
early efforts at utilization of
magneto-electric power, 6,
178; an interesting use of

the electric pump associated
with the telephone in connec-
tion with mining, noted by,
6, 266.

Classical Science, A Retrospec-
tive Glance at, Chapter XI,
1 (i.e., vol. I), 285.

Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emanuel,
has a part in perfecting theory
of steam-engine, 6, 115.

Claussen, Peter, inventor of the
circular knitting machine, 9,
56.

Clayton, Rev. Joseph, made
experiments in the distilla-
tion of coal, producing a gas
that was inflammable, 6,
207.

Clerk-Maxwell, J., he charac-
terized the rings of Saturn as a
"shower of brickbats," 3, 441
thought they must consist of
disconnected particles, 3, 45;
advanced the idea that light
waves were really electro-
magnetic waves, 3, 247; 6,
154; believed that electricity
and magnetism were various
conditions of stress and mo-
tion in the ethereal medium,
3, 280; all interstellar space
filled with ether, 3, 283; his
study of the kinetic theory of
gases, 3, 295; his investiga-
tion of the subject of molecu-
lar dynamics, 3, 297; his cal-
culations of the distance tra-
versed by molecules between
collisions in ordinary air, 3,
298; his attempts to perfect
the process of color-printing,
8, 212; his experiments in
color-photography, 8, 237.

Clermont, invented by Fulton,
7,7i; account of its first pas-
sage up the Hudson, 7, 72.

Clock, pendulum, invented by
Huygens, 2, 219; marine, in-
vented by Harrison, 2, 257.

Clothing the Extremities, Chap-
ter V, 9, 103.

Clothing the Extremities, cus-
tom of wearing shoes by prim-
itive man as protection

[168]

GENERAL INDEX

against cold, 9, 103; the
shoes of ancient people, 9,
105 ; fantastic foot-gear of the
Middle Ages, 9, 107; the
rise of the modern shoe
industry, 9, 108; Thomas
Beard, shoemaker who came
on the Mayflower, 9, 108;
Philip Kertland established a
shoe manufactory at Lynn, in
1636, 9, 108; Massachusetts
the center of shoe industry
during the Revolutionary
War, 9, 109; early methods
of shoe manufacture, 9, no;
the wooden shoe peg invented,
1811, 9, no; application of
machinery to shoe-making, 9,
112; the introduction of the
McKay sewing-machine, 9,
112; introduction of the
Goodyear heeling machine, 9,
113; lasts and patterns, 9,
117; actual process of shoe-
making in factories at the
present time, 9, 119; gloves
and gauntlets, 9, 121; pos-
sible origin of the use of gloves,
9, 122; glove- wearing in the
Middle Ages, 9, 124; early
manufacture of gloves, 9, 125;
application of the sewing-
machine to glove-making, 9,
128; materials for making
gloves, 9, 129; methods of
tanning the hides, 9, 130.
Clymer, an early printer whose

gresses were of the primitive
utenberg type, 8, 122.

Coal-tar colors, 8, 311.

Cocking, Henry, type of para-
chute invented by, 7, 245.

"Coherer," instrument invented
by Doctor Branly for detect-
ing the presence of Hertzian
waves, 8, 52.

Cohesion, "force" of, 5, 49.

Colding, a Danish scientist, and
the transformation of heat,
3, 257.

Cole, Humfray, suggested a
means of measuring a ship's
rate of progress, 7, 15.

Cole, Timothy, famous contem-

porary engraver whose work
differs in quality rather than
in method from the earliest
wood-engraving, 8, 187.

Cole, championed the cause of
Lewis Paul as inventor of the
spinning-machine, 9, 22.

Collodion-emulsion process, in-
vented by Bolton and Sayce,
8, 231.

Color-photography, the develop-
ment of, 8, 234; the future of,
8, 247.

Colton, Dr., associated with Mr.
Lilly in the construction and
operation of a small model
locomotive, 7, 179.

Columbus, Christopher, effect
of his discovery, 2, 50; would
not have dared attempt his
voyage of discovery without
a compass, 7, 9; found cotton
growing in most of the lands
he discovered, 9, 7.

Columbus, sixteenth-century an-
atomist, 2, 1 66.

Comets, strangers to our plane-
tary system, 3, 38; their
movements not controlled by
the general law, 3, 39; eccen-
tric orbits, 3,51; their spec-
tacular tails, 3, 52, 53; Encke
and Biela's discovery of, 3,
54; twenty are controlled by
Jupiter and Saturn, ibid.;
Biela's broken into fragments,
3, 55; Professor Newcombe's
estimates of, 3, 56; minor
nebulae drawn into our sys-
tem, 3, 70.

Communism as advocated by
Pythagoras, 1, 127.

Compound engine, Woolf's de-
velopment of, 6, 117; Horn-
blower's invention of, 6,
117.

Compound engine — see Steam
engine.

Computations, as to the age of
the earth's crust, 6, 210; of
the earth's ultimate fate, 5,
212.

Conquest of the Zones, Chapter
I, 7, S-

[169]

KEY AND INDEX

Conservation of Energy, The,
Chapter VIII, 3, 253.

Constantinople, effect of its
capture by the Turks upon
contemporary learning, 2,
42.

Cook, gave great attention to
the needle telegraph, 8, 25.

Cook, Dr. Frederick A., his
claims to discovery of the
pole, 7, 49; controversy with
Peary, 7, 49; his records ad-
judged inadequate, 7, 49.

Cook, Captain James, his as-
tronomer discovers that the
ship influences the compass,
7, 10.

Cooper, W., improved the col-
lodion-emulsion process, 8,
232.

Cope, Professor, traced the an-
cestry of the camel, 3, 113.

Copernicus to Kepler and Gali-
leo—The New Cosmology,
Chapter IV, 2, 52.

Copernicus, Nicholas, famous
astronomer, 2, 54; his system,
2, 56; introduction to his
book, 2,57; "On the Order of
the Spheres," 2, 60; argu-
ment from parallax urged
against him, 2, 63; advocates
of his theory, ibid.

Copper- and Steel-Plate En-
gravings, 8, 192.

Cordite, use of, for producing
high temperatures, 6,315; Sir
Andrew Noble and Sir F.
Abel's experiments with, 6,
315; possibility of using it for
making artificial diamonds,

„ 6».3iS-

Corns, an early experimenter of
the sewing-machine, whose
efforts were unknown to
Howe, 9, 94.

Cortez, Hernando, found cotton
growing indigenously in Mex-
ico and Peru, 9, 7.

Corti, Bonaventura, observed
motion of the cell contents, 4,
124.

Coryisart, Jean Nicolas de, phy-
sician to the First Consul, 4,

199; lays the foundation of
physical diagnosis, 4, 200.

Cosmology, The New — Coper-
nicus to Kepler and Galileo,
Chapter IV, 2, 52.

Costumes, effect of climate upon,
9, 59; military methods and
fashion responsible for, 9, 60;
some curious fashions ex-
plained, 9, 61; effects of the
plagues upon fashions, 9, 62;
the age of wigs, 9, 63 ; the age
of the "ruff," 9, 65; knitted
garments, 9, 68; some re-
markable costumes, 9, 69;
fashion versus comfort, 9, 74;
the return to the common-
sense age in clothing, 9, 76;
the wholesale manufacture of
clothing, 9, 78; pioneer me-
thods of George Opdyke, 9,
78; the "task system" in-
troduced, 9, 80; the "Bos-
ton" or factory system, 9, 81 ;
steam and electricity in fac-
tories, 9, 83.

Cotton, fabrics of, probably first
introduced into the West
from India, 9, 5; wonderful
dexterity of Hindus in weav-
ing, 9, 6; laws passed in
Great Britain to prevent im-
portation of, 9, 6; India as
the sower of, 9, 6; Western
Hemisphere as source of sup-
ply, 9, 8; value of the crop
raised in the two Americas,
9, 8; preparing for ship-
ment, 9, 12; varieties of,
9, 13; various machines for
opening the bales and pre-

rring the fibres for spinning,
14; carding-machine in-
vented by James Hargreaves,
9, 16.

Cotton-Gin, invented by Eli
Whitney, 9, 8; circumstances
leading to the invention of, 9,
ip; mechanism of Whitney's
gin, 9. ii.

Count de la Vaux, his record
flight in a balloon, 7, 256.

Cowper, E. A., introduced the
suspension wheel as an im-

[I70]

GENERAL INDEX

provement to the bicycle, 7,
XS5-

Cow-pox, 4, 194, 195; persons
afflicted with, secure from
small-pox, 4, 196.

Coxwell, the record flight of one
of his balloons, 7, 256.

Crane, use in antiquity, modern
crane, 6, 38; combines prin-
ciple of lever and inclined
plane, 6, 39.

Croll, Dr., computes that the
Gulf Stream conveys to the
North Atlantic one-fourth the
neat which it receives from
the sun, 3, 197; it is produced
by the actual trade-winds,
3, 198; the effect on the
climate of Europe should its
course be deflected, ibid.

Crompton, Samuel, inventor of
the spinning-machine called
"the mule," 9, 32; early life
and events leading up to his
invention, 9, 32; the scant
recompense he received for
his great invention, 9, 34.

Crookes, Sir William, experi-
ments with the cathode rays,
3, 249; and radio-active sub-
stances, 6, 103; his spinthari-
scope, 5, 104; his experiments
showed that nitrogen in the
atmosphere can be made to
combine with oxygen, 6, 306.

Crps, Charles, described a way
in which an instrument might
be made that would produce
such sounds as the human
voice, 8, 94.

Cross-staff, the crudest form of
apparatus for measuring the
height of the sun and stars, 7,
19.

Crotonian School of Philosophy,
founded by Pythagoras, I,
112.

Crowbar, modified form of lever,

6, 5.7-

Ctesibius, his studies of the
problems of matter, 1, 243;
invention of mechanism to
show that heat can do me-
chanical work, 1, 247; fire-

engine of, described, 6, 63;
studies phenomena of suc-
tion, 6, 94.

Cugnot, manufactured a steam-
driven wagon, 7, 158.

Cunard, Samuel, the founder of
the Cunard Line, 7, 74.

Cupping-glass, 6, 64.

Curie, Madame Skaldowska, dis-
covery of radium, 6, 100; the
theories of radio-activity of,

5, 106.

Curie, Professor Pierre, dis-
covery of radium, 6, 100; the
theories of radio-activity of,

6, 106.

Curtiss, Glenn H., his success-
ful flight from Albany to New
York, 7, 296.

Cuyier, George, his investiga-
tions concerning extinct
species, 3, 78; his inquiries
respecting the fabulous ani-
mals of the ancients, 3, 8r;
agrees with Smith's views, 3,
83; on catastrophism, 3, 85;
rejects the fossils discovered
by Dr.. Schmerling, 3, 103;
his classification of the ani-
mal kingdom, 4, 102; his
law of co-ordination, 4, 107;
his opposition to the trans-
mutation doctrines, 4, 153,
158.

Cyclones, 3, 199-205; a system
of whirls, 3, 202; primary
cause of, 3, 203; anti-, 3,
204.

Cyrus the Great, hie use of the
wireless telegraph, 8, 3; an
interesting cylinder recording
his victories now preserved
in the British Museum, 8, 105.

DAFT, Leo, the inventions of, 7,
184.

Da Gama, Vasco, navigated to
India by way of the Cape of
Good Hope, 7, 46.

Daguerre, Louis J. M., brought
photography to perfection, 4,
70; 8, 202; discovered a
practical method of develop-
ing photographic plates, 8,

[171]

KEY AND INDEX

220; his attention directed
to the subject of photography,
8, 223; inventor of the
daguerreotype process, 8,
224.

Daguerreotype perfected by
Louis Daguerre in 1839, 4,
70; 8, 224.

Daimler, German inventor, who
applied a high-speed oil en-
gine to the automobile in
1884, 6, 140; used the gasoline
motor for the practical pro-
pulsion of a tricycle, 7, 157.

D'Alembert, Jean le Roud,
determined the ratio of the
attractive forces of the sun
and moon, and the mutation
of the axis of the earth, 8,15.

Dalton, Chemistry Since the
Time of, Chapter III, 4, 38.

Dalton, John, and the atomic
theory, 4, 38-46; first con-
ception of the chemical atom,
4, 39; his theory disputed, 4,
41; his theory adopted, 4,
44; predicted the liquefaction
of gases, 5, 40.

Daniell, John Frederick, pro-
duced the cell which bears his
name, 3, 236.

Dark Age, Science in the, Chap-
ter I, 2, 3-

Darwin, Charles Robert, his
Origin of Species, 3, 95; his
work a revelation to the
geological world, 3, 96; his
work on doctrine of evolu-
tion, 4, 167; his most avail-
able field, 4, 1 68; years spent
in gathering facts, 4, 171;
joint paper of, and Wallace,
presented to the Linnaean
Society of London, 4, 173;
makes converts of Hooker,
Lyell, and Huxley, 4, 174; en-
tombed in Westminster Abbey,
4, 178; statue of, in Museum
of Natural History, 6, 9;
computations as to the earth's
ultimate fate, 5, 212.

Darwin, Dr. Erasmus, his theory
concerning the aurora bore-
atis. 3, 173; concerning the

vapor of water, 3; 177; and
vegetable respiration, 4, 94-
99; his Botanic Garden, 4,
147; his Zoonomia and Temple
of Nature, 4, 148; his ex-
pression of the idea of organic
evolution, ibid.; at his death
his idea of transmutation of
species still an unsubstan-
tiated dream, 4, 149.

Darwinian theory, its develop-
ment, 4, 1 66; greatest scien-
tific conception of the nine-
teenth century, 5, 241.

Davenport, Thomas, has the
distinction of building the
pioneer electric road, 7, 178.

Davenports, English potters
who early produced wares of
superior quality, 9, 232.

Da Vinci, Leonardo, his theories
concerning the creation sim-
ilar to those expressed by
Xenophanes two thousand
years before, 1, 129; sketches
of flying-machines by, 7, 227.

Davy, Sir Humphry, produced
the first electric lamp, 3, 234;
his own account of his experi-
ments, 6, 220; showed that
labor may be transformed into
heat, 3, 255; his experiment
of melting ice by friction, 3,
277; heat a manifestation of
motion among particles of
matter, 3, 294; and electro-
chemistry, 4, 46-53 ; brilliant
researches with his voltaic
battery, 4, 47; his famous
Bakerian lecture 4, 48; his
theory of binary composition
of chemical compounds, 4, 53 ;
experiments in the mysteries
of respiration, 4, 93; experi-
ments with nitrous oxide, 4,
209-212; professor of chem-
istry in Royal Institute, 6, 34;
his science of electro-chem-
istry, 6, 36; experiments with
low temperatures, 6, 40; his
suggestion results in produc-
tion of liquid chlorine, 5, 41;
experiments upon gases, 6,
42; challenged the theory of

[172]

GENERAL INDEX

imponderable fluids as ap-
plied to light and heat, 6,
154; safety lamp of, 6, 250;
his experiments with the
camera obscura, 8, 221.

Dawes, Rev. W. R., one of the
discoverers of the inner or
crape ring of Saturn, 3, 44.

Day of Bel, the, a series of
tablets written in the time of
Sargon I., 3800 B.C., 1, 67.

Days, lucky and unlucky, ac-
cording to Egyptian magi-
cians, 1, 44, 45, 46.

De Bary, Heinrich, studies of
protoplasm, 4, 125.

De Caus, Solomon, put into
effect the idea of utilizing
steam for the practical pur-
pose of raising water, 6, 83.

DeForest, Lee, inventor of wire-
less telegraph system used
during the Russo-Japanese
war, 8, 65; instruments used
by, in experimenting with
wireless telephony, 8, 90.

De Gary, Blasco, constructed
the model of a paddle-wheel
steamboat, 7, 66.

Degen, invented a flying-ma-
chine with two parachutes,

7, 245-

De Jussieu, Antoine and Ber-
nard, founders of the "natural
system in botany," 2, 303.

De Lacaille, Nicolas Louis, his
remeasurement of the French
arc of the meridian, in 1739,
3, 13; the question of the
shape of the earth, 3, 14.

De Lamarck, Jean Baptiste, the
work of, 4, 151; his idea of
transmutation of species, 4,
152; coined the word "biol-
ogy," 4, 160.

Delambre, Jean Baptiste Joseph,
determined the orbit of the
planet Uranus, 3, 16; inves-
tigated Alexandre's telegraph,

8, 10.

DeLaval, Dr. Gustav, turbine
engine of, 6, 131.

Delitzsch, Professor, his Assy-
rian grammar, 1, 96.

De Maillet, and transmutation of
species, 4, 149.

Demeny, George, devised the
photoscope for reproducing
the motion of a man's lips,
8, 250.

Democedes, the first physician
of whom we have any trust-
worthy history, 1, 172.

Democritus, a dreamer and a
thinker, 1, 162; his theory of
atoms curiously foreshadowed
nineteenth-century k n o w 1-
edge, 1, 163 ; atoms differ from
each other only in size and
shape, 1 , 1 64 ; the quibble over
the word quality, 1, 166; a
forecast of the chemistry of the
future, 1, 167, 169; a believer
in omens, 1, 170.

De Morgan, a worker in the
field of Egyptian explora-
tion, 1, 28.

De Rouge, Vicompte E., a
follower of Dr. Young in the
study of Egyptian hierogly-
phics, 1, 27; theories of his
followers concerning the sym-
bols of the Phoenician alpha-
bet, 1, 87.

Derrick, see Crane.

Desaguiliers, Dr. Joseph, elec-
trifies running water, 2, 274;
originates story of invention
of beam connection for oper-
ating engine valves, by Hum-
phrey Potter, cock-boy, 6, 91-

Descartes, Ren6, statement of
the first law of motion, 2, 99;
formulates law of refraction,
2, 119; estimates of his work,
2. 193; his physiological
views, 2, 194; theory of vor-
tices, 2, 195.

Desmoulins, Louis Antoine, his
studies of the brain, 4, 249.

Deutschland and Kaiser Wilhelm
II. German ships that for
several years held the ocean
record for speed, 7, 82.

Devaine, discovery that anthrax
is caused by bacteria, 4, 227.

Development of the Alphabet,
The, Chapter IV, 1, p. 86.

[173]

KEY AND INDEX

Development of Modern Ge-
ology, The Origin and,
Chapter IV, 3, 116.

Development of Electricity and
Magnetism, The Modern,
Chapter VII, 3, 229.

Development of Electric Rail-
ways, The, Chapter VI, 7, 1 75.

Deville, Ste.-Claire, dissolution
and reformation of molecules
fully appreciated by, 4, 61.

De Vinne, Theodore L., his
description of a perfected
magazine press, 8, 135.

Dewar, Professor James, ex-
periments with low tempera-
tures, 5, 39; liquefied "hy-
drogen," 6, 43; his vacuum
vessel for holding liquefied
gases, 6, 53, 54, 68; his ex-
periments show that carbon
will liquefy under pressure
of about fifteen tons to the
square inch, 9, 327.

Diamond Drill, 6, 247.

Dias, Bartholomeo, discovered
the Cape of Good Hope, 7, 46.

Diesbach, accidentally discov-
ered a blue pigment, 8, 299.

Digestion, chemical theory of,
4, 88-91; function of the
glands that act in the process
of, 4, 129, 130.

Diodorus, the Sicilian, 1, 56;
left us a striking summary
of Babylonian science, 1,
77; describes pyramid-build-
ing in Egypt, 6, 37.

Diogenes Laertius, his story of
the athletic prowess of Pythag-
oras, 1, 112.

Diphtheria, discovery of anti-
toxine for, 4, 242.

Disputed question of "spon-
taneous" variations, 4, 178;
Haeckel and Spencer and the,
ibid.

"Dissociation," the dissolution
and reformation of molecules
in a substance, 4, 61.

Doctrine of irritability, Haller's
greatest contribution to medi-
cal science, 4, 74.

Dog, first animal to be domes-

ticated, still used as beast of
burden, 6, 59.

Dohrn, Dr. Anton, founder of
the Marine Biological Labora-
tory at Naples, 5, 121 ; theory
of the annelid type of inver-
tebrate ancestor of the ver-
tebrates, 5, 137.

Domestic economy, methods at
beginning nineteenth century
compared with those at end,
6, 22-24.

Door, a lever of the second class,
6, 30.

Doors of ancient dwellings, 9,

r55-

Dove, Heinrich W., his studies
in climatology, 3, 199, 200.

Dow, type-setting machine of,
8, 151.

Drais, Baron von, the earliest
bicycle introduced by, 7, 154.

Draper, Dr. Henry, made the
first successful photograph of
a nebula, 3, 67.

Draper, Dr. John W., applica-
tion of photography to spec-
troscope, 4, 70; in connection
with Morse succeeded in mak-
ing the first photographic
portrait ever taken, 8, 226.

Dreadnought, Atlantic record
for sailing vessels made by, 7,
62.

Driesch, Dr., studies of cell
activities and of heredity
made at the Marine Biological
Laboratory at Naples, 6, 131.

Drill, a modified form of the
lever, 6, 57; used in mining,
6, 254.

Dubois, Dr. Eugene, the dis-
coverer of the ape-man fossil
on the island of Java, 3, 113;
discovers the skull and thigh-
bone of the ape-man of Java,
6, 173; the "missing link," 6,
174; an important addition
to our knowledge of man's
line of descent made by dis-
coveries of, 6, 176.

Ductless glands, their functions
discovered by Claude Bernard,

[174]

GENERAL INDEX

Dufay, Cisternay, electrical ex-
periments, 2, 267; discovers
"vitreous" and "resinous"
electricity, 2, 270; established
important facts regarding con-
duction and insulation, 6, 219.

Du jar din, contents of cells
named "sarcode" by, 4, 124.

Dumas, Jean Baptiste, his
school of physiological chem-
istry, 4, 128.

Dundas, Lord, engaged Syming-
ton to build a steam boat to
be used for towing, 7,67.

made of one piece of cast iron,
8, 122.

Early Greek Philosophers in
Italy, The, Chapter VI, 1,

112.

Earth, the, ultimate fate of, 5,
212; future life of, 6, 213;
as a conductor of electricity, 8.
48.

Earth's crust, the, computation
as to the age of, 6, 210; es-
timated thickness of, 6, 212.

Eaton, William, inventor of the
self-acting mule, 9,

>r towing, i, 07. sen-acting mule, y, 35.

Dunlap, J. B., introduced the Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, Dis-

pneumatic tire, 7, 155.

Diirer, Albrecht, best known
wood engravings made by, 8,
188.

Durouf, his use of the balloon
during the Franco- Prussian
War, 7, 258.

Dutartre, the stop cylinder in-
vented by, 8, 125.

Dwelling House, evolution of,
9, 133; the cave-dwellers,
9, 134; material used in
building determined by the
natural products at hand,
9, 138; methods of construc-
tion, and architecture, 9, 140;
the use of chimneys, 9, 151;
the first glass windows, 9, 153;
different types of roofs, 9,
153; ceilings and floors, 9,
154; staircases, 9, 155; doors
of ancient dwellings, 9, 155.

Dyes, their origin, composition,
and uses, 8, 314.

Dynamo, The, 6, 171; the
mechanism of, 6, 173; com-
plex structure of 6, 174; ori-
gin of, 6, 176; dynamo-
electric machine, constructed
by Michael Faraday, 6, 177;
Wilde's separately excited, 6,
178; introduction of the ring
arrangement, 6, 179; amount
of loss of energy in, 6, 180;
in the electric power plant at
Niagara Falls, 6, 187.

EARL of Stanhope, produced a
printing-press having a frame

coveryof "radium "at, 6, 100.

Economic condition of Europe,
its influence on science in the
dark age, 2, 6.

Edison, Thomas A., his inven-
tion of the incandescent lamp,

6, 228; perfected a series of
electric-railway motors and
locomotives, 7, 182; the stor-
age-battery car invented by,

7, 189; patents a system of
wireless telegraphy, 8, 50;
improves upon the type of
telephone receiver, 8, 83 ; in-
vents a microphone trans-
mitter, 8, 83; inventor of the
phonograph, 8, 93; his in-
vention of the kinetoscope, 8,
251.

Egg-cell, contents of, 6, 227.

Egypt, the first dynasty, 1, 31;
the building of the pyramids,
1, 32 ; three seasons of, 1, 36.

Egyptian antiquities captured
by the English, 6,5.

Egyptian Science, Chapter II, 1,

Egyptian science, the summer
solstice corresponded with the
rising of the Nile, 1, 34; the
year divided into twelve
months of thirty days each, 1,
35; the three seasons, 1, 36;
the fixing of New Dear's day,
1, 37; the difficulties con-
cerning the unreckoned quar-
ter of a day, 1, 38; efforts to
reform the calendar, 1, 40;
arbitrary signs of the zodiac,

[175]

KEY AND INDEX

1, 41; conceptions concern-
ing the earth, sky, etc., 1, 42;
the recognition of the pulse,
1,51; practical mathematics,
1, 52; science as science was
unknown, 1, 55.

Egyptian seasons, three in num-
ber, 1, 36.

Egyptian temples, oriented with
reference to the point at which
the sun rises on the day of
the summer solstice, 1, 34.

Eighteenth-Century Medicine,
Chapter VII, 4, 182.

Eleatic School, founded by
Xenophanes, 1, 114.

Electricity, Progress in, from
Gilbert and Von Guericke to
Franklin, Chapter XIV, 2,
259.

Electricity and Magnetism, The
Modern Development of,
Chapter VII, 3, 229.

Electricity, Oersted's experi-
ments with suspended mag-
netic needle, 3, 236; its rela-
tion to magnetism, 3, 238;
the discovery of the principles
of electro-dynamics, 3, 239;
the first electro-magnet, ibid.;
experiments of Michael Fara-
day, 3, 243; the first storage
battery, 3, 246; Seebecle's
battery, 3, 247; the "Hertz-
ian Waves," now used in wire-
less telegraphy, 3, 247; Pro-
fessor Thompson and the
nature of, 5, 92; relation of
gases to the conduction of,
ibid.; atomic character of, 6,
96; regarded as a form of
matter, 5, 97; Age of, 6, 15;
general chapter on, 6, 148;
theories as to what it is, 6,
149; multiform uses of, in
every -day life, 6, 149; Ben-
jamin Franklin's one-fluid
theory of, 6, 150; two-fluid
theory of, 6, 151; name de-
rived from Latin word elec-
trunt, 6, 152; derivation of
the idea that it is a "fluid,"
6, 153; modem views of, 6,
153; studies of Rumford,

Young, Fresnel, and Davy,
leading up to modern theories,
6, 154; most recent views as
to the nature, 6, 155; cur-
rents of, simply aggregations
of free electrons, 6, 156; how
it is developed, 6, 159;
statical and dynamical, 6,
1 60; generation of, by walk-
ing on a wool carpet in cold
weather, 6, 160; amount gen-
erated by lightning, 6, 161;
the static machine, 6, 161;
the work of the dynamical
current, 6, 162; voltaic cell
for generating, 6, 163; the-
ories ol electrical action,
6, 165; practical uses of, 6,
1 68; current of, used for pro-
ducing heat, 6, 169; dynamos
for generating, 6, 174; mech-
anism of its production by the
dynamo, 6, 181; amount

r crated at Niagara Falls,
[89; transmission of, from
Niagara Falls, 6, 194; loss
in transmission of, as esti-
mated by Siemens, 6, 195;
transmission of, at Niagara by
recent methods, 6, 197; "step
up" and "step-down" trans-
formers, 6, 198; high
and low voltage, 6, 199;
Ruhmkorff coil, the construc-
tion of, 6, 199; traction en-
gines used in mining, 6, 257;
engine invented by W. M.
Schlessinger, 6, 257; in coal-
mining, 6, 266; electric light-
ing of mines, 6, 269; obtain-
ing nitrogen from the air by
the use of, 6, 307; and high
temperatures, 6, 313; the
discovery of, 8, 4-
Electric light, Sir Humphry-
Davy's experiments with, 3,
234; first ever invented, by
Sir Humphry Davy, 6, 220;
first practical application of,
in France, 1849, 6, 222; the
improved arc light, 6, 226;
Chas. F. Brush's invention of
arc light, 6, 226; some recent
types of arc lights, 6, 227;

[I76]

GENERAL INDEX

carbons for, invented by
Carr6, 6, 227; incandescent,

6, 228; Thos. A. Edison's in-
vention of the incandescent
lamp, 6, 228; defects of
platinum wire as filament for
incandescent lamp, 6, 230;
carbon as a filament for in-
candescent lamp 6, 233;
method of preparing carbon
filament for incandescent
lamp, 6, 233; the tungsten
lamp, 6, 234; advantages and
defects of tungsten lamp, 6,
235; Mercury- vapor light of
Peter Cooper Hewitt, 6,
236.

Electric Railways, the develop-
ment of, 7, 175; the first
practical cable system in-
vented by Andrew S. Hallidie,

7, 177; the small circular
railway built by Thomas
Davenport, 7, 178; the elec-
tro-magnetic locomotive of
Moses G. Farmer, 7, 179; the
small working-motor exhib-
ited by Thomas Hall, 7, 179;
the efforts of Professor Page
to produce a storage-battery
car, 7, 1 80; the experiments
of Siemens and Halske with
electric motors, 7, 181; the
Edison electric locomotive,
7, 182; third rails and trolleys,
7, 184; the inventions of
Daft and Van Depoele, 7,
185; the work of Frank
J. Sprague in developing
electric railways, 7, 186;
the storage battery line built
by E. Julien, 7, 188; im-
provements made by Anthony
Rackenzaun, 7, 189; the
Edison storage-battery car,
7, 189; monorail systems, 7,
191; the monorail system
invented by Howard Hansel
Tunis, 7, 193.

Electro-chemistry, the new
science of, 6, 298; its use in
obtaining nitrogen from the
air, 6, 307.

Electro-magnetism, 8, 14-

Electron, composition of, and
newest theories about, 6, 148;
and radio-active substances,
6, 156; Sir J. J. Thomson's
conception of, 6, 158; theory
of origin of, 6, 165; in its re-
lation to the atom, 6. 156,
166.

Electroplating, action of electri-
city in, 6, 170.

Elevator, hydraulic, principle
of, described, 6, 76-77; the
invention of, by Elisha G.
Otis, 9, 169.

Elixir of life, 2, 124, 131, 136.

Ellis, Alexander J., gives in-
formation to Graham Bell as
to experiments on sounds
performed by Helmholtz, 8,

Embalming the dead, a purely
religious observance in Egypt,
1, 50; to prevent the spirit's
return to torment one, 1, 54.

Embryological development,
theory of, 5, 156.

Embryology, studies in, by Von
Baer, Miiller, and Carpenter,
4, 122.

Empedocles, one of the great
Italic leaders of thought, 1,
114; a practising physician,
1, 133 ; his work as a sanitary
engineer, 1, 134; his idea of
the impersonality of God, 1,
135; his knowledge of em-
balming, 1, 136; his concep-
tion of evolution, 1, 137; he
had a secure place among the
anticipators of the modern
evolutionist, 1, 138; his
studies of the force of air
pressure, 1, 247.

Energy, The Conservation of,
Chapter VIII, 3, 253.

Energy, chief sources of, at
man's disposal, 6, 41-42 ; man
learns to use energy of ani-
mals, 6, 59 seq.; uses of, con-
tained in air and water, 6,
62.

Engines, see Atmospheric e.,
Electric e., Gas e., Hot- Air e.,
Piston e., Steam e., Water e.

[177]

KEY AND INDEX

Epagomenal days, the legend
of Osiris explaining, 1, 36.

Epicycles, the doctrine of wheels,
1. 237-

Erasistratus, one of the first to
discover that the nerve-trunks
have their origin in the brain
and spinal cord, 1, 194; his
disagreement with Herophilus
as to the functions of the
organs, 1, 195.

Eratosthenes, called the "sur-
veyor of the world," 1, 226;
his important modification of
the gnomon, 1, 227; his
method of determining the size
of the earth, 1, 230; his con-
clusions have ever been re-
garded with admiration, 1,
231; additional reference to
his measurement of the world,

7, 5-

Ericsson, John, built caloric
engines on such a scale as to
be adapted to the propulsion
of ships 6, 134-

Erman, Professor, an Egyptol-
ogist, 1, 28.

Ernst Haeckel and the New
Zoology, Chapter VI, 6, 144.

Etching, 8, 195; Rembrandt
and Van Dyck famous for
their etchings, 8, 196; Whist-
ler and Seymour Haden great
exponents of this kind of en-
graving, 8, 196.

Ether and Ponderable Matter,
The, Chapter IX, 3, 283.

Ether, James Clerk-Maxwell's
conception of, 3, 283; its
discovery one of the most im-
portant feats of the nine-
teenth century, 3, 284; dis-
covered by Thomas Young,
3, 285; the speculations con-
cerning it, 3, 286, 290.

Etienne, Charles, discovers canal
in spinal cord, 2, 163.

Euclid, the father of systematic
geometry, 1, 193.

Eudoxus, made special studies
of the heavenly spheres, 1,
216; remarked the obliquity
of the ecliptic, 1, 228.

Euler, Leonard, professor of

Ehysics and mathematics at
t. Petersburg, 3, 17; his
demonstration concerning the
aphelia of Saturn and Jupiter,
3, 18.

Eustachius, sixteenth-century
anatomist, 2, 165; tube,
ibid.

Evans, Oliver, experiments with
high-pressure steam, designs
road vehicle, 6, 113; his
machine the "Oruktor Am-
phibious" combined the prin-
ciple of steamboat and loco-
motive, 7, 121.

Evolution, Professor Marsh on,
3, 114.

Evolution, Theories of Organic,
Chapter VI, 4, 140.

Evolution of the Dwelling House,
Chapter VI, 9, 133.

Existence, struggle for, ex-
plained and exemplified, 6,
3-6-

Experiment, the first passenger
coach, 7, 129.

Experimental Psychology, The
New Science of, Chapter IX,
4. 245-286.

Eyde, S., his co-operation with
Prof. Birkeland in obtaining
nitrogen from the air, 6, 306.

FALCONER, Dr., his description
of the fossil remains in the
museum of M. de Perthes, 3,
100.

Fallopius, sixteenth-century an-
atomist, 2, 166.

Faraday, Sir Michael, begins the
study of electro-magnetic in-
duction, 3, 240; his paper
before the Royal Society, 3,
241; his rotating disk, 3, 245;
just missed the discovery of
the conservation of energy, 3,
253; claimed the existence of
an invisible plenum every-
where in space, 3, 287; pro-
duces liquid chlorine, 6, 39;
experiments with gases, 6,
40; hoped to establish a rela-
tion between gravitation and

[178]

GENERAL INDEX

electricity or magnetism, 5,
215; the idea of action of
distance repugnant to his
mind, 6, 155; his invention
of the dynamo-electric ma-
chine, 6, 177.

Faraday tubes, nature of, 6, 1 59.

Farman, Henry, his successful
flight, 7, 293.

Farmer, Moses G., constructed
an electro-magnetic locomo-
tive, 7, 179.

Favus, cause of, 4, 208.

Fechner, Gustav, his Psycho-
physik, 4, 263; verifies
Weber's fundamental law of
psychophysics, 4, 266.

Fegaunt, Lieutenant, and Cap-
tain Marconet, made a cross-
country flight in a Farman
bi-plane, 7, 298.

Feil succeeded in making crys-
tals of a size from which gems
could be cut, 9, 331.

Ferrel, Professor William, formu-
lated a general mathematical
law concerning wind currents,
3, 200.

Ferrier, Dr. David, and brain
localization, 4, 273.

Field, Cyrus W., his connection
with the laying of the At-
lantic cable, 8, 30; aboard
the Great Eastern on its first
cable-laying expedition, 8,
42.

Field, Stephen D., his experi-
ments with the electric motors,
7, 181.

Fifteenth-century medicine, 2,

39-

Fielding and Platt, their work-
ing model of a rotary engine
in the South Kensington
Museum, 6, 122.

Finding the time without a
chronometer, 7, 28.

Fire Damp, in mines, 6, 249.

Fire-engine, device of Ctesibius
described, 6, 63.

Fitch, John, his efforts to perfect
a steamboat, 7, 63.

Fizeau, M., invented the process
of toning or gilding photo-

graphs with a solution of
gold, 8, 228.

Fleury, Cardinal, as French
Minister in 1728 concerned
himself with fashions in hoop
skirts, 9, 74.

Flinders, Matthew, his discovery
that the influence of the ship
over its compass varies with
the direction of the ship's
prow, 7, ii.

Floods, those of the Nile, the
Tigris, and Euphrates a most
tangible index of the seasons,

1, 66.

Flourens, Marie Jean Pierre, ex-
periments in nerve physiol-
ogy, 4, 270; discovers the
"vital knot," ibid.

Floors, ancient, 9, 154.

Flying Cloud, speed made by,

Forbes, the discoverer of the
polarization of heat, 3, 278.

"Force" of cohesion, 6, 49.

Fossil beds of America, the,
finest known, 3, 106.

Fossil man, the collection of M.
Boucher de Perthes, 3, 100.

Fossil horse described by Pro-
fessor Marsh, 3, 108.

Foster, Sir Michael, permanent
secretary Royal Society of
London, 6, 17.

Fouque, French chemist, his
analysis of the blue pigment
used by the Egyptians, 8, 302.

Fourneyron, invents turbine
wheel, 6, 72.

Franco, Peter, itinerant surgeon,

2, 182.

Frank, associated with Caro in
perfecting process of nitrogen
fixation, 6, 309.

Franklin, Benjamin, electrical
experiments, 2, 286; his
theory of electricity, 2, 288;
6, 150; his battery, 2, 289;
invents the lightning-rod, 2,
290; proves that lightning is
electricity, 2, 293; his theory
concerning the aurora borealis,

3, 173; concerning the vapor
of water, 3, 177; pointed out

[179]

KEY AND INDEX

that water carries sound far-
ther and faster than air, and
with greater constancy, 7,
85; invented the "Franklin
stove," 9, 167.

Fraunhofer, Joseph, the per-
fector of the refracting tele-
scope and the " heliometer,"
3, 60.

Fremy, succeeded in making
crystals of a size from which
gems could be cut, 9, 331.

Fresnel, Augustin Jean, cham-
pions Dr. Young's wave the-
ory of light, 3, 226; elected
a member of the French
Academy, ibid . ; challenged
the doctrine of imponderable
fluids as applied to light and
heat, 6, 153-

Friction, 6, 39-41; friction re-
ducers, 6, 54, seq.

From Cart to Automobile, Chap-
ter V, 7, 152.

From Paracelsus to Harvey,
Chapter VII, 2, 156.

Fuhlrott, Dr., his discoveries in
a cave at Neanderthal, 3, 102.

Fulton, Robert, inventor of the
Clermont, the first practical
steamboat, 7, 70; built the
first war steamer and ocean
steamer ever attempted, 7,
73 ; his experiments with sub-
marine boats, 7, 98; the
Nautilus, his first submarine,
7,99.

Furniture and Furnishings,
Chapter IX, 9, 213-224.

Furniture and Furnishings,
early types of, 9, 213; the
beginning of the time of
modern furniture, 9, 216; the
passing of hand carving, 9,
217; other ingenious tools
used in furniture-making, 9,
223.

GALE r^percute'e, 4, 204, 205.

Galen, the last great scientist
of the Alexandrian school, 1,
272; a tireless worker, 1 , 277;
his erroneous conceptions re-
garding the heart, 1, 278; his

treatment of the ulnar nerve,

1, 279; his treatment of Em-
peror Marcus Aurelius, 1, 280;
his system of treatment, 1,
281; his erroneous theories
about respiration and the
pulse beat, 1, 282; his obser-
vations of the skin and heart,
1,283.

Galileo, Galilei, life and work, 2,
76; construction of telescope,

2, 78, 253; telescopic ob-
servations, 2, 78, 79, 80; dis-
covery of sun-spots, 2, 80;
trial for heresy, 2, 81; pub-
lication of his work, 2, 83;
extract from his work, 2,
84; experiment at Pisa, 2,
94; theory in regard to pro-
jectiles, 2,95; mechanical dis-
coveries, 2, 98; experiments
with inclined planes, 2, 100;
with pendulum, 2, 100; ex-
periments with fluids, 2, 105;
account of his experiments
with floating bodies, in his
own words, 2, 106; invents
the thermometer, 2, 119.

Galileo and the New Physics,

Chapter V, 2, 93.
Galileo, The Successors of, in

Physical Science, Chapter X,

2, 204.

Gall, Dr. Franz Joseph, studies
in phrenology, 4, 247.

Gallium discovered, 4, 68.

Galvani, Luigi, the discoverer of
the new agent galvanism,

3, 229; his experiments with
frogs' legs, 3, 230; his ex-
periments paved the way for
the electric light, 6, 210.

Ganglion cells, studies of, 4, 279.

Garnerin, the folding umbrella-
like parachute invented by,
7, 243.

Gas, term coined by Van Hel-
mont, 2f 1 86.

Gas, Acetylene, 6, 212; use of
calcium carbide in producing,
6, 213; discovery of its use
for illuminating by Thos. F.
Wilson, 6, 213; Niagara Falls
the centre of carbide manu-

[180]

GENERAL INDEX

facturing industry, 6, 214; Gastric juice, R6aumur's ex-
cost of production of, 6, 215; periments with, 4, 89; Spal-
defects of, 6, 215; lamps for lanzani's and Hunter's the-

burning, 6, 216; at the Pan-
American Exhibition at
Buffalo, 6, 216; proper meth-

cries of, ibid.; action of, after
death, 4, 90; hydrochloric
acid discovered in, 4, 129;
active principle in,

Gaudin, produced true rubies of
microscopic size, 9, 331.

od of generating, 6, 217. pepsin

Gas and Oil Engines, Chapter _ ibid.
on, 6, 132.

Gas engine, principle of, 6, 132; r. _, „, 00i.

of Sir G. Cayley, 6, 132 ; early Gauss, one of the first inventors
attempts to invent, 6, 134; of a practical working tele-
first practical one invented graph, 8, 17.
by J. J. E. Lenoir, 6, 135; Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, ex-
principle on which modern periments with gases, 4, 42.
gas engines work, 6, 135; Gears, levers of the second class,
method of operation in per- 6, 35-36.

fected type, 6, 138; intro- Geber, Arabian chemist, 2, 20.
duction of a volatile oil for Gems, Natural and Artificial,
supplying the gas, 6, 139; Chapter XII, 9, 295; "lucky"
G. Daimler's development in and "unlucky" stones, 9,
1884, 6, 140; modern form 295; confused nomenclature,

9, 297; practical tests, 9,
300; the cutting of precious
stones, 9, 305; diamonds in
the rough, 9, 312; the ruby
and its allies, 9, 319; artificial
gems, 9, 327.

Genealogical tree, Haeckel's,
regarding the ancestry of
man, 6, 172; the "missing
link," 6, 173.

of motor devised by Messrs.
Panhard and Levassor, 6,
140; difficulties to be over-
come in perfecting it precisely
opposite to those of the steam
engine, 6, 140; status of, as
compared with steam en-
gines, 6, 141; reason for ex-
ploding the mixed gases in
the oil engine, 6, 144.

Gas, illuminating, flat burner Gennes, M. de, French Naval

invented by Neilson in 1820,
6, 208; invention of the incan-
descent mantle, 6, 208; Cla-
mond mantle used in 1882,
6, 209; used for producing
"lime light," 6, 209; Dr.
Auer von Welsbach's per-
fected incandescent burner,
6, 210; acetylene used for,
6, 212; part played by elec-
tric furnace in producing
acetylene gas, 6, 213.
Gases, liquefied, 6, 40-42 ; meth-
ods used, 6, 45, 46; Dewar's

officer who suggested plans for
a power-loom, 9, 43.

Geocentric theory, 1, 217.

Geology, The Origin and De-
velopment of Modern, Chap-
ter IV, 3, 116.

Geometry, according to Herod-
otus, was invented in Egypt,
1, 107.

G6rard, the flying-machine of,
7. 241.

Gerlach, the histological scheme
of, 4, 281.

Germanium discovered, 4, 68.

vacuum vessei~for holding, 6, Giant, the voyages of the, 7, 252.
3; new, discovered by Dr. Giffard, "the Fulton of aerial
Lamsey, 6, 84; questions navigation," 7, 251.
raised by discovery, 6, 89-91; Gifford, George, a New York

lawyer, his argument for the
validity of Howe's sewing-
machine patent, 9, 93.

their relation to the con-
duction of electricity, 5, 93
Gas mantle, 6, 211.

[181]

KEY AND INDEX

pi

Gille

Gilbert, William, study of mag-
netism, 2, in; 6, 175; 7,
10 ; the earth a magnet, 2,
113; " dipping ' ' of the needle,
2, 114; other discoveries, 2,
116.

Gill, Dr. David, at the Cape
observatory made the first
Dhotograph of a comet, 3, 67.
llebrand, Professor, English
professor of geometry who in-
dependently discovered that
the declination of the com-

n varies from time to time,
»•

Gintl, Doctor, invents an in-
strument for sending tele-
graphic messages in opposite
directions at the same time,
8, 25.

Glaciers, the phenomena of, 3,
147; the moraines, 3, 148;
the perched bowlders, ibid.;
the polished and striated
rocks, the lapiaz, 3, 149;
the ancient moraines, 3, 150;
perched bowlders in the Al-
pine valley, 3, 152; Agassiz's
fitudes sur Us Glaciers, 3, 154;
treated with contempt by
most scientists, ibid.; a mile
deep over New England, 3,
163; the results following the
rending of the ice sheet, 3,
164.

Glands, discovery of, in the
mucous membrane, 4, 129.

Glass and Glass-making, Chap-
ter XI, 9, 277; its origin un-
known, 9, 277; important
developments that glass has
made possible, 9, 278; prob-
able discoveries of glass, 9,
279; a doubtful Roman tra-
dition, 9, 281; the com-

Globe, the, constructed by Ste-

Ehenson for use on the
tockton & Darlington Rail-
way, 7, 134-

Gloves, Manufacture of. See
Clothing the Extremities, 9,
103.

Glycerine discovered by Karl
Wilhelm Scheele, 4, 27.

Goddard, discovered that bro-
mine vapor rendered photo-
graphic plates more sensitive,
8, 228.

Godfrey, Thomas, discovered a
means of measuring the alti-
tude of astronomical bodies,
7, 20.

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang,
studies of the metamorphosis
of plants, 4, 140-145; ex-
tends the doctrine to the
animal kingdom, 4, 146.

Golgi, Dr. Camille, process of
staining nerve cells, 4, 282.

Goodson, J. H., the graphotype
invented by, 8, 149.

Goodyear, inventor of the "turn
shoe" machine, automatic
heeling-machine, etc., 9, 113.

Gordon, Andrew, his electric
motor and bell, 2, 279.

Graebe, effected the synthesis
of alizarine, 8, 313.

Graham, Mr., discovered daily
variations of the compass, 7,
10.

Gralath, Daniel, groups Leyden
jars in a "battery," 2, 283.

Gramme, re-invented the ring
dynamo, 6, 179.

Granville, W. P., system of
wireless telegraphy installed
by, 8, 51.

Gravitation, Newton and the

Law of, Chapter XII, 2. 236.
. . ^ . * t -^ p j . F j-

position of glass, 9, 284; the Gravitation, law of, discovered

process of manufacturing
window glass, 9, 287; plate-
glass making, 9, 291; cut
glass, 9, 293; "wire-glass,"
9, 294.

Glass negatives, invented by
Niepce St. Victor, 8, 229.

Glass windows, the first, 9, 153.

by Isaac Newton, 2, 236;
Newtonian laws apply to
every particle of matter in the
universe, 3, 58; power of,
6, 214; hope of establishing a
relation between, and elec-
tricity or magnetism, 6, 215;
so-called law of, 5, 231.

[182]

GENERAL INDEX

Gray, Asa, became an ardent
propagandist, 4, 175.

Gray, Prof. Elisha, his experi-
ments with submarine signal-
ing, 7, 85; invents a system
for sending multiple messages,
8, 26; inventor of a practical
telephone, 8. 73; controversy
with Bell, 8, 81.

Gray, Stephen, experiments
with electric conduction and
insulation, 2, 262; 6, 219;
modern telegraph made pos-
sible by his discovery that
electricity could be conduct-
ed practically unlimited dis-
tances by means of wires or
threads, 8, 4.

Gray, Thomas, suggest the con-
struction of a railroad for
passenger and freight traf-
fic, 7, 127.

Great Eastern, description of
the, 7, 77; the part it played
in the laying of the Atlantic
cable, 8, 42.

Great Republic, description of
the, 7, 61.

Great Western, made a record
voyage, for the first time
using steam alone as a motive
power, 7, 73.

Greek Philosophers in Italy,
The Early, Chapter VI, 1,

112.

Greek Science, The Beginnings
of, Chapter V, 1, 103.

Greek Science in the Early
Attic Period, Chapter VII,

If J39-

Greek Science of the Alexan-
drian or Hellenistic Period,
Chapter IX, 1, 189.

Greenough, John T., inventor
of a sewing-machine using a
double-pointed needle, 9, 91.

Guericke, Otto von. See von
Guericke.

Gu6rin, Alphonse, endeavors to
protect wounds from germs,
4, 230.

Guimet, French chemist who
synthesized the pigment ul-
tra-marine in 1828, 8, 297.

Gulf Stream, the, theories of
Humboldt and Maury con-
cerning it, 3, 196; it carries
an enormous quantity of heat,
3, 197; its effect on the
climate of the seaboard of the
United States and Europe, 3,
'198.

Gun-shot wounds, effect on sur-
gery in the sixteenth cen-
tury, 2, 41.

Gurney, opposition to the auto-
mobile invented by, 7, 160.

Gutenberg, Johannes, the father
of printing, 8, 120; his press
the simplest and first, 8, 120.

Guy of Chauliac, the effect of
his methods upon mediaeval
surgery, 2, 38.

Gyrocar, The, Chapter VII, 7,
195; gyroscopic action ex-
plained, 7, 197; Mr. Bren-
nan's model car, 7, 200; How
the Brennan gyroscopes
work, 7, 203; the evolution
of an idea, 7. 213.

Gyroscope and Ocean Travel,
The, Chapter VIII, 7, 217;
the idea of the gyroscope on
ships put into fairly success-
ful operation by Professor
Piazzi Smyth, 7, 217; Bes-
semer's costly experiment, 7,
217; Dr. Schlick's successful
experiment, 7, 219; did gy-
roscopic action wreck the
Viper? 7, 222; theoretical
dangers of the gyroscope, 7,
223.

Gyroscopic action explained, 7,
197.

HADEN, Seymour, one of the
great exponents of the type
of engraving known as etch-
ing, 8, 196.

Hadley, John, devised an in-
strument called the qua-
drant for measuring the al-
titude of astronomical bodies,
7, 20.

Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich,
and the Darwinian theory, 4,
175; and the disputed ques-

[183]

KEY AND INDEX

tion of "spontaneous varia-
tions," 4, 178; and the new
zoology, 6, 144-177: his many
paintings, 5, 152; discoveries
of numerous species of radio-
larians, 5, 154; gastrula the-
ory of, 5, 155; his theory of
embryological development,
6, 156; great champion of
Darwinism, ibid.; his work
on morphology, 6, 157; lib-
erty of spirit accorded at
Jena, 6, 158; his laboratory
at Jena, 6, 159; his method
of work, 5, 161; his methods
of teaching, 6, 163; recog-
nized leader in the new zool-
ogy, 6, 171; his genealogical
tree regarding the ancestry
of man, 6, 172; man's line
of descent clearly traced by,
6, 176.

Haeckel, Ernst, and the New
Zoology, Chapter VI, 6, 144-

Hahnemann, Christian Samuel
Friedrich, the medical system
of, 4, 188.

Hales, Stephen, father of vege-
table physiology, 2, 298;
study of the elasticity of air,
4, ii ; described a process of
distilling coal, 6, 207.

Hall, Charles M., discovered a
process for producing alum-
inum, 6, 300.

Hall, Marshall, and physical
diagnosis, 4, 203; observa-
tions and reflex action, 4,

251-258.
ll,

ibid.; calculated the orbit of a
comet, 3,6; speculations con-
cerning meteors, 3, 7;
showed that fixed stars have
an actual or "proper" mo-
tion in space, 3, 57; showed
that the deviations of the
compass were due to some
influence having to do with
the problem of terrestrial
magnetism, 7, 10.

Hallidie, Andrew S., the first
practical cable system made
by, 7, 177.

Halske, his experiments with
electric motors, 7, 181.

Haly, Abbas, author of The
Royal Book, 2, 24.

Hamilton, Charles K., his flight
from New York to Philadel-
phia and return in June, 1910,

Hamilton's, Sir William, collec-
tion acquired for British
Museum, 5, 5.

Hammer, a modified form of the
lever, 6, 57.

Hampson, Dr. William, im-
proved method of liquefac-
tion of gases, 6, 44; his ap-
paratus for liquefying air,

5,45-
Hanaman, in connection with

Just, takes out patent for a

lamp with incandescent fila-

ment, 6, 235.
Hand tools, modified forms of

the lever, 6, 57-59.
Hansen, Christian August, in-

ventor of an electrical ma-

chine, 2, 274.

Hall, Thomas, exhibited a small

working-motor on a track

forty feet long, 7, 179. Harets ben Kaladah, physician

Haller, Albrecht von, 4, 73-75; __of Mohammed, 2, 23.
, 4, 74;

doctrine of irritability, ,
discoveries in embryology,
4, 75; first to use the watch
in counting the pulse, 4, 76.
Halley, his observations on the
changes in the variations of
the compass, 3, 4; his ob-
servations on the transit of
Mercury, 3, 5; his discovery
of a method of determining
the parallax of the planets,

Hargreaves, James, the first
carding-machine invented by,
in 1762, 9, 16; inventor of the
spinning- jenny, 9, 21; first
patent taken out in 1770,9, 23;
his description of his process
of spinning, 9, 23; difficulties
encountered in introducing
his machine, 9, 24.

Harrison, John, inventor of the
first accurate watch, for which

[184]

GENERAL INDEX

he received a prize of twenty
thousand pounds sterling from
the British Government, 7,

Hartley, Dr. David, his famous
vibration theory, 4, 268.

Harvey, From Paracelsus to,
Chapter VII, 2, 156.

Harvey, William, life of, 2, 169;
his discovery of the circula-
tion of the blood, 2, 171-178.

Hatchet, principle of, 6, 54.

Hauksbee, Francis, his mercu-
rial fountain, 2, 2 59 ; discovery
of "induction," 2, 259-262;
early experiments with the
telephone, 8, 67.

Hauron, Ducos du, his simple
method of color-photography,
8, 241.

Hautefeuille, attempted to make
practical use of the power set
free by the explosion of gun-
powder, 6, 134.

Heat, Count Rumford's experi-
ments with, 3, 209; Hum-
phry Davy's independent de-
monstration that labor may
be transformed into, 3, 255;
Sadi Carnot expresses belief
in the quantitative relation
between work and, 3, 255;
James Prescott Joule demon-
strated the mechanical equiv-
alent of, 3, 256; Colding,
Mayer, and Helmholtz inde-
pendently discover the same
principle, 3, 257; Dr. Mayer's
own account of his discovery,
3, 259; Joule's paper on, 1843,
3, 269; James David Forbes
showed that radiant heat
resembles light in its confor-
mation to laws of polarization
and double refraction, 3, 275;
studies of heat by Professor
William Thomson (later Lord
Kelvin) led to the develop-
ment of the doctrine of the
dissipation of energy, 3, 276;
the old theory of "imponder-
ables" finally substituted by
the theory of an all-pervading
ether, 3, 281; explained as

due to the vibrations of the
particles of matter, 3, 294;
studies of, by Clausius, Clerk-
Maxwell, and others, led to
the development of the ki-
netic theory of gases, 3, 295;
absence of, causes liquefaction
of gases, 3, 304; low-tem-

rature researches in detail,
. 38-72; principle that heat
can do mechanical work by
generating steam shown by
Hero or Ctesibius, 6,82; gen-
eration of, by electricity, 6,
169.

Heat and Light, Modern The-
ories of, Chapter VI, 3, 206.

Heating, the problem of, in
ancient and mediaeval dwell-
ings, 9, 150; in skyscrapers,
9, i 66.

Heaviside, A. W., experimented
with parallel telegraph lines,
8, 51-

Heidenham, Dr. Rudolf, on the
phenomena of hypnotism, 4,
269.

Heliocentric theory, as pro-
pounded by Aristarchus in
the third century B.C., 1,
212; as demonstrated by
Copernicus in the fifteenth
century A.D., 2, 54.

Hellenistic Period, Greek Science
of the Alexandrian or, Chap-
ter IX, 1, 189.

Helmholtz, Hermann von, his
theory of solar energy, 3,
65; renounced all claim to
the discovery of the conser-
vation of energy in favor of
Mayer, 3, 269; found that a
vortex whirl once established
in a frictionless medium must
go on forever, 3, 290; his
measurement of speed of
nervous impulses, 4, 262; ex-
planation of the continued
heat of the sun, 6, 207; con-
cluded that man would never
be able to fly by his own
power alone, 7, 278.

Henderson, Thomas, his work
at the Cape of Good Hope in

[185]

KEY AND INDEX

detecting and measuring the
parallax of a star, 3, 61.

Henry III, French King, his use
of extraordinary ruffs, 9, 65.

Henry VIII, probably intro-
duced knitted stockings into
England, 9, 68.

Henry, Joseph, his experiments
with electric magnets, 3, 239;
8, 16; his early studies of
electro-magnetic induction, 6,
175; his construction of elec-
tro-magnets, 6, 177.

Henry the Navigator of Portu-
gal, his physicians credited
with inventing or introduc-
ing the astrolabe, 7, 19.

Henson, his studies of the lift-
ing-power of plane surfaces, 7,
246.

Heraclides first to point out the
value of opium in certain
diseases, 1, 196.

Hero, or Heron, a pupil of Ctesi-
bius, 1, 243; an explicit
champion of the molecular
theory of matter, 1, 245; his
experiments with water and
gases, 1, 246; his experiments
with heated air to produce
motor power, 1, 247' his ex-
periments with air under pres-
sure, 1, 248; his steam engine,
1, 250; the inventor of the
penny-in-the-slot machine, 1,
251; studied phenomena of
suction, 6, 64; described
and perhaps invented mech-
anism to show that heat could
do mechanical work, 6, 82.

Herodotus, his visit to Babylon,
If 57. J?3; refers to the use
of skins in writing, 8, no.

Herophilus, his records are the
first we have of the dissection
of the human body, 1, 194;
handed condemned criminals
over to the medical profession
to be operated on, 1, 195.

Herschel, John, in collaboration
with James South he dis-
covered many double stars, 3 ,
58; his improvements of the
microscope, 4, in.

Herschel, William, his positive

fenius for sidereal discovery,
,19; discovered the planet
Uranus, 3, 20; conceived the
universe to be a vast galaxy
of suns held to one centre, 3,
22; thinks that all the suns
are "well supplied with in-
habitants," 3, 23; theory
of the Milky Way, 3, 24;
thought all the suns of a sys-
tem would be drawn together
and destroyed by impact, 3,
26; suggests that the planets
Ceres and Pallas be called
asteroids, 3, 41; discovered
that certain fixed stars have
changed their relative posi-
tions, 3, 57.

Hertz, Dr. Heinrich, discovered
the method now used in wire-
less telegraphy, 3, 247; his
electro-magnetic theory of
light, 3, 280; produced elec-
tromagnetic waves, 6, 154;
discovery of " Hertzian ' '
waves, 8, 52.

Hevelius, Johannes, advanced
astronomy by his accurate
description of the face and
the spots of the moon, 3, 3.

Hesse, G. Emil, description of
the Svea caloric engine, 6,145.

Hewitt, Peter Cooper, his in-
vention of the mercury-vapor
light, 6, 236.

High temperatures, obtained by
electricity, 6, 314; obtained
by explosion of cordite in
closed chamber, 6, 315.

Highway of the Waters, The,
Chapter II, 7, 56.

Hildanes, Fabricius, German
surgeon, 2, 183.

Hinrichs, Professor Gustav.
draws attention to "law of
octaves," 4, 67.

Hipparchus, demonstrated the
eccentricity of the sun's seem-
ing orbit, 1, 234; his theory,
though incorrect, absolutely
consistent with all the facts of
a correct observation of the
sun's eccentricity, 1, 235; his

[186]

GENERAL INDEX

theory exemplified by a lan-
tern on a cart-wheel, 1, 237;
the dominant scientific per-
sonality of his century, 1,
238; demonstrated the pre-
cession of the equinoxes, 1,
242.

Hippocrates, the "father of
medicine," 1, 174; his specu-
lations about the heart, 1,
175; his acceptance of the
humoral theory of disease, 1,
176.

Hirschovel, early English potter
who produced wares of super-
ior quality, 9, 232.

Histological scheme, the, of
Gerlach, 4, 281.

Histology, the rise of, 4, 113.

History, Natural, to the Time of
Linnaeus, Chapter XV, 2, 297.

Hoe, a modified form of the
lever, 6, 57.

Hoe, Richard M., inventor of
the type-revolving machine,

8, 127.

Hofer, H., German experimen-
ter, proved that nitrogen
from the air can be made to
combine with oxygen in the
laboratory, 6, 306.

Hoffman, Mr., invented a rotary
engine, 6, 123.

Hoffmann, Friedrich, arranged
Boerhaave's doctrines in a
"system," 4, 184.

Holland, the type of diving-boat
most familiar to the majority
of people, 7, 107.

Holland, Philemon, his transla-
tion of the summary of Baby-
lonian science by Diodorus, 1,

Holland, P., success of the sub-
marine due to his efforts, 7,
105; the Holland type of
boat, 7, 107.

Holmes, Sir George, his descrip-
tion of the voyage of the re-
plica of the Santa Maria, 7,
60.

Honain ben Isaac, Arabian
physician, 2, 24.

Honorius, public mills probably

introduced in the Roman
Empire about the time of his
reign (384-423 A.D.), 6, 71.

Hooke, Robert, 2. 215; his
flying-machines, 2, 216; mi-
croscopical observations, 2,
217, 218; controversy with
Newton, 2, 237; prone to
claim other men's discoveries,
8, 23 ; method of communica-
tion by telephone, 8, 68.

Hooker, Sir Joseph, half-con-
vert to Darwin's views, 4, 171;
accepts Darwin's theories, 4,
174.

Hopkins' estimate of the thick-
ness of the earth's crust, 6,212.

Hopkins and Rittenhouse in-
vented and sent up a balloon,
7, 237.

Hornblower, Jonathan, invents
and patents compound en-
gine; the original element in
his idea, 6, 117.

Horse, the worker par excellence,
domestic use of, 6, 59.

Horse-power, origin of term, 6,
60.

Hot Air Engine, Dr. Stirling's
efforts to invent, 6, 133 ; limi-
tations of, 6, 134; John Erics-
son's development of, 6, 134;
caloric engine of Svea, 6, 145-

Houghton, George C., his de-
scription of the modern shoe
industry, 9, 108.

Housatonic, the sinking of, by a
submarine, 7, 103; the attack
described, 7, 104.

Howard, Luke, his paper on
clouds, 3, 182; his views con-
cerning the formation of dew,
3, 183.

Howe, Elias, Jr., invents the
practical commercial sewing-
machine, 9, 93: struggles of
the inventor and final tri-
umph, 9, 95.

Hudson, Henry, his heroic effort
to find the fabled northwest
passage, 7, 47-

Hughes, Prof. D. E., his inde-
pendent invention of a coherer
of service in wireless telegra-

KEY AND INDEX

phy, 8, 53 ; invents a tele-
phone transmitter 8, 84.

Hughlings- Jackson, Dr., studies
of epilepsy, 4, 272.

Hugon, M. P., gas engine of, 6,
136.

Hulls, Jonathan, patented a
marine engine, 7, 66.

Humboldt, Alexander, his me-
moir on isothermal lines and
the distribution of heat, 3,
192 ; made practicable a truly
scientific study of compara-
tive climatology, 3, 194;
called our atmosphere an
"aerial ocean," 3, 195; his
theories about the Gulf
Stream, 3, 196.

Runnings, inventor of the first
long-distance transmitter, 8,
84.

Hunt, Walter, inventor of a
sewing-machine using a needle
with the eye near the point, 9,
92.

Hunter, John, physiologist and
surgeon, 4, 78; his discovery
of lymphatics, 4, 80; his dis-
covery of the "collateral cir-
culation" of the blood, 4,
82 ; his operation for aneurism,
4, 84; surgeon-extraordinary
to the king, 4, 86 ; his theories
of the action of gastric juices,
4, 89; proved the action of
digestive fluid after death,
4, 90, 91.

Hunter, William, physician and
anatomist, 4, 77; his love of
controversy, 4, 78.

Hutton, Dr. James, claimed that
the face of nature is under-
going metamorphic changes,
3, 118; the bases of the pres-
ent continents were being laid
in ancient sea beds, 3, 119;
the agency which solidified the
ocean beds is subterranean
heat, 3, 120; the destruction
of our land inevitable, 3, 122 ;
marks of marine animals in
solid parts of the earth, 3,
124 ; the elevation of the land
above the water was caused

by the expansion of heated
matter, 3, 128; finds no ves-
tige of a beginning — no pros-
pect of an end, 3, 129; his
theories hostile to sacred his-
tory, 3, 130; his theories ac-
cepted, 3, 140; his theory con-
cerning the vapor of water, 3,
178.

Huxley, Thomas Henry, re-
views the work of Professor
Marsh, 3, 112; accepts Dar-
win's theory 4, 174; his es-
timate of Darwin's accom-
plishments, 4, 178.

Huygens, Christian, 2, 218; im-
provement of the telescope, 2,
218, 219; his laws of motion,
2,222; " pneumatical experi-
ments," 2, 222; a resident of
France, 2, 224; his micro-
meter, 2, 254; application
of coiled balance-spring to
watches, 2, 256; originator of
the general doctrine of undu-
lation as the explanation of
light, 3, 224; gave the
first hint of the existence
of ether, 3, 284; attempted
to make practical use of the
power set free by the ex-
plosion of gunpowder, 6, 134.

Hydrochloric acid liquefied, 6,
40.

Hydrogen, liquefied by Profes-
sor Dewar, 6, 43 ; approach to
the absolute zero made by, 6,
69.

Hydrophobia, Pasteur's inocula-
tions to prevent, 4, 240; slow
in manifesting itself, 6, 182.

Hydrostatic press, principle of

6, 74-75-
Hygiene, investigations in, at

the Berlin Institute, 6, 196.
Hypnotism, phenomena of, 4,

269.

IATROCHEMICAL school of medi-
cine, 2, 1 86.

latrophysical school of medicine
2, 187.

Illustrations, the reproduction
of, 8, 184; wood-engraving.

[188]

GENERAL INDEX

8, 184; copper- and steel-
plate engravings, 8, 192;
etching, 8, 195; mezzotint,
8, 196; the invention of
lithography, 8, 197; intro-
duction of process work, 8,
202; discovery of photogra-
phy by Daguerre, 8, 202;
the half-tone, 8, 205; three-
color process of reproduction,
8, 21 1 ; intaglio processes,
8, 217; the photogravure,
8,217.

ImhStep, the demi-god, con-
sidered to be the creator of
medical knowledge, 1, 49.

Imperial Academy of Sciences at
St. Petersburg, 2, 202.

Inclined plane, known to an-
tiquity, principle of, use in
pyramid-building, 6, 37; law
of, screw and wedge a form
of, 6, 38; hatchet, knife-
blade, and saw, forms of, 6,

Induction, electric, discovered

by Hauksbee, 2, 259-262.
Inductive versus deductive rea-
soning, 5, 235-238.
Industrial problems of to-day

and to-morrow, 6, 316.
Industrial Revolution, An,

Chapter I, 9, 5.
Inorganic matter, possibilities

of, 6, 224.
Insane, reforms in caring for, 4,

245-
Instruments of Precision in the

Age of Newton, Chapter XIII,

2, 252.

Iron Age, 6, 9.
"Isomerism," word coined by

Berzelius, 4, 62.
Italic leaders of thought, Xe-

nophanes, Parmenides, and

Empedocles, 1, 114.
Ives, F. E., perfected the process

of color-printing, 8, 212;

invented a slide-carrier for

the camera, 8, 238.

JABLOCHKOFF, M., Russian offi-
cer who invented a practical
electric light, 6, 224.

[189]

Jacobs, a Dutch farmer whose
children first found diamonds
in South Africa, 9, 314.

Jackson, Dr. Charles T., claimed
the discovery of ether, 4, 215;
his interest in the possibilities
of electricity, 8, 19; discusses
the telegraph with Morse;
contests Morse's claim to the
invention of the telegraph, 8,
2 1 ; Sabine's summary of the
position of Doctor Jackson,

8, 21.

Jacquard, the aerial voyage of
the, 7, 260.

Jacquard, Joseph Marie, inven-
tor of a loom for weaving
elaborate patterns, 9, 49;
early life of the inventor, 9,
49; his machines destroyed
by mobs of workmen, 9, 51.

Jaegels, his ascent in a metal
balloon, 7, 264.

Janney, Eli, automatic car-
coupler invented by, 7, 148;
technical description of this
coupling, 7, 149.

Jansen, Zacharias, inventor of
the microscope, 2, 77.

Jansen, photographic revolver
invented by, 8, 250.

Jeffries, made a daring balloon
ascension with Blanchard, 7,
239.

Jena, the "dream city," 6,
145; the streets of, 6, 146;
the market-place of, 6, 147;
its world-renowned univer-
sity, 5, 148.

Jenner, his discovery of inocula-
tion for preventing small-pox,
4, 190; his famous paper on
vaccination, 4, 194; his first
inoculation, 4, 196; recep-
tion of the discovery in Eu-
rope, 4, 197.

Jenny, architect who designed
the first steel-frame sky-
scraper in 1884, 9, 165.

Jessop, William, substituted
flanged wheels for flanged
rails, 7, 120.

Jet-stone, supposed to possess a
magical property that would

KEY AND INDEX

cure epilepsy, hysteria, and
gout, 1, 277.

John Mason, the, an omnibus
horse-car operated on the
first street railway, 7, 176.

Joly, Dr. Robert, first screen-
plate process in color-pho-
tography put forward by,
8, 242; description of his
plates, 8, 242.

Jones, Chapman, method of
color-photography outlined

by, 8, 247.

Joseph and Roderick, and Mar-
tin de Bohemia, credited
with inventing the apparatus
known as the astrolabe, 7, 19.

Jouffroy, Marquis de, experi-
ments with steam-propelled
boats, 7, 66.

Joule, James Prescott, the work
of, 3, 256; his theory of the
conservation of energy, 3,
257; hispaper of 1843, 3, 269;
his theories on the calorific
effect of magneto-electricity
and the mechanical value of
heat, 3, 270.

Julian calendar, it follows the
Alexandrian theory, giving us
the familiar leap-year, 1, 36.

Julien, E., the storage-battery
line built by, 7, 188.

Julius Caesar, water mills prob-
ably introduced in Rome
during time of, 6, 70.

Jupiter, its moons discovered by
Galileo, 2, 79.

Just, in connection with Hana-
man, patented a lamp using
incandescent filament, 6, 235.

KADMUS, a Phoenician, who, ac-
cording to a Greek legend,
brought the knowledge of
letters to Europe, 1, 86.

Kaiser Wilhelm II. and Deutsch-
land, German ships that for
several years held the ocean
record for speed, 7, 82.

Kant, Immanuel, his conception
of the formation of the world,
3, 26; his theories of the
solar system, 3, 27; defects

in his conception, 3, 30; and
transmutation of species, 4,
149.

Kay, John, inventor of the fly-
ing shuttle, 9, 42; what his
invention meant to the com-
mercial world, 9, 42.

Kay, Robert, inventor of the
drop-box" used in weaving,
9, 43-

Kelly, William, invented a

method of running the spin-
ning-mule by water-power, 9,

Kelvin, Lord, his theory of the
developmental changes of the
earth, 3, 165; he endorses
Joule's theories on the conser-
vation of energy, 3, 272; his
doctrine of the dissipation of
energy, 3, 276; declared that
he had learned nothing new
concerning the nature of
energy in fifty years, 3, 279;
his speculation about ether,
3, 288; his doctrine of the
vortex theories of atoms, 3,
290; his estimate of the size
of the molecules floating in the
air, 3, 298; theories of radio-
activity, 6, 1 06; explanation
of the continued heat of the
sun, 6, 207; estimate of the
heat-giving life of the sun, 6,
208; computations as to the
age of the earth's crust, 6,
210; computations of the
rigidity of the telluric struc-
ture, 5, 212; inventor of the
modern compass, 7, 14; his
connection with the laying of
the Atlantic cable, 8, 30; ul-
timate success of cable-laying
in a large measure due to his
inventions, 8,33; invents the
mirror-speaking instrument,
or "marine galvanometer,"
8, 38; invention of the siphon
recorder, 8, 45;

Kepler, Johann, life and work,
2, 70; theory of planetary
distances, 2, 73; assistant of
Tycho Brahe, 2, 74; Kepler's
Laws, 2, 75; studies of re-

[I90]

GENERAL INDEX

fraction of light, 2, 118;
Keplerian telescope, 2, 253.

Kertland, Philip, began the
manufacture of shoes at Lynn
9, 108.

Khammurabi, Babylonian king,
his famous code concerning
physicians, 1, 76.

Kirchhoff, with Bunsen, perfect-
ed the spectroscope, 4, 69.

Kitasato, Professor, his studies
in the embryos of fishes, 6,
132.

Knife-blade, a modification of
the inclined plane, principle
of, 6, 54-

Knitting-machinery. See Tex-
tiles.

Knowledge, Natural, The
Royal Society of London for
Improving, Chapter II, 6, 14.

Koch, Dr. Robert, corrobora-
tion of Devaine's discovery,
4, 228; work of, in the Berlin
Institute of Hygiene, 6, 194.

Koenig, Friedrich, his mano-
metric capsules of use to
Graham Bell in his experi-
ments with the telephone, 8,
78; practical solution of
cylinder press credited to, 8,
123.

Kowalski, Professor, experi-
mented unsuccessfully in com-
mercial extraction of nitro-
gen from the air, 6, 306.

Kratzenstein, Christian Gott-
lieb, used electricity in medi-
cal practice, 2, 278.

Krayne, Robert, his method of
making line color-screens, 8,
242.

Krebs and Renard, invented
La France, a motor-driven
balloon, 7, 264.

Kriiger, Gottlieb, suggests the
medicinal use of electricity,
2, 278.

Krupp steel, its introduction and
important uses, 6, 295.

Krypton, discovery of, 5, 87.

Kunz, George F., his striking
illustration of the power of
radium, 6, 101.

Kuzel, one of the experimenters
with incandescent filament
lamps, 6, 235.

LABOR, physical, modern atti-
tude toward; always dis-
tasteful to mankind, con-
sidered a disgrace and a curse
by ancient philosophers ;
avoidance of, by the more
intelligent of mankind, 6, 26;
task of science to reduce, 6,
28.

Laboratory, The Marine Bio-
logical, at Naples, Chapter V,
6, 113.

Laboratories, Physical, and
Physical Problems, Chapter
IV, 6, 73.

Laboratories, Some Medical, and
Medical Problems, Chapter
VII, 6, 178.

Laborde, M., his theories of
radio-activity, 5, 106.

Labpuchere, flew for ten minutes
with two passengers at Mour-
melon, 7, 298.

Lace-making. See Textiles.

Ladd, constructed dynamo-elec-
tric machines, 6, 178.

Laennec, Ren6 Th6pphile Hya-
cinth, his invention of the
stethoscope, 4, 201; his
Traite d Auscultation Mediate,
4, 202.

La France, motor-driven balloon
of Renard and Krebs, 7, 264.

Lake, Simon, invented practical
diving-boats, 7, 107.

Lallament, Pierre, a bicycle
invented by, 7, 155.

Lamarck, Jean Baptiste, a stu-
dent of fossil shells about Paris
while Cuvier was studying
the vertebrates, 3, 93; his
advocacy of a theory of organ-
ic evolution, 4, 150; his the-
ories formulated in the im-
portant work Philosophic
Zoologique, in 1809, 4, 152.

Lambert, Professor, his esti-
mate of the gyroscope, 7, 224.

Lamp, burning oil, as used in
ancient times, 6, 202; a

KEY AND INDEX

broad flat wick for, invented
by Leger, in 1783, 6, 204;
adaptation of the Argand
form of burner, 6, 205; of
Quinquet, 6, 205; Carcel's
improvement of Quinquet's
lamp, 6, 205; using turpen-
tine and known as "Cam-
phine" lamp, 6, 206; modern
petroleum lamps introduced,
6, 206; Safety, of Sir Hum-
phry Davy, 6, 249.

Lane-Fox, an early experimenter
with electric light, 6, 228.

Langen, Herr E. (with N. A.
Otto) made important im-
provement in piston arrange-
ment of gas engine, 6, 136.

Langley, his early experiments
and discoveries, 7, 275; the
flying-machine of, 7, 284.

Lanston, Tolbert, monotype
machine invented by, 8, 145.

Laplace, Pierre Simon, Marquis
de, removed the last doubts
as to the solidarity of New-
tonian hypothesis of uni-
versal gravitation, 3, 31; his
explanation of the planet-
ary system, 3, 32; his con-
ception as to the formation of
suns and stars, known as the
"nebular hypothesis," 3, 35;
his reasoning about the ring
of Saturn, 3, 38; he thinks
comets are strangers to our
planetary system, ibid.; ex-
plains why the movements of
comets escape this general
law, 3, 39; thought that the
rings of Saturn were solid, 3,

Lartet, Edouard, his discovery
of fossils in the caves of
Dordogne, 3, 104.

Latham, Hubert, his attempt to
fly across the English Chan-
nel, 7, 294.

La Tour, Cagniard, discovered
pepsin in the gastric juice,
4, 129; studies of micro-
organism, 4, 218.

Latitude, measuring a degree
of, 7, 34-

Laudanum, its introduction, 2,
190.

Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent, the
founder of modern chemistry,
4. 28-36; first blow to the
phlogiston theory, 4, 31; ex-
periments in respiration, 4, 93.

Law of Gravitation, Newton and
the, Chapter XI, 2, 236.

Law of valency, 4, 63.

Lawson, H. J., the geared bi-
cycle introduced by, 7, 155.

Layard, Sir Henry, his excava-
tions on the site of ancient
Nineveh brought to light a
most important collection of
tablet books, 8, 103; for
fuller account of these docu-
ments see 4, 292.

Lea, Gary, improved the collo-
dion-emulsion process, 8, 232.

Leblanc, Abb6, constructed an
instrument for reproducing
the human voice, but which
failed as a sound-producer, 8,
94.

Lebon, Frenchman who early
experimented with illuminat-
ing gas, 6, 207.

Le Bris, the flying-machine of,
7, 248.

Lee, Rev. William, inventor of
the knitting-machine, 9, 56.

Leeuwenhoek discovers bacteria,
2, 179.

Leger, a new type of burner and
wick for the oil lamp invented
by him in 1783, 6, 204.

LeGray, glass negatives im-
proved by, 8, 229.

Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm,
estimate of his work, 2, 197;
theory of monads, 2, 198;
president of the Royal Acad-
emy of Sciences at Berlin,

2, 202.

Leidy, Joseph, found the cysts
of trichina in pork, 4, 207;
one of the chief explorers of
the fossils-beds of America,

3, 1 06; at least a tentative
believer in evolution before
Darwin's exposition of the
origin of species, 4, 166.

GENERAL INDEX

Lenoir, J. J. E., inventor of the
first practical gas engine, 6,

Leonardo da Vinci, 2, 47; denial
of the sun's motion, 2, 48;
his steam-engine, ibid.; his
camera obscura, ibid.; his geo-
logical observations, 2, 50;
gave new impulse to mechan-
ical invention ; produces earli-
est type of explosion engine,
6, 83; made sketches and
possibly models of flying
machines, 7, 227.

Lepsius, Karl Richard, ex-
tended the study of the
famous trilingual inscrip-
tions of the Rosetta Stone, 1,
27; determined that the an-
cient stadium was one hun-
dred and eighty meters, 1, 231.

Le Sage, George Louis, his the-
ory of gravitation, 5, 214.

Leupold, his non-condensing
high-pressure engine, 6, 112.

Leyassor, M. (with M. Panhard),
invented a modern gasoline
motor, 6, 140; applied the
Daimler motor to four-
wheeled vehicles and thus
developed the automobile,

Levy, Dr. Max, invented a ma-
chine for making half-tone
illustrations, 8, 207.

Lewes, George Henry, his trans-
lation of Ritter's rendering of
part of the poem of Parmen-
ides concerning the origin of
man, 1, 131.

Lever, principle of, modifica-
tions of, 6, 29; laws of, credit
of discovering given to
Archimedes, three classes of,
6, 30; modified forms of, in
hand tools, 6,57.

Ley den jar, invention of, by
Von Kleist, 2, 280.

Liebermann, effected the syn-
thesis of alizarine, 8, 313.

Liebig, Justus, isomerism proved
by, 4, 62 ; school of physiolog-
ical chemistry, under guid-
ance of, 4, 128; his studies of

animal heat, 4, 131-135; his
doctrine of fermentation, 4,
219.

Light, heat, and atmospheric
pressure, 2, 117.

Light, Modern Theories of Heat
and, Chapter VI, 3, 206.

Light, Newton and the Com-
position of, Chapter XI, 2,
225.

Light, the wave theory of,
Thomas Young and, 3, 215-
225; endorsed by Fresnel and
Arago, 3, 226; opposition to,
ibid. ; accepted by French
Academy, 3, 227.

Lighting, Artificial, Chapter XI,
6,201.

Lighting Artificial, the use of the
torch by primitive man, 6,
202; lamps used in ancient
times, 6, 202; lamps used by
the Greeks and Romans, 6,
203; by Gas, 6, 207; early
experiments by Rev. Joseph
Clayton, and Dr. Stephen
Hales, 6, 207; the possibility
of using gas for illumination
demonstrated by William
Murdoch, in 1798, 6, 207; the
incandescent gas mantle, 6,
208; the introduction of
acetylene gas, 6, 212; Davy
and the first electric light, 6,
220; the Jablochkoff can-
dle, 6, 223; Brush's im-
proved arc light, 6, 226; Edi-
son and the incandescent
lamp, 6, 228; tungsten and
tantalum lamps, 6; 234;
the mercury-vapor light of
Hewitt, 6, 236.

Lightning, proved to be elec-
tricity by Franklin, 2, 293;
amount of electricity gener-
ated by, 6, 161.

Lightning-rod, invented by Ben-
jamin Franklin in 1750, 2, 290.

Lilienthal, Otto, the flying ma-
chine of, 7, 279.

Lilly, associated with Dr. Colton
in the construction and opera-
tion of a small model loco-
motive, 7, 179.

[193]

KEY AND INDEX

Lime-light, method of pro-
ducing, 6, 209.

Linde, Professor, improved
method of liquefaction of
gases, 6, 44-

Linnaeus, Natural History to
the Time of, Chapter XV, 2,
297.

Linnseus, Carolus, member of
Royal Swedish Society 2,
203; life and work, 2, 299-

3°3-

Lippershey, Johannes, inventor
of the telescope, 2, 78, 252.

Lippmann, Prof. Gabriel, pro-
posed a direct method of
color-photography, 8 , 237;
devised a method of employ-
ing the minute spectra of
prisms, 8, 246.

Liquefaction of gases, 6, 40-46;
improved methods of, 6, 44;

nciples and experiments,
.6-60; results and antici-
pations of the, 6, 6 1-7 2; use
of, in the refrigeration of foods,
6, 61.

Liquefied air, 6, 45, 46, 63-67.

Liquid chlorine, Faraday pro-
duces, 6, 39.

Liquid Fuel, 7, 90; its advan-
tages over coal, 7, 91; its
disadvantage, 7, 91.

Lister, Joseph Jackson, experi-
ments with the microscope, 4,
112; studies of lenses, 4, 113;
shape of the red corpuscles
settled by, 4, 114.

Lister, Dr. J oseph (Lord Lister) ,
discovery of antisepsis, 4,
229; and surgery, 4, 231;
president of the Royal Society
of London, 6, 16.

Lithography, invented by Alois
Senefelder, 8, 198; materials
used in, 8, 199.

Liver, the important share of,
in preparing food for ab-
sorption, 4, 130; not a duct-
less organ, 4, 137; blood
undergoes a change in passing
through, 4, 138; cells, ibid.

Living forms, question as to, on
other worlds, 6, 220.

Lockyer, Sir Norman, his "me-
teoric hypothesis," 3, 70;
does not meet with unani-
mous acceptance, 3, 71; his
deductions from observations
of the sun and stars through
the spectroscope, 4, 71; spec-
troscopic study of sun and
stars, 6, 73; his theories, 6,
75; study of sun-spots, 6, 76;
studies of the reverse lines of
spectrum, 6, 78; studied the
spectrum of the new star that
appeared in the constellation
Perseus in 1901, 6, 79.

Locomotive, mining, 6, 257.
(See "steam locomotive.")

Lodge, Sir Oliver, and the in-
stability of the atom, 6, 109;
experiments of, 8, 53.

Log, the use of, on ships, 7, 16.

Logical induction versus hasty
generalization, 6, 239-242.

Lome, Dupuy de, the dirigible
balloon of, 7, 263.

Long, Dr. Crawford W., claim to
the discovery of ether, 4. 215.

Long-distance telephone, 8, 84.

Longitude, method of ascertain-
ing, 7, 31.

Loom, development of the
power-loom, 9, 43 ; the power-
looms suggested by the
Frenchmen, de Gennes and
Vauconson, 9, 43; practical
loom invented by Dr. Ed-
mund Cartwright, 9, 44;
events leading up to the in-
vention of the power-loom,
9, 45; the perfected power-
loom, 9, 48; the Jacquard
loom, 9, 49; the Northrop
loom, 9, 51.

Lotze, Dr. Hermann, his Medi-
zinische Psychologic, oder
Physiologic der Seele, 4, 263.

Louis, the "statistical method"
introduced by, 4, 203.

Louis XIV, his practical joke on
Charles II, 9, 62.

Lovejoy, in association with
Bradley experimented with
the commercial extraction of
nitrogen, 6, 306.

[194]

GENERAL INDEX

Low-Temperature Researches,
The Royal Institution and
the, Chapter III, 6, 29.

Low temperature, experiments
with, 5, 39-41; electrical and
magnetic conditions at, 6,
56; changes in color of sub-
stances at, 6, 57; substances
made luminous by, 6, 58;
effect of, upon the strength of
materials, 6, 59; decrease of
chemical activity at, 5, 60;
approach to the absolute zero,
6, 69.

Lubbock, Sir John (later Lord
Avebury), a recruit to the
Darwinian theory, 4, 175.

Ludolff, Christian Friedrich, ex-
periment with the electric
spark, 2, 276; 6, 219.

Lumiere, Auguste, his work in
color-photography, 8, 243.

Lumiere, Louis, his work in
color-photography, 8, 243.

Lure of the Unknown, The, 7,

Lusitania, description of turbine
engines of, 6, 128; in size and
speed marks an epoch in
navigation, 7, 82.

Lyell, Sir Charles, repudiated all
thought of catastrophism, 3,
88; he adopted and extended
the Huttonian doctrine, 3,
92; his theories are changed
by Darwin's Origin of Species,
3, 97; claimed that past
changes of the earth's surface
have been like present
changes, 3, 141; accepts Dar-
win's theory, 4, 174.

Lyncean Society, 2, 200.

McDonald, Arthur, his auto-
mobile record at Ormonde,
7,165.

McDonough, J. W., produced a
practical screen-plate, 8, 242.

McKay, inventor of a machine
for sewing leather, 9, 112.

MacMillan, Kirkpatrick, treadle
bicycle invented by, 7, 155.

Magdeburg sphere, name given
to Von Guericke's apparatus

for showing atmospheric pres-
sure, 2, 2ii ; 6, 66.

Magellan, Ferdinand, rounded
the southern point of South
America and reached the
Philippines, in 1521; the cir-
cumnavigation of the globe by
his ships afforded an unchal-
lengeable demonstration of the
rotundity of the earth, 7, 47.

Magendie, Francois, and phys-
ical diagnosis, 4, 203.

Magnet, electric, first con-
structed by Sturgeon, 6, 176;
constructed by Joseph Henry,
6, 177; an essential element
of the practical dynamo, 6,
174, 180.

Magnetism, The Modern De-
velopment of Electricity and,
Chapter VII, 3, 229.

Magnetism, studies of, by Oer-
sted, 6, 176.

Magnetized needle, constitutes
the mariner's compass, 7, 7.

Majestic, one of the first twin-
screw boats to make ocean-
records, 7, Si.

Malpighi, Marcello, demon-
strated passage of blood from
arteries to veins through
capillaries, 2, 178; dissec-
tions of animal tissues and
plants, 2, 297, 298.

Mammalian types, the living
fauna of Australia to-day
existed in Europe and died
out in the tertiary age, 3, 160.

Man, struggles with nature, 6,
3-6 ; the tool-making animal,
6, 6—8; characterized by na-
ture of his implements, 6 , 8-9 ;
emancipated from thraldom
of weather by clothing and
fire, 6, 10; becomes agricul-
turist, 6, ii ; the ever-insis-
tent problem of his existence,
6, 12; performs work by
muscular system alone, 6, 53.

Mantle, gas, method of making,
6, 21 1 ; use of collodion and
castor oil for strengthening,
6, 21 1 ; Clamond method of
manufacture, 6, 212.

[195]

KEY AND INDEX

Manufacturing, methods at be-
ginning nineteenth century
compared with those at end,

6, 21-22.

Marchettis, Peter, Italian sur-
geon, 2, 185.

Marconi, Guglielmo, first to
succeed in transmitting wire-
less messages across the ocean,
8, 54 ; methods and results of
his system, 8, 56; his early
experiments, 8, 58; first
trans- Atlantic message, 8, 61.

Marconnet, Captain, and Lieu-
tenant Fegaunt made a cross-
country flight on a Farman
bi-plane, June, 1910, 7, 298.

Marey, Stephen, his interest in
the development of chrono-
photography, 8, 250.

Mariette, Auguste Edward, a
worker in the field of Egyp-
tian archaeology, 1, 28.

Marine Biological Laboratory
at Naples, The, Chapter V,
6, 113.

Marine Biological Laboratory at
Naples, the aquarium in, 5,
113-119; arrangement of
tanks and exhibits in, 5,
114; eels and cuttle-fish in,
6, 116; the octopus in,
6, 117; the technical de-
partment of, 6, 120; Dr.
Anton Dohrn, founder of, 5,
12 1 ; his associates, 6, 122;
collecting specimens for, 6,
123, 124; methods of pre-
serving jellyfish in, 6, 127;
many nationalities represent-
ed among the workers in,

6, 130; Dr. Driesch's studies
of heredity at, 6, 131; the
study of chromosomes at, 6,
133 ; experiments in the divis-
ion of egg-cells at, 5, 134;
publications of, 6, 139;
marine laboratories of other
countries, 6, 143.

Mariner's Compass, 7, 7; con-
sists of a magnetized needle,

7, 7; its use antedates the
Christian Era, 7, 7; develop-
ment of 7, 8; Stephen Bur-

rows credited with the dis-
covery that the needle shifts
its direction, 7, 9; Dr. Halley
showed that the deviations of
the compass were due to
some influence having to do
with the problem of terres-
trial magnetism, 7, 10;
Graham discovered daily
variations of the compass,
7, 10; Wales observed fluc-
tuation of the compass due to
the ship on which it is placed,
7, ii ; Matthew Flinders
discovered that the influence
of the ship over its compass
varies with the direction of
the ship's prow, 7, 11; Bar-
low suggested that compen-
sation for deviation of the
compass be effected by the
adjustment of bodies of iron,
7, 1 1 ; Professor Airy's use of
permanent magnets to effect
compensation, 7, n; dip-

Eing of the magnetized needle
rst observed by Robert Nor-
man, 7, 13; attempt to over-
come the dip by applying a
balancing apparatus, 7, 14;
modern compass invented by
Lord Kelvin, 7, 14.

Marine Galvanometer, invented
by Lord Kelvin, 8, 38.

Mariotte, Edme, studies of at-
mospheric pressure, 2, 210;
developed law of gaseous
pressure independently of
Boyle, 6, 66.

Marsh, Professor, his discovery
of the remains of many verte-
brates in the Rocky Mountain
region, 3, 106; his description
of the fossil horses, 3, 108.

Marsh, quoted to the effect that
rust helps preserve iron em-
bedded in concrete, 9, 198.

Martainville, suggested a change
in the shape of the envelope
of the balloon, 7, 248.

Martin de Bohemia, and Roder-
ick and Joseph, credited
with inventing the apparatus
known as the astrolabe, 7, 19.

[196]

GENERAL INDEX

Martin, Thomas Commerford,
quoted in reference to elec-
trical motors, 7, 179.

Maskelyne, Nevil, astronomer

great value to the navigator
were published in 1753, 7, 30.
Mayow, John, experiments with
air, 4, 6.

royal who antagonized Har- Mediaeval Science Among the
rison the watchmaker. 7, Arabians, Chapter II, 2.13.
Mediaeval Science in the West,

nson
32

Maspero, Gaston Camille Charles,
a student of Egyptian archae-

Chapter III, 2, 31.
Mediaeval Ships, 7, 59.

, . .
ology, 1, 28; held that the Medical Laboratories and Medi-

epagomenal days were in use
before the first Thinite dynas-
ty, 1, 36-

Masson, M., French physicist
who explained the source of
incandescence in electric light,
6, 223.

Matter, The Ether and Ponder-
able, Chapter IX, 3, 283.

Matthews, American planter
who became a shoe manu-
facturer as early as 1648, 9,
109.

Maupertius and the idea of the
transmutation of species, 4,
149.

Mauretania, British ship which
in size and speed marks an
epoch in navigation, 7, 82.

Maurey, invented an improve-
ment upon the phonauto-
graph, 8, 79.

Maurice, Prince of Orange, a
passenger in the extraordina-
ry wind-propelled vehicle of
Servinus, 6, 68.

Maury, M. P., his theory as to
the causes of the Gulf Stream,
3, 196.

Maxim, Sir Hiram, the flying
machine of, 7, 283.

Mayer, Dr. Julius Robert, his
paper on "The Forces of
Inorganic Nature," 3, 259;
asserts that a force once in ex-
istence cannot be annihilated,
3, 263 ; gave for the first time
a tenable explanation of the
light and heat of the sun and
stars, 3, 268; his explanation
of the continued heat of the
sun, 6, 206.

Mayer, Johann Tobias, German
astronomer

cal Problems, Some, Chapter
VII, 6, 178.

Medicine, associated with
charms and incantations as
practised in ancient Egypt,
1, 46; equally so in Baby-
lonia-Assyria, 1, 70; the code
of Khammurabi throws light
on the methods of the physi-
cian of ancient Babylonia, 1,
76; in Greece, before the
time of Hippocrates, a mix-
ture of religion, necromancy,
and mysticism, 1, 170; the
sick were carried to temples
of the god of medicine,
^Esculapius, and took reme-
dies revealed to them in
dreams of the god, 1, 171;
many of the wealthy Greek

?hysicians had dispensaries,
, 173; Hippocrates and his
reforms, 1, 174; Alexandrian
medicine, 1, 194; Galen and
Roman medicine, 1, 272;
Arabian medicine, 2 , 2 1 . For
the development of medicine
from the sixteenth century
to the present time, see the
preceding reference and the
three succeeding ones. See
also the chapters on physiol-

Medicine in the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries, Chap-
ter VIII, 2, 181.

Medicine, Eighteenth-Century,
Chapter VII, 4, 182.

Medicine, Nineteenth-Century,
Chapter VIII, 4, 199.

Mees, Dr., outlines the probable
future of color-photography,
Tobias, German 8, 247.

whose tables of Mena, king of Egypt, 1, 28

[197]

KEY AND INDEX

Menant, Joachim, on the devel-
opment of a rudimentary
science of natural history
among the Babylonians, 1, 75.

Mendeleeff, Dmitri, attention
drawn to the "law of oc-
taves," which he elaborated
into a famous system, under
title of the "periodic law,"
4,68.

Mercator, Gerardus, brought
the art of map-making to
perfection, 7, 30.

Mercury- Vapor light, 6, 236.

Mergenthaler, Ottmar, the lino-
type machine invented by, 8,
142.

Mesopotamia, named by the
Greeks, 1, 56; its civilization
fully on a par with that of
Egypt 1, 59; its earliest in-
habitants were an alien race,
1, 60 : the scientific attain-
ments o its inhabitants, the
Babylonians and Assyrians, 1,
61-85.

Metamorphosis of parts, 4, 140;
Goethe studies of, in plants,
4, 140, 45; extended to the
animal kingdom, 4, 146.

Meteorites, the "fire ball" of
1803, 3, 1 68; Jean Baptiste
Biot's investigation of, 3,
169; scientists differed as to
its origin, ibid.; Chladni
thought that they were one
in kind and origin as the
"shooting-stars," 3, 170; the
great shower of 1833, 3, 171;
the "miracle" of the falling
stone, 3, 172; invoked by Dr.
Mayer to explain the contin-
ued heat of the sun, 5, 206.

Meteorology, The New Science
of, Chapter V, 3, 168.

Methods of living and working
at beginning of nineteenth
century compared with those
at end, 6, 19-24.

Meyer Lothar, attention drawn
to the "law of octaves," 4,
68.

Mezzotint, invented by Van
Siegen, 8, 196.

Michelangelo, his famous aphor-
ism that trifles make perfec-
tion illustrated by Watt's
modification of the steam-
engine, 6, i 06.

Micrometer, the, Huygens* in-
vention of, 2, 254.

Microscope, invented by Jensen,
2, 77; in the Newtonian
period, 2, 258; attempts to
improve the, 4, 109, no, in;
Dr. Amici's reflecting, 4, 112;
Amici's improved compound,
4, 113; shape of red cor-
puscles settled by use of the,
4, 114-

Milky Way explained by Galileo,
2,79; studied by Herschel, 3,
24.

Miller, in 1788, in associa-
tion with Symington and
Taylor constructed a boat
consisting of two hulls, with a
paddle-wheel between them
worked by a steam-engine, 7,
67.

Mineral Depths, The, Chapter
XII, 6, 242.

Mining, early methods of, 6,
242 ; prospecting, 6, 243 ;
geology as an aid to pros-
pecting, 6, 246; use of the
diamond drill in, 6, 247;
problems to be consid-
ered in mining, 6, 247;
dangerous gases in mines, 6,
248; safety lamp invented
by Sir Humphry Davy,
249; methods of illuminating
mines, 6, 251; ventilation of
mines, 6, 252; drainage in,
6, 253; electric machinery
used in, 6, 253; use of elec-
tric drills, 6, 254; traction in
mining, 6, 256; advantages
of electric locomotives in, 6,
259; electric pumps used in,
6, 263; use of electricity in
coal mining, 6, 266; coal-
cutting machines, 6, 267; the
Lake Superior mines, 6, 272;
"overhead scooping," "cav-
ing," and "milling," 6, 273;
"open-pit" mining, 6, 274;

[198]

GENERAL INDEX

use of steam shovel in, 6, Mondino of Bologna, "the re-
275. storer of anatomy," 2, 37.

"Missing link," the, no longer Monier, Joseph, reinforced con-
crete first used by, 9, 197.
Monorail Systems, 7, 191.

missing, 6, 173.

Mitchell, his theory about the
Pleiades, 3, 35.

Mockhoven, Dr. D. von, his ex-
periments in photography,

8, 233.

Modern Astronomy, The Prog-
ress of, Chapter II, 3, 19.

Modern Chemistry, The Be-
ginnings of, Chapter II, 4,
ii.

Modern Development of Elec-
tricity and Magnetism, The,
Chapter VII, 3, 229.

Modern Geology, The Origin
and Development of, Chapter
IV, 3, 116.

Modern Sailing Ships, 7, 60.

Modern Theories of Heat and
Light, Chapter VI, 3, 206.

Mohammed, his liberal view of
medicine, 2, 23.

Mohr, Karl Friedrich, held the
doctrine that heat, light, elec-
tricity and magnetism cannot
be created but only made
manifest and transformed one
into one another; remem-
bered, therefore, as one of
the originators of the doc-
trine of the conservation of
energy, 3, 257.

Mohs, his scale of the hardness
of gems, 9, 301.

Moissan, Professor, French phys-
icist who first manufactured
diamonds in the laboratory,

9, 328.

Molecules, Lord Kelvin's esti-
mate of the size of those
floating in the air, 3, 298;
under ordinary circumstances
they are in a state of intense
but variable vibration, 3, 300;
they may be in the form of
gas, liquid, or solid, 3, 301;
experiments with Crookes's
radiometer, ibid.; conditions
under which they assume a
liquid form, 3, 302; and
molecular action, 6, 79.

Montague Mansion, first home

of British Museum, 6, 5;

erection of present building,

6, 6.
Montgolfier, Stephen and Joseph

invented and sent up the

first balloon, 7, 231.
Moon, studies of the, 3, 48;

speculations concerning, 3 ,

49; the possible lengthening

of the day, 3, 50.
"Moon's variation," determined

by Arabian astronomer, 2,

17; rediscovered by Tycho

Brahe, 2, 69.
Moppert, translation of tablets

concerning birth-portents, 1,

Morgagni, Giovanni Battista,
investigations in anatomy, 4,
76.

Morrison, his translation of
Ritter's rendering of part of
the poem of Parmenides on
the origin of man, 1, 131.

Morse, Samuel F. B., the father
of telegraphy, 8, 17; early
experiments of, 8, 19; his
first public exhibition of the
telegraph, 8, 20; his tele-
graph used for the first time,
8, 21 ; his claim to invention
contested, 8, 21; principle
of the Morse telegraph, 8, 23 ;
experiments with wireless tel-
egraphy, 8,49; in connection
with Draper succeeded in
making the first photographic
portrait ever taken, 8, 226.

Morton, Dr. W. T. G., experi-
ments with sulphuric ether
resulting in the demonstration
of its anaesthetic power, 4,
214.

Moscicki, Professor, unsuccess-
ful experimenter in com-
mercial extraction of nitro-
gen from the air, 6, 306.

Mount Janiculum, the greater

[199]

KEY AND INDEX

number of public Roman
mills located near, 6, 71.

Moving picture machines,
vitascope, vitagraph, bi-
ograph, phantoscope, kine-
matograph, 8, 251.

"Mule," the spinning-machine
invented by Samuel fCromp-
ton, 9, 32; the self-acting
mule, as invented by William
Eaton and improved by
Richard Roberts, 9, 35; the
modern self-acting mule, 9,

Miiller, Johannes, studies in
embryology, 4, 122; his dis-
section of the only available
specimen of amphioxus, the
lowest of vertebrates, 6, 125.

Multiple messages, 8, 25.

Munck, localization of motor
centres, 4. 274.

Mundy, Arthur J., his experi-
ments with submarine sig-
naling, 7, 85.

Murdoch, William, his inven-
tion of a system of gas light-
ing, in 1798, 6, 207; the
automobile of, 7, 158.

Muscles, 4, 137; extensor, levers
of the first class, 6, 30; flexor,
levers of the third class, 6,
31. (See also muscular sys-
tem.)

Muscular system, the oldest
machine in existence, com-
plexity of, governed by laws
that apply] to other mecha-
nisms, property of contrac-
tion, 6, 43; voluntary and
involuntary muscles, 6, 45-
49; nature of muscular ac-
tion, 6, 49-52; applications
of muscular energy, 6, 52-
54; artificial aids to, 6, 54
seq.; man learns to use mus-
cular system of animals, 6,

59-

Museum, The British, Chapter
!. 5, 3.

Mushet, Robert, his improve-
ment of Bessemer's process
of making steel, 6, 293.

Musschenbroek, Pieter van, in-

ventor of the Leyden jar, 2,
280, 282.

Mutjmaan, Professor W., Ger-
man experimenter in the com-
mercial extraction of nitro-
gen from thte air, 6, 306.

Muybridge, Edward, his inter-
est in the development of
chrono-photography, 8, 250.

NABONIDUS, ruler of Babylon,
his deeds recorded on a cylin-
der now in the British Mu-
seum, 8, 105.

Nadar, invented the Giant, one
of the most remarkable bal-
loons ever constructed, 7,

Nansen, Fridtjof, his polar ex-
pedition referred to, 7, 48.

Napier, cylinder press of, 8, 124.

Naples, The Marine Biological
Laboratory at, Chapter V, 6,
113-143.

Napoleon, contrasted with
James Watt as a factor in
the progress of civilization,
6, 18; used a system of tele-
graphic signals during his
Russian campaign, 8, 3.

Natural History to the Time of
Linnaeus, Chapter XV, 2,
297.

Natural Knowledge, The Royal
Society of London for Im-
proving, Chapter II, 6, 14.

Natural versus supernatural, 6,

233-

Nautical Almanac, The, 7, 37.

Nautilus, the, first submarine
boat built by Fulton, 7, 99.

Navigating the Air (see also
Aeroplane), Chapter IX, 7,
226; Leonardo's sketches of
flying-machines, 7, 227; the
flying-machine of Besnier, 7,
228; the flight of the Mar-
quis de Bacqueville, 7, 229;
Cavendish's discovery of hy-
drogen gas and its effect upon
aeronautics, 7, 230; the ex-

r'ments of Dr. Black and
Priestly, 7, 230; the toy

balloons of Ca

, 230;
vallo,

7, 230;

[200]

GENERAL INDEX

the balloon invented by the
Montgolfier brothers, 7, 231;
the first successful balloon
ascension, 7, 232; Rozier,
the first man to make an
ascent in a balloon, 7, 235;
Blanchard's attempt to pro-
duce a dirigible balloon, 7,
238; hot-air balloons and hy-
drogen-gas balloons, 7, 240;
Rozier, the first victim of
ballooning, 7, 241; progress
in mechanical flight, 7, 244;
Giffard "the Fulton of Aerial
Navigation," 7, 251; the
voyages of the Giant, con-
structed by Nadar, 7, 252;
early war balloons and dirigi-
ble balloons, 7, 257; the
use of balloons during the
Franco-Prussian War, 7, 258;
the dirigible balloon achieved,
7,262; the dirigible balloon of
Dupuy de Lome, 7, 263; the
aluminum balloon of Herr
Schwartz, 7, 264; the dirigi-
ble balloons of Count Zeppe-
lin, 7, 265; the balloons of
Santos-Dumont, 7, 267.
Navigation, limits of ancient,

6, 13-

Neanderthal skull, regarded by
modern zoologists as a dis-
tinct species of man, 3, 102.

Neilson, of Glasgow, inventor
of the flat gas burner, 6,
208.

Neolithic civilization supplanted
by the invasion of cultivated
people from the East, 1, 31.

Neon, discovery of, 5, 87.

Neptune, the planet, its exist-
ence predicted by the Ger-
man astronomer Bessel, 3,
42 ; discovered five years
later by John Couch Adams,
of England, ibid.

Neptunists, a name given to the
followers of Werner, who
denied the theory of the
metamorphosis of rocks, 3,
131.

Nerve cells, process of staining,
4, 282; each an isolated

entity, 4, 283 ; importance of
the discovery of, 4, 285.

Nerves, function of, 4, 249.

Newcomb, Simon, used fifty
thousand separate and dis-
tinct observations in prepar-
ing his tables of the sun, 7,
39.

Newcomen, Thomas, atmos-
pheric engine of, described,
6, 89; similarity to Papin en-
gine, 6, 89; injection of cold
water for condensation, au-
tomatic working of valve, 6,
91; rapid adoption, 6, 92.

New Cosmology — Copernicus to
Kepler and Galileo, The,
Chapter IV, 2, 52.

New Institutions of Learning,
Philosopher Scientists and,
Chapter IX, 2, 191.

Newlands, John A. R., studies
of atomic weights, 4, 67.

New Physics, Galileo and the,
Chapter V, 2, 93.

New Science of Paleontology,
The, Chapter III, 3, 74.

New Science of Meteorology,
The, Chapter V, 3, 168.

New Science of Experimental
Pyschology, The, Chapter IX,
4, 245.

New Science of Oriental Archae-
ology, The, Chapter X, 4, 287.

Newton and the Composition of
Light, Chapter XI, 2, 225.

Newton and the Law of Gravi-
tation, Chapter XII, 2, 236.

Newton, Instruments of Pre-
cision in the Age of, Chapter
XIII, 2, 252.

Newton, The Successors of, in
Astronomy, Chapter I, 3, 3.

Newton, Isaac, 2, 225-251; dis-
covery of the composition of
white light, 2,227; the nature
of color, 2, 233; the law of
gravitation, 2, 236; further
computations in the Principia,
2, 243-250; invention of re-
flecting telescope, 2, 255;
supported the theory which
regarded light as a corpus-
cular emanation, 6, 153; SUS-

[201]

KEY AND INDEX

gested a means of measuring
the altitude of astronomical
bodies, 7, 20.

Newton, Sereno, sent to Eng-
land to study the workings
of cylinder presses, 8, 124.

New York, the, one of the first
twin-screw boats to make
ocean records, 7, 81.

New Zoology, Ernst Haeckel and
the, Chapter VI, 5, 144-

Niagara in Harness, Chapter X,
6, 183.

Niagara, Falls of, number of
tons of water falling each
hour, 6, 184; electric power-
house at, 6, 186; effect upon,
by the electric power-houses,
6, 192; transmission of elec-
trical power from, 6, 194;
soda manufactories at, 6,
300.

Niagara, detailed by the United
States Government to lay the
first Atlantic cable, 8, 34.

Nicdphore de Niepce, discovered
a method of making perma-
nent photographs by a crude
and complicated process, 8,
222; his pictures regarded as
the first photographic pic-
tures ever made, 8, 222.

Nicetas, taught that the world
is in motion, 1, 216.

Nicholson, William (with Car-
lisle), discovered that a gal-
vanic current would decom-
pose chemicals in solution,
3» 233j 8, ii ; decomposed
water into its elements hy-
drogen and oxygen, 3, 233.

Nicholson, William, cylinder
press invented by, 8, 123.

Nile, floods of, without which
civilization would be impos-
sible in Egypt, 1, 35.

Med

Nineteenth-Century Medicine,

Chapter VIII, 4, 199.
Nineteenth century, conditions

of existence and methods at

beginning compared with

those at end, 6, 19-24.
Nippur, expedition to, 1, 59.
Nitrate Beds, of Chili, 6, 305.

[ 202]

Nitrogen, discovered by Caven-
dish, 6, 87; method of ob-
taining it from the air, 6 , 303 ;
as a plant food, 6, 304; Pro-
fessor Birkeland's discovery
of a method of obtaining it,
6, 306; method discovered
by Professors Kowalski and
Moscicki, at Freiburg, 6, 306;
commercial plant for obtain-
ing it at Notodden, Norway, 6,
309; Frank and Caro process
of nitrogen fixation, 6, 309.

Noble, Sir Andrew, experiments
with cordite in obtaining high
temperatures, 6, 315.

Norman, Robert, "dipping" of
the magnetized needle first
observed by, 7, 13; at-
tempted to overcome the dip
of the magnetic needle by
applying a balancing appara-
tus, 7, 14.

Northrop, inventor of the per-
fected power-loom, 9, 51.

Notodden, Norway, commercial
nitrogen plant located at, 6,

Novelty, locomotive, descrip-
tion of the, 7, 132.

Nuclei of plant cells, discovered
by Robert Brown, 4, 115;
Dr. Schleiden brings to popu-
lar attention, 4, 118.

Oceanic, the first ocean grey-
hound, 7, 80.

Oersted, Hans Christian, his
experiments to show the ef-
fect of an electric current
upon a suspended magnetic
needle, 3, 236; it showed the
close relationship between
magnetism and electricity,
3, 238; 6, 176; effects of his
important discovery, 3, 239.

Oken, Lorenz, extends the
doctrine of metamorphosis to
the animal kingdom, 4, 146;
his theory of spontaneous
generation and evolution of
species, 4, 160.

Oil Engines, Gas and, 6, 132.

Olbers, Dr., discoverer of the

GENERAL INDEX

planet Pallas, 3, 40; his
explosion theory, 3, 41; his
opinion of the great comet of
1680, 3, 52.

Oldfield, Barney, his record at
Ormonde, the fastest mile
ever made by an automobile,
7, 1 66.

Olympic, passenger steamer of
the White-Star Company, 7,
90.

Olzewski's experiment with
liquid oxygen, 6, 61.

Opdyke, George, pioneer in the
wholesale manufacture of
clothing, 9, 78.

Organic Evolution, Theories of,
Chapter VI, 4, 140.

Organic matter, possibilities of
producing, out of inorganic,
6, 224.

Organicists, system of, 4, 185;
theory of, 4, 187.

Organism, animal, comprehen-
sive view of, 4, 137; economy
of the, 4, 138.

Oriental Archaeology, The New
Science of, Chapter X, 4,
287-302.

Oriental ecclesiasticism as a
cause of indifference to science
in the dark age, 2, 4.

Origin and Development of
Modern Geology, Chapter III,
3, 116.

Otis, Elisha G., introduced the
passenger elevator, 9, 164.

Otto, Dr. N. A. (with E. Langen),
made important improve-
ment in piston arrangement
of gas engine, 6, 136; im-
proves gas engine by com-
pressing the explosive mix-
ture in the working cylinder
before igniting it, 6, 138;
the gasoline engine perfected

by. •» I57-
Otto cycle, as exemplified in

gas engines, 6, 136, and 6,

138.
Owen, Richard, discovers the

Trichina spiralis, 4, 207.
Ox, domestication of, 6, 59.
Oxygen, liquefied by Pictet and

Cailletet, 6, 42; Olzewski's
experiments in, 6, 61.

PAGE, C. C., his efforts to pro-
duce a storage-battery car,

7, 180.

Paget, Tames, his discovery of
the Trichina spiralis, 4, 207.

Painless dentistry, experiment
of Dr. Horace Wells in 1844,
4, 213.

Paints, Dyes, and Varnishes,
Chapter XI, 8, 258.

Paints, different from dyes and
varnishes, 8, 258; principle
of the process of levigation,

8, 259; the importance of
water and the drying-oils, 8,
261; linseed-oil the most
important to the painter, 8,
262; turpentine most useful
for certain purposes, 8, 264;
methyl and ethyl alcohol
used extensively, 8, 264; the
pigments of antiquity, 8,
265; black pigments, 8, 267;
seq.; white pigments, 8, 274
seq.; some "chrome" pig-
ments, 8, 281; other yellow
mineral pigments, 8, 285;
some brilliant but poisonous
pigments, 8, 288; green min-
eral pigments, 8, 292; blue
pigments from the mineral
world, 8, 295; the brown
mineral pigments, 8, 302;
pigments from vegetable and
animal sources, 8, 303; the
coal-tar colors, 8, 311.

Paleontology, The New Science
of, Chapter III, 3, 74-"5-

Pancreas, the, discovery that
it plays a part in the process
of digestion, 4, 129; all-im-
portant in the digestion of
starchy and fatty foods, 4,

Panhard, M. (with M. Levassor),
invents a modern gasoline
motor, 6, 140; applied the
Daimler motor to four-
wheeled vehicles and thus
developed the automobile, 7,
157-

[203]

KEY AND INDEX

Paper, the manufacture of, 8,
159; materials for making,
8, 161; making paper by
hand, 8, 162; "watermark,
"wove," and "laid" paper,
8, 163; modern rag-paper, 8,
164; paper from wood-pulp,
8, 171; paper car- wheels, 8,
1 80; papier -mach6, 8, 182.

Papin, Denis, conceived idea of
transmitting power by means
of a piston, 6, 88; produced
vacuum in cylinder by cooling,
6, 88.

Pappenheim, discovered that
the pancreas shares in diges-
tion, 4, 129.

Paracelsus to Harvey, From,
Chapter VII, 2, 156.

Paracelsus, life, 2, 156; "four
pillars" of his medical teach-
ings, 2, 159; doctrine of
"signatures," 2, 160; use of
magnets, 2, 161; condem-
nation of surgery, 2, 162;
his influence, 2, 162.

Parasitic diseases, discovery of,
4, 204; importance of this
discovery upon the science of
medicine, 4, 206.

Par6, Ambroise, "the father of
French surgery," 2, 181;
his innovations in the field
of surgery, 2, 182.

Parisian system of sewage dis-
posal, the, 6, 200.

Parmenides, a distinguished or-
nament of the Eleatic School,
1, 114; his theories con-
cerning the earth, 1, 130; his
cosmogonic speculations, 1,
131.

Parsons, C. A., inventor of
steam turbine, 1884, 6, 124;
description of turbine, 6,
125; effect of his invention
upon navigation, and the
generation of power, 6, 127.

Pascal, his barometrical experi-
ment, 2, 122.

Pasteur Institute, the, 6, 178-
186; the tomb of Pasteur
within the walls, 6, 181; aims
and objects of, 6, 182; anti-

rabic treatment given at, 6,
183 ; a school of bacteriology,
5, 184; the regular staff of, 6,
185; sheep and cattle treated
at, ibid.

Pasteur, Louis, architectural de-
sign of a molecule illustrated
by, 4, 63; refutation of the
doctrine of spontaneous gen-
eration, 4, 180; corroborated
by Tyndall, ibid.; and the
germ theory of disease, 4, 217;
studies in fermentation, 4,
218; cause of the decay of
organic tissues, 4, 220; ex-
periments with grape sugar,
4, 221; settles question of
bacilli as cause of anthrax,
4, 228; experiments with
chicken cholera, 4, 232; and
the microbe of anthrax, 4,
233; demonstrates the pro-
tection afforded animals by
inoculation, 4, 238, 239; his
inoculations to prevent hydro-
phobia, 4, 240; his tomb, 5,i8i.

Paul of .^Egina, Byzantine sur-
geon, 2, 32.

Paul, Lewis, his claim to the in-
vention of the first spinning-
machine, 9, 22 and 27.

Paulhan, Louis, his spectacular
flight from London to Man-
chester, 7, 296.

Payen, his discovery of the
composition of the cell walls
of vegetables, 4, 124.

Peary, Robert E., discoverer of
the North Pole, 7, 49.

Peel, Robert, British States-
man, employed James Har-
greaves to construct a card-
ing-machine, 9, 1 6.

Peligot, M., describes the
method of making window-
glass, 9, 289.

Penstock, at the Niagara Falls
electrical power-plant, 6, 188.

Pepsin, an active principle in
gastric juice, 4, 129; de-
tected by Spratt and Boyd,
ibid.

Percussion, Piorry's method of
mediate, 4, 203.

[204]

GENERAL INDEX

Periscope, its use on sub-
marines, 7, in.

Perkin, produced the first ani-
line color, 8, 312.

Perraudin, first accounted for
the presence of bowlders
on the mountain-tops, 3, 145;
his idea laughed at by all
except Charpentier, 3, 146.

Perrin, J., his theories of radio-
activity, 6, i 06.

importance of his work as an

Egyptologist, 1, 28.
Pett, Phineas, ships produced

by, 7, 60.
Philippe, Louis, King of France,

received first message through

cable under the English

Channel in 1845, 8, 32.
Philopater, Ptolemy, descrip-
tion of ship said to be used

by, 7, 57.
Philosopher- Scientists and New

Institutions of Learning,

Chapter IX, 2, 191.
Philosophers in Italy, The

Early Greek, Chapter VI, 1,

112.

Philosopher's stone, 2, 124, 131.

Phlogiston Theory in Chemistry,
The, Chapter I, 4, 3.

Phlogiston theory, the, in
chemistry, 4, 3-10; influence
of Boyle's teaching of, 4, 5;
Stahl's theory of, 4, 6; pecul-
iarities of, 4, 7; many com-
plications and final overthrow
of, 4, 9.

Phonautograph, invented by
Mr. Leo Scott, 8, 93.

Phonograph, the, invented by
Thomas A. Edison, 8, 93;
description of, 8, 97.

Photography, the importance of
the discovery of, in spectro-
scopy, 4, 70; discovered by
Daguerre, 8, 202; the part
played by it in the discovery
of radio-activity by Bec-
querel, 8, 220; Daguerre
discovered a practical method

[205]

of developing photographic
plates, 8, 220; Scheele's ex-
periments, 8, 220; Rumford's
arguments, 8, 221; first prac-
tical application by Thomas
Wedgewood, 8, 221; Sir
Humphry Davy's experi-
ments with the camera ob-
scura, 8, 221; Nic6phore de
Niepce discovered a method
of making permanent photo-
graphs, 8, 222; the daguer-
reotype, 8, 224; the first por-
traits ever taken, 8, 226;
Talbot's "calotype" process,
8, 227; discovery of the
' ' gallo-nitrate ' ' process by
J. B. Reade, 8, 228; Goddard
made the discovery that bro-
mine vapor rendered plates
more sensitive, 8, 228; pro-
cess of toning or gilding in-
vented by Fizeau, 8, 228;
glass negatives, invented by
Niepce St. Victor, and im-
proved by Blanquart and
Le Gray, 8, 229; the Archer
collodion plate, 8, 230; "col-
lodion-emulsion" process in-
vented by Bolton and Sayce,
8, 231; discovery of Cary
Lea and W. Cooper, 8, 232;
Wortley's discovery, 8, 232;
Researches with chloride and
bromide of silver, by M. J. S.
Stas, 8, 232; the discovery
of Mockhoven, 8, 233; the
flexible film, 8, 233 ; photo-
graphing in natural colors, 8,
234; Becquerel the first to
take up specifically the matter
of color-photography, 8, 235;
standing light waves, 8, 236;
Zenker's theory, 8, 236; Lip-
mann's direct method of color-
photography, 8, 237; Clerk-
Maxwell's experiments, 8,
237; invention of the slide-
carrier by F. E. Ives, 8, 238;
single-lens camera invented
by Sanger-Shepard, 8, 238;
three-lens camera devised by
CheVon, 8, 240; method of
Ducos du Hauron, 8, 241;

KEY AND INDEX

lined by Doctor Mees, 8, 247 ;
od, of Chapman Jones, 8,

first screen-plate process put
forward by Dr. Robert Joly,
8, 242 ; practical screen-plate
produced by J. W. Mc-
Donough, 8, 242 ; the inven-
tion of Robert Krayne, 8,242;
color-screen invented by
Powrie, 8, 243; "Random
grain" plates invented by
Messrs. Lumiere, 8, 243; the
Lumiere "autochrome" plate,
8, 243; the "omnicolor"
plate, 8, 244; the method of
Szczepanik, 8, 245; Lip-
mann's method of employing
the minute spectra of prisms,
8, 246; improved method of
Ch6ron, 8, 248; the future of
color-photography as out-

b

meth

247; Chrono-photography —
moving pictures, 8, 248;
phenakistoscope invented by
Plateau, 8, 249; zoetrope or
"wheel of life," 8, 249; Ray-
naud's praxinoscope, 8, 249;
Muybridge, Marey, and An-
schiitz took first steps in the
development of chrono-pho-
tography, 8, 250; the zoo-
praxiscope devised by Muy-
bridge, 8, 250; photographic
gun invented by Jansen, 8,
250; the photoscope, 8, 250;
Edison's kinetoscope, 8, 251;
method of making moving pic-
tures, 8, 251; the slot ma-
chine or mutoscope, 8, 254; the
uses of photography, 8, 255;
the kinematograph, 8, 256;
mystery of the background of
the eye solved by stereopho-
tography, 8, 256; micropho-
tography indispensable to the
pathologist, 8, 256; the use of
the camera in zoology and bot-
any, 8, 256; practical use of
the kinematograph by the zo-
ologist, 8, 256; the camera re-
placing the plane-table, 8, 257.

Photogravure, process of , 8, 217.

Phrenology, studies in, by Gall,
4, 247.

Physical diagnosis, Corvisart
lays the foundation of, 4,
199.

Physical Laboratories and Phys-
ical Problems, Some, Chapter
IV, 6, 73-

Physical Science, The Succes-
sors of Galileo in, Chapter X,
2, 204.

Physicians, in the early Roman
days, 1, 273; special laws
enacted to protect, 1, 275;
exempted from taxes and
military service, 1. 276.

Physics, Galileo and the New,
Chapter V, 2, 93.

Physiology, Anatomy and, in
the Eighteenth Century,
Chapter IV, 4, 73-

Physiology, Anatomy and, in
the Nineteenth Century,
Chapter V, 4, 102—139.

Piazzi, an Italian astronomer
who discovered the planet
Ceres, 3, 40.

Picard, James, patents crank
and connecting-rod for use on
the steam-engine, 6, 100.

Picnotti, his invention of the
ring armature, 6, 179.

Pigments, of antiquity, 8, 265;
black pigments, 8, 267; white
pigments, 8, 274; some
"chrome" pigments, 8, 281;
other yellow mineral pig-
ments, 8, 285; some brilliant
but poisonous pigments, 8,
288; green mineral pigments,
8, 292; blue pigments from
the mineral world, 8, 295; the
brown mineral pigments, 8,
302; pigments from vege-
table and animal sources, 8,

3°3-

Pinel, Dr. Philippe, leader in
reforms for the care of in-
sane, 4, 245; liberation of the
inmates at the Bicetre and
the Salpetriere, 4, 246.

Piorry's method of mediate
percussion, 4, 203.

Piston engine as means of trans-
mission of power, idea origi-
nated with Papin, 6, 88.

[206]

GENERAL INDEX

Pitch-blende, a radio-active sub-
stance, 5, 98.

Pithecanthropus erectus, the fos-
sil of the ape-man found by
Dr. Dubois in the island of
Java, 3, 113.

Pitt, William, his interest in
Fulton's submarine boats, 7,
100.

Pizarro, found cotton growing
indigenously in Mexico and
Peru, 9, 7.

Plagues, their influence on me-
diaeval medical science, 2, 33,
41.

Planch6, Gaston, his invention
of the electric storage battery,
3, 246.

Planet, the, constructed by
Stephenson, 7, 135.

Plateau, M., invented a moving-
picture machine called the
phenakistoscope, 8, 249.

Plato, Aristotle, and Theo-
phrastus, Chaper VIII, 1,
178.

Plato, his visit to Egypt to
study the mysteries of its
fabled learning, 1, 56, 84; the
greatest thinker and writer of
his time, 1, 180; a mystical
dreamer and sociologist, 1,
182; considered manual toil-
degrading, 6, 26.

Platt, Messrs. Fielding and,
their rotary engine, 6, 122.

Plinius Secundus, the most fa-
mous Latin writer of antiq-
uity, 1, 265; soldier and in-
vestigator, 1, 266.

Pliny, his unbounded respect for
Oriental learning, 1, 56.

Plutarch, his narrative of the
experiments of Archimedes,
6, 34-

Plutonists, a name given to the
followers of Hutton, 3, 131.

Poker, lever of the first class, 6,

3°-

Pole, the quest of the, 7, 47;
Henry Hudson's farthest
north record, 7, 48; discovery
of, 7, 49; controversy over
the discovery of the pole, 7,

49; method of determining
arrival at the pole, 7, 50.

Polo, Marco, mistakenly ac-
credited with bringing the
compass from the East, 7, 46.

Polonium, discovery of the
radio-active properties of, 6,
101.

Ponderable Matter, The Ether
and, Chapter IX, 3, 283.

Popoff, Prof. A., apparatus used
by, for sending wireless mes-
sages, 8, 54.

Porta, Giovanni Battista della,
early in the seventeenth cen-
tury published idea of utiliz-
ing steam for raising water,
6,83.

Posidonius, reference to his
measurement of the size of
the world, 7, 5.

Post-Socratic Science at Athens
— Plato, Aristotle, and Theo-
phrastus, Chapter VIII, 1,
178.

Potter, Humphrey, cock boy,
invention of beam connection
for operating engine valves
attributed to, 6, 91; reasons
for doubt, 6, 92.

Pottery and Pottery Making.
See Products of Clay and
Fire.

Pouchet, M. F. A., belief in
spontaneous generation, 4,
1 80.

Power, transmission of, by
means of gears, belts, chains,
6, 35-36.

Powrie, John W., color-screen
method adopted by, 8, 243.

Predynastic period of Egyptian
history, the, 1, 28.

Preece, Sir William H., experi-
ments of, 8, 50.

Prehistoric man, the, 1, 29.

Prehistoric Science, Chapter I,

1, 3-

Prehistoric science, not a con-
tradiction of terms, 1, 3; the
distinctive prehistoric and his-
toric epochs, 1, 26, 27.

Prestwich, his conclusions in
regard to the flint instruments

[207]

KEY AND INDEX

in the collection of M. de
Perthes, 3. 101.

Priestley, Joseph, important
discoveries of, 4, 18; flight
from French mob, 4, 19;
oxygen his greatest discov-
ery, 4, 20; refusal to reject
the phlogiston theory, 4, 36;
experiments in the mysteries
of respiration, 4, 93; his
experiments with balloons,

7, 230.

Primitive books, 8, 99; five
primitive types, 8, 99; the
papyrus roll of the Egyptian,

8, 100; the tablet of baked
clay, 8, 103 ; prism or cylinder
of clay used by the Baby-
lonians and Assyrians, 8, 105;
the palm-leaf books of the
Hindus, 8, 106; folded books,
8, 108; the text of ancient
books, 8, 112.

Primitive man, our knowledge of,
1,6; he observed that the sun
gives heat and light and the
moon and stars light only, 1,
7 ; noted the changing phases
of the seasons, ibid.; noted
that the sun, moon, and stars
move across the heavens, 1, 8;
had some idea of the law of
universal terrestrial gravita-
tion, 1, 9; knew the facts
concerning the rigidity of
solids and the mobility of
liquids, 1, 10; knew that
friction produced heat and fire,
1, n; practised instinctive
therapeutics, 1, 13; idea of
death, 1, 15; had vague con-
ceptions of an endless life, 1,
18; ideas of psychology,
mathematics, and political
economy, 1, 19; knew what
was essential to communal
harmony, 1, 21; his basal
principles are the foundations
of modern science, 1, 22; had
"innate" ideas of a future
life, 1, 23; owes a debt of
gratitude to his barbaric
predecessor, 1, 24.

Prince Rupert, erroneously ac-

credited with invention of
the mezzotint, 8, 196.

Printing and Making of Modern
Books, The, Chapter VII, 8,
119-158.

Printing, Chinese credited with
the discovery of the art of,
8, 119; the first book printed
from movable types, 8, 120;
the father of printing, 8, 120;
the first printing-press ever in-
vented, 8, 120; improvement
made by William Blaew, 8,
122; press produced by the
Earl of Stanhope, 8, 122; press
invented by Isaac Adams, 8,
122; the cylinder press in-
vented by William Nicholson,
8, 123; practical solution of
"cylinder press" credited to
Friedrich Koenig, 8, 123;
Napier's cylinder press
equipped with grippers or
"fingers," 8, 124; the Ameri-
can printing-press without
a rival, 8, 124; the "stop
cylinder" invented by Dutar-
tre, 8, 125; the advent of
the type-revolving machine,
8, 127; the press invented by
Richard M. Hoe, 8, 127; in-
genious device patented by
Stephen D. Tucker, 8, 130;
a modern newspaper press, 8,
131; a perfected magazine
press, 8, 135; the "Rotary
Art" press for color printing,
8, 137; other aids to the
printer, 8, 139; the Mergen-
thaler linotype, 8, 142; Lan-
ston monotype machine,
8, 145; the graphotype in-
vented by J. H. Goodson, 8,
149 ; type-setting machines,
8, 150; the Dow type-setting
machine, 8, 151; the develop-
ment of book-binding, 8,
153.

Printing-press (see also Print-
ing), its part in the develop-
ment of medical learning, 2,

' iems, Some Unsolved Scien
tific, Chapter VIII, 6, 203.

Probie

[208]

GENERAL INDEX

Problems, some unsolved scien-
tific, 5, 203-229; solar and
telluric, 6, 205-213; physical,
6, 213-220; life, 6, 220-229;
of anthropology, 6, 228.

Problems, Medical, Some Medi-
cal Laboratories and, Chap-
ter VII, 5, 178.

Problems, Physical, Some Phys-
ical Laboratories and, Chap-
ter IV, 5, 73-

Products of Clay and Fire,
Chaptet X, 9, 227-271.

Products of Clay and Fire,
Chapter X, 9, 227; pottery-
making by primitive man, 9,
227; the manufacture of
pottery, 9, 227; the raw
materials, 9, 232; mixing the
materials, 9, 238; the glaze
and its preparation, 9, 243;
methods of making pottery
by hand, 9, 246; machines
that make pottery, 9, 255;
from clay to china, 9, 260;
decorating the ware, 9, 271.

Progress in Electricity from
Gilbert and Von Guericke to
Franklin, Chapter XIV, 2,
259.

Progress of Modern Astronomy,
The, Chapter II, 3, 19.

Progress, the only real progress
due to the development of
mechanical inventions, 6, 12-

J7-

Property, the foundation-stone
of civilization, 6, 25.

Prospect, Retrospect and, Chap-
ter IX, 5, 230.

Protoplasm, studies in, by De
Bary and Schultze, 4, 125.

Proust, Louis Joseph, disputes
Dalton's atomic theory, 4, 41.

Prout, Dr. William, studies of
atomic weights, 4, 66; his
alleged law revived by Du-
mas, 4, 67; detected hydro-
chloric acid in gastric juice, 4,
129.

Pseudo-Sciences, Two — Alche-
my and Astrology, Chapter
VI, 2, 124.

Psychology, The New Science

of Experimental, Chapter IX,
4, 245.

Ptolemy, erected a museum and
collected a library which made
Alexandria the culture-centre
of the world, 1, 190; the last
great astronomer of antiquity,
1,267; discovered the moon's
evection, 1, 268; his writings
became the sole astronomical
text-book of the Middle Ages,
1, 269; his theory of epicycles
1, 270; the errors in the
colored maps attributed to
him may have influenced
Columbus on his voyages of
discovery 1, 271.

Pulley, principle of, 6, 33 ; per-
fected by Archimedes, 6, 34.

Pump, electric, use in mining, 6,
263.

Pumps and pumping (see also
Suction, Ctesibius) , della Porta
states idea of utilizing steam
for raising water; idea put
into effect by Caus, 6, 83;
expansive force of steam first
applied by Marquis of Worces-
ter, 6, 84; Savery's steam
pump, 6, 85; Newcomen's
pumping engines, 6, 89.

Purkinje discovers that the pan-
creas shares in digestion, 4,
129.

Pyramids, the building of, 1,
32; oriented in strict accord-
ance with some astronomical
principle, 1, 33.

Pyramids of Egypt, building of,
described by Diodorus Sicu-
lus, 6, 37.

Pythagoras, a youthful athlete,
1, 112; one of the fathers of
Grecian thought, 1, 114; the
founder of an independent
school of philosophy, 1, 116;
advocates the theory of the
sphericity of the eartn, 1. 1 18,
119; the discoverer of the
identity of Hesperus and Luci-
fer, 1, 120; carried the science
of geometry to perfection,
ibid.; no written line of his
has come to us, 1, 121; a

[209]

KEY AND INDEX

summary of his doctrines as Ramony Cajal, Dr. S., demon
quoted by Diogenes, 1, 122; stration of independent nerve
an agnostic as regards the
current Greek religion, 1, 127.

QUADRANT, the instrument de-
vised by Hadley for measur-
ing the altitude of astronom-
ical bodies, 7, 20.

filaments, 4, 283; importance
of discovery, 4, 285.
Ramsay, Sir William, and new
gases, 6, 82-92; laboratory
and equipment of, 5, 83;
characterizes the importance
of industrial chemistry , 6, 299.

Question as to living forms on Rankine, William John Mac-

quorn, had a part in perfect-
ing theory of steam engine,

other worlds, 5, 220.
Quinine, its introduction, 2, 185.
Quinquet, an oil lamp invented b, 115.

by him, 6, 205. Raphael, took active interest in

copper engraving, 8, 194.

RABIES, or hydrophobia, slow in Rawlinson, Canon, his estimate

of Babylonian influence, 1,
82; contrasted with that of
Diodorus, 1, 83.
Rawlinson, Sir Henry, "father
of Assyriology," 4, 229; 6, 9;

development, 6, 182; its treat-
ment by inoculation at the
Pasteur Institute, 5, 183.
Rackenzaun, Anthony, his work
on storage-battery systems,

7, i

Radio-

o-active bodies, nature of

helped to decipher the Assy-
rian hieroglyphics, 8, 228.

emanations from, 6, 102; dif- Rayleigh, Lord of the Royal

ferent kinds of rays produced
by, 6, 103; source of energy
of, 6, 1 06; suggestion that
this energy may some day be
utilized in the propulsion of
mechanisms, 6, 318.
Radio-activity," 6, 97-

Institution, experiments with
gases, 6, 85; his laboratory
experiments with the fixa-
tion of nitrogen, 6, 306.
Raynaud, invented a moving-
picture machine called the
praxinoscope, 8, 249.

rty,

termed by Madame Curie, 6, Reade, Rev. J. B., discoverer of
101; source of energy of, 6, a " gallo-nitrate process," 8,
1 06; and the structure of the

107;

Becquerel, 8, 220.
Radiolarians, the discovery of

atom, 5,^107; discovered by Re, Filipo, his theories of radio-
activity, 6, 1 06.
R6aumur, Ren6, the stomach

numerous species by Ernst
Haeckel, 5, 154; part played

as a grinding or triturating
organ, settled by, 4, 88; his
experiments with gastric juice,
4,89.

Curie and his wife, 6, 100; Red corpuscles of the human
power of, in penetrating sub-
stances, 5, 101, 102; an ele-

in evolution, 5, 155.
Radium, discovered by Pierre

blood, snape ol, settled by
Joseph Jackson Lister, 4,

mentary substance, 5, 104; 114; functions of, 4, 135.

Ramsay's experiments with, Refrigerator machines, use of

ibid.; presence of helium in,

6, 105; methods devised for

testing heat given off by, 5,
no; its heat-giving qualities,
5, 2ii ; amount of energy
stored in, 6, 318.

liquefied gases in, 5, 61-63.

Rembrandt, the famous painter

also a master etcher, 8, 196.

Renard and Krebs, constructed
La France, a motor-driven
balloon, 7, 264.

Ramillies, attacks on, by sub- Renucci, F., and the itch mite,

marines, 7, 102.

[2IO]

4, 206.

GENERAL INDEX

Republic, rescue of passengers Rev, Jean, experiments with air,
and crew due to submarine
signaling apparatus, 7, 88.

Respiration, the function of, 4,
92; experiments in the mys-
teries of, 4, 93, 94; Erasmus
Darwin and vegetable, 4, 94.

Restoration of Assyrian sculp-

4,6.
Rhazes, Arabian physician, 2,

24.
Ricard, Bishop, with Dr. Ather-

stone made the first tests of

South African diamonds, 9,

ture, 4, 293.

Retgers, Dutch mineralogist dis-
covers a colorless compound of
silver and thalium used in test-
ing the specific gravity of gems,
9, 3°3-

Retrospect and Prospect, Chap-
ter IX, 6, 230.

Retrospect and prospect, 6, 230
—242; scientific attitude of
mind, 6, 230-232; natural
versus supernatural, 6, 233,
234; inductive versus deduc-
tive reasoning, 5, 235-238;
logical induction versus hasty
generalization, 6, 239-242.

Retrospective Glance at Clas-
sical Science, A, Chapter XI,
1, 285.

Retrospective glance, the span
from Thales to Galen com-
passed about eight hundred
years, 1, 286 ; the true hypoth-
esis concerning the sun and
the planetary system, 1, 287;
the beginnings of great things
in the sciences, 1, 288; the
homes of the great scientists
were scattered over a wide
territory, 1, 289; Plato the
only great scientist who was
born in Greece, ibid.; racial
mingling, 1, 290; early de-
velopment of thought and
Oriental science, 1, 291; the
entire school of Alexandrians
free from superstition, 1, 292;
the attitude of the Roman
mind towards science, ibid.;
beliefs based upon pseudo-
scientific inductions, 1, 294;
miracle workers, 1,295; " The
Thundering Legion," 1, 296;
Xiphilinus's account of the
battle between the Romans
and the hostile Quadi, 1, 297.

316.

"Riddle of the Sphinx," how
read, 4, 287.

Rittenhouse and Hopkins, in-
vented and sent up a balloon,
7, 237.

Roberts, Richard, improves the
self-acting mule, 9, 35.

Robinet and the idea of the
transmutation of species, 4,
149.

Rocket, description of the,
Stephenson's famous loco-
motive, 7, 133.

Rocks, the origin of stratified,
3, 143; the "transition" and
"secondary" systems, 3, 156;
the Silurian and Devonian
systems, 3, 157; the Lauren-
tian system, ibid.; the forma-
tion of the Adirondack and
Storm King range are patri-
archs of the kind, 3, 158; dif-
ferent in character, 3, 159;
the backbone of the future
continent, 3, 161; the strata
of the Paleozoic period, 3,
162; the Rocky range, 3,
163.

Roderick and Joseph, and
Martin de Bohemia, credited
with inventing the apparatus
known as the astrolabe, 7,
19.

Roentgen, Professor Wilhelm
Conrad, the discoverer of the
"X-ray," 3, 248; its ex-
traordinary results on the
photographic film, ibid.; the
apparatus for producing the
rays, 3, 251; the composition
of the rays not fully deter-
mined, 3, 252.

Rolando's method of cutting
pieces of brain tissue for
microscopical examination, 4,
277.

[211]

KEY AND INDEX

Rolls, Charles R., his remarkable Royal Academy of Sciences, at
flight across the English Chan- Paris, 2, 202; at Berlin, ibid.
nel, 7, 294. Royal Institute, founded 1801,

Roman Period, Science of the, 4, 46; Humphry Davy as-
Chapter X, 1, 253.

Roofs, different types of, 9, 153.

Rosel, Prof., of the University
of Bern, has demonstrated the
presence of microscopic dia-
monds in steel, 9, 329.
the

Rosellini extended the knowl-
edge of the phonetic value of
inscriptions on the Rosetta
Stone, 1, 27.

Rosetta Stone, its hieroglyphics
deciphered by Dr. Thomas
Young, 1, 27; the, 4, 287;
biography of, 4, 288; de-
cipherment of, 4, 289, 290; in
British Museum, 5, 8.

Rosicrucians, 2, 136.

Ross, Sir James, located the
northern magnetic pole, 7, 13.

Ross, Louis, his automobile
record at Ormonde, 7, 165.

Rotary engine, principle of, 6,
119; James Watt's invention
of, 6, 119; Joshua Rout-
ledge's, 6. 120; of Rev.
Patrick Bell, 6, 121; of Lord
Armstrong, 6, 120; of Messrs.
Fielding and Platt, 6, 122; of
Mr. Hoffman of Buffalo, 6,
123; estimated speed of loco-
motive using Hoffman engine,
6, 123; see also "Steam-
Engine."

Routledge, Joshua, design of his
rotary engine described, 6,
120.

Rotary motion, in steam-engine,
first attempts at, by Watt, 6,
99-100; crank and connect-
ing rod patented by Picard, 6,
100; Watt invents sun-and-
planet gearing, 6, 100; pos-
sibilities of, not realized at
first, 6, 1 00-110.

Rowboat, the oar a modified
form of lever, 6, 58; ancient
ships chiefly propelled by
oars, 7, 57.

Roux, Dr., his paper on anti-
toxine, 4, 242.

[212]

sumed chair of chemical phil-
osophy of, 4, 46.

Royal Institution and the Low-
Temperature Researches, The,
Chapter III, 6, 29.

Royal Institution of Great Brit-
ain, foundation and founder,

6, 29, 30; methods and results
at, 6, 33-38-

Royal Society of London for
Improving Natural Knowl-
edge, The, Chapter II, 6, 14.

Royal Society of London, the, its
origin, 2, 201; 6, 14-28;
visitors to, 5, 15; the lecture-
room of, 6, 17; comparison
between, and the Royal Acad-
emy of Science of Berlin, 5,
18; library and reading-
rooms of, 6, 19; busts of dis-
tinguished members of, 6, 20;
priceless relics in, 6, 21, 22.

Royal Swedish Academy, 2,

202.

Rozier, Pilatre de, the first man
to make an ascent in a balloon,

7, 235; the first victim of
ballooning, 7, 241.

Rubens, Peter Paul, was in-
terested in the reproduction of
paintings through copper en-
graving, 8, 194-

Ruby and its allies, the, 9, 319.

Riicker, Arthur William, per-
manent secretary, Royal So-
ciety of London, 5, 17.

Ruhmkorff , the electrical coil of,
6, 199.

Rumford, Count, and the vibra-
tory theory of heat, 3, 208;
his experiments to determine
the nature of heat, 3, 209,
determines that heat is a
form of motion, 3, 215,
showed that labor may be
transformed into heat, 3, 255;
founder of the Royal In-
stitution of Great Britain, 6,
30; challenged the doctrine
of imponderable fluids as ap-

GENERAL INDEX

plied to light and heat, 6, 154;
unsuccessful in his attempts
to show that changes in chem-
icals are due to the action of
heat rather than of light, 8,
221.

Rumsey, James, practical test
of boat built by, 7, 67.

Rush, Dr. Benjamin, leader in
reforms for care of insane, 4,

245-

Rust, early printer whose press
was a modification of the
Gutenberg press, 8, 122.

Rutherford, Professor, explains
the presence of helium in
radium, 6, 105; and the in-
stability of the atom, 5, no.

SABBATICAL DAYS, the four days
in the month set apart for
rest from work by the Assyr-
ians, 1, 65; the foundation of
the Hebrew Sabbath, ibid.

Sailing by dead reckoning, 7,
14; explanation of, 7, 15.

Sails, used in antiquity by the
Phoenicians, 6, 62; used by
the Egyptians, 7, 56; modern
sailing ships, 7, 60.

Saint-Hilaire, Etienne Geof-
froy, the doctrine of trans-
mutation championed by, 4,
161.

Saint, Thomas, inventor of an
early type of sewing-machine,
9, 89.

St. Victor, Niepce, invented the
glass negative from which
photographic prints could be
made, 8, 229.

Salerno, medical school at, 2, 29.

Saliva, its share in preparing
food for absorption, 4, 130.

Salva, Don Francisco, tele-
graph invented by, 8, 8.

Sanborn, Edward H., his report
on motive power appliances
quoted, 6, 73; article on
Motive Power Appliances, 6,
129.

Sanctorius discovers "insensible
perspiration," 2, 187.

Sandeman, quoted as to ancient

versus modern methods of
pottery-making, 9, 249.

Sanger- Shepherd, inventor of a
single-lens camera, 8, 238;
his work in perfecting color-
photography 8, 239.

Sans-pareil, description of the
famous locomotive bearing
this name, 7, 132.

Santos- Dumont, the balloons of,

7, 266.

"Sarcode," the fluid contents of
cells, 4, 124.

Sargon, Mesopotamian con-
queror, his achievements re-
corded on a prism now pre-
served in the British Museum,

8, 105.

Saturn, the discovery of the
inner rings of, by Bond and
Dawes, 3, 44; Maxwell's paper
"On the Stability of Saturn's
Rings," 3, 45-48.

Savannah, the first steamship to
cross the ocean, 7, 73; de-
scription of the, 7, 73.

Savary, an astronomer of Paris,
3, 58.

Savery, Thomas, patented a
steam engine to be applied to
the raising of water, 6? 85.

Saw, modification of inclined
plane, principle of, 6, 55.

Saxton, his name intimately con-
nected with the early efforts
at utilization of magneto-

electric power, 6, 178.
ayce, Professor Archibald
Henry, on Chaldean supersti-

tions, 1, 70.

Sayce, one of the inventors of
the collodion-emulsion proc-
ess, 8, 231.

Scandium discovered, 4, 68.

Scheele, Karl Wilhelm, oxygen
and chlorine discovered by,
4, 23; his discovery of chlo-
rine, 4, 25; believed in the
phlogiston theory, 4, 27; his
many discoveries, 4, 27, 28;
experiments in the mysteries
of respiration, 4, 93; dis-
covered the fact that certain
chemicals quickly change

KEY AND INDEX

color when exposed to light,
8, 220.

Schiaparelli discovered that
meteor swarms move in the
orbit of a previously observed
comet, 3, 55.

Schilling, Baron, experiments
with the telegraph, 8, 14-

Schleiden, Dr. M. J., and the
ceil theory, 4, 118.

Schlessinger, W. M.f electric
traction engine invented by,
6, 257.

Schlick, Dr. Otto, records of the
steadying effect of his gyro-
scope, 6, 128; his successful
experiment with the gyro-
scope, 7, 219.

Schmerling, Dr., fossil remains
found by him in a cave in
Westphalia rejected by Cuvier,
3, 103.

Schmidt discovers the radio-
active properties of thorium,
6, 100.

Schoenlein, J. L., discovery of
the cause of favus, 4, 208.

Schools of physiological chemis-
try under guidance of Liebig
and Wohler in Germany and
Dumas in France, 4, 128.

Schultze, Max, studies in proto-

Elasm, 4, 125.
uman, Frank, "wire-glass"
patented by, 9, 294.

Schwann, Dr. Theodore, re-
searches in animal cells, 4,
118; famous cell theory, 4,
119-122; discovered pepsin in
gastric juice, 4, 129; studies in
micro-organism, 4, 218; stud-
ies of the nerve tracts, 4, 258.

Schwartz, the all-aluminum bal-
loon constructed by, 7, 264.

Schweigger, telegraph of, 8, 13.

Science, Prehistoric, Chapter I,
1,3-

Science, Egyptian, Chapter II,
If 25.

Science of Babylonia and As-
syria, Chapter III, 1, 56.

Science, The Beginnings of
Greek, Chapter V, 1, 103.

Science, Greek, in the Early

Attic Period, Chapter VII,

1, 139.

Science, Post-Socratic, at Athens,
Chapter VIII, 1, 178.

Science, Greek, of the Alexan-
drian or Hellenistic Period,
Chapter IX, 1, 189.

Science of the Roman Period,
Chapter X, 1, 253.

Science, A Retrospective Glance
at Classical, Chapter XI, 1,
285.

Science in the Dark Age, Chap-
ter I, 2, 3.

Science, Mediaeval, Among the
Arabians, Chapter II, 2, 13.

Science, Mediaeval,[in the West,
Chapter III, 2, 31.

Science, The Successors of Gali-
leo in Physical, Chapter X, 2,
204.

Science of Paleontology, The
New, Chapter III, 3, 74.

Science of Meteorology, The
New, Chapter V, 3, 168.

Science of Experimental Psy-
chology, The New, Chapter
IX, 4/245.

Science of Oriental Archaeology,
The New, Chapter X, 4, 287.

Science, its effect upon industrial
problems of to-day and to-
morrow, 6, 316.

Sciences, Two Pseudo — Alchemy
and Astrology, Chapter VI,

2, 124.

Scientific attitude of mind, the,

5, 230.
Scientific Problems, Some Un»

solved, Chapter VIII, 6. 203.
Scientists, Philosopher, and New

Institutions of Learning,

Chapter IX, 2, 191.
Scissors, lever of the first class,

6,30.
Scott, his suggestion to change

the shape of the envelope of

the balloon, 7, 248.
Scott, Leon, produced what was

known as a " phonautograph,"

8, 93-

Screw, an inclined plane, 6, 38.
Scrope, G. Poulett, claimed that

the highest mountains were

[2I4]

GENERAL INDEX

masses of volcanic matter, 3,
132; his theories of rock
formations, 3, 134.

Sea-going steamships, 7, 73.

Seldon, Charles S., secured a
patent designed to cover
the use of the internal-com-
bustion engine as a motor for
road vehicles, 7, 157.

Semach, O. P., 9, 179; designed
the steel work for the Singer
Tower, 9, 179.

Seneca, his silence regarding
wind-mills makes their pres-
ence in Rome during his
time problematical, 6, 68;
records that special fire guards
watched the Roman house
during entertainments, 9, 150.

Senefelder, Alois, invented
lithography, 8, 196; made
various experiments in at-
tempting to reproduce pic-
tures for his writings, 8, 198.

Sennacherib, Mesopotamian
conqueror; his achievements
recorded on prisms now in the
British Museum, 8, 105.

Serum-therapy, 4, 240; the es-
tablishment of, 4, 244.

Serum treatment for serpent-
poisoning, 5, 184.

Servetus, discoverer of pulmo-
nary circulation, 2, 168.

Servinus, makes practical stud-
ies of effect of air in motion,
his sailing car, 6, 68; dis-
covers law of pressure in all
directions, 6, 75.

Seven Wise Men of Greece, 1,
104.

Severinus, Marcus Aurelius,
Italian surgeon, 2, 185.

Sewage-disposal, the famous
system of Berlin, 5, 199; the
system of the Parisians, 5,
200.

Sewing-Machine, The, Chapter
IV, 9, 87.

Sewing-machine, what it has
done for civilization, 9, 87;
the machine of Charles F.
Weisenthal, 9,89; the sewing-
machine of Thomas Saint, 9,

89; the first practical sewing-
machine invented by Bar-
thelerny Thimonnier, 9, 90;
mobs destroy the factory con-
taining Thimonnier machines,
9, 91; the American, John J.
Greenough, invents a sewing-
machine using a double-
pointed reedle, 9,91; the sew-
ing-machine of Walter Hunt,
9, 92; the invention of Elias
Howe, Jr., 9, 93; description
of his machine, 9, 94; im-
provement on Howe's ma-
chine by John Bachelder, 9,
96; improvement in mechan-
ism of, by Allen B. Wilson, 9,
96; Isaac M. Singer invents
a new type of sewing-machine,
9, 97; effect of sewing-ma-
chines upon manufactures, 9,
99; machines adapted to
various purposes, 9, 101.
Sextant, invention of the, 2,
257; the development of, 7,

Shackleton, Lieutenant, deter-
mined the location of the
south magnetic pole, 7, 13.

Ships built of iron and steel, 7,

Shoes, manufacture of. See
Clothing the Extremities, 9,
103.

Shooting-stars, 3, 55; the great
shower of 1833, 3, 171; the
same in kind and origin as
meteors, 3, 172.

Shovel, a modified form of the
lever, 6, 57.

Sibu, whose contorted attitudes,
according to Egyptian myth-
ology, caused the irregulari-
ties of the earth's surface, 1,

Signatures, doctrine of, 2, 160.

Siemens (with Halske) invented
a lamp having a tantalum
filament, 6, 235; his experi-
ments with electric motors, 7,
181.

Simpson, Sir J. Y., discovers the
anaesthetic power of chloro-
form, 4, 217.

KEY AND INDEX

Singer, Isaac M., inventor of the
modern type of sewing-ma-
chine, 9, 97.

Siphon recorder, invented by
Lord Kelvin, 8, 45.

Sirius, made a record transat-
lantic voyage in 1838, for the
first time using steam alone
as a motive power, 7, 73.

Skyscraper, The Modern, Chap-
ter VII, 9, 162; the develop-
ment of, 9, 162; the steel
frame, 9, 164; the problem
of heating, 9, 166; the inven-
tion of the Franklin stove, 9,
167; steam adapted to heat-
ing, 9. 1 68; the invention of
the elevator, 9, 169; new
tools and new methods, 9,
175; some thought-provoca-
tive statistics, 9, 178.

Sledge, a modified form of the
lever, principle of the, 6, 58.

Slide-rule, engineer's, invented
by Joshua Routledge, 6, 120.

Sloane's, Sir Hans, collection,
purchased by British govern-
ment, 5, 4; finest of its kind
in existence, 6, 5.

Small-pox, J[enner's discovery
of inoculation for preventing,
4, 190-196.

Smith, William, and fossil shells,
3, 74; his discovery that
fossil rocks are arranged in
regular systems, 8,75.

Smith, Willoughby S., system of
wireless telegraphy installed
by, 8, 51.

Smyth, Piazzi, the idea of the
gyroscope on ships first put
into operation by, 7, 217.

Snell, Willebrord, discovers the
law of refraction, 2, 119.

Societies, scientific, of the seven-
teenth century, 2, 198.

Solar and telluric problems, 6,
205-213.

Solubility, as explained by Ost-
wald and Mendeleef, 5, 218-
219.

Some Physical Laboratories and
Physical Problems, Chapter
IV, 6, 73-

Some Medical Laboratories and
Medical Problems, Chapter
VII, 5, 178.

Some Unsolved Scientific Prob-
lems, Chapter VIII, 6, 203.

Somerset, Edward, describes
his apparatus for raising
water by expansion force of
steam, 6, 84.

Sommerring, telegraph of, 8, 1 1.

Sothic cycle measured by the
heliacal rising of Sothis, 1,
40.

Sothis, the Egyptian name of the
dog-star Sirius, the rising of
which in the morning sky
marked the beginning of the
new year, 1, 38.

Soundings and Charts, 7, 41.

Southey, Hon.R., South- African
colonial secretary, sent first
South-African diamond to
Paris Exposition, 1867, 9, 316.

Sovereign of the Seas, The, de-
scription of, 7, 60.

Spallanzani, Lazzaro, rival of
Hunter, 4, 86; studies of
spontaneous generation, 4,
87; his chemical theory of
digestion, 4, 88; elaborates
upon experiments of R6au-
mur, 4, 89; theory of gastric
juices, ibid.; experiments in
mysteries of respiration, 4, 93.

Spark recorder, 8, 45.

Spectroscope, the, perfected by
Kirchhoff and Bunsen, 3, 62;
4, 69; wonderful revelations
of, 3, 63; the results of the
studies of Rutherfurd and
Secchi, 3, 64; what it reveals
of the nature and condition of
the stars, 3, 65; it discovered
the existence of "dark stars ";
its power to record the actual
motion of stars, 3, 66; the
speed of an invisible planetary
body may be determined by
it, 3, 67; it determined the
character and composition of
the nebulae, 3, 69; confirms
the theory that meteorites and
shooting-stars are one in kind
and origin, 3, 172; and

[216]

GENERAL INDEX

photography, 4, 68-72 ; utility
of, rendered complete, 4, 70;
observation of the sun and
stars by, 4, 71.

Spencer, Herbert, his definition
of science, 1, 3; lent his in-
fluence to the Darwin cause,
4, 175; belief in transmuta-
tion of species, 4, 176; and
the disputed question of
"spontaneous" variations, 4,
178; his Principles of Psy-
chology, 4, 268.

Spiller, invented a method of
keeping photographic plates
moist for several days, 8, 231.

Spinning, primitive man's early
efforts at, 9, 5; the modern
methods of, epitomized, 9,
16; the preparation of wool
for, 9, 18; Hargreaves and
the spinning-jenny, 9, 21;
Arkwright invents the water-
frame, 9, 25; Crompton in-
vents the mule, 9, 32; the
self-acting mule, 9, 35.

Spinning-frame. See Water
Frame.

Spinning- Jenny, the invention
of, by James Hargreaves, 9,
22; defects of, 9, 25.

Spinthariscope, invented by Dr.
Crookes, 6, 104.

Sponge, investigations of, by
Ernst Haeckel, 6, 155.

"Spontaneous generation" of
living protoplasm, 6, 223.

"Spontaneous" variations, dis-
puted Question of, 4, 178.

Sprague, Frank J., his work in
developing electric railways,
7, 186.

Sprott, detected the existence of
glands in the mucous mem-
brane, 4, 129.

Spurzheim, Dr. Kaspar, propa-
gandist of phrenology, 4,
248.

Stahl, George Ernst, experi-
ments with air, 4, 6; his
phlogiston theory, 4, 7, 10;
exponent of Animists' sys-
tem, 4, 185.

Staircases, ancient, 9, 155.

Staite, W. E., his experiments
with electric light, 6, 223.

Stanhope, Earl of, produced a
printing-press having a frame
made of one piece of cast iron,
8, 122.

Starley, brought the bicycle to
the familiar form of the
"safety," 7, 155.

Stars, the fixed, 3, 57; distance
of the, 3, 61; observation of
the, by the spectroscope, 4,
71 ; study of the, by Lockyer,

5, 73; discovery of new, 6,
79, 80.

Stas, M. J. S., his scientific views
on photography, 8, 232.

Static machine, principle of con-
struction of, 6, 161.

Steam, the age of, 6, 15; super-
heated, essential features of,

6 , 1 14-1 1 5 ; high-pressure,
Watt's antagonism to, 6, 112 ;
experiments by Trevithick
and Evans, 6, 113; much
earlier general use in America,
6, 114; pressure of in cyl-
inder in simple engine, 6,
118; in compound engine, 6,
118.

Steamboat, early attempts to
invent a, 7, 63; Fulton's
final demonstration of its
possibilities, 7, 70; the Great
Eastern and her successors, 7,
77; the triumph of the tur-
bine, 7, 81.

Steam-engine, principle of, 6,
79-81; marks turning-point
in history of civilization, 6,
81; development of, early
experimenters and inventors
(Hero, da Vinci, della Porta,
de Caus, Marquis of Worces-
ter, Savery, Branca, Papin,
Newcomen), until time of
Watt, 6, 82-92 ; limitations to
Newcomen engine, 6, 93-94;
Watt studies problem of con-
densation, 6, 95-97; his first
revolutionary experiment and
patent, 6, 97; description of
his improvements up to 1769,
6, 98-99; rotary motion,

[2!7]

KEY AND INDEX

how obtained, 6, 99-100;
centrifugal governor, double-
acting engine, cut-off, in-
vented by Watt, 6. 102; high
pressure advocated by Treyi-
thick, compound engine in-
vented by Hornblower, 6,
103 ; both ideas denounced by
Watt, 6, 103; importance of
Watt's inventions, 6, 104—
1 06; persistence of walking
beam, general use of, aban-
doned, 6, iio-m; use of
high-pressure by Trevithick
and Evans, 6. 112-114; the-
ory of, worked out by Carnot

and others, 6, 115; theory of,
j Clausius and
Rankine, 6^ 115; essential

perfected by

principles of operation, 6,
116; principle and invention
of compound engine by Horn-
blower, revived by Woolf, 6,
117; advantages over simple
engine, 6, 117-118; triple
and quadruple expansion en-
gine, chief use of, 6, 118;
early belief in possibility of
rotary engine, 6, 119; idea
patented by Watt, 6, 119-
120; rotary engine of Rout-
ledge, 6, 120-121; of Bell,
6, 12 1 ; model loaned to
South Kensington museum by
Fielding and Platt, 6, 122;
the Hoffman rotary engine,
6, 123; possible future of,
6, 123; steam turbine, in-
ventor of, 6, 124; descrip-
tion of Parsons' turbine en-
gine, 6, 125; advantage of,
6, 126; largest steam turbine
yet built, 6, 130.
Steam Locomotive, The, Chap-
ter IV, 7, 119; the "Oruktor
Amphibious," constructed by
Evans, 7, 121; the locomotive
of Richard Trevithick, 7,
122; Brunton's remarkable
locomotive, 7, 123; the ex-
periments of Blackett, 7, 124;
Stephenson solves the prob-
lem, 7, 124; the contest be-
tween the Novelty, the Sans-

pareil, the Perseverance, and
the Rocket, 7, 131; the
Rocket declared the winner, 7,
134; the Globe, 7, 134; Ste-
phenson's Planet, 7, 135; im-

?rovements in recent years,
, 135; some points of inter-
est concerning the compound
locomotive, 7, 138; the prob-
lem of keeping the fire-box
supplied with coal, 7, 140;
the Westinghouse Air-brake,
7, 141; automatic couplings,
7, 147; comparison between
the Rocket and a recent type
of locomotive, 7, 150.

Steamship, ocean, equipped
with turbine engines, 6, 124.
(See Steamboat.)

Steam shovel, use of in "open
pit" mining, 6, 275.

Steel, The Age of, Chapter XIII,
6, 271; boats used in trans-
porting iron ore, 6, 280; ma-
chinery used in handling iron
ore, 6, 282; conversion of
iron ore into iron and steel,
6, 283; old method of manu-
facturing, 6, 287; Bessemer
process of making steel, 6,
289; open-hearth method of
making, 6, 294; alloy steels,
6, 295.

Steelyard, a lever of the first
class, 6, 30.

Steinheil, Professor, assists in
developing the first practical
telegraph, 8, 17; experi-
ments of, 8, 48.

Stephenson, George, the success
of his locomotive largely due
to Trevithick's method of al-
lowing the steam exhaust to
escape into the funnel of the
engine to increase the draught,
6, 114; solves the problem of
steam locomotion, 7, 124;
his early locomotives, 7, 126;
the locomotive of 1825, 7,
127 ; description of his famous
Rocket, 7, 133.

Stereo-chemistry, 5, 219.

Stethoscope, invented by Laen-
nec, 4, 201.

[218]

GENERAL INDEX

Stevens, Col. John, invented a
rotary engine, 7, 69; a pro-
peller steamboat produced by,
7, 69.

Steyinus and the law of equilib-
rium, 2, 102; his horseless
carriage, 2, 103; explanation
of "hydrostatic paradox," 2,
104.

Stirling, Dr., his efforts to
utilize the expansion property
of heated air in an engine, 6,

133-

Stone Age, man knew certain
rudimentary principles of
science, 1, 5; the Egyptians
of this age overthrown by an
invading host, 1, 29.

Storage-battery systems, 6, 194;
7, 1 88; Mr. Edison's new
type of storage battery, 7,
190.

Storm centre, merely an area of
low barometric pressure, 3,
202 ; expansion of air through
excess of temperature, 3, 203.

Strabo, the most famous of

Study of diseases in the Berlin
Institute of Pathology, 5,
186-193.

Sturgeon, constructed the first
electric magnet, 6, 176.

Submarine Cable, The, Chapter
II, 8, 30.

Submarine Vessels, Chapter III,
7, 93; first practical sub-
marine boat made by David
Bushnell, and details of its
construction, 7, 94-98; Rob-
ert Pulton's experiments,
7, 98; Fulton's first sub-
marine boat, the Nautilus, 7,
99; the attack on the Argus
by Fulton's submarine, 7,
101; the attacks on the
Ramillies, 7, 102; a successful
diving boat, 7, 103; the sink-
ing of the Housatonic, 7, 104;
recent submarines and sub-
mersibles, 7, 105 ; the Holland,
7, 1 06; the Lake type of boat,
7.io8; the unsolved problem
of marine navigation, 7, no;
present status, 7, in.

ancient geographers, 1, 255; Submarine Signaling, 7, 83;
an investigator of details, not early experiments with, 7,
an original thinker, 1, 257; 86; practical application of,

an original thinker, 1, 257;
believed that a vessel could
sail around the globe from
Spain to India, 1, 260; his idea
of the arrangement of the
zones, 1, 262; his three fun-
damental principles, 1, 264.

Street, Robert, suggested the
use of inflammable gases as
explosives, 6, 135.

Strutt, Jedediah, inventor of a
method of knitting a ribbed
surface, 9. 56.

Strutt, William, attempted to
construct a self-acting mule,
9, 35; assisted Arkwright in
constructing his first mill at
Nottingham, 9, 27.

Struve, F. G. W., discovered
many double stars, 3, 58;
discovered that many seem-
ingly single stars are really
clusters, 3, 59.

Studies in the division of egg-
cells, 6, 134, 135-

7, 88.

Successors of Galileo in Physical
Science, The, Chapter X, 2,
204.

Successors of Newton in astron-
omy, The, Chapter I, 3, 3.

Suction, studied by early philos-
ophers, 6, 64; explanation as
pressure of external atmos-
phere given by Torricelli, 6,
65.

Sulphuric ether, vapor of, pain-
dispelling power of, 4, 209;
Morton's use of, in dentistry,
4, 214; claims of Jackson
and Long as to priority of
discovery, 4, 215.

Sulphurous gas liquefied, 6, 40.

Sumerian, an alien civilized
race, settled in Mesopotamia,
overthrown later by Semitic
invaders, 1, 60.

Sun, the, observations of, by the
spectroscope, 4, 71; study of,

[219]

KEY AND INDEX

by Lockyer, 6, 73; explana-
tion of the continued heat of,
6, 206, 207, 209; estimate of
the heat-giving life of, 6, 208;
host of meteors falling into,

5, 209.

Sun-dial invented and perfected
by Anaximander and Anax-
imenes, 1, 109.

Sun-spots discovered by Galileo,
2, 79.

Swan, J. W., an early experi-
menter with electric light,

6, 228; filament for an incan-
descent lamp invented by, 6,
233.

Sydenham, Thomas, 2, 188.

Sylvius, founder of a medical
system, 2, 186.

Symington, James, constructed
a boat consisting of two hulls,
with a paddle-wheel between
them worked by steam, 7,
67.

Systems, medical, in the seven-
teenth century, 2, 185.

Szczepanik, Mr. Jan, his work
in indirect color-photography,
8, 245-

TACITUS, tells us that in his day
the Germans crouched in dens
dug out of the earth, 9, 133.

Tagliacozzi, Gaspar, restores
amputated noses, 2, 183.

Tait, Professor P. G., his ap-
paratus for creating vortex
rings in air, 3, 291; molecules
measurable in inches, 3, 301;
estimate of the heat-giving
life of the sun, 5, 208.

Talbot, Fox, on Chaldean
exorcisms, 1, 71, 72; dis-
covered a process of photo-
graphing on paper, called
"Calotype" process, 8, 227.

"Task System" of manufactur-
ing clothing. See Costumes.

Taylor, in association with Mil-
ler and Symington, con-
structed a boat consisting of
two hulls, with a paddle-
wheel between them worked
by a steam-engine, 7, 67.

Telegraph, development of, 8,
3; early experiments with,
8, 8; early experiments of
Morse, 8, 19; first public
exhibition by Morse, 8, 20;
used for the first time, 8, 21;
multiple messages, 8, 25.

Telegraph, wireless. See Wire-
less telegraphy.

Telephone, the development of
the, 8, 66; experiment of
Hauksbee, 8, 67; Robert
Hopke's method of communi-
cation by, 8,68; "magiclyre"
telephone invented by Sir
Charles Wheatstone, 8, 69;
Bpurseul suggests an elec-
trical telephone, 8, 71; prac-
tical telephones of Prof. Alex-
ander Graham Bell and Elisha
Gray, 8, 73 ; Dr. Graham Bell
describes his invention, 8, 74;
question of priority in the in-
vention of the telephone, 8,
8 1 ; improvement upon the
type of receiver was made by
Thomas A. Edison, 8, 83;
microphone transmitter in-
vented by Emil Berliner, 8,
83; other transmitters in-
vented by Professor Hughes
and Francis Blake, 8, 84;
long-distance telephone per-
fected, 8, 84; solid back
transmitter invented by A.
C. White; 8, 85; telephone
equipment, 8, 86; practical
operation of the telephone,
8, 87; automatic telephone
systems, 8, 87; the calling
dial, 8, 88; the wireless tele-
phone, 8, 88; Dr. Lee De
Forest's connection with wire-
less telephony, 8, 89; instru-
ments used by Dr. DeForest,
8, 90; advantage of wire-
less over wire telephones, 8,

Telephone equipment, 8, 85.

Telescope, invented by Lipper-
shey, 2, 78, 252; constructed
by Galileo, 2, 78, 253 ; Kepleri-
an telescope, 2, 253; New-
ton's reflecting telescope, 2,

[220]

GENERAL INDEX

255; achromatic, invented,
2, 256.

Telluric structure, the rigidity
of, 5, 212.

Telpherage systems, 6, 261.

Temperature, 3, 302, 303, 305,
306 ; means employed to mod-
ify, 5, 201.

Tennant's discovery of chloride
of lime, 4, 26.

Testu-Bressy, made a balloon
ascension mounted on the
back of a horse, 7. 242.

Tetanus, discovery of toxine for,
4, 242.

Teutonic, one of the first twin-
screw boats to make ocean
records, 7, 81.

Textiles, The Manufacture of,
Chapter II, 8,38.

Textiles, finishing textile fabrics,
9, 52; printing patterns on
the finished cloth, 9, 52;
finishing woolen goods by
"teasing," 9, 54; lace-making
and knitting machinery, 9,
55; modern origin of knitting
and crocheting, 9, 55; knit-
ting-machine invented by
Rev. William Lee, 9, 56;
Jedediah Strutt's invention
of a machine for knitting a
ribbed surface, 9, 56; Peter
Claussen invents a circular
knitting-machine, 9, 56; the
"latch needle" introduced by
M. Townsend, 9, 57.

Thales the Milesian, foretold
the eclipse which stopped a
battle between the Lydians
and the Medes, 1, 103 ; one of
the Seven Wise Men of Greece,
1, 104; a link connecting the
learning of the old Orient with
the scholarship of the new
Occident, 1,105 ; predicted the
great eclipse, 585 B.C., 1, 106;
the father of Greek astronomy,
1, 1 06; a primitive geometer,
1, 107; is credited with five
geometrical truths, 1, 108; in-
ventor of science of triangula-
tion, 1, 1 08; thought the
eclipse of the sun a purely

natural phenomenon, 1, 109;
a pioneer philosopher of the
West, 1, 115.

Theophrastus, did for the vege-
table kingdom what Aristotle
did for the animal, 1, 188; his
work on the mineral kingdom
is the most notable that was
produced in antiquity, ibid.

Theory, The Phlogiston, In
Chemistry, Chapter I, 4, 3.

Theories, Modern, of Heat and
Light, Chapter VI, 3, 206.

Theories of Organic Evolution,
Chapter VI, 4, 140.

Thermometer invented by Gal-
ileo, 2, 119.

Thimonnier, Barthel6my, in-
ventor of the first practical
sewing-machine, 9, 90.

Thinite dynasty, the first, 1,
36.

Third rails and trolleys, 7, 184.

Thirteenth-century medicine, 2,

Thompson, Benjamin (Count
Rumford), an American,
founder of the Royal In-
stitution of Great Britain, 6,
30; his experiments to de-
monstrate the vibratory the-
ory of heat, 3, 208.

Thompson, Sir J. J., and the
nature of electricity, 5, 92-97 ;
and the source of energy of
radio-activity, 6, 107; his
hypotheses of the instability
of the atom, 5, 109; his con-
ception of the electron, 6, 1 58.

Thompson, R. Campbell, his
studies of the astronomical
tablets of the Assyrians, 1, 64 ;
thought the Chaldean astrono-
mers had a kind of machine
for reckoning time, 1, 67.

Thomson, Thomas, adopted the
atomic view of Dalton, 4, 44.

Thomson, Sir William. See
Lord Kelvin.

Thoria, its use in making gas
mantles, 6, 211; used in con-
nection with zirconia, alum-
ina, magnesia, etc., in making
gas mantles, 6, 211.

[221]

KEY AND INDEX

Thorium, discovery of the radio- "Trophic centres," Waller and

active properties of, 5, 100. the study of, 4, 280.

Thundering Legion, the, 1, Trotula, a perhaps mythical

woman physician, 2, 29.

Trowbridge, Prof. J., experi-
ments relating to the trans-
mission of messages by wire,
8, 49-

Tucker, Stephen D., invented a
rotating folding cylinder that
folded papers as fast as the
presses could print them, 8,
130.

Tungsten lamp, 6, 234.

Tungsten steel, 6, 297.

Tuke, Dr. William, leader in re-
forms for care of insane, 4, 245.

Tunis, Howard Hansel, satis-
factory monorail system in-
vented by, 7, 193.

Turbine steam-engine, first pro-
posed by Branca (1629), 6,
87; Mr. C. A. Parsons' in-
vention of, 6, 124; its use on
the Turbinia, 6, 124; its
application to ocean steamers,

6, 125; detailed description
of, 6, 126; its efficiency as
compared to reciprocating
engine, 6, 126; estimate of,
by the London Times, 6, 127;
as used on Lusitania, 6, 128;
its use in America as re-
ported by Mr. Edward H.
Sanborn, 6, 129; its use in
foreign countries, 6, 130; of
Dr. Gustav De Laval, 6, 131;
the use of, on ocean steamers,

7, 82.

Turbine water-wheels, invention
of; replaces earlier types of
water-wheels, 6, 72; new
types of, 6, 73; used in gen-
erating electricity at Niagara
Falls, 6, 187.

Turbinia, first steamship
equipped with turbine engine,
1897, 6, 124; its speed as-
tonished the nautical world,
7, 81.

Turner, James, invented "Tur-
ner's yellow," 8, 283.

Turpin, studies of micro-organ-

296.

Tisandier brothers applied the
electric motor to a balloon, 7,
264.

Tolstoi, Count Leo, his fondness
for physical work an eccen-
tricity, 6, 27.

Tongs, lever of the third class,
6, 31.

Tools, man the tool-making
animal, 6, 6-8.

Torricelli, disciple of Galileo, 2,
120; discovers that "suction "
is air pressure, 2, 120; 6, 65;
his barometer, 2, 122; discov-
ery in hydraulics, 2, 123.

Townsend, M., inventor of the
"latch needle" for knitting-
machines, 9, 57.

Toxine, anti-, the discovery of,
for tetanus and diphtheria, 4,
242.

Transformers, electrical, 6, 198.

Transmission of power, by
means of gears, belts, chains,
6, 35; by electricity, 6? 194-

Transmutation of species, 4,
149, 150, 152, 153, 159, 161,
167, 170, 174, 176.

Treadle, lever of the third class,
6, 31-

Treadmill, modified form of
lever, 6, 58.

Treviranus, Gottfried Reinhold,
motion of cell contents, redis-
covered in 1807 by, 4, 124;
coined the word "biology,"
4, 160.

Trevithick, Richard, his pump-
ing-engines, used by Boulton
and Watt, introduces high-
pressure engine, introduces
steam-propelled road vehicles,

6, 113; planned an iron ship,

7, 75; the locomotive of, 7,
12 1 ; the automobile of, 7,
159-

Trichina spiralis, Owen's dis-
covery of, 4, 207.

Trichinosis, the subject of, 4,
207.

ism, 4, 219.

[222]

GENERAL INDEX

Two Pseudo-Sciences — Alchemy
and Astrology, Chapter VI,
2, 124.

Tycho Brahe, great Danish as-
tronomer, 2, 65; observation
of comets, 2, 67; method of
finding latitude, 2, 68; re-
discovery of "moon's varia-
tion," 2, 69; explanation of
the new star in Cassiopeia, 2,
69.

Tyndall, John, a recruit to the
Darwinian theory, 4, 175;
corroborates the results of
Pasteur as to the non-exist-
ence of spontaneous genera-
tion, 4, 1 80.

UNIVERSITIES in the thirteenth
century, 2, 43.

University College, London, Dr.
Ramsay's labors in, 5, 82.

University of Jena, 6, 148-150;
freedom of thought and ex-
pression at, 6, 158.

Unsolved Scientific Problems,
Some, Chapter VIII, 6, 203.

Uranium, discovery of the radio-
active properties of, 5, 100.

VALVES of the veins, con-
troversy about them in the
sixteenth century, 2, 166.

Van Beneden, discovery of the
centrosome, 5, 226.

Van Berquen, his discovery
that by a certain arrangement
of the facets on a diamond
the reflection and dispersion
of light are greatly increased,

9. 3°5-
Van Depoele, the inventions of,

7, 185.
Van Helmont, Jan Baptista,

founder of medical system, 2,

185.
Van 't Hoof's studies of the

space relations of atoms, 5,

219.
Van Niekirk, Schalk, part taken

in the discovery of South

African diamonds, 9, 315.
Van Siegen, invented the form

of metal-engraving known as

mezzotint, 8, 196.

Varley, constructed a dynamo-
electric machine, 6, 178.

Varnishes, 8, 316.

Vauconson, M., a Frenchman
who suggested plans for a
power-loom, 9, 43.

Vegetables, respiratory organs
of, 4, 94; cell walls of, 4, 124.

Ventilation, problems in, 6, 200;
in mines, 6, 253.

Venus, phases of the planet
discovered by Galileo, 2, 79.

Verneuil, M., his experiments
with artificial gems, 9, 332.

Vesalius, Andrew, "the greatest
of anatomists," 2, 164.

Ville de Orleans, the famous
voyage made by the, 7, 259.

Vinci, see Leonardo da Vinci.

Viper, wrecking of, possibly
caused by gyroscopic action,
7, 222.

Virchow, Rudolf, demonstrates
the correctness of Von Mohl's
cell formation, 4, 127; the
discoveries of, 6, 188; his
work in pathology, 6, 189; his
ways of living and working, 6,
190; his method of teaching,
5, 191, 192.

Vitalists' system, 4, 185; theory
of, 4, 186.

Vitruvius, warns the Romans
against elaborately carved
cornices, 9, 150.

Volta, Alessandro, inventor of
the "voltaic pile," 3, 230; his
discovery paved the way for
the electric light, 6, 220.

Voltage, theoretical explana-
tion of high and low, 6, 200.

Von Alteneck, introduced drum
arrangement of armature, 6,
179.

Von Baer, Karl Ernst, studies in
embryology, 4, 122.

Von Empergner, discovered that
metal embedded in concrete
is protected from rust, 9,
198.

Von Guericke, Otto, inventor of
air-pump, 2, 211; demon-
stration of atmospheric pres-
sure by the striking experi-

KEY AND INDEX

ment with the "Magdeburg
spheres," 2, 212; 6, 66;
electrical discoveries, 2, 213.

Von Kleist, Dean, discovers
principle of the Ley den jar, 2,
280.

Von Mohl, Dr. Hugo, studies of
the vegetable cell, 4, 123 ; dis-
covery of the formation of
cells, 4, 126; correctness of
cell theory demonstrated by
Virchow, 4, 127.

Vortex atom, speculations based
upon the hypothesis of , 6, 2 16.

Vortex theory, Lord Kelvin's
estimate of, 5, 217.

Vulcan, the pioneer of all iron
boats, built by Thomas Wil-
son, 7, 75-

WALES, observed fluctuation of
the compass due to the mag-
netic influence of the ship on
which it is placed, 7, n.

Walking-beam, persistence of,
in engines, 6, 102, no; use
in side-wheel steamers, gen-
eral use abandoned, 6, in.

Wallace, Alfred Russel, the
work of, 4, 172; joint paper
of, and Darwin presented to
the Linnaean Society of Lon-
don, 4, 173.

Wallace, Sir William, his clans-
men the prototypes in mili-
tary costume of modern
Schotch soldiers, 9, 75.

Waller and the study of "tro-
phic centres," 4, 280.

"Warren mastodon," 3, 113.

Wars, their stimulating effect
upon surgery in the thirteenth
century, 2, 39.

"Washington" press, the popu-
lar hand-press for taking
fine proofs, 8, 122.

"Water controversy" between
Cavendish and Watt, 4, 14, 15.

Water, weight of cubic foot,
working capacity determined,
6, 70; law of pressure in all
directions discovered by Ser-
vinus, 6, 75; as a conductor
of electricity, 8, 48.

Water engines, described, 6,

77-78.
Water-frame, invented by

Richard Arkwright, 9, 25;

Principle of its construction,
, 26.
Watermills, early history of, 6,

70.

Water motor, design proposed
by Lord Armstrong, efficiency
of, 6, 121.

Water-wheels, types of, use of,
6, 71; recent advances in, 6,

Watson, William, electrical ex-
periments, 2, 284; discovered
that water could be made to
take the place of wires as the
return circuit of two batteries,
8,48.

Watson, Thomas A., assisted
Dr. Bell in his experiments
with the telephone, 8, 80.

Watt, James, controversy with
Cavendish, 4, 14; Arago de-
cides in favor of, 4, 15; his
process of practical bleaching,
4, 26; Jperfector, not inventor,
of steam-engine, 6, 82 ; early
life; connection with Profes-
sor Black, 6, 94; studies
deficiencies of steam-engine,
6, 94-97; first revolutionary
experiment, first patent, 6,
97; describes his improve-
ments up to 1769, 6, 98-99;
second patent with device for
reciprocating motion, 6, 99;
Picard's patent of crank and
connecting rod leads to inven-

. 5> v»

100-101; invents centrifugal
governor, 6, 102; invents
double-acting engine and cut-
off, 6, 102; denounced ideas
of high pressure, and com-
pound engine; antagonistic to
steam locomotion, 6, 103; im-
portance of his inventions, 6,
104-106; personality of, 6,
107-109; fails to see feasibil-
ity of doing away with walk-

[224]

GENERAL INDEX

ing-beam, 6, 1 1 1 ; antagonism
to high pressure considered,
6, 112; patented idea of
rotary engine, 6, 119—120.

Weaving, the art as practised
by primitive races, 9, 39; how
the Egyptians may have
learned the art, 9, 39; the
dependence of weaving upon
spinning, 9, 41; John Kay
invents the flying shuttle,
9, 42; the power-loom in-
vented by Dr. Cartwright,
9, 44-

Weber, E. H., experiments on
nerve stimuli, 4, 264.

Weber, one of the first inventors
of a practical working tele-
Wedge, an inclined plane, 6, 38;
modifications of, 6, 54.

Wedgwood, Josiah, gauged the
highest temperature with the
clay pyrometer, 3, 206; the
superiority of his pottery ex-
plained, 9, 232.

Wedgwood, Thomas, his ap-
plication to picture-reproduc-
tion of Scheele's discovery
that light changes the color
of certain chemicals, 8, 221.

Weisenthal, Charles F., invented
a sewing-machine for sewing
hand-embroidery, 9, 89.

Weismann, August, objections
to the Lamarckian conception
that acquired characters are
transmissible, 4, 178; theory

3, 13 1 ; made the earliest con-
spicuous attempt to classify
the earth's strata, 3, 155.

Westinghouse, George, inventor
of the Westinghouse air brake,
7, 141.

Wheatstone, Sir Charles, his
name intimately connected
with the early efforts at utili-
zation of magneto-electric
power, 6. 178; invented the
'magic lyre telephone," 8,
69.

Wheel, lever of the first-class, 6,
33; primitive friction re-
ducer, 6,55; speculation as to
invention of, 6, 56.

Wheelbarrow, lever of the sec-
ond class, 6, 30.

Whistler, one of the great ex-
ponents of the form of en-
graving known as etching, 8,
196.

White, C. A., invented the "solid
back" transmitter, 8, 85.

Whitney, Eli, inventor of the
cotton-gin, 9, 9; early life of,
9, 9; circumstances leading
up to his invention of the
cotton-gin, 9, 10; difficulties
attending the patenting and
marketing of his invention,
9, ii.

Wilcox, James, the balloon as-
cension of, 7, 237.

Wilde, Dr. Henry, inventor of
the first separately excited
dynamo, 6, 178.

of heredity, 6, 134; scheme of Wilkinson,' assisted in clearing

the relations of the intra-
cellular units, 6, 226.
Wellington, Duke of, his op-
position to the development
of the automobile, 7, 160.

up the mysteries of the in-
scriptions on the Rosetta
Stone, 1, 27.

Willis, Thomas, English phy-
sician, 2, 187.

ui tiic auMjiiiuuiic;, I, xuvj. OIV*I«*AA, AI, £!

Wells, Dr. Horace, experiments Wilson, Allen B., improves the
in painless dentistry, 4, 213. mechanism of the sewing-

Wells', Dr. W. C., solved the machine, 9, 97.

problem of dew formation Wilson, Thos. P., his discovery

of acetylene gas, 6, 213.
Wilson, Thomas, built the first

iron vessel, 7, 75.
Windlass, a lever of the second
class, 6, 34-

3, 183; his essay on dew, 3,

185.
Welsbach, Dr. Auer von, his

invention of the incandescent

gas burner, 6, 210.
Werner, a scientist of Saxony,

Windmills, described, history of,

[**$]

KEY AND INDEX

6, 68; difference between
modern and ancient; defects
of, 6, 69.

Winds, controlled by a general
mathematical law, 3, 200;
their direction in a storm
centre, 3, 201, 202; long-time

intrinsically from those of ea-ly

wood engravers, 8, 187.
Wollaston, Dr. William Hyde,

his suggestions to improve the

microscope, 4, no.
Women, the bearers of burdens,

6, 56.
forecasts' possible only in Wood-engraving, 8, ij*4; the

India, 3, 205.
Winkler, Johann Heinrichs,

tries to measure speed of elec-

tric current, 2, 278.
Wireless telegraph, used by

oldest wood-cuts, 8, 186;
improvement made by Eiirer,
8, 188; technic of wood-

engraving, 8, 189; time and
cost of production, 8, 191.

Cyrus the Great,' 8, 3; the Woodhouse, Sir Philip, Gov-
oldest form of communica- ernor of Cape Colony, pur-

tion by telegraph, 8, 3 ; use chased first important South
of, by Napoleon, 8, 3; elec- African diamond, 9, 316.
trical, 8, 47; water and earth Wool, the preparation of, for

as conductors, 8, 48; dis- spinning, 9, 18.

coyeries of Professor Trow-
bridge, of Harvard, 8, 49;

Woolf, Arthur, revived idea of
compound engine, 6, 117;

experiments of Sir William demonstrated its merits over

H. Preece, 8, 50; system simple engine, 6, 117.

patented by Thomas A. Edi- Woolrich, his name intimately
son, 8, 50; system of com- connected with the early ef-

munication installed by Smith
and Granville, 8, 51; ex-
periments with "Hertzian

W

"coherer"

forts at utilization of magne-
to-electric power, 6, 178.
Worcester, Marquis of. See
Somerset, Edward.

8, 52;

invented by Dr. Branly, 8, Work, definition of, 6, 29.
52; the work of Marconi, 8, Wortley, Col. Stuart, his •work
"tuning" the messages,
first trans-Atlantic

in photography, 8, 232.

Wortman, Dr. J. L., his evi-
dence in connection with the
fossil lineage of the edentates,
3, 114-

Wright, Orville (with his
brother Wilbur), invented
the flying-machine, 7, 288;
his flights near Washington
in an attempt to fulfill
the Government tests, 7,
295; his flights at Berlin,
7, 295.

sur- Wright, Wilbur (with his
brother Orville), invented the

&41

message, 8, 61; the DeForest
system used during the Russo-
Japanese war, 8, 65; other
systems, 8, 65.

Wireless telephone, 8, 89; in-
struments used by Dr. Lee
DeForest, 8, 90; advantage
of wireless over wire tele-
phones, 8, 91.
Wise, John, his record flight in

a balloon, 7, 256.
Wiseman, Richard, English

geon, 2, 184.

Wohler, Priedrich, synthesized flying-machine, 7, 288; his

series of flights in France, 7,
293; his sensational flight
up the Hudson from Gov-
ernor's Island, 7, 295.
Wundt, Dr. Wilhelm, studies of
sensations, apperception, and

the organic product urea, 4,
54; isomerism proved by, 4.
62; school of physiological
chemistry under guidance of.
4, 128.

Wolff, Henry, contemporary
engraver, methods differ little

volition, 4, 267.

[226]

GENERAL INDEX

Wyoming, the largest schooner
ever constructed, 7, 61.

XENOPHANES, founder of the
famous Eleatic School, 1, 114,
127; his theories concerning
the creation, 1, 128; the ear-
liest paleontologist, 1, 120.

Xiphilinus, his account of the
battle between the Romans
and the hostile Quadi, 1, 297.

X-ray, discovered in 1895, 6, 97.

Yankee, experimental attacks
upon, by submarines, 7, 116.

Yersin, famous for his re-
searches in the prevention and
cure of cholera, 5, 184.

Young, Dr. Thomas, and the
wave theory of light, 3, 215-
225; his extraordinary pre-
cocity, 3, 216; his "theory
of light and colors," 8,217;
his experiments with mi-
crometers, 3, 222; his doc-
trine of the interference of un-
dulations, 3, 223; his wave
theory endorsed by Fresnel
and Arago, 3, 226; deter-
mined opposition to his wave
theory by French scientists,
ibid.; final acceptance of his

wave theory by the French
academy, 3, 227; his theories
about ether, 3, 285; decipher-
ment of the Rosetta Stone, 4.
290; professor of natural
history in Royal Institution,
6» 35 ; wave theory of light, 6.
36; his interpretation of
Franklin's theory of electric-
ity, 6, 150.

ZENKER, his theory on color-
photography, 8, 236.

Zenon, discovery of, 6, 87.

Zeppelin, Count, the dirigible
balloons of, 7, 265.

Zero, absolute, approach to the,
6, 69; probable form of all
matter at, 5, 70.

Zoological classification, Profes-
sor Haeckel's work in sys-
tematizing, 6, i 68.

Zoology at the close of the
eighteenth century, 4, 99.

Zoology, Ernst Haeckel and the
New, Chapter VI, 6, 144.

Zoology, the new, Ernst Haeckel
and, 6, 144; import of the
study of, 6 , 1 66 ; fundamental
conception of , 6, 167; Haeckel
the recognized leader in, 5,
171.

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